-.'Til)'' : ■ :V-n.>;,s "Vv^- ;:vf^ • '; ■ ■ s .. tV: t'r-'t WS$i' THE MARCH 30, 1951 ,3:50459 £RE« PUBLISHED QUARTERLY BY TEXAS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE THE EXECUTIVE COUNCIL (1951) President Ex. Vice President Secretary-Treasurer Im. Past President Editor Pres. Conserv. Coun. Rep. to A.A.A.S. V. Pres. Sec. I. Physical V. Pres. Sec. II. Biological V. Pres. Sec. III. Social V. Pres. Sec. IV. Geological C. C. Doak Willis G. Hewatt Gladys H. Baird C. M. Pomerat J. L. Baughman J. G. Sinclair C D. Leake D. B. Calvin W. Frank Blair Roy Donahue Horace R. Blank V. Pres. Sec. V. Conservation Vernon Young Collegiate Academy Charles LaMotte Junior Academy Greta Oppe A and M College Texas Christian U. P. O. Box 228 Medical Br., U. of G. F. O. C. Medical Br., U. of Medical Br., U. of Medical Br., U. of Univ. of Texas A and M Coliege A and M College A and M College A and M College Ball High T. BOARD OF DIRECTORS President Ex. Vice President Secretary-Treasurer Im. Past President Elected Director W. Elected Director Elected Director W. R. Woolrich, Dean L. W. Blau E. DeGolyer J. Brian Eby 0. S. Petty C. C. Doak W. G. Hewatt Gladys H. Baird C. M. Pomerat Armstrong Price Gordon Gunter Don O. Baird A and M College Texas Christian U. P. O. Box 228 Medical Br., U. of T. A and M College Marine Inst., U. of T. S.H.S.T.C. BOARD OF DEVELOPMENT (1950) Engineering, U. of T. Humble Oil & Refining Co. DeGolyer & McNaughton Consulting Geologist Petty Geophysical Co. MEMBERSHIP COMMITTEE College Station Ft. Worth Huntsville Galveston Rockport . Galveston Galveston Galveston Austin College Station College Station College Station College Station Galveston College Station Ft. Worth Huntsville Galveston College Station Port Aransas Huntsville Austin Houston Dallas Houston San Antonio Chairman — A. A. L. Mathews, Abilene Otto Watts, Chemistry, Hardirs-Simraons Paul C. Witt, Chemistry, A.C.C. Alpine G. P. Smith, Dean, Sul Ross Wm. McAnulty, Science, Sul Ross Arlington W. L. Hughes, Biology, N.T.A.C. Austin Frank Blair, Zoology, U. of T. Ronald K. Deford, Geology, U. of T. Beaumont Homer A. Dennis, Math, Lamar Belton Lucille Capt, Biology, Mary Hardin-Baylor Brownwood E. T. Huff, Dean, Howard Payne College Station Luther Jones, Agronomy, A. & M. G. W. Schlesselman, Geography, A. & M. Russell Couch, Biochemistry, A. & M. Commerce Elsie Bodeman, Biology, E. T. S. C. Corpus Christi R. A. Eads, Chemistry, Corpus Christi U. Dallas E. P. Cheatum, Biology, S.M.U. V. Schoffelmayer, Chemurgy, 4440 Beverly Arthur Richards, Geology, S.M.U. H. C. Tidwell, Southwestern Medical Denton B. B. Harris, Dean, N.T.S.T.C. Spencer Stoker, Social Science, T.S.C.W. Fort Worth Willis Hewatt, Biology, T.C.U. Joseph Morgan, Physics, T.C.U. Haskell M'cClintock, Biology, TexaB Wesleyan Geology, University of Houston Freeport C. M'. Shigley, Research. Dow Chemical Oo. Galveston C. M. Pomerat, Medical Branch, U. of T. Ludwik Anigsten, Medical Branch, U. of T. Georgetown Oscar A. Ullrich, Dean, Southwestern U. Houston A. A. L. Mathews, Geology, U. of H. J. Brian Eby, Geology, Esperson Bldg. F. C. Elliott, Dean, Dental Branch, U. of T. Hardy Kemp, Director, Baylor Medical Huntsville Don O. Baird, Biology, S.H.S.T.C. Kingsville John L. Nierman, Chemistry, A. & I. Lubbock E. N. Jones, Vice President, Texas Tech R. W. Strandtmann, Entomology, Texas Tech J. N. Michie, Math, Texas Tech Arthur W. Young, Agronomy, Texas Tech Nacogdoches Wm. T. Chambers, Geography, S.F.A.S.T.C. E. L. Miller, Biology, S.F.A.S.T.C. San Antonio Sister Joseph Marie Armer, Incarnate Word J. B. Loefer, Foundation Applied Research Jacob Uhrich, Biology, Trinity U. San Marcos C. S. Smith, Biology, S.W.T.S.T.O. Stephenville S. F. Davis, Chemistry, John Tarleton Waco W. T. Gooch, Chemistry, Baylor Floyd Davidson, Biology, Baylor Volume III, No. 1 Published Quarterly at March 30, 1951 San Marcos, Texas (Entered as Second Class Matter, at Postoffice, San Marcos, Texas, March 21, 1949) The Texas Journal of Science — ★ — EDITOR IN CHIEF J, L. Baughman Box 867, Rockport, Texas ASSOCIATE EDITORS Charles F. Squire Dept, of Physics The Rice Institute Houston, Texas W. Frank Blair Dept, of Zoology The University of Texas Austin, Texas EDITORIAL BOARD Dr. J. Brian Eby Consulting Geologist, 1404 Esperson Building Houston, Texas Dr. L. W. Blau Research Consultant, Humble Oil and Refining Company, Houston, Texas Dr. J. C. Godbey Dept, of Chemistry Southwestern University Georgetown, Texas Dr. John G. Sinclair Dept, of Anatomy, Medical Branch, University of Texas, Galveston, Texas Dr. Frank E. Luksa Dept, of Sociology Southwestern University Georgetown, Texas Dr. Clark Hubbs Dept, of Zoology University of Texas Austin, Texas ADVERTISING MANAGER Guy N. Turner 1404 Esperson Building Houston, Texas Volume III Number 1 CONTENTS Mrs. Walter William Fondren, A Great Texan - 1 Man and the Landscape. Erik K. Reed... - 4 Paper Parade. David R. Weiser _ 8 Engineering Problems of Coastal Waters. C. M. Shigley _ 21 Seeing the Molecule. Jiirg Waser _ _ .. 30 Nature of Ocean Currents in the Gulf of Mexico. Dale F. Leipper _ 41 Industrial Effluents and Marine Pollution. Frank J. Metyko _ ... 45 Evolutionary Significance of Geographic Variation in Population Density. W. Frank Blair _ 5 3 Paleoecology. James Lee Wilson _ ... 5 8 Psychological Re-examination of Children Treated in a Psychiatric Clinic. Genette Burruss, Don P. Morris, J. H. Siegel, and C. Crow _ 66 Marine Microbiology. O. B. Williams _ 69 Irrigation in Texas: The Outlook. William F. Hughes _ 76 One-Dimensional Shock Waves. Thomas J. White _ 79 The Crystal Structure of Rutile-Like Heavy Metal Orthovanadates. L. W. Vernon and W. O. Milligan _ 82 Educational Requirements for Fishery Biologists. Frank T. Knapp . . . . 86 New Cyprinid Fishes of the Genus Notropis from Texas. Carl L. Hubbs and Kelshaw Bonham _ _ 91 A Marine Tardigrade from the Gulf of Mexico. B. G. Chitwood _ 111 Echinoderella steineri new species (Scolecida, Echinodera) . B. G. Chitwood _ 113 Distribution of Nematopsis Infection on the Oyster Grounds of the Chesapeake Bay and in Other Waters of the Atlantic Gulf States. Helen Landau and Paul S. Galtsoff _ 115 The Biology of T riatoma protract a woodi Usinger Under Laboratory Conditions. Dorothy Eben and Richard B. Eads _ 131 Fishes, New, Rare or Seldom Recorded from the Texas Coast. Gordon Gunter and Frank T. Knapp _ 134 The Physiological Significance of the Cerebro-Hepatic Distribution of Cyanide. Ernest Beerstecher, Jr. and H. George Hammon _ 139 Notes _ 141 Abstracts _ 142 Book Reviews _ 1_ _ _ 143 Mrs. Walter William Fondren, a great Texan FONDREN SCIENCE BUILDING Southern Methodist University, Dallas. Texas, where the Texas Academy of Science met in 1950. MRS. WALTER WILLIAM FONDREN A GREAT TEXAN Every member of the Texas Academy of Science and, indeed, every citizen of Texas owes a debt to Mrs. Walter William Fondren of Houston. For the furthering of research and of education, the discovery and trans¬ mission of knowledge, obviously are matters which touch the lives of all, and few living people have made more direct contributions to the advance¬ ment of higher education in the South than this modest and unassuming lady. Born in Kentucky, Mrs. Fondren came to Texas in 1905 and soon entered enthusiastically into a career of enlightened philanthrophy and pub¬ lic service. As a member of the boards of many institutions and organiza¬ tions, among them Southern Methodist University, Scarritt College, the Federal Council of Churches of Christ in America, and the United Council of Church Women, she has assisted in the direction of major agencies for good. She has donated millions of dollars which have made possible the erec- 1 THE FONDREN LIBRARY at the Rice Institute. The home of the Texas Academv of Science Library. tion of educational buildings. The most recent of these is the new classroom building at Scarritt College in Nashville. The Fondren Library and the Fondren Science Building at Southern Methodist University and the Fondren Library at the Rice Institute, the last a memorial to the late Walter William Fondren, are evidence of her generosity. The annual meetings of the Texas Academy for 1949 and 1950 were held in the buildings at Rice and at S.M.U., and the Academy’s library is housed in the Fondren Library. Although she has been awarded a doctoral degree and is listed in who’s who in America, Mrs. Fondren still insists that she is "just a country girl come to town.” Perhaps this modesty and this simplicity lie at the root of her competence. For there is genius in philanthrophy as in all things, and Mrs. Fondren has demonstrated the rare ability of knowing how to give so that her gifts will be of lasting service to society. The magnificent structures which bear her name are not mere monuments but active educational agen¬ cies. Her ability to maintain intelligent and continuing interest in their activities is as laudable as her tactful withdrawal from their administrative operations. She said recently, "My interest has always been in future generations.” The Texas Academy of Science pays tribute to this interest and to a great Texan. 2 a .2 r ou 52^ tsS «» C3 jHH < r «T ac g^ Z3d in o gs.fr K '-m c« Z o *■« g ° g» ^ S*s 43 5 4 The Texas Journal of Science 1951, No. 1 March 30 MAN AND THE LANDSCAPE ERIK K. REED Regional Archaeologist National Park Service Santa Fe, New Mexico THE EFFECTS OF EARLY MAN ON THE EARTH; PRIMITIVE HUNTERS AS PART OF THE LANDSCAPE Man was originally one of the scarcer animals, but he was already dis¬ tinguished from other large mammals by his use of tools and weapons— the beginning of exploitation of resources. Yet the effects of early man on the face of the earth were compara¬ tively minor. Man was, at first, simply part of the natural landscape. A few sticks and stones were utilized. Mild predation on small animals of various kinds supplemented primary subsistence on wild plant foods. The first important exception becomes evident late in the Old Stone Age, say twenty thousand years ago, but might go back much earlier in human history. That activity was mass killing of large animals, by surrounds, fire drives, and the like. It is even possible that the extinction of certain species was hastened by such large-scale hunting. Very early in the history of mankind, tools were made of chipped stone; no doubt also of wood, long since disintegrated without leaving a trace. The use of animal bones for tools and weapons also goes far back, perhaps as far as the first working of stone, perhaps even farther. Basketry and bark containers were made at an ancient stage of human history. The way of life of the early food-collectors was more complex and varied, evi¬ dently, than might be supposed. Even the rather sophisticated practive of cannibalism can be traced back to the extraction of brains, in exactly the same manner as by modern Dyak head-hunters of Borneo, by the Ngandong man of Upper Pleistocene Java ( Homo soloensis) and the still earlier Pekin man ( Sinanthropus pekinensis) ; and it appears to be foreshadowed among the South African man-apes (Ausiralopithecinae) , who similarly bashed in the heads of baboons more than a million years ago. Fire was known as early as the Middle Pleistocene, several hundred thousand years ago, by the Pekin man (Sinanthropus) of North China. The beginnings of social organization and religion may be seen in the deliberate burial of the dead, practiced by Neanderthal man in Europe more than fifty thousand years ago. In the field of art, the cave paintings and ittle statuettes of later Stone Age men in Europe are famous. Numerous mineral and organic materials were used by early man for various purposes, but all the activities of the primitive people of the Old Stone Age were of little moment in the history of the world as a whole, compared to the modification of the natural landscape wrought by civilized man. Until less than ten thousand years ago, man had not even begun to change and destroy the face of the earth. 1951, No. 1 March 30 Man and the Landscape 5 THE BEGINNINGS OF CIVILIZATION; HUMAN EXPLOITATION OF THE EARTH’S RESOURCES More than seven thousand years ago, shortly before 5000 B. C., some¬ where in the Middle East, the basic elements of civilization were developd. These basic elements include the domestication of plants and animals, the building of houses, new and improved techniques of working stone, the making of pottery, and the utilization of metals. These did not all begin together at the same time and place; permanent settlements and agriculture seem to have come first, mining and metallury last. Nor did the new ideas spread to all peoples immediately; in fact, the aborigines of Australia were still in the Old Stone Age through the eighteenth century of our era. But all these fundamental inventions came about within a brief space of time — quite recently, compared to the many millenia of the very slowly changing Palaeo¬ lithic cultures. Together, these new elements form a culture complex representing a way of life vastly different from that of the early hunters of the Old Stone Age. The "'food-producing revolution,” as it might be termed, was far more tremendous than the later "industrial revolution.” The most significant de¬ velopment was that of settled life in permanent villages, instead of a wan¬ dering existence in little bands of food collectors. The most important result was the rapid increase of human population, owing to the greatly extended food supply made available through agricul¬ ture. The increase in the number of people brought about in turn expansion of farming, house building, forest cutting, stone quarrying, and related activities. Exploitation of mineral resources changed from mere utilization of available pebbles to quarrying or mining of building stone and flint, metals and salt; the beginning of the process that is now concentrated on petroleum and uranium. As civilization spread, forests began to dwindle, through the cutting of timber for buildings and the clearing of land for fields and pastures. The depletion of game animals by intentional killing (systematic hunting) probably did not increase proportionately to the growth of human popula¬ tion, because of the new emphasis on cereals and other crop plants as the main source of food. But the clearing of land and the felling of trees, then the establishment of cultivated fields and the installation of irrigation ditches, no doubt began at once the process of reducing the range available for animals of all kinds, large and small. Furthermore, destruction of the land itself, exhaustion of topsoil and incidence of erosion, were initiated by the first extensive farming. Man’s exploitation of all these resources thus began several thousand years ago and has accelerated ever since, with the development of more and more needs and methods and with the continuing increase of human popu¬ lation from the first farms to the present time. Yet the natural resources of the world have not become perceptibly more abundant. As the number of people grew and civilization spread, villages became cities and there arose a complex organization of society, with much greater employment of natural resources and consequent destructive modification of the natural landscape. The discovery of iron production, some three thousand years ago, caused still further augmentation of population, of urbanization, and of exploita¬ tion; it marks the close of a first phase in the history of civilization; of 6 The Texas Journal of Science 1951, No. 1 March 30 rather, the beginning of a second phase, of tremendous expansion of the way of human life already basically established four thousand years before. THE IRON age; THREE THOUSAND YEARS OF HISTORY A date near 1100 B. C. may be given as the approximate time at which iron came into general use. By then the bronze-age civilizations of China, India, Persia, Babylonia, Syria, Palestine, Anatolia, Crete, and Egypt had already risen and declined and had been disturbed or destroyed (as in India and Crete) by the irruption of Indo-European or other barbaric invaders. Villages, agriculture, livestock, pottery, bronze, and other basic traits of Mediterranean- Asiatic civilization had long since spread north across Europe all the way to Britain and Scandinavia. The limits of the civilized world three thousand years ago might be set roughly as the Arctic and Atlantic Oceans; the Sahara and the Sudan, the Indian Ocean; a line across north central or northwestern India into the Himalayas; the Yangtze River, and the coast of North China; and a line from somewhere in Manchuria back westward across northern Asia to the Baltic Sea, with parts of Siberia (such as the Minussinsk district of the upper Yenisei) within the sphere of what we are calling civilization. Throughout most of this vast Eurasian-Mediterranean continuum, people lived either as pastoralists moving their herds and flocks within fairly definite limits or else as settled farmers concentrated in villages and towns. Crafts such as metallurgy and ceramics were practiced. Very few groups lived as bands of wandering food-collectors following wild game, except outside this zone in the yet undeveloped continents of Africa, America, and Australia. In the early and middle centuries of the first millenium B. C., the Chou Dyasty united much of China; the historic civilization of Indian unfolded; peoples such as the Persians and Assyrians rose to power in the Near East; classical Greece flourished; and Rome was founded (as a village under Etruscan dominion). Along with such military and political developments came further population growth and still heavier exploitation of natural resources. The years from about 200 B. C. to 200 A. D. were a period og powerful unified military empires — the Roman in the west, the Parthian in the Near East, the Han Dynasty in China. Northern India in this period was partly under Greco-Bactrian and then "Scythian” control, partly under native dynasties, while Buddhism declined from its peak at the beginning of this period. Not subjugated by any of the great civilized states were the Teutonic peoples of Germany and Scandinavia, the Slavic and Finno-Ugrian peoples of the Russian area, the Turko-Tatar nations of Central Asia, and Indo- nesian-Malayan and other tribes of southern China, southeastern Asia, and the East Indies, as well as the African Negroes and South African Bushmen, the aborigines of Australia, the Ainu in the northerly Japanese islands, and the American Indians of the New World and their relatives in northeastern Asia. Throughout the complex military and political history of the last thousand or fifteen hundred years before Christ, with vast shifts of groups of population, migration, conquests, and crusades, with heightening contacts 1951, No. 1 March 30 Man and the Landscape 7 and interconnections throughout the civilized world from Atlantic Europe to North China, there was actually little basic change in the general way of life or in the methods and scope of exploitation of natural resources. Popu¬ lation continued to increase, however, and population pressures undoubted¬ ly were fundamentally responsible for successive Asiatic invasions of Europe and finally for the sixteenth-century expansion of Europeans over all parts of the world. A few significant developments before that time include the rise of native civilizations in North and South America — those of the Incas and other Indian groups in western South America, the Maya of Guatemala and Yucatan, the Mexicans, the Pueblos of the southwestern United States, and the civilized tribes of the eastern and central United States; the incursion of Arab or Hindu miners and traders into eastern and central Africa; the rise of Indonesian civilization in southeastern Asia and the East Indies; the spread of Chinese culture and empire both south of the Yangtze and north¬ ward and eastward into Manchuria, Korea, and Japan. The cultures of the American Indians are the only advanced ones which developed with probably little or no connection with Mediterranean- Asiatic centers. In most of native America, plants were domesticated, but not livestock. Metallurgy was practiced in some regions, but nowhere in¬ cluding iron. Soil and water, forests, wild animals, and certain mineral re¬ sources were utilized by the American Indians, but conservatively and by a small total population. Finally, with the age of geographical discovery and the subsequent de¬ velopment of industrial technology, modern European civilization has spread over most of the globe within the last four hundred and fifty years. The total population of tin world increased enormously as iron-age Europeans occupied and exploited the Americas, South Africa, and Australia. Popula¬ tion continues to increase, although the world is now full. There are no more great undeveloped areas capable of supporting large numbers of peo¬ ple, and the production of more food by reclamation projects or by chemi¬ cal tinkering with air and water, will merely postpone briefly the day when population growth exceeds available resources for the world as a whole. Courtesy Champion Paper and Fiber Co. TEXAS TREE FARMS — The Champion mill at Pasadena uses over 800 thousand cords of pulp wood each year cut from 350 thousand acres of company timberlands and more than 700 thousand acres under contractural cutting contracts. PAPER PARADE DAVID R. WEISER Research Department The Champion Paper and Fibre Company Hamilton, Ohio Long before paper was invented, man devised many ways to leave his imprint. He used waxed boards, bronze plates, palm leaves, pieces of silk and thin sheets of beaten bark. Before that his records and messages were chiseled in smooth stones, or on the walls of caves. Thousands of years before our era Chaldeans and Babylonians inscribed their records upon clay tablets which were then hardened into bricks, many of which still exist. The alphabet and writing are far older inventions than paper, but paper is, and has been for many centuries, the principal material upon which man has recorded his thoughts, his business transactions, and his laws. Parchment, traditionally associated with the ancient Greek city of Pergamum, provided the chief writing material for manuscripts of the Middle Ages. It, like vellum, which was also used as a writing medium, was derived from animal skins. 8 1951, No. 1 March 30 Paper Parade 9 Courtesy Champion Paper and Fiber Co. PULPWOOD TRAILER — A load of pulpwood leaves the Texas Forest Farms for a quick run to the mills. Within 48 hours this will be more "white” paper for Texas printers. The material most closely resembling true paper in ancient history was the papyrus scrolls of Egypt, where slaves took long stalks of papyrus, split them, made several criss-cross layers and beat them until the fibers inter¬ twined and the layers stuck together in a thick sheet. By this method they were able to make strips of considerable length. ORIGIN OF PAPERMAKING Accounts of the origin of paper are vague, but the invention is generally attributed to a Chinese by the name of Ts’ai Lun, during the 1st Century A. D. He macerated bamboo and mulberry bark until individual fibers were released. This pulp he used to make his first sheet of paper by catching the fibers from a water suspension on a grass cloth mold and then drying the sheet in the sun. It was then rubbed with a stone. Flax and hemp were also used as early papermaking raw materials. China jealously guarded the secret for several centuries, and it was not until in the sixth century A. D. that Samarkand paper from Persia became famous. From Samarkand the art of papermaking traveled to Bagdad, Cairo, and Morocco. 10 The Texas Journal of Science 1951, No. 1 March 30 Courtesy Champion Paper and Fiber Co. CHIP STORAGE — The logs arrive at the chippers, where with a deafening roar, they are reduced to millions of chips the size of dominoes. A gradually rising belt carries the endless stream of chips up, up, more than an eighth of a mile to the storage bins. An 8500 cubic foot bin holds enough chips for one eight-hour shift for each digester. 1951, No. 1 March 30 Paper Parade Courtesy Champion Paper and Fiber Co. THE DIGESTERS- — A digester is loaded by gravity as 3300 cubic feet of chips, the equivalent of eleven cords of wood, rush into the great steel stomach. The cooking liquor is fed in, and the digester tightly sealed. 12 The Texas Journal of Science 1951, No. 1 March 30 As early as the seventh century A. D., the Mayans of Central America were using paper of their own make. Their successors, the Toltecs, and later the Aztecs of Mexico, practiced the art centuries before Columbus came to the new world. Europe’s enlightenment It was not until after the Crusades that Europe became a productive papermaking area. The long, slow transition from papyrus and parchment, via vellum, to true paper, was tremendously accelerated by the Renaissance, with its cry for books, and by Gutenberg’s invention of the printing press (ca. 1450). This created a demand that only paper could supply. Spain is credited with making the first paper in Europe. The process was brought to Toledo and Valencia by the Moors about the 11th century. Around 1650, the French were making the best paper in the world much of which was exported to Holland. Oddly enough, paper seemed to take on the characteristics of the country in which it was made. Thus "French paper was believed to be light, slight, slender and thin. Venetian paper was subtle, neat and courtly, Dutch paper was thick, corpulent and heavy.” Courtesy Champion Paper and Fiber Co. PULP WASHING AND BLEACHING— The chips leave the digesters as a dark pulp (above, left). Repeated washings remove the cooking liquors (above, center) and the pulp is then bleached to a snowy white (above, right). 1951, No. 1 March 30 Paper Parade 13 Courtesy Champion Paper and Piher Co. THE BEATERS — The pulp must be separated into its millions and billions of tiny, individual fibres. For that purpose it goes to the beaters where the revolving beater wheel separates the fibres, then thoroughly beats and hydrates each one. The proper chemicals are added here, and color, too, when added. PAPERMAKING CROSSES THE ATLANTIC In 1690 William Rittenhouse, a native of Germany, built the first paper mill in North America near Germantown, Pennsylvania. This mill continued to operate throughout the Revolutionary War, making paper for the paper money of the Continental Army. Paper mills, first making handmade paper and later machine-made paper, sprang up in many parts of New England and the Middle States, laying the foundation of a great industry. Paper manufacture gradually spread to the North Central States, the Pacific North¬ west, the Southeastern States, and most recently to Texas. Today, the United States leads the world in paper production, more than 20,000,000 tons being manufactured annually. PAPERMAKING RAW MATERIALS While mineral fibers, such as asbestos, and animal fibers, e.g., silk, have limited application in papermaking, the basic structural element in paper is cellulose fiber. Cellulose is found to a greater or less extent in nearly all higher forms of plant life, and as a matter of fact paper can be made from practically all such plants. The U. S. Department of Agriculture lists over The Texas Journal of Science 1951, No. 1 March 30 a thousand plants which have been investigated for this purpose. In most cases poor yield or excessive cost has prevented competition with wood as the prime papermaking raw material. Rags, straw, and cotton linters are used in small quantities for special grades, but wood is by far the cheapest source of most cellulose for the paper industry. The chief species used are spruce, hemlock, pine, poplar, fir, aspen, oak, and gum. PULPING Cellulose exists in wood in combination with lignin. In the mechanical pulping process, no attempt is made to separate lignin from the cellulose; the wood is simply defibered by a special grinding process to give a pulp comprising all the constituents of the wood itself. Barked logs, 2 to 5 feet in length and 6 to 12 inches in diameter, are pressed against a large, rapidly revolving grindstone, in the presence of large amounts of water, producing "groundwood” as it is called in the industry. This is then screened to reject coarse "shives” or knots. It is the principal constituent of newsprint paper. The chief processing cost is power. Spruce, because of its long fiber, good color, and relative freedom from resin, makes the best groundwood, although some other woods are used today due to the scarcity of spruce. The chief advantages of groundwood pulp are low cost, high yields, and good capacity; chief disadvantages are low strength and poor aging properties. Courtesy Champion Paper and Fiber Co. THE JORDANS — The brushing and hydration of the fibre still in suspension after the pulp leaves the beaters is completed by the Jordans. This is the last step in preparing the stock or "stuff” for the paper machines. 1951, No. 1 March 30 Paper Parade 15 THE FOURDRINIER WIRE — An endless moving screen that allows water from the pulp flowing over it to drain. From the time the pulp flows onto the "wire” as a milky mixture until it leaves the "wire” (above, left) it begins to resemble the finished sheet. CHEMICAL PULPING The object of chemical pulping is to isolate more or less completely the cellulose by dissolving the lignin. There are three principal processes called respectively the soda, sulfite, and sulfate processes. The soda process is the oldest. Briefly it consists in cooking small wood chips with a solution of caustic soda in huge digesters for several hours under pressure at high temperatures. In the sulfite process the wood chips are treated in the same manner except that a solution of calcium bisulfite and sulfur dioxide is used instead of caustic soda. Magnesium is sometimes used in place of calcium. The third method is the kraft or sulfate process which was introduced in Sweden about 1890, and in America in 1909. It is a modification of the soda process in which some of the caustic soda is replaced with sodium sulfide. Choice of the chemical process used depends largely on the wood em¬ ployed. Spruce is excellently adapted to the sulfite process, producing a strong, easy-bleaching pulp. The soda process, used particularly with hard 16 The Texas Journal of Science 1951, No. 1 March 30 woods, straw, etc., usually gives a weaker and softer product than sulfite pulp. The kraft or sulfate process is especially suitable for resinous woods like pine, resulting in a strong pulp, relatively difficult to bleach. In all three processes, the cellulosic pulp is separated from the spent liquors, and washed. It may be used directly for papermaking, or, if a whiter pulp is desired, it is bleached. In the sulfite process it is customary to discharge the spent liquors into streams because chemical recovery is not commercially feasible. In the sulfate and soda processes, high cost of the chemicals necessitates planned recovery. The liquors are concentrated and reduced to recover inorganic chemicals, reused in the next new digestion. At present there are no sulfite mille in Texas. BLEACHING Pulp from chemical pulping processes is of various shades of brown and for some products, such as corrugated board, bag, and certain wrapping paper, unbleached pulp is satisfactory. However, for the finer white printing and writing papers, pulps must be bleached with chemical agents to remove residual lignin and certain colored bodies of a highly complex chemical nature. Calcium hypochlorite is the most widely used bleaching agent, either alone, or in sequence with other materials. A typical multistage bleaching is one employing chlorine, then caustic soda, and finally one or more hypo¬ chlorite steps. Chlorine, chlorine dioxide, sodium peroxide, and hydrogen peroxide are some other bleaching agents. BEATING THE PULP The first step in actual papermaking is known as "beating.” Pulp, in the presence of a large amount of water, is subjected to a severe mechanical action in which the fibers are bruised, pounded, and cut, acquiring the abil¬ ity to mat and bond together to form the material we call paper. In spite of an enormous amount of study expended on it, the beating operation is not too well understood. The fibers are said to become "hydrated55— -they retain water, acquire a slimy feel, and develop a bonding property. The quality of paper produced is largely determined by the type of pulp used and the degree of beating. Thus, to produce an absorbent paper, like a blotting paper, pulp is verly slightly beaten, while a glassine paper is produced by prolonged, severe beating. This operation is commonly carried out in a beater or Hollander, a large tub or tank in which the pulp-water mixture is forced around and around under a roll carrying on its periphery a series of metal bars in more or less close contact with a series of similar bars mounted in a stationary bed plate. The beater is commonly supplemented by a Jordan engine or pulp refiner. Here the pulp suspension is forced between rapidly rotating and stationary metal bars to produce an effect similar to the beater. During beating, sizing materials may be mixed with the pulp. A com¬ bination of rosin and aluminum sulfate is most commonly used, imparting a certain resistance to water penetration. Writing paper is always well sized while blotting paper is not. 1951, No. 1 March 30 Paper Parade 17 Courtesy Champion Paper and Fiber Co. THE FOURDRINIER PAPER MACHINE— The paper machine is one of the largest pieces of machinery in all industry, and Champion operates twenty-two of them. Here the paper goes up and down, over and under one steam-heated drum after another to remove the water. When you know it takes 500 pounds of water to make one pound of paper, you begin to realize that it takes a lot of removing of water! Loading materials or pigments may also be added to beater stock to modify or enhance properties of the finished sheet. Clay is generally used, improving receptivity of the paper to printers ink, softening it, and reduc¬ ing "rattle,” etc. Titanium dioxide is sometimes used for brightening and opacifying high grade papers. Dyes and colored pigments are also commonly added to give a desired shade or color to the paper. When pulp, or "stock,” or "half stuff,” as it is called, has been beaten to the proper degree, it is diluted with water to a consistency of 0.5% more or less and pumped to the paper machine where it is "formed” into a web of paper. THE PAPER MACHINE Prior to invention of the paper machine, all paper was made in indi¬ vidual sheets. The paper maker dipped a screen or "mold” into a vat of water containing a dilute slurry of pulp. He then let the water drain through the screen, meanwhile deftly shaking it to secure the desired dis¬ tribution of the fibers. Dimensions of the sheet were determined by how large a mold a workman could manage. 18 The Texas Journal of Science 1951, No. 1 March 30 SORTING — Champion makes two and one-half million pounds of paper a day and every coated sheet is hand sorted. Girls are carefully trained to select only the perfect sheets. With the invention of the paper machine it became possible to make a continuous web of paper of indefinite length. There are two common types of these, the cylinder machine and the Fourdrinier. The former was invented by an Englishman, named John Dickinson, about 1809. It consists of one or more (commonly 4-6) screen- covered, hollow cylinders which rotate in a vast to which is fed a suspension of pulp. As the cylinder rotates, water passes through the screen into its interior, while the pulp is deposited on the screen. This layer of pulp is then picked up or "couched” by a traveling felt and carried forward between rolls which press out some of the water. The freshly formed web of wet paper is then threaded around a number of steam heated drying cylinders which evaporate the water to the degree desired in finished paper. Cylinder machines are used mainly for making paper board. The Fourdrinier paper machine is the most widely used today. It consists of an endless bronze screen from 60 to 300 inches wide (40 to 8 5 mesh) which is supported around a series of rolls to form a continuously moving table upon which diluted stock is allowed to flow. As stock comes onto the moving screen (papermakers call it the "wire”) and travels along on it, water begins to drain through the meshes of the screen and the fibers tend 1951, No. 1 March 30 Paper Parade 19 to mat together. To accelerate removal of water, suction is applied under part of the wire. Besides the forward motion of the wire, a gentle side-to-side motion or "shake” is provided, causing the fibers to mat in a more random fashion, producing a stronger sheet of paper. Many Fourdrinier machines are equipped with a "dandy” roll, a rotating, screen-covered cylinder resting lightly on the paper on the Fourdrinier wire. A design may be woven into the screen to imprint a watermark in the paper. After stock has traveled for 20 or 30 feet, sufficient water has been removed that the web is strong enough to leave the wire and be carried on an endless woolen blanket or "felt.” Additional water is squeezed out as paper and felt pass between several large press rolls. Finally, when the paper is en¬ tirely self-suporting, it leaves the felt and thenceforth travels around a large number of steam heated dryers. At some point in the dryer section of the machine the web may be passed through a dispersion of starch, rosin, or other sizing material, to en¬ hance certain qualities of the paper. Papermakers call this "tub sizing.” After drying, the web enters the machine calender, a vertical stack of heavy chilled iron rolls, with the web passing through the nips between the rolls. Here it receives an ironing action which compresses it, smoothes the surface, and gives a harder finish. Severity of calendering can be varied in accordance with the kind of finish desired. For a high bulk, porous paper having an "eggshell” finish, little or no calendering is given. The web is then wound into a large roll which may be rewound and slit into rolls of desired width for the printing presses or other purposes for which the paper may be used. If paper is to be sold in sheets, it is unwound and cut into the desired size by a rotary knife. The sheets are then piled on skids. The highest quality paper is usually sorted sheet by sheet to eliminate defects. To provide a superior printing surface, paper is often coated with a layer of mineral pigment such as clay, calcium carbonate, etc., and adhesive (casein, starch, etc.). This was formerly done exclusively on coating machines, separate from the paper machines. An aqueous slurry of the pigment and adhesive is applied by brushes, or rolls, and the coated paper is allowed to dry on traveling festoons. In recent years much paper has been coated directly on the paper machine, usually in the dryer section. This has enabled manufacturers to supply the printing industry with machine coated paper in large volume at a price quite comparable with uncoated paper. During the past 100 years, paper production has increased tremendously. In fact, more paper has been produced in the past 5 0 years than in all mankind’s previous history. This phenomenal progress can be attributed in part to increases, since 1900, in the speed of mechanical operations. At that time few machines were running as fast as 450 feet per minute. By 1920 some had attained 1000 feet per minute, and today several newsprint machines are running at more than double that rate. PAPERMAKING MOVES TO TEXAS At the end of the last century papermaking was localized in the north¬ eastern United States, slow growing spruce furnishing the chief raw material for printing paper. It became apparent that increased demand for paper would soon exhaust the supply of spruce. New sources of raw material were badly needed, but the one most easily available, the great pine forests 20 The Texas Journal of Science 1951, No. 1 March 30 of the south, was not adapted to pulping by the sulphite process. However, it could be used by the kraft process and, as soon as a method of bleaching kraft pulp without seriously diminishing its strength was devised, a large migration of the paper industry to the South started. Eastern Texas, with its abundant stands of fast-growing pine, was an ideal place to set up integrated pulp-paper mills, in which the pulp flows directly to the paper machines without the intermediate drying required when pulp is shipped to a separate paper mill. The economies are obvious. Progressive pulp mills are fully aware that drawing on existing timber without replacement is dangerously unsound business. Accordingly refor¬ estation, including forestry research constitutes an important element in their program, both in Texas and elsewhere. Today, Texas has three large kraft mills with a total capacity of 1,340,- 000 lbs. of pulp per day and two groundwood mills producing 720,000 lbs. of groundwood pulp every 24 hours. Most of this pulp is pumped directly to the paper mills. From these mills come newsprint paper, many grades of printing paper including machine-coated printing papers, bond and mimeo¬ graph paper, paper bags, milk bottle stock, kraft specialties, set-up box boards, waxing paper, etc. Also made in Texas are such allied items as linoleum liner, roofing felts, building papers, and felt specialties. So it is that modern Texas is a leader in the production of man’s most vital means of communication — paper. A perpetually renewable source of pulp timber, an adequate supply of water and basic chemicals, cheap trans¬ portation to the heart of America, and an adequate and efficient labor supply make Texas a fitting successor to the nations of antiquity in the paper parade. 1951, No. i Engineering Problems of Coastal Waters 21 March 30 ENGINEERING PROBLEMS OF COASTAL WATERS C. M. SHIGLEY * Director of Technical Research The Dow Chemical Company Freeport, Texas The oceans of the world represent an almost inexhaustible supply of many essential minerals. Their total volume is about 320,000,000 cubic miles, and each cubic mile contains about 165,000,000 short tons of dissolved solids. Simple multiplication shows the total ocean salts to be about 50 million billion tons, 80% of which is sodium chloride, common salt. For centuries the sea has furnished salt to many of the countries of the world. Within our lifetime sea water has become a primary raw ma¬ terial for the commercial production of bromine, magnesium, and allied products. Sea water promises to play an increasingly prominent role in the future as a source of these and other minerals when other more concentrated raw materials are depleted, as they inevitably must be. The coastal waters of the Gulf of Mexico represent convenient access to this tremendous and interesting resource. At the present time they are yielding bromine and magnesium in large daily tonnages at Freeport, Texas. Our interest in these and future developments appears to justify a discus¬ sion of a few of the engineering problems of these coastal waters, especially the problems associated with sea water processing plants and sea water pro¬ cessing operations. We shall talk first of some problems connected with plant location, and next, of problems in seawater handling. Finally, we shall briefly discuss Texas’ two seawater processes and products. One of the primary considerations in seawater processing is the proper selection of the site for the plant. There are, of course, many factors in the choice of a location; chemical raw materials, power, fuel, and trans¬ portation are but a few of the many items. However, the factors which govern the procurement and disposal of large quantities of clean seawater of the highest possible salinity will be our principal interest here. Salinity, when subsequently discussed, will be expressed as per cent of Atlantic Ocean salinity at Kure Beach, North Carolina. The salinity there was found to be reasonably constant over a fifteen year observation period, and it compares quite closely with the salinities reported for the major open oceans of the world. This standard Atlantic Ocean seawater used as refer¬ ence has a total halogen content equivalent to 31,800 parts per million of sodium chloride or, expressed in figures that may be more familiar to you, 3 1 grams of sodium chloride per liter. As judged by observations in the western part of the Gulf, the salinity of the coastal waters must be regarded as variable. It varies from place to place; it varies both with depth and with time in the same place. At the mouths of the fresh water rivers, the water will sometimes be fresh enough to drink, while in the landlocked bays, such as Laguna Madre or Baffin Bay, salinities may reach well over 300%, due to solar evaporation of the im¬ pounded Gulf water. The reasons for such variations are quite obvious. * Presented at Rockport, Texas, October 27, 1950, at the Third Semi-Annual Seminar of Marine Science of the Marine Laboratory of the Texas Game, Fish and Oyster Commission. 22 The Texas Journal of Science 1951, No. 1 March 30 Equally obvious is the need for keeping seawater recovery plants a maxi¬ mum distance from the large rivers, especially those in Texas that are re¬ puted to hold the world’s record for peak discharge. Salinity also varies with depth, wide differences occurring in areas affected by fresh water flows. The two and a half per cent greater density of seawater as compared with fresh water is sufficient to cause stratifica¬ tion of the two liquids. Slow intermixing occurs, governed by the action of winds and waves. During average or above average flows on the Brazos River, surface water samples taken offshore in the Gulf may be almost fresh, while those at depths below 20 feet may test 80% salinity or more. Wide variations in salinity with respect to time also occur, even at depths below 20 feet. The daily range of deep water strength in the Free¬ port area varies from 30 to 100%, with a yearly average of about 80% of Atlantic salinity. Changes within this range are generally gradual, but occasionally take place with surprising rapidity. On a recent occasion, for example, the salinity dropped from 63% to 50% in less than one hour. The reason for such wide and sudden variations has not yet been established, although more complete oceanographic data on the Gulf as a whole would probably indicate the factors involved. It is clear from ten years of observations at Freeport that these changes are more than can be accounted for by more local dilution. There is apparently no direct relationship between the flow rate of the Brazos River and the salinity of the deep water at Freeport. A comparison of average monthly river flows and salinities for the calendar years 1942 and 1943 illustrate this point. The data are shown graphically in Figure 1. Although a few of the periods of high flow correspond with times of low salinity, no consistent correlation is to be noted. Figure 1951, No. i Engineering Problems of Coastal Waters 23 March 30 I'f, however, one compares a seven year average of monthly Brazos River flows with seven year averages of monthly salinities, a much better correlation is observed (Figure 2). One might conclude from this that the variation in salinity is generally seasonal. Seasonal variations in the flow of major Gulf rivers, in the intensity of Gulf currents, or in the direction and velocity of prevailing winds are suspected of superimposing their effect on local conditions to produce the fluctuations in salinity which have been observed. The sum of the flows of the Sabine, Neches, Trinity, San Jacinto, Brazos, Colorado, Guadalupe, and Nueces Rivers shows a fair correlation with Freeport salinity for the years 1942 and 1943 (Figure 3). While it is better than the correlation for the Brazos alone, there are obviously some factors other than the flows of these streams. It is as though there are large areas or pools of diluted Gulf water which originate at the mouths of major streams and migrate around the Gulf at the whim of wind or Gulf current. Perhaps this is indeed the answer. At any rate, the effect is of considerable importance to seawater extraction operations and warrants some more extensive study. Another factor in location is the problem of the disposal of the treated seawater. Seawater from which one or many of the minerals have been removed must be returned to the Gulf at a point far enough from the intake so as to avoid the recirculation of previously processed water. How far "far enough” is, remains a question. At Freeport, the intake of the seawater plant and the point of discharge of depleted seawater are separated by about seven miles. This appears to be adequate for this location, for no significant difference in the ratio of disolved salts has been noted to date. How much less distance could be tolerated would depend on the quantity of water handled, prevailing winds and currents and so forth. AVERAGE MONTH <941 THRU 1947 Figure 2 24 The Texas Journal of Science 1951, No. 1 March 30 Still another objective in the location of a seawater processing plant is the avoidable of areas of organic contamination. Organic material dis¬ charged from municipalities into tidal waters, or brought down by streams, or released by industry, could represent a considerable handicap to a sea¬ water plant so unfortunate as to be nearby. The requirement of treatment chemicals would generally be increased, filtration processes would be ren¬ dered more difficult, and contamination of finished product might result. In the location of a seawater plant, elevation of available land is a factor. The land must be high enough so that it will not be flooded by 14 to 16 foot hurricane tides, or must be adaptable to the construction of strong levees. It must be low enough so that seawater pumping cost is not a great handicap. One thinks of seawater as a free resource. In the Gulf, it is free. But one must pump a million pounds of it in order to get 50 pounds of bromine or 1000 pounds of magnesium. At 75% power efficiency, approxi¬ mately five kilowat hours are required for each 10 feet of height to which a million pounds of seawater is pumped. The site for the plant having been established, the next group of problems deals with the actual procurement and handling of the seawater. Some of the problems are mechanical, but most center around the materials of construction best suited for resistance to seawater attack. The first problem, that of procuring the saltiest seawater available at a given location, can be solved quite simply. It is only necessary to with¬ draw the water from as deep a point as possible, taking care that turbulence at the suction does not pull down water from a higher level. There is no advantage, however, in going any deeper than the lowest point in the chan¬ nel connecting the intake with the open Gulf. The second problem is one of screening out the large and small fish, the logs, the weeds, and the miscellaneous debris which are inevitably present 1942 1943 Figure 3 1951, No. 1 March 30 Engineering Problems of Coastal Waters 25 in Gulf water. All must be kept out of the system, the fish as a conserva¬ tion measure, and the other things, to prevent plugging or damage to the equipment. Since it is difficult to construct a screen which will be strong enough to handle the large items and at the same time be delicate enough to do the fine screening of small marine animals, the operation is usually accomplished in three steps. The largest items are kept out by a strong grillwork consisting of three-fourths inch by three inch steel bars set on edge about six inches apart. Next, the water passes through a self-cleaning vertical travelling screen having mesh openings one-half to one inch square. Fish or debris reaching the screen are continuously flushed off into a trough which returns them to the Gulf. Finally, the water flows through a hori¬ zontal rotary screen unit having mesh openings of about one-eighth of an inch. This screen is also flushed continuously back to the Gulf. The third problem is controlling of fouling of the flumes, pipelines, condensers, and other pieces of seawater equipment. As you probably all know, seawater is teeming with marine organisms, tiny oysters, squirts, marine weed seeds, etc., most of them too small to be filtered out by any practical means. Enough of them find anchorage in seawater pipes to grow and rapidly build up a thick layer on the walls. The growth not only re¬ stricts flows in seawater mains, but occasionally loosens after growing to significant size, and plugs lines, valves, and condenser tubes to a really seri¬ ous extent. Or at least it would if the marine growth were not curbed. The prevention of this trouble is generally accomplished by the application of chlorine just after the final screening. Approximately two pounds of chlorine are continuously added to each million pounds of seawater. Most of this is immediately consumed by the normal content of organic matter, but the residual of about a half of a part per million of free chlorine is sufficient to prevent the growth of the fouling organisms. The next problem in the seawater is the corrosion. Volumes have been written on the subject of seawater corrosion and its alleviation, and one can hope to touch only a few of the high spots in a general talk of this type. For more details on this controversial subject, I would refer you to the chapter on seawater corrosion in the Corrosion Handbook , by Uhlig. Sea¬ water, of course, is not nearly as corrosive as many acids, but it is none¬ theless corrosive. While acids can be handled in rubber lined equipment or in special alloys, the large volume of seawater which must be handled for each pound of finished product discourages the use of expensive construc¬ tion materials. Steel is the most commonly used metal in seawater, not be¬ cause it is more resistant, but because it is usually cheaper, and is certainly more available in the form of pipes, sheets, piling, etc. Bare mild steel does a fair job when seawater velocities are low, corroding at an average rate of about five thousandths of an inch per year, with maximum pits fifteen to twenty thousandths of an inch per year. The rate of corrosion increases rapidly with velocity, reaching thirty thousandths of an inch per year at a velocity of ten feet per second. Coatings of the thick coal tar type offer considerable protection to steel in those cases where the size, shape, and service of the structure per¬ mit its application and maintenance. Cathodic protection techniques de¬ veloped within the past few years greatly reduce and often stop the cor¬ rosion of steel by application of galvanic currents opposing the currents generated by normal corrosion. The principle is very simple, and can be 26 The Texas Journal of Science 1951, No. 1 March 30 readily demonstrated by anyone having in his possession a jar of seawater, two small pieces of mild steel, a small piece of magnesium, a bit of wire, and a piece of string. Hang one piece of steel in the seawater for a control, using the string for the support. Now connect the other piece of steel to the magnesium with the wire, and suspend both in the seawater, being careful not to let any of the pieces come in continuous contact. You will notice, if your electrical connections are good, that a small amount of gas is given off from the two connected pieces, and that after a while the solu¬ tion near the connected steel will become a little milky. Electric current produced by the difference in potential between the steel and the magnesium is "cathodically protecting” the steel. When you withdraw the samples in twenty-four to forty-eight hours for inspection, you will find that the unprotected specimen is blotched with rusty areas, while the protected one will be free or almost free of rust and may even have a thin white protective coating that is sometimes produced by the effects of the current. There are, of course, other ways of supplying the direct current re¬ quired for cathodic protection. Zinc can be used, but this metal produces less current per pound than does magnesium, and produces it at a slower rate. Direct current generators or rectifiers provide excellent current sources for concentrated protective loads. They are not as convenient for small or widely distributed areas as are the sacrificial anodes of zinc or magnesium, however. Cathodic protection is more effective at low velocities than at veloci¬ ties of, say, five feet per second. It can be used with or without coal tar protective coatings, but is much more effective if used with the coatings, especially under high velocity conditions. Seawater equipment which is to operate under conditions of velocity higher than bare steel can tolerate and which cannot be conveniently pro¬ tected by coatings or by cathodic current, is generally constructed of more resistant materials. Nickel-cast-iron, tin-bronze, Niresist, Monel, aluminum brass, and cupro-nickels represent some of the principal materials used for the more severe services, depending on the type of equipment and the exact conditions to be encountered. Pumps operating at low speeds and low discharge heads, say up to 100 feet, are often constructed with gray iron castings and Government bronze impellers. Those with somewhat higher speeds and with discharge heads in the range of 100 to 150 feet generally give good service when made with nickel cast iron casings and monel impellers. Pumps in still higher pressure service require Niresist or Monel casings with Monel impellers. K Monel is generally preferred for pump shafts in each of the cases just mentioned. The choice of materials for valves, like pumps, varies with the condi¬ tions to be met. Valves in positions of low velocity or little turbulence can be of cast iron construction, with bronze or Monel trim. High velocities require "G” bronze bodies with Hastelloy “C” or nylon seats. The materials of construction of seawater condensers and coolers vary somewhat from place to place, depending on economics, local conditions and personal preference. The general pattern, however, is to use cathodically protected cast iron water boxes, and Muntz metal tube sheets, with tubes of Admiralty brass for velocities of five feet per second, tubes of aluminum brass or 90-10 copper-nickel for speeds of seven feet per second, and tubes of 70-30 coper-nickel for velocities of up to ten feet per second. 1951, No. 1 March 30 Engineering Problems of Coastal Waters 27 Before leaving submberged metal corrosion, it should be emphasized that the choice of metals for certain tasks may be controversial and may furthermore be dependent on local conditions not covered in this discussion. It should also be pointed out that the attack of metals by seawater is not wholly confined to submerged structures. Bare steel exposed to salt spray at or near the water’s edge suffers corrosion loss that may be as much as four times that of steel in quiescent seawater. Protective coatings can be used to combat this corrosion, and in extreme cases thin Monel sheathing may be used. The rate of atmospheric corrosion is reduced as the distance from the water’s edge increases. The magnitude of the difference is amply demon¬ strated by corrosion data collected on the Atlantic Coast at Kure Beach, North Carolina. There, weight losses of mild steel specimens 80 feet from the beach were twelve times as great as losses at a point 8 Of) feet from the beach. No such comparative data are available for Gulf exposure. How¬ ever, in tests at Freeport, the corrosion rate of mild steel at a point one mile from the Gulf was approximately the same as the attack of the same metal at the Kure Beach 800 feet location. The eighteen month weight losses at the Freeport location gave the following corrosion rates for steel and a few other interesting metals, some of which might be used to advantage in those cases where painting is impossible or impractical. METAL Mild Steel _ Copper Steel _ Corten _ Copper _ Galvanized Steel Monel _ Nickel _ Inconel _ CORROSION LOSS _ .00156 _ .00145 _ .00114 .000080 _ .000077 . . 000036 _ .000022 _ .000019 It would be wrong to conclude that deterioration in seawater is con¬ fined to metals. Untreated wood cannot be used at all for permanent struc¬ tures in seawater, for it is rapidly attacked by many types of marine borers. The depredations of these little creatures are so fast that a plain piece of pine 2x4 will be destroyed in a matter of a few months. The preferred solu¬ tion to this problem is in the use of heavy coal tar creosote impregnation of any wood which is to be used in seawater. Reinforced concrete is regarded as a satisfactory construction material for seawater service but even this cannot be regarded as permanent. It may be slowly attacked by marine borers or may be gradually weakened by spalling as the reinforcing rods slowly corrode. This concludes the discussion of some of the special problems which must be faced in dealing with coastal waters. Now it might be of some interest to briefly describe the processes for recovering bromine and mag¬ nesium from the coastal waters at Freeport, Texas. In the bromine process, seawater is acidified to a pH of 3.5, using either sulphuric acid or hydrochloric acid. Chlorine gas is introduced in an amount slightly in excess of the amount of bromide in the water. The treated seawater is passed down through a packed tower. As it descends, air 28 The Texas Journal of Science 1951, No. 1 March 30 passing up the tower "blows out” the liberated bromine and carries it to an absorber chamber. Enroute, it is mixed with the equivalent amount of sulfur dioxide made in a conventional sulfur burner. The bromine reacts with the sulphur dioxide in the presence of water to form a mixture of hydrobromic and sulphuric acids, which are readily absorbed in water to form a solu¬ tion approximately 1000 fold stronger in bromine than was the original seawater. The hydrobromic and sulphuric acid solution is fed to a continuous stream stripping column. Chlorine is added, liberating the bromine, which is distilled off and condensed to liquid form. The stripped acids are used for seawater acidification. The bromine is not shipped as such, but is re¬ acted with ethylene gas to produce ethylene dibromide, one of the essential constituents of the antiknock fluid used in most gasolines. In the magnesium process, seawater is treated with a slight excess of milk of lime made from oyster shells. Magnesium hydroxide is thus precipi¬ tated from the solution. It is permitted to settle in large Dorr tanks, the depleted seawater overflowing to return to the Gulf. The thin "milk of magnesia” withdrawn from the Dorr tanks is filtered to remove part of the seawater and is then reacted with hydrochloric acid to form a solution of 15% magnesium chloride. This solution is treated with a small amount of magnesium sulphate to precipitate the excess calcium, and is next evapo¬ rated to 34% magnesium chloride solution and filtered to remove gypsum and salt. Then it is evaporated to 50% MgCl2 solution, and crystallized and dried in shelf driers to produce hydrated magnesium chloride pellets suit¬ able for feeding the electrolytic magnesium cells. The cells are bath-tub shaped steel pots of about 2 500 gallons capacity filled with a fused mixture of NaCl, MgCl2, and CaCl2 at 700° C. Graphite electrodes suspended in the pot serve as anodes; the pots and their internal baffles act as cathodes. Passage of a high amperage direct current through the solution decomposes the magnesium of the bath into elemental magnes¬ ium and chlorine gas. The chlorine gas is collected under a refractory cell cover and piped to hydrochloric furnaces, where it is converted to hydro¬ chloric acid and recycled to the neutralizer to react with more magnesium hydroxide. The molten magnesium rises to the top of the bath, where it is trapped by inverted troughs and conveyed to storage wells in the front of each cell. The metal is dipped twice daily and cast into ingots of 99.8% purity. The properties and uses of magnesium are probably well known to most of you. It is the lightest structural metal commercially available. It is approximately one-fourth as heavy as iron and two-thirds as heavy as aluminum. It is usually alloyed with other metals, such as aluminum, zinc, and manganese, and in its alloyed form has a high strength to weight ratio, is easily fabricated, and has good corrosion resistance. For these reasons it is finding increasing use in light weight structures and equipment, such as airplanes, truck and trailer bodies, portable tools, ladders, and other items too numerous to mention. The use of magnesium for cathodic protection has already been mentioned. Its usefulness is not confined to seawater, how¬ ever, as it performs admirably when used as a sacrificial soil anode for the protection of underground pipelines. A new and promising use for mag¬ nesium is its addition to cast iron to produce a "nodular cast iron,” which has high strength, and ductility approaching that of steel. 1951, No. 1 March 30 Engineering Problems of Coastal Waters 29 In conclusion, you have had recited to you a few of the many prob¬ lems arising out of the utilization of seawater for the production of essential commercial materials. Many of the problems have been solved in a satisfac¬ tory manner, but none so well as to be beyond improvement. From this time forward, all of us will have to look to the sea for cer¬ tain of life’s necessities. It is for those of us who live on the Gulf edge of that mighty storehouse, and for others of us who are pioneering the tapping of its resources, to bend every effort toward further exploration of these problems. Our Gulf may never be the biggest gulf in the world, but we ought to make it the most productive. 30 The Texas Journal of Science 1951, No. 1 March 30 SEEING THE MOLECULE JURG WASER Department of Chemistry The Rice Institute The power of resolution of a microscope is defined by the linear magni¬ tude of the smallest detail which is still recognizable and is of the order A . n sinoc where A is the wave length of the radiation employed, n the refractive index of the medium surrounding the object, and the angle a the so-called aperture of the objective. The smallest wave length that can be utilized in optical microscopy is about 4000 A and the highest index of refraction of immer¬ sion fluids available is 1.7 so that even for an aperture close to 90° d is still of the order of 2 500 A, far beyond molecular dimensions. A large increase in attainable magnification was made possible by the advent of the electron microscope. Electrons are known to have wave prop¬ erties and the wave length associated with electrons that have been accelerated by a potential of V volts is approximately A For example a field of 60,000 volts produces electrons with A s 0.05 A. This means that if the wave length were the only factor the power of resolu¬ tion of an electron microscope could be pushed to very small magnitudes indeed. A serious limitation of present day instruments lies in their very small aperture angle which is essential to keep within bounds the spherical aberration of the electrostatic and electromagnetic lenses which focus the electron rays. Modern instruments have an aperture of about 10-3 radians which means a power of resolution of the order of 50 A. Since the resolving power is proportional to the fourth root of the spherical aberration a gain of one decimal in the power of resolution requires an improvement of the spherical aberration of the lens by four decimals, a considerable task. A small aperture is further required to attain reasonable contrast in the image. The above power of resolution is entirely sufficient to make visible giant molecules like those of the bean mosaic virus. Fig. 1 is a reproduction of an electron microscope picture of a tiny crystal formed by such virus molecules (Price and Wyckoff, 1946) and shows beautifully the regular arrangement of molecules in a crystal. To push the power of resolution further new methods of approach are required. A very interesting recent development is the field electron microscope shown diagrammatically in Fig. 2 (Muller, 1949). The cathode K is formed by an exceedingly fine W-point with radius of curvature of about 1 0“5 cm, obtained by etching an already finely ground piece of W-wire. A potential of about 10,000 volts applied between this point and the anode cage A generates fields of the order of 107 volts/cm at K which cause the cold emission from the W-point of a large number of electrons. An extremely good vacuum of about 10-8 mm Hg is required to keep the W-surface suffi- 1951, No. 1 March 30 Seeing the Molecule 31 Fig. 1. Electron microscope picture of bean mosaic virus molecules (Price and Wyckoff, 1946) Pump Fig. 2. Diagram of field electron microscope (Muller, 1949) 32 The Texas Journal of Science 1951, No. 1 March 30 ciently clean. The electrons are accelerated along straight lines and finally strike the screen L. If now some atoms of foreign substance adhere to the electron emitting W-surface their enormously magnified image may be¬ come visible on the screen if circumstances are favorable. It has been pos¬ sible in this way to obtain some kind of an image of the copper phthalo- cyanine complex whose structure and dimensions are shown in Fig. 3. The molecule is planar and otherwise well adapted for a test of this kind as it is very stable and little volatile, so that the very high vacuum is not disturbed. The picture (Fig. 4) obtained of these molecules (Muller, 1950) shows clearly disks with four characteristic lobes, but no further details are visible. Indeed the picture is not a true image, but a superposition of the finite dif¬ fraction disks of all of the atoms and the amount of detail that actually shows is quite surprising. Strong indication that the clover-leaf like disks in Fig. 4 are really due to single molecules is given by the following observa¬ tions. If the organic substance is slowly evaporated by heating the W-point to about 500° C. the disks start to disappear from the screen in such a way that the four lobes of a disk always vanish at the same time. If the tempera¬ ture is somewhat lower a change in direction of the lobes by as much as 45° is often observed, presumably caused by reorientation of the molecules 1951, No. 1 March 30 Seeing the Molecule 33 which are attached to the W-surface by the central Cu-atom of the com¬ plex. This method of electron microscopy, simple and neat as it is, unfortu¬ nately does not appear to have general applicability. Only very stable mole¬ cules with favorable structural characteristics can be viewed and the details made visible are not anywhere as complete as one would like. A great amount of development is needed before the method will become of general useful¬ ness to the molecular structure field. An important current application of the field electron microscope is to the study of gas adsorption to W and other metal surfaces. One disadvantage of electron microscopes is the low penetration power of electrons, another the fact that the object has to be introduced into a high vacuum, which means that only very thin and dehydrated specimens can be viewed. Neither of these disadvantages would apply to an X-ray microscope, but there is no way of making lenses for X-rays. Recent developments have, however, shown that it is possible to focus X-rays with mirrors, making use of the fact that at grazing incidence X-rays are totally reflected by all ma¬ terials. A working X-ray microscope has been constructed (Kirkpatrick 1950) using two curved metal surfaces whose curvatures are at right angles Fig. 4. Field electron microscope picture of Cu-phthallocyanine molecules (Muller, 1950) 34 The Texas Journal of Science 1951, No. 1 March 30 to one another (Fig. 5 ) . The X-ray image of a piece of metal gauze is shown in Fig. 6 (Kirkpatrick 1950) with an overall linear enlargement of about 500. The nodules seen on a horizontal wire in the picture are real and origi¬ nated in the electrolytic process by which the gauze was made. The magni¬ fication is of course put to shame by any ordinary microscope, but it is pos¬ sible to improve the instrument so that it will resolve about 2000 A, the limit being due to geometrical aberration (Prince 1950). This is of course too large for seeing molecules, but such an instrument would have many applications in metallurgy, biology, etc. It is nevertheless possible to construct — in the most general sense of the expression — an X-ray microscope that may serve to make visible the atoms inside of crystals. To understand the principles involved some facts of the theory of X-ray diffraction in crystals must first be stated. A crystal is in a sense a three-dimensional tapestry. The contents of a small parallelelepiped, the so-called unit cell, is repeated in all three dimen¬ sions throughout the interior of the crystal. Stated differently, the electron density in a crystal is a three-dimensional periodic function, the unit cell indicating the periods in three non-coplanar directions of space. As is well known any periodic function can be expanded in a Fourier series and this is true in' three dimensions as well as in one. The coefficients of the three-dimensional series representing the electron density of a crystal can be obtained experimentally in the following way. Imagine a family of planes being passed through the crystal, all of them parallel to two opposite faces of the unit cell. All these planes are occupied by a periodic pattern of atoms, like atoms having like surroundings. Such a family of equidistant, parallel planes, each of which exhibits the same periodic array of atoms, is IMAGE OBJECT Fig. 5. Diagram of V-ray microscope (Kirkpatrick, 1950) 1951, No. 1 March 30 Seeing the Molecule 35 termed a set of net-planes. There is an infinite number of ways of passing such sets of net-planes through a crystal besides the three sets defined by the three pairs of parallel faces of the unit cell. If now a beam of X-rays impinges upon the crystal it may be reflected by any one set of these net-planes, provided the orientation of the crystal is such that the wave trains reflected by different planes of the set are in phase. The condition for this "constructive interference,, is expressed by the famous Bragg law of X-ray diffraction (cf. e.g. Lonsdale, 1949). It is one of the tasks of X-ray crystallography to measure experimen¬ tally the fraction of the power of the incident beam that is reflected by each set of net-planes of a given crystal. It turns out that these reflectivities are in essence just the squares of the coefficients in the Fourier expansion of the electron density in the crystal mentioned above. All that seems then to be necessary to determine a crystal structure is to determine the reflectivities of the net-planes, to take their square root, and to carry out the summations in the Fourier series. Unfortunately the square roots of the reflectivities give only the magnitudes of the Fourier coefficients and not their signs. It would lead too far to explain how these signs are determined. In this problem lies some of the fascination of crystal structure analysis and it has been solved for a great many crystals. Let us look at some pictures of electron densities obtained in this way by numerically summing up the Fourier series involved. Fig. 7 (Robertson, 1936) is a projection of the electron density in a crystal of phthallocyanine (without Cu) and shows very clearly all the Fig. 6. Image of wire screen obtained with X-ray microscope (Kirkpatrick, 1950) 36 The Texas Journal of Science 1951, No. 1 March 80 Fig. 7. Projection of electron density in phthallocyanine crystal. Each contour line represents two electrons per A3- (Robertson, 1936). Fig. 8. Section through electron density in napthalene molecule. Each contour line represents a density increment of 1/2 electron per A3- The half-electron line is dashed. (Abrahams, Robertson, and White, 1949). 1951, No. 1 March 30 Seeing the Molecule 37 atoms of the molecule of Fig. 3 (of course except for the Cu). There is some distortion due to the fact that the molecules are not parallel to the plane of projection but inclined. With some care very exact electron densities may be obtained by this method. Very careful work has been done on naphthalene which resulted in the section through a molecule shown in Fig. 8 (Abrahams, Robertson, and White, 1949). In this picture even the electrons bonding together the carbon atoms may be counted, and it is apparent that different bonds involve different electron densities. The central carbon-carbon bond is for instance seen to be the weakest one in the molecule, which supports some quantum mechanical calculations that give the same result. The extra loops made by the dashed half-electron contour correspond to the H-atoms of the naphtha¬ lene molecule. H-atoms scatter X-rays only very weakly because of their low electron density. They show up reliably only on Fourier projections that have been obtained from very good data. Fig. 9 shows a three dimensional view of the electron density in part of the unit cell of a crystal of the potassium salt of benzylpenicillin (Crow¬ foot, Bunn, Rogers-Low, and Turner-Jones, 1949). The picture was obtained by plotting on sheets of plastic sections through the electron density in the unit cell and placing all these sheets together in a frame. The bottom half of the picture serves to label the various atoms. The determination of this crystal structure was to a large degree responsible for the final elucidation of the chemical structure of penicillin. Fig. 9. Three dimensional representation of electron density in portion of a K benzyl- penicillin molecule. Lower half is key for identification of atoms. (Crawfoot, Bunn, Rogers, and Turner-Jones, 1949). 38 The Texas Journal of Science 1951, No. 1 March 30 An enormous material of information on the detailed spatial structure of molecules is being accumulated in this way. This information is of great importance for an understanding of the chemical actions of molecules and a start has been made in interpreting even the biological activities of mole¬ cules in terms of their detailed spatial configuration. In a sense then the X-ray microscope is a reality, the lenses of ordinary microscopes having been replaced by adding machines or other more ingeni¬ ous devices (e.g. Pepinsky, 1947). It is indeed possible to force ordinary light to do the Fourier summations for us. To understand how this is done let us consider, in terms of wave optics, the process involved in the forma¬ tion of an optical image. Consider (Fig. 10) a lens forming in the plane B an image of an object which for simplicity’s sake is assumed to be a periodic line grating repre¬ sented by P1P2Ps (cf. e.g. Jentzsch, 1938). This grating diffracts the light illuminating it and the various orders of diffracted spectra form parallel beams of light which are focused in the focal plane A at the right of the lens. If this process is analyzed mathematically it is found that the amplitudes of the various diffraction spectra in this plane are precisely the Fourier com¬ ponents of the periodic function which represents the amplitude of the light passed by the original grating. This so-called primary image of the original grating is thus simply its Fourier inversion. All points of this primary image may be thought of as sources of spherical light wavelets which are capable of interfering with each other. This interference leads to the final or secondary image of the object in the plane B. It turns out to be the Fourier inversion of the primary image, and therefore a more or less truthful (inverse) image of the original grating. It is not an exact image of the object because the primary image does not Fig. 10. Image formation by lens (from Jentzsch, 1938) 1951, No. 1 March 30 Seeing the Molecule 39 contain all Fourier coefficients, partly because of angular limitations, but mainly because of the finite wavelength of the light employed.1 2 Indeed it is possible to derive formula ( 1 ) from such considerations. The following trick can now be used (Bragg, 1939). Instead of having the lens supply the primary image any other amplitude distribution of light may artifically be put into its place. In the plane of the secondary image there will then appear promptly the Fourier inversion of this distribution, provided the light distribution in the primary plane is coherent. Light has thus been used to perform a Fourier Synthesis. In the crystal structure application the amplitude distribution is sup¬ plied by a metal plate into which have been drilled holes whose area is pro¬ portional to the experimentally determined Fourier coefficients of the X-ray density in a crystal. The phase relations among these coefficients may be introduced for instance by placing suitably inclined thin flakes of mica in front of some of the holes (Buerger, 1950). The metal plate is illuminated Fig. 11. Photographic Fourier synthesis for marcasite, FeS2. Upper half diagrammatic representation of crystal with Fe atoms shaded. (Buerger, 1950). 1 If the object is of entirely general nature the primary image is its so-called Fourier trans¬ form. The secondary image is the Fourier transform of this transform, which resembles the (inverse) original to a greater or lesser extent, depending on the completeness of the primary image. 2 A related method that is especially suited for electron microscopy and provides the phases automatically has recently been proposed by Gabor (1948). Cf. also Haine and Dyson 1950). 40 The Texas Journal of Science 1951, No. 1 March 30 with monochromatic, coherent light and a lens is usually placed between A and B2. In this way the projection of the electron density in marcasite, FeS2> reproduced in Fig. 11 was obtained (Buerger, 1950) using about 150 Fourier coefficients. The darker spots represent the Fe-atoms containing about 26 electrons each, the lighter spots the S-atoms containing about 16 electrons each. The drawing in the upper part of Fig. 1 1 is a diagrammatic representa¬ tion of the crystal structure, but the size and shading of the circles in this diagram is in no way related to the electron densities within the atoms. If instead of using a photographic plate one views the secondary image through a low power microscope he can actually "see” the atoms and mole¬ cules in a crystal. LITERATURE CITED Abrahams, S. C., J. M. Robertson and J. G. White — 1949 — Acta Cryst. 2 : 238. Bragg, W. L.— 1939— Nature 143 : 678. Buerger, M. J. — 1950 — J. Appl. Phys. 21 : 909. Crowfoot, I)., C. W. Bunn, B. W. Rogers-Low, and A Turner- Jones — 1949 — The X-Ray Crystallographic Investigation of the Structure of Penicillin, in “The Chemistry of Penicillin,” edited by H. T. Clarke, J. R. Johnson, R. Robinson. Princeton University Press. Gabor, D.— 1948— Nature 161 : 777. Haine, M. E. and J. Dyson — 1950 — Nature 166: 315. Jentzsch, F. — 1939 — Physikal. Z. 39: 928. Kirkpatrick, P. — 1950 — Nature 166: 251. Lonsdale, K. — 1949— Crystals and X-Rays. Van Nostrand. New York. Muller, E. W.— 1949 — Z. Physik 126 : 642. — - 1950 — Naturwissensch 37 : 333. Pepinsky, J. — 1947 — J. Appl. Phys. 18:601. Price, W. C. and R. G. Wyckoff— 1946— Nature 157, 764. Prince, E. — 1950 — J. Appl. Phys. 21 : 698. Robertson, J. M. — 1936 — J. Chem Soc. 1195. 1951, No. 1 March 30 Nature of Ocean Currents 41 NATURE OF OCEAN CURRENTS IN THE GULF OF MEXICO * DALE F. LEIPPER Department of Oceanography The A. & M. College of Texas Oceanographic studies in the Gulf of Mexico have been relatively few and far between. I imagine that the term "oceanography” is new to a good many of you and that it might therefore be well to define it and to mention its various aspects. We may say that it is the systematic analysis of the seas and everything that is in them, over them, around them and under them. Oceanography draws upon the techniques and principles of the basic sciences such as bi¬ ology, chemistry, geology, physics, mathematics, meteorology and engineer¬ ing. If a problem can be solved within one of these fields without recourse to any of the others, then that problem, even though it concerns the marine environment, would not be listed as an oceanographic problem. Only those problems which can not be solved by application of one of the basic sciences alone can properly be called oceanographic problems. In our Department of Oceanography, which is in the School of Arts and Sciences at Texas A. & M., oceanography is considered as being made up of five major components. These are: biological oceanography, which is the study of life in the sea including both plants and animals; physical oceanography, which is the physics of the sea, including the study of ocean waves and water movements, of transformations of energy, and of the physi¬ cal characteristics of sea water; geological oceanography, which deals with relationships between the land and the oceans and includes studies of beach erosion, sedimentation, bottom topographies and the interpretation of marine deposits; chemical oceanography, which is the study of the chemical com¬ position of the sea and of chemical reactions which take place within it, and which includes determinations of the amount of various constituents present, development of methods of extraction, and studies of corrosive effects; finally, there is marine meteorology, which deals with the winds and weather over the sea, with the manner in which winds set up ocean waves and cur¬ rents and with the climate as determined by evaporation and conduction from the sea surface. An oceanographer is a person trained in one of the pertinent basic sci¬ ences who has learned to apply his specialty in the marine environment and who has an interest in and at least an elementary knowledge of the other marine sciences. There are several features of the subject which make oceanography a distinct and specialized field. One of these is the fact that, in nearly every problem he attacks, the oceanographer is soon confronted with the necessity of applying knowledge which can only be gathered by combining several of the marine sciences. This unity of the sciences of the sea is brought about by the very nature of the oceans themselves — -they being a large, continuous, active, flowing medium. A second characteristic of oceanography is that * Presented at the second Semi-Annual Seminar of Marine Sciences of the Texas Game, Fish and Oyster Commission Marine Laboratory, Rockport, Texas, April 6-9, 1950. 42 The Texas Journal of Science 1951, No. i March 30 it deals with large quantities. Distances are measured in thousands of miles and volumes in thousands of cubic miles. The oceanographer is fortunate if the data from which he must draw his conclusions provide as much as a single sample or observation for each 2 50 cubic miles of water to be analyzed. He deals with large amounts of energy which make even the energy associated with an atomic bomb explosion seem insignificant. He deals with forces not present in laboratory experiments, such as the ap¬ parent force due to the earth’s rotation. Although few individual methods or principles of oceanography are unique, the combination of principles and methods which must be used requires special training and experience. A typical oceanographic problem is that of determining the currents of the seas. Sverdrup"' lists three different groups of currents, each of which is represented in the Gulf of Mexico, These are: (1) currents that are related to the distribution of density in the sea, (2) currents that are caused directly by the stress that the wind exerts on the sea surface, and (3) tidal currents and currents associated with internal waves. (Information presented in this discussion is standard oceanographic knowl¬ edge and is thoroughly covered in the oceans. It is presented here in some¬ what elementary form for the benefit of undergraduate students in biology who may not have strong backgrounds in mathematics and physics.) Tidal currents are caused chiefly by the gravitational attractions be¬ tween the earth, the moon and the sun. These attractions are proportional to the masses of the bodies and inversely proportional to the squares of the distance between them. Because of its very short distance from the earth, the attraction of the moon is large. The sun, on the other hand, although it is at a much greater distance from the earth, is so large that it is able to exert an attraction which is 43% of the moon’s attraction. A result of gravitational attraction upon the rotating earth is to periodi¬ cally raise and lower the level of the ocean’s surface, i.e., to create tides. Water which is required to raise sea level at a particular location must be furnished by horizontal movements within the ocean. These are the tidal cur¬ rents. Since the sun and moon change their position with respect to a given part of the earth’s surface in a periodic fashion, the tides and tidal currents are periodic. Because the rotation of the earth affects movements of water, the tidal currents do not oscillate back and forth on a straight line but rotate. In the northern hemisphere this rotation is in a clockwise direction. Along the Texas coast there are many bays and lagoons which have relatively few outlets to the sea. If the water level in these bays is to be raised by tidal action, all of the water required for the change in level must flow into the bay through a few narrow channels. Therefore the tidal cur¬ rents in such channels may be quite large, particularly at certain stages of the tide. The great width of the shallow continental shelf along the Gulf Coast results in high tidal current velocities. This is because the change of water level of this large area must be brought about by flow across the shallow shelf. Since the depth of the moving water is small, its velocity must be relatively great to provide the volume needed for change in sea level. * Sverdrup, H. U., Johnson, Martin W., and Richard H. Fleming — 1946 — The oceans, their physics, chemistry and general biology, x, 1087. New York. Prentice-Hall, Inc. 1951, No. 1 March 30 Nature of Ocean Currents 43 The high velocities and the changing direction and velocity of these tidal currents lead to turbulence and stirring which provide nutrient ma¬ terials needed for plant and animal growth in the lighted upper layers. Oscillating currents related to internal waves may be important in this region but little information now is available on this subject. Currents caused by the stress of the wind upon the sea surface are par¬ ticularly important on the Gulf Coast. The most widely known phenomena which results from the action of such currents is the storm tide or general rise in water level which precedes winds of hurricane velocities. When a wind starts to blow over the ocean it exerts a frictional force or drag upon the sea surface. If the wind persists the surface layers of the water start to move and they in turn act upon the deeper layers and set these in motion also. The two forces which are involved in setting up such currents are the frictional force and the Coriolis force, which is the apparent force due to the rotation of the earth. If the wind blows long enough for a state of equilibrium to be reached, the surface waters will be moving in a direction approximately 45° to the right of the wind direction. A north wind sets up a surface current toward the southwest. Currents at greater depths will flow at greater angles to the wind and at velocities which de¬ crease with depth. The surface velocities may reach 1 to 2% of the wind velocity. Studies of currents set up by the wind are mostly based upon theoretical considerations. A few observations have been made in land locked bays to show the piling up of water by the wind. However, in the open ocean no data are available. The existence of the drilling platforms off the Gulf Coast may permit, for the first time, the accumulation of data which will enable a practical analysis to be carried out. The currents related to the distribution of density are the major semi¬ permanent currents of the oceans. Little is known about these currents in the Gulf of Mexico. The chief source of information is the pilot charts of the U. S. Navy Hydrographic Office. These are based upon the navigation records of the ships sailing in the Gulf over many years. They do indicate the general drift in various regions but the individual observations upon which they are based are subject to many errors. For example, the deviation of a ship from its course may be caused by the wind rather than by the current. Also, it is difficult to determine positions at sea accurately. A sur¬ vey of the pilot charts for the Gulf indicates that these may not describe all of the currents present. They show waters flowing into the western part of the area at all latitudes but no water flowing out. This situation can not exist unless there is a submarine return current of equal magnitude — which is unlikely. In the deep waters, direct observation of current velocities has until re¬ cently been almost impossible because of difficulty in anchoring vessels. Ac¬ cordingly few such observations have been made. Instead, oceanographers have developed a method based upon the principles of physics. By use of this method the ocean currents present may be inferred from the distribution of density as determined by relatively simple observations of temperature, salin¬ ity and pressure. Two forces again are involved, one of these being the Corio¬ lis force which I have previously mentioned, and the other being the "pressure gradient” which is a force that depends upon the density of the water and the density distribution. The pressure gradient tends to make water flow 44 The Texas Journal of Science 1951, No. i March 30 from a region of high pressure toward a region of low pressure just as water poured into less dense oil will flow outward from the point at which it is poured. When the movement related to the pressure gradient has begun, the Coriolis force in the northern hemisphere acts toward the right of the movement and the resulting equilibrium between the two forces is asso¬ ciated with a steady current flowing almost perpendicular to a line connect¬ ing the regions of high pressure and low pressure. This flow is such that the more dense water is on the left hand of a person standing with his back to the current and the less dense water is on his right in the northern hemis¬ phere. Since temperature is one of the major factors influencing density, it may be inferred that the cold water is on the observer’s left and the warm is on his right when he is standing as described above with relation to the current. Thus, he can tell something about the currents if he knows the distribution of temperature or he can tell something about the temperature if he knows the distribution of currents. There are a number of difficulties in applying the current computation method. However, in spite of these difficulties it has been found to be the method which provides the most information for a reasonable amount of work. Processes by which the distribution of density is caused to change are cooling and increase of salinity by evaporation and conduction, and the movement of masses of water by the winds. Since the total transport of water due to the winds is toward the right and since this transport consists of warm waters in the surface layers, the low density waters are piled up at the right of the wind flow, which is in the center of anti-cyclones- — regions of good clear weather. The warm waters are removed from the low pressure storm areas at the left by the wind action. This movement is what is called the wind driven current. Its primary effect is to pile up water of small density in areas of anti-cyclonic winds and to leave waters of greater density in areas of cyclonic winds. This leads to a secondary effect, namely the maintenance of a different ocean current related to this distribution of density. Since such currents flow nearly perpendicular to a line connecting the regions having the different water densities, the associated currents form a pattern quite similar to the pattern of the winds. This may readily be recognized from a chart showing the distribution of ocean currents and prevailing winds. It can be seen that the study of this one particular phase of ocean¬ ography, ocean currents, involves the use of many of the basic sciences. The fundamental laws were derived from physics. The data are obtained by various measuring devices developed by engineers. The density determina¬ tions require chemical analysis to determine salinity. The computations re¬ quire rigorous mathematical methods. The interpretation of the computed currents is largely based upon meteorological phenomena. The application of the information gained is of particular importance to biologists since the ocean currents provide oxygen needed to maintain life in the sea, furnish nutrient materials, remove wastes and provide for the wide dispersal of eggs and larvae necessary to maintain populations. The ocean current in¬ formation is also essential to geologists for their studies of sedimentation and erosion. 1951, No. i Industrial Effluents and Marine Pollution 45 March 80 INDUSTRIAL EFFLUENTS AND MARINE POLLUTION FRANK J. METYKO * Harris County Bayou Pollution Surveys Houston, Texas Industrial waste pollution in the southeastern part of Texas is a many sided problem, which equals or exceeds the problem of adequate sanitary pollution control The problem has been increasingly magnified by the area’s rapid industrial expansion, by the wide diversity of types of indus¬ try, and by the complex nature of the resultant wastes, A partial list of the manifold types of industrial activity will serve to indicate the scope of the problem— -packing and rendering plants, oil refineries, chemical plants, syn¬ thetic rubber plants, breweries, laundries, tool and metal working industries, cotton and fish oil processing plants, bottling plants, milk processing plants, cotton textile plants, tannery and hide processing plants, dry cleaning estab¬ lishments, and wood treating plants. Each of these industries are noted for having liquid wastes that are very potent in various characteristics. Much has already been stated about sanitary sewage (domestic wastes) —how it decomposes, what its characteristics are, how it can be treated. The pertinent factor to this discussion is that the composition of sanitary sewage is quite uniform. The sanitary sewage in sewers in Houston is very similar to the sanitary sewage in Corpus Christ! or Beaumont and similar treatment processes could be used at all three cities. On the other hand, the industrial waste from a refinery on the Houston Ship Channel consisting of oils, emulsions, caustics, and acids is entirely different from blood offal, and paunch wastes from a packing plant on Brays Bayou, a tributary of Ship Channel, or from the coagulants, latex, butadiene, and stryrene wastes of a synthetic rubber plant on Simms Bayou, another tributary of the Ship Chan¬ nel In fact, the wastes from one refinery may differ materially from the wastes of an adjacent refinery producing the same product because of slight differences in processes. In recent years some progress has been made in studying industrial wastes and developing methods of treatment; however, much remains to be done just to standardize existing practice. Much more work is needed to keep abreast with the problems created by entirely new processes and new synthetic products. From a public health standpoint, industrial wastes are, of course, not as prime an offender as sanitary wastes. Most industrial wastes, however, play an important secondary role in possible disease transmission. This occurs in the following manner. Sanitary sewage is largely organic matter in an unstable biochemical condition. There is a constant tendency to stabilize or purify itself. This tendency is greatly assisted by various helpful bacterial organisms and chemicals that are always present in normal running water. A waterway that is polluted by only sanitary sewage is therefore in a con¬ stant state of self -purification. Many industrial wastes completely destroy the organisms that assist in this self -purification process or actually unite * Address given at Rockport, Texas, Oct. 27, 1949, at the First Semi-Annual Seminar of the Marine Laboratory of the Texas Game, Fish and Oyster Commission. 46 The Texas Journal of Science 1951, No. 1 March 30 with the available chemical content such as the dissolved oxygen in the water so that the self -purification process is impaired or destroyed, some¬ times permanently. A few industrial wastes actually carry disease organisms. The notable example of this is anthrax, which can be carried in the wastes from tanneries and slaughter houses. Laundry wastes, being the waste from the washing of soiled clothes, diapers, handkerchiefs, and the like, actually may carry a greater variety of disease organisms than sanitary sewage. In industrial Southeastern Texas many liquid poisonous products and by-products are produced, which if permitted to enter the liquid wastes discharged into the bayous would endanger human and marine life. The toxicity of arsenics, phenols, cyanides and similar compounds are well known. Only a few parts per million, if taken internally, could cause death. Very little is known about many of the complex hydrocarbons, sul¬ fides, naphthenates, mercaptans, alcohols, and special solvents that are used extensively by industries in this county, except that these wastes are all poisonous. The recent discharge of an arsenic compound in New Caney Creek which killed hundreds of cattle and other animals is still fresh in our memory. That a similar catastrophe could occur at many points in the State at any time is illustrated by the analysis of the wastes of a small chemical plant company on White Oak Bayou within the City of Houston. In this case the plant’s wastes were impounded in an earthen reservoir so poorly constructed that considerable leakage developed. A sample of the leakage analyzed by the Pollution Survey Division of Harris County showed 30,000 parts per million of arsenic. A few hundred feet down stream was a very popular swimming hole that was frequented almost daily by neighborhood boys. It is hard to understand that no human fatality resulted prior to the discovery of this condition. Needless to say correction was made immediately. Fish and other marine life are, of course, more susceptible to toxic ma¬ terials than humans. Many of the numerous periodical fish killings in the bayous, Bays and Gulf have the attributes of being caused by the discharge of toxic industrial wastes. To attempt to identify or isolate any particular compound or chemical by analysis as being the cause for such fish killings is virtually an impossible task. Hundreds of chemicals, acids, alkalies and complex compounds that would have the power to kill fish life in large quantities are used daily by industries in the county. Even if the specific toxic substance could be determined, to trace it to the actual industry that would be responsible for its discharge would be a tremendous undertaking. Many of the chemicals and processes used are trade secrets or new synthetic compounds about which very little is known. Many wastes which are poisonous have a high specific gravity, or in other words, are very heavy. These wastes settle to the bottom and could possibly be present for a relatively long period of time before being stirred up under conditions which might trap and kill many fish. It is conceivable, as a matter of fact, that an industry may discharge a perfectly harmless waste which will react chemically with some other already existing chemical in the water to produce a dangerous compound. There are many detrimental effects of industrial wastes besides its in¬ fluence on health. Those effects are felt in many phases of the economy of the State — navigation, drainage, recreation, soil conservation, industrial use of water, fish and oyster production, and esthetic considerations. It 47 1951, No. 1 March 30 Industrial Effluents and Marine Pollution would seem pertinent to discuss some of the properties of industrial wastes prior to a more detailed discussion of the effects they have. No one waste has all of the following properties but may have a combination of several. The receiving waters themselves, of course, are a conglomeration of all the wastes. OILY WASTES Many industrial wastes contain quantities of oil. Oil may be discharged directly from innumerable sources as a very thin film which covers the water giving a rainbow color effect. Also, oil. may be trapped within larger solids of a waste which, when the solids break up, release the oil to spread on the surface. Another manner in which oil may be discharged is in the form of an emulsion in which oil is dispersed evenly throughout the liquid. Emulsified oils are used widely for metal cutting purposes, and frequently have the appearance of milk. Under certain conditions of heat or acid con¬ tent within the receiving water, the emulsified oils break down turning the 'milk’ water into a heavy black oily substance. The fourth source of oil in waterways comes from actual spills at tank forms, oil boat loading docks, oil barges or tankers, and pipe line breaks. At times, considerable oil enters waterways through storm sewage systems caused by rain washing streets or by the illicit connection of service garages. The oil wastes are a type of waste which is easily seen and recognized. GREASES AND FATS Large quantities of grease and fats are discharged along with industrial wastes from many industries. In some respects they are similar to the oily wastes, and the lighter greases contribute to the oily condition. Some greases, however, are heavier than water and, therefore, sink to the bottom rather than float on the top. Large quantities of various types of grease are in the wastes from packing plants, abattoirs, rendering plants, refineries, cotton seed processing, laundries, milk processing plants, wood treating plants, and various types of chemical plants. SUSPENDED SOLIDS Many wastes from industrial processes carry large quantities of solids in suspension. These solids may be inert solids such as sand and limestone from washing shell for road use, or they may be complex volatile organic solids such as would come frcm packing plants, refineries, breweries and the like. The difference between the two is that the volatile solids, being organic in nature, will undergo decomposition and give off gases; whereas, the inert solids, being composed of stable material, will not decompose. The amount of suspended solids that can be carried by flowing water varies with the velocity of flow. When the velocity decreases, deposition of the solids takes place. In the case of solids suspended in streams and bay water, this means that bottom deposits are formed that are known as sludge banks. These sludge banks then contain a mixture of inert and volatile solids, and, also, the greases and fats that have settled to the bottom. The extent of this problem can be illustrated by figures from an analysis made on one plant on Buffalo Bayou in Harris County. This plant alone discharges 12 tons per day of suspended solids into the bayou. 48 The Texas Journal of Science 1951, No, 1 March 30 ACID AND ALKALINE WASTES Many industrial wastes include large quantities of acids or alkalies. These originate from such processes as acid baths and caustic washes for metal plating processes, acid treatment of oils and alkylation units at refin¬ eries, and direct acid uses in various chemical plants. In general terms the particular chemical property of the wastes that is effected is known as the hydrogen-ion concentration. The hydrogen-ion concentration of neutral water is 7. Everything above 7 is increasingly alkalyine; everything below 7 is increasingly acid. The principal acids that are found in industrial wastes are sulphuric acid, hydrochloric acid, and phosphoric acid. The common alkalies are lime and soda ash. DISSOLVED SOLIDS Dissolved solids are solid particles which go into solution with water and cannot be seen. Water has long been known as a universal solvent, and it is true that it is the most general solvent known. Many of the chemicals which come into contact with water are dissolved to some degree in the water. This dissolved content can change the characteristics of the water materially, even though the physical appearance remains the same. It is under these conditions that a colorless waste discharge can enter a bayou or river which may also be colorless, and a reaction take place between the two resulting in a zone of precipitation. Generally speaking, dissolved solids cause more trouble from a pollution treatment standpoint than suspended solids because special processes are needed to remove the solids from solution. WASTES WHICH CAUSE TASTE AND ODOR Many of the wastes impart tastes and odors to the water which would render it unfit for human consumption regardless of the treatment given it. Some substances such as chlorinated phenols are detectable in very minute quantities. For example, a chloro phenol compound could be detected if one pint was thoroughly mixed up with 50 million gallons of water. Even though surface water is not being used for potable uses (such as is the case in Harris County) , tastes and odors from liquid wastes are still a problem. The smell of the bayous is caused by more than the decomposition of sanitary sewage. Many of the fish and crabs caught along the Channel or in Galvestone Bay are inedible because of "strong tastes.” The wastes which cause most of the taste and odor problem in Harris County come from complex organic sulphur, nitrogen, and marcaptan compounds. In addition to this, hydrogen sulfide (rotten egg smell) is sometimes generated much more profusely by the mixture of industrial wastes with sanitary wastes. COLORED WASTES Industrial wastes frequently have very unsightly colors. Small quantities of such wastes frequently will change the color of the entire receiving body of water. Typical examples are the many dyes from textile plants, the blood or paunch yellow from meat packing plants, the yellowish brown waste caustic from refineries, the white discharge from cotton oil processing, and the black wastes from barrel washing. The color of the water in Buffalo Bayou and the Houston Ship Channel is a combination of all these wastes and many more. 49 1951, No. 1 March 30 Industrial Effluents and Marine Pollution EXPLOSIVE WASTES Some industrial wastes have explosive properties due largely to mixtures of gases given off. The gases may be from those entrapped in the waste from industrial processes or may be some formed by decomposition gas. Although this generally is not too serious a problem after the wastes reach the open bayous, it is an ever existent danger as long as the waste is in a sewer system. Considerable precaution must be taken to prevent igniting the ex¬ plosive material around the sewer outlet. Having discussed the various properties and types of industrial wastes, it now seems in order to list the many ways that these properties adversely affect the natural resources and welfare of the State. FISH AND OYSTER PRODUCTION Previously it was pointed out that many industrial wastes are directly toxic to fish life, that is, they cause death by direct poisoning. Fish and shell fish are detrimentally affected in many other ways however. 1. Sludge deposits consisting of solids, heavy oils, and greases settle to the bottom and cover feeding grounds and spawning grounds of fish life such that they are forced to migrate to cleaner waters. 2. The organic and chemically unstable matter present in wastes consume the dissolved oxygen content in the water that is necessary for the biological processes of marine life. Most fish life require at least four parts per million of dissolved oxygen in order to survive. Some bottom fish can exist on as low as two parts per million. However, when the range is this low, generally all fish will migrate to cleaner waters. Those that do stay are frequently trapped by zones of zero dissolved oxygen and consequently die. 3. Oil slicks frequently prevent the reabsorption of oxygen into the water from the air, thereby contributing to dissolved oxygen deficiency conditions. 4. Quite frequently industrial wastes have such a large suspended solids content that the gills of the fish becom so clogged that they cannot function and consequently the fish die. At times the concentration of suspended solids are sufficient to black out the sunlight necessary for photosynsis of submerged marine plant life. 5. Slugs of strong acid or alkali can trap fish and of course kill them directly. 6. Excessive changes in dissolved solid content can also kill or drive fish away. This lethal effect is brought about by interference with osmotic processes. The simplest illustration of this effect is the fact that fresh water fish would soon die if placed in sea water. The sea water of course having a high con¬ centration of dissolved sodium chloride (salt). DRAINAGE The effect of pollution on drainage is perhaps best exemplified by the fact that the Harris County Pollution Surveys were first requested and sponsored by two drainage districts, No. 12 and No. 2. One of the very common results of industrial wastes pollution occurs when large amounts of suspended solids settle to the bottom of the bayous. These sludge banks occupy room in the drainage channel that should be available for storm water run-off. Any silting or clogging of the drainage channel proportion¬ ately increases the high water mark at that spot. NAVIGATION Navigation is affected in many ways by industrial pollution. 1. The navigable waterways become silted with suspended solids similar to the drainage channels. It takes large expenditures yearly to dredge the Houston Ship Channl from solids that have settled to the bottom. Much of these solids 50 The Texas Journal of Science 1951, No. 1 March 30 come from industrial discharges. 2. Concentrations of floating oils, gasoline, and other combustible materials present an ever present fire hazard. This is particularly dangerous around wooded dock areas since frequently oil collects under the pilings, and only a spark is needed to start a conflagration. 3. Acid water and decomposition gases attack and deteriorate concrete, metal, wood, and paint. Dock, bridges, and other navigation fixtures have a resultant decreased life. 4. Oil and grease slicks cover boat hulls and navigation markers thereby requiring expensive maintenance. 5. In vessels themselves, large quantities of water are used for cooling and condensing. Naturally the maintenance cost of the boat’s circulatory system is greatly increased if contaminated water must be used for this purpose. SOIL CONSERVATION Erosion is greatly facilitated by the discharge of some industrial wastes in the following manner. Waste discharges having high acid contents will kill all forms of vegetable life in or near the conveying channel. When the bank vegetation is destroyed, nothing is left to prevent the rapid erosion that takes Ipace on unprotected soils. Bayou banks are undermined and eventually collapse. Eventually such soil erosion can spread over wide areas, and the washed soil is deposited in the bayou water to further clutter up the drainage channels. BIRD LIFE Wild fowl are seriously affected by marine pollution. This occurs through the covering of feeding or resting areas by oil slicks. In addition, when a birds’ feathers become saturated with oil, the air sack which permits a bird to float on water becomes fouled to the extent that often times the bird drowns. INDUSTRIAL USE OF WATER Paradoxically industries themselves are adversely affected by polluted water courses. Large quantities of river or sea water are used by industries for processing, cooling, and condensing purposes. Polluted water causes increased deterioration of pipes, increased scale formation, oil film trouble, and increased algae and color problems, all of which require expensive con¬ ditioning and maintenance work. PROPERTY VALUES Ordinarily, property along a water course or a bay front commands an extra premium because of esthetic or other considerations. However, when the water course is polluted by sanitary or industrial wastes, the value drops. Instead of a premium, a pollution penalty is imposed. This has hap¬ pened to much of the land bordering the bayous and bays. RECREATION Perhaps the most detrimental effect of industrial wastes is the effect it has on the recreational resources of the area. Spots that were once good fish¬ ing holes are now just holes. Bathing and swimming, although still carried on, are often times done so at a risk. Sometimes, swimmers emerging from the water, must spend hours trying to clean the oil and grease off of them. For the reasons previously described, the sport of fishing by necessity has 1951, No. 1 March 30 Industrial Effluents and Marine Pollution 51 materially decreased with the increase of pollution. Pleasure boating in many localities is a thing of the past. In one instance that has been investigated, a boat servicing company catering to pleasure craft has maintenance damages amounting to over $10,000 per year because of the polluted conditions of the water at their docks. The stenches that often time arise are certainly not conducive to the use of parks and picnic areas along the water courses. Having covered in a general way the complex properties and the many effects of industrial wastes, it would seem pertinent to discuss effective control. Roughly there are three steps toward the attainment of corrected conditions. First, the start, second, the financing; and third, the operation. Cooperation keynotes all three steps. Of the three steps, getting started is the hardest. The problem must be viewed in the light that industry is the new life-blood of Southeastern Texas. It is the main reason for the area’s growth and prosperity. The continued success and expansion of industry is essential. The rights of an industry to the use of its property includes the right to the use of surface water bordering or traversing its land. This is not an exclusive right however, since it must be enjoyed and exercised in common with other riparian owners similarly situated and with the general public’s welfare. In the past many industries have failed to look far enough ahead. The most convenient way to get rid of wastes was to discharge them into the nearest surface water that would carry them away. They failed to under¬ stand the significance of what was taking place, or else they simply turned their back on it. They should have realized that industrial wastes would increase in quantity and become more complex in composition. It also should have been apparent that the flow of fresh water in our bayous and streams would not increase proportionately to carry the load away. The result of course has been described as it affects fish life, property values, recreational facilities, navigation, and many other resources. The policies of the various industries have differed in what may be called this cross-road period. Some have ignored the whole matter, others have given it considerable thought, and there are of course many waste treatment plants in operation. Several were compelled, under even the exist¬ ing inadequate laws to construct treatment works. Others were guided by the theory that as long as so much untreated sanitary sewage was disposed of into the bayous, their problem was too minor by comparison to cause any worry. Within the past year, however, there has been an increasing trend to abandon the policy of ignoring the water pollution problem and instead, looking around for some way of doing something about it. One basic reason that industrial wastes treatment facilities have not been constructed is the cost involved. The cost comes in not only on the original construction cost but also the continuous operation and mainte¬ nance costs. Much to the surprise of some industries, tests conducted on their wastes have indicated that treatment facilities could be installed at a profit. This is due to salvageable products that can be realized and by the many by-products that can be sold at a profit. Frequently also, detailed studies of the wastes disposal processes of an industry have indicated large savings in water consumption by the re-use of the waste waters. This not only cuts down operating costs but also helps eliminate the volume of waste. 52 The Texas Journal of Science 1951, No. 1 March 30 Some time ago the major industries on the Houston Ship Channel formed an anti-pollution committee. The primary purpose of the committee is the encouragement of cleaning house within industry itself. It is not sufficient to pass the buck to industry and maintain that it is entirely their problem. Under this sort of policy, either pollution conditions are not corrected or industrial growth is stopped. There is a general feeling among uninformed people that all that is necessary to eliminate pollution is the passage of a simple "cureall” law. No such law could ever be written or enforced. Sewers cannot be "shut off” like the water at a kitchen sink. Governmental bodies, civic organizations, and the press all have important roles to play if abatement of industrial pollution is to be realized. Perhaps a good example of a function of governmental bodies in pollu¬ tion abatement is furnished by the Harris County Pollution Surveys. The surveys are being conducted jointly by the Harris County Commissioners Court and the Texas State Health Department. They provide the necessary factual information concerning pollution conditions that is essential to the start and continuance of any control program. Another function of gov¬ ernment is to provide uniform and reasonable industrial wastes standards. Too often industry can legitimately use the excuse that they are not treat¬ ing their wastes because the authorities cannot agree on what degree of treatment is necessary. These units of government, cities, and water districts that are responsible for the treatment of sanitary sewage, of course, must cooperate in the over-all pollution abatement program by treating their wastes satisfactorily. From an economic standpoint, it is very desirable for both municipalities and industries to take and treat as much industrial waste in a sanitary disposal plant as is compatible to its proper operation. In general, a start has been made in the' industrialized section of the state on the correction of industrial pollution conditions. Much is yet to be done, however. Without widespread dissemination of all the pertinent facts and the consistent support of the general public, it will be impossible to obtain the desired results. 1951, No. 1 March 30 Significance of Geographic Variation 53 EVOLUTIONARY SIGNIFICANCE OF GEOGRAPHIC VARIATION IN POPULATION DENSITY W. FRANK BLAIR University of Texas Austin, Texas INTRODUCTION Methods for measuring the population densities of small mammals have been developed principally during the last fifteen years. During the same time, the importance of the pattern of distribution as an evolutionary agency has come to be emphasized by Wright (1943, 1946) and others. Measure¬ ment of the extent of geographic variation in population density within the species population now appears to be vital to an understanding of the factors that cause geographic variation in morphological and other genetic char¬ acters. There has been little standardization of methods for measuring the population density of small mammals, and the estimates obtained by differ¬ ent workers are highly variable in their apparent validity. Estimates based on live- trapping and marking the populations on measured plots (Blair, 1940a; Burt, 1940; Haugen, 1942; Stickel, 1946; and others) appear to be the most reliable, although such variables as the density of traps and length of trapping period may affect the estimate. Estimates based on snap¬ trapping, and consequent removal of resident animals, are almost wholly un¬ reliable (see Stickel, 1946). Removal of individuals lowers population pres¬ sure and encourages invasion from nearby areas of comparatively higher pressure (Blair, 1940b). Estimates based on snap-trapping, therefore tend to be too large. No adequate measurement and analysis of population densities through¬ out the range of even a single species has yet been made. Comparison of population densities in different geographic areas is complicated by the obvious fact that densities usually vary in time as well as in space. Enough is known about the general order of magnitude of geographic variation in population density of some species populations, however, to show the basic pattern of distribution of these populations. It is my purpose here to discuss patterns of distribution of species populations and to survey some of the evolutionary implications of these patterns. PATTERNS OF DISTRIBUTION The simplest pattern of distribution of a species population would be one in which there is areal continuity and even population density through¬ out the range of the species. The species occupies all environments within its geographic range and maintains the same densities in all of these environ¬ ments. Only two population densities are involved: (1) a positive density of x value within the range, ( 2 ) a zero density beyond the geographic limits of the species range. It is very doubtful that any species of mammal, or of any other animal, shows such a pattern of distribution. This is unfortunately the pattern of distribution implied by most distribution maps, usually without any such intent on the part of the author. 54 The Texas Journal of Science 1951, No. 1 March 30 The usual pattern of distribution of a mammalian species population is a mosaic one in respect to population density. The population density is high in some areas, it is lower in others, and the species may be entirely absent from extensive areas within the geographic limits of its range. This mosaic pattern of population density results principally from preference of the species for certain environments. This preference may vary geographically, but in any given region certain environments are preferred. Other, marginal environments may support thin populations of the species or may be occu¬ pied during periods of high population density in the preferred environ¬ ments. Other, sub-marginal environments are avoided by the species and comprise ecological barriers. Because population density varies geographically, the total species popu¬ lation is broken up into many smaller sub-populations. Each sub-population is more or less isolated from other such populations, and the degree of isola¬ tion will vary, of course, with the effectiveness of the intervening ecological barriers. EFFECTS OF DISTRIBUTION PATTERNS ON GENETIC VARIABILITY Geographic variation in genetic characters results from mutations (in¬ cluding gene mutations, inversions, translocations and other chromatin re¬ arrangements) and from the differential survival and dispersal of these muta¬ tions in the species population. The pattern of distribution of population densities will presumably have no effect on mutation, but it does largely control dispersal of these mutations. Retarded gene flow and differential survival of mutant phenotypes are agencies of major importance to geo¬ graphic variation in species populations. In the hypothetical case of areal continuity and even population den¬ sity, the only bar to transfer of a mutation to any part of the species popu¬ lation would be distance. Local differentiation would result chiefly from differentiatial selection in the different environments occupied or invaded by the species. There would be theoretically some local differentiation due to the tendency of individuals to breed with their neighbors (see Wright, 1943). Under the pattern of distribution normally found in natural popula¬ tions, the powerful agency of isolation is added to differential survival as a factor producing local differentiation within the species population. The dis¬ persal of mutations through the species population is retarded by the ab¬ sence, near absence, or low density of the species in unfavorable environ¬ ments. The species population is divided into many smaller populations of various sizes and of various areal configurations, and each is isolated in vary¬ ing degree from other sub-populations. In such a case, there is geographic variation in the opportunity for differentiation due to geographic variation in the pattern of distribution. A species may show areal continuity and fairly even population density in a part of its range where it occupies a geographically fairly uniform en¬ vironment. The same species may show linear continuity in another part of its range, where it is restricted to an environmental type having such distri¬ bution. A species has linear continuity where dispersal completely across the local range may occur in a single generation (see Wright, 1943). Linear con¬ tinuity of distribution occurs when a species distribution follows a scarp ( Neotoma albigula on the escarpment of the High Plains in Texas), follows 1951, No. 1 March 30 Significance of Geographic Variation 55 a shore line {Peromyscus polionotus in Florida), or follows a river system (Peromyscus lencopus and Sciurus niger in the central grasslands). In the last case the distribution is complicated by the fact that the species usually follows the tributaries as well as the main stream. This pattern is best called a dendritic one (Blair, 1950). Linear continuity of distribution is enor¬ mously more favorable to differentiation due to isolation by distance than is areal continuity (Wright, 1943). Differential population size is another important result of geographic variation in population density. The size of a sub-population within the species may vary from millions of individuals down to a mere handful. A dense population of the wood-mouse (Peromyscus leucopus) is continuously distributed on the Rio Grande Plain of southern Texas and northern Tamauli- pas, and this population of millions of individuals is capable of interchang¬ ing genes without restrictions other than those of distance. Populations of the same species comprising no more than a dozen or two individuals occur in isolated cottonwood groves in the Trans-Pecos. Wright (1943) has pointed out the potential effects on differentiation by different population sizes and densities under a pattern of distribution into semi-isolated sub-populations. Populations with equal areas and the same absolute amount of immigration, but with different densities would differ in their potentialities for differentiation. Both would have the same theoretical amounts of non-adaptive differentiation, but adaptive differen¬ tiation would be favored in the sub-populations with greater densities, and proportionally fewer immigrants, than in the smaller populations. Where size of population is proportional to area and the number of immigrants is proportional to the extent of the boundary, there is more non-adaptive differentiation in the smaller populations and more adaptive differentiation in the larger ones. Where both size of population and amount of immigration are proportional to the area, there is more nonadaptive differentiation in the smaller populations but no relationship between adaptive differentiation and population size. It is concluded (idem) that any sort of differentiation is favored by a low rate of immigration, but the large populations tend to show predominantly adaptive differentiation, while the smaller populations show predominantly nonadaptive differentiation. The rate of immigration where numerous sub-populations occur in favorable environments within a matrix of more or less unfavorable ones may be affected by several factors. Mobility and dispersal tendencies of the species are involved. Population densities in the marginal and sub-marginal environments also may be of great importance. Where a dense population is surrounded by a population of much lower density, the flow of immigrants and of genes might be largely one-directional, from the area of high density, and high population pressure, to the area of low density and pressure. A widely distributed species, such as the wood-mouse (Peromyscus leu¬ copus) , may show much geographic variation in its pattern of distribution of population densities (Blair, 1950). This species shows areal continuity, with some local differences in density, in the eastern forest and in the brush- lands of southern Texas and northern Tamaulipas. It has linear or dendritic distribution along the streams of the central grasslands. The most isolated populations occur in the southwestern United States, where local sub-popu¬ lations are restricted to ecologically isolated areas of suitable environment. 56 The Texas Journal of Science 1951, No. 1 March 30 EFFECTS OF SELECTION AND OF ISOLATION The degree of differentiation of sub-populations depends on both the rate of selection in these populations and the rate of immigration into them. Wright (1943) has pointed out that in a local population in which selection is smaller in absolute value than immigration the gene frequency can depart only slightly from the average for the species, for crossbreeding would swamp the tendency toward selective differentiation. Where selection is greater than immigration in absolute value, the local gene frequency tends to be domi¬ nated by the local conditions of selection, and there is adaptive differentia¬ tion. Few attempts have been made to analyze the respective roles of isola¬ tion and selection in producing locally differentiated populations, but a few generalizations can be made from our present knowledge. Gene frequencies of the adaptive buff and gray alleles of the Chihuahua deer-mouse ( Pero - myscus maniculatus blandus ) were determined under different conditions of isolation and local selection by Blair (1947a). In a population with linear continuity of distribution in a local area of the Tularosa Basin, there is adaptive differentiation in the frequency of color genes at stations eighteen miles apart, but there is none between stations four miles apart. Selection in respect to pelage color is presumably the same at the four-mile and the eighteen-mile stations, as the background soils are similar in color. Immi¬ gration into the four-mile population apparently tends to swamp selective differentiation there. This is suggested by the fact that this population is not well adapted in palage color for the local soil color. A lower population density here than in the color-adapted population four miles away suggests a differential in immigration between the two stations, with immigration into the less-dense, poorly adapted population being greater in absolute value than the reverse immigration. Populations twenty miles apart, on similarly colored soils, show no differentiation in the frequency of the color genes, although the two populations are separated for most of the distance by an unfavorable environment in which the density of the species is very low. In this case, parallel selection in the two semi-isolated populations is pre¬ sumably the factor that prevents divergence in frequency of the color genes. Populations eleven miles apart, on differently colored soils and separated by a sparse intervening population, show adaptive differentiation in gene fre¬ quency. In this case, differential selection on the differently colored soils and reduced gene flow may be jointly responsible for the divergence of the two populations. Since selection and immigration have opposing effects, with selection tending toward differentiation of sub-populations and immigration tending to maintain the species average, it is to be expected that cases would be found in which these tendencies are in obvious equilibrium. Such cases have been described in the cactus mouse (Peromyscus ere minis) of southern New Mexico (Blair, 1947b). A population on a small area of dark red soil differs significantly in pelage color and has a significantly higher variability than other populations thirteen and eighteen miles away on pale, pinkish-gray soil. The divergence in pelage color is attributable to differential selection. The greater variability in the small population is attributable to the swamp¬ ing effect of immigration. Intensification of selection should decrease vari¬ ability in this population. Decrease of selection or increase of immigration 1951, No. 1 March 30 Significance of Geographic Variation 57 should increase variability and might lead to swamping of the local color population. Populations on two different lava beds are significantly darker in color, but not significantly more variable, than the populations on pale, pinkish-gray soils. The populations on these lava beds are larger than is the population on the red-soil area. The lower variability of the lava-bed popu¬ lations may be due either to more intensive selection on the dark lava rock or to a comparatively lower rate of immigration. Dice (1941) found greater variability of pelage color in deer-mouse ( Peromyscus maniculatus) popula¬ tions of the Nebraska sand hills than he did in the extensive populations occupying the surrounding prairies. He attributed the high variability of the sand-hills mice mostly to, "interbreeding with the darker-colored popu¬ lations which surround the sand hills on every side.” Here, again, immigra¬ tion and selection appear to be in equilibrium. Decrease in immigration or increase in intensity of selection should result in decreased variability and increased color adaptation in the sand-hills mice. Increased immigration or decreased intensity of selection should result in increased variability and possible swamping of the sand-hills, color race. It seems evident from the foregoing discussion that both selection and pattern of distribution of population density are concerned in geographic variation in morphologic and other genetic characters. Investigation of the pattern of distribution of species is a challenging field of effort for present- day students of mammalian evolution. SUMMARY Live trapping and marking techniques, developed during the last fifteen years, make possible the measurement of geographic variation in population density of small mammals. Differences of technique and the variation of densities in time complicate the problem of measurement. The pattern of distribution of a species in respect to population density has important effects on geographic variation in morphological characters. The usual pattern of distribution of a mammalian species is a mosaic of different population densities. The species population is broken up into numerous sub-populations by the species preference for certain environments. Geographic variation in genetic characters results from mutations and from the differential survival and dispersal of these mutations in the species population. Adaptive differentiation is controlled by local selection and immigration. Rates of immigration are influenced in turn by population densities. LITERATURE CITED Blair, W. F. — 1940a — Home ranges and populations of the meadow vole in southern Michigan. Jour. Wildlife Management 4 : 149-161. - 1940b — A study of prairie deer-mouse populations in southern Michigan. Amer. Mid. Nat. 24 : 273-305. 1947a — Estimated frequencies of the buff and gray genes (G, g) in adjacent populations of deer-mice (Peromyscus maniculatus blandus) living on soils of different colors. Contr. Lab. Vert. Biol. 36: 1-16. - — 1947a — Variation in shade of pelage color of local populations of the cactus-mouse ‘ Peromyscus eremicus) in the Tularosa Basin and adjacent areas of southern New Mexico. C’ontr. Lab. Vert, Biol. 37 : 1-7. - 1950 — Ecological factors in speciation of Peromyscus. Evolution 4 : 253-275. Burt, W. H. — 1940 — Territorial behavior and populations of some small mammals in south¬ ern Michigan. Misc. Publ. Univ. Mich. M'us. Zool. 45: 1-58. Dice, L. R. — 1941 — Variation of the deer-mouse (Peromyscus maniculatus) on the sand hills of Nebraska and adjacent areas. Contr. Lab. Vert. Genetics 15 : 1-19. Haugen, A. O. — 1942 — Life history studies of the cottontail rabbits in southwestern Michigan Amer. Mid. Nat. 28 : 204-244. Stickel, L. F. — 1946 — Experimental analysis of methods for measuring small mammal popu¬ lations. Jour. Wildlife Management 10: 150-159. Wright, S. — 1943 — Isolation by distance. Genetics 28:114-138. - 1946 — Isolation by distance under diverse systems of mating. Genetics 31 : 39-56. 58 The Texas Journal of Science 1951, No. 1 March 30 PALEOECOLOGY JAMES LEE WILSON * Department of Geology The University of Texas Paleoecology is a study of ecological conditions of the geologic past, the relations of fossil organisms to their physical and biotic surroundings. It is based on two of the fundamental geologic sciences: (1) biological paleontology, because one must understand as much as possible about fossils as animals, and (2) sedimentology, since sediments containing fossils furnish all the available evidence about their physical environment. Paleoecological conclusions reached by such studies are part of the information embraced by such subjects as biostratigraphy and historical geology. Modern concepts of paleoecology are comparatively new to these branches of stratigraphic geology, but it is interesting that some of the early founders of earth science in realizing the true significance of fossils con¬ cerned themselves with paleoecological facts. The writer gratefully ac¬ knowledges the library investigations of William H. Matthews of Texas Christian University (personal communication) who states that probably the great Leonardo da Vinci about 1500 may be considered the first paleo- ecologist. John Woodward of England in 1723 likewise investigates the subject. Both of these early scientists used inferences about ecological con¬ ditions to help convince their readers that fossils were truly organic objects and not mere curiosities. The first early worker to note real ecological detail in fossil material was the French physician, Jean Etienne Guettard, who in 1765 published a paper demonstrating that fossil bearing beds on land had great similarity to the modern sea floor. He pointed out such things as at¬ tachment scars, worm tubes, sponge borings, and barnacles on the fossil shells as demonstrating that environmental conditions of the modern sea were preserved in fossil form. Lamarck, Darwin, and other great biologists furthered these ideas in later years. In America, however, until about 1930 many paleontologists, following E. O. Ulrich and other leaders, steadfastly denied that ecological conditions influenced faunal content and distribution within the widespread and ancient Paleozoic seas across North America. Faunas of different makeup even though appearing at the same vertical position in two or more stratigraphic sequences were considered ipso facto of different age. Beds truly contemporaneous but representative of different types of depositional environments (hence also containing different types of marine life) were in many cases thought older or younger than each other. This idea coupled with the limited knowledge of the period led to the advocacy of a new period of geologic time (established on the basis of faunal sequence in the rocks, see Ulrich, 1911). This period, the Ozarkian, was disproved when it was found to be based chiefly upon a molluscan (gastropod and cephalopod) faunal facies located only in dolomitic lime¬ stones. These probably formed in shallower warmer water than the more typical Lower Ordovician and Upper Cambrian strata to which we now realize the Ozarkian is contemporaneous. * This is the revised copy of a lecture originally presented October 29, 1949, at the First Semi-Annual Seminar of Marine Science, of the Marine Laboratory of the Texas Game, Fish and Oyster Commission, Rockport, Texas. 1951, No. 1 March 30 Paleoecology 5 9 There are, conversely, cases in the history of stratigraphic geology where beds have been correlated (thought contemporaneous) merely because they were deposited in similar environments. For example, an environ¬ mentally controlled and long-lived species inhabiting one area may, during its existence, migrate from that place at various times when the favorable environment happens to occur in adjoining localities. If this happens at widely separate occasions and if the native area is later lost to the geologic record, the abundance of the said species in several of the adjoining regions may be used erroneously as strong evidence of correlation of these parts of the geologic column unless other more quickly evolving (hence vertically restricted) species were fossilized to contradict such correlation. Fossil ecology is now being studied in this country by many paleon¬ tologists and stratigraphers, and paleoecological concepts are currently hav¬ ing considerable influence on the development of stratigraphic principles (Hedberg, 1948; Moore, 1948; Allan, 1948). Yet interpretation of past environment is a difficult task. Although in neoecology there is never much question about the environment which may be easily described by the laws of physics and chemistry, this is not so with paleoecology. The interpreta¬ tion of what the environment was is commonly the most difficult aspect of the problem and much of the study of paleoecology is an attempt to ascertain it. Seven primary difficulties encountered in the subject are noted below, but the list is by no means exhaustive. (1) The fossil record is notoriously incomplete. Charles Darwin, the great biologist, compared our knowledge of the life of any geologic period to what a man today would know of the fauna of Australia were he to sail up to its coast in a ship, jump off in a rowboat, spend the day, return to his vessel and sail back to England. In normal marine strata, which may be thousands of feet thick in any given area, probably more time is represented by the bedding planes making the stratification than by the sediments whose thicknesses make up the geologic section. And we have no fossil record of all this time. But even among the deposited rocks there is no record of a great horde of ancient animals who lacked the hard parts necessary for fossil preserva¬ tion. Only rarely does the paleontologist catch a glimpse of the total marine biota. For example, before a discovery made in the Canadian Rockies by C. D. Walcott about 50 years ago (Walcott, 1910-1914) knowledge of the very ancient Cambrian faunas was based upon limited numbers of brachiopods and primitive arthropods known as trilobites. However, a dark shale on Mount Wapta, Field, British Columbia, yielded a complete fauna with all soft parts preserved as films of carbon on the rock. Not only trilo¬ bites and brachiopods were represented but also an amazing array of other forms of life unsuspected in such early strata: numerous primitive crusta¬ ceans, annellid worms, sponges, and even a marine onychophoran. This im¬ portant find changed some of the theories of the development of life in the very remote geologic past and reminded the paleontologist how truly limited his material is. Paleoecological studies are thus faced with a serious handicap: the total biota is almost never present in the fossil record. (2) Paleoecological studies are limited by the attitude and nature of the rock strata which hold the fossils and the key to the sedimentary envi¬ ronment. It is quite easy for the student of recent ecology to sail 2 5 miles 60 Thf. Texas Journal of Science 1951, No. 1 March 30 off the coast and know that he is observing the plants, animals, and sea bottom a given distance from shore, but quite a different situation faces the paleoecologist. He is dependent upon the reconstruction of ancient shorelines by areal geologic mapping and stratigraphic study. He is dependent upon geologists to interpret the structure of the rock layers which may be folded, contorted, and thrust out of place, in instances as much as 30 or 40 miles, during post depositional history. Such problems must always be solved before one can understand the ancient geography which is the key to climatology and environmental relations of plants and animals. (3) The very conditions which preserve fossils in the geologic record are apt to be the most abnormal so that the paleontologist may not safely infer what were the common ecological conditions of the fossils under study. The normal condition on the sea floor is that all decaying organic matter is eaten, eliminated, re-eaten and thoroughly reworked by numerous benthonic organisms. Among such animals as worms, echinoderms, and fishes there is great competition for this ooze. Even the hard parts of ani¬ mals may be easily destroyed by this process coupled with wave and current action. Great thicknesses of rock utterly devoid of fossils exist in the geologic record, stratified formations laid down in shallow marine environments but without much record of the surrounding abundant life. It is logical to assume that in these places the soft ooze which later formed the rock was reworked during deposition, the process destroying completely its organic content. Many paleontologists hold that most fossils represent organisms killed suddenly and buried by an influx of sediment. As an example consider the wonderful crinoid field buried in Mississippian rocks at Crawfordsville, Indiana. The sea lilies are laid out flat on a portion of the ancient sea floor (now a bedding plane between rock strata). They are covered by a clayey, limey rock and cursory examination of the fossil occurrence would lead one to surmise that crinoids inhabited muddy, turbid marine water. Actually a preponderance of other evidence indicates that these echinoderms dwelt in great colonies only in very clear water at all depths and were merely buried and killed by a sudden influx of muddy sediment. Fossilization commonly means quick burial and abnormal conditions on the sea floor. A normal ecological picture is unusually difficult for the paleontologist to obtain directly. (4) Further, only a limited number of the possible physical and bio¬ logical environments are ever preserved in the geologic record. Only those existing in and around the natural basins of deposition are entombed. The marine record is largely limited to shallow shelf or neritic deposits. Prob¬ ably no truly deep sea deposits exist in the geologic column; and beach deposits are most uncommon. The paleobotanist very rarely gets a glance of an upland flora, nor does the vertebrate paleontologist commonly know what upland faunas were contemporaneous with the fossil lowland animals. Our terrestrial deposits consist of those along river bottoms, deltas, lakes, and swamps, and unless material is carried in from distant uplands fossils of those many environments are not known. Paleoecology will always be an incomplete study. ( 5 ) Another problem is that some organisms are known to have changed their environment during the course of geologic time. The now extinct arthropods, the eurypterids (sea scorpions) began in a typically marine environment and probably by the time of their extinction in the 1951, No. 1 March 30 Paleoecology 61 Late Paleozoic were a wholly fresh water group. If Eurypterida are found in Mississippian rocks, between the extremes of their geologic range, one may not be sure in what type of water the rocks were formed. Similar difficulties occur with the horseshoe crab, Limulus. Early pelecypods of the Devonian seem to have lived only in muddy and brackish marine water, but by Cretareous times this group inhabits all aquatic environments. (6) Probably the greatest difficulty of paleoecology is that the deposi- tional environment of most fossils is not the same as that in which they lived. This has been realized for some time and textbooks distinguish be¬ tween the environment of life (biocoenose) and the environment in which the fossils were buried (thanatocoenose) . This distinction has been recog¬ nized many times. The famous Rancho La Brea tar pits of Los Angeles furnish an astonishing Pleistocene fauna consisting of saber tooth tiger, a giant lion, the dire wolf, mammoths, ground sloths, giant condors, horses and others. This fauna would hardly inhabit a semi-arid environment such as is typical of Los Angeles today. But buried in the tar pits with them are numerous stalks of the yucca plant, a typically semi-arid form. Were these large animals an upland fauna driven out of their woodland habitat by local droughts and mired in the dangerous tar pit water holes in a semi-arid region, or was the yucca transported from a drier region into an area of lush vegetation? Another puzzling fossil occurrence was recently disclosed by a Uni¬ versity of California paleontologist working with some marine Eocene silt- stone from Oregon (J. Wyatt Durham, personal communication). The fossil assemblage consists of corals typical of water over 1000 feet deep, crinoids (all typical of deep water), grass leaves and beach plants. The nature of the deposit was not such that a sedimentologist could be sure of whether it represented deep or shallow water. Were these deep water or¬ ganisms washed up with the shallow water forms or had the latter collected in a deep channel and been buried with the crinoids and corals? In this case the arms of the crinoids were still attached to the cups and since these appendages detach easily, the echinoderms could not have moved far after death and the beach and shore organisms had evidently washed down into deeper water. (7) One last problem of paleoecology stems from the difficulty of interpreting past environments in the light of modern conditions. For many years geologists have supported the principles of Uniformitarianism, a proposition that the same processes operative today in the physical world have been active on earth during geologic times. We have been interpreting the geologic past in terms of the present. Yet at certain times in earth history geographic and climatic conditions have been so very different that biotic and sedimentary conditions quite unlike those known today must have obtained. Witness the geologist’s difficulty in explaining such deposits as dolomite and chert beds, widespread glauconite, intraformational con¬ glomerate beds, the graptolite black shale environment, etc., in terms of modern processes and conditions. In fact present relations of land and water are rather abnormal in earth history. Due to a general Pleistocene uplift the continents stand now uncommonly high in relation to sea level and also possess numerous great mountain ranges. This makes for climatic extremes on land and has elimi¬ nated most of the wide epicontinental seas so common in many geologic 62 The Texas Journal of Science 1951, No. 1 March 30 periods. No one denies that the same physical laws have operated through¬ out most of geologic history but the North American stage on which they acted in Early Ordovician, Middle Devonian, Middle Mississippian, and Late Cretaceous times (all dominantly marine periods) certainly varied greatly from that of the present. An example of the difficulty encountered in explaining some very early sedimentary environments is found in a recent comprehensive work by Cloud and Barnes (1948) on the Ellenburger group of Central Texas. The Ellenburger is a Lower Ordovician limestone-dolomite sequence crop¬ ping out in Burnet, Llano, and Mason Counties northwest of Austin. North American geography during the very early Paleozoic was strikingly different from that of today. The warm epicontinental seas flooding almost all of the hemisphere bathed the low lying soil-less land and furnished a mild maritime climate far north of where such climates occur today. Conditions in the sea were right for the formation of dolomite and chert either pri¬ marily or from the vast quantities of limestone on the sea bottom just after its deposition. A notable lack of argillaceous material surrounding the stable inner area of the continent is hard to explain except by the assumption that either no rivers existed on the low land areas or that, because of the lack of terrestrial plant life, no soil formed, and the clay minerals weath¬ ered from igneous rocks were blown far away by the winds. Cloud and Barnes, in attempting to find a modern environment with which to com¬ pare Ellenburger deposition, were forced to use the Bahama Banks which are a shoal area off the Atlantic coast of Florida on the edge of the conti¬ nental shelf rather than in a shallow landlocked sea. Further, the Banks support a coral and algae fauna whereas the Ordovician sea supported a fauna almost completely of extinct forms: primitive straight cephalopods, trilobites, brachiopods, and very early Paleozoic gastropods. It is most diffi¬ cult to say just how the carbonate producing environment affected these primitive creatures. Barnes and Cloud consider that the numerous com¬ minuted shell fragments indicate abundant marine life in rather warm, shallow, well aerated waters. Other recent paleoecological investigations in Texas are noted below. One now under way in Trans-Pecos Texas is being sponsored by the U. S. National Museum and Columbia University. This investigation (Cooper, 1950) concerns the life of Permian reef limestones whose age is about 200 million years. The shallow water reefs occupied the shoreward edge of a clover-leaf shaped basin whose channel to the open sea lay southward through Mexico. The offshore side of the reef contained typically marine water; between the reefs and shore, lagoons formed which trapped detritus furnished by the rivers flowing into the sea so that the water was unusually clear of sediment. Fossils formed from life on the reefs were later replaced by silica and embedded in limestone. The fossils may be freed by dissolving them in hydrochloric acid. One great advantage of ecological study of the organisms is that they were buried in place and represent a true biocoenose; real ecological communities are present and wave sorting and transfer of material is not a problem. These Permian fossils belong to ancient and mostly extinct groups and hence some difficulty may be expected in as¬ certaining the habits of such forms as the very antique Paleozoic bryozoans, certain types of sponges and pelecypods, and the peculiarly cup-like Late Paleozoic brachiopods (Productids) . The unusual spinosity of the brachio- 1951, No. 1 March 30 Paleoecology 6 5 pods in these reefs is a response to their environment. They had lost the pedicle and were attached by spines to the bryozoans and sponges on the reef surface. Many examples of commensalism, symbiosis, and parasitism will be forthcoming from these studies. An excellent paleoecological paper on Cretaceous ammonites was pub¬ lished a few years ago by the late Gayle Scott of Texas Christian Uni¬ versity (1940). Ammonite ecology has been variously interpreted. These extinct cephalopods with large involutely coiled shells much like those of the modern chambered Nautilus were formerly considered pelagic animals with world-wide distribution of species, animals which in life may have been environmentally restricted, but whose dead, airfilled shells were carried everywhere. The paleontologic record was considered to show that ammon¬ ites were ubiquitous marine forms. Since they evolved rapidly their species are vertically restricted and they are good index fossils. However, Scott has shown that in reality ammonites inhabited only certain environments. He concluded firstly that the wide posthumous distribution of ammonite shells is mostly imaginary, so that more often than not the shells are buried on the same type of bottom over which they lived. The study shows cor¬ relation between various types of surface ornamentation on the shell and lithologic content of the matrix rock. Ammonites showing strong ribs and nodes and less complex internal septa are shown to be restricted to the neritic zone where the protuberances on the shells can protect the shell from buffeting action of the waves. Scott was able to subdivide the neritic zone into a shallower and deeper portion based on ammonite genera. Cer¬ tain ammonites which are smooth and globose are present in bathyal deposits of the Texas and Mexican Cretaceous. These have very complexly folded septa assumedly to aid the shell in withstanding the high pressure at such depths. Another study of Cretaceous paleoecology by William H. Matthews is to be published in the Texas journal of Science and deals with the rudistid biostrome populations in the Edwards limestone of central Texas. So far as this writer is aware, this is the first attempt at an ecological approach in these aggregates of bizarre pelecypods and snails and should make an im¬ portant contribution. Study of the deposits of the Texas coastal plain yields a vast amount of paleoecological information. Much of the stratigraphic information about the Cenozoic deposits of our coast has been gathered by oil companies and the Texas Bureau of Economic Geology. Integration of studies of both faunal and rock content gives the geologist a picture of gradual but unsteady retreat of marine water from far inland during the Cretaceous to the present position of the Gulf of Mexico. Many marine transgressions and regressions are expressed in terms of cyclical deposits of sandy shale (advance of sea), limestone-marl (maximum extent), shale (retreat), sandstone and shale (maximum terrestrial depostion). Environmentally interpreted these cycles consist of sediments of deltas, channel fills, natural levees, backswamps, brackish lagoons, lakes, offshore bars and beaches, and lime-depositing clearer marine water of the bays and open sea. One great advantage in study¬ ing the relations of these environments in Cenozoic faunas is that all of them may be found today along the Gulf coast. One further advantage is that because of their high value in identifying beds in oil well bore holes, the abundant foraminifera of these beds have been extensively studied for 64 The Texas Journal of Science 1951, No. 1 March 30 over 2 5 years. A most important paper on sedimentary faunal relations was published at the end of 1949 by S. W. Lohman. This represents certainly one of the finest contributions to paleoecology of foraminifera ranking with those of Natland ( 1933), Kleinpell ( 1938), Israelsky ( 1395 ), and Hutchins (1947). Almost 30 assemblages of recent foraminefa were de¬ scribed from lakes and swamps on the delta area of Louisiana far out into the Gulf. These are grouped into 1 1 environmental associations. This not¬ able work coupled with that of F. B. Phleger (1942) on deeper water forms provides an excellent framework by which older assemblages may be interpreted environmentally. The results of such a study have wide practical value in deciphering coastal plain stratigraphy and have been so used; however, they also have wide paleoecological implications which have not yet been realized. They can tell us much about Cenozoic water tem¬ perature, marine currents, bottom conditions, interrelations of the well- studied rhizopods with the moluscan and coral faunas of the same beds which have been discussed in part by Stenzel (oysters, 193 5 ) and (nautil- oids, 1948). Of special paleoecological interest in the Southwest is a study of the Pleistocene. Much is known of the fourfold advance of continental glaciers and the intervening warm periods in the northern parts of this continent; the climatic extremes of this last Cenozoic epoch are well known. But the results of the northern glaciations were felt far to the south and influenced present day biogeography of Texas, as well as courses of rivers, presence of river terraces, lakes and swamps. One chief result was the much more ex¬ tensive rainfall in the West and Southwest. This had striking effect on the vertebrate fauna of the coastal plain and High Plains areas. Fauna from near Beeville and Corpus Christi show forms which live today only in the midst of luxuriant vegetation, e.g., tapirs, four species of elephant, moose, muskrats, ground sloths. Included are also some forms of drier climate such as the camel, giant bison, and several species df lion. An attempt to investigate marine affects of the Pleistocene glaciation in the Gulf was undertaken by Parker Trask (1948). About 600 to 700 cores from one to 1 1 feet long were taken from the sea bottom off the continental shelf and in the abyss of the Gulf. Although plankton tows and temperature records with depth were made also, the chief concern was with stratigraphic evidence presented by the bottom cores. Contrary to original expectations no coldwater foraminifera were discovered in any cores on the continental shelf. The reason given is that deposition has been too great since the last rerteat of the ice and such faunas were not reached by the shallow borings. This idea is supported by the fact that in the abyssal portions of the Gulf where deposition is much slower, cold water faunas are encountered in the cores from 2 to 1 1 feet deep. The increasing importance of the subject of paleocology in stratigraphic geology and in biology paleontonogy is reflected in the publication of a treatise on the subject (in press). This is sponsored by the National Re¬ search Council’s Committee on Paleoecology, which has published annual reports for the last 10 years (Ladd, 1941-1949). This should be a valuable reference work for those interested in the subject. The present brief dis¬ cussion has pointed out something of the importance of this subject along with the special difficulties encountered in it. The science is but making 1951, No. 1 March 30 Paleoecology 65 its beginnings. Future workers in the field must rely ever more strongly upon sedimentologists, stratigraphic geologists, oceanographers, and biolo¬ gists to help them continue their studies and arrive at successful conclusions. LITERATURE CITED Allan, R. S. — 1948 — Geological correlation and paleoecology. Geol. Soc. Amer. Bull. 59: (1) : 1-10. Cloud, Preston E., and Virgil E. Barnes — 1948 — The Ellenburger group of central Texas. Univ. Texas Publication 4621. Cooper, G. Arthur — 1950 — Permian fauna of Glass Mountains of Texas and its geology. Geol. Soc. Amer. Bull. 61 (12), pt. 2 (abstracts). Hedberg, Hollis D. — 1948 — Time-stratigraphic classification of sedimentary rocks. Geol. Soc. Amer. Bull. 59 (5) : 447-462. Hutchins, Louis W. — 1947 — The bases for temperature zonation in geographical distribution. Ecological Monographs. 17: 325-335. Israelsky, Merle C. — 1935 — Tentative formaminferal zonation of subsurface Claiiborne of Texas and Louisiana. Bull. Amer. Assoc. Petrol. Geol. 19 : 689-695. Kleinpell, R. M. — 1938 — Miocene stratigraphy of California. Amer. Assoc. Petrol. Geol., Tulsa, Oklahoma: 450 pp., 22 pis. Ladd, Harry S., et al — 1941-1949 — Repts. Committee on a treatise on marine ecology and paleoecology. 1-9, National Research Council, Wash., D. C. L oh man, S. W. — 1949 — Sedimentary facies in Gulf Coast. Bull. Amer. Assoc. Petrol. Geol. 33 (12) : 1939-1997. Moore, R. S. — 1948 — Stratigraphical paleontology. Geol. Soc. Amer. Bull. 59 (4) : 301-326. Natland, M. L. — 1933 — The temperature and depth distribution of some recent and fossil foraminifera in the southern California region. Bull. California Univ. Scripps Inst. Oceanography Tech. Ser. 3 (10) : 225-230. Phleger, F. B. — 1942— Foraminifera of submarine cores from the continental slope, pt. II. Geol. Soc. Amer. Bull. 53 : 1073-1097. Scott, Gayle — 1940 — Paleoecology of Cretaceous ammonoids. Bull Amer. Assoc. Petrol. Geol. 24 (7) : 1164-1202. Stenzel, H. B. — 1948 — Paleoecology of Tertiary nautiloids. Rept. Committee on treatise on marine ecology and palecgcoloby. 8 : 96, 97. - 1945 — Paleoecology of some oysters. Rept. Committee on marine ecology as related to paleoecology. 5 : 37-46. Trask, Parker D. — 1948 — Environmental conditions of deposition in the Gulf of Mexico. Rept. Committee on treatise on marine ecology and paleoecology. 8 : 101-103. Ulrich. E. O. — 1911 — Revision of the Paleozoic systems. Geol. Soc. Amer. Bull. 22 : 281-680. Walcott, C. D. — 1910-1914 — Cambrian geology and paleontology II. Smithsonian Misc. Col]. 13: 1-498. 6 6 The Texas Journal of Science 1951, Nc. i March 30 PSYCHOLOGICAL RE-EXAMINATION OF CHILDREN TREATED IN A PSYCHIATRIC CLINIC GENETTE BURRUSS, DON I>. MORRIS, J. H. SIEGEL, AND C. CROW Community Guidance Clinic, Dallas This is a study of the psychological re-examination of 23 children after a period of treatment in a child guidance clinic. It originated with the psychological staff of the Community Guidance Clinic, who did the original testing and re-examinations, and was participated in to a greater or lesser extent by most of the rest of the staff. In our clinic, after a parent has been seen and treatment decided upon, the child is seen rather routinely for psychological examination including a Binet test in order to help us in our understanding of the child. Even in this relatively comfortable individual testing situation, the psychologists frequently questioned the validity of the I.Q.’s so obtained and often wondered how much better the child might do if he were less disturbed emotionally. They therefore suggested to the rest of the staff that routine re-examination be carried out on those children in whom treatment was completed with at least partial success. Significant changes in the intelligence quotients of children have been demonstrated before in conjunction with environmental treatment. For example the Iowa Studies"' show that small children placed in foster homes showed I.Q.’s more like those of their foster parents than those of their real parents and that in many instances the children’s I.Q.’s were significantly higher than those of the real parents. Acordingly, we attempted to see all children routinely for psychological re-examination who were on a continuous treatment basis at the clinic. In actual practice we did not re-examine all the children so treated. There were often external factors which could not be controlled or anticipated and which brought treatment to a close without the possibility of the re-examina¬ tion. In some instances our plan did not fit the needs of the patient and had to be abandoned for that reason. It is our opinion that the re-examina¬ tions were obtained on a group of children where treatment was most suc¬ cessful. In the 23 cases reported the ending of treatment was planned, re-examinations carried out on schedule, the parents were cooperative and satisfied with what had happened. In the group studied treatment was com¬ pleted between the summer of 1949 and the summer of 1950. The children were all tested with Form L of the Stanford-Binet and re-examined after treatment by the same procedure. The average length of time between the original test and the re- test was 8.7 months. In no case was it less than 6 months and maximum time between examinations was 1 5 months. All these children were seen for weekly interviews and play sessions by a staff member while one or more of the parents was seen at the same time by another staff member. The same psychologist did the re-examination whenever possible but this was not always possible because of changes in staff and other factors. At any rate, all of the psychologists on this staff * Univ. of Iowa Studies : “Children in Foster Homes,*’ XVI, No. 1, Jan. 1, 1939. 1951, No. i Psychological Re-examination of Children 67 March 30 have the same orientation — namely that of encouraging the child, making him comfortable, and giving him the benefit of any doubt thus we believe that our errors through differences of examiners are minimal. The overall results are of considerable interest. In the group of 23 we learned that 9 children had gained 8 or more points in I.Q. One child gained 27 points, 2 children gained 17 points, and one child gained 15 points. 8 children gained from 1 to 6 points in I.Q. 1 child showed no change and 5 children showed a decrease of from 1 to 3 points in I.Q. The average in¬ crease on re-examination was 6.2 and the median increase was 5.0. Even though this is not a large difference, it proves to be statistically significant, i.e., there is less than 1 chance in a hundred that the results are due to chance. In terms of certain individual children, the results seem even more meaningful. In the case in which there was a gain of 27 points in I.Q. it happened that the interpretation of the total situation was not affected significantly. This child showed a very superior ability when first seen with an I.Q. of 146. Ten months later it was 173. He still rated as very su¬ perior, although intellectually he was functioning even better. There were also indications that he had grown considerably in emotional maturity and in the feeling of his own adequacy. There are other cases in which the total interpretation is influenced more significantly. For instance, there was one child whose I.Q. changed from 75 to 92. This boy was 14 years old when first seen and the change from borderline into the normal category is a significant one in terms of the kind of performance that can be expected from such a boy. Another example is a youngster coming from a home where his parents were college graduates. He showed a change from 94 to 109, and thus it appeared that with the alleviation of emotional factors there was a much better chance of this child living up to the academic standards and expectations of his family than had originally appeared. An¬ other child changed from an I.Q. of 106 in the normal category to a superior performance of 123- — a very significant change. Others went from 118 to 128, from 84 to 93, and so forth. Such changes can be important in esti¬ mating the educational and occupational possibilities for the child and in interpreting him to his parents. The downward changes were so small that in no instance did they influence the management of the case. Another experience from the clinic is worth mentioning in which more drastic treatment, namely a change of parents, produced remarkable changes in the potentialities of the children. We examined 2 children whose mother tested feebleminded, whose father was illiterate, and in whom there was a general family history of instability, poverty, and neglect. The children had moved rapidly from one place to another, had had no security until they were 3 l/> and 4/z years old respectively when first seen. At that time the judge took the custody away from the parents and their tests showed I.Q.’s of 60 and 69. One year later, having spent six months in an adoptive home with parents who gave them real security and affection, we had the privi¬ lege of re-examining them and found them both with I.Q.’s in the 90’s. DISCUSSION In the principal group studied there was no such drastic environmental change. The changes were those that may come to any child living in his own home plus those that we help the mother and child effect through their 68 The Texas Journal of Science 1951, No. I March 30 clinic contacts. These were principally changes in attitudes and feelings. We do not believe that we can judge the success of treatment in the clinic by such changes in intelligence, in view of the fact that some children were able to function on tests just as well before treatment as afterward, and in many of these children there was a definite improvement in adjust¬ ment. The gains made by these children may be due to their increased com¬ fort in the clinic situation or they may be due to general improvement in adjustment relating to clinic treatment, and it would be difficult in any case to separate these considerations. Regardless of what the causes may be, the fact that there are such significant changes seems of considerable importance. It would appear that some disturbed children are unable to function up to their capacity even on an individual intelligence test con¬ ducted with the utmost regard for the person concerned. We believe that consideration must always be given to such a possibility — -more so than it usually is. CONCLUSION We conclude that in the individual testing situation some children’s performance was not significantly influenced by emotional disturbance, that in many children there is a significant increase in intellectual functioning with alleviation of emotional factors, and that in some children there is such a marked change as to be of the utmost practical significance in the management of the case. We believe that the concept of flexibility and mobility of the intelligence quotient should be continuously emphasized. 1951, No. i Marine Microbiology 69 March 30 MARINE MICROBIOLOGY O. B. WILLIAMS * Department of Bacteriology University of Texas There are several aspects of the broad general field of marine micro¬ biology which are intriguing, but it seems desirable to restrict this discus¬ sion to important factors of the marine environment which have a deter¬ mining influence on the occurrence and survival of the microflora and micro¬ fauna of the sea. Thus in a broad sense the subject matter of this discus¬ sion is marine microbial ecology. If we remember that terrestrial microorganisms in reality lead an aquatic life we may wonder wherein, if at all, marine microorganisms should differ from those of terrestrial origin. Actually it may be doubted if there are many fundamental differences, because a terrestrial counterpart can be found for most of the phenomena associated with marine micro¬ organisms. The basic cycle of life in the sea is the same as on land for com¬ parable organisms. There are, however, some rather striking differences in the nature of the environments, aquatic though they may be in each instance. These we may profitably examine in some small detail, and suggest how they affect the cycle of life in a quantitative way even if qualitative differences are minor. First we need to remind ourselves that the area with which we are concerned covers about 70% of the surface of the earth, and that the average depth is more than four times the mean elevation of the land. The entire land area could be submerged without the displacement of any large amount of the volume of the water. We live on discontinuous, isolated areas of land which are surrounded by the continuous area of sea water. Estimates of the world population at any future date can be made by plotting the curve of the annual increase with time, and projecting it to the year for which information is desired. Such estimates have led to speculation as to how the inhabitants of the earth can be fed at some distant, but still fore¬ seeable time. Suggestions that the fabulous productivity of tropical jungle areas might profitably be diverted to food crops have not taken into con¬ sideration the leaching effect on cultivated soil of the heavy rainfall of these areas. I have been told that within two or three years after clearing and putting under cultivation and thereby exposing to the leaching action of heavy rains, these jungle areas may become completely nonproductive. Prac¬ tically all organic matter has been washed to the sea. The vast area of the seas offers one possible solution to the problem of meeting future increased food needs. There is nothing problematic, however, about the importance of maintaining, and of increasing, present-day marine productivity. We turn now to the discussion of marine ecological factors, the first being that of pressure. PRESSURE The depths of the sea present several problems not encountered to any similar extent on land. Perhaps the most striking of these is that of hydro¬ static pressure. The average depth is near 12,500 feet and more than 90% * Presented at Rockport, Texas, October 27, 1949, at the First Semi-Annual Seminar of Marine Science of the Marine Laboratory of the Texas Game, Fish and Oyster Commission. 70 The Texas Journal of Science 1951, No. 1 March 30 of the area exceeds 6 5 0 feet. With each 3 3 feet of depth hydrostatic pres¬ sure increases by one atmosphere, or 1 5 pounds per square inch. At a depth of no more than one mile the hydrostatic pressure approximates one ton per square inch. There are few types of terrestrial organisms which can so adapt themselves as to tolerate or survive such pressure. The greatest change to which a land dwelling organism can be subjected in going from the loftiest mountain peak to sea level is less than one atmosphere. We know little about the residents of the ocean depths, but we do know that life exists at the greatest depths which have been dredged. The old assumption that the conditions of pressure which prevailed in the depth of the sea were incompatible with life beyond a depth of about 1,800 feet have long been recognized as erroneous. In fact there is no real reason why certain types of organisms should not exist under conditions of high pressure. If the organism can adapt itself internally so that internal and external pres¬ sures are equal there is no reason why it should be any more affected than we should be affected by the atmospheric pressure of 1 5 pounds per square inch to which our bodies are constantly exposed. But for those organisms which cannot adapt themselves to changes in pressure there is a real barrier to much vertical migration. A surface dwelling organism which cannot make adjustments to changes in presure would be crushed if it were exposed to the pressure of ocean depths, while if a resident of the depths accidentally got much above its accustomed depth the expansion of gas in the swim bladder or tissue would cause it to be forced upward an^l to be killed by the distension and disruption of the tissues. These sorts of happenings represent the extreme. Most marine organisms, and especially those of microscopic size, are capable of rapid adjustment to considerable differences in hydro¬ static pressure. The recent researches of Zobell and Johnson indicate that pressures up to 600 atmospheres adversely affect many bacteria of terrestrial origin but not marine bacteria originally from depths where the pressure approxi¬ mates 500 atmospheres. Marine bacteria from lesser depths were intermediate between terrestrial and deep mud types in their response to pressure. Their data suggest an evolutionary, or selective, adaptation to hydrostatic pressure on the part of bacteria. With regard to the osmotic pressure of sea water, wide variations are not encountered. The osmotic pressure of sea water of average salinity is in the range of 23 to 2 5 atmospheres. Most marine organisms are not tolerant of more than slight changes in osmotic presure. Neither hypotonic nor hypertonic solutions are well tolerated. Under natural conditions of life adjustments are not required; hence adaptive organisms have not evolved. TEMPERATURE The surface temperatures of sea and ocean waters vary with season and latitude. In the tropics surface temperatures as high as 3 8°-40° C. may¬ be reached in localized areas, and as high as 30° C. in the open sea may be reached, while in polar regions the temperature is near that of the freezing point of water. No such extremes of temperature as are regularly recorded for much of the land surface are encountered in the sea, where the range of temperature is of the order of -2° to 40° C whereas the terrestrial range is of the order of -65° to 65° C. 1951, No. 1 March 30 Marine Microbiology 71 Surface temperature, which commonly varies no more than 1° during the day, certainly is kept low by the cooling effects of evaporation. The distribution of heat within the sea is affected by both horizontal and verti¬ cal currents, but differences between day and night temperatures are scarce¬ ly evident below a depth of about 30 feet, and seasonal fluctuations arc not manifest below a depth of perhaps 600 feet at a maximum. It has been stated that temperature, almost as much as any other single factor, determines the growth and character of the marine popula¬ tion. The population is, of course, the resultant of the difference between the rate of reproduction and the rate of death. An increase in temperature may speed up the rate of reproduction and at the same time speed up the rate of death, so that the effects on each of these must be known for a knowledge of the net effect of any given temperature on a particular organism. The bacterial flora of the ocean bottom is in general adapted to lower temperatures for growth and survival than comparable terrestrial organisms. Terrestrial organisms growing at temperatures near the freezing point are fairly common, but it seems likely that the ability to exhibit physiological activity at such temperatures is more common among organisms of marine origin. Thermophilic bacteria from sea mud have been reported recently. Speculation as to their significance or activity is hardly justified at this time. LIGHT Marine life, the same as terrestrial life, is founded on green plants, since only they are able to convert inorganic materials into organic sub¬ stance in significant amounts. The amount of animal life can never equal or be in excess of the amount of plant life in the sea any more than it can on land. More than 90% of the marine plants are microscopic unicellular algae suspended in the surface waters and drifting with the currents. It is obvious that no single factor has greater significance for the maintenance of life in the sea than does light. Light rays are absorbed rapidly and unevenly in sea water, even in fairly transparent water. Pure sea water, free of suspended and colored matter, permits the penetration of 22% of the incident light to a depth of about 3 5 feet, and of 3% to a depth of about 1000 feet. In less trans¬ parent waters only as little as 0.5% of the incident light may penetrate as deep as 3 5 feet. In only fairly transparent oceanic water 65% of the inci¬ dent light may be absorbed in the first 3 feet, and 20% more in the second 3 feet. In rough weather 60-70% or more of the light may be blocked at the surface. There is a sharp difference in transparency of sea water for different wave lengths. Red is the least penetrative of the visible light, and green and blue are the most penetrative. Matter in suspension has much to do with the scattering and absorption of light rays. Suspended matter effec¬ tively scatters the short blue and violet rays, while the red and yellow are absorbed, thus leaving green as the apparent color of water with much suspended matter. The less the amount of suspended matter the bluer the water, so that blue has been referred to as the color of desolation. 72 The Texas Journal of Science 1951, No. 1 March 30 The absorption of light in the upper levels of the sea means that the duration of effective daylight below the surface may be very short. Thus in an area where at about 60 feet depth the daylight was 11 hours long, at about 100 feet it was only 5 hours, and at about 12 5 feet no more than 15 minutes. The lower limit for photosynthetic activity has been placed by some writers at about 600 feet as a maximum. Photosynthetic organisms have been recovered from greater depths, but these may have fallen to a level where they continue to exist in an inactive form until consumed by zooplankton or until they die and are decomposed by the attached bacteria. These facts on absorption of light make clear that photosynthetic effectiveness, as measured by maximum utilization of sunlight, is less in the sea than on the land. However there is a tremendous total surface exposure by the phytoplankton and this may well be a compensating factor. GASES IN SOLUTION Closely related to photosynthetic activity is the matter of the gases dissolved in the sea. The solubility of gases in water varies inversely with the temperature, and consequently the cold waters of the polar regions contain more of the CO2 needed for photosynthetic activity and of the oxygen needed for respiration. The larger amount of CO2 present in the colder waters has been suggested as an explanation of the heavy develop¬ ment of phytoplankton in the cold surface water areas. Carbon dioxide is soluble in sea water in about 50 times the proportion found in the atmosphere. It occurs as carbonate and bicarbonate as well as in the form of free gas. Oxygen, while less soluble in sea water than in fresh water, still is absorbed in greater proportion to other bases than as it occurs in the air. Oxygen is present, however, in quite dilute amounts as compared with air. It occurs even at great depths. Although a few obligate anaerobes have been recovered from ocean mud, the great majority of the bacteria present are facultative forms. Nitrogen, which occurs in sea water in lower proportion to other gases than in the air, has little biological significance in the sea. Some nitrogen fixation by bacteria in the ocean may take place, but if so the amount is not great. DENSITY The specific gravity of sea water of a salinity of about 3 5 parts per 1000 is near 1.0281, the exact figure varying of course with temperature. The density of the water has significance for the rate of sinking of the marine organisms which do not have a means of locomotion. The rate of sink¬ ing is a function of weight and of friction, or the resistance to movement through the water, which in turn is a function of the viscosity of the fluid and the surface area in contact with the fluid. The greater the surface area in proportion to mass the slower the rate of descent. For the plankton or¬ ganisms the rate of sinking is so slow that any single organism may remain in the upper levels of the sea for the duration of its life. However, if there were no correcting factors the plankton would in time all be on the bottom unless the rate of sinking were zero. Each succeeding generation would start falling where the preceding one left off, and thus a slow but continuous descent would move the microbial population downward. This condition 1951, No. 1 March 30 Marine Microbiology 73 does not prevail, probably because of up currents which tend to keep the nonmotile and feebly motile organisms distributed in the upper levels. Be¬ cause of the slow rate of sinking of microscopic organisms many of those which die will decompose before reaching the bottom. CONCENTRATION OF NUTRIENTS Sea water is a dilute solution of most of the elements. Only sodium and chlorine are present in appreciable amounts. It contains a fairly large total amount of organic matter, present also in dilute solution. Materials required for plant growth attain a maximum concentration in surface waters in the winter when short, dull days reduce the amount of active plant growth. Through the spring and into the summer the concentration drops to a minimum. Because of its significance as a limiting factor in the productivity of the sea much attention has been devoted to determinations of phosphate. Evidence of the significance of phosphate is afforded by data developed in oceanographic studies which have been correlated with certain aspects of the British fishing industry. The food supply during the first few months of life is a critical factor in determining survival of young herring. A large amount of phosphate in solution in the sea means an abundance of phytoplankton, and this in turn builds up into an abundance of food for the young herring. Since three years are required for the herring to reach commercial size it is possible to predict with a high degree of accuracy the size of the herring catch three years in advance from a knowledge of the phosphate concentration of the water in the spawning area. Studies attempting to correlate the quantity of phytoplankton present with the amount of nutrient materials in solution have established that the amount of organic material produced per acre of sea area compares very well with the productivity of the land, being of the order of from 1 to 3 tons of dry material per acre per year. We have found, as have many others, that culture media for bacteria prepared with sea water are more productive for marine bacteria than simi¬ lar media prepared with distilled water or with artificial sea water. Sea water alone is a nutrient solution. Native organic materials are derived from de¬ composing plant and animal remains and from animal wastes, but these are still in dilute solution. Enriching with additional organic nutrients gives a very productive medium. But it is clear that under natural conditions the organisms which can thrive are those which can obtain nutrients from weak solutions, and these are organisms with a large surface exposure, i.e., microscopic in size. Despite their small size, however, these in turn produce a considerable total amount of organic matter. Where the native organic material enters into solution in the depths it may be returned to an active surface or near surface biotic area through upcurrents or other mixing mechanisms, or it may be utilized by the bac¬ teria of the ocean floor, of whose activity little is known. It is improbable that the organic matter which settles to the depths is permanently removed from circulation. If this were true, it seems likely that by now all nutrient materials would be concentrated in the ocean depths. 74 The Texas Journal of Science 1951, No. 1 March 30 TYPES OF LIFE ADAPTED TO MARINE EXISTENCE It probably is clear that the necessities of life in the sea are not differ¬ ent from those on land. It does not follow, though, that the same types of organisms will be found in the sea as on the land. What types of organisms have evolved which are adapted to existence under the ecological conditions prevailing in the sea? It has just been stated that the overwhelming majority of the marine plants are microscopic in size. They are also unicellular. Con¬ ditions do not favor the forms with cell aggregations and specialized struc¬ tures. The maximum surface exposure essential for nourishment from dilute solution is attained by small size. There are no seed plants, no mosses, no ferns in the ocean remote from the shore, although the seed bearing eel grass does grow in protected coastal waters. The animal life includes no herbivorous animal above what is essenti¬ ally microscopic size. The microscopic plants are strained from the sea by both microscopic and small macroscopic animals, which in turn are used as food by larger animals, and so on up the scale. But the base of the animal pyramid consists of vegetarian animals, chiefly the small Crustacea, and principally the copepods. DISTRIBUTION OF MICROFLORA AND MICROFAUNA Neither the vertical nor the horizontal distribution of the microflora and microfauna is uniform. All studies show a lack of uniformity of dis¬ tribution for different regions, at different depths and in different seasons. Coker has compared the sea with its minute life to the sky with drifting clouds of unequal densities which rise or fall, drift from place to place, and become heavier or lighter. In some areas the density may always be thin; in others it may range from dilute to over-saturation, the latter condi¬ tion resulting in precipitation from the cloud and in mortality among the plankton. The analogy is not perfect, since conditions in the sea are much more complex than can be represented by a comparison on such simple terms. In general the largest bacterial population is found in water with the most plankton. Phytoplankton organisms are the major source of food for marine bacteria, and consequently conditions which favor the growth of the phytoplankton will likewise favor the marine bacteria and the zooplankton. Dead phytoplankton furnish the bacteria with food, the living ones nourish the amoebae, the ciliates, copepods and other small animals. CONCLUSIONS In conclusion we may wonder as to what lines of research in marine microbiology are likely to be profitable. A categorical answer to this ques¬ tion is not possible. It would be risky to condemn as valueless any particu¬ lar project in the general area. From a practical standpoint the ultimate objective of most research in the field of marine biology is probably con¬ cerned with increasing the productivity of the sea. This objective may be approached by devious routes, and studies which appear not to be immedi¬ ately directed toward this end may prove very fruitful. Many barren paths of research may be traveled in the development of researches of direct appli¬ cability, and for some of these the lack of practical significance of the re¬ sults may be more apparent than real. Studies on the nutritive and growth 1951, No. 1 March 30 Marine Microbiology 75 requirements of various marine microorganisms, for example, may make profitable the artificial fertilizing of coastal areas, thereby increasing the plankton yield, and from this on up the ladder to marine products of commerce. It is questionable if the investigators who studied the variation in the amount of phosphate in the water— -and remember that this is one index of the activity of microorganisms- — had any idea at the time the work was undertaken that the results would make possible the predicting of the herring catch three years in the future. It is possible that some comparable study may develop information of equal value for the fisheries industry of our own Gulf coast. 76 The Texas Journal of Science 1951, No. i March SO IRRIGATION IN TEXAS: THE OUTLOOK WILLIAM F. HUGHES Bureau of Agricultural Economics U. S. Department of Agriculture Within the last few years, there has been a growing public recogni¬ tion of the importance of water resources in both the agricultural and in¬ dustrial economy of the Southwest. Unfortunately, this belated recognition has been forced upon the public largely through water shortages or through bond issues to prevent their imminent occurrence. The unfortunate part of this lies in the fact that many of these water supply difficulties were un¬ necessary. Water deficiencies do not occur overnight. Like coming events they cast their shadows before them. Coming water-supply difficulties may be identified by the sequence of events, differing from place to place, that precede their occurrence. On the whole, there is too much truth for comfort in the old saying "You never miss the water till the well runs dry.” The Southwest in general and Texas in particular are faced with an ever-tightening water supply situation. In some parts of Texas there is little or no additional water, whereas in others the apparent abundance of supply is misleading. The present situation results from an unprecedented postwar expansion in water use. Within recent years, the demands imposed by expanding municipal, industrial, and agricultural water requirements have increased so rapidly that it has not been possible to assess them in their entirety; data compiled for a particular use are out of date by the time they can be summarized. An appraisal of the existing water supply situation as a whole or in part must of necessity involve consideration of the multiplicity of compet¬ ing, consuming, and non-consuming water uses. As indicated earlier, data are not available for an appraisal of this nature. Data obtained in a recent inventory of the extent of irrigation practiced in the state, and those avail¬ able in various published reports, are comprehensive enough, however, to permit a rough appraisal of the outlook for irrigation. Certainly, any at¬ tempt at such an appraisal is fraught with uncertainties, but in this case they are not as numerous as might be surmised. The shadows of coming events are rather long in some areas, particularly if present trends cannot be slowed or halted altogether. The favorable price situation of recent years has stimulated an ex¬ pansion of irrigation in Texas. Guaranteed farm commodity prices, with no restrictions on production, have provided an income opportunity for favor¬ ably situated farmers and private land developers. As a result, irrigated acreage has expanded from 1,045,000 acres in 1939 to approximately 3,500,- 000 acres today. Most of this expansion has occurred since the end of World war II. In fact, the acreage developed since 1945 is greater than the acre¬ age developed for irrigation during the entire 400 years of irrigation history prior to 1945. 1951, No. 1 March 30 Irrigation in Texas 77 The possible consequences arising from this expanded development have been of concern to people cognizant of the situation for several years. The probabilities are now beginning to cause concern among those directly affected. In most of the irrigated areas of Texas where ground waters are being withdrawn in substantial quantities, declining water levels or losses in artesian pressure-head strongly suggest that the current rate of use exceeds the annual rate of replenishment. The prospects of depletion are more im¬ minent in some areas than in others. In some of the major areas that use surface-water supplies, the acre¬ age has also been expanded to such an extent that serious water shortages are being experienced. For some of these areas the situation can no doubt be improved by building additional reservoirs. In still other areas, substantial construction could alleviate the situation somewhat, but it would not neces¬ sarily provide a cure. Although Texas possesses undeveloped surface-water resources, these are located, with minor exceptions, in parts of the state where irrigation is not extensively practiced. Several possibilities exist for developing some of these unused water resources for irrigation. But where these possibilities have been investigated, the cost of bringing the land and the water re¬ sources together exceeds limits of present economic feasibility. A review of the current extent of irrigation and the sequence of events accompanying its rise leads inevitably to a conclusion that is far from opti¬ mistic. The happenings to date suggest that our water resources cannot indefinitely sustain the present rate of use. The outlook is least favorable in those areas that derive their water supplies from underground sources. For those areas that use surface water, construction (under way or proposed) will do much to alleviate recurring water shortages, provided the expanding rate of use can be stabilized. Few, if any, areas within the state now have a water-supply situation that may be termed critical; pressing yes, but not critical. It should be emphasized, however, that so far as ground-water irrigated areas are con¬ cerned, the time for action is before the situation becomes critical, not afterward. Ground-water resources in some areas may already have been over¬ developed. Declining water levels, which have accompanied the expansion of irrigated acreage, strongly suggest as much. Whether the current rate of use in a particular area is building up to a critical situation cannot be de¬ termined as yet. In any event, there are few ground-water irrigated areas within the State in which the possibilities for deterioration do not warrant serious consideration among all the people concerned. Considerable thought, effort, and fund (both public and private) have been expended in providing facilities for storing and conserving surface- water supplies within the State. According to the 1949-50 Texas almanac, these expenditures are reflected in a completed total reservoir storage capacity of 11,404,265 acre feet, 9,178,626 acre feet of storage under construction, and 10,952,300 acre feet of storage in a pre-construction planning stage. Completion of this program will provide storage for the major portion of surface-water supplies that are susceptible of storage. Most, if not all, of the 78 The Texas Journal of Science 1951, No. 1 March 30 reservoirs under construction or contemplated are multi-purpose undertak¬ ings designed to provide water for several functions. Although the various competitive water uses are provided for in these developments, the means of reconciling these demands and assuring that each receives the attention it merits are not provided for, nor are they presently available. Experience indicates that once these facilities are in operation, some method of assuring an equitable distribution will be required. The job of reconciling conflicting water demands, which may reason¬ ably be expected to increase both in numbers and intensity, and the allo¬ cation of remaining water supplies among preferred users, belongs to no particular group. It is a job for all rather than the few who heretofore have been most active. 1951, No. 1 March 30 One-Dimensional Shock Waves 79 ONE-DIMENSIONAL SHOCK WAVES THOMAS J. WHITE Department of Mathematics The Rice Institute Our purpose here is to discuss a basic problem in the theory of one¬ dimensional shock waves. This problem, which very likely affords the best introduction to the subject of shock waves in general, has been discussed by many writers, the most complete discussion being that of J. Hadamard in his Legons sur la Propagation des Ondes . However, a part of his result is thought to be incorrect. The solution proposed here has been obtained by Professor J. W. Calkin of the Rice Institute, the author and others. An excellent presentation of the earlier parts of the discussion to follow may be found in Courant and Friedrichs, Supersonic Flow and Shock Waves . We are interested in a special case of the more general problem of find¬ ing the motion of a perfect gas initially at rest in a semi-infinite tube fitted with a movable piston at one end. It is assumed that the gas conducts no heat internally and produces no friction with the cylinder walls or within itself. The piston and tube are to be of materials which do not conduct heat. The motion of the gas near the piston will be given and it will be seen that this solution, for a certain motion of the piston, develops a singularity which suggests a new solution in the form of a power series where the boundary between the gas in motion and the gas at rest is a shock wave, i.e., a wave across which there is a discontinuity in pressure, velocity, and and density. The equations of motion near the piston are: o + ft-® 2) 2u_ _ Sol 3a 3t 3) p«r»p# Here p0 is the initial density of the gas, pG the initial pressure, u the velocity, p the pressure, = vp0, v the specific volume, and o the ratio of the two specific heats of the gas. t is the time and a is the coordinate of a cross-section of the gas at t=o. This system of equations is hyperbolic and has therefore two real families of characteristics determined by: 4) 5) -St do _ du_ dt “ dw From (4) and (5) it is found that u is a function of 0, it may be shown that the family of straight lines (7) with parameter « has an envelope beginning at the point 9) fTO>0 and concave upward near this point if 10) K (0) + -^~C(0)*(l)> 0 The original solution cannot be continued beyond the point (9) since it becomes double-valued and because of the definition of the envelope, all the first order derivatives of the quantities u, to, p with respect to a and t become infinite on the envelope. We see then, that when the piston is pushed into the gas, the motion cannot remain continuous and we expect, in view of the discontinuities arising in the derivatives at the point (9), that the quantities u, to, and p also become discontinuous. We introduce now, according to this hypothesis, a shock wave begin¬ ning at the point (9) with the velocity of sound in the gas at rest. The discontinuities in u, w, and p must, however, be such that we maintain momentum, mass, and energy across the shock according to the Rankine- Hugoniot relations: 11) Pj-P g sm(u,— u2) 12) pQ (Uj -u2) = m(«2“«| ) 13) ^ (P|«rP2«2) The subscripts refer to conditions on opposite sides of the shock and m is the mass of gas passing through the shock in unit time. When we assumed p2*^ =k (a) and m/po the slope of the shock curve in the a-t plane. (iii) On the line a = A, t2(p, a) —ti (p, a) and u2 (p, a) =Ui (p, a) . (iv) ti (p, a and ui (p, a) satisfy (14) and (15) with k(a) =p0. (v) On that member of the family of characteristics of negative slope which passes through the point (9, ti(p, a) agrees with t found from (7) and Ui (p, a) agrees with u found from (6). If power series are assumed for t1? t2, ux, u2, k(a) , and the shock curve (parametrically in p), it is found that the coefficients are determined by the conditions (i), . . . , (v). Neither the process nor the values obtained will be discussed here and although this determination appears to be unique, there still remains the examination of the series for convergence. In addition there is the more involved problem of the determination of a solution of the prob¬ lem when the envelope of the family of straight line characteristics bend downward into the region of gas in motion so that the solution valid near the piston becomes multiple- valued at a time t less than that given by (9). 82 The Texas Journal of Science 1951, No. 1 March 30 THE CRYSTAL STRUCTURE OF RUTILE-LIKE HEAVY METAL ORTHOVANADATES L. W. VERNON AND W. O. MILLIGAN Department of Chemistry The Rice Institute A large number of the orthovanadates of trivalent metals have been synthesized and studied by x-ray diffraction methods at the Rice Institute (cf. Milligan, Rachford, and Watt, 1948; and Milligan, Watt, and Rach- ford, 1949). The orthovanadates of fifteen trivalent metals (cerium, praseo¬ dymium, neodymium, samarium, europium, gadolinium, terbium, dyspros¬ ium, holmium, erbium, thulium, ytterbium, lutecium, yttrium, and scandi¬ um) form a tetragonal isomorphous series and possess the zircon structure (cf. Milligan and Vernon, 1950). The above named orthovanadates have four "molecules” in the unit cell and belong to space group D^h - 14/amd. Brandt (1943a) has synthesized and studied a number of ABO4 type compounds which are likely to have six-fold coordination around both A and B. His studies included niobates, tantalates, antimonates, and vanadates of aluminum, chromium, iron, gallium, and rhodium. He found twelve of these compounds, including rhodium orthovanadate, tc possess the rutile structure. They are tetragonal and belong to sp*. e group P4/ ranm. Brandt (1943b) found chromium orthovanadate to be orthorhombic and to 17 belong to space group D211 "-Cm cm. In this investigation the orthovanadates of rhodium, titanium, and antimony have been synthesized. The x-ray diffraction powder photographs of these compounds indicate that they belong to the rutile series. EXPERIMENTAL Rhodium orthovanadate was prepared by the method reported by Brandt (1943a). Rhodium trichloride (40% rhodium) and ammonium metavana¬ date were mixed in equimolar amounts and heated for two days in an electric furnace at 750° C. Antimony orthovanadate was synthesized by mixing antimony trioxide and ammonium metavanadate in quantities such that equimolar amounts of Sb2C>3 and V2O5 were present. This mixture was heated in an electric furnace for two hours at 750° C. Titanium orthovanadate was prepared by the method given below. A hydrochloric acid solution of titanium trichloride was neutralized with ammonium hydroxide. A quantity of ammonium metavanadate was added to the solution to give equimolar amounts of T^Os and V2O5. The solution was evaporated to dryness in a nitrogen atmosphere and the residue was heated in an electric furnace with a nitrogen atmosphere for two days at 750° C. The submicroscopicallv crystalline samples were examined by standard x-ray diffraction methods. Powder photographs were taken using copper Ka (nickel foil filter) and chromium Ka ( V205 filter) x-radiation. The inten¬ sities of the x-ray diffraction lines were obtained from x-radiograms pro¬ duced by a Norelco recording Geiger-counter x-ray diffraction unit, using copper Ka x-radiation. The x-radiograms (produced by the Norelco x-ray 1951, No. i Structure of Rutile-like Orthovanadates 83 March 30 spectrometer) of rhodium orthovanadate, titanium orthovanadate, and anti¬ mony orthovanadate are reproduced in Figure 1. The similarity of the x-ray diffraction patterns of these three compounds will be noted. DISCUSSION The x-ray diffraction lines of rhodium orthovanadate, titanium ortho¬ vanadate, and antimony orthovanadate can be indexted in the tetragonal crystal system. The interplanar spacings and the Miller indices of the diffrac¬ tion lines of the above crystalline compounds are given in Table I. The unit cell dimensions in absolute Angstrom units are given in Table II. An examination of the indices of the diffraction lines reveals that there are no systematic absences of the general (hkl) type; thus the unit cell is primitive. It is also noted that the only systematic zonal absences are (hoi) reflections having h + 1 odd. This means that there are n-planes perpen¬ dicular to a and b. The only possible space groups are P4nm and P4/mnm. From consideration of the densities of the orthovanadates enumerated above it is found that there is only one "molecule” of MV04 per unit cell. Rutile has two "molecules” of Ti02 per unit cell (cf. Wyckoff, 1931). Rutile belongs to space group D ^ — P4/mnm and has two titanium atoms in position 2(a) and four oxygen atoms in position 4(f) (Internationale Tabellen) . A quantitative examination of the x-ray diffraction patterns of rhodium orthovanadate, titan’ ’ n thovanadate, and antimony orthovanadate reveals that they are almost identical with the pattern of rutile. Because of this similarity of diffraction patterns the atomic positions in the orthovanadates Figure 1. Geiger-counter x-radiograms of titanium orthovanadate, rhodium orthovanadate, and antimony orthovanadate. 84 The Texas Journal of Science 1951, No, 1 March 30 are taken to be the same as those in rutile. Since no x-ray diffraction lines, giving evidence of a regular distribution of the trivalent metal and the vanadium, were observed it is assumed that the trivalent metal and the vanadium are statistically distributed in position 2(a) (cf. Brandt, 1943a). The atomic positions are given below. Vanadium and the trivalent metal statistically distributed in 2 (a) : 000 ; 1/2 1/2 1/2 Four oxygens in 4(f) : xxo ; xxo ; 1/ 2 + x , l/2 — x , 1/2 ; 1/2 - x , 1/2 + x , 1/2 Relative intensities calculated from the above positions with the parameter x = 0.30 are in good general agreement with the experimental in¬ tensities obtained from the Norelco x-ray spectrometer. No attempt was made in this investigation to refine the parameter value. The "defect structure” given above explains all of the x-ray diffraction data obtained from the powder photographs of rhodium orthovanadate, titanium orthovanadate, and antimony orthovanadate. The constancy of composition is explained by the fact that the trivalent metal ion (M+3) has a different charge from the vanadium ion (V+5). The two ions must be present in equimolar amounts to keep the compound (MVO4) electrically neutral. A number of compounds with this type of "defect structure” have been described in the literature (cf. Bunn, 1948). They are compounds of fixed composition, but chemically different atoms are scattered indiscrimi¬ nately among crystallographically equivalent sites. Posnjak and Barth (1931) reported that lithium ferrite, LiFe02, possesses the sodium chloride type of structure, with an oxygen in place of each chlorine atom and with the lithium TABLE I INTERPLANAR SPACINGS, A hkl RhV04 SbV04 T1VO4 obs. calc. obs. calc. obs. calc. 110 3.22 3.22 3.24 3.24 3.24 3.24 101 2.45 2.45 2.55 2.54 2.48 2.48 200 2.28 2.28 2.29 2.29 2.29 2.29 111 2.16 2.16 2.22 2.22 2.19 2.18 210 2.03 2.03 2.05 2.05 2.05 2.05 211 1.667 1.667 1.701 1.701 1.682 1.682 220 1.605 1.609 1.617 1.618 1.617 1.618 002 1.453 1.455 1.529 1.530 1.473 1.475 310 1.437 1.437 1.446 1.447 1.443 1.445 301 1.342 1.343 1.366 1.365 1.354 1.354 112 1.325 1.326 1.384 1.383 1.340 1.343 202 1.227 1.227 1.274 1.272 TABLE II UNIT CELL DIMENSIONS, A RhV04 SbV04 TiV04 a 4.55 4.58 4.58 c 2.91 3.06 2.95 a/ c 0.640 0.668 0.644 1951, No. 1 March 30 Structure of Rutile-like Orthovanadates 85 and ferric ions scattered indiscriminately over the sodium positions. Barth and Posnjak (1932) have also observed this type of ''defect structure” among the spinels (mixed oxides having the type formula AB20.{) . In a nor¬ mal spinel such as Z11AI2O4 the cubic unit cell contains eight "molecules”; the space group is Fd3m (cf. Bunn 1948). The oxygen ions occupy a 32-fold set of positions, the zinc ions an 8 -fold set of positions in which each is sur¬ rounded tetrahedrally by four oxygens, and the aluminum ions a 16-fold set of positions in which each is surrounded octahedrally by six oxygens. In MgFe204 the positive ions are distributed differently. Half of the ferric ions occupy the 8 -fold positions, while the other half, together with all the magnesium ions, are distributed at random over the 16-fold positions. Although this type of "defect structure” explains all of the x-ray dif¬ fraction data of the orthovanadates of rhodium, titanium, and antimony, a more thorough investigation of these compounds is planned to make certain that these orthovanadates are compounds with a "defect structure” and not merely solid solutions of the oxides. literature cited Barth, T. F. W. and Posnjak, E.— 1932— Z. Krist. 82 : 325. Brandt, K. — 1943a — Arkiv Kemi Mineral. Geol. 17A : No. 15. - 1943b — Arkiv Kemi Mineral. Geol. 17A : No. 6. Bunn, C. W. — 1948 — Chemical Crystallography. Oxford Univ. Press. London. Internationale Tabellen zur Bestimmung von Kristallstrukturen, Gebruder Borntraeger, Berlin. Milligan, W. O., Rachford, H. H., and Watt, L. M. — 1948 — J. Amer. Chem. Soc. 70 : 3953. Milligan, W. O., Watt, L. M., and Rachford, H. H. — 1949 — J. Phys. and Coll. Chem. 53 227. Milligan, W. O., and Vernon, L. W. — -1950 — Abstracts of Papers, 118th Meeting of the Amer¬ ican Chemical Society at Chicago, Ill., Sept. 3 — 8 : 48Q. Posnjak, E. and Barth, T. F. W. — 1931 — Phys. Rev. 38 : 2234. Wyckoff, R. W. G. — 1931 — The Structure of Crystals, Chemical Catalog Company, Inc., New York. 86 The Texas Journal of Science 1951, No. 1 March 30 EDUCATIONAL REQUIREMENTS FOR FISHERY BIOLOGISTS FRANK T. KNAPP Department of Wildlife Management Agricultural and Mechanical College of Texas A questionnaire was sent to me recently by a group of educators in which was asked this question, '’What is the greatest deterent in your effec¬ tiveness as a teacher?” After thinking over many of the commoner com¬ plaints of teachers of fisheries work— -lack of research funds, lack of research time, excessive teaching loads, etc., I discarded them all and wrote, "The greatest deterent in my effectiveness as a teacher is the narrow cultural background of the student which makes him, for the most part, gullible, naive, intolerant and narrow minded with almost no ability to be skeptical, curious-minded or objective in his thinking. In short, he has no concept of the scientific attitude.” These words are harsh, particularly when the student is not to blame, but harsh facts must be faced first before corrective meas¬ ures can be found. The problem of teaching fishery biologists, therefore, does not include merely technical courses, although these are important, rather it is a process of expanding and broadening the cultural base of the student so that, on graduation, to quote Leopold (1939, p. 160), "he should have developed in some degree that imponderable combination of curiosity, skepticism and objectivity known as the scientific attitude.” One or two suggestions as to how this process may be carried out are proposed in this paper. The traditional responsibility of institutions of higher education has always been to imbue their students with culture. This is not the culture of "long-hairs” and idyllic poets but the culture of understanding, toler¬ ance, good citizenship and intellectual achievement tempered with modesty and good will. To achieve this the early universities centered their interests around languages, theology, and philosophy which included the natural sciences. Around the middle of the nineteenth century a greater diversity took place wherein the student was permitted to stress one part of this traditional core of courses at the expense of some other part. This was a natural sequence to the rapidly expanding knowledge of the times and to the increasing enrollments. By the turn of the twentieth century, the system of specialization was thoroughly established particularly in the United States where the need of technically trained men in a rapidly ex¬ panding country was acute. Here land grant colleges were developed to stress the agricultural and mechanical arts and many of the older traditional universities fell into step to train sorely needed technicians in the hope that they would pick up sufficient culture on the way to make them good citizens. Actually this turning away from the traditional educational pat¬ tern was more than introducing technical courses, it represented an entirely new philosophy of education. In earlier days a student attended college to be educated, with all the broadness that term traditionally implies, whereas at the present time he goes to college to be fitted for a job. Ask any group of students, particularly freshmen, why they are attending college and close to ninety percent will reveal that they have come to be vocationally 1951, No. 1 March 30 Requirements for Fishery Biologists 87 trained. Whether we like this attitude or not the simple fact remains that in the minds of the people, in this country at least, the college and uni¬ versities are vocational training centers first and cultural centers second and it is within this philosophical framework that we as teachers must work to produce students with the ''scientific attitude.” If the institutions responsible for the education of this type of student do little or nothing to alter his preconceived ideas the resulting graduate, regardless of his degree, is only technically trained, i.e., half -educated. We are all familiar with these individuals who, if given a definite job can do it efficiently and are relatively harmless in doing so, but if left up to their own devices or set loose among people with different ideas and back¬ grounds they are likely to become a liability to society rather than an asset. They are intolerant of those who question them, angry at opposition and carry themselves aloof from the people they should be influencing. It is little wonder they are called ivory tower scientists. Unfortunately, through these individuals the doctor of philosophy has fallen into disrepute and in many communities must hide his degree if he is to be trusted and above suspicion. How is it possible that these highly trained technicians can be true scientists if they cannot govern their own person-to-person relationships with tolerance and objectivity? Actually they are not true scientists, since the record shows that this country is most proficient technologically among the nations but noticeably far down the list in new discoveries and original scientific findings relative to her wealth, standard of living, and educational facilities. That this is a recognized problem is indicated by the fact that the Navy and other organizations, including federal, state and private have recently provided large sums of money for pure research. Educators realize that money alone is not sufficient and have instituted post-graduate courses in cultural subjects. This is unquestionably a step in the right direction and it is difficult to see how it could be achieved otherwise without a major disruption of the existing educational machinery, nevertheless it leaves one with the question, "Is it not just another case of too little and too late?” Jessie Bernard (1950) presents a thought-provoking argument that the direction of scientific enquiry is controlled by the culture of the sci¬ entist and that without an adequate base, science would not develop. It follows therefore, that the broader the base the more highly developed science can become. This is a step-by-step situation. The high school student with a broad cultural base from grade school can assimilate, appreciate and utilize more culture (and science) than if his grade school cultural base had been narrow. The same applies to the college freshman coming from high school. Therefore it is obvious that the better and more efficient method to educate in the broad sense is to have a broad education in all preparatory schools and have this continued for several of the college years. Subjects that the students should be exposed to during some of these years should be langauges; at least one foreign, one classical, and a thorough knowledge of English; histories, including ancient, European and modern, taught from the standpoint of the successes and failures of dynamic societies rather than from the static concept of events and dates. Philosophy, psychology and the social sciences should be included. Woven throughout these courses should be the thread of conservation of all resources. In the words of Taylor 88 The Texas Journal of Science 1951, No. 1 March 30 (1944, p. 360) "Conservation should crop out like measles on the surface of every course taught from the first grade through to college.” Since conservation is essentially an attitude of mind — that of unselfish service to one’s fellow men, it is therefore a cultural course or in its broad aspect a result of cultural courses. If the student in our schools could have this foundation it is doubtful if he could go through life unsympathetic, intolerant and lacking under¬ standing. It is questionable if he would continue for long to be up to date in his professional field but be one hundred years behind the times in his social field. The United States is in an anomalous position of being the most highly technicalized country in the world yet fraught with prejudices re¬ garding her minority groups. This could not last for long if her children were given a broad cultural training. The mechanics of setting up a series of cultural courses to form a broad base to education is a relatively simple matter. Institutions could merely substitute them for the technical courses in the earlier years and then re¬ introduce the technical courses at the sophomore or junior level in the colleges or universities. This process would be very difficult to put into operation, however, since it must receive the approval of the various boards of education and boards of governors which are, for the most part, made up of financially successful business men who are inclined to appraise the success of a school on the basis of the number of graduates who obtain jobs rather than on the quality of citizens they produce. As a result of the philosophy of these boards (who undoubtedly reflect the philosophy of the people in the community) the tendency has been to travel further down the road of technological training rather than to follow the road of culture. This tendency has been alarming to many educators, and in certain instances, drastic changes have been made to bring the higher institutions of learning back to the cultural road. The elimination of football and the tightly organized curricula in the University of Chicago in favor of a general educational program is an example to illustrate this point. Most educational administrators do not agree with drastic changes which are usually accompanied by hardships and bitterness. The slow evo¬ lution is to be preferred and this is where the individual teacher can take over. In the first place he can express his views for a liberalized education through his own professional organizations, in his own school boards, and in the community. Secondly, and this is most important, he can teach his own special courses in such a manner that he can arouse and develop the scientific atttitude in his own students. Nagel (1950) has stressed this idea of teaching the scientific attitude within scientific courses and he sums up his views as follows: (op. cit. p. 23) "I am thus of the opinion that sci¬ entific method can be taught, and taught best not as a separate discipline or by precept, but in conjunction with the concrete materials of the sci¬ ences, and by example. The study of scientific method is a systematic reflec¬ tion on the procedures of the sciences; and no greater pedagogic error can be committeed than to give instruction in principles of method to students unfamiliar with scientific subject matter and practice. It is clear, however, that, if general courses in science are to be something else than training grounds for future specialist or preparations for parlor conversation, they must be so organized as to permit time for methodological reflection on the technical problems that are presented. There is a price that must be paid 1951, No. 1 March 30 Requirements for Fishery Biologists 89 for such an organization, and in particular the conception that general courses in science should supply an encyclopedic compendium of useful knowledge must be abandoned.” This last statement by Nagel seems to me to be the crux of the prob¬ lem, Many teachers choke their technical courses with masses of pre¬ digested detail which the student is expected to learn (usually by memori¬ zation) which he parrots back to teacher on the examination. Such a pro¬ cedure may be acceptable if all the answers to the problems are known, but in no field, much less fishery biology which is relatively new, are the answers known. The students must have time to sit back and systematically medi¬ tate over the facts he is required to learn. This is the digestion of knowledge and it must precede assimilation. Assimilation leads to growth and in the field of learning this means intellectual growth. One of the chief criteria of intellectual growth in the student is his ability to grasp the principles behind the facts and to think for himself. Davis (1943 p. 205) writing about wildlife biologists expressed this point in a somewhat different manner when he wrote "any normal person can fence plots, strip-crop, build dikes, dig ditches, count quail, trap predators, and perform a host of other manage¬ ment techniques, but unless he can diagnose, prescribe, and prognosticate, he does not merit the title "Wildlife Manager” or "Wildlife Biologist.” In the preceding paragraphs, I have pointed out that the fundamental educational requirement for fishery biologists, and indeed for all students, is a broad cultural base upon which can be built a technicological super¬ structure, also two methods by which this may be achieved have been sug¬ gested. I have stressed this cultural aspect of education, perhaps to the detri¬ ment of the technical side because most articles on the training of fishery (or wildlife) biologists mention in passing the need of cultural training and of the scientific attitude but stress only the technical side. For the technical requirements of fishery biologists I refer the reader to the excellent surveys of Deason (1941) and Turner (1948). These authors together surveyed the majority of fisheries workers in United States and Canada and listed those technical courses considered by these workers as essential, desirable, optional or not necessary. A complete list of these is found on p. 130 of Turner (op. cit .) and need not be repeated here. In es¬ sence, however, they include a very broad training in biology (anatomy, physiology, genetics, ecology and systematics of both plants and animals), physics, chemistry and mathematics. Both of these authors stressed the fact that proficiency in English composition and public speaking were abso¬ lutely essential and that cultural courses should receive a greater considera¬ tion. So high are the requirements for fishery biologists that Deason wrote (op. cit p, 136) "No four-year course will enable a student to acquire all of the essential and desirable special courses in addition to the necessary training in cultural fields.” This view is also supported by Turner. It is therefore evident that the majority of fisheries workers realize their defici¬ encies and recommend a thorough cultural and technical training that is well balanced and for which the student should be prepared to undertake work leading to higher degrees. In this paper, I have attempted to point out some of the attitudes on education by educators as well as by fishery biologists. To round off the subject it would be well to see what employers say about the educational requirements for fishery biologists. 90 The Texas Journal of Science 1951, No. 1 March 30 A survey of ten employers responsible for 1,300 positions in fish and wildlife work was made by Van Dersal (1942). He reported that the general agreement among these employers was that the student applying for a job must be well balanced. He should be sufficiently trained techni¬ cally to be able to handle the subject matter; he should have sufficient cul¬ tural background to "get along” with the public and he should have the scientific attitude developed to the extent that he can objectively handle the data he collects and not be subjected to influences by pressure groups and his mind should be open to enable him to adjust himself and his work to meet normal difficulties. The greatest weakness found by these employers was the tendency on the part of the student applicants to be overspecialized on the one hand and inadequately training in methods of expression on the other. The above arguments for a broad yet intensive education for fishery biologists are presented in the hope that the general public, employers, educators and administrators alike will realize that a fishery biologist should be a good citizen and a good scientist as well as a good fish manager. LITERATURE CITED Bernard, Jessie — 1950 — Can science transcend culture? Scientific Monthly 71:268-273. Davis, W. B. — 1943 — A wildlife conservation teaching program. Trans. 8th N. A. Wildlife Conference : 198-205. Deason, H. J. — 1941 — A survey of academic qualifications for fishery biologists and of insti¬ tutional facilities for training fishery biologists. Trans. Amer. Fish. Soc. 70 : 128-142. Leopold, Aid© — 1939 — Academic and professional training in wildlife work. Journ. Wildlife Man. 3 : 156-161. Nagel, Ernest — 1950 — The methods of sciences: what are they? can they be taught? Scientific Monthly 70 : 19-23. Taylor, W. P. — 1944 — Conservation is not inherited. Trans. 9th N. A. Wildlife Conf. : 358-362. Turner, David B. — 1948 — Professional opportunities in the wildlife field. Wildlife manage¬ ment Institute, Wash. 208 pp. 1951, No. 1 March 30 New Cyprinid Fishes from Texas 91 NEW CYPRINID FISHES OF THE GENUS NOTROPIS FROM TEXAS * CARL L. HUBBS Scripps Institution of Oceanography and KELSHAW BONHAM Applied Fisheries Laboratory University of Washington, Seattle During the past three decades the known freshwater fish fauna of eastern North America, one of the richest in the world, has been further augmented by the discovery of many new species. Unfortunately, pressure of other duties has prevented the formal naming of a considerable propor¬ tion of these discoveries. The three new species of Notropis from Texas here treated — -oxyrhynchus, brazosensis and potteri— are among the fishes for which the initial published descriptions have been unduly withheld. Since further delay would interfere with the researches and publications of other ichthyologists and fishery biologists, these species are now diagnosed. The three species are apparently confined to eastern Texas, for they have never been collected in the extensive surveys of surrounding regions, namely northeastern Mexico (Hubbs and Gordon, MS), New Mexico (sur¬ vey in progress by William J. Koster), Oklahoma (work begun by Orten- burger and Hubbs, 1926, and Hubbs and Ortenburger, 1929 a-b , and now being continued by George A. Moore), and Louisiana (more cursory collecting) . These shiners, especially oxyrhynchus and brazosensis , abound in the very silty water of the Brazos River and its main tributaries, which are thus shown to have a somewhat distinctive fauna. As native species, N. oxyrhynchus and N. potteri seem to be confined to the Brazos River system (the population, of N. potteri currently existing in and about arti¬ ficial Lake Texoma in the Red River system, between Texas and Oklahoma, is interpreted as the result of the establishment of escaped bait minnows). The range of brazosensis extends into adjacent coastwise waters. The discovery of these new species in Texas occasioned no great sur¬ prise, for the varied fish fauna of this large state has been little studied and very seldom reported upon since the compilation by Evermann and Kendall (1894). Following the recognition by the senior author of these species as new, counts and measurements were made by the junior author in 1940, in ac¬ cordance with the specifications proposed by Hubbs and Lagler (1941: 12-20, figs. 2-3; 1947: 8-15, figs. 2-6). Angles were measured as recommended by Hubbs (1946). The calculations were also made by Bonham and the photographs were taken by him. The final draft was prepared in 1950 with the much appreciated cooperation of Dr. Reeve M. Bailey of the University of Michigan Museum of Zoology. Prof. Frank T. Knapp of the Agricultural and Mechanical College of Texas kindly dropped in our favor his plan to describe the three species, which he also has collected. He has contributed specimens and ideas helpful in determining the status and relationships of * Contributions from the Scripps Institution of Oceanography, New Series, No. 503. 92 Thf Texas Journal of Science 1951, No. 1 March 30 N. potteri. Dr. George A. Moore of Oklahoma Agricultural and Mechanical College has provided critical material from the Red River and from within Oklahoma, and has contributed useful suggestions. All specimens herein reported for the three new species are deposited in the University of Michigan Museum of Zoology and in the Agricultural and Mechanical College of Texas. Fig. 1. Notropis percobromus: adult specimen (University of Michigan Museum of Zoology, No. 127636), collected in Arkansas River near Oxford, Kansas, by C. E. Burt, on June 13, 1939. All photographs were taken by Kelshaw Bonham. Fig. 2. Notropis oxyrhynchus : topotypic paratype, an adult, 54 mm. in standard length, collected in Brazos River at Wellborn Crossing, Texas, by Kelshaw Bonham and class, on October 25, 1940. Fig. 3. Notropis oxyrhynchus : head of the holotype, an adult 50.8 mm. long, collected in Brazos River at Wellborn Crossing, Texas, by Kelshaw Bonham and class, on October 21, 1938. 1951, No. 1 March 30 New Cyprinid Fishes from Texas 93 SHARPNOSE SHINER Notropis oxyrhynchus, new species PI. I, F'igs. 2-3 In both ecological and taxonomic view this striking species appears to be the southern representative of N. percobromus Cope (Pi. I, Fig. 1). Since that species has seldom been mentioned and has usually been con¬ fused with other forms, its history and status call for clarification. It was described, as Alburnelhis percobromus , by Cope (1871: 440) from speci¬ mens collected at St. Joseph, Missouri, presumably in the Missouri River or some adjacent water (Jordan and Evermann gave the type locality definitely as the Missouri River at St. Joseph). Under the name M innilus percobromus the species was accepted as valid by Jordan and Gilbert (1883: 202), but it was synonymized with N. rubrifrons ( —N. rubella ) by Jordan and Evermann (1896: 295). Accepting this synonymy, Fowler (1910: 290) based his description of rubrifrons in part on the types A. percobromus, one of which he figured (pi. 21, fig. 50). Swayed by these actions, Hubbs and Ortenburger (192 9b: 83-85 ) wrongly resurrected Cope’s name for the southwestern representatives, still unnamed, of N. rubella . They had the true percobromus as well, however, but treated it as "Notropis, species? (1929a: 34; 192 9b: 86). Only recently (Hubbs, 1945: 16-17) has the true distinctive status of percobromus been pointed out, along with the in¬ dication that it inhabits the silty waters of the Great Plains from the Mis¬ souri River system in the Dakotas to the Red River (of the South), with tongues extending down the main rivers into Arkansas and presumably into Missouri, even to the Mississippi River in Tennessee (Reeve M. Bailey, in personal communication, has indicated his belief that the records from the upper Mississippi River system were based on misidentified specimens of N . a. atherinoides) . This statement of range is based on the identification by the senior author of many series in the Museum of Zoology of the Uni¬ versity of Michigan. Although it resembles rubella in certain respects, such as the anteriorly deep body, the sharp nose and the large mouth, oxyrhynchus seems to belong, with percobromus, to the atherinoides rather than to the rubella series of the subgenus Notropis, as these series were distinguished by Hubbs and Ortenburger (192 9b: 83-84). N. oxyrhynchus agrees rather well with percobromus and contrasts with atherinoides atherinoides in several of the characters by which those forms were distinguished in tabular form by Hubbs (1945: 17): the head is rela¬ tively large, more than one-fourth the standard length; the eye is submedian, TABLE I ANAL RAY COUNTS IN FIVE SPECIES OF NotrOpIS Anal rays (frequencies) Species 6 7 1 8 9 10 11 12 13 No. | Av. S.E. N. percobromus . .... | .... 40 40 8 2 90 | 10.69 .08 N. oxyrhynchus . ... | ,.. 7 61 14 82 1 10.69 .06 N. brazosensis . 4 | 94 8 106 | 8.04 .04 N. illecebrosa . ill 12 31 4 1 48 8.87 .09 N. potter! . 1 81 |;3 85. 1 7.02 .02 9 4 The Texas Journal of Science 1951, No. 1 March 30 dorsoventrally; and the lips are not conspicuously blackened anteriorly. In other characters oxyrhynchus resembles a. atherinoides more closely than per cobro mus: the predorsal scale pockets are generally, though not always, clearly marked by rather definite marginal files of melanophores, and the body is usually rather slender, though some examples are deeper than the more attenuate specimens of percobromus. In the slope of its mouth oxyrhynchus further resembles atherinoides more closely than percobromus, the mouth of which is more strongly oblique than it is in most related species: the angle seen in lateral view between the closed mouth and the long axis of the body ranges from 32° to 3 8° in oxyrhynchus, is about 3 5° in atherinoides, and is typically 48° or more in percobromus. The head is much slenderer than in percobromus, averaging even slenderer than in a. atherinoides: the head depth is usually contained about 1.7 times in the head length. The height of the dorsal fin is contained 1.5 to 1.9 times in the TABLE II MEASUREMENTS ( IN THOUSANDTHS OF STANDARD LENGTH ) AND COUNTS OF Notropis oxyrhynchus from Texas and N . percobromus from KANSAS AND OKLAHOMA Species . . Notropis oxyrhynchus N. percobromus Specimens . Hole- 24 Paratypes 10 Adults type (Range) Mean Mean Range Standard length, mm. . . . 50.8 28,4—48.9 40.5 37.7 36.9—49.6 Predorsal length . 581 534—571 558 575 567—587 Dorsal to occiput 394 334 — 377 355 386 371—404 Prepelvic length . . 528 489—533 512 505 498 — 515 Body depth . . 252 194- — 263 228 255 227—291 Dorsal origin to lateral line . 165 140—178 157 156 142—183 Pelvic insertion to lateral line ... 83 50—97 77 102 97—125 Body width . 154 119—162 141 150 128—180 (Tjuirl^l ppijiipplp 185 175 — 20G 192 189 176 — 207 Caudal peduncle depth . 114 100—121 111 102 94—108 Head length . 264 246 — 306 276 270 260—281 Head depth 173 158 — 194 174 178 170 — 186 Snout length 83 77 — 93 86 77 72—80 Eye length . 63 59—73 66 67 60—73 Fleshy ixit©rorfoital 87 78 — 94 85 92 85—98 Upper jaw length 95 89 — 105 95 88 83 — 96 Mouth width 1 59 48 — 67 56 58 47—64 Dorsal height . 211 189—237 213 215 200 — 233 Anal height . 163 158—187 168 178 163—201 Anal base . 127 119—153 137 139 124 — 163 Pectoral length . 205 178—235 205 207 189—227 Longest caudal ray . 264 264—355 287 282 252—306 Pelvic length . 152 129—153 144 157 143—168 Scales Above lateral line . 7 •6—7 6.84 6.70 6—7 Along lateral line 35 34 — 37 35.8 37.1 36—38 Below lateral line . . 4 3—4 3.68 3.90 3—4 Lateral line to pelvic . 4 3—4 3.52 3.70 3—4 Predorsal scales . . 25 20—26 22. 22 21.3 19—24 Predorsal rows . 20 16—21 18.5 18.4 17—20 Around body : Above . 15 13—15 14.53 14.0 13—15 Below . 11 9—14 11. 83 11.0 10—12 Total . 28 24—31 28.0 27.0 26—29 Around caudal peduncle : Above . 8 7—9 7.713 6.90 6—7 Below.. 6 5—7 5.763 5.00 5 — 5 Total.. 16 14—18 15.7 13.9 13—14 Fin Rays Dorsal 8 8 — 8 8.00 8.00 8—8 Anal . 10 9—11 10.14 10.7° 10—13 Pectoral . . 14—15 13—15 13. 95 14.55 13—16 Pelvic . . 8—8 7—8 7.965 8.005 7—9 1 Between ends of gape. 2 7 specimens. 1 17 specimens. 4 82 specimens, see Table I. 5 Both sides counted. G 90 specimens, see Table I. 1951, No. i New Cyprinid Fishes from Texas 95 March 30 distance forward to the occiput (in this respect oxyrhynchus is interme¬ diate). The measurements of oxyrhynchus and percohromus are compared in detail in Table II. The outstandingly distinctive feature of oxyrhynchus , as contrasted with either percohromus or atherinoides, or, in fact, with almost any other species of the genus, is the form of the muzzle, which is very sharp in either dorsal or lateral view. The front angle of the top of the head is only 15° to 17°, as contrasted with 19° to 23° in N. percohromus. The angle formed by the dorsal and ventral contours of the muzzle, 5 6° to 70°, is usually much narrower than in percohromus (72° to 85°), particularly in the smaller fish. The angle of the head proper in lateral view is only 43° to 50°. The conical appearance of the head (Pi. I, Fig. 3) is enhanced by the continuous and almost straight, rather than distinctly angulated line formed by the margins of the interopercle and the mandibular ramus. The dorsal contour of the snout also tends to be straighter than in percohromus , and less decurved. The margins of the rami as seen from below are almost straight and converge forward evenly throughout their length, rather than generally being divergent forward to beyond the middle of the length of the rami. In further correlation with the more conical form of the head, the muzzle in oxyrhynchus is longer than in percohromus : in adults the snout is consistently much longer than the eye, on the average 29 rather than 15 percent longer, and the upper jaw is 1.2 to 1.6 times as long as the eye, instead of being only a little longer. The anal rays average 10.09, slightly fewer than in percohromus (Table 1) . The scales in the lateral line average fewer, those around the caudal peduncle more numerous (Table II). The lateral line is more decurved, as is indicated by the lesser proportional distance between the lateral line and the insertion of the pelvic fin. N. oxyrhynchus seems to be a more silvery fish than percohromus. The distribution of melanophores is shown on Plate I, Figures 2-3. The general form is rather distinctive. The ventral outline (Pi. I, Fig. 2) is more curved than the dorsal. Though it bisects the eye, a straight line from the anterior tip of the upper lip to the middle of the caudal base lies distinctly above the middle of the head. The dorsal contour rises in a gentle arch from the acuminate muzzle to the origin of the dorsal fin, which is well behind the middle of the body. From the vertical through the dorsal origin the upper and lower contours converge backward in slightly concave lines. Forward from the anal fin the slope continues downward to about the middle of the belly and then curves upward to the isthmus. Fundamentally, oxyrhynchus agrees with the other members of the subgenus Notropis. The hooked teeth number 2, 4 — 4, 2. The slightly falcate anal fin typically has more than 9 rays (Table I). The dorsal fin begins well behind the insertion of the pelvic. The silvery color, slender form, strongly curved ventral contour, oblique mouth and sharp snout stamp it, like the other species of the subgenus, as a midwater to near-surface swimmer. types.— -The holotype (University of Michigan Museum of Zoology, No. 129829), an adult 50.8 mm. in standard length, was seined from Brazos River at Wellborn Crossing, Brazos County, Texas, on October 21, 193 8, by Kelshaw Bonham and party from the Agricultural and Mechanical Col¬ lege of Texas. Many paratypes were collected in Brazos River, at four places: at the holotype locality, on October 21, 1938, and on October 25, 1940; at 96 The Texas Journal of Science 1951, No. 1 March 30 Government Dam, near Navasota, on November 24, 1939, and December 3, 1939; west* of College Station, on October 12, 1939; and at Kappes Bridge, southwest of College Station, on September 29, 1941. Smaller series were obtained in Navasota River, 16 miles southeast of College Station, on October 6, 1939; in Little Brazos River, at State Highway 21, on June 13 and July 13, 1940 (breeding adults included); and in the lower end of Toweash Creek, another tributary of the Brazos. The last-named series was collected by Marion Toole, the one from Kappes Bridge by G. H. Soulen, the others by Kelshaw Bonham and students. Plate II Fig. 1. Notropis brazosensis : topotypic paratype, an adult 46 mm. long, collected by Kelshaw Bonham and class, on October 25, 1940. Fig. 2. Notropis brazosensis: head of holotype, an adult 49.2 mm. long, collected in Brazos River at Wellborn Crossing, Texas, by Kelshaw Bonham and class, on October 21, 1938. 1951, No. 1 March 30 New Cyprinid Fishes from Texas 97 The name oxyrhynchus is derived from Greek words transliterated into Latin as oxys (sharp) and rhynchus (snout). Though the gender of Notropis is feminine and though the species name is regarded as a compound adjective, it is given the -us ending because that is the Latin transliteration of the normal feminine ending for Greek compound adjectives. BRAZOS SHINER Notropis brazosensis, new species PL II In the maze of species that constitute the genus Notropis, in the broad sense to which we have adhered, this new one appears to be most closely related to N. illecebrosa (Girard). In fact, N. brazosensis seems to be the southwestern representaive of illecebrosa, which ranges through the silty waters of the large rivers in the Mississippi Valley from Illinois to Louisi¬ ana. The status of the true illecebrosa, which had been confused with other species, was clarified by Ortenburger and Hubbs (1926: 126) and by Hubbs and Ortenburger (1929a: 29). From illecebrosa this species differs in usually having 8 instead of 9 anal rays (Table I). Jordan and Evermann (1896: 268) reported the anal rays as 8 in the types of Alburn ops illecebrosus Girard, perhaps as a miscount or misprint, or perhaps because the count was made on a variant specimen or on one of the specimens of N. boops that were mixed in the same series. The difference in number of anal rays would suffice for no more than subspecific separation, but other distinctions (Table III) warrant treatment of the forms in full species. Especially significant are the differences in the structure of the mouth, the pharyngeal arch, and the teeth. The rays in the fins other than the anal are alike in number (Table IV). The number of pelvic rays is rather characteristic, for most species of Notropis have 8 pelvic rays. other characters. — The body contours are symmetrically curved on either side of the horizontal line extending from the front of the rather strongly oblique mouth through the center of the eye to the middle of the caudal base. The muzzle is bluntly conical in side view. The lips are rela¬ tively thin and the upper lip is scarcely expanded at the midline. The fins are moderately pointed and rather expansive. The dorsal and anal are distinctly falcate; the pectoral and pelvic, somewhat blunt at the tip. The dorsal origin is near or a little behind the middle of the standard length, about over or a little behind the pelvic insertion. The dorsal height often nearly equals the length of the head and occasionally exceeds that dimension. The caudal fin is usually longer than the head. The complete lateral line is rather strongly downcurved anteriorly. Its scales are scarcely modified in outline. Scale counts are detailed in Table V. The general color is pale and silvery, with rather sparse puncticulation above the midsides and virtually none below. Large melanophores are scat¬ tered deep beneath the broad and rather diffuse silvery band. The band broadens anteriorly and covers the side of the head behind the eye. Above this silvery band and along its upper part is a narrow dusky streak com¬ prising small superficial melanophores. The dark streak is arched upward to nearly parallel the dorsal contour, but on the caudal peduncle it becomes submedian. Between the dorsal origin and the pelvic insertion this streak and the lateral line divide the body approximately into thirds. The dusky 98 The Texas Journal of Science 1951, No. 1 March 30 TABLE III comparison of Notropis brazosensis with N. illecebrosa Based chiefly on a series of paratypes of N. brazosensis (U.M.M.Z., 159368. from Little Brazos River at Highway 21, Brazos County, Texas) and on a collection of N. illecebrosa (U.M.M.Z., 153072, from Mississippi River at Brasher or Cottonwood Point, Pemiscot County, Missouri ) . Character N. brazosensis N. illecebrosa Anal rays (Table I) . Typically 8 Typically 9 Fins . Usually less elevated Usually much elevated and less pointed ; pelvic and pointed ; pelvic not or barely reaching reaching about to, or anus beyond, anus Size and texture . . . Larger and coarser Thinner, more delicate Fin rays . Thicker and stronger Thinner, more fragile Upper lip . About even with snout tip ; Usually projecting profile of tip about vertical beyond snout tip ; or sloping downward profile of tip sloping and more or less backward ; downward and more or mostly visible from less forward ; little or directly below not at all visible from directly below Lower lip . Definitely included Approximately even with within upper lip upper lip Upper limb of About one-half as broad About two-fifths as pharyngeal arch (at base) as long ; outer broad (at base) as long; edge rather evenly curved ; outer edge angulated ; upper limb longer than upper limb shorter than lower lower Lower (anterior) edge of Scarcely cultrate More or less strongly grinding surface of main pharyngeal teeth and jagged cultrate and jagged Row of melanophores Becoming obsolescent Remaining strong in along anal base and in half-grown half-grown ; obsolescent on lower edge of peduncle in adult TABLE IV fin ray numbers in Notropis brazosensis and N. illecebrosa The anal ray counts are given in Table 1. The counts for N. illecebrosa were all taken from the series noted in Table III. Dorsal Rays 7 8 9 N M N. brazosensis . . . 1 85 1 87 8.00 N. illecebrosa . . 45 4 49 8.08 Caudal Rays 18 19 20 N M N. brazosensis . . 3 7C 1 74 18.97 N. illecebrosa . 2 35 1 38 18.97 Pectoral Rays 13 1 14 15 | 16 N M N. brazosensis . 3 73 85 12 173 14.61 N. illecebrosa . 2 33 .31 4 75 14.53 Pelvic Rays 8 9 10 N M N. brazosensis . . 54 117 3 174 8.7 1. N. illecebrosa . 20 77 1 98 8.81- iyoi, No. i New Cyprinid Fishes from Texas 99 March 30 streak is separated by a narrow almost unpigmented light band from the dorsal area, where melanophores in single file line the scale pockets. Near the dorsal midline other melanophores lie inside the marginal file. There is a narrow dusky streak before, along and behind the dorsal base. Before the dorsal the more prominent melanophores are arranged in one series; behind the dorsal, in two or three series. There is a weak dusky triangle just before the dorsal base but none at the caudal base or at the nape. The basicaudal spot is barely suggested. Fine melanophores line the dorsal and caudal rays and occur on the outer edge of the pectoral. The top of the head is dark on the parietal region and is dusky between the eyes and between the nos¬ trils. The melanophores extend over the snout onto the upper lip and oc¬ casionally onto the lower lip and the tip of the chin. Fine dots are sprinkled between the nostrils and the mouth and a narrow streak follows the lower margin of the orbit. Very few melanophores occur about the upper part of the opercles. Except as noted the lateral and ventral surfaces of the head are unpigmented. Minute nuptial tubercles, sharp and recurved, follow the second to the ninth pectoral rays, in a single file branching once, with about 4 to 6 tubercles (or pairs) on each ray segment. Elsewhere the nuptial organs are almost completely obsolete. Proportional measurements are analyzed in Table V. TABLE V MEASUREMENTS (IN THOUSANDTHS OF STANDARD LENGTH ) and scale counts of types of Notropis brazosensis Holo- type 24 Paratypes (Range) Mean Standard length, mm . 49.2 33.5—61.5 44.1 Predorsal length . 500 498—537 513 Prepelvic length . 504 478—528 504 Body depth . 252 217—289 243 Dorsal origin to lateral line . . 165 134—184 160 Pelvic insertion to lateral line . 98 74—119 91 Body width . 153 125 — 184 147 Caudal peduncle length . . 206 193—226 205 Caudal peduncle depth . 123 108—124 116 Head length . 250 249—282 262 Head depth . 183 167—198 179 Snout length . 72 71—87 77 Eye length . 59 57—80 70 Fleshy interorbital . 99 91—102 97 Upper jaw length . 78 73—90 80 Mouth width 1 . . 63 51—69 58 Dorsal height . . 240 217—270 243 Anal height 172 158—204 178 Anal base . . 116 102—128 110 Longest caudal ray . 272 256—313 288 Pectoral length . 197 177—222 201 Pelvic length . Scales 161 144—184 168 Above lateral line . 6 5—7 6.04 Along lateral line . 34 33—35 34.1 Below lateral line . 4 3—4 3.76 Lateral line to pelvic . 3 3—4 3.20 Predorsal scales . . 14 13—20 14.8 Predorsal rows . 14 12—17 14.0 Around body: Above . . 13 12—14 12.6 Below . 11 9—11 10.3 Total . . 26 23—27 24.8 Around caudal peduncle: Above . 6 4—7 5.28 Below . 5 4—6 5.00 Total . 13 11—14 12.3 1 Between ends of gape. 100 The Texas Journal of Science 1951, No. 1 March 30 habitat and range. — Like oxyrhynchus , this species is characteristic of the silty waters of Brazos River and its main tributaries, in eastern Texas. The form of the body, the position of the mouth and eye, the color and other features suggest a mid-water habitat. It is often, perhaps usually, associated with oxyrhynchus and the two commonly dominate the fauna. Outside the Brazos system brazosensis is known to us only from adjacent waters near the coast, including San Bernard and Colorado rivers, to the southward, and, doubtfully, from one locality in Harris County, to the northward (see below). Recent collecting by Clark Hubbs in the Neches River system has failed to disclose this species there. types. — The holotype (University of Michigan Museum of Zoology, No. 129827), an adult 49.2 mm. in standard length, was seined with the type series of oxyrhynchus from Brazos River at Wellborn Crossing, Brazos County, Texas, on October 21, 193 8, by Kelshaw Bonham and party from the Agricultural and Mechanical College of Texas. Several series of paratypes were collected at other points in the Brazos River system, by Bonham and others. The 24 paratypes measured for Table V were obtained at 5 places: at the holotype locality; in Brazos River west of College Station, on October 21, 1938; in Little Brazos River at State Highway 21, on June 13 and July 13, 1940 (including breeding adults); in borrow pit 5.3 miles west of Bryan on highway 21, on July 13, 1940; and in San Bernard River at State Highway 60, on May 12, 1939. Additional paratypes of this species were collected by Bonham and party at 3 localities in Brazos County: in Brazos River west of College Station, on October 12, 1939; in Little Brazos River near Bryan, on March 31, 1939; and in Navasota River at Ferguson Crossing, on October 6, 1939. Still others were taken by R. T. Richey in Little Brazos River, Brazos County, on March 23, 1936, and by A. H. Wright in Colorado River, on the road between Houston and Victoria, on June 24, 1917. A single large specimen collected by J. L. Baughman at Old River Terrace, on Market Street Road, Harris County, on May 18, 1941, is re¬ ferred doubtfully to brazosensis. It agrees with that species in most respects, but has only 7 anal rays. More material is urgently needed from this region north of the mouth of Brazos River— -not only of this species but also of the fish fauna in general. CHUB SHINER Notropis potteri, new species PL III Notropis potteri. — Potter, 1938 : pi. 4, upper fig., facing p. 422 (probably a recognizable figure ; species attributed on legend to Hubbs ; no text reference ; “recently located in McLellan County, Texas”). Baughman, 1950: 130 (name attributed to Hubbs; no de¬ scription whatever : “common in Brazos River and tributaries” ; entry taken from manuscript list by Bonham and Reid). This species is described as new, despite the fact that Potter published, over the name Notropis potteri Hubbs, a figure that is probably recognizable, when the assigned locality is considered. Potter’s action failed to satisfy the requirements for availability stipulated by Article 2 5, Item C of the Inter¬ national Rules of Zoological Nomenclature, however, because the date of publication was subsequent to 193 0 and because neither a diagnosis nor a definite bibliographic citation was furnished. 1951, No. 1 March 30 New Cyprinid Fishes from Texas 101 diagnosis. — -The hooked pharyngeal teeth number 2, 4 — 4, 2. Fin rays: dorsal, consistently 8; anal, usually 7, rarely 6 or 8 (Table I); pectoral, 14 to 18, averaging 15.7; pelvic, typically 8, rarely 9, averaging 8.07. The fins are moderately large and rather bluntly pointed: the dorsal height is always less than the head length, often only two-thirds as great; Plate III Fig. 1. Notropis p otter i : lateral view of an adult paratype 66 mm. long, collected in Brazos River at Government Dam, Texas, by Kelshaw Bonham, on December 3,1939. Fig. 2. Notropis potteri : dorsal view of a 62 mm. paratype from the same collection. Fig. 3. Notropis potteri: enlarged view of the head of specimen shown in Fig. 1. 102 The Texas Journal of Science 1951, No. 1 March 30 the caudal is usually a little shorter than the head; the pectoral length about equals the dorsal height; the pectoral does not reach the pelvic insertion. The dorsal origin is near or a little behind the middle of the standard length, approximately over the pelvic insertion. The body contours are symmetrically curved, with most of the small eye above the axis. The muzzle is very thick and blunt in side view, with the heavy jaws about equal in forward projection. The snout in top view is extremely massive, almost semicircular. The mouth is moderately oblique: the upper lip rises to the level through the lower margin or the lower part of the pupil (Pi. Ill, Fig. 3). The middle part of the lower lip and the posterior part of the upper lip are much swollen. The complete lateral line is nearly straight, horizontal, and median behind the short downward anterior curve. Its scales are scarcely modified in outline. The body is moderately dusky above and silvery below, with little pigment below the region of the lateral line. The melanophores on the upper parts of the head and body are rather evenly scattered. Large melanophores are dispersed about the lateral line anteriorly. The lateral dark band is moderately developed on the caudal peduncle and ends just in advance of the very weak and diffuse basicaudal spot. comparisons.- — Notropis potteri is one of the more distinctive of the many species that constitute the genus. The broad head, heavy muzzle and big mouth, well shown in the figures (Pi. Ill), accord it an aspect sur¬ prisingly like that of the creek chub, Semotilus atromaculatus. In some re¬ spects it shares characters with the Gulf -coastal species N. sabinae Jordan and Gilbert, but it is a much larger and coarser fish, with a somewhat smaller and much less inferior and less horizontal mouth. It also shows some resemblance to N. bairdi and N. girardi Hubbs and Ortenburger (192 9a: 29-33), which seem to represent N. sabinae in the Red and Ar¬ kansas river systems, respectively. Since it differs from sabinae, bairdi and girardi in the dental formula, its resemblance to those species is probably not indicative of very close relationship. Except for the consistent development of a second row of two pharyn¬ geal teeth and for the complete squamation of the nape and breast, the specimens of N. potteri scarcely differ from the original account of N. bairdi and agree strikingly in some respects, for example in the superficial resem¬ blance to Semotilus atromaculatus. On comparing potteri with the types of bairdi, however, close attention to detail discloses numerous other trenchant differences. The pharyngeal arch is less heavy (items 3 and 4 in the accom¬ panying comparison) ; the scales are larger, are shield-shaped instead of suboval, and have fewer radii (items 6-8). The skin is thinner and less papillose (9). The body is slenderer, especially in adult females (10). The head is notably slenderer and thinner and the margins are straightish rather than notably turgid (12-14). The mouth and lip structures are very dif¬ ferent (15-21). The opercle is much smaller (22). There are also sharp differences in pigmentation (24-29). The relationship is probably more intimate with Notropis blennius (Girard) , the status of which was clarified by Fowler (1910: 274-276, ngs. 4, 6, 10) and by Hubbs (1926: 42-44). When compared with either of the subspecies into which N. blennius now seems divisible, N . potteri stands out so sharply as to call for full specific separation. 1951, No. 1 March 30 New Cyprinid Fishes from Texas 103 The subspecies of blennius may be called Notropis blennius bl ennuis (Girard) and N. b. jejunus (Forbes). Specimens from the Arkansas River in Oklahoma are topotypic of Alburnops blennius Girard (1856: 194; 1858: 261, pi. 57, figs. 13-16 referred to but not bound in same volume; 1 8 59: 5 5, pi. 57, figs. 13-16). They agree with Girard’s description and figure in some important respects, such as the deep and abruptly decurved snout and low mouth. Adequate material from the Cimarron River and from various smaller tributaries also represents the nominate subspecies. The same form occurs in the Arkansas and Missouri rivers in Kansas. A specimen collected by George A. Moore and J. M. Paden in the Red River system, in Bricken Spring, 24 miles south of Ada, Oklahoma, on April 5, 1947, is typical of N. b. blennius, but is thought by Dr. Moore to represent a bait introduction, as it was taken on the premises of Thomas Bricken, a bait dealer, who gets his material from the Arkansas River system as well as the Red. As deter¬ mined by reexamination of the collections in the University of Michigan Museum of Zoology, N. b. jejunus ranges from the Plains streams of Alberta and Manitoba in Canada through the Red River and Mississippi River of Minnesota and through the Mississippi River drainage basin of Iowa, Illi¬ nois, Indiana, Ohio, Kentucky, Tennessee and Missouri to the Mississippi River in Arkansas. It also occurs in the Tombigbee River in Alabama. The Neosho and Illinois rivers in Oklahoma, which are clearer and cooler than other streams in the same region, are inhabited by the northern subspecies. Since the differential characters of the two forms, outlined below, show moderate overlap and some degree of both local and individual inconsistency, and especially since the abundant material from Nebraska exhibits varying degrees of intermediacy and of mixture of characters, only subspecific sepa¬ ration is justified, and until the material is more critically analyzed and until the differences can be demonstrated to be genetic, even the subspecific separation must be regarded as tentative. Since this paper was written the pertinence of the name blennius to the form here called N. b. blennius was confirmed at the National Museum by an examination of the type series (No. 67). The 6 largest specimens, 5 1 to 65 mm. long, including one of 56 mm. labelled "Type” in Jordan’s hand¬ writing, agree with the type figure, and are N. b. blennius. They have the deep head, decurved snout, low mouth, small eye, and most other characters here attributed to the typical subspecies, but not the small scale size (the total length of the key scale enters the postorbital length 2.7 to 3.0 times). The 5 smaller types, 3 8 to 44 mm. long, represent the unnamed creek sub¬ species of Notropis volucella Cope which inhabits the Neocho River system and other waters in the contiguous parts of Oklahoma, Arkansas, Missouri, and Kansas and which is characterized by the only moderate elevation of the lateral-line scales, the smallish size, the large eye, the high dorsal fin and the chunky body. These 5 specimens have been recataloged as U.S.N.M. 152780. Their characters were apparently not considered in the preparation of the type figure and description of Alburnops blennius. N. b. blennius differs from N. b. jejunus in the usually less flattened and less expansive upper limb of the pharyngeal arch (item 3 in accom¬ panying comparison of forms) ; the somewhat smaller rather less shield¬ shaped scales, the length of the median scales entering the postorbital more instead of less than 3.0 times (items 6-7), with slight overlap in some series; the somewhat thicker and more papillose skin (9); the deeper body, 104 The Texas Journal of Science 1951, No. 1 March 30 with more arched anterodorsal profile (10); the usually deeper and wider head (12-13); the usually more nearly horizontal mouth and the blunter and more decurved snout (15-16); on the average probably in the some¬ what thicker lips (17-19), and shorter mouth (21); usually in the longer opercle (22) and smaller eye (23); and somewhat in the pigmentation (26-29). The differences between pot ter i and both forms of blennius, as here recognized, are also outlined in the accompanying comparison. The teeth of the second row are stronger, less deciduous, and more constantly devel¬ oped (items 1-2). The pharyngeal arches are relatively larger than in either form (4) and the upper limb is more rodlike, less flangelike, particularly in comparison with jejunus (3). The ratio between scale length and post¬ orbital contrasts with that of blennius (6) and the scale is usually more shield-shaped, less suboval, than in that subspecies (7). The radii average more (item 8). The skin seems smoother and less coarsely papillose than in N. b. blennius (9). The body averages slenderer than in that subspecies (10). The head averages slightly longer (11) and definitely slenderer (12). Its margins are less curved than in N. b. blennius (14). The mouth averages more oblique and higher anteriorly than in that subspecies (15-16). The local thickening of the lips and the resulting sigmoid gape give the mouth of potteri a strikingly different physiognomy, although N. b. blennius some¬ times slightly approaches potteri in these respects (17-20). The opercle is usually smaller, especially in comparison with N. b. blennius (22). The eye averages smaller than in that subspecies and at comparable sizes is definitely smaller than in jejunus (23). comparison of Notropis potteri with similar forms 1. Pharyngeal tooth formula : N. potteri : 2, 4—4, 2. N. bairdi : 4 — 4 (5- — 4 in 1 specimen, with the 5 on the left side normal in appearance). N. blennius , both subspecies: 1 or 2, 4- — 4, 1 or 2. 2. Teeth of lesser row: N. potteri : large, strong, firmly fixed; both constantly present. N . bairdi : consistently absent; the arch rather swollen in their place, not flattened as in the 3 other forms. N. blennius blennius: small and very weak, not very firmly fixed, one frequently lost and occasionally never developed. N. blennius jejunus : as in blennius blennius , but perhaps not quite so weak. 3. Pharyngeal arch : N. potteri : only moderately heavy; upper limb usually more or less rodlike, approaching lower limb in form. N. bairdi : much heavier than in the 3 other forms. N. blennius blennius : weakest; in form of arch about intermediate between potteri and jejunus. N. blennius jejunus : averaging weaker than in potteri; upper limb usually a thin, broad flange. 4 . Width across both arches , laid with ends together on a flat surface, stepped into head length : N. potteri: 2.3 to 2.5, rarely 2.6. 1951, No. 1 March 30 New Cyprinid Fishes from Texas 105 N. bairdi: 1.9 to 2.2. N. blennius blennius : 2.5 (rarely) to 2.7. N. blennius jejunus: 2.4 to 2.7. 5. Squama tion on nape and on breast: N. potteri, N. blennius blennius and N. blennius jejunus: complete. N. bairdi : usually incomplete, with scaleless area small to large. 6. Median horizontal length of entire scale from first row above lateral line, below dorsal fin, measured into postorbital: N. potteri : more than 3.0 but less than 4.0 times. N. bairdi: more than 4.0 times (reflecting the long opercle and the small eye as well as the small scales). N. blennius blennius: usually between 3.0 and 4.0 times, occasionally slightly less than 3,0 times. N. blennius jejunus: typically less than 3.0 times, sometimes slightly more than 3.0 times (reflecting larger scale and larger eye). 7. Shape of scales from near middle of sides: N. potteri: strongly shield-shaped, with prominent anterior angles in outline and in course of circuli; posterior margin somewhat pro¬ duced. N. bairdi: suboval, with very weak anterior angles and scarcely produced posterior margin. N. blennius blennius: somewhat shield-shaped (intermediate between bairdi and 2 other forms). N. blennius jejunus: about as in potteri. 8. Radii: N. potteri: rather few. N. bairdi: rather numerous. A7. blennius, both subspecies: very few. 9. Skin texture: N. potteri: rather thin and smooth, with microscopic papillae. N. bairdi: thick and tough with coarse papillae. N. blennius blennius: intermediate between bairdi and the 2 other forms. N . blennius jejunus: about as in potteri. 10. Greatest depth of body in standard length (these differences are ac¬ centuated when specimens of the same sex and of similar size are compared) : N. potteri: 3.7 to 4.8 (average of 40, 4.26). N. bairdi: 3.6 to 4.5 (average of 37, 4.00). N. blennius blennius: 3.7 to 4.3 (average of 17, 3.92); as a result of the deep body and the low mouth, the anterior dorsal profile is typically more arched than in N . b. jejunus. N. blennius jejunus: 4.0 to 4.8 (average of 43, 4.39). //. Head length stepped into standard length (these differences are ac¬ centuated when specimens of like size are compared) : N. potteri: 3.3 to 3.8 (average of 61, 3.56). N. bairdi: 3.3 to 3.8 (average of 30, 3.63). N. blennius blennius: 3.4 to 4.1 (average of 17, 3.69). N. blennius jejunus: 3.7 to 4.0 (average of 32, 3.77). 12. Head depth stepped into head length: N. potteri: 1.65 to 1.8. 1951, No. 1 March 30 106 The Texas Journal of Science N. bairdi : 1.5 to 1.6 5. N. blennhis blennius : 1.4 to 1.6, usually 1.5. N. blennms jejnnus: 1.5 to 1.75, usually 1.6 to 1.7. 13. Head width stepped into head length : N. potteri : 1.7 to 2.0. N. bairdi: 1.5 to 1.7. N. blennius blennms: 1.6 to 1.9, usually 1.7 to 1.8. N. blennius jejunus: 1.7 to 2.0, usually 1.8 to 1.9. 14. Head margins: N. potteri: straightish, even in large adults. N. bairdi: more strongly curved, becoming extremely turgid in large adults. N. blennius blennius: somewhat approaching bairdi. N. blennius jejunus: almost as straight as in potteri. 13. Mouth : N. potteri , N. bairdi (usually) and N. blennius jejunus: moderately oblique. N. blennius blennius: subhorizontal to moderately oblique. 16. Horizontal from front of rostral fold crossing orbit at: N. potteri: lower margin or lower part of pupil. N. bairdi: variable, from lower margin of orbit to lower part of pupil. N. blennms blennius: lower margin of orbit or a little higher (in correlation, the snout is blunter and more decurved than in the 3 other forms). N. blennms jejunus: usually about midway between lower margin of orbit and lower edge of pupil. 17. Upper lip: N. potteri: markedly dilated and swollen posteriorly. N. bairdi: scarcely dilated, thin throughout. N. blennius blennius: thin throughout to slightly thickened poster¬ iorly. N. blennius jejunus: scarcely dilated. 18. Lower lip: N. potteri: markedly dilated medially. N. bairdi: scarcely dilated, thin throughout. N. blennius blennius: thin throughout to slightly thickened medially. N. blennms jejunus: scarcely dilated. 19. Shape of gape (resulting from degree of thickening of lips): N. potteri: rather strongly sigmoid. N. bairdi and N. blennius jejunus: scarcely sigmoid. N. blennms blennius: straight to slightly sigmoid. 20. Length of conjoined lip behind end of gape, compared ivith length of pupil: N. potteri: nearly or quite as long. N. bairdi and both subspecies of N. blennius: about one-half as long, 21. End of gape approximately under: N. potteri: posterior nostril. N. bairdi and N. blennius jejunus: front of orbit. N. blennius blennius: intermediate. 22. Length of opercle (from extreme tip of membrane to nearest point on preopercular margin) stepped into greatest distance from tip of snout 1951, No. 1 March 30 New Cyprinid Fishes from Texas 107 to preopercular margin : N. potteri: 2.2 to 2.7, usually 2.3 to 2.5. N. bairdi : 1.7 to 2.0. N. blennius blennins : 1.8 5 to 2.45, usually 2.0 to 2.3. AT. blennius jejunus: 2.1 to 2.6, usually 2.2 to 2.4. 23. Length of eye ( cornea ) stepped into length of head (these differences are accentuated when specimens of like size are compared; toward the far north the eye in jejunus becomes reduced) : N. potteri : 4.2 to 5.5 (average of 61, 4.72). N. bairdi : 4.4 to 5.6 (average of 30, 5.02). N. blennius blennius: 4.2 to 5.4 (average of 17, 4.57). N. blennius jejunus: 3.6 to 4.4 (average of 32, 3.97). 24. Pigment along base of dorsal fin : N. potteri and both subspecies of N . blennius: fin base rather evenly bordered by mid-dorsal dark streak. N. bairdi: middle of base blackened; front and end of base more or less completely depigmented. 25. Narrow dark streak above main lateral dark band: N. potteri and both subspecies of N. blennius: scarcely diffentiated from main band. N. bairdi: sharply set off from main band, with an intervening scarce¬ ly pigmented area, especially in half -grown (in young pigment may be poorly developed; in adult pigment may be more uni¬ formly distributed). 26. Pigment on scale row below lateral line on anterior part of trunk: N. potteri: undeveloped. N . bairdi: well developed in adult. N. blennius blennius: undeveloped to moderately developed. N. blennius jejunus: moderately to well developed. 27. Pigment on cheek below horizontal from just below orbit: N. potteri: scarcely developed onto cheek, ending below front nostril. N. bairdi: developed down to or nearly to rostral rim and back to behind vertical from front of eye. N. blennius, both subspecies: developed down to or nearly to rostral rim and back to below vertical from posterior nostril. 28. Pigment on itpper lip: N. potteri: usually moderately well developed, at least anteriorly. N. bairdi: lacking to weakly developed, anteriorly. N. blennius blennius: moderately to well developed. N. blennius jejunus: well developed. 29. Pigment on lower lip: N. potteri: usually weakly developed, at front. N. bairdi: lacking or barely developed. N. blennius blennius: usually weakly developed. N. blennius jejunus: weakly to moderately developed. range and habitat. — Notropis potteri occurs not only in the silty Brazos River and its main tributaries, along with oxyrhynchus and brazo- sensis, but also in some of the smaller and less turbid waters of this river system. As a native fish it seems to be confined to the Brazos system. It has recently been taken in the Red River system, but we think it probable that the population there has become established from escaped bait minnows. 108 The Texas Journal of Science 1951, No. 1 March 30 originally from the Brazos River system. No specimens were recognized among the myriads of fish from the Red River and tributaries collected in 1925, 1926 and 1927 (reported by Ortenburger and Hubbs, 1927, and by Hubbs and Ortenburger, \929a-b) , nor in other, unreported collections from those waters made prior to 1948. The material in the University of Michigan Museum of Zoology, comprising more than 1,800 specimens col¬ lected in 1926 and smaller numbers taken in 192 5, 1929, and 1932, was all carefully reexamined in this connection. The specimens taken in 1948 and 1949 were from Lake Texoma, a heavily fished artificial lake, and the Red River, mostly near the lake. Those from the lake were collected by Frank T. Knapp on June 2 5, 1949, at Burns Run Resort, Bryan County, Okla¬ homa, near highway 7 5 A. Series from the river below the lake were seined north of Paris, Lamar County, Texas, by George A. Moore and party on March 28, 1948, and by Knapp and party on July 8, 1949, and south of Yuba, Bryan County, Oklahoma, on Highway 299, by Moore and class on March 15, 1949. Four were seined by Knapp and party on June 23, 1949, in the Red River far above the lake, at Davidson, Tillman County, Okla¬ homa. No specimens have been identified in collections from the Trinity or other river systems between the Brazos and the Red. Comparison of speci¬ mens shows no notable difference. The tabulated proportional measure¬ ments (Table VI) are very similar, considering the difference in habitat, the difference in average size of specimens, and the fact that the Brazos and Red specimens were measured by different men. The biggest indicated dif¬ ference in proportions, in head length, was not verified in measuring larger series of specimens for the preceding species comparison. types. — The holotype (University of Michigan Museum of Zoology, No. 120228), an adult 45.3 mm. in standard length, was seined by the Hubbs family and Leo T. Murray in Waco Creek, McLennan County, Texas, on June 21, 1938. The paratypes were taken with the holotype and at several other places in the Brazos River system. The 22 paratypes measured for Table VI were collected with the holotype; and in Brazos River at Government Dam, near Navasota, on November 24, 1939, by Bonham and party; in Little Brazos River at State Highway 21, on June 13 and July 13, 1940, by Bonham and party; at the Texas state fish hatchery at Cisco (re¬ ceived August 24, 1936, from George E. Potter); and in the lower end of Toweash Creek, a Brazos River tributary, by Marion Toole. Other para¬ types were collected by G. E. Potter in Waco Creek, Baylor University Campus, Waco, on March 3, 1931, in Baylor Creek, at Waco, on January 22, 1931, and in unspecified waters at Waco; by R. T. Richey in Little Brazos River, Brazos County, on March 23, 193 6, and at an unspecified locality and date in the Brazos River system; and by Bonham and students in Brazos River at Government Dam, on December 3, 1939. Specimens not designated as paratypes were taken by Bonham and students in Brazos River at Wellborn Crossing, Brazos County, on October 31, 1931, and in Little Brazos River, Brazos County, on March 31, 1939. Subsequent to the preparation of the diagnosis other specimens, not designated as paratypes, have been collected by Frank T. Knapp of the Agricultural and Mechanical College of Texas and by Clark Hubbs of the University of Texas. This species is dedicated to an enthusiastic naturalist, Dr. George E. Potter, formerly of Baylor University and now at the Agricultural and 1951, No. i New Cyprinid Fishes from Texas 109 March 30 Mechanical College of Texas. He collected the first specimens of the species and submitted them to the senior author for study. SUMMARY Among the many new fishes added during the past three decades to the known freshwater fish fauna of eastern North America are the three now belatedly described from eastern Texas — Notropis oxyrhynchus y N. brazosensis, and N. potteri. These species characterize the larger silty streams of the Brazos River system, which are thus shown to have a somewhat distinctive fauna. N. oxyrhynchus and N. potteri appear to be confined to this system (a population of potteri in the Red River system is thought to be the result of bait-minnow introduction) ; N. brazosensis occurs also in the lower parts of adjacent river systems. N. potteri also inhabits smaller and clearer streams. TABLE VI MEASUREMENTS flN THOUSANDTHS OF STANDARD LENGTH) and counts of types of Notropis potteri The types were measured by Keishaw Bonham, the Red River specimens by Frank T. Knapp. Holo- 22 Paratypes 19 from Red River 1 type (Range and Mean) (Range and Mean) Standard length, mm . 45 3 38.7—80.0 (48.7) 34.2—64.3 (44.2) Predorsal length . 523 497—567 (527) 500—543 (521) Prepelvic length 505 511 — 552 (528) 491 — 548 (517) Body depth . . 245 211—263 (233) 210—265 (228) Dorsal origin to lateral line . 153 126—159 (141) 119—159 (131) Pelvic insertion to lateral line... 120 80 — 123 (97) 83—127 (100) Body width . 181 152—191 (170) 125—195 (163) Caudal peduncle length . 221 183—231 (203) 183—240 (221) Caudal peduncle depth . 117 105 — 124 (113) 106—125 (114) Head length . 297 267—318 (301) 252—294 (273) Head depth . 180 161—195 (177) 156—182 (167) Snout length 83 85 — 104 (95) 73 — 93 (85) Eye length . 66 49—66 (58) 50—69 (60) Fleshy interorbital 100 93 — 128 (105) 87 — 107 (95) Upper jaw length . 86 86 — 110 (98) 94—112 (101) Mouth width 1 . . 72 71—109 (86) 74—93 (82) Dorsal height . . . 240 209 — 243 (229) 199—244 (225) Anal height . 172 159—188 (171) 159—190 (172) Anal base . 81 82—104 (91) 79—108 (91) Longest caudal ray . 300 255—314 (281) 251—326 (272) Pectoral length . 253 195—253 (221) 188—244 (211) Pelvic length 158 143—169 (155) 137—168 (149) Scales Above lateral line . 6 5—6 (5.72) 6—7 (6.16) Along lateral line . 35 A 34—37 (35.0) A K / A CO \ 34—36 (34.6) A _ s (A 32 \ Below lateral line . 4 4 - O {‘t.Oti ) Lateral line to pelvic . 4 3—5 (4.52) 4—4 (4.00) Predorsal scales . 19 15—24 (19.1) 16—20 (18.1)3 Predorsal rows . . 15 13—18 (15.3) 14—17 (15.3) Around body : Above . 13 11—14 (12.6) 11—13 (11.9) Below . 13 12—16 (13.9) 11—14 (12.5) Total . 28 25—31 (28.4) 24 — 28 (25.8) Around caudal peduncle: Above 6 5—7 (5.91) 5—6 (5.53) Below 5 5—8 (5.52) 5—6 (5.11) Total 13 12—16 (13.4) 12 — 13 (12.6) Fin Rays Dorsal . 8 8—8 (8.00) 7—8 (7.95) Anal (Table I) . 7 7—8 (7.04) 6—8 (7.00) Pectoral . . 16—16 14—18 (15.7)3 13—16 (14.9)3 Pelvic . : . 8—8 8 — 9 (8.07)3 7—8 (7.97)3 1 Between ends of gape. 2 18 specimens. 3 Both sides counted. 110 The Texas Journal of Science 1951, No. 1 March 30 Notropis oxyrhynchus appears to be the southwestern representative of N. percobromus, the status of which is further elucidated. N. brazosensis seems to represent N. illecebrosa. N. potteri resembles N. Sabinae, N. bairdi, and N. girardi , but is probably more closely related to N. blennius, which is held to comprise two subspecies, N. b. blennius of the generally silty South¬ western streams, especially of the Arkansas River system, and N. b. jejunus of more northern and more eastern waters. Detailed comparisons are made between oxyrhynchus and percobromus , between brazosensis and illecebrosa , and between potteri, bairdi, and the two subspecies of blennius. LITERATURE CITED Baughman, J. L. — 1950 — Random notes on Texas fishes. Part I. Tex. J. Sci. 2 (1) : 117-138. Cope, E. D. — 1871 — Recent reptiles and fishes. Report on the reptiles and fishes obtained by the naturalist of the expedition. Ann Rept. U. S. Geol. Surv. Wyoming and Territories (Hayden Survey) 2 (18) : 432-442. Evermann, Barton Warren, and William C. Kendall — 1894- — The fishes of Texas and the Rio Grande basin, considered chiefly with reference to their geographic distribution. Bull. U. S. Fish Comm. 12 : 57-121, 480-482, pis. 10-50. Fowler, Henry W. — 1910 — Notes on the variations of some species of the genus Notropis. Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila. 62:273-293, pis. 15-21. Girard, Charles — 1856 — Researches upon the cyprinoid fishes inhabiting the fresh waters of the United States of America, west of the Mississippi Valley, from specimens in the Smithsonian Institution. Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila. 8 : 165-213. - — - 1858— Fishes. Part 4 of general report upon the zoology of the several Pacific railroad routes. Reports of explorations and surveys . . . for a railroad from the Mississippi River to the Pacific Ocean 10: i-xv, 1-400, 21 pis. - 1859 — Report upon fishes . . . collected on the survey. No. 5 of Part VI, Zoological Re¬ port, of explorations for a railroad route (near the thirty-fifth parallel of north latitude) from the Mississippi River to the Pacific Ocean. By Lieutenant A. W. Whipple assisted by Lieutenant J. C. Ives, 1853-’54. Reports of explorations and sur¬ veys . . . for a railroad from the Mississippi River to the Pacific Ocean ... 10 : 47-59, 14 pis. Hubbs, Carl L. — 1926 — A check-list of the fishes of the Great Lakes and tributary waters, with nomenclatorial notes and analytical keys. Misc. Publ. Mus. Zool. Univ. Mich. 15 : 1-77, pis. 1-4. - 1945 — Corrected distributional records for Minnesota fishes. Copeia 1945 (1) : 13-22. - 1946 — -An arm protractor for the precise measurement of angles in systematic ichthy¬ ology. Copeia 1946 (2) : 79-80, fig. 1. Hubbs, Carl L., and Karl F. Lagler — 1941 — Guide to the fishes of the Great Lakes and tribu¬ tary waters. Bull. Cranbrook Inst. Sci. 18: 1-100, figs. 1-118, map 1. - 1947 (and 2nd printing, 1949) — Bull. Cranbrook Inst. Sci. 26 : i-xi, 1-186, figs. 1-251, 38 text figs., 26 col. pis., endpaper map. Hubbs, Carl L., and A. I. Ortenburger — 1929a — Further notes on the fishes of Oklahoma with descriptions of new species of Cyprinidae. Publ. Univ. Okla. Biol. Surv. 1 (Univ. Okla. Bull. 434) : 15-43, pis. 1-5. - 1929b — Fishes collected in Oklahoma and Arkansas in 1927. Publ. Univ. Okla. Biol. Surv. 1 (Univ. Okla. Bull. 434) : 45-112, pis. 6-13. Jordan, David Starr, and Barton Warren Evermann — 1896 — The fishes of North and Middle America . . . Bull. U. S. Nat. Mus. 47 (1) : i-lx, 1-1240. Jordan, David S., and Charles H. Gilbert — 1883 — Synopsis of the fishes of North America. Bull. U. S. Nat. Mus. 16: i-lvi, 1-1018. Ortenburger, A. I., and Carl L. Hubbs — 1927 — A report on the fishes of Oklahoma, with de¬ scriptions of new genera and species. Proc. Okla. Acad. Sci. 6: 123-141. Potter, George E. — 1938— Textbook of zoology. C. V. Mosby, St. Louis, pp. 1-915, figs. 1-440. col. pis. 1-15. 1951, No. 1 March 30 A Marine Tardigrade 111 A MARINE TARDIGRADE FROM THE GULF OF MEXICO B. G. CHITWOOD Department of Biology The Catholic University of America Washington, D, C, Tardigrades are commonly encountered in the study of fresh water mosses but few have been reported from the marine waters of North America. The present material was collected by E. G. Reinhard in the vicinity of Rockport, Texas and has been identified as Bathyechiniscus tetronyx . This appears to be the first record of this species from the east coast though Mathews (1938) reported it in washings of Dictyota on the California coast. The species was originally described by Steiner (1926) from the South Polar Regions, Numerous specimens were obtained in the present collection and these permit some amplification of the previous description. bathyechiniscus tetronyx Steiner, 1926 Marine tardigrades of the group Heterotardigrada, family Halechinis- cidae, with more or less telescopic paropodia. Oral opening surrounded by low round marginal elevation. With a median unpaired head seta, one pair of subdorsal and one pair of subventral head setae. Antennae composed of two parts, one setiform the other fleshy. Cuticle without thickened plates but hypodermis of body proper arranged in transverse plates as seen in dorsal view .The numbers of rectangular cells in these rows are 3 -3 -2-2-2. One seta on external surface of each of the first 3 pairs of parapodia; a fleshy appendage (like that of the antenna) on the anterior surface of the 4th pair of parapodia. Paired rump setae also present. Each parapodium is terminated by 4 protrusible subdivisions. Each subdivision terminates in a semicircular claw with 4 minute teeth. Labial stylets simple, 17 microns long. Oral tube cylindroid IS -20 microns long. Pharnyx spherical with one pair of crescentic sclerotizations esophagus short conoid. Genital opening ventral, anterior to 4th pair of parapodia. Anus ventral, longitudinally slit like, between last pair of parapodia. Specimens range in size from 100 to 140 microns long. Habitat, — -Depth of 4 feet, Mud Island, Aransas Bay; and in Saragassum from Cedar Bayou collected by E. G, Reinhard, July 27, 1950 and July 9, 19S0, respectively, LITERATURE CITED Matthews, G. C. — 1938 — Tardigrada from North America. Amer. Mid. Nat. 19 : 619-627. Steiner, G. — 1926 — Bathyechiniscus tetronyx n.g., n. sp. Ein neuer mariner Tardigrade. Deutsche Sudpolar — Exp. 1901-1903, 18: Zooi. (10) r 479-481. 112 The Texas Journal of Science 1951, No. 1 March 30 Bathyechiniscus tetronyx. A-C— Head. A, dorsal view of young speci¬ men; B, ventral view of young specimen; C, dorsal view of adult. D — Detail of claws; E — Ventral view of posterior end; F — lateral view of adult. 1951, No. 1 March 30 Echinoderella steineri New Species 113 ECHINODERELLA STEINERI NEW SPECIES (SCOLECIDA, ECHINODERA) B. G. CHITWOOD Department of Biology Catholic University of America Washington, D. C. Few species of pseudosegmented marine scolecidans (Echinodera- Kinorhyncha) have been reported from the shores of North America. The first such report was made by Blake (1930) from the Mount Desert Labo¬ ratory in Maine. Fie described Pycnophyes frequens, T rachydesmus mainemis and Echinoderella remanei. Subsequently specimens of Pycnophyes frequens were commonly encountered by the writer in the vicinity of Beaufort, N. C. Recently two specimens of a species of the genus Echinoderella were encoun¬ tered in a collection made by Dr. E. G. Reinhard near Rockport, Texas. The present paper is based on these specimens. The group Echinodera or Kinorhyncha has commonly been placed under the Gastrotricha but the pronounced pseudosegmentation and various differences in internal anatomy appear to warrant its status as a separate phylum. Our knowledge relative to the group is due chiefly to the investigations of Zelinka (1928) and Remane (1928, 1929). ECHINODERELLA STEINERI new species Length of female 260 to 280 microns (exclusive of caudal cerci). Diameter 54 to 64 microns; ratio of length to breadth 5:1 to 4:1. Mid¬ dorsal spines on zonites 6-10, graduated in length, longest on 10th zonite. Ocelli apparently absent. Caudal cerci (paired) up to 1/2 length of body. Posterior margins of 3rd to 12th zonites bearing minute rows of spines; scattered spines of similar nature on surface of same zonites. Paired lateral setae on 4th to 12 th zonites. Habitat.-— Depth, of 4 feet, Mud Island, Aransas Bay, Texas. Collected July 27, 1950 by E. G. Reinhard. Broken diatoms in debris at head. This species is extremely similar to Centropsis arcticus Steiner, 1919 which was based on a single larval specimen from the Arctic. Steiner’s form differs in having a single central cercus and mid-dorsal spines on zonites 6-11. In the course of development, larval forms are known to molt and the number of spines and cerci change. For this reason the collective genus Centropsis is used for the reception of larval members of the Echinoderidae in which there is a single caudal cercus. A study of the life history of the present species should be interesting. In the species Echinoderella se tiger a (Greef, 1869) dorsal setae are present on the 6th, 7th, and 10th zonites, lateral setae on zonites 6-10 and 13. In the species Echinoderella ca pi tat a Zelinka, 1928, lateral setae are present on zonites 7 and 10. In the species Echinoderella remanei minute spines are in rows only on zonites 4 to 6. 114 The Texas Journal of Science 1951, No. 1 March 30 LITERATURE CITED Blake, C. H. — 1930 — Three new species of worms belonging to the order Echinodera. Biol. Survey of the Mount Desert Region. 10 pp. Remane, A. — 1928 — Kinorhyncha. Tierwelt Nord u. Ostsee, Teil 7. — — —1929 — Kinorhyncha-Echinodera. Handb. Zoologie, v. 2, Teil 4. Steiner, G. — 1919 — Zur Kenntnis der Kinorhyncha nebst Bemerkungen iiber ihr Verwandt- shaftsverhaltinis zu den Nematoden. Zool. Anz. 50 : 77-87 Zelinka, K. — 1928— Monographic der Echinoderida. Leipzig. Echinodella steineri, adult female, lateral view. 1951* No. 1 March 30 Distribution of Nematopsis 115 DISTRIBUTION OF NEMATOPSIS INFECTION ON THE OYSTER GROUNDS OF THE CHESAPEAKE BAY AND IN OTHER WATERS OF THE ATLANTIC AND GULF STATES 1 HELEN LANDAU 2 AND PAUL S. GALTSOFF Fish and Wildlife Service U. S. Department of the Interior INTRODUCTION Nematopsis, a sporozoan parasite in the tissues of oysters and in the digestive tracts of crabs, has a wide distribution. Frequently found in the oysters from many states, it seems to be especially abundant in southern waters. The microorganism is apparently harmless to humans who consume shellfish; the effect on its hosts has not yet been adequately studied. Several years ago the infection of oysters by Nematopsis occupied a prominent part in the arguments at the litigation of a group of Louisiana oystermen against an oil company operating in southern waters (See Case No. 37036, Southern Reporter 1944, 1 750 2nd No. 4, pages 340-349). Because of the assertions made in the court, that Nematopsis is harmful to oysters, the authors thought that data on the distribution of the parasite, combined with the observations on the quality of the meats of the infected and noninfected oysters, and with the data of oyster mortalities, may be useful in evaluating the biological importance of this microorganism. In a study of the distribution of Nematopsis attention was given to the questions whether the infection impairs the quality of the meat of the oysters, and whether the presence of spores in their tissues may be correlated with the mortality of oysters in their natural environment. Observations in Chesapeake Bay were made in connection with the work on the ecology and oyster culture that the Service conducts in this body of water jointly with the Maryland Department of Tidewater Fisheries, and Virginia Fisheries Laboratory. The authors had, therefore, an opportunity to obtain information regarding the productivity and quality of the oysters from various bars, and to be notified immediately of any abnormal conditions that may have been noticed in any part of the Bay. Scattered data regarding the distribution of Nematopsis in other waters have been summarized in the second part of the paper from personal observations of the authors, or from the data supplied by others. The study of the distribution of Nematopsis in Chesapeake Bay was made by Landau, with the assistance of the personnel of the Maryland Department of Tidewater Fisheries who frequently provided boats for field trips. The work in the Bay began early in June and extended through Septem¬ ber 1946. Additional data were collected, however, prior to and since those dates. The authors are grateful to the officers of the Maryland Department of Tidewater Fisheries for their cooperation and help, and to Dr. James * Published by permission of the Director of the Fish and' Wildlife Service. Now with the U. S. Navy Hydrographic Office. 116 The Texas Journal of Science 1951, No. 1 March 30 Nelson Gowanloch, Chief Biologist of the Louisiana Fish and Wilf Life Service for making available to them valuable data on the distribution of Nematopsis in Louisiana waters. TAXONOMIC POSITION AND HOSTS Nematopsis, a sporozoan of the family Gregarinidae, was discovered in 1892 by Schneider, who described the cysts of this microorganism in a razor clam, Solen. Leger and Duboscq (1913) experimentally hatched the cysts resembling those of Nematopsis. They regarded the microorganism as Poros- pora, and referred to the cysts as the Nematopsis stage of this genus. Hatt, in 1931, arrived at the conclusion that there are two distinct genera, Poros- pora and Nematopsis, the latter having monozoic thick-walled cysts, while Porospora has spores in phagocytes, without protective walls. The occurrence of Nematopsis in the United States was first noticed by Prytherch (1931), who found the oysters in certain sections of Virginia, North Carolina, and Louisiana heavily infected with cysts of this parasite. Prytherch (1938) and Kudo (1939), when working in 1936 at U. S. Fish¬ eries Station, Beaufort, North Carolina, reported separately that they traced the life cycle through the two hosts, the Xanthid crabs, in which the devel¬ opmental stages of the gregarine are completed, and the oyster, in which the spores encyst in a resting state. Kudo (1939) includes the Nematopsis found in American oysters with the European species, Nematopsis legeri. Prytherch (1940), however, de¬ scribes it as a new species under the name of Nematopsis ostrearum. The ques¬ tion has not yet been definitely settled and requires further study. METHOD In the course of the field work in Chesapeake Bay, samples were collected from 74 natural oyster bars located in all the major tributaries and in the Bay itself. Oyster populations on these bars consisted exclusively of native stock, i.e., the oysters which set and grew naturally on these bot¬ toms. Planted areas were excluded from the study because of the impossi¬ bility of determining the exact time the oysters were moved, and ascertain¬ ing whether they had been already infected before they were transplanted. In each tributary of the Bay, a series of sampling stations was established over the entire salinity gradient of the stream, i.e., from its mouth, where the concentration of salts was usually the greatest, to the upper limits of oyster growing area, where the salt content of the sea water was greatly reduced by river discharge. Likewise, the sampling area of the Bay proper, extended from the section of high salinity at Hampton Roads in the lower part of the Bay, to South Tea Table, the most northerly oyster bar, located in the upper part of the Bay which is greatly affected by the discharge of fresh water. At each station, record was made of the depth of water, composition and consistency of bottom sediment, salinity of water at the bottom, and the density of the oyster population. Except in the shallow water stations where tongs were used, oysters and mud crabs were collected with a small thirty-two inch dredge. Oysters were taken to the laboratory and kept at 40° F. until the examination of their tissues was completed. Crabs were pre¬ served in alcohol, the strength of which was gradually increased from 3 0 to 1951, No. 1 March 30 Distribution of Nematopsis 117 70 percent. (This precaution was necessary to avoid too rapid a dehydration which makes the hard parts of crabs too brittle). Since Nematopsis may infect various crabs, other than Xanthidae, note was taken of any species that occurred over oyster bottoms frequently or in great abundance, and which might be suspected as a possible carrier of the parasite. Samples of water collected at the desired depth were kept in tightly closed bottles until they were returned to the laboratory, where their specific gravity was determined by hydrometer. The character of the bottom was recorded by the feel of the lead-line and by observing the material brought up in the dredge. In accordance with the size and appearance of their shells, oysters were divided into the following four classes: (1) One year old or younger; (2) Two to three years old; (3) Over three years old, and (4) Very old. After opening them in the laboratory, the condition of the meats of each oyster was recorded as "good”, "fair”, or "poor”, depending on its appearance, firmness and color. Since we noticed in our preliminary studies in the Chesapeake Bay region that most of the cysts were found in the mantle, and the other organs were infected only in severe cases, the mantle alone was examined regularly. When infection was heavy, the muscle, heart, gills and palps were also examined. We found that in the latter cases the adductor muscle was frequently in¬ fected, but never as heavily as the mantle. The heart, gills and palps very rarely contained cysts. Very heavy infection of gills was observed, however, in the oysters from Alabama and Texas. Dying oysters, or those that seemed weak or abnormal, were studied in greater detail and all their organs were examined. For counting the cysts, the following technique was employed: a piece of tissue a few square centimeters in area was cut from the posterior ventral edge of the mantle and pressed with a few drops of 10% KOH between two microscope slides until it was sufficiently thin so that no cysts could be ob¬ scured by overlying tissues. Then the preparation was examined at 100X magnification. For each oyster, the cysts were counted in fifty microscope fields of pressed tissue. The area of the mantle thus examined extended from the tentacular edge to about 5 mm. inward. This covered the main zone of infection as well as some of the adjacent portion of the mantle. In the prepa¬ rations of oyster spat, the entire specimen was mounted and examined. The number of cysts were recorded for each slide. An average count for the ten oysters, constituting a sample, was made and the number of cysts was com¬ puted for square centimeter of the area of the mantle compressed between the two slides. This figure was used as an index of the intensity of infection. For histological study, oyster tissues were preserved in Allen’s modifi¬ cation of Bouin’s fixing solution, imbedded in paraffin, sectioned, and stained with Mallory’s triple stain, hematoxylin, and eosin or safranin. Mud crabs were identified to genus/' They were then dissected and the hind-gut split open and examined for gregarine stages of the parasite. * A special key to the Chesapeake Bay Xanthid crabs was prepared by Dr. Waldo Schmitt of the National Museum, Washington, D. C. Doubtful identifications were checked by Dr. F. A. Chace of the National Museum, and by Dr. E. Kronin of the Chesapeake Biological Laboratory, Solomon’s Island, Maryland, whose assistance is gratefully acknowledged by the authors. 118 The Texas Journal of Science 1951, No. 1 March 30 DISTRIBUTION OF NEMATOPSIS IN CHESAPEAKE BAY - PERCENTAGE OF INFECTED OYSTERS In a study of the distribution of any parasite, it is of interest to deter¬ mine the percentage of the population infected as well as the intensity of the infection. In the present investigation, both factors were determined for each bar and the data summarized in a table placed at the end of this paper (Table 6). To facilitate graphical presentation of the results, the occurrence of Nematopsis in the oyster populations of different bars was plotted on the map reproduced in Fig. 1. The data were grouped in four classes, indicated by the following symbols: Noninfected oysters are shown by an open circle; from 1 to 2 5 percent infected — by a circle with one quarter blacked; from 2 5 to 50 percent infected — by a circle with one half blacked; 50 to 100 percent infected — by a black circle. Inspection of Fig. 1 discloses a widespread distribution of Nematopsis throughout the oyster grounds of the Bay. Changes in salinity of water ap¬ parently present no barrier to the distribution of the parasite, for in the lower part of the Bay where salinity of water is higher, the oysters are as generally infected as those in the upper part of the Bay, where, due to the river discharge, the sea water is greatly diluted. The same holds true for various tributaries of the Bay. The results are not, however, unexpected since both hosts of Nematopsis, the Xanthid crabs and the oyster are euryhaline species, capable of withstanding great fluctuations in the concentration of salts. The upper part of the oyster-producing area of the Potomac River ap¬ peared to be less infected than any other tributary of the Bay. Four bars of this section, namely, 1-6, 1-7, 1-8, and 1-9 (Fig. 1) were either free of Nematopsis, or contained less than 5 0 percent infected oysters. The remain¬ ing five bars in the lower part of the Potomac were, however, more than 5 0 percent infected. What ecological factors are responsible for a relative free¬ dom from infection in the upper part of the Potomac remains undetermined. INTENSITY OF INFECTION The intensity of Nematopsis infection, expressed as a mean number of cysts per square centimeter of mantle tissue, varied from 0 to 3 546. The data were obtained for each station and are summarized in Table I showing the mean and the range of variation in each sampling area. It is apparent from an examination of this table that the greatest intensity of infection is found in James and York Rivers. This may be due to the fact that adult oysters are not permitted to be taken from the public seed grounds, which constitute the major portion of oyster bars of the James River, and therefore the oyster population remains exposed to the infection for longer periods of time than on bars open to commercial fishery. This tentative explanation may also apply to the York River, where the taking of oysters tor com¬ mercial fishery has been discontinued on account of the industrial and do¬ mestic pollution of water. Salinity apparently is not a controlling factor. While highest intensity of infection occurred in the waters of 14 to 16 o/oo salinity, infections of lesser intensities were observed throughout the range from 0 to 20 o/oo. 1951, No. 1 March 30 Distribution of Nematopsis 119 DISTRIBUTION OF NEMATOPSIS CHESAPEAKE BAY AND TRIBUTARIES Figure 1. Sketch map of the Chesapeake Bay and tributaries showing the distribution of Nematopsis over the principal oyster bars in 1946-1947. 120 The Texas Journal of Science 1951, No. 1 March 30 Likewise, there was no correlation between the intensity of infection or its frequency and the character of the bottom. A greater percentage of very heavily infected oysters was found on soft bottom but the trend was not consistent. TABLE 1. AVERAGE INTENSITY OF NEMATOPSIS INFECTION BY AREAS Number Cysts per square Cm. Number Name of Stations Min. Max. Mean Chesapeake Bay _ _ 21 0 653 193 Chester River _ _ 2 40 93 66 Severn River _ _ 4 1 259 90 Eastern Bay _ _ 4 26 340 179 Harris Creek _ _ 3 11 38 21 Choptank River _ _ 3 9 26 16 Patuxent River _ _ 4 3 53 24 Nanticoke River _ _ 4 1 5 4 Potomac River _ _ 9 0 11 2 Pocomoke Sound _ _ 1 106 Rappahannock River __ _ 6 1 213 78 Nassawadox Creek _ _ 1 73 8 Mob jack Bay _ _ 1 342 York River _ _ 6 22 2118 482 James River _ _ 6 8 3546 1437 Four of the bars studied were revisited 3 to 4 months after the com- pletion of the first examination. There was no signficant difference in the percentage of infected oysters, but on two of the bars the intensity of in- fection was found to be much higher than during the first test (Table 2). TABLE 2. Location INTENSITY OF NEMATOPSIS INFECTION ON FOUR IN FEBRUARY - MARCFI AND IN JUNE, 1946 Station Date Intensity BARS Percentage infected 1946 (Cysts per square cm. ) Wire Ground _ _ A-9 March 21 8.2 90 Wire Ground _ _ A-9 June 2 5 151.1 100 Gum Thicket _ _ A-10 March 4 317.4 100 Gum Thicket . _ A-10 June 2 5 581.9 100 Tolchester _ _ A-15 • Feb. 2 8 11.8 100 Tolchester _ _ A-15 June 27 14.3 100 S. Tea Table _ _ A- 16 Feb. 28 4.7 70 S. Tea Table _ _ A-16 June 27 69.5 66 1951, No. 1 March 30 Distribution of Nematopsis 121 INTENSITY OF INFECTION AND AGE OF OYSTERS After invading the oyster tissues, the Nematopsis spores remain in¬ active until the oyster is eaten by a crab and its tissue digested. It is there¬ fore logical to expect that adult oysters would contain a greater number of cysts than young ones. This conclusion was fully confirmed by the observa¬ tions in the Bay. The relationship between the age of the oysters, intensity of infection, and percentage of infected oysters is presented in Fig. 2, in which all the records of examination of tissues are grouped in the three age classes, namely, spat, young oysters (less than three inches long) and adults (three inches and larger). Examination of this diagram shows that over 80 percent of spat was either free of infection, or only slightly infected. Intensity exceeding 1000 cysts per square inch of mantle tissue occurred only in the adult oysters. It is clear that the intensity of infection of individual oysters is cumulative and increases with their age. INTENSITY OF INFECTION, CONDITION OF MEAT, AND MORTALITY OF OYSTERS Oysters on each particular bar were generally in a uniform condition of health and fatness. This may be attributed to the fact that environmental factors which primarily determine the degree of fatness and the rate of growth of the oyster were uniform over the bar. Individual variations oc¬ curred occasionally but could not be correlated with the abundance of 100 - O v_ CD CI¬ O-9 10 - 99 100“ 999 OVER f.OOO Number of cysts per cm2 of mantle Figure 2. Intensity of infection and percentage of spat, young and adult oysters in the Chesapeake Bay and tributaries infected by Nema¬ topsis. Intensity of infection is expressed in the number of cysts per square centimeter of mantle tissue. 122 The Texas Journal of Science 1951, No. 1 March 3U Nematopsis cysts in the tissues. In general, the infection was not consistently lower in good oysters than in poor ones. These results agree with the ob¬ servations made previously in the York River by Galtsoff et ah, (1947). During the course of the investigation there was no unusual mortality among oysters that could be attributed to the Nematopsis infection. There was also no evidence of any harmful effect of the parasite on the general condition of the oysters. We saw no symptoms of the failure of the adductor muscle, or of the tendency of the mantle to withdraw. The latter condition leads to the abnormal development of the shell, which was not noticeable among the Chesapeake Bay oysters. Microscopical analysis of infected tissues showed the cysts lying in large interstitial spaces between the connective tissue fibers where they apparently do not interfere with the normal functioning of the organs. There was no inflammatory reaction of the surrounding tissues as one would expect to find as a result of action of toxins or because of physical irritation of tissues and occlusion of blood vessels. The observations are not surprising since the para¬ site is in a resting stage and does not grow or propagate within the oyster. ABUNDANCE OF CRABS Accurate counts of mud crabs were not feasible, since no practical method of collecting them quantitively has been developed. Too many factors interfere with the possibility of obtaining a sample representative of crab population. The crabs crawl among the shells and oysters and rest in crevices. Many of them find shelter in the so-called "boxes”, i.e., intact shell-pairs from which the meat has been eaten or decomposed. The crabs usually stay in the depression of an oyster or clam shell at the hinge end of it. Crabs which hide in empty shells are more easily captured than those which crawl freely. The number of crabs caught in a dredge is not therefore a measure of their abundance. The genera most frequently caught were Kbithro panopens and Eury- pan opens; Panopeus was rather rare. According to Prytherch the latter two are the vectors of the parasite. Samples of preserved crabs from each station were dissected and exam¬ ined for the presence of gregarines in the hind gut. A few unpreserved crabs were examined to check the possibility that the gregarines may have been disintegrated beyond recognition by the action of the killing fluids. Again, no parasites were found. In view of the widespread distribution of Nematopsis these results are surprising. The feeding periods of these crabs are not well known. It is plausible, therefore, to suppose that they were not infected because they had not been eating oyster meats. Since the crabs were studied during one season only, it is possible that some other factor has interfered with the relationship between the parasite and its host. It is also possible that there is some other carrier in Chesapeake Bay. These questions can be answered only by further study. Several blue crabs, Callinectes, and occasional oyster crabs, Pinnotheres, were found. They were not, however, sufficiently widespread or numerous to be significant. 1951, No. 1 March 30 Distribution of Nematopsis 123 OCCURRENCE OF NEMATOPSIS IN ATLANTIC AND GULF STATES MASSACHUSETTS AND RHODE ISLAND In the course of studies of the biology and physiology of the oyster, conducted for many years by Galtsoff at Woods Hole, Massachusetts, many hundreds of oysters were examined microscopically, using both living and preserved material. So far, Nematopsis has not been found in the oysters from Cape Cod area, including Buzzards Bay, Martha’s Vineyard Sound, Chatham Bay and the bays on Martha’s Vineyard Island. Likewise, Nematopsis cysts have not yet been observed in the adult oysters from Narragansett Bay. NEW YORK AND CONNECTICUT In 1942, 3 0 percent of the 3 -year old oysters (set of 1939) trans¬ planted from New Haven area of Long Island Sound to Great South Bay, were found by Galtsoff to be lightly infected with cysts. In this case, the infection was primarily confined to the anterior part of the adductor muscle and no cysts were found in the mantle. The Great South Bay set of 1941, examined at the same time, was free of infection. It is possible that Nematopsis has been introduced into northern waters from the south with the seed oysters brought in for planting. For instance, it was learned by Galtsoff that in May 1941, oysters from one of the bars in Delaware Bay were planted in Great South Bay, New York. The fact that the oyster popu¬ lation of this bar is infected was established only in the fall of 1942. Through the cooperation of the interested oyster company it was possible to trace the fate of the Delaware seed planted in New York waters. In the fall of 1942, 70 percent of them were found to be infected; the principal site of cysts being both parts of the adductor muscle. The record of the company shows that in 1941 and 1942 growing conditions in Great South Bay were very good and the Delaware Bay oysters developed very well without any unusual mortality. DELAWARE The presence of Nematopsis in oyster grounds in Delaware Bay was first established by Galtsoff in September 1942. About 60 percent of adult and young oysters from Leipsic Creek were found mildly infected by spores located mostly in the adductor muscles. Further observations made by Frey, are summarized in the following table: TABLE 3. OCCURRENCE OF NEMATOPSIS IN 1942 AND 1943 YEAR CLASSES OF OYSTERS FRON DELAWARE BAY, OCTOBER 27, 1943.* 1943 year class 1942 year class Seed Bed percent infected 1/ total cysts 2/ percent infected 1/ total cysts 2/ Ridge _ 100 44 80 81 Red Buoy _ 0 0 20 3 Over the Bar _ 5 0 90 3/ 90 20 Thrum Cap 20 2 90 23 1/ 10 oysters in each sample 2/ 50 low power fields each of smooth 3/ 79 cysts were found in one spat * (unpublished data on file of Fish & muscle and striated muscle Wildlife Service.) 124 The Texas Journal of Science 1951, No. 1 March 30 Nematopsis was widely distributed among the 1942 year class, although infestation was generally light. Observations repeated by Frey in March 1943, showed the presence of parasitized oysters on all the five bars (Silver, Thrum Cap, Over the Bar, Red Buoy, Ridge Bar) that were examined at this time. Heaviest infection was found in oysters of Over the Bar reef. The site of infection was primarily the striated part of the adductor muscle and the labial palps. Moderate infection of oysters in Rehoboth Bay, Delaware, was reported in February 1947, by Chipman and Engle (unpublished report in file of the U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service). Infected oysters were found at the follow¬ ing places: Mouth of Lewes Canal, North end of Bed No. 3, Mouth of Love Creek and Mouth of Herring Creek. Counts of cysts made by Landau showed a variation from 19 to 1924 cysts in 50 fields (100 x) of mantle tissue. Chipman and Engle reached the conclusion that Nematopsis was not damaging the oysters of the Bay. LOUISIANA AND MISSISSIPPI When in September 1941, an extensive mortality among planted oysters was noticed in the areas west of the Mississippi River, the Louisiana Depart¬ ment of Conservation made an attempt to ascertain whether this mortality was correlated with the presence of Nematopsis. During the first week of October, Dr. Kavanagh, Biologist of the Division of Oysters and Water Bottoms of the Louisiana Department of Conservation, visited some of the principal oyster-producing grounds west of the mouth of the Mississippi River in Jefferson and Plaquemines Parishes which were affected by the mortality. By interviewing the lessees and examining the oysters gathered from their locations, he confirmed the reports regarding the mortality of oysters and obtained information about the origin of planted oysters, and the time they were planted. During the last week of the same month, Kavanagh examined the grounds east of the Mississippi River which were not affected by the mortality. The latter area comprises the principal public oyster bottoms of the state which are not leased to private persons but are open for fishing to Louisiana and Mississippi oystermen. At this time no mortality of oysters was observed or reported from this area, the trouble being apparently confined to the west of the river and particularly to Bara- taria Bay and adjacent bayous. It is a common practice of the oyster growers in Louisiana to obtain seed from the grounds east of the river and to plant them on their leased bottoms on the west side of the delta. Planting is carried out usually in April and May, although the practice is not universally observed and some of the planters bed their seed oysters in August or November. Oysters which perished during the fall of 1941 had been planted in 1939 and 1940; they remained in the new locations from 8 to 16 months. This proves that their mortality was not due to the exposure and shock incidental to planting since no unusual losses among them were noticed during this period. For microscopic examinations, samples, comprising twenty specimens, were taken from each locality and preparations were made of a portion of the gills of each oyster. Table 4 summarizes essential information taken from Kavanagh’s unpublished report. It shows that the mortality on the grounds west of the Mississippi varied from 50 to 80 percent, and, with the exception of one lo- 1951, No. 1 March 30 Distribution of Nematopsis 125 cality (Shell Island Bay), no mortality was noticed east of the river. There was no apparent relation between the infection of oysters by Nematopsis and the extent of mortality on various grounds. The mortality stopped sometime in September, for no dying oysters were observed in October. Yet, at this time, on several grounds oysters were heavily infected by Nematopsis. TABLE 4. SUMMARY OF OBSERVATIONS ON THE INFECTION OF OYSTERS BY NEMATOPSIS MADE BY L. D. KAVANAGH IN LOUISIANA - OCTOBER 1941. Location Percent Mortality Light Percent Infected Medium Heavy Scofield Bay _ _ 50 100 Cyprian Bay _ _ 50 100 Cyprien Bay _ _ 50 50 50 Bay Pomme d’Or _ _ 50 70 10 20 Shell Island _ _ 50 20 80 Bayou Fontenelle _ _ 50 10 10 70 Bayou Ferran Michel- _ 50 10 40 50 Bastian Bay _ _ 50 10 40 50 Grand Bayou _ _ 50 90 10 Bay Robinson _ _ 70 10 40 30 Bayou Chalund _ 80 30 70 Bayou La Vigne _ ________ 80 50 50 Balich Bay _ _ 85 60 40 Bayou Catherine _ _ 85 60 40 Bay Ronquille _ _ 75 30 60 10 Barataria Bay _ _ 80 10 80 10 Bay des Islettes _ _ 66 100 Bay Wilkinson _ _ 0 0 0 0 Bavou St. Denis _ _ 0 0 0 0 Bay Malnomme _ ----- (1) 60 40 0 Bay Chene Fleur _ _ 0 0 0 0 EAST OF THE MISSISSIPPI RIVER Jackass Bay _ _ 0 0 60 40 Bayou Long _ _ 0 0 70 30 Bay de la Berge _ _ 0 0 40 60 Shell Island Bay _ 75 0 30 70 American Bay _ _ 0 30 50 20 Baker’s Canal _ o 10 20 10 Johnson Bayou _ _ 0 0 40 60 (1) No unusual mortality was observed 126 The Texas Journal of Science 1951, No. 1 March 30 In 1947, when making a study of the hurricane damage to oysters, Engle found Nematopsis at the following stations in Mississippi Sound (Table 5). TABLE 5. THE OCCURRENCE OF NEMATOPSIS IN THE LOUISIANA PART OF THE MISSISSIPPI SOUND IN DECEMBER 1947. (From unpublished data of James B. Engle) Average number of Station cysts per field Bottom Meat Half Moon Island _ 200 hard, shell Good Grand Pass, North entrance _ 27-30 hard, shell Fair Deep Water Pass _ 138 hard, shell Fair Cranetown Bay _ 120-168 hard, shell Good Martin Island, Chandeleur Sound ____ 27-320 hard, shell Very good Fairly heavy infection was found in some of the oysters at Cranetown and in Chandeleur Sound. The condition of their meats was, however, good. In the western part of the Mississippi Sound, the areas immediately adjacent tv. Little Dauphin Island, including the Dauphin Island Bay, con¬ tain oysters, very heavily infected by Nematopsis (Engle, 1945). ALABAMA In Mobile Bay, Alabama, an extraordinarily heavy infection with Nema¬ topsis spores was encountered by Engle (1945) at Cedar Point Reef. Samples shipped to College Park, Maryland, Laboratory were examined by Galtsoff. In this case the cysts were so abundant in the gills of the oyster that they completely obscured the tissue and clogged the water tubes of the gdls. Oysters from other parts of Mobile Bay were only lightly infected. There was no unusual mortality among the heavily infected or lightly infected oysters. TEXAS The occurrence of Nematopsis in Texas waters is widespread. Infection of oysters of Gopano Bay was recorded by Galtsoff in January 1942, (un¬ published report in files of the F’ish and Wildlife Service) . On Jordan’s Run about 40 percent of the oysters contained cysts. Some of the specimens were so highly infected that virtually all the organs examined (mantle, gills, muscle, heart and labial palps) contained cysts. One hundred percent of oysters on Lap Reef were found very heavily infected, their organs and tis¬ sues containing countless cysts. The condition of the oyster meats was poor. Oysters from Two by Four and Borup reefs examined at the same time were found also infected but the condition of their meats varied from fair to good. Some of them had a gonad layer about 3 mm. thick. Heaviest infection was found in the gills. 1951, No. 1 March 30 Distribution of Nematopsis 127 Mesquite Bay is known for the quality of its oysters. In January 1942, all the oysters taken for examination were found to be heavily infected with Nematopsis, especially in the gills. The appearance of these oysters was, however, good and there was a considerable deposit of glycogen in the mantle. In Matagorda Bay area, Nematopsis was recorded from the Lake, in Palacios Bay, and Karankawa Reef. In 1942 the infection on these grounds was widespread (100%) but light and confined to the adductor muscle. In 1947, some of Texas grounds were revisited by Galtsoff, who again found heavy infection of oysters of Copano Bay. Not only the mantle was heavily infected, but in some of the specimens the blood vessels and water tubes of the gills were full of cysts. Two months before this examination was made, some of these oysters had been transplanted from Copano Bay to Aransas Bay. In comparison with those remaining in Copano Bay, the trans¬ planted stock showed great improvement in growth and in deposition of glycogen although all the oysters were heavily infected. This experiment, conducted by the Texas Game, Fish and Oyster Commission, shows that Nematopsis infection does not prevent the improvement in quality of meat if the oysters are transplanted to better grounds. South Bay, near Port Isabel, is the southernmost location in the United States where the eastern oyster is grown for market. Samples comprising twenty-four oysters, shipped in May 1 947, by Dr. J. W. Hedgpeth to College Park, Maryland, were found moderately infected by Nematopsis. The condi¬ tion of meat was good (solids 16% and glycogen 7.2% of dry weight). FLORIDA On the west coast of Florida, Nematopsis cysts were found by Galtsoff in the oysters near Pensacola (March 1946), and Fort Myers (April 1946). In all instances, the infection was light. Unfortunately, no data are available regarding the presence of Nematopsis in Apalachicola Bay, the principal area of commercial oyster fishery of the State. On the east coast of Florida, the Nematopsis cysts were recorded by Galtsoff in the small Ostrea virginica grown on mangrove roots in Biscayne Bay, south of Miami. PACIFIC COAST So far, Nematopsis spores were not found in the Olympia oysters ( Ostrea lurid a) , or in the Japanese oysters (Ostrea gigas) which were examined by Galtsoff on various occasions. In view of the fact that in Europe it occurs in various pelecypodes it is reasonable to infer that the parasite has not yet established itself in the bays of the west coast of the United State. During the investigation conducted recently by Galtsoff (1950) in the Gulf of Panama, large numbers of oysters, Ostrea mexicana , were examined and found to be free from Nematopsis. One specimen of O. chilensis from Garachine Bay, on the east coast of the Gulf of Panama was found, however, to be slightly infected with Nematopsis. CONCLUSIONS Detailed data on the occurrence of Nematopsis in oyster producing bottoms in Chesapeake Bay, and scattered observations in other waters show widespread distribution of this parasite along the Atlantic and Gulf Coasts. The majority of the bars in Chesapeake Bay were affected only TABLE 6. INTENSITY OF NEMATOPSIS INFECTION, PERCENTAGE OF INFECTED OYSTERS, SALINITY OF WATER, CHARACTER OF BOTTOM AND CONDITIONS OF MEAT OF OYSTERS IN CHESAPEAKE BAY AND ITS TRIBUTARIES, 1946-1947. 128 The Texas Journal of Science 1951, No. 1 March 30 x a 3 ,. © .5 "Jj +> "3 o M P3 S'g'S > I'- “ I ° | § £ P 3 0) 5?S a « s Ci_i - 3 a> 3 03 rj to fa>>fa> T3 (=3 M r* _ W . M ^ BiS s fa 3 fa 3 o>om«o«3^ rfHHoo>a lOTfHOt't-lONW.-OTfOOOOO hhooVhiOO>OhcVmi>N ®<0MC»l»Ht-IMlN'^00«N'#lf3O10 rH OS t- CO IOHOOMNH rH rH CM > n° 2 SlH ” 3 4) rW O W OOEH tsig B^sl fa^ ^XJ oo o +s vw fH SH CSV- a Sr OS w r _ ,3 O Sh O O .. O >, P r3 O 3h O O AmOm^W HhHAh M fa o o o o fa fa 3 C to 3 X X m os 00 CO L co CQCQ CQO i is T O .3 3 .3 M a x >HOH TfifllOlO co oo oo oc >» H IM CO r* 666u 1WI fa„w$ 3 S SrS §S.I| E^faOfa Ex 3 3 S 3 S 3 QO £33 QQ § *3 Sc *V i’O'C •3 0 0 3 0 0 faOO rH U O o C« O KfftO 'ft o g o o 2 o ft o M H J u >» i .b o >h .ft ca o a» cs 6 P-( ^ ft TfHMO HOHOS odoo® •© l© k© tO HNM 666a ^'ft ft S ft ft g O Wftd a> "ft Six Og£i 'p ^1 'ft'ft § § § § § (M ft g ijO M ft Ift ft ft ft ft > ft J K S SXXXXXX OtMiOlfliON Mt-O t- ■<# C- k© OO CD co c© -tp to to c© c© ©a o t>* t~ c- i> o© cs c© k© k© iioat-co® o _, +» Ph g ft «£'.s hh xn g'ftig1 g » ft _. g g « O » Pk. OF^ PP'o -4J u „ 3 ft O O — W O o s o ft - ' v> .3 o s o ft ft rrt’O ’3’Cfl C ft ft c «e BSS„ ft >> 0) i o o . O *-1 : >;x C- U51© Tj( co oo © k© i© ft od ft cd © Tf : J» .J. *J* *J* *J. *J» *J. *J» +J» **•* ♦!* *J» *J» *J. *J* *J* >J* ♦$* FOR SALE AT WITTE MUSEUM Brackenridge Park, San Antonio 9 “Wild Flowers of San Antonio and Vicinity” — Schulz “Texas Cacti” — Schulz & Runyon . - . $3.00 “Snakes of Bexar County” — J. Walker Davenport . $2.00 (Limited edition) Annotated Catalogue Amphibians and Reptiles — Bexar County, Texas— John K. Strecker (Collector’s Item) . $1.25 1951, No. 1 March 30 The Texas Journal of Science Quality TIRES and BATTERIES AT YOUR GULF DEALERS' EMBLEMATIC OF THE BEST IN MODERN IE RICAN BEEF BRAHMANS 2711 S. MAIN » HOUSTON 2, TEXAS W. H. CURTIN & COMPANY Domestic — Export LABORATORY APPARATUS AND CHEMICALS for Industrial, Educational, Clinical and Public Service Laboratories HOUSTON, TEXAS, U. S. A. NEW ORLEANS, LA. AMERICAN BRAHMAN BREEDERS ASSOCIATION CONSERVATION COUNCIL AND COCOUNCILLORS President: John G. Sinclair, Medical Branch, University of Texas Secretary : L. S. Paine, Dept. Economics, A. and M. College, College Station Human health, hygiene and public health: C. D. Leake, Medical Branch, University of Texas, Galveston Human genetics, heredity, eugenic and dysgenic practices. C. P. Oliver, Department Zoology, University of Texas, Austin Cocouncillor: Spurgeon Smith, Biology Department, SWTC, San Marcos Human mind. Preservation of mental and emotional ’’qualities : Robert Sutherland, Hogg Foundation, University of Texas, Austin Social institutions and economics. Ciistom, law, prejudice, etc. : L. S. Paine, Department of Economics, A. and M. College, College Station Cocouncillors : Mrs. Louise Johnson, Extension Service, A. & M. College, College Station Miss Francis Moon. Department Public Welfare, Houston Lyle Saunders, Race Relations Research, University of Texas, Austin A. B. Melton, Denton Roy Donahue, economics, A. and M. College, College Station Young scientific talent r C. M. Pomerat, Tissue Culture Laboratory, Medical Branch, University of Texa* Cocouncillors: Collegiate grade, Charles La Motte, Biology, A. and M. High school grade, Gretta Oppe, Ball High School, Galveston Conservation education and publicity. Public relations.. J. B. Rutland, State Department of Education, Austin 1 Cocouncillors : Health. Mrs. M. Hayes, Dallas Health Museum, Dallas Health. D. B. Taylor, Department of Education, Austin Forest and range. D. A. Anderson, Forest Service, A. and M. Soil. David O. Davis, Box 1898, Fort Worth Wild Life. Everett Dawson, Game, Fish and Oyster Commission, Austin State Parks, Norfleet Bone. Texas State Parks, Austin UNESCO. Ethics and Philosophy. J. G. Sinclair, Medical Branch, Galveston Population problems. Net reproductive rate and controls. J. G. Sinclair, Department of Anatomy, Medical Branch, University of Texas, Galveston Food quality and responsible factors. L. W. Blau, Humble Oil and Refining Co., Houston Soil and water conservation especially in relation to crops. Paul Walser, Soil Conservation Service, Temple, Texas Councillor M. A. Hartman, Fort Worth Animals adapted to Texas agriculture. Jack Miller, College Station Plants adapted to Texas agriculture. Simon E. Wolff, Ft. Worth Marine resources J. L. Baughman, Biologist, Game, Fish and Oyster Commission, Rockport Wild life preservation. State Parks and refuges. B. B. Harris, Biology Department, N.T.S.T.C., Denton. Cocouncillors : Ernest G. Marsh, Wildlife, Game, Fish and Oyster Commission, Austin Norfleet G. Bone, State Parks Board, Austin Forest and range. Forests as lumber. Vernon A. Young. Forest and Range, A. and M. College, College Station Chemurgy. Forest and crops as industrial materials, etc. Victor Schoffelmayer, Southwest Research Foundation, San Antonio Underground water and rivers. Paul Weaver, Gulf Oil Corporation, Houston Oil and gas. William Murray, State Railroad Commission, Austin Sulphur _ . . . . . . . . Ceramic materials. Industrial and decorative. F. K. Pence, Ceramic Engineering, U. of Texas, Austin Metals Kenneth Campbell, Sheffield Steel Co., Houston Paleontological collections. Glen L. Evans, Paleontology, Univ. of Texas, Austin Archeological collections. T. N. Campbell, Department of Anthropology, University of Texas, Austin PURPOSE: To encourage and coordinate research in Texas by bringing scientific worker’s together and by publishing the results of their investigations ; to advise individuals and th« government on scientific matters ; to assemble and maintain library and museum facilities. ORGANIZATION: The activities of the Academy embrace all scientific fields. In the Senior Academy, there are five Sections: Physical, Biological, Social, and Geological Sciences, and Conservation. Regionally, the Senior Academy is divided into three branches : East Texas, South Texas and West Texas. The Collegiate Academy promotes the organization of ^science clubs in colleges and universities. The Junior Academy encourages scientific activities in secondary schools. MEMBERSHIP: “Any person engaged in scientific work, or interested in .the promotion of science” is eligible to membership. PUBLICATIONS: The Proceedings and Transactions of the Academy are incorporated in THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE, published quarterly. Other publications are memorials, monographs, surveys and news letters. MEETINGS: State-wide annual meetings are held in the fall, and regional meetings in the spring of each year. DUES: Annual members, $5 per year. Life members, at least $50,00 in one payment. Sustaining Members, $10 per year. Patrons, at least $500;00 hi one payment. Life members and patrons are exempt from dues, receive all publications, and participate as active members. SUBSCRIPTION RATES: Members $3 per year. Single eopies $1.25 each. I Ill I9«IV General crews work as a wing of geological departments under direction of the client's geologists. From data compiled by General's capable crews working with modern equipment specific¬ ally designed for current exploration prob¬ lems, the geologist then makes the key decision of whether to recommend the in¬ vestment necessary to drill the test well. For more than a decade, geologists and operators alike fyave relied on General's, ex¬ perienced crews to help lead the way to their next discovery well. And today, General is better equipped than ever! Ill 1091 Edwin T. Dumble, formerly state geologist for Texas, joined the Southern Pacific companies as a geolo¬ gist in 1897. The organization founded by him is one of the oldest geological depart¬ ments having to do with oil in the United States. About 1913, however, geology was definitely accepted as a guide to pros-* pec ting. This year marked the permanent establishment of geological departments in the mid-continent and the beginning of intensive surveys and examinations which, through the various changes and develop¬ ments of new techniques, continue to the present time. From E. DeGolyer’s book, "Development of the Art of Prospecting No. 2 Awffii PUBLISHED QUARTERLY BY THE TEXAS ACADEMY OF SCIE EXECUTIVE COUNCIL (1951) President Ex. Vice President Secretary-Treasurer Im. Past President Editor Pres. Conserv. Coun. Rep. to A.A.A.S. V. Pres. Sec. I. Physical V. Pres. Sec. II. Biological V. Pres. Sec. III. Social V. Pres. Sec. IV. Geological C. C. Doak Willis G. Hewatt Gladys H. Baird C. M. Pomerat J. L. Baughman J. G. Sinclair C. D. Leake D. B, Calvin W. Frank Blair Roy Donahue Horace R. Blank V. Pres. Sec. V. Conservation Vernon Young Collegiate Academy Charles LaMotte Junior Academy Greta Oppe A and M College Texas Christian U. P. O. Box 228 Medical Br., U. of G. F. O. C. Medical Br., U. of Medical Br., U. of Medical Br., U. of Univ. of Texas A and M College A and M College A and M College A and M College Ball High t. College Station Ft. Worth Huntsville Galveston Rockport . Galveston Galveston . Galveston Austin College Station College Station College Station College Station Galveston President Ex. Vice President Secretary-Treasurer Im. Past President Elected Director W. Elected Director Elected Director BOARD OF C. C. Doak DIRECTORS W. G. Hewatt Gladys H. Baird C. M. Pomerat Armstrong Price Gordon Gunter Don O. Baird A and M College Texas Christian U. P. O. Box 228 Medical Br., U. of T. A and M College Marine Inst., U. of T. S.H.S.T.C. College Station Ft. Worth Huntsville Galveston College Station Port Aransas Huntsville W. R. Woolrich, Dean L. W. Blau E. DeGolyer J. Brian Eby 0. S. Petty BOARD OF DEVELOPMENT (1950) Engineering, U. of T. Humble Oil & Refining Co. DeGolyer & McNaughton Consulting Geologist Petty Geophysical Co. Austin Houston Dallas Houston San Antonio MEMBERSHIP COMMITTEE Chairman — A. A. L. Mathews, Geology, University of Houston Freeport Abilene Otto Watts, Chemistry, Hardin-Simmons Paul C. Witt, Chemistry, A.C.C. Alpine G. P. Smith, Dean, Sul Ross Wm. McAnulty, Science, Sul Ross Arlington W. L. Hughes, Biology, N.T.A.C. Austin Frank Blair, Zoology, U. of T. Ronald K. Deford, Geology, U. of T. Beaumont Homer A. Dennis, Math, Lamar Belton Lucille Capt, Biology, Mary Hardin-Baylor Brown wood E. T. Huff, Dean, Howard Payne College Station Luther Jones, Agronomy, A. & M. G. W. Schlesselman, Geography, A. & M. Russell Couch, Biochemistry, A. & M. Commerce Elsie Bodeman, Biology, E. T. S. C. Corpus Christi R. A. Eads, Chemistry, Corpus Christi U. Dallas E. P. Cheatum, Biology, S.M.U. V. Schoffelmayer, Chemurgy, 4440 Beverly Arthur Richards, Geology, S.M.U. H. C. Tidwell, Southwestern Medical Denton B. B. Harris, Dean, N.T.S.T.C. Spencer Stoker, Social Science, T.S.C.W. Fort Worth Willis Hewatt, Biology, T.C.U. Joseph Morgan, Physics, T.C.U. Haskell M'cClintock, Biology, Texas Wesleyan C. M'. Shigley, Research. Dow Chemical Co. Galveston C. M. Pomerat, Medical Branch, U. of T. Ludwik Anigsten, Medical Branch, U. of T. Georgetown Oscar A. Ullrich, Dean, Southwestern U. Houston A. A. L. Mathews, Geology, U. of H. J. Brian Eby, Geology, Esperson Bldg. F. C. Elliott, Dean, Dental Branch, U. of T. Hardy Kemp, Director, Baylor Medical Huntsville Don O. Baird, Biology, S.H.S.T.C. Kingsville John L. Nierman, Chemistry, A. & I. Lubbock E. N. Jones, Vice President, Texas Tech R. W. Strandtmann, Entomology, Texas Tech J. N. Michie, Math, Texas Tech Arthur W. Young, Agronomy, Texas Tech Nacogdoches Wm. T. Chambers, Geography, S.F.A.S.T.C. E. L. Miller, Biology, S.F.A.S.T.C. San Antonio Sister Joseph Marie Armer, Incarnate Word J. B. Loefer, Foundation Applied Research Jacob Uhrich, Biology, Trinity U. San Marcos C. S. Smith, Biology, S.W.T.S.T.O. Stephenville S. F. Davis, Chemistry, John Tarleton Waco W. T. Gooch, Chemistry, Baylor Floyd Davidson, Biology, Baylor Volume III, No. 2 June 30, 1951 (Entered as Second Class Matter, at Postoffice, San Marcos, Published Quarterly at San Marcos, Texas Texas, March 21, 1949) The Texas Journal of Science EDITOR IN CHIEF J. L. Baughman Chief Marine Biologist Texas Game, Fish and Oyster Commission Rockport, Texas ASSOCIATE EDITORS Dr. Charles F. Squire Dept, of Physics The Rice Institute Houston, Texas Dr. W. Frank Blair Dept, of Zoology The University of Texas Austin, Texas EDITORIAL BOARD Dr. J. Brian Eby Consulting Geologist, 1404 Esperson Building Houston, Texas Dr. L. W. Blau Research Consultant, Humble Oil and Refining Company, Houston, Texas Dr. J. C. Godbey Dept, of Chemistry Southwestern University Georgetown, Texas Dr. John G. Sinclair Dept, of Anatomy, Medical Branch, University of Texas, Galveston, Texas Dr. Frank E. Luksa Dept, of Sociology Southwestern University Georgetown, Texas Dr. Clark Hubbs Dept, of Zoology University of Texas Austin, Texas ADVERTISING MANAGER Guy N. Turner 1404 Esperson Building Houston, Texas Volume III Number 2 JfflL 841951 NOTE A serious error was made by the engraver in Dr. Carl L. Hubbs paper "New Cyprinid Fishes of the Genus Notropis from Texas.” Plate I, figure 2, and Plate II, figure 1 were inadvertently transposed. Also, there is a correction on page 93 in the same paper. In the table (Table I) under Av. the second line should read: 10.09 instead of 10.69. The Editor offers his apologies. CONTENTS Hugh Roy Cullen . I Relation of Soil Erosion to Coastal Waters. Hugh H. Bennett . 147 The Silt Load of Texas Streams. Charles S. Stevens . . 162 Pressure Waves in Liquids. C. F. Squire . 173 Antibiotics in Milk. L. G. Harmon . . . . . . . . . 176 Determination of the Refractive Index of a Binary Liquid Mixture. Olivia Covacevich . 176 Trematodes from the Man-o-War Bird, Fregata magnificens Rothschildi, on the Texas Coast, with the Description of a New Species, Schwartzitrema seamsteri. Asa C. Chandler. . . 185 Applications of Meteorology and Oceanography in Marine Industry on the Gulf of Mexico. A. H. Glenn . . . . 191 The Choice of Triclinic Lattice Elements. Jiirg Waser . . . 202 Notes on the Odonata of Northeastern Texas. John Earl Harwell . 204 Achieving Group Adjustment Through Community Planning. Ernest E. Neal . . 208 Management Interest in Promoting Mental Health in Human Relations. Raymond H. Fletcher . 213 Some Aspects of Reef Paleontology and Lithology in the Edwards Formation of Texas. William H. Matthews. . . 217 The Use of Herbicides in the Control of Poisonous Range Plants in Texas. Omer E. Sperry . 227 Crude Fiber Metabolism of College Women on Self-Selected Diets. Florence I. Scoular, Charlotte Collier, and Faye McCarty . 233 The Gulf of Mexico Adjacent to Texas. Harry F. Williams. . . . 237 The Terminal Olfactory Complex in the Porpoise. John G. Sinclair 251 Climate, Cattle, and Crossbreeding; Beef and Milk Production in the Tropics and Subtropics, with a Bibliography on Various Phases of the Porblem. J. L. Baughman . . . . . 253 Notes on the Giant Walking Stick Megaphasma denticrus (Stal) (Orthoptera: Phasmatidae ) . Orin P. Wilkins and Osmond P. Breland 305 Problems of Industries Using Sea Water. Gustave Heinemann . . . . . 311 The Effects of Various Concentrations of Maleic Hydrazide on Tomato and Etiolated Lima Bean Plants. Victor A. Greulach . . . 322 Book Reviews . . 326 Program of The Texas Academy of Science Regional Meeting. . . 329 The First Idealist . . . . 333 Hugh Roy Cullen •mm lllMpii Mrs. Hugh Roy Cullen Aerial view of the campus and buildings of the University of Houston Roy and Lillie Cullen Building at the Baylor University College of Medicine HUGH ROY CULLEN It will remain for a future generation or age to evaluate Hugh Roy Cullen’s contributions to science. It cannot be done now; but one thing is certain: they will add up to a major benefaction of our time. He is known as the father of the University of Houston, which enjoys the second largest enrollment of all Texas colleges. In various gifts he and Mrs. Cullen have donated more than seven million dollars in buildings and equipment on the campus. They have given as many millions or more for hospitals and the Baylor University School of Medicine in Houston. But their most fabulous philanthropy of all was in the establishment or the Cullen Foundation, in which they placed oil-producing properties whose ultimate income yield was estimated at $160 million. They wished thpcp funds used principally for the Texas Medical Center and the University Houston. All of these benevolences will make possible study, research and dis¬ coveries which are bound to result in important scientific development and advances. Mr. Cullen was born in Denton County and spent most of his boyhood in San Antonio. While still in his teens he struck out on his own, in the cotton business. In his twenties he achieved a considerable degree or success in buying and selling cotton in Western Oklahoma and Texas. He married Miss Lillie Cranz, an attractive member of a substantial family of Schulenburg, Texas. She went with him to Oklahoma to live, shortly after the turn of the century, and in devoted companionship shared his struggles and his triumphs ever since. In all philanthropies Mr. Cullen has stressed that "Lillie and I” were the donors. I NsM The Ezekiel W. Cullen Building at the University of Houston The Roy Gustav Cullen Building at the University of Houston 1951, No. 2 June 30 The Texas Journal of Science Moving to Houston in 1911, he eventually got into the oil business. After several years of fruitless search for oil, enduring continual hardships and discouragement, he struck pay at Pierce Junction. He kept on wild- catting, and eventually found rich oil reserves at Thompson, in Fort Bend County, Humble in Harris County, the Tom O’Connor Field in Refugio County and fields in LaSalle and Calhoun Counties. In 1936 he achieved national recognition. For discovering and developing new and deeper sands, and conquering the heaving shales, the University of Pittsburgh awarded him an honorary degree of Doctor of Science. Baylor and the University of Houston have since conferred upon him the honorary degrees of Doctor of Laws. Many other honors have come to him in activities with which he has been connected— civic, cultural, industrial, fraternal and patriotic. The Cullens’ first-born, Roy Gustav Cullen, was following rapidly in his father’s footsteps and showing brilliant promise in the scientific and inventive phases of the oil industry, when he was killed in an oil-field accident in 1936. The first building given by the parents to the University of Houston was named for him. Other children of the Cullens are Mrs. Paul (Lillie Cranz) Portanova of Los Angeles, Mrs. Isaac (Agnes Louise) Arnold, Mrs. Douglas B. (Mar¬ garet Ruth) Marshall, and Mrs. Corbin J. (Wilhelmina Daisy) Robertson, all of Houston. Mr. Cullen’s oil business is conducted under the name of the Quintana Petroleum Corporation. His sons-in-law, officers of the company, relieve him of much of the managerial work, leaving him time to devote to philanthropy and public affairs. Among the many civic and cultural endeavors in which he has taken a particular interest are the Houston Symphony Orchestra, the Museum of Fine Arts of Houston, the Boy Scouts and Air Scouts, the Gonzales Warm Springs Foundation, the Arabia Temple’s Crippled Children’s Funds— and, above all education, hospitals and medic al sciences. In 1945 the Houston Chapter of the Sons of the American Revolution bestowed upon him its annual Good Citizenship medal. While Mr. Cullen has had no personal political aspirations whatever, he has concerned himself profoundly and vigorously with the preservation of our American heritage and the American system of free enterprise, strenuously resisting the encroachment of socialism and communism and efforts to destroy the Constitution and States’ rights. To these ends he has worked for the election of public officials and lawmakers who were honest and patriotic and consecrated to the principles in which he believes. The good works of Hugh Roy and Lillie Cullen will go on through the years, propagating and spreading through the dissemination of human knowledge and the forward strides of science at the institutions which they have endowed. IV Mi TOP — Science Building, University of Houston BOTTOM — Oberholtzer Hall (Dormitories), University of Houston I v IN PALESTINE, which was once the Roman wheat basket, a view to the east across the ruins of the great crusader castle, Krak des Chevaliers, shows broken terraces, the remains of an early effort to conserve the soil that is now almost gone. In the dis¬ tance, slopes are still cultivated but most of the top soil was carried down to the sea where it choked the ancient harbors. Courtesy U. S. Soil Conservation Service TIMGAD, one of the great Roman cities of North Africa, is only a memory among whose mins native shepherds pasture their sheep. Once the center of a thriving com¬ munity, both air and water erosion have stripped the earth of its top soil and today it lies deserved, surrounded by desolate countryside. RELATION OF SOIL EROSION TO COASTAL WATERS HUGH H. BENNETT * Chief, U. S. Soil Conservation Service Washington 25, D. C. The silting of estuaries is, of course, a natural condition that was in progress for undeterminable time before there was any cultivation of the land. But there is much evidence, both historical and geological, indicating that the pre-agricultural rate of sedimentation of bays and estuaries was very slow in comparison with rates following extensive clearing, burning, plowing, and grazing activities. Too many historians and engineers, I am afraid, have attributed the rapid sedimentation of harbors to uncontrollable forces of nature. They too often have failed to notice the rapid changes * Address presented at Roekport, Texas, during the Fourth Semi-Annual Seminar of Marine Science, of the Marine Laboratory of the Texas Game, Fish and Oyster Commission. 147 The Texas Journal of Science 1951, No. 2 June 30 HB gplll ■EH Courtesy TJ. S. Soil Conservation Service AERIAL PHOTOGRAPH of the Gunpowder estuary in Chesapeake Bay which was the harbor of Joppa Town, Md. Joppa Town, founded in 1707, was once the most prosperous seaport of Maryland. The solid line shows the approximate original shore line of the estuary; the dotted line, the shore line in 1846; the broken line, in 1897. The amount of deposition since 1897 can be seen. 1951, No. 2 June 3U Soil Erosion and Coastal Waters 149 brought about through man’s deforestation and agricultural operations. Certainly in many instances the rapid sedimentation of bays and estuaries is an abnormal condition that developed after, or along with, the clearing, overgrazing, and cultivation of land in the contributing watersheds. SEDIMENTATION OF HARBORS This is nothing new. Sedimentation of harbors is as old as history. Sites of a number of Biblical cities, which we are told were originally seaports, are far inland today. Continuous deposition of sediment from eroding up¬ lands gradually extended the land area and pushed the tidewater from their wharves. Ur of the Chaldees is said to have been a thriving seaport at the head of the Persian Gulf about 3000 B. C. Today its ruins lie in a desert 150 miles from the present shores of the Gulf. For centuries, the sediment brought down by the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers from the over-grazed highlands of Turkey, Syria, Iran, and Iraq has pushed the head of tidewater out into the Persian Gulf; and the shore line today is reported to be advanc¬ ing at the rate of one mile in 30 years (Banks, 1913). A number of ancient harbors that were frequented by the ships of Phoenicia, Carthage, Greece, and Rome are now many miles inland from navigable waters. Adria, Italy, was a busy seaport in the time of Caesar Augustus, but today it is 20 Italian miles inland (Gottschalk, 1944). Sedi¬ mentation forced the Romans from the harbor at Antium and caused aban¬ donment of the once magnificent harbor of Ostia, built in 43 A.D. at the mouth of the Tiber River (Saville, 1940). In early postglacial time the Tigris and the Euphrates flowed into the Persian Gulf near Hitt and Samarra, now some 600 miles north of the present shoreline. The Karun River, flowing westward from the Persian highlands also contributed its silt to the Persian Gulf and built up a bar which extended eastward from Basra and protected lower Mesopotamia from the inroads of the sea. As irrigation agriculture spread to the land farther up the rivers, the problems of flooding and sedimentation became more serious. The powerful communities resorted to the only means that they knew for protecting themselves against floods and at the same time preventing accumulation of sediment in their canals. This consisted of completely shutting off the water from certain branches of the rivers by earthen dams. While protecting the area farther upstream, the lower delta lands were subjected to increased sedimentation and higher floods (Bennett, 1939). Along the Euphrates, the irrigated fields lay to the east of the river. Irrigation waters were carried to the east and flood waters allowed to escape to the west. Babylon was protected from floods by two large natural de¬ pressions, the Habbania and the Abu Dibis. The Hindiya Canal provided additional protection by diverting the water to the west of Babylon. Dur¬ ing the dry season it was barricaded by a temporary dam, which w&s con¬ structed and destroyed yearly, a task requiring the labor of 10,000 slaves. Near Beled, north of Bagdad, the flood waters of the Tigris were turned into a large basin with a hard bed of conglomerate underlying a thin alluvian deposit. The three heads of the famous Nahrwan Canal, whose construction is commonly attributed to Nimrod, led from the upstream side of the dam. The dam was maintained for 3,000 years and was not destroyed until about no The Texas Journal of Science 1951, No. 2 June 30 600 or 700 years ago, during the later days of the caliphate. Since its de¬ struction, the channel of the Tigris has shifted to the east, and the lands near the head canal, formerly among the most fertile of the Tigris Valley, have been so badly cut by ravines and gullies that, according to Sir William Willcocks (1917), their restoration today is not financially practicable. BUILDING LAND WITH RIVER SEDIMENT In 1949, I saw extensive land-building operations in the lower alluvial plain of the Po River in Italy, near the Adriatic Sea. Dikes were being built on low-lying, unusable portions of marshland within the alluvial plain. Silt¬ laden waters from the Po were directed into these diked areas, where deposits of water-borne sediment were laid down to build up new land. The surface of the finished fields was about 3 to 4 feet above the marsh level and the land was producing excellent yields of a great variety of vegetables, corn, alfalfa, fruits, and other crops. SILTING OF HARBORS IN AMERICA Here in our own country, almost an infant by comparison in the gene¬ alogy of nations, we have a number of similar examples of the abandonment of early colonial ports on Chesapeake Bay, because their harbors filled with sediment — soil washed down from the neighboring highlands — after the clearing and plowing of the land. When Captain John Smith sailed up the Chesapeake in 1608, he found many deep-water estuaries which afforded excellent harbors (Gottschalk, 1945). This is what happened: Most of the land, in Maryland, was planted to tobacco, generally on newly cleared land having fertile woodland topsoil. When such fields were "worn out” or severely impoverished — usually after a half-dozen years or so planted to tobacco, mainly- — they were often aban- SEDIMENTATION of the Patapsco River arm of Baltimore Harbor near Hanover Street Bridge. 1951, No. 2 June 30 Soil Erosion and Coastal Waters 151 Courtesy U. S. Soil Conservation Service U. S. CORPS OF ENGINEERS dredge removing silt from the bottom of the Wil¬ mington Harbor and Marine Terminal, Wilmington, Delaware, to permit travel of freighters bringing crude materials for Wilmington’s important industries. Over 2,000,000 cubic yards of silt are removed from this harbor each year by this or other dredges. The silt consists chiefly of the good top soil which should be retained on our farms for productive purposes. This top soil as silt is pumped into the Cherry Marsh silt basin. The island is now two miles square and growing as topsoil is added. This dredging costs taxpayers as much as $200,000 annually with a loss to the farmers of the Brandywine Valley of over a million dollars each year. cloned and a new field cleared. Soil erosion inevitably set in, streams be¬ came muddy, and the estuaries and bays began to silt up. With this acceler¬ ated (man-induced) soil erosion, early open- water ports were converted into mud flats, in some instances within 50 years. Towns that otherwise might have become thriving cities and seaports thus were destined to die in their infancy — choked, indirectly, by the very industry that had promoted their founding. Today’s port of Baltimore is the head of navigation on the Patapsco River, but before the first street was laid out in Baltimore (founded in 1706) ships from Europe unloaded their cargoes at Elk Ridge Landing, 7 miles farther upstream than the present docks. A hundred years ago, the Patapsco 152 The Texas Journal of Science 1951, No. 2 June 30 was recorded as being 17 feet deep along the left bank just under the Han¬ over Street bridge in Baltimore."' By 1898, it was only 3 l/z feet deep in the same place; and, by 1924, it was a mere 6 inches in depth! Sedimentation in the Baltimore Harbor prompted enactment of a law as early as 1753 providing a fine for throwing earth, sand, or dirt on the shore or in any navigable part of the harbor below high water mark; and the first dredging of the record in the harbor was in 1783. During the past 100 years, the federal government, which began dredging in Baltimore Harbor in 1836, alone has removed more than 111 million cubic yards of silt from the harbor at a cost of nearly $17,000,000. And in the entire Chesapeake Bay area, the government has spent in the past century more than $56,000,000 for dredging; yet much still remains to be done. (Gott- schalk, 1945). It is estimated that a million dollars worth of topsoil from farms in the Brandywine watershed in Chester County, Pennsylvania, and New Castle County, Delaware, is carried into the channel of the Marine Terminal at Wilmington, Delaware, annually, filling it at the rate of 12 inches a month. Each year, the government pumps out 500,000 cubic yards of silt at a cost of $300,000. (Richards, 1950). If I have seemed to belabor these examples, somewhat, it is because I believe it is most important for us first to visualize the tremendous extent of this silt-producing erosion and the comparative rapidity with which it can proceed. I could list long columns of siltation figures, including the measured silt loads carried by major Texas rivers, like the Trinity, the Colorado, the Nueces, the Rio Grande, the Brazos, and others. But you probably are quite familiar with these facts, and with the sediment ac¬ cumulations building up in your bays and estuaries as a result. We have looked at some of the outright monetary costs and broader economic penalties imposed on the public by the physical problem of silta¬ tion. I think it is self-evident that there are various other mal-effects, too, including the harm done to marine life and inland fish and game, to navi¬ gable waterways, to municipal and other water supplies, to recreational areas, and, most important, to heavy costs of producing silt through the land-impoverishing effects of soil erosion. EFFECT OF SILTING ON AQUATIC LIFE In addition to filling up navigation channels in estuaries, sedimentation takes a heavy toll of aquatic life. Suspended matter in water diminishes the sunlight needed by certain organisms to grow, I am told, and thus eliminates the food on which aquatic life feeds. Sand, silt, and clay may completely smother out spawning beds. Few fishermen will venture forth a -fishing when streams are muddy. A study of the fishing habits on the Meramec River in Missouri made sev¬ eral years ago by the Missouri State Planning Board showed that when the waters of this stream are muddy, recreational attendance drops (or did at the time) by one- third. (Brown, 1945). It was found that stream flow was above normal and the Meramec muddy, on the average, about 2 5 times each recreational season. As a result, loss of attendance and income to the people of the area was estimated at $49,000 a year. * Coast and Geodetic Survey Chart. 1945. 1951, No, 2 Soil Erosion and Coastal Waters 153 June 30 The damaging effects of sedimentation on the oyster industry of the Chesapeake Bay area is one of the best illustrations showing the toll taken by the indirect effect of soil erosion on marine life in Bay waters. Mary¬ land’s oyster production, once considered second only to agriculture among the state’s industries, was 1 5 million bushels a year during the period of 1883-1885. By 1950, it had dropped to only l/2 million bushels. The ob¬ servations of biologists and other authorities confirm the fact that the de¬ cline of the oyster industry in Chesapeake Bay waters parallels strikingly the silting up of Bay ports, described earlier. Newcombe (1950) with whose studies many of you no doubt are acquainted, has brought out this fact quite strongly. "Studies have shown that over-fishing and siltation operate together to cause depletion,” he points out, "... Throughout the Chesapeake tribu¬ taries silt is the oyster’s greatest natural enemy . . Newcombe supports that conclusion with statements from documents of Colonial days and figures on present-day silt measurements and oyster populations. He reports, for example, that whereas several hundred boats plied the oyster trade in the York River in Virginia as late as 1900, fewer than 50 boats can be counted now; and the estimated 12,000 or more tongers who worked in Virginia alone in the 1 880’s has dropped to only about 2,500. Heaps of oyster shells found on the shores of the upper tributaries of Chesapeake Bay show that the Indians took them from extreme upper bay waters, but the bottoms of these tributaries now are soft mud in which oysters cannot exist. The head of oyster propagation today is many miles down-bay from those former good producing sites. Dr. R. V. Truitt, Di¬ rector of the Chesapeake Biological Laboratory of the Maryland State De¬ partment of Research and Education, at Solomons Island, is of the opinion that, at least in the last few years, upper-Bay beds have been destroyed by freshets. He thinks there is reason to believe that the increased fresh water inflow is the result of erosion in the uplands. Dr. Truitt had this to say, when interviewed recently: "Although there is no specific evidence, it is my firm belief . . . that poor management of the land around the bay and lack of conservation practices is responsible in no small degree for the declining oyster production. Unless the land is properly managed, erosion will bring about a further decline in oyster yields.” The Chesapeake Bay Institute’s hydrographic program includes, in co¬ operation with Johns Hopkins University, a sampling of the bottom of the Bay by borings. It is expected that the silt figure will be helpful in showing the effects of such depositions on marine habitat and life in the Bay area. The decline in oyster production has in no wise been confined to the Chesapeake Bay, but applies to the whole East Coast reporting area, includ¬ ing the Gulf of Mexico. Thus, in 18 80,* the first year of record, the figures show, that production for this area totaled 153,405,000 pounds of shucked oyster meat. By 1945 (U.S.F.W.S. 1949), the production had dropped to 65,392,000. That represents a decline of approximately 57*4 per cent. West Coast production is not taken into account; because, as you probably * The Fisheries and Fishery Industries of the United States. Sec. 2, Senate Document No. 124, 47th Congress. 1887. 154 The Texas Journal of Science 1951, No. 2 June 30 know, importation of Asiatic seed oysters spawned in Japan, particularly since the 1930's, has greatly expanded oyster production in that part of the country (from 1,050,000 pounds in 1888 to 10,074,000 in 1945.** *** SOURCE OF SILT Wherever silt is found, in reservoirs, streams, or bays, the bulk of it comes from the land as the result of soil erosion. The Soil Conservation Service estimates that in this country at least 4 billion tons of soil are an¬ nually moved out of place some distance downhill by water erosion. Of this amount, roughly 3 billion tons are deposited on lower slopes, over alluvial plains, and in reservoirs, ditches, canals, and fresh-water harbors. About 1 billion tons a year is carried on down to tidewater. Part of this silt is de¬ posited as sediment in our harbors and navigable channels, where it must be removed by dredging in order to maintain proper water depth. Most of it goes on out to sea or is deposited on the lowest part of deltas and over continental shelf positions. Silt load measurements made on Texas streams * * * indicate that the major rivers-— the Sabine, Trinity, Brazos, Colorado, Guadalupe and Nueces, Rio Grande, San Antonio— discharge an average of about 80 million tons of sediment into the Gulf of Mexico each year. That figure, however, represents only a small part of the soil moved downslope by erosion. For example, the 80 million tons amounts to only about 1 ton per acre derived from the approximately 80 million acres above the measuring stations. The Soil Conservation Service has measured annual surface losses of more than 2 5 tons of soil per acre by erosion from corn plots of Houston clay at the Temple, Texas, experiment station. The silt load at tidewater would be even greater were it not for the sediment removed by deposition in reservoirs and stream channels within the watersheds upstream. Reservoir sedimentation surveys made by the Soil Conservation Service show the annual rates of deposition to be about 5,500,- 000 tons in Buchanan Reservoir, 400,000 tons in Medina Reservoir, 860,000 tons in Lake Corpus Christi, 9,750,000 tons in Possum Kingdom, and 1,900,000 tons in Lake Nasworthy. This sediment is derived mainly from erosion of crop and range lands in Texas. SOIL CONSERVATION AND SILT CONTROL It should be clear enough, then, that the task of reducing floods and controlling erosion and thereby reducing the intake of silt by our reser¬ voirs, bays, and estuaries, is one which should begin where the rains fall and runoff starts, and end only when the runoff reaches the sea. A main ob¬ jective of all the conservation work which the Soil Conservation does is to retard the discharge of water from upstream areas. In other words, the purpose is to put as much of the runoff as possible into the reservoir of the soil. Probably more than 75 per cent of the nation's total watershed flood damage occurs in the upstream tributary watersheds, along the little head¬ waters streams. ** U. S. Fish & Wildlife Service records. (Statistics in pounds of oyster meat, because of varying bushel sizes and poundage records used in different states.) *** Silt Load of Texas Streams, 1948-1949. Texas Board of Water Supply (Soil Conservation Service cooperating), Progress Report No. 11. 1950 1951, No. 2 June 30 Soil Erosion and Coastal Waters 155 ONLY BY USING TERRACING, strip cropping an outlet control as shown in this photograph taken on the Elm Creek Watershed, Bell County, near Temple, Texas, can our precious soil be conserved. And while thus retarding runoff, the rate of silt production by erosion is reduced. In our normal conservation work, the objective is always to keep agricultural land permanently productive while in use. In flood control operations, more emphasis is put on the task of slowing down runoff. So, in the complete watershed program, the principal effort is devoted to meas¬ ures that help to store water in the soil and slow down runoff. The two types of control are complementary in effect, at least in some degree: gen¬ erally speaking, slowing down of runoff reduces the rate of erosion, while the measures applied to the land for erosion control result in increased in¬ filtration of rainfall, thereby reducing the runoff. Both actions are bene¬ ficial to the land, reduce production of silt, and lessen flood hazards. The flow and quality of water in surface streams are influenced mater¬ ially by the way we use and manage our land resources; but in a great many instances individual landowners and water users have little or no control over the activities involved with stream flow and hence are unable to deal with them alone. As a result, local agencies and groups like your own and the soil conservation districts are concerning themselves more and more with water control problems. 156 The Texas Journal of Science 1951, No. 2 June 30 The Soil Conservation Service in fulfilling its authorized responsibilities is committed to doing everything possible within its resources to provide technical assistance needed in dealing with the erosion problem, siltation, floods, and water wastage. Thus the water conservation activities of the Service are continuously geared to the needs of the land and water users and are coordinated with the activities of other agencies concerned with land and water. To this end, we define water conservation— which always has been part and parcel of soil conservation in our Service planning, opera¬ tions, and research— -this way: WATER CONSERVATION Water conservation is the physical control, protection, management, and prudent use of water in such a way as to maintain crop, grazing, and forest lands, vegetal cover, and wildlife for maximum sustained benefits to people, agriculture, industry, commerce, and other segments of the national economy. WHAT HAPPENED TO LAKE WACO If erosion in a watershed can be reduced, sedimentation in reservoirs, harbors, and estuaries can be reduced. Recent studies made by the Soil Con¬ servation Service at Lake Waco here in Texas illustrate this fact. This reser¬ voir built on the Bosque River by the City of Waco for municipal water in 1930, had an original capacity of 40,000 acre feet and a drainage area of 1,666 square miles. From 1930 to 1936, the average annual capacity loss from suiting was 3.3 5 per cent, but from 1936 to 1947 the rate dropped to 2.06 per cent. Actually, the rainfall and runoff were more favorable to erosion and silting during the second period; but silting actually decreased 3 8 per cent as a result of changes in land use and the application of con¬ servation practices in the watershed. Since 1934, approximately 200 000 acres, or nearly 19 percent of the watershed, has been converted from clean-tilled crops— -mainly cotton— to pasture. Conservation measures have been carried out through the soil conservation districts program on about 1 0 percent of the land in this watershed, and additional conservation measures not under district plans have been installed on additional acreages. Further reductions in the rate of silting of Lake Waco can be expected from the conservation land treat¬ ment being extended steadily over the watershed. Similar examples are to be found all over the country. For example, conservation treatment in the 14-square mile watershed above Lake I’ssa- queena near Clemson, South Carolina, between 1941 and 1949 reduced the rates of silting of that reservoir by 53 percent. Here again rainfall and runoff were above normal during this period as compared with the years before 1941. (Noll, 1950). Rotation strip cropping applied on some 1,400 acres was the major practice used. These results demonstrate, wherever they occur, that if you slow down erosion, you will reduce sedimentation. And the control of erosion on the watershed has many off-site benefits, such as reduction in flood damage and in rates of silting of reservoirs, harbors, and estuaries, in addition to creating more favorable conditions for the propa¬ gation of aquatic life. Soil Erosion and Coastal Waters 157 1951, No. 2 June 30 Courtesy U. S. Soil Conservation Service UNCONTROLLED EROSION rapidly produces conditions behind dams such as shown in this photograph of the Dan River at Schoolfield, Virginia. Besides the loss of the top soil, the filling of reservoirs causes great loss and damage. SOIL CONSERVATION ONLY WAY TO CONTROL SILT The only way, moreover, in which water pollution from silt, with the attendant problems of sedimentation can be controlled or reduced effectively is by the adoption of soil and water conservation practices applied in ac¬ cordance with the needs and capabilities of the land. Contour farming, strip cropping, terracing, good pasture, and range development and management, proper woodland management, land-use changes, and various other specific land-management measures which have proved to be successful in the con¬ trol of soil erosion and water runoff must be applied to the land by those who use the land. It is not enough to treat just part of a farm, or part of a watershed, or part of any other area of land. Every acre of cropland, pasture land, farm woodland, and idle land must be treated according to its needs and each area used according to its capabilities. That is true, whether it is in major watersheds for flood control and silt-pollution abatement purposes, on individual farms and fields for erosion control, or through such group undertakings as conservation drainage or irrigation projects. That is exactly what is being done by farmers in their soil conservation districts, with which we cooperate. 158 The Texas Journal of Science 1951, No. 2 June 39 I am convinced, also, that this unprecedented attention to and progress in soil and water conservation which we are experiencing in today’s con¬ servation farming era is contributing as much, if not more, to the welfare of game, fish and other beneficial wildlife as anything man has ever under¬ taken in this country or anywhere else. In this new conservation era, con¬ servation of land, water, forest, grass, cultivated crops, and wildlife are, for the first time in the history of man, being tied together and scientifically coordinated on the basis of land capability and need. This is a basic tenet of modern soil conservation. PUBLIC BENEFITS Ordinary soil and water conservation measures are for the protection and improvement of the land on which they are applied, and consequently the principal benefit is received by the owner or operator of the farm on which such work is done. Therefore, it is only proper that the farmer should bear the principal cost. On the other hand, the special measures and structures used in flood control are designed to benefit downstream bottom¬ lands and to keep sediment out of stream channels, reservoirs, bays, etc. Because these are public benefits, the public — -through community groups, or county, state, and federal government — should bear its proportionate part of the costs so long as they are justified by the benefits to be expected. FLOOD CONTROL ON THE TRINITY Among the streams which dump sediment into your Gulf waters is the Trinity River. You probably are familiar with the flood control program underway on this stream under the Army Corps of Engineers. Also this is one of the 1 1 major watersheds in the country — the largest one of the eleven — in which the Soil Conservation Service is carrying on waterflow retardation works of improvement. Our Service and the Forest Service are the two U. S. Department of Agriculture agencies authorized under the 1936 and subsequent flood control acts to engage in this work. We do it through the soil conservation districts. We have been working on the Trinity since 1947, although the flood control surveys were made earlier. Watershed treatment work in the 3,860-acre Howard Creek sub¬ watershed of the Trinity River watershed, near Jacksboro, is typical of much of the work done in the 1 1 authorized watersheds. This sub-watershed was chosen for early flood control operations because of local interest. The sub-watershed improvement plan, developed cooperatively by the Soil Con¬ servation Service and the local people, included installation of terraces with protected outlets on many cultivated fields, contour farming, cover crop¬ ping, improved grazing practices, seeding abandoned cropland to pasture grasses, eradication of brush for the establishment of grass, building of diversion ditches and farm ponds, construction of a small upstream res¬ ervoir for retarding floodwater and reducing deposition of sediment in reservoirs and over bottomlands. On June 24, 1949, six months after the reservoir was completed, two inches of rain fell in one hour on the lands above the reservoir. The runoff from this rain, which before the conservation treatment would have flooded cropland and pastures along this branch of Howard Creek, was retarded in the reservoir so that the peak flow in the creek was only 2 5 percent of channel capacity. 1951, No. 2 June 30 Soil Erosion and Coastal Waters 159 The May, 1949 flood in the vicinity of Fort Worth, which did nearly $9,000,000 of erosion, crop, and pasture damage and estimated miscellaneous damage from $15,000,000 to $2 5,000,000 to city and other property, was from a storm in only part of the Trinity River watershed. It originated in the type of watershed in which we are working. The Trinity watershed area is completely covered by soil conservation districts; so we may look forward to widespread beneficial results in the reduction of such damages in the future as more of the conservation is completed. COOPERATION OF LOCAL INTERESTS A most important factor in this watershed planning and treatment is the active cooperation of local interests. In the case of the Trinity, the Trinity Improvement Association should be mentioned, among others. At San Antonio, through the San Antonio River Canal and Conservancy Dis¬ trict, the local people have been so determined to speed up this kind of work that the Conservancy District has arranged to set up trust funds to pay the cost of a flood control survey on that watershed. That was after appropriations were not forthcoming for the service to proceed otherwise with the survey as planned. Flood control surveys are under way, meanwhile, on the Sabine-Neches watershed by the Soil Conservation Service and we have completed a survey on the Little River Branch of the Brazos. Surveys have been made on the Bosque and are under way on the remaining part of the Brazos. Other flood control surveys in progress involving Texas watersheds include those on the Pecos, in the lower part of the state; on Red River, a large part of which is in Texas; and the San Jacinto. Works of improvement are under way on the Middle Colorado and the work already undertaken on the Washita River watershed in Oklahoma, which likewise affects Texas areas somewhat, has attracted national attention among the 1 1 authorized watersheds. SOIL CONSERVATION DISTRICTS It should be understood, however, that the soil and water conservation work which concerns you and every other segment of society in Texas and in the nation is not confined to this flood control type of operations. It is progressing at a constantly accelerated rate throughout the state and the whole country, in the farmer-organized and farmer-managed soil conserva¬ tion districts. As of January 1, this year, more than four-fifths of all the farms and three-fourths of all the land in farms in the United States were included within soil conservation district boundaries. These districts, which are still being formed at an average rate of 8 to 10 a month, now number nearly 2,3 50 and cover 1*4 billion acres in the 48 states, Alaska, Hawaii, Puerto Rico, and the Virgin Islands. Texas is high up in the district column, with 93 percent of the state’s farms and ranches and 89 percent of the total land in 160 soil conservation districts as of February 1, this year. District organization, of course, is not enough by itself. It is the soil and water conservation work that actually gets done on the land that counts. To January 1 detailed conservation surveys had been made on 361 million acres in the districts; 941,000 conservation farm plans had been worked out by district farmers and Soil Conservation Service technicians out on the 160 The Texas Journal of Science 1951, No. 2 June 30 land together, covering 260 million acres; and 131 million acres had been treated with conservation measures called for in the plans. All my figures are from the records of the Soil Conservation Service. They do not include PMA figures, or those from other federal, state, or private agencies except as the activities of these other agencies have contributed to the work done on the SCS planned farms. I could, of course, give you the comparable accomplishment figures, for the state of Texas; but, if you are not already acquainted with them, you may obtain them in detail from our local offices. BIOLOGICAL ASPECTS OF SCS PROGRAM I have already mentioned some of the various conservation measures which are used in this acre-by-acre land treatment. I should like to mention further, however, some of the biological aspects of our technical program. We give particular attention to training in biology for our farm planners and other technicians who work with farmers out in their fields (not in an office) . The farm planner considers the value of treating various types of land, not only for their primary use but also with an eye to any modifica¬ tion or special practice that will result in more wildlife through complete and adequate land treatment. He is expertly equipped to do this, because his understanding of the biology aspects of soil and water conservation plan¬ ning and treatment is dovetailed with similar basic knowledge and adept¬ ness in soil science, geology, forestry, range management, hydrology agron¬ omy, engineering, and other phases of a complete, coordinated soil and water conservation program. The Service’s stated biology objectives may be of particular interest to you: 1. To apply to land-use problems biological knowledge useful in the pre¬ vention and control of soil erosion— -that is, soil and water conservation —thereby preserving natural resources. 2. To achieve productive land use on all lands, including those not adapted to- tilled crops, grazing, or wood production. 3. To assist in the solution of land-use problems which involve production of useful wild plants and animals on croplands, grazing lands, and wood¬ lands. 4. To contribute to the prevention and control of biological damage arising out of measures established for soil and water conservation and related land-use practices. We now can say that national policy and public thinking, with few exceptions, are agreed on the utter necessity of conserving our interlocking natural resources. Research, education, surveys and the successful applica¬ tion of conservation measures have brought us to a new concept of the importance of land and, also, of the need for keeping the land permanently productive. Nature’s laws were so contrived that land, water, plants, and animals all should exist in harmony and interdependence for perpetual pro¬ ductiveness of these essential resources. The problem of soil and water conservation and wise use is not a prob¬ lem that can wait until farmers solve it by any trial-and-error method, for that might be too late. This is an urgent problem, which demands the best efforts of the nation’s scientists and of all who use the land for agricultural purposes. And the understanding cooperation and active participation in its 1951, No. 2 June 30 Soil Erosion and Coastal Waters 161 solution by industrial and all other groups in our society are indispensable to getting done in time this vital job which so importantly affects all of us. We now have the knowledge of how to do the job; the conservation tools have been perfected and tested; and, what is more important, we have the organization and public support for doing the job. Not only is there no excuse for our not doing the job, but we dare not shirk it; because our in¬ dividual and national security, peace and prosperity depend on it. LITERATURE CITED Banks, Edgar J. — 1913 — The reclamation of ancient Babylonia by irrigation. Engr. News 69 (10) : 468-469. Bennett, H. H. — 1939 — Soil Conservation. McGraw-Hill. New York & London, i-xvii, 993 pp. Brown, Carl B. — 1945 — Floods and Fishing. The Land 4(1) : 78-79. Gottschalk, L. C. — 1944 — Sedimentation in a great harbor. Soil Conservation 10(1) : 3-5; 11-12. July, 1944. Gottschalk, L. C. — 1945 — Effects of soil erosion on navigation in upper Chesapeake Bay. The Geographical Review 35(2) : 219-238. April, 1945. Newcombe, Curtis L. — 1950 — Treasures in troubled waters. The Scientific Monthly 70(2) *.1-6. February, 1950. Noll, John J., Roehl, John W., and Jackson Bennett — 1950 — Effects of soil conservation on sedimentation in Lake Issaqueena, Pickens county. South Carolina. U. S. Soil Con¬ servation Service. SCS-TP-95. Spartanburg, S. C. Richards, Annette S. — 1950 — A new battle of the Brandywine. Reprinted from Nature Magazine. 3 pp. February, 1950. Saville, Sir Leopold — 1940 — Presidential address to the institution of civil engineers. The Engineer (London). 170(4427) : 316-317. U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service — 1949 — Fishery Statistics of the United States, 1945. Statis¬ tical Digest 18 : 1-372. Washington. Senate Document— 1887 — The fisheries and fishery industries of the United States. Washing¬ ton, D. C. Texas Board of Water Supply — 1950 — Progress Report No. 11, Silt load of Texas streams, 1948-1949. 162 The Texas Journal of Science 1951, No. 2 June 30 THE SILT LOAD OF TEXAS STREAMS CHARLES S. STEVENS * Lockwood & Andrews Consulting Engineers Houston, Texas The sediment and silt carried by Texas streams is associated with in¬ tensive rainfall. The erratic nature of the rainfall in Texas is well known. It is not unusual in some parts of the State for more rain to fall within 24 hours than the average annual rainfall for that locality. This fact is well illustrated by the storm of June 23-24, 1948, when in parts of Edwards, Kenney and Val Verde Counties, 24 or more inches of rain fell within a period of about 19 hours, whereas the average annual rainfall in this area is approximately 20 inches. Heavy rainfall like that of June 1948, is not a particularly rare oc¬ currence in many parts of the State. With much of the total annual rain¬ fall for the state accounted for by excessive rains of the "cloudburst type,” frequent periods of little or no rainfall may be expected. Therefore, severe droughts are not uncommon. Droughts result in the denudation of the plant cover of the soil. With his plow and axe, man has aided the destructive force known as soil erosion by removing the covering of grass and trees and brush and vines. The rainfall, being of the erratic nature that it is, necessarily results in erratic stream flow, as the stream flow is dependent directly, in most places, on the rainfall. Lacking protective plant cover, during times of heavy pre¬ cipitation soil is torn from its place by water, carried by water, and deposited by water. When in its lightest form and at its minimum, sediment may be only the "murk” in the cloudy water of a spring or merely the discoloration in a river. At a maximum, soil on the move may resemble a concrete mix which contains but little water but floats great boulders on its surface like so many corks. There has been a growing recognition of the significance of the silt problem and of the need for coordination of efforts in its investigation. The Division of Irrigation of the U. S. Department of Agriculture, sampled the suspended load of the Brazos and Wichita Rivers from 1900-1902; in 1924, a program of systematic measurements of the silt load of Texas streams was instituted by the Division and has been continued to date under a co¬ operative agreement with the Board of Water Engineers. A silt particle (suspended material) consists of clay material 1/256 to 1 / 1 6 mm in size and a clay particle smaller than 1/256 mm in size or the material which will pass a 300 mesh Tyler sieve; sediment (bed load ma¬ terial) ranges from fine sand, l/g to % mm in size, to cobbles ranging in size from 64 to 2 56 mm. The density of silt is dependent upon the size of the particles and amount of compaction, varying from 20 lbs. to 100 lbs. per cubic foot and 70 lbs. has come to be accepted as the average ultimate weight of dry material per cubic foot of deposit. * Formerly Texas Board of Water Engineers. Paper presented at Rockport, Texas, April 6, 1950, at the Second Semi-Annual Seminar of the Marine Laboratory of the Texas Game, Fish and Oyster Commission. I951’ Ji°' 2 Silt Load of Texas Streams 163 June 30 The harmful effects of sedimentation may be divided into five major categories as follows: silt concentration in water; sedimentation in improved channels, floodways, ditches and canals; sedimentation in reservoirs; deposi¬ tion on land, improvement and habitats; and aggradation of stream chan¬ nels and natural or artificial floodways. silt concentration in water may be harmful even though the stream is fully competent to carry all of its load without deposition. High turbidity may destroy the value of the stream for fish and wildlife. It makes the stream or lake undesirable for swimming. Coarse sediment in transpor¬ tation may damage power turbines. Silt must be filtered at considerable cost before the water is acceptable for public, domestic and industrial uses. SEDIMENTATION OF IMPROVED CHANNELS, FLOODWAYS, DITCHES AND canals used for navigation, drainage, irrigation and flood control must be prevented or the sediment removed if these improvements are to function effectively. Irrigators are constantly confronted with the problem of sedi¬ ment deposition in their canals with the resultant decrease in capacities of canals. Considerable expense is incurred in overcoming the sediment problem since it becomes necessary to maintain drag lines throughout the year in order to minimize the harmful efferts, such as increased pumping heads, de¬ creased canal capacities, and changes in canal gradient, created by sediment deposition. We are all familiar with the sight of dredges keeping the navi¬ gation channels of the streams open. In many instances, a continuous pro¬ gram of maintenance dredging is required in order to maintain navigation projects. sedimentation in reservoirs causes loss of storage capacity which depreciates the value of the storage development and causes other losses such as increased evaporation, decreased recreational opportunities and impaired esthetic values. This problem has been recognized by the designing engineer. Today, no dam of any consequence is built without first investigating the silt or sediment load of the stream and then making allowances for sedi¬ mentation deposits by allocation of a specific amount of the storage created by the dam to dead or sedimentation storage. The effect of sedimentation on the capacity of a reservoir is well illus¬ trated by the reduction in capacity of Lake Corpus Christi. When con¬ structed in 1934, the lake had a capacity of 54,426 acre feet. (One acre foot is the amount of water required to cover an area of one acre to a depth of one foot — equal to approximately 326,000 gallons). Subsequent surveys conducted by the Soil Conservation Service of the U. S. Department of Agri¬ culture have disclosed a continuous reduction in storage capacity. In the sedimentation survey of 1942 the storage capacity of the lake was deter¬ mined to be 43,801 acre feet or a reduction from the original capacity of approximately 20 percent in a period of eight years. A second survey made in 1948 showed the capacity of the lake to be 39,3 87 acre feet or a reduc¬ tion from the original capacity of 28 percent in a period of 14 years. It is estimated that by 1960, the deposition of sediment will have re¬ duced the storage capacity of the lake to 2 5,241 acre feet, a reduction of 54 per cent from the original capacity of 54,426 acre feet in a period of ap¬ proximately 2 5 years. Obviously the effects of sedimentation in reservoirs is extremely important to the designing engineer, particularly in streams which carry a high sedimentation load. 164 The Texas Journal of Science 1951, No. 2 June 30 DEPOSITION ON LAND, IMPROVEMENTS, AND HABITATS, mainly during flood flows, causes severe damages in many areas to agricultural land, to urban areas, to transportation facilities and to native wildlife. Repeated flooding has been responsible for the loss of rich agricultural land through deposition. Heavy deposition of infertile material, such as sand, gravel and boulders, on fertile valley lands has played a major role in destroying or re¬ ducing the productiveness of the flooded lands. Many valuable grazing lands have thus been converted to willow and alter thickets as a result of a single storm. In addition to these direct damages, aggradation of stream channels and natural or artificial floodways has the effect of increasing flood stage for any given discharge. Consequently the area inundated and the extent of flood-water damages may be increasing as a result of sedimentation, al¬ though the volume and rate of runoff remains substantially the same. The effects of aggradation coupled with the accompanying heavy growths of weeds, thickets and trees, have resulted in a decrease in convey¬ ance capacity of the leveed channel of the Trinity River at Dallas. A system of levees for Trinity River at Dallas was completed in 1930, at which time the old river channel was abandoned and flow was directed through the new channel. Subsequent discharge measurements show a continuing de¬ crease in conveyance capacity of the leveed channel. At a rate of discharge of 70,000 cubic feet per second, the gage heights in feet, recorded by the United States Geological Survey for the Trinity River at Dallas, were as follows: in 193 5, 41.5 feet; in 1942, 42.4 feet; and in 1949, 45.5 feet. The aggradation of channels is responsible for greatly accentuating flood damages. With clogged channels, flood waters that normally would do little damage spread out on each side of the channel, overflowing period¬ ically lands that were flooded only occasionally. And with such frequent overflowing comes also the attending damage, that of overbank deposition of infertile material upon the flood plain. In the botanical world, a weed is a plant out of place. In the world of water, sediment is a weed — soil out of place. Because sediment is the weed of our water world, we must treat it as a weed, lest it crowd out our valu¬ able plants. Like good gardeners, we must prevent, reduce or control this weed. Soil out of place is usually considered a problem of the bottom lands. It is also a problem in the uplands. Here one will find its origin. The site from which this debris comes is marked by the thousands of gullies on our hill lands, by raw cuts in the peaceful banks along our waterways, by arroyos and ravines in our mountains, plains and deserts. The upland source is also marked by infertile fields, depleted range, declining agriculture which invariably are a result of impoverished land. Soil, or more specifically, topsoil, is the one fixed asset of the farmer. If he loses it he has nothing. For generations, it was believed that the top¬ soil was inexhaustible. Today, we know that soil resources, with improper use and care, can be exhausted just as we exhaust a vein of coal or pump an oil sand dry. Pause but a moment to consider what happens when rain falls on land stripped of its topsoil and we can begin to understand the flood dangers re¬ sulting. When water strikes such land, there is little or no vegetation to 1951, No. 2 June 30 Silt Load of Texas Streams 165 break the fall of rain and to retard its run-off. There is no cushioning top¬ soil to absorb the greater portion of the rainfall. When a rain drop strikes subsoil the force of impact causes fine soil particles to be taken into sus¬ pension, and it becomes a drop of muddy water. Muddy water chokes the pores of the subsoil, and as a result only a relatively small amount of the water enters the ground. The remander flows over the surface — downhill. That is the story of one raindrop falling on bare soil. Multiply that single drop several billion times and you have accumulated a large body of soil-filled water. Streamlets are formed and they enlarge. The velocity of flow rapidly increases and erosive power is generated. Soon rampant waters tear away the soil and pile it up in natural depressions and erosion-made gullies. From these gullies the water is discharged, as from tin gutters, into small streams. Thence, it is poured with maximum speed into the channels of major streams. Every rain creates thousands of new gullies because of the much greater percentage of run-off and because the subsoil erodes more rapidly than absorptive topsoil. This problem of soil erosion with its attendant ills of soil depletion, lowered crop yields, and increasing flood threats is a very real menace to our welfare. However, it would be a mistake to think of erosion damage solely in terms of impoverished or ruined land. Even the physical aspects of erosion extend far beyond the limits of farms that are gullied or stripped of their topsoil. Eroded soil material is frequently carried down from hill¬ side fields and deposited over lowlands or in stream channels. In many cases, growing crops have been smothered, and fertile bottomland soils buried by sand and gravel washed from the fields above. In addition, erosional deposits are destroying the efficiency and value of hundreds of engineering struc¬ tures — irrigation canals, drainage ditches, and reservoirs — -representing in¬ vestments of many millions of dollars. Thus the problem of sediment control becomes one of flood regulation, water conservation and soil conservation. Soil conservation service officials and agricultural leaders have realized that, although we have no way of governing the amount of rain that falls, we can influence the behavior of rain water after it strikes the ground. We can either conserve it in the vast reservoir of the soil and use it for productive purposes, or we can permit it to run wild, tearing away at the soil and swelling our streams and rivers. As farmers in a given watershed move in the direction of soil conserva¬ tion and better land use, they will most inevitably help to reduce the flood hazard in downstream areas. Strip cropping and contour farming conserve soil and water on gently sloping fields. Cover crops not only help reduce floods by reducing run-off, keeping the silt on the farm, and increasing the physical structure of the soil so that infiltration is increased, but may also serve as soil improving crops which will aid in increasing crop yields. Tem¬ porary and permanent structures in small waterways such as small reser¬ voirs, water spreaders and facilities for flood irrigation aid in waterflow retardation and soil erosion prevention. However, this emphasis on land conservation measures for flood regu¬ lation does not for a moment minimize the value of downstream structures in controlling flood waters. Large engineering works must be the main bulwark in our defense against major floods. On the other hand, measures of soil conservation and proper land use in the upper reaches of our water¬ sheds will relieve the pressure on these structures and cut down the amount 166 The Texas Journal of Science 1951, No. 2 June 30 Courtesy U. S. Soil Conservation Service EXTREME GULLY erosion such as this shown near Bowie, Texas in the West Cross Timbers, rapidly strips soil from farms and ranches. of silt deposition. A silt-filled reservoir has no more value for flood control than it has for any other purpose. Consequently, we must attack the flood and sediment problem root and branch, coordinating upstream and down¬ stream measures of control. It has been estimated that approximately 54,000,000 acre feet of water is discharged annually into the Gulf of Mexico from Texas streams. The discharge for the streams is furnished by run-off from 16 main watershed areas that vary in size from 2,280 square miles— —Lavaca River- — to 41,700 square miles — Brazos River. The erosion from the watersheds furnishes con¬ siderable silt load to Texas streams varying from 164 acre feet per annum for the Lavaca watershed at the Edna Station to 24,898 acre feet— -one foot depth of silt covering 24,898 acres of land area— -per annum for the Brazos watershed at the Richmond Station. The demand for river water is increasing, and it is one of the most important factors in the present and future development of the state. In order to meet this condition, storage reservoirs are necessary to conserve water. The storage of water involves silt and its related problems. There¬ fore, silt studies and silt information also have a direct bearing upon the future development of the state. The average yearly amount of silt, based on 70 pounds per cubic foot, from 12 of the main streams discharging into the Gulf of Mexico amounts to nearly 89,000,000 tons — 68,154 acre feet. The total amount of suspended silt carried by the Brazos River at the Richmond Station for a period of 23.3 years — silt study period to September 30, 1947 — amounts to 5 80,123 acre 1951, No. 2 June 30 Silt Load of Texas Streams 167 Courtesy U. S. Soil Conservation Service HERE, SOIL FROM GULLIES, such as shown in the preceding picture, is being car¬ ried away by Howard Creek near Jacksboro, Texas. This picture was taken below Detentional Reservoir No. 1, and shows a comparatively small silt load. Before this reservoir was built, this creek went on a rampage after every heavy rain. feet, a quantity sufficient to jeopardize the economic life of a reservoir of the capacity of Lake Possum Kingdom — 750,000 acre feet. Although most of the suspended silt load carried by Texas streams is retained in the reservoirs some does pass through the lake by either flowing over the spillways or through outlet gates and turbines. At Inks Dam located below Buchanan Dam, three percent of the silt entering Lake Buchanan Dam, at the San Saba Station passes through both Lake Buchanan and Lake Inks. At Possum Kingdom Dam, 5 percent of the silt entering the reservoir at the South Bend Station passes through the reservoir. At Lake Corpus Christi, 3 6 percent of the silt at the Three Rivers Station appears in the stream below the dam. At the present time, the silt studies are being conducted at 24 different sampling stations. The following table gives a summary of the silt data collected since 1924 by the Division of Irrigation of the Soil Conservation Service, U. S. Department of Agriculture under a cooperative agreement with the Texas Board of Water Engineers. In connection with harbor work, investigations and studies have been made by the Corps of Engineers, U. S. Army, with a view to devising means SUMMARY OF SILT RECORDS COVERING MAJOR STREAMS OF TEXAS PREPARED BY TEXAS BOARD OF WATER ENGINEERS AND UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE Austin, Texas — As of September 30, 1947 168 The Texas Journal of Science 1951, No. 2 June 30 '©©©©©rcsesr^cs©©©©©©© or-©©©©© © sf © © on so ^ cs cs ics pcs r-^fN o *r\ os pcs pcs Gssq cn — oo ©^ Os oo pcs sf pcs — CS I/'S — sf ITS ICS PCS CS pCSpCSVS OSOSST Sf od'CsGSSO"'Cs cs r^sor-~tcs — i/-\so — Gsr'-sfsfr — t''-ossj,csoor^r-'SOpcscsvspcsi— < r^- vs © vs vs sj* sr os *-7 r-7 ics sf r^ Os © r~-- res c- cs hc — p"- so pcs — — ics vs vs pcs HrnrCHt^HrHOSPr\ CN rn CN ON CN rCN r-T CN 0Q 1— i *— 1 © cnxr 00 in in 3— 1 t-H CN 00 r- xr CN 00 CCN © xr r- 00 Nt i^no CCN 1— ^ © © xr cCN © i-q xr xr © rq ©^ ©" 00" CCN CN © no" xf ©" ©" CCN©© ©" © CN in © ©" ©" NT r— i xr © in 3—1 i— 1 NO 00 © 1— 1 © CN xr CCN CN © CN © © r-~ CN CN xr ©_ CN S- r- 1— ^ 1— 1 i— * in cCN ©, in © cCN r- c© cCN CN CCN xr" cCN cCN CN ©" 00 CCN cCN CCN 00 00 © © 00 xr CN xr © © CCN 00 I"" cCN 00 CN NT 00 00 00 Xf xr © © © 00 © © in 00 © xr cCN 00 © xr sq © © © rq © NO © i— * © © CN i— j © © r~; CCN © in l/N CN CN CN in © in © xr in CN NO CCN a in in a CN a a i— 1 CN i— 1 1 i—1 1— 1 1— 1 r-~ 1^. r- r^ t'- r~- CCN CCN CN cn xr © CCN r"~ xr © r-- xf Xf Xf xr T Xf xr xr xr xr Xf © NO in xr CCN XT A xr xr xr CN in »n ■A © CN A CN xr © Ai 6 cCN CCN A r- CN cCN A CO © xr xr xr xr CCN (N xr CCN CN xr © xr CN xr xr cCN CCN © © © © © © © © © © © © CCN cCN CCN cCN © © © cCN cCN © © © © CN ccn ccn J3 u G 2 ® o3 &o‘G 2 2 '5 .2 oo > i £ J3 ^-*13 > C fjr> /?er © «a c a 3 - T>-- o (j73 3 c OJ 3 S_e52 c cj; w ^ c -5 C ? u 2 3 .« «3 •-• H ^ _ ^ mB o.yc bn— « — ! -? 5 O o O 33 O V 3 3 e S"ggjj§4’3b§ g*y g Sb~ =53 §| >3 ifdUHU 3^ u^Q 30 XX p4p^ i-« O Uj >* » I a/ c S s 3 3 .2 § *y 'S 2 j3 CC4/C-5- 3 '->u|sJU - - , . 0/ 0/ c c c c 2 2 c e << c 2 2 c a ‘a as 0/ a a -3 J3 *3 ”3 3 H3-3 a 3 3 g 33 S 0/ 0/ 3 3 3 0/ 0/ 0/ -y-y 3 3 33'E‘C OO t-4 JZ £ cZ 1Z £ Pi P^ PB< P^ Ptn c/i 00 co co co co 2 e 3 -S.S «« u $ "S !- S .f Ja “ a s 0) J2 a ^ -. 5 ft p c 0) . g >, ” XI 2 ^ ‘g « g <2 J3 C > tj “ o £ gs & •P ® c3 s- ^ rfl Q ,-J © ^ fO ec g >> £ S' ^ >3 M -O * -o § § a) 2 5 -e .5 c «h £ o o &| g ■g 2 S ft £ a co « 32 fc > «J W M M 169 7/ Station discontinued September 30, 1946. 170 The Texas Journal of Science 1951, No. 2 June 30 Courtesy U. S. Soil Conservation Service CREEKS LIKE HOWARD CREEK and Cuchillo Creek (which is shown here) will, if not controlled, carry off tremendous masses of top soil dumping it into the rivers. This is the junction of Cuchillo Creek with the main channel of the Rio Grande and it is easy to see the delta formed by the deposit of silt and debris carried down by flood waters. of preventing erosion. As beaches are deposits of sediment (sand, gravel, and shell), beach erosion studies necessarily involve the study of sedimen¬ tation. In investigating beach problems, it is important, therefore, to determine the source of supply of the beach deposits. It can then be ascertained whether the supply is being interrupted by natural or artificial means and what the most effective remedial measures might be. Not infrequently the problem of erosion of a beach is closely con¬ nected with the deposition of sediment in a nearby harbor. An illustrtion of such a condition is Santa Barbara Harbor, California, created by the con¬ struction of a breakwater. The breakwater caused the deposition of sediment which was being moved along the coast under the influence of coastal currents. As the adjacent beaches are dependent for their existence on the continuing supply of this material, interference with its supply to the beaches caused them t'b be depleted of sand. At the same time the harbor was being shoaled. The beach erosion and harbor shoaling situations were alleviated by pumping on the beach material hydraulically dredged from the harbor. Courtesy U. S. Soil Conservation Service WHERE THE CURRENT slows down and the flood waters of rivers and creeks spread out, great masses of silt are often deposited. Here 5 inches of upstream top soil is shown, the result of a flood on the Turkey River in Iowa. Of course this particular silt helped the man on whose land it was deposited but it was a loss to the upstream farmer from whose land it came and, had it gone on the sea, would have destroyed marine life all over the area of its deposit. In some harbor areas, sedimentation has been attributed to the precipi¬ tation of sediment by the action of salt. Pollution of harbors by industrial and domestic wastes may also affect the quantity of precipitated matter. The place and amount of deposits in the harbor vary with tidal conditions and river discharges. In cases where sediments are being introduced into the oceans by streams, the study of beach problems may require investigation of rainfall and run-off of tributary drainage areas. In such situations flood control projects may have an effect on beaches by modifying the rate of supply of sediment. There is no question that sedimentation has created some alluvial soils which are the best in the world for agricultural purposes— the historical example being the fertile lands of the Nile Valley and even our own streams, but as proposed programs of flood control, water conservation and soil conservation are completed, downstream irrigators may find that they will have to use more and more fertilizer because they will receive compara¬ tively clear water instead of the rich, silt-laden water now put on the land. This has been the experience of farmers below Hoover Dam on the Colorado River where they had been accustomed to river water bringing in fresh deposits of rich soil and depositing it on their lands. 172 The Texas Journal of Science 1951, No. 2 June 39 After the dam was completed, the water received by the farmers con¬ tained less silt and sediment with the result that they had to use more fer¬ tilizer to produce their crops. Silt and sediment in streams may effect fish life directly by covering the stream bottoms with a blanket of material which kills out the bottom fauna and therefore greatly reduces the available food; also by the mechani¬ cal effects in clogging gills and respiratory tubes of aquatic forms and by abrasive injuries to the gills of many fishes. Indirectly, but none the less effectively, silt affects the fish by screening out light, by settling organic waste and thus increasing the oxygen demand at the bottom of the stream, and by retaining many forms of industrial wastes, as oils, chemical wastes, and pulps in beds on the floor of the stream with disastrous results to the bottom fauna. Since the silt and sedimentation loads of streams are so closely associ¬ ated with intensity of rainfall which in turn determines the major portion of our stream flows, the problem of silt control seems to be one of flood control. The prevention or effective control will necessitate the adoption of various remedial measures in suitable combination. Among such meas¬ ures may be afforestation, reforestation, reduction of soil erosion, control of grazing, construction of detention or storage reservoirs, both large and small, diversion of flood waters to "spreading grounds,” erection of levees, provision of floodways and the clearance or alteration of stream channels. The determination in a given case of the most suitable measure or combi¬ nation of measures may require both intensive and extensive investigations. The prevention of floods in most drainage areas appears to be impossible by any means, for man cannot control precipitation. In many drainage areas, prevention of them would be impracticable; even were it possible, the cost would be unwarranted. In general, reduction of flood peaks by retardation or diminution of run-off to stream channels from tributary slopes, in so far as practicable, and control of flood waters along stream channels in reservoirs, between levees, and the like, where feasible and de¬ sirable, must suffice. The effective correction of flood flow is the sound objec¬ tive; control, rather than prevention, is the attainable goal. LITERATURE CITED Brown, Carl B., Jones, Victor H. and Ross E. Roberts — 1948 — Report on Sedimentation in Lake Corpus Christi and the Water Supply of Corpus Christi, Texas. U. S. Depart¬ ment of Agriculture, Soil Conservation Service, Fort Worth, Texas. Bureau of Reclamation — 1948 — Proceedings of the Federal Inter-Agency Sedimentation Conference. U. S. Department of the Interior, Washington, D. C. Texas Board of Water Engineers — 1948 — Progress Report. Austin, Texas. U. S. Geological Survey — 1949 — Flood of May 17, 1949 at Fort Worth, Texas. Austin, Texas. 1951, No. 2 June 30 Pressure Waves in Liquids 173 PRESSURE WAVES IN LIQUIDS C. F. SQUIRE * The Rice Institute Houston, Texas A liquid is a medium through which compressional waves move with very little attenuation and with a speed which is roughly midway between that of the gas phase of the system and of its solid phase. Indeed we some¬ times build a theory of a liquid from the solid phase concepts and some¬ times treat it like a gas which is very dense. Shear waves which can exist so readily in a solid are no longer to be found in the liquid phase except at frequencies somewhat above 1000 megacycles per second. The exponential increase of the viscosity of a liquid as the temperature is lowered indicates to us that the binding force between molecules steadily increases the locali¬ zation of the molecules and that very rapid shear waves are possible. Re¬ search on the velocity and the attenuation of sound or compression waves has thrown some light on the properties of liquids. The pulse sound techniques at 10 megacycles/sec has been discussed elsewhere at this symposium and in particular by Overton. The precautions taken by all researchers in this field is to be sure that the temperature re¬ mains constant, to be sure not to drive the crystal amplitude so large as to cause cavitation, and to work with pure substances. The velocity of compressional waves in a gas is the well known ex¬ pression: . C,.= (-3F) Henry Eyring and coworkers have taken a very simple picture of the liquid shown here: Qi£) where L is the distance between centers of the hard sphere molecules and Lf is the free-length distance. The hard sphere is supposed to short circuit the sound wave with infinite velocity. Eyring then writes the velocity of com¬ pressional waves as: c„ = fe)£. We may question the meaning of the size of the hard spheres by examining the molecule size in the gas phase. There we have the famous van der Waals equation of state wherein the size of the molecule is subtracted from the volume of the vessel. Table I gives the experimentally determined correction term, b, in cm3 per mol and compares it with the volume per mol of liquid. CrflS Ho He N2 o2 Hg TABLE I > cm3/ mol 26.5 23.6 38.3 32.2 16.9 V/n of liquid 26.4 27.4 32.8 25.7 14.8 Presented at annual meeting, Texas Academy Science, Dallas, 1950. 174 The Texas Journal of Science 1951, No. 2 June 30 The only case where the size of the molecule is less than that of the liquid is in helium. In liquid helium the velocity of compression waves is about 180 meters/sec which is in the case of a gas sound velocity. The velocity of sound in liquid Ho is up to 1187 meters/sec. The velocity in liquid O2 is 910 m/sec at 90° K while the velocity in oxygen vapor at the same tem¬ perature is 180 m/sec. The model of Eyring cannot be interpreted as having hard sphere diameters related to the gas phase. The theoretical equation for the velocity has been given by Kittel: where Va = V — V0 is the available volume caused by expansion from O0 K where the system has a solid state volume V0. a is the specific heat ratio. The sound velocity of various organic liquids are not widely different where the molecules are nearly alike (acording to Van Itterbeek) : TABLE 11 System Temp. °C Velocity m/sec Density gm/ cm3 Benzene 20.7 1329.5 0.866 Toluene 16 1361.8 0.868 Sound energy is absorbed by the liquid because of viscosity and for associated liquids like the low carbon alcohols and like water this is the principal source of sound attenuation. Thermal conduction is important in liquid mercury and also in liquid helium. This is so for helium because the viscosity is so very small and the velocity so small that there is plenty of time for the thermal energy to diffuse from the hot part of the compressional wave to the cool part. So called relaxation effects in which energy is lost to vibrational energy of the molecule is probably responsible to attenuation in carbon disulfide, carbon tetrochloride, and in benzene. Experimentally one finds the amplitude attenuation is exponential with the distance and this is in accord with theoretical ideas. The amplitude of the particle velocity in the pressure wave depends on the distance of propa¬ gation x by the relation: U = U„e and the viscosity term contributes a constant «. . JL v'9 r " 3 c3 v/U ? « ^ A where n is viscosity and f the frequency. The thermal term also contributes a constant such that the total a is pro¬ portional to the square of the frequency; Table III gives some values: System Hg h2o CS2 TABLE III Attenuation Constant 6.6 x 10“17 sec2/ cm 50 x 10"17 11,000 x 10“17 1951, No. 2 June 30 Pressure Waves in Liquids 175 The enormous value of carbon disulfide indicates a relaxation frequency in the neighborhood of the frequency used (1 megacycle/sec) . Recently Rap- uano measured the constant for CS2 between 280 and 560 megacycles/sec and found the constant to be much smaller-— going from 3000 x 10-17 down to 1000 x 10~17 at the higher frequencies. This looks like Rapuano worked on the high side of a broad relaxation frequency. Attenuation studies in liquid helium by Pellam and Squire reveal three important features: a) In the upper temperature range of He the measured attenuation agrees with the classical theory. b) At the transition to superfluid helium the attenuation rises abruptly, presumably to infinity, indicating complete absorption of the energy. c) Just below the transition the attenuation has a minimum value and with lowering the temperature the attenuation increases. literature cited Overton, W. C., Jr.— 1950— Cheni. Phys. 18:113. Eyring, H. and J. O. Hirschfelder — 1937 — Chem. Phys. 41 : 249. Kittel, C — Reports on Progress in Physics. 11 : 219. Von Itterbeek, H. and A. DeBock — 1949 — Physica 14:609. Pellam, J. and C. Squire — 1947 — Phys. Rev. 71 : 477. Rapuano, R. A. 1950 — Technical Report 151 : Lab. of Electronics, M.I.T. 176 The Texas Journal of Science 1951, No. 2 June 30 ANTIBIOTICS IN MILK L. G. HARMON * Department of Dairy Manufactures Texas Technological College Lubbock, Texas The use of antibiotics as inhibitory substances for the growth of micro¬ organisms in food and other products has gained considerable interest in recent years. An antibiotic is defined as an anti-microbiological substance of biologic origin. We all realize that biochemists are systhesizing many of the antibiotics. However in some cases, such as penicillin, they have difficulty in directing the specificity of the reaction, and secure mixtures of the various penicillins instead of the usually desired Penicillin G. Since the institution of the use of various antibiotics in bovine mastitis therapy, we have had especial cause for concern because the dairy cow elimi¬ nates the antibiotics in her milk, and some dairymen are either uninformed, misinformed or careless concerning the desirability of withholding the milk from treated cows. The presence of antibiotics in milk, even in extreme dilutions, interferes with certain bacterial actions necessary in the manu¬ facture of many by-products of the dairy industry. In the preparation of many of our products, we use cultures known as starters, to initiate desired bacterial actions. The microorganism compon¬ ents of these starters varies, depending upon the particular product we are using. Sometimes we encounter milk which contains substances that are inhibitory to the micro-flora of the starter, and often great economic loss is encountered. Inhibitory substances other than antibiotics are known, and of these, perhaps the following are worthy of mention. (1) Bacteriocidal Compounds , such as the quaternary ammonias, in¬ hibit starter activity and miscellaneous bacterial growth in milk. The use of quaternaries as sanitizing agents is to be commended in such places as eating establishments, but their use by milk producers and dairy plants is being prohibited by most health departments. (2) Bacteria phage is a serious problem in the propagation of cultures. The phage (virus-like) particles are highly specific for given strains of susceptible organisms. Commercial plants have utilized several effective de¬ vices in combating phage difficulties. However many plants lack personnel with the requisite technological skill to cope with the problem. ( 3 ) The presence of certain drugs , such as the various sulfa compounds sometimes used in bovine therapy, have been considered to be inhibitory to starter organisms. Returning to the problem of antibiotics in milk, penicillin, aureomycin, and streptomycin are commonly used in bovine mastitis therapy. Penicillin has been used longer, and as far as I know is the only one on which assays have been performed on the milk from the treated animal. In treating in¬ fected or suspected udders with penicillin, doses of around 100,000 oxford units per quarter are commonly used. It is probable that virtually all of the injected antibiotic is voided in the milk and in the urine, although total percentage recovery figures have not been determined. * Presented at annual meeting, Texas Academy Science, Dallas, 1950. 1951, No. 2 June 30 Antibiotics in Milk 177 Thorp et al (1947) found that when 100,000 units of penicillin are injected at 9 A. M., the penicillin content of milk subsequently drawn will be approximately as follows: 11 A. M. — 575 units of penicillin per ml. of milk 1 P. M. — 5 SO units of penicillin per ml. of milk 3 P. M. — 60 units of penicillin per ml. of milk 5 P. M. — 50 units of penicillin per ml. of milk Twelve hours after injection, the milk usually contains from 20 to 60 units per ml. and after 24 hours it will contain from one to four units per ml. Even the urine may contain from three to four units per ml. after 24 hours. Thorp et al, also reported that penicillin was always present in milk from all quarters 48 hours after injection of 100,000 units, and in 75% of the quarters 72 hours after injection. In the case of treatment of milk infections, many producers do not realize the necessity for temporarily excluding the milk from their saleable supply, especially when the milk is intended for manufacturing purposes. In fact I have encountered instances in which producers have stated that their veterinarian has told them it would be unnecessary to exclude any milkings. Under such circumstances, occasionally milk containing antibiotics is mixed with the herd milk, and arrives at the plant to be mixed with the milk from other herds. The presence of this milk in the plant introduces the problem of how much antibiotic our starter organisms are able to tolerate. Experiments have been performed in our laboratories at Texas Techno¬ logical College to determine the effect of small amounts of penicillin, strepto¬ mycin and aureomycin on starter activity, and to determine the minimum amounts necessary to inhibit several different commercial starters. Trials were also performed, using the drugs sulfathiazole and sulfa¬ nilamide. Distilled water suspensions were prepared in appropriate concen¬ trations to convey the desired amount to the milk samples without diluting the milk in excess of one percent. Six different commercial starters of the type commonly used in making cultured buttermilk, cottage and cheddar cheese, and starter for butter manufacture were used. The milks containing the penicillin, streptomycin, aureomycin, sulfa¬ thiazole and sulfanilamide were divided into three different groups and pro¬ cessed at three different temperature and time exposures. In the first group, the milk was pasteurized according to regular vat pasteurization procedures at 144° F. for 30 minutes, a method commonly used in cottage cheese mak¬ ing. In the second group, the milk was pasteurized at 180° F. for one hour, a method generally used in making cultured buttermilk. The third group was heated at 5 pounds pressure in the autoclave for one hour. Some plants process the milk for mother cultures in a similar manner. In all cases the milk samples were colled to 72° F. after the heat treat¬ ment, inoculated with one percent starter, incubated at 72° F. for 16 hours, cooled to 40° F. and titrated to determine the amount of developed acidity calculated as lactic acid. In the interest of brevity, detailed results are not reported in this paper, but typical results secured with Starter No. 1 will be outlined. 178 The Texas Journal of Science 1951, No. 2 June 30 TABLE I Acid Development Produced in Milk by a Typical Commercial Starter, working in the Presence of Indicated Amounts of Antibiotics and Sulfa Drugs. Incubation temperature — 72° F. Incubation time — 16 hours. Starter Organisms: S Lactis, Leuconostoc Dextranicum and/or Leuconostoc Citrovorum Data compiled by L. G. Harmon Department of Dairy Manufactures Texas Technological College Lubbock, Texas Control Milk No starter, no antibiotics ... . . Milk, 1% starter, no antibiotics . Penicillin Milk, 1% starter, 1.0 Oxford unit/ml milk Milk, 1% starter, 0.5 Oxford unit/ml milk. Milk, 1% starter, 0.1 Oxford unit/ml milk. Milk, 1 % starter, 0.05 Oxford unit/ml milk Aureomycin Milk, 1% starter, 0.1 mg/ml milk. . . . Milk, 1% starter, 0.05 mg/ml milk . . Milk, 1% starter, 0.01 mg/ ml milk. . Streptomycin Milk, 1% starter, 0.1 mg/ml milk . . Milk, 1 % starter, 0.05 mg/ml milk . Milk, 1 % starter, 0.01 mg/ml milk. . . . . Sulfathiazole Milk, 1% starter, 0.1 mg/ml milk . Milk, 1 % starter, 0.05 mg/ml milk . Milk, 1 % starter, 0.01 mg/ml milk. . Sulfanilamide Milk, 1% starter, 0.1 mg/ml milk . Milk, 1% starter, 0.05 mg/ml milk. . Milk, 1 % starter, 0.01 mg/ml milk . Acidity Past. Past. Autoclaved 144° F. 180° F. 5# Pressure 30 Min. 1 Hr. 1 Hr. . . .17 .17 .17 . . .91 .93 .93 . . .18 .19 .24 . . .18 .20 .37 . . .25 .73 .81 . . .34 . . .18 .18 .18 . . .18 .18 .20 . . .19 .19 .20 . . .17 .18 .18 . . .17 .18 .18 . . .18 .18 .18 . . .88 .85 .86 . . .93 .91 .54 . . .90 .88 .80 . . .90 .90 .88 . . .88 .85 .86 .. .87 .89 .85 In interpreting the results shown in Table I, we should bear in mind that the 1 % starter used in inoculating these milk samples would automati¬ cally raise the initial acidity approximately .01% above the acidity of the control. The effectiveness of aureomycin and streptomycin in inhibiting starter organisms is to be particularly noted. Additional work should be done, using lesser amounts, and also the amounts voided in milk from treated animals should be determined. It is observed that the higher heat treatments tended to minimize the effectiveness of penicillin, while no effect is noticed with streptomycin and aureomycin at the concentrations studied. Inasmuch as we know the approximate amounts of penicillin voided in milk and inhibitory to starters, we are able to calculate the consequences of attempting to utilize such milk in the commercial plant. ( 1 ) Assume a producer is milking 40 cows which produce an average of 3 0 pounds of milk each day or 1200 pounds of milk daily. (2) Assume one cow is treated with 100,000 units of penicillin per quarter and the milk is not excluded. (3) If her evening milk contains 3 8 units and her morning milk two units of penicillin per ml., then her 30 pounds produced that day contain 20 units per ml. or about 270,000 units, and the milk will be mixed with the entire herd production. 1951, No. 2 June 30 Antibiotics in Milk 179 (4) The herd produces 1200 pounds daily or about 540,000 ml. (5) 270,000 _ 0.5 units penicillin per mh, which is sufficient to 540,000 _ completely inhibit starter. (6) This milk probably will be mixed with milk from other herds at the plant. We know from our data that 0.05 to 0.1 units of penicillin per ml. is somewhat inhibitory to starter activity; therefore we are able to cal¬ culate that the above milk might interfere with desired starter development in the total blended production of from 200 to 400 cows. In an effort to overcome the inhibitive effect on starters, experiments have been performed in an effort to raise the penicillin tolerance of cultures by propagation in milk containing a sub-inhibitory dose of penicillin and gradually increasing the amount. Katznelson (1949) reports raising the re¬ sistance of a culture to tolerate 2.1 units per ml. However it was the only one of a large group of cultures tried which developed any resistance. None of the six cultures used in our laboratory showed any inclination to acquire resistance to any of the three antibiotics used. SUMMARY ( 1 ) Sulfanilamide and sulfathiazole at the concentrations and under the conditions studied showed little inhibitory effect on starters. (2) Aureomycin and streptomycin in quantities as little as 0.01 mg. per ml. of milk completely inactivated starters. (3) Processing time and temperature had no noticeable effect on the inhibitory ability of aureomycin and streptomycin. (4) Penicillin inhibited starter activity when used in concentrations varying from .0 5 up to 1.0 units per ml., depending upon the heat treat¬ ment of the milk containing the penicillin, ( 5 ) It is necessary that veterinarians and producers be instructed con¬ cerning the necessity of withholding, for a period of 48 hours, the milk from any cows receiving antibiotic treatment for mastitis. literature cited Katznelson, H. and E. G. Hood — 1949 — Influence of penicillin and other antibiotics on lactic streptococci in starter cultures used in cheddar cheese making. Jour. Dairy Science 32 : 961-968. Thorp, W. T. S-, Ulrick, I. J. and E. J. Straley — 1947 — Concentrations of penicillin in the bovine mammary gland following infusion and penicillin tolerance of certain strepto¬ cocci. Am. Jour. Vet. Research 8 : 157-165. 180 The Texas Journal of Science 1951, No. 2 June 30 DETERMINATION OF THE REFRACTIVE INDEX OF A BINARY LIQUID MIXTURE OLIVIA COVACEVICH * Incarnate Word College San Antonio, Texas A binary mixture of 1-4 dioxane and iso-butanol has been under investigation to determine the refractive index at concentrations varying in intervals of S%. The practical application of this experiment is to determine in bi-product dioxane-alcohol mixtures, in what porportion each constituent is present. So far, dioxane has been used as a powerful solvent for rubber. It may also be used as a fixative for proteins in Pathological Technology; in radio active research as an indicator and it has proved to be a convenient dehydrating agent. This colorless liquid has several characteristic properties. The melting point ranges from 9.5-1 0.5°C; the boiling point from 10 1-1 02 °C. The liquid is very poisonous and it is miscible with water in all porportions. THE RELATIONSHIP between the angle of incidence and the angle of refraction. * First prize paper. Collegiate Section, Dallas Meeting, Texas Academy Science. 1951, No. 2 June 30 Refraction in a Binary Liquid 181 This experiment is based on the principles of refractometry. According to Snell’s Law, when a beam of light travels from a lighter to a denser medium, the velocity decreases and the beam of light is bent towards the normal. It is therefore, the proportionality ratio of the sine of the angle of incidence over the sine of the angle of refraction that gives the refractive index. Several elements affect the angle of refraction. Measurement of the refractive index requires that light of known wave length be employed because the refractive index varies with the wave length of the light used. Usually the yellow sodium light or white light are recommended. Another factor that influences the refractive index is temperature. The refractive index decreases if there is an increase of temperature, since the density is lessened and fewer molecules per unit volume are present to refract or deviate the light. The fact that the index of refraction varies with the concentration, enables one to achieve the practical purpose of the experi¬ ment, the actual determination of the proportion in which each component is present. Aside from these pecularities, it may be added that the index of refraction is a specific constant for each substance; that if any impurities are present in the liquid mixture, the index of refraction will invariably indicate it and that it is not affected by ordinary changes in barometric pressure since the density is only slightly changed by large increments in pressure. The first step, then, was to test the purity of the dioxane and butanol under investigation. Determining the refractive index of each liquid by the use of the refractometer and then checking the results with the literature, gave sufficient proof of the purity of these products. Eighteen volumetric flasks of 50 mis. were now carefully cleaned, dried, tabulated and weighed. To each flask a different quantity by volume of iso-butanol was added from a biurette. The volume added was previously calculated to correspond to certain percentage by weight. Only one fourth of the volume estimated was used. After the addition of iso-butanol, the flasks were weighed for a second time and were now ready for the addition of dioxane. Dioxane, whose volume had been also calculated in the same manner as iso-butanol was finally added to the iso-butanol in the flasks. For a third time, the flasks were weighed and the total weight determined. The weight of the empty flask, the flask plus iso-butanol and the weight of the iso-butanol-dioxane mixture, were sufficient data to estimate the exact percentage of each concentration. Any mechanical errors in measuring the liquids were thus checked. Now that the solutions had been satisfactorily prepared, the experiment proceeded to the second stage — the actual determination of the refractive index. For this part of the experiment the Abbe Refractometer was used. This instrument is designed to give by direct scale reading the index of refraction for the Na line when white light is the source of illumination. Measurements were made at a temperature of 2 5°C and provisions to keep the temperature constant were made by allowing thermostated water to flow in and out through the water jackets in the instrument. 182 The Texas Journal of Science 1951, No. 2 June 30 Equipment Used in Experiment The temperature of the water, was in turn controlled by the use of a large constant temperature bath, into which an electrical knife edge was inserted to heat the water. To regulate the temperature a thermostat was used and to prevent the water from overflowing, a device serving as a siphon was employed. A stirrer helped the even distribution of heat throughout the water bath. 1951, No. 2 June 30 Refraction in a Binary Liquid 183 The mechanism of the refractometer may be explained by the cut shown above. White light reflected from the mirror enters the lower prism and is scattered in all directions at its upper ground surface. Rays passing through the liquid film into the upper prism at an angle near 90° to its surface will be bent the least on entering the upper prism; rays entering the upper prism at an angle of near 0° will be bent the most. The latter will constitute the edge of the bright field observed when the telescope is moved to the proper position, since, cf course, no rays can enter the upper prism at a smaller angle. The boundary line between light and dark field will ordinarily be fringed with color because both the liquid and the upper glass prism refract light of different wave lengths to different extents. The Amici prisms in the telescope barrel correct for this dispersion. If the first prism spreads white light into a spectrum, the second prism reverses the dispersion when it is set at an angle of 180° to the first prism. The Amici prism adjustment is 184 The Texas Journal of Science 1951, No. 2 June 30 made by turning the knurled ring on the telescope barrel until the color fringe disappears, and the sharpest possible light-dark boundary is seen in the eye piece. The most reliable method to use the refractive index as a measure of concentration is interpolation from an empirical calibration curve. The results were therefore graphed. Concentrations as ordinate, refractive indices as abcissa. % 1,4 OlOXANt •|. HO" 8uT*NOl !■»«* 1.1944 4044 1.40(4 1.4114 14144 14144 I 41*4 The concentrations to the left represent the percentage of dioxane present in the mixture; those in the right, the percentage of iso-butanol. The graph shows that the values of the index of refraction fall almost along a straight line. This depends on the way concentration is expressed. Molarity offers a nearly linear relationship; percentage by weight, on the other hand gives a slightly curved graph. 1951, No. 2 June 30 Refraction in a Binary Liquid 185 The calculated data of the experiment are presented below: CALC JLATED DATA OF 1,4 DIOXANE ANO ISO-BUTANOL Wt. of is 0-Butanol wt. of 1,4 Dioxane % by Wt. | Butanol i % by Wt. 1,4 Dioxane Index of Refraction 23.475 1,233 100.00 ! 0.0 1.3930 95.01 ; 4.99 1.3938 . 21,709 2.458 89.36 * 10.14 1.3951 20.994 3.730 84.82 15.08 1.3961 19.773 5.017 79.77 20.23 1.3972 13.432 6.254 74.04 25.36 1,3980 17.242 7.379 68.64 31.35 1.3995 15.937 3.731 64.55 35.45 1.3999 14.840 9.932 59.91 40.09 1.4010 13.531 11.J210 54.79 45.21 1.4024 12.203 12.502 49.37 50.53 1,4036 11.120 13.547 44.90 55.10 1.4047 9.710 15.022 39,28 60.72 1.4057 0.552 16.155 34.87 65.13 1.4073 7.144 17.434 29.87 70.13 1.4090 6.134 lo# ^50 24.91 75.09 1.4101 4.932 20.042 19. ^5 80.25 1.4119 3.725 21.052 15.02 84.93 1.4136 2.455 22.406 9.91 90.09 1.4151 1.270 23.791 t 5.07 94.93 1.4170 0.0 100.0 1.4190 - — . „ 186 The Texas Journal of Science 1951, No. 2 June 30 TREMATODES FROM THE MAN-O-WAR BIRD, FREGATA MAGNIFICENS ROTHSCHILDI, ON THE TEXAS COAST, WITH THE DESCRIPTION OF A NEW SPECIES, SCHWARTZITREMA SEAMSTERI ASA C. CHANDLER Biological Laboratory The Rice Institute Houston, Texas Some flukes were collected from the intestine of a man-o-war bird, taken on the Gulf coast near Corpus Christi, Texas, by Dr. Aaron Seamster and sent to the writer for examination and identification. One is a hetero- phyid which corresponds closely with Galactosomum fregatae Prudhoe, 1949. The other is a second species of the peculiar strigeid genus, Schwartz- itrema, the first species of which, S. schwatrzi, was described by Vigueras in 1940 from the snake bird, Ankinga aiihinga , in Cuba. Galactosomum fregatae This worm was described by Prudhoe (1949) from some not very well preserved specimens obtained from two man-o-war birds from Trinidad. On the basis of the specimens at hand it is possible to emend the original description. The Texas specimens are larger than Prudhoe’s, ranging in length from 1.3 to 2.4 mm., and from .27 to .46 mm. in maximum diameter. The forebody may be either broader or narrower than the hindbodv, depending on the state of contraction. The body is densely covered with spines; anteriorly the spines are about 7 fx long, but become very small and inconspicuous posteriorly. Prudhoe’s specimens were spineless, probably owing to maceration of the cuticle, as he pointed out. The oral sucker is from 116 to 239 /x in diameter, and the pharynx 100 to 130 (u long and 62 to 8 8 fx in diameter. The prepharynx is nearly twice as long as the pharynx in some specimens, and only half as long in others. The genital sinus is 95 to 13 5 jx in diameter. The vitellaria extend forward as far as the middle of the muscular posterior lobe of the seminal vesicle in some specimens, in others only to the level of the ovary. Prudhoe (1949) pointed out that G. fregatae closely resembles G. cochlear of terns, but differs principally in the greater anterior extent of the vitelline follicles, and to a lesser degree in the shape and small size of the body, the greater relative length of the prepharynx and the shape of the seminal vesicle. The Texas specimens bring the resemblances of these two species even closer, since the size of the body and forward extent of the vitelline glands are intermediate between G cochlear and Prudhoe’s description of G. fregatae , and the relatively greater length of the pre¬ pharynx seen in Prudhoe’s specimens is not a constant character. G. cochlear tends to have a more expanded forebody, and the seminal receptacle is described as being long and coiled. The last, if correct, appears to be the only definite character separating these two species. The only other species of Galactosomum reported from man-o-war birds is G. cochleariforme (Ru- 1951, No. 2 June 30 A New Trematode 187 dolphi, 1819), later redescribed and figured by Braun (1901) under the genus Microlistrum, and by Pratt (1911) under Galactosomum. This species has been reported from Brazil and from Tortugas, Florida, but is easily distinguished from G. fregatae by its large size, widened forebody, different structure of the seminal vesicle, and arrangement of vitellaria in rosettes of elongated follicles. Schwartzitrema seamsteri n. sp. The genus Schwartzitrema, originally given the preoccupied name Schwartziella by Vigueras in 1940 and corrected by him in 1941, contains flukes which in some respects bridge the gap between the Strigeidae, with cup-shaped forebodies, and the Diplostomatidae, with spoon-shaped fore¬ bodies. In Schwartzitrema the ventral wall of the forebodv has grown forward like a partially zipped-up jacket with a low or "V” neck, but does not make a complete cup out of the forebody except in contracted specimens. In S. schwartzi the forebody is cupped for only about half its length by this ventral fold, but in S. seamsteri it is cupped for about three- fourths its length. The holdfast organ retains some of the original form that it possesses in the Diplostomatidae, but has a pair of lateral forward- projecting lobes which may be interpreted as the forerunners of the dorsal and ventral lobes of the holdfast organ in typical streigids. In addition to these structures, however, the flukes of this genus have a unique feature in a pair of lobes growing out of the inner surface of the dorsal wall of the forebody cup, anterior to the acetabulum. Vigueras interpreted these as pseudosuckers, but there seems to be nothing to relate them to the pseudosuckers of some of the Diplostomatidae. They are apparantly very mobile, for in S. seamsteri they appear to be elongate in shape, attached in their middle portion, and capable of being protruded forward in a finger¬ like manner (see figures). S. seamsteri may be specifically described as follows: Forebody 775-945 w long by 480-900 w broad, separated from smaller hindbody by waistline constriction 235-300 ^ in diameter, somewhat flattened dorsoventrally, with anterior aperaure V-shaped ventrally, bottom of "V” about 340 m from anterior end of dorsal oral sucker. Hindbody sack-shaped, narrowed anteriorly, broadly trun¬ cate posteriorly, widest portion near middle; 870-1630 u long and 510 to 745 w in diameter in relaxed specimens, but capable of contracting to a diameter 4/5 the length. Oral sucker 140-162 ^ long and 108-124 M in diameter. No prepharynx, Pharnyx 93-108 m long and 70-93 w in diameter. Acetabulum larger than oral sucker, situated a little behind middle of inner surface of dorsal wall of forebody, 185-232 m long by 200-209 w broad. Anterior to acetabulum, occupying space be¬ tween this and pharynx, a pair of lobes projecting into cavity of forebody from dorsal wall, versatile in shape, in relaxed specimens appearing attached in middle portion with anterior and posterior lobes free. Holdfast organ large, attached by a root-like structure posteriorly, and provided ventrally with a pair of forward-project¬ ing lobes, extending anterior to acetabulum, which may be entirely within cavity of forebody ( Figs. 1 and 3) or may be protruded out of it (Fig. 2) . Ovary, obscured by vitellaria in most specimens, immediately anterior to testes, 155 to 170 ix in diameter. Vitellaria confined to hindbody, extending from anterior end of hindbody to anterior portion of copulatory bursa, dense on ventral side, with strands of follicles extending to dorsal side anteriorly, usually obscuring ovary, and also in region between posterior testis and copulary bursa; in testicular region strands extend only part way around body toward dorsal side. Testes situated in middle region of hindbody, occupying about 2/5 its length, towards dorsal side of body. Testes of variable shape, but deeper than long, not separable in many specimens. Space occupied by the two testes together about as deep as long, or sometimes deeper, about 320 to 430 g in each direction; posterior testis usually larger than anterior 188 The Texas Journal of Science 1951, No. 2 June 39 one. Seminal vesicle behind or partly overlaping posterior testis, about 150 by 125 ia, followed by a smaller ejaculatory pouch. Copulatory bursa very large, about 300 to 325 u deep and 430 to over 500 w across, measured externally. Genital cone about 140 n long and 140 ^ in diameter at base, surrounded by a thick, muscular prepuce (Figs. 1 and 4). Eggs 95 to 108 g by 67 to 73 g, numbering from 1 to 7 in uterus. Type and cotypes: U.S.N.M. Helm. Coll. No. 47553. This peculiar little fluke looks considerably more like a typical strigeid than does S. schwartzi , which has the cup of the forebody less developed and has a very long neck-like region between the forebody and the hindbody, occupied only by the vitellaria. The forebody of S. seamsteri is extremely mobile as may be judged from Figures 1 to 4. In strongly contracted specimens, such as the one shown in Figure 4, the worms have a typical strigeid appearance whereas in relaxed specimens such as the one shown in Figure 3 they show somewhat more affinity with the diplostomatids. On the basis of the characters of this species the characterization of the genus Schwartzitrema as given by Vigueras (1940) should be emended as follows: (1) body divided in two instead of three parts, the hindbody sometimes being provided with an elongated neck-like portion; (2) holdfast organ provided with a pair of forward-projecting lobes, instead of "dentro de esta cavidad (i.e., of the forebody) aparece un proceso replegado y Schwartzitrema seamsteri n. sp. FIG. 1. Partially contracted specimen with the lobes of the holdfast folded back on themselves, and the pre-acetabular lobes curled ventrally at both ends. FIG. 2. Forebody of a specimen with holdfast organ protruded out of aperture of body, and pre-acetabular lobes projected forward, fingerlike. FIG. 3- A young relaxed specimen. FIG. 4. A specimen with both forebody and hindbody strongly contracted, with ventral wall of forebody curled into cup. 1951, No. 2 June 30 A New Trematode 189 pedunculado”; (3) a pair of pedunculated lobes on inner side of dorsal wall of cup of forebody instead of forebodv "con pseudo-ventosas”; and (4) posterior extension of vitellaria to posterior end of body, but short of copula tory bursa. LITERATURE CITED Braun, M. — 1901 — §ur Revision der Trematoden der Vogel II. Zentralbl. Bakt., Abt. 1, 29: 895-897. Pratt, H. S. — 1911 — On Galactosomum cochleariforme Rudolphi. Zool. Anz. 28 : 143-148. Prudhoe, S. — 1949 — A review of the trematode genus Galactosomum. J. Helm. 23 : 135-156. Vigueras, I. Perez — 1940 — Notas sobre algunas especies nuevas de trematodes y sobre otras poco conocidas. Rev. Univ. Habana, Ano V. No. 28-29 : 217-224. - - 1941 — Schwartzitrema n. n. para Sehwartziella Vigueras, 1940 (Trematoda, Strigeidae) nec. Sehwartziella Leroux, 1936. Mem. Soc. Cubana Hist." Nat. 15:263. 190 The Texas Journal of Science 1951. No. 2 June 30 CONSTRUCTION of an offshore drilling platform under ideal wave, wind, and weather conditions. This phase of marine work is impeded when waves reach four feet in height and becomes inefficient and possibly hazardous when waves exceed six feet in height. 1951, No, 2 June 30 Meteorology and Oceanography 191 PHOTOGRAPHING the scope of the SCR-784 long range radar at Grand Isle. Photographs of the echo patterns on the scope are used for research and record purposes. APPLICATIONS OF METEOROLOGY AND OCEANOGRAPHY IN MARINE INDUSTRY ON THE GULF OF MEXICO A. H. GLENN * A. H. Glenn and Associates New Orleans, La. The states bordering on the Gulf of Mexico are quite fortunate in having access to what is, in several respects an unusual body of water. There are two features which distinguish the Gulf from many other ocean areas which pertain to the immediate topic of this paper. First, the Gulf has a gently sloping continental shelf under which lie extensive mineral resources and over which lies an environment suitable for the growth of many economically valuable marine organisms. Second, the Gulf is a relatively quiet body of water from the standpoint of ocean wave and tide action. By virtue of these two features, it is possible for industries to build structures exposed to wave action along the shore and in the exposed waters * Presented at Rockport, Texas, October 25, 1949, at the First Semi-Annual Seminar of Marine Science of the Marine Laboratory of the Texas Game, Fish and Oyster Commission. 192 The Texas Journal of Science 1951. No. 2 June 30 PHOTOGRAPH of the radar scope showing a large area of thunderstorms extending about 30 miles south, and 130 miles north of Grand Isle, La. of the Gulf and operate small craft in the vicinity of these structures a high percentage of the time. Also fishermen can work in the costal waters of the Gulf with small craft involving a relatively small financial invest¬ ment on many days each year. Thus, during past years the number of marine industries and fisheries along the Gulf coast has greatly increased and in all probability the expansion of these marine industries will continue for many years. In stating that the Gulf is a relatively quiet body of water a most important point has been overlooked which leads to the subject of this paper. As a matter of fact the Gulf is a rather treacherous place to work. For many days each year, weather conditions over the Gulf are fine and waves are low. In visiting the scene of offshore oil drilling on the Louisiana coast on a fair day in the month of May or June one might wonder why the offshore drilling platforms are built about 30 feet off the water. Despite the fact that the Gulf is normally a rather quiet body of water, it is, nevertheless, subject to some of the most severe, sudden, and spectacular weather and wave hazards observed any place in the world. A marine enter¬ prise must be operated on the basis that the safety of its employees and its equipment be maintained during periods of high waves and severe wind conditions resulting from hurricanes, line squalls, northers, and storms of 1951, No. 2 June 30 Meteorology and Oceanography 193 non-tropical origin developing in the Gulf. Also, to achieve maximum operating efficiency in coastal marine operations, day to day activities must be planned with weather and wave conditions in mind. One of the first questions which arises when a marine operation is planned is what ocean and weather conditions will be encountered. Planning cannot be carried out intelligently until this is known because the basic con¬ trolling factor in the design of any equipment or the development of a pro¬ gram of activity is its environment. For example, if one designs a plant to be placed on the seacoast so as to be accessible to shipping or to marine resources located under the Continental Shelf or in Gulf waters, he must obtain information on hurricane storm tides; maximum winds at his plant location; normal current and tidal action on the beaches on which his permanent structure will be located; whether highways in the surrounding country are high enough to be above water in case evacuation during periods of hurricane storm tides is necessary; what variation in temperature con¬ ditions may affect plant operations; whether temperature and humidity conditions necessitate air conditioning of the plant; what type of vessels may be required to operate satisfactorily under expected wave and wind conditions around the plant, etc. In the past the answers to such questions have frequently been found by trial and error. The hurricane protection structures in the Galveston area were designed on the basis of experience procured as a result of hurricane tragedies which involved the loss of many thousands of lives and many million dollars worth of property. Fortunately, it is no longer necessary for industries to obtain design data by such a costly and tragic process. Meteorology, and allied sciences such as oceanography, have developed to the point where they can provide very specific informa¬ tion as to the possible maximum ranges in weather and oceanic phenomena and the normal ranges of conditions that can be anticipated at any particular time of the year. Let us consider some specific cases. When offshore oil operation com¬ menced in the Gulf of Mexico it was decided that one feasible drilling method was the construction of a piling platform on which the derrick and hoisting equipment could be placed. The fundamental design problem was how strong and how big this piling platform would have to be to withstand the maximum waves which might occur in a hurricane. Having no previous experience along these lines as a basis for design several oil companies sought the advice of men working in the sciences of meteorology and oceanography who had specialized in the study of ocean waves. Through a combined application of these sciences it was determined how high the drilling platform would have to be placed above the mean Gulf level to avoid being topped by hurrican waves and how strong and in what con¬ figuration the piling would have to be driven in order to withstand the computed wave forces. Thus far, platforms designed in accordance with the best available theory and data have successfully withstood hurricane wave action. In contrast a few drilling platforms not so designed have failed under hurricane wave forces. Modifications of original designs are now contemplated in the light of later experience but the initial designs are known to be adequate under what might be termed "normal” hurricane conditions. This is a recent example of how the trial and error approach to design has been rendered obsolete by scientific advances. 194 The Texas Journal of Science 1951, No. 2 June 30 Consider another use of meteorological data in planning. One company was interested in the feasibility of operating PBY amphibious airplanes between a shore base and an offshore location in order to transfer crews and light cargo to platforms. Having had no prior experience with this particular use of aircraft the company wished to determine whether such operation was economically practical. After discussion with pilots ex¬ perienced with open sea amphibious plane operation, it was determined that this plane could not operate when existing wave heights were greater than three feet. Thus, the problem was reduced to determining what percentage of the time this condition would be fulfilled. By the use of the files of sea and swell data available at the U. S. Hydrographic office and observa¬ tions of sea conditions at offshore rigs it was possible to solve this problem with the result that the company decided that the use of the PBY was not economically practical. These two examples may give some idea of the possibilities in the use of so-called climatological data in planning marine work. It should be pointed out here that there is as much misuse of climatological data as there is intelligent use of it. There are available through many sources, extensive hies of "average” temperature, precipi¬ tation, and other weather conditions. These data are frequently used without any understanding of the significance of the word average and the reliability or the limitations of such data. For example, a contractor in the New Orleans area attempted to plan one construction job on the basis of average precipitation data for the city of New Orleans for the month of April. Since April was supposed to be a wet month in New Orleans according to these data he postponed his work until May and found that the particular April in question was extremely dry. In this case he failed to take into con¬ sideration the variability of rainfall in New Orleans and the fact that the April rainfall has little significance other than a mathematical one from the standpoint of planning a job that extended through only one month. Modern climatology has rejected as practically useless the so-called average data which one sees published so extensively. These data are seldom applicable simply because any particular operation is usually limited by more than one weather variable. For example, if one plans to dredge a channel in a shallow pass into the Gulf his work may be impeded by waves, currents, winds, or tides, or a combination of any of these para¬ meters. In all probability, standard climatological data, particularly when developed as averages will be of no assistance in estimating lost time in this work. Instead, all existing data files must be searched and the meteor¬ ologist must arrive at a solution which gives the percentages of down time which can be expected in the operation of the dredge, taking these factors into account simultaneously. Often the best data source is the Joint Air Force-Navy-Weather Bureau punch card library in New Orleans. The possibilities in the use of existing weather and oceanographic data in planning are practically endless and the marine industries have barely started to make use of them. In this connection, mention of the long-range forecasting has been omitted and it might be well to point out why. Consulting meteorology, as other professions, is plagued by a few vociferous quacks who have made extravagant claims regarding the accuracy of fore¬ casting of specific weather elements at specific times from a week to several years in advance. So far, none of these claims have been substantiated 1951, No. 2 June 30 Meteorology and Oceanography 1 95 and what few so-called successes have been chalked up can be explained either by chance or the clever playing of weather probabilities, rather than an actual forecasting technique. The science of long-range forecasting is still very decidedly in the research stage. At present a technique in fore¬ casting of departures of precipitation and temperature from normal is in the process of development. This procedure shows a degree of skill con¬ sistently better than that which can be achieved through use of climatology for periods 30 days in advance. This type of forecasting has not yet reached the stage where it is of continuous economic significance but it is quite promising from the standpoint of future developments, and can occasionally be applied now with satisfactory results. So much for the use of meteorology and oceanography in planning marine operations. Successful planning must take into account weather and wave conditions in order to minimize later difficulties. But it is rarely possible in marine work to eliminate all weather and wave problems. It would not be feasible, for example, to operate a Gulf fishing fleet in a hurricane. If the vessels were sturdy enough to operate during hurricane conditions, they probably would have too great a draft to navigate through most of the shallow passes along the Gulf Coast. So some weather problems remain even after the best planning and the solution to these is efficient scheduling of day to day operation based on short range forecasting. In the field of short range forecasting of specific weather conditions at a specific time and place up to 48 hours in advance the picture is very different from that of long range forecasting. At the present time the science of meteorology can provide forecasts of a ' high order of accuracy for any location in the world providing the necessary observational facilities are available. And sometimes, a weather pattern is established in the upper atmosphere which permits accurate forecasting several days in advance, but the frequency of such situations is by no means sufficient to permit a guarantee of reliability in such forecasting throughout the year. One often hears the statement made that the weather in the Gulf of Mexico and surrounding states is unpredictable. Actually, it turns out that weather conditions in the Gulf and in particular, wave conditions, are relatively easy to predict as compared to other regions in the world, but for a variety of reasons it has not been until recent years that the observa¬ tional facilities have been adequate to make an attempt at high-reliability, short-range forecasts, and it has only been within the last few years that some of the weather processes in the Gulf have been understood. The first requirement in making forecasts for the Gulf is a complete, recent coverage of weather observations over the Gulf, both weather conditions at the level of the Gulf and also in the upper atmosphere to altitudes up to 50 thousand feet. One of the primary reasons for inaccurate forecasts at the present time in the Gulf area is the fact that the coverage of weather data in the Gulf is relatively poor. For example, we have weather ships off the Pacific coast which assist in following weather systems into the west coast. We have a larger number of weather ships in the North Atlantic, but there are none whatsoever in the Gulf, despite the fact that much of the bad weather affecting the United States east of the Rocky Mountains derives its source of energy from tropical air masses moving northward from the Gulf. Consider the problem of forecasting weather conditions along the Louisiana coast where the nearest hourly 196 The Texas Journal of Science 1951, No. 2 June 30 BY ANALYSIS of the observed and forecasted wave conditions such as shown in this figure, detailed summaries of the accuracy of fore¬ casts shown above are possible. November, 1948 is selected as a month when forecast accuracy was relatively low. 1951, No. 2 June 30 Meteorology and Oceanography 197 AN ACCURATE SUMMARY for May, 1949, a month in which forecasting accuracy was higher than normal. This summary is prepared for the same locations as that shown in the previous figure. 198 The Texas Journal of Science 1951, No. 2 June 30 reporting stations are located at Biloxi and Galveston. One of the first steps in providing high-accuracy short range forecasts is to augment governmental facilities in the coastal region for which forecasts are to be prepared. In the summer of 1947 when a number of companies were planning offshore operations in the vicinity of the Mississippi Delta it became evident to the engineers planning this work that the chief safety hazard and the principal cause of inefficiency would be adverse weather and wave conditions. It was believed that if a forecasting service could be developed which would give accurate predictions of wave heights, wind conditions, and weather conditions, it could be economically justified. In June 1947 plans were prepared for such a forecasting service for offshore operations by Bates and Glenn and in March, 1948, the routine provision of detailed forecasts of wave and weather conditions for locations on the Louisiana coast was commenced by A. H. Glenn and Associates. This service was extended later to include all offshore operators on the eastern Louisiana coast. In developing this forecasting service it was first necessary to assemble a group of professional meteorologists who were competent to prepare the routine day to day forecasts and in addition perform the research required to determine the details of small scale weather changes in the western Gulf, and the necessary modification of the wave forecasting techniques developed during the war for other ocean areas than the Gulf. The second step was the provision of complete forecasting facilities to these meteorolo¬ gists. A central forecasting office was established in New Orleans and licenses were obtained for receiving drops on government weather teletype circuits. The principal data received on these teletype circuits consists of the following: Six hourly and three hourly synoptic weather reports from stations in the United States, Canada, Mexico, Central America, the West Indies, and South America and also ship reports received from the Gulf, Caribbean, and Atlantic; upper atmosphere soundings and wind measure¬ ments made at approximately 60 stations covering the same geographical area which permit the drawing of upper atmosphere charts at 10,000 foot levels up to approximately 50,000 feet; hourly and special weather reports and radar observations from Weather Bureau and CAA stations on the airways circuit; reports from weather ships in the Atlantic; and during the hurricane season, special data from the Microseismograph network, and special reporting stations, particularly those of the Coast Guard; and hurri¬ cane reconnaissance and commercial aircraft reports. These data are re¬ ceived in the forecasting office 24 hours per day in code form and are plotted on meteorological charts and analyzed in the preparation of the forecasts. They provide the basic data which are used to follow large scale weather systems into the vicinity of the Gulf Coast. The use of these data enables the meteorologists to determine the major features of the weather which will affect the Delta area. They are not adequate, however, to enable the meteorologist to determine the small scale localized features of the weather which must be evaluated to provide an economically useful service. In order to do this, the government weather facilities were augmented by a special weather observation network on the eastern Louisiana coast in which the offshore oil operators participate. This observation network con- 1951, No, 2 June 30 Meteorology and Oceanography 199 sis ts of ten observing points on the offshore rigs themselves. Personnel on these rigs make four observations daily of the wind speed and direction, the average and maximum wave height and direction, and the general weather conditions existing at the time. In addition, a meteorological observing station was established at Grand Isle. This station was equipped to make standard weather observations and is equipped with two radar sets. Radar is an electronic device which was developed during the war to locate aircraft and ships. The radar set emits a concentrated beam of short-wave-length radio waves which, when they strike solid objects above the earth’s surface are reflected back to the radar set. The circuits are arranged such that the object from which the waves were reflected can be accurately located. It turns out that rain drops will reflect the radio waves. Thus, radar can be used to locate areas of rainfall. Since many strong wind systems in the Gulf are associated with areas of rainfall, the radar is a very efficient storm detecting instrument. One of the radar sets em¬ ployed in the forecasting utilizes a three centimeter radio wave length and has a maximum range of fifty nautical miles. This is used to obtain a very detailed picture of precipitation conditions in the immediate vicinity of the Delta. The other set employs a 10 centimeter radio wave and detects rain areas consistently to distances up to approximately 150 nautical miles, and has, on a few occasions, located squalls at distances of 2 50 nautical miles. In addition to the radar facilities, the meteorologist at the Grand Isle observation station has an automatic recording wave gage and tide gage located on one of the offshore platforms. This constitutes the network of special weather reporting facilities which is essential in boosting the accuracy of the forecasts to the required level. To indicate how this forecasting service functions under emergency conditions, consider the case of the severe localized line squall which affected the Louisiana cost on the early evening of August 20, 1949. Upon completion of the analysis of the data' received on Weather Bureau facilities at about 3 PM, August 20 it was evident to the meteorologist in New Orleans that conditions along the Louisiana coast were quite favorable for the development of a so-called line squall. Line squalls are a common occurence along the Louisiana coast and consist of a line of thunderstorms usually oriented from northeast to southwest. They travel perpendicular to their line of orientation in a southeasterly direction and as they pass severe winds with gusts as high as 75 mph are experienced for the space of half to three-quarters of an hour. When it became evident that there was a good possibility of a line squall developing, the meteorologist at the Grand Isle station was notified and he placed the long-range radar in continuous operation to scan the land areas to the north in order to locate any squall which developed. In the late afternoon a squall was located extending along a line from a point just north of Mobile to a point approximately 30 miles north of New Orleans. By observing the change of position of this squall on the radar scope it was determined that it was moving south towards the offshore rigs. The squall was intensifying and it was probable that it would move a hundred miles or so towards the south before disipating and would reach the rigs. Since a warning of one to two hours is adequate to take precautions against a line squall of short duration the forecaster decided to wait until it struck Mobile in order to obtain an estimate of the severity of the winds. Hourly and special weather reports are received from Mobile 200 The Texas Journal of Science 1951, No. 2 June 30 TABLE 1— GENERALIZED WAVE PERFORMANCE * DATA FOR OFFSHORE CRAFT AND OPERATIONS (Maxmium wave height limits in feet) Safe efficient Type of craft and/or operations — operation 1. Deep-sea tug: (a) Handling oil and water barges . . 0-2 (b) Towing oil and water barges . . . . (c) Handling derrick barge . . . . (d) Handling and towing L.S.T. ...... 2. Large crew boats ( >90 ft.) : (a) Loading or unloading crews at platform. . . (b) Loading or unloading crews at tender . 3. Average crew boats and luggers used for crew trans¬ portation f 60 to 90 ft.) : (a) Under way . . . (b) Loading or unloading crews at platform. . (c) Loading or unloading crews at tender. .... 4. Supervisor’s boats (small, fast craft, 40 to 50 ft.) : (a) Under way at cruising speeds. . . (b) Loading or unloading crews at platform . . (c) Loading or unloading crews at tender. ... 5. L.C.T. and cargo luggers: (a) Under way . . (b) Loading and unloading at platform. .... (c) Loading and unloading at tender . 6. Large amphibious aircraft (PBY) : (a) Sea landing and takeoff . . (b) Boat-to-plane transfer operations in water. . . 7. Smaller amphibious aircraft: (a) Landing and takeoff . . . 8. Chain handling (using ship-mounted derrick or large derrick barge) . . . 9. Buoy laying (using small derrick barge) . 10. Lifting substructure (using ship-mounted derrick or large derrick barge) . . 11. Platform building: (a) Using ship-mounted derrick . (b) Using large derrick barge . . 0-3 12. Pipe-line construction . . . 13. Flowing oil into barges . . . . 0-4 14. Unloading casing (using derrick on tender) . 15. Driving conductor pipe (using derrick on tender to handle pipe) . . .... 16. Gravity-meter exploration ( limiting conditions caused by instrument becoming ' noisy”) . . . . 17. Seismograph exploration (limiting conditions caused by crew danger) . 0 Marginal Dangerous and/or in¬ efficient operation operation 0-2 2-4 >4 0-4 4-6 >6 0-2 2-3 >3 0-3 3-5 >5 0-3 3-5 >5 0-4 4-7 >7 0-8 8-15 >15 0-3 3-5 >5 0-4 4-7 >7 0-2 2-4 >4 0-2 2-4 >4 0-2 2-4 >4 0-4 4-5 >5 0-3 3-4 >4 0-4 4-5 >5 0-1.5 1.5-3 >3 0-1 1-2 >2 0-1 1-2 >2 0-2 2-3 >3 0-2 2-3 >3 0-2 2-3 >3 0-4 4-6 >6 0-3 3-5 >5 0-3 3-4 >4 0-4 4-5 >5 0-3 3-4 >4 . . 0-3 l 3-4 >4 1 0-4 4-6 >6 0- -8 >8 *It is emphasized that these data represent a generalization of experience acquired by a number of opreators. The height limits will vary depending on a number of considera¬ tions such as wave period (whether wind wave or swell), wave direction, simultaneous wind conditions, currents, actual equipment and experience of personnel involved, etc. 1951, No. 2 June 30 Meteorology and Oceanography 201 on the Weather Bureau teletype circuits. Thus, shortly after the squall struck Mobile a special report was received in the New Orleans forecasting office. The intensity of the squall at Mobile was severe. The wind reached 65 miles per hour from the northwest. With this information the forecaster in New Orleans relayed warnings to each of the offshore operators who in turn relayed the warning immediately to their rigs. The squall struck the rigs between 6:30 and 8:30 PM and winds between 45 and 65 mph were reported. By use of such forecasting techniques it is a very infrequent occurrence for severe weather to strike the rigs without warning. The forecasting of severe local squalls is one of the more spectacular phases of the forecasting work. But the principal economic importance of this type of service is in the routine forecasting of wave conditions and in connection with hurricane and tropical storm forecasting. The principal loss of money in offshore work to date as the result of weather conditions has been in lost time resulting from high waves, and second to that in lost time caused by hurricane evacuation. With the forecasting facilities out¬ lined above it has been possible to maintain an accuracy in wave forecasting such that approximately 90% of the wave heights predicted 6, 12, 18, and 24 hours in advance are within 1.5 feet of the subsequent observations made at the rigs for verification. This accuracy figure is based on approxi¬ mately nine months continuous forecasting for one location on exposed water. Over a period of years marine industries working along the Gulf coast have had a number of unfavorable experiences with the use of meteorology and oceanography. The difficulties that have occurred have resulted either from attempts by industry to use scientific techniques or data the limita¬ tions or the proper application of which were not fully understood, or by the provision of data by scientists who were not familiar with the industrial problem. In recent years, however, these experiences have been avoided by a careful study of industrial weather problems through the joint efforts of the meteorologists and industrial personnel. Under these circumstances a steady and successful reduction of weather losses has been achieved which in all cases to date has justified economically the cost of the study. 202 The Texas Journal of Science 1951, No. 2 June 30 THE CHOICE OF TRICLINIC LATTICE ELEMENTS JtiRG WASER The Rice Institute Houston, Texas In his book "X-ray Crystallography” M. J. Buerger (1942) proposes the following convention for setting up the axes of a triclinic cell: After having found the three shortest non-coplanar lattice vectors "take + a, + b, and + c in such directions that the interaxial angles are all obtuse.” That it is impossible to apply this rule in many cases is shown below, where it is found that there are two types of triclinic lattices. One type may be de¬ scribed by a reduced cell in which the three interaxial angles are all obtuse, the other by one in which they are all acute. The reduced cell is defined as the cell that has for edges the three shortest non-coplanar lattice distances. Consider a (non-coplanar) vector triple t±, t2 and /3 such that the three angles a3, ai, and a2 embraced respectively by t\, t2\ t2, /3; and /3, t\ are by definition obtuse. This triple defines a triclinic unit cell which exhibits be¬ sides the three angles ai, a2 and a3 their supplements. The symbolic diagram below shows which of the angles between zb /l5 zb /2, and zb /3 are obtuse (broken lines) and which are acute (solid lines). Inspection shows that instead of using three obtuse angles to describe the unit cell any two of them could have been chosen acute and the remaining one obtuse by utilizing suit¬ able negative t’s and supplementary angles. However, it is evidently impos¬ sible to describe the unit cell in terms of three acute angles or of a pair of obtuse and one acute angle. 1951, No. 2 June 30 Triclinic Lattice Elements 203 Consider now the counterpart to this situation in which the three angles a1? a2, and as are acute. The same diagram can be used, solid lines now representing obtuse, broken lines acute angles. It is seen that the resulting unit cell could be described using three acute angles or one acute and two obtuse angles, but not using three obtuse angles or one obtuse and two acute angles. These two situations exhaust the possibilities since all combinations of acute and obtuse angles are contained. All possible primitive cells fall into these two classes. Buerger’s pro¬ posed convention can be applied to the lattice type described first but not to the second one unless the convention to use a reduced cell be dropped. If a reduced cell is not stipulated any lattice may of course be described by a cell involving three obtuse angles. It would appear more consistent, however, to retain the reduced cell and to demand that for this lattice type all three angles be chosen acute. For the first lattice type it can be shown (cf. e.g. Buerger, 1942) that all three reciprocal lattice angles /? are acute if the a are all obtuse. One would expect an analogous rule to hold for the second lattice type by which the reciprocal lattice angles ft are all obtuse if the a are all acute. No such rule exists, however, as can be seen by considering the case in which one of the acute angles a is close to a right angle. One reciprocal angle will in general be found to be acute in this case and the other two obtuse. The identification of the dt f'z with the axes a, h and c can of course be done for either type of lattice according to the remaining conventions proposed by Buerger ( 1942) . The above implies that three parallelograms defined respectively by the lengths ti, t2; t2, tg, ti and the angles ag, a5, a2 can be put together in general to form a unit cell of a lattice in two ways, either by joining (in space) all three acute comers (provided no angle is larger than the sum of the other two), or all three obtuse corners (provided the sum of the obtuse angles is less than 2?r) , That this exhausts the possibilities and that the dis¬ tance spectra for the two resulting lattices are different can be recognized by considering the expression for the length of a lattice vector (h21t2i+h22t22+hg2t32+2h1h2t1t2COS a3+2h2hgt2t3C0S ai+lhghjtgtiCOS a2) 1//2 and the fact that for all possible combinations of positive and negative h’s the three binary products hih2, h2hg, and hgh3 are either all three positive or include one positive and two negative values. All (and only such) distances that might be obtained by changing two of three as to their supplements (involving a sign change of the corresponding cosines) are therefore already accessible by proper choice of the signs of the h’s. literature cited Buerger, M. J. — 1942 — X-Ray Crystallography. John Wiley and Sons. New York. P. 366. 204 The Texas Journal of Science 1951, No. I June 30 NOTES ON THE ODONATA OF NORTHEASTERN TEXAS JOHN EARL HARWELL Baylor Medical School (Student) This paper is the result of a study of the Odonata made at East Texas State Teachers College in the spring and summer of 1949. Records from the following counties are included; namely, Hunt, Wood, Anderson, Chero¬ kee, Collin, Fannin, Marion, Rusk, Bowie, Red River, Lamar, Harrison, Panola, Wilbarger, McLennan, Eastland, Hale, Franklin, Gregg, and Hopkins. Although advances have been made in the past years in the study of Odonata in Texas, there is much to be done in the field. A summary of the literature is given in the 1940 paper of A. H. Ferguson. Since that time she has published three papers (1942, 1944, 1950), and J. G. Needham has published one (1950) dealing with the fauna of this state. The determinations were made or verified by either L. K. Gloyd or J. G. Needham. Over 1,000 specimens serve as a basis for these records. The habitats where most of the collecting was done are described in the follow¬ ing paragraphs. Hunt County is in the eastern part of the black land prairie of Texas. There are isolated sandy timbered sections scattered through the county. The mean annual temperature is 65° F. and the annual rainfall is 37 inches. The stations in the county that were most frequently visited are described below and are referred to by number in the annotated list. Station 1. Jack Milsap Pond is located one-fourth of a mile west of the buildings on the East Texas State Teachers College farm. It is a perma¬ nent pond with a black mud bottom, a depth of about seven feet, and a diameter of approximately seventy-five feet. There is almost no vegetation at the edge of the pond. Station 2. Hart Hobby Pond is about two miles south of Commerce. This pond, which covers more than an acre, has less turbid water than do most of the ponds in the vicinity. Station 3. Greenville City Lakes consist of four bodies of water, cover¬ ing an area of about one mile, located northwest of the town of Greenville. Station 4. Graham Pond is located several miles south of Commerce on the Campbell Road. This pond is old, but in 1948 it was made deeper, which caused the banks to be steep and slippery. Station 5. Marshall Pond, a mile east of Commerce, is an interesting habitat for Odonata. However, it was dredged in 1949. Station 6. Bickley Pond, west of Jack Milsap Pond, is a small tem¬ porary pool. Station 7. Round Horse Pool covers about two acres about one mile south of Marshall Pond. Many Bryozoa were on the stones near the spill¬ way, and cattails bordered the water on the north. Springview Lake, in Wood County three and six-tenths miles north of Mineola on the Quitman highway, is one of the most interesting habitat and was visited several times. It is a spring fed lake, rich in both flora and fauna. Several interesting species were taken from below the spillway in thick vegetation where the stream was only a few inches wide and deep. 1951, No. 2 June 30 Odonata of Northeastern Texas 205 Collections were also made in Wood County at two spring-fed creeks (Kieffer’s Branch and Kienner’s Branch) one mile east of Mineola on the highway to Shreveport. In Marion County a collection was made at Johnson’s Camp on Caddo Lake. The water is shallow and has large cypress trees growing in it. This particular area is more of a swamp than a lake. The other specific habitats where specimens were taken are as follows: Rusk County— -Dent Pond, five miles from Henderson on the Star Route; Cherokee County-— Angelina River at Ced Springs Lake; Anderson County -—Brushy Creek, seven miles south of Frankston; Harrison County— -Sue Belle Lake, one-half mile north of Marshall; Panola County— Yates Lake; Red River County— Bums Lake; Collin County- — Farmersville Lake; Frank¬ lin County— near Mt. Vernon. 1. Progomphus obscurus (Rambur). Wood County in July. 2. Hagenius brevistylus Selys. Wood County in July; nymph in April. 3. Gomphus mil it arts Hagen. Anderson, Cherokee, Collin, Fannin, Hunt (stations 1 & 3), Marion, Rusk, and Wood Counties in June, July, and August. 4. Gomphus oklahomensis Pritchard. Bowie, Red River, and Wood Coun¬ ties in April and May. 5. Gomphus lent ulus Needham. Hunt County— nymphs; station 1 in February; Marion County-adults in June. 6. Dromogomphus spoilatus Hagen. Fannin and Hunt (station 7) in August. 7. Boyer ia vinosa Say. Wood County-nymphs in April and May. 8. Anax junius (Drury), Bowie, Cherokee, Fannin, Hunt (station 1), and Lamar Counties in April, May, and August. 9. Epiaeschna her os Fabricius. Hunt County in April. 10. Cordulegaster maculatus Selys. (?). Nymph from below spillway at Springview Lake in Wood County in April. Dr. M. J. Westfall said in a letter, "The little Cordulegaster I would say is maculatus , al¬ though I have no record for it closer to you than Florida or Georgia.” This appears to be a new genus for Texas. 11. Macro mia georgina (Selys). Nymph collected in April in Wood Coun¬ ty, emerged on May 29; Cherokee County in August. 12. Macromia taeniolata Rambur. Anderson County in July. 13. Did y mops transversa (Say). Hunt County (stations 2 & 4) in May. 14. Platycordulia xanthosoma Williamson. Marion County in June. These dragonflies were flying only a few feet high over an area of shallow water. The female deposited eggs while attended by the male. This appears to be a new genus for the state. 15. Epicordulia pr in ceps Hagen. Hunt County (station 4) in May. 16. Tetragoneuria williamsoni Muttkowski. Harrison County in May. This appears to be a new species for the state. 17. Tetragoneuria cynosura (Say). Harrison County in May. 18. Scinatochlora linearis Hagen. Cherokee County in August. This ap¬ pears to be a new genus for the state. 19. Perithemis ten era (Say). Andersen, Collin, Hunt (station 4), Marion, Rusk, and Wood Counties in April, May, June, July, and August. 20. Celithemis eponina Drury. Cherokee, Hunt (station 3, Panola, Wood Counties in May, June, July, and August. 206 The Texas Journal of Science 1951, No. 2 June 30 21. Celithemis elisa Hagen. Fannin, Hunt (station 3), and Wood Counties in May, July, and August. 22. Celithemis fasciata Kirby. Rusk County in July. 23. Erythrodiplax minus cula (Rambur). Cherokee and Wood Counties in July and August. 24. Erythrodiplax berenice (Drury). Cherokee County in August and Wilbarger County in June (J. Gray-Coll.) 2 5. Orthemis ferruginia (Fabricius). Anderson and Lamar Counties in April and August. 26. Ladona deplanata Rambur. Wood County in April. This appears to be a new genus for Texas. 27. Libellula luctuosa Burmeister. Anderson, Collin, Fannin, Hunt (sta¬ tion 3, Marion, and Wood Counties in May, June, July, and August. 28. Libellula croceipennis Selvs. McLennan County in July. (F. Greenway coll.) . 29. Libellula cyanea Fabricius. Anderson, Eastland (J. Gray-coll.), Har¬ rison, Marion, and Wood Counties in May, June, July, and August. Nymph in Wood County at foot of spillway of Springview Lake in April. 30. Libellula pule hell a Drury. Eastland, Hunt (station 2), and Wilbarger in August and September. Nymphs, station 1, Hunt Couniy in February. 31. Libellula incest a Hagen. Anderson, Cherokee, Harrison, Hunt (station 2), Marion, and Rusk Counties in May, June, July, and August. 32. Libellula vibrans Fabricius. Anderson, Harrison, Marion, Rusk, and Wood Counties in April, May, July, August. 3 3. Plathemis lydia Drury. Anderson, Harrison, Hunt, Lamar, Marion, Rusk, Wood Counties in April, May, June, July, and August. Nymphs from Wood County in April. 34. Sympetrum corruptum (Hagen). Hunt and Hale Counties in June and September. 3 5. Sympetrum ambiguum (Rambur). Cherokee County in August. 36. Pachydiplax longipennis (Burmeister). Anderson, Bowie, Collin, Cher¬ okee, Eastland, Fannin, Franklin, Gregg, Hopkins, Harrison, Hale, Hunt (stations 1, 2, 3, 4, & 5), Lamar, McLennan, Marion, Panola, Rusk, Red River, Wilbarger, and Wood Counties in April through September. 37. Erythemis sim plicicollis (Say). Anderson, Bowie, Collin, Cherokee, Eastland, Fannin, Franklin, Gregg, Hopkins, Harrison, Hunt (station 1 ) , Hale, Lamar, McLennan, Marion, Panola, Rusk, Red River, Wil¬ barger, and Wood Counties from April through September. 3 8. Dythemis fugax Hagen. Fannin County in August. 39. Dythemis velox Haven. Hunt County (station 5 ) in August. 40. Pantala hymenea Say. Cherokee County in August. 41. Pantala flavescens Fabricius. Cherokee, Fannin, Hunt, and Wood Counties in July and August. 42. Trames lacerata Hagen. Fannin and Marion Counties in June and August. 43. Tramea onusta Hagen. Cherokee, Harrison, Hunt, and Marion Coun¬ ties in May, June, and August. 1951, No. 2 ODONATA OF NORTHEASTERN TEXAS 207 June 30 44. Agrion maculatum Beauvois. Anderson, Cherokee, Rusk and Wood Counties in April, May, July, and August. 45. Hetaerina americana (Fabricius). Cherokee and Gregg Counties in August. 46. Lestes inaequalis Walsh. Harrison County in May. This appears to be a new species for Texas. 47. Lestes disjunctus Selys. Hunt and Lamar Counties in April and August. 48. Lestes vigilax Hagen. Wood County in May. This appears to be a new species for the state. 49. Argia apicalis (Say). Collin, Harrison, Hunt (stations 1 & 2), Mar¬ ion, Panola, Cherokee, and Rusk Counties in May, June, July, and August. 50. Argia bipunctulata (Hagen). Panola County in June. 51. Argia immunda (Hagen). Wood County in April. 52. Argia tibialis Rambur. Anderson, Cherokee, Marion, and Wilbarger Counties in June, July, and August. 53. Argia violacea (Hagen). Harrison, Marion Counties in May and June. 54. Argia moesta (Hagen). Anderson County in July. 5 5. Argia vivid a Hagen. Wood County in July. 56. Enallagma divagans Selys. Franklin and Lamar Counties in May. This appears to be a new record for the state. 57. Enallagma si gnat um Hagen. Hunt (stations 1 & 4) and Marion Coun¬ ties in May and June. 5 8. Enallagma vesperum Calvert. Wood County in April. This appears to be a new species for the state. 59. Enallagma geminatum Kellicott. Harrison and Panola Counties in June. 60. Enallagma civile (Hagen). Franklin, Hunt (stations 1 & 7), Wood and Wilbarger Counties in May. 61. Enallagma basidens Calvert. Franklin and Hunt (stations 1, 3, 4, 5, & 7), Counties in May and October. 62. Enallagma tr avia turn Selys. Harrison and Marion Counties in May and June. This appears to be a new record for the state. 63. Ischnura posit a Hagen. Anderson, Cherokee, Collin, Harrison, Hunt (stations 1, 2, 4, 5, 6, & 7), Marion, Rusk, and Wood Counties from May through August. 64. Ischnura rambur ii (Selys). Harrison and Panola Counties in May and June. 65. Anomalagrion hastatum (Say). Collin, Harrison, Hunt (station 1), Panola, and Wood Counties in April, May, and June. SUMMARY Sixty-five species of Odonata are reported from twenty counties in Texas. Twenty-nine species are recorded for Wood County, twenty-seven for Hunt County, and scattered records are given for the other counties. Ten species, including four genera, appear to be new records for the state. LITERATURE CITED Ferguson. Alice-1940 — A preliminary list of the Odonata of Dallas County, Texas. Field and Laboratory 8 : 1-10. - 1942 — Scattered records of Texas and Louisiana Odonata with additional notes on the Odonata of Dallas County. Field and Laboratory 10 : 145-149. - 1944 — The nymph of Enallagma basidens Calvert. Field and Laboratory 13 (1) : 1. - 1950 — Gomphus maxwelli, a new species of dragonfly from Texas (Odonata, Gomphi- nae. Group Arigomphus). Field and Laboratory 18 (2) : 93-96. Needham, J. G. — 4950 — Three new dragonflies with notes on related species. Trans. Am. Ent. Soc. 66 : 1-12. 208 The Texas Journal of Science 1951, No. 2 June 30 ACHIEVING GROUP ADJUSTMENT THROUGH COMMUNITY PLANNING ERNEST E. NEAL * Director, Rural Life Council Tuskegee Institute, Alabama INTRODUCTION For a long enough time, we have known that environments can be changed; and that they may be changed according to systematic principles that describe scientific planning. When we take inventory, it is surprising how much information on human behavior has been accumulated and is readily accessible for our use. Once that awareness is developed, it is surprising to learn how little of the available knowledge is being used to make for more socially acceptable group adjustment. If we know why people act as they do in one set of circumstances and in another set of circumstances they behave differently, it seems logical that effort be made to develop the circumstances that are more desirable. Yet, it has only been in very recent years that any appreciable and meaningful attention has been given to planning for people. THE NECESSITY FOR SOCIAL PLANNING Technological developments for production and rapid means of trans¬ portation and communication have destroyed the culturally isolated com¬ munities. Patterns of behavior that were workable in one period of time became obsolete in another period of time in the same individual’s life; thus creating problems of adjustment for whole populations. This paper is concerned with the problem of group maladjustments rather than with individual deviants because this is the area in which we have some experience. More specifically, the discussion here will be confined to rural and small town problems and planning. Since the community is the organ that the human race has evolved for its survival, it is to the community that we must turn our attention for consideration of those mechanisms by which maladjustment of groups occur and for the consideration of those by which adjustment may be maintained or introduced. The large numbers of state, county, and local community planning groups are the people’s efforts at achieving adjustment. When viewed from a numerical point of view, these planning groups are very impressive. The United States Department of Agriculture was sponsoring agri¬ cultural planning committees in 1,804 counties in 1941. '"More than 57,000 individuals, including approximately 40,000 farm men and women, were participating in the work of the county planning committees.” (Works and Lesser, 1942.) In addition to rural community planning sponsored by the USDA, the Tennessee Valley Authority is sponsoring rural community planning through 5 8,000 test demonstration farms in 23 states. In Ohio, the Farm Presented at annual meeting, Texas Academy Science, Dallas, 1950. 209 1951, No. 2 June 30 Adjustment Through Community Planning Bureau Advisory Council was sponsoring 1,500 active rural community councils in the state in 1948. (Dahir, 1950.) Too much of the activity that goes on under the guise of community planning fails to give proper consideration to the organization of the com¬ munity and the relationship of the proposed plan to the organization or structure of the community. The proper focus of planning is people and their adjustment. PLANNING PROCEDURE When the writer assumed the directorship of the Rural Life Council at Tuskegee Institute in 1948, he decided that rural community planning should proceed with people as the first consideration. An initial period of study and observation led us to conclude that there is no "farm problem”, but "problems of farms”. There is no single problem because there is no uniformity of farms. There is diversity; and in this diversity, many different problems. This diversity is due to the broad economic changes taking place in southern agriculture which are generated by mechanization, shifts from row crops to pastures and livestock, and the industrial development of the region. Concomitant with the changes in production is a change in the relationship of man to land. One hypothesis developed within this frame of reference, as applied, is that man’s relation to land is being reordered into six functional farm types. Three of the six are familiar-— subsistence, tenant, and small inde¬ pendent; and three are new and the result of changes in the economy— -large mechanized, part-time, and livestock. (Neal and Jones, March, 1950.) These functionally different farms appear in groups. Each group has its own set of needs and problems. In the process of establishing institutions necessary for their survival, these groupings of farm develop into com¬ munities. Viewing farm problems within this framework permitted the classification of farms in terms of their function, thereby focusing rural community planning on people instead of crops, livestock, and machines. THE PROCESS OF CHANGE It is significant to note that in all the communities tudied there had been changes influenced by National Agricultural Policy and improved technology. Even the traditional plantation, where it survives, had made adjust¬ ments. The policy of crop control and acreage limitation has naturally influenced land use. With the regulation of cotton acreage, that retired from cotton was turned into pasture on the two major plantations in the community studied. The subsidy policy further encouraged the development of pastures. Tenants on the plantations continue to grow cotton while beef cattle are produced by the management with hired labor. The subsistence farm is one whose fertility has gone. Cotton provides the cash income, but it is uneconomic production. In the subsistence com¬ munity studied, it took six acres to produce one bale of cotton. However, most of these farms are small- — the median size being 54 acres. The small independent farm is that American ideal— the family farm. The operator and his family provide the labor necessary for production. 210 The Texas Journal of Science 1951. No. 2 June 30 Cotton production is profitable, and foodstuff is grown; and the family enjoys a higher standarr of living than that of the plantation, tenant, or the subsistence farmer. The mechanized farm is the large scale operation that may be regarded as the successor to the plantation. We have seen three stages of mechani¬ zation. The Price McLemore farm in Montgomery County is the most completely mechanized cotton farm we have seen. There, no hand labor is used for any phase of cultivation or harvesting. In the Mississippi Delta, we have visited farms on which all processes are mechanized except hoeing. In the Tennessee Valley area of Alabama only plowing is mechanized. Hoeing and harvesting are yet done by hand. Development of industries in the South has permitted farmers to work off the farm and continue their farm operations as well. In the part-time community studied, we found 67.39 per cent of the farm operators work or have worked in one or the other of these plants and, in many cases, used the wages earned to establish themselves more comfortably on the land. In the livestock area, change has been fostered by the development of new markets. The dairy and livestock industries actively promote pro¬ duction by establishing a market and carrying on educational work to develop a supply of produce for the market. The direction change has taken usually depended upon the most profitable enterprise. On high productive cotton land, there is little encouragement to go out of cotton production. Where change from cotton to other crops is demonstrated to be profitable, such change occurs as is seen in the increase in livestock production. COMMUNITY PATTERNS Our interest in land and grasses and cows and machines is only in terms of what they mean to people. So far as we can see, they have no other significance. Crude statistical indices to change show that fewer people are required in the changing areas. The land is more sparsely populated. Something must be said about the people and their living. Traditionally, in the cotton South, family size was most important. A tenant contracting for land talked in terms of his "plow force” — mules able to plow efficiently — and his "hoe force”— females able to do a satis¬ factory day’s work chopping. Together, they guaranteed the harvest of a crop. Now, children are no longer an asset in the form of unpaid family labor, and parents protest the loss of their labor. A mother on a mechanized farm sought to get work for her children while the owner refused to employ children. The distribution of people and institutions that serve them form a pattern. Our community pattern shows certain distinctive variations. Our study of a plantation community shows none of the basic institu¬ tions to be on plantation land where formerly all were. The small independent community has its own church and school, but satisfies its other needs in nearby towns. The dairying area cannot properly be called a community because within it may be seen the vestiges of destroyed communities in dilapidated churches. There were five of them. Two schools are maintained in the area, 1951, No. 2 June 30 Group Adjustment 211 and a school bus route carrying children to town passes through it. People who want to trade locally may do so at store-filling stations, which are designed as much to serve the passsing motorist as they are to serve people who live nearby. GROUP ADJUSTMENT In the old plantation and subsistence farming communities, we have patterns of work that are obsolete and people who are no longer needed for the operation of the economy. People caught in these areas have not adjusted to the changes in process. In the mechanized areas, the people needed for the operation of the machines are young family heads who are adaptable. They enjoy a higher standard of living than was experienced in their days of tenancy. The problem here is what about those who will not be needed? What will they do and where will they go? The part-time and small independent farming communities seem to have made the best adjustment to change with the fewest hardship cases. The livestock communities, like the mechanized communities, provide a higher standard of living for those who remain; but fewer people are required for work. Not enough people are left to maintain old community institutions. Entire new patterns of community life will have to be developed. COMMUNITY PLANNING How shall we plan with these groups for a prosperous, comfortable adjustment? Does the local community have the resources to help itself? Must it be considered in terms of a regional plan rather than a local plan? Some instances of local planning and the effect on the community may be cited. Sabine Farms, sixteen miles from Marshall, Texas, is an example of community planning. This is a community that was established under the resettlement program of the old Farm Security Administration. Seventy families covering 9,000 acres of land scattered across two counties make up the Sabine Farms Community. When the project was liquidated by the FSA, each farmer became an individual buyer under the new Farmers Home Administration program. Bishop College purchased the center and employed the writer in 1946-47 to develop an educational and training program. This community already had a Board of Management for the com¬ munity center, which was composed of 19 acres of land and 15 buildings. After three months of studying and planning, the Board of Managers agreed to open a cooperative store. Within sixty days, forty members purchased $1,800 worth of stock in the cooperative store, employed a full¬ time manager, and opened for business. The first year, the store grossed $20,000 in sales; and by 1949, this had grown to $40,000. In addition to operating the cooperative store, the group entered into contract with a pickle company to grow cucumbers. Within a four-year period, the group grew cucumber crops that grossed $2,000 the first year and had reached the $12,000 sales mark in 1949 — -four years later. This community did not neglect its health and recreation needs. Through cooperation with the Texas State Department of Health, a 212 The Texas Journal of Science 1951, No, 2 June 30 maternity and well-baby clinic was organized. The community gets the services of a public health nurse and a physician at no cost. The recreational needs of the community are met through Saturday evening ball games, Saturday night movies, and the various community clubs that meet at the center. One other example of community planning will be cited to show how much easier it is for people to make adjustments when they work under intelligent direction. In Limestone County in North Alabama, there is a community of family-sized farmers. All 24 of these families were formerly sharecroppers and had adjusted quite well to the demands of sharecropper farming. Through the Bankhead-Jones Tenant Purchase Act, these ex-sharecroppers were given the opportunity to purchase farms. They received supervision from the Farmers Home Administration and the Tennessee Valley Author¬ ity. Through the intelligent use of credit and the availability of technical know-how, this has become one of the most prosperous Negro farm com¬ munities in Alabama. All the houses are well built with modern con¬ veniences, the land is cultivated with tractors, and 40 per cent of the families have incomes in excess of $2,000 per year. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS As the change in the agricultural economy completes its cycle, more and more of the farm population will be eliminated. Unless more planning is done to help these people make the transition from obsolete farming practices to modern agricultural practices or industrial jobs, it is not too difficult to predict their future. Suffice it to say at this point that planning that ignores the changes in process in the economy can result in nothing but bitter disappointment for people of good will who wish to help the disadvantaged groups in rural areas. The field of research and experimentation in local community planning offers tremendous possibilities for social service and educational institutions. If, through continued research and experimentation, we can develop the know-how of successful community planning, it appears that the incidence of personal maladjustment can be greatly reduced; thereby relieving the strain on our overburdened correctional and mental institutions. LITERATURE CITED Dahir, James — 1950 — Communities for Better Living, New York. Harper & Bros., p. 134. Hawley, Amos H. — 1950 — Human ecology : A theory of community structure. New York. Ronald Press. Chapter 12, p. 206. Morton, Ruth — Philosophies and Principles of the American Missionary Association Com¬ munity Centers. (Bulletin) AMA Publication. Pp. 11-15. Neal, Ernest E. — Achieving group adjustment through community planning. Neal, Ernest E„ and Jones, Lewis W. — “The place of the negro farmer in changing econ¬ omy of the cotton south.” Rural Sociology 15(1) : 30-41. Works, George A., and Lesser, Simon O. — 1942 — Rural America today. Chicago. University of Chicago Press. P. 375. 1951, No. 2 June 39 Mental Health in Human Relations 213 MANAGEMENT INTEREST IN PROMOTING MENTAL HEALTH IN HUMAN RELATIONS RAYMOND H. FLETCHER * Regional Director Rohrer, Hibler & Replogle Dallas, Texas Management’s emphasis is shifting to the problem of mental health as an effective lubricant in human action and as an important factor in a man’s productivity. When men possess good mental health, they cope with developments effectively, remain steady under pressure, and assume an aggressive role in their field of action. Real management problems are most often the intangibles emanating from feelings and attitudes. Such problems as how to induce a vice-president to delegate responsibilities, how to main¬ tain competitive enthusiasm of men who are working for promotion and at the same time pull together as a team, and how to develop capable successors for executives — these are the typical psychological problems which confront management. Management has done much to promote good mental health in human relations at the worker level, and progressive administrators are now recognizing that better mental health among the executives is the key to further improving smooth relations and increasing production. Let us look in on a Monday morning conference of the officers of a large manufacturing company. The corporate financial picture does not look good; the semi-annual operating statement reveals that sales have not kept pace with increased costs of business. The President demands that this situation be corrected. The Executive Vice-President offers many new ideas. The Vice-President of Sales rejects them with, "It can’t be done . . . you just can’t do it that way.” The Executive Vice-President becomes angry because his ideas are not considered. The President is mad because his two vice-presidents are acting like small boys. At this point the mental health of this group and of individuals in subordinate roles begins to deteriorate. The meeting breaks up, and the Vice-President of Sales returns to his department and passes along the "order” for increased sales, but without any suggestions to his Sales Managers on how it can be done. The Sales Managers ask questions and offer suggestions, but they are squelched. The Sales Managers revenge themselves on the Salesmen, and bewildered salesmen lose interest, want to resign, and convey their dispirited attitudes to customers— -thereby producing the opposite effect desired by the executive conference. People in other departments become insecure when sales fall, and heavy inventories compel a slow-down in production. The insightful president is aware that his competitors can buy the same machines, the same raw materials, the same equipment, and provide the same means for fast delivery. His only real advantage over his com¬ petitors is the people who constitute his organization and the leadership which enables these people to express their most creative and productive * Presented at annual meeting, Texas Academy Science, Dallas, 1950. 214 The Texas Journal of Science 1951, No. 2 June 30 potentialities. To stay ahead of his competition, the enterprising president has incorporated the frontiers of the sciences into his operations of manu¬ facturing, engineering, and selling; he now calls upon the social sciences to help him maintain his lead over his competitors. There are essentially three psychological points which management must consider in keeping ahead: first, self-improvement of the individual executive; second, developing strong subordinates; and third, promoting team play among executives. SELF-IMPROVEMENT Most top executives have attained their positions by profiting from their experiences and taking steps to insure their self-improvement. This kind of thinking is emerging from the minds of some of the more perceptive presidents: "If Bill Jones, the foreman, has the effect on his men that we give him credit for having, then I must have ten times that effect on the people who report to me. I had better think first about me and my relation to my men than about Bill Jones/’ In his endeavor to improve himself, he has sought the aid of the clinical^ psychologist in discovering new insights regarding the impact of his personality upon his employees. One particular President had a big, soft heart which he tried to conceal with a gruff, "tough guy” veneer. He felt he needed to be recognized as the "boss”, lest it reveal weakness on his part. He criticized his Vice-Presidents in the presence of each other. His meetings were more "telling” than "discussing.” In one meeting he became so angry upon learning that his Vice-Presidents had changed their minds without con¬ sulting him that he stomped out of the room. His behavior made the Vice-Presidents uncomfortable, gave them the feeling that the President would not hear them, and caused them to wonder which course of action to take. The Vice-Presidents wanted to spend time with the President and discuss their problems. Instead, they felt that they must have a definite question and a definite recommendation prepared and take only two minutes time for a decision whenever they entered his office. By employing available tools of psychology, this President was able to take a better view of himself and his influence upon others. When he realized his was compensatory behavior, he could see he did not need a gruff exterior for his Vice-Presidents to look on his as "boss” or to keep them doing what was necessary to advance the business. He had used his gruff - ness for so long and so effectively when called upon to bring a company out of the red that he found considerable difficulty in overcoming his deeply ingrained habits of dealing with others. He is now finding it is a long, hard process to redirect his aggressiveness from running the business to challenging his men and developing their potentialities. He is learning how to ask questions, to withhold opinions until his subordinates have an opportunity to tell their stories, and to use mistakes of others as a learning experience rather than as an occasion for rebuff. He is not merely remaking himself; he is learning to build men. DEVELOPING CAPABLE SUBORDINATES An organization is no stronger than the people who make it up. A company cannot rise above its own people. If management wants to improve its organization, it must assist its people to improve themselves. The 1951, No. 2 June 30 Mental Health in Human Relations 215 demands of a growing institution mean increased complexity of executive responsibilities. To prevent jobs from outgrowing men, each executive must maintain a keen edge of development not only on himself but also on the men who serve in his department. The executive who is a real leader will devote over ninety per cent of his time to human problems. He neither engineers the inventions, designs the tools, nor manufactures the products himself; he develops capable sub¬ ordinates who direct the division managers who supervise the department heads who lead the men who engineer the inventions, design the tools, and manufacture the products. This function carries him beyond designing, producing, and selling to the point of teaching, motivating, and judging men’s performance and capacities for accepting new responsibilities. He studies his men, stimulates them to think, inspires them to do, and evaluates their performances In studying his men, he attempts to learn each man’s strengths and limitations, he determines how fast a man can develop on a job, and he observes the man’s personality characteristics which may be put to best advantage. To stimulate them to think, he causes his subordinates to analyze their responsibilities, to determine ways in which their departments can comple¬ ment the efforts of other departments, to set up departmental objectives which spell company progress, and to conceive more efficient techniques for performing their jobs. He knows that to inspire men to do, he must lead them by his own actions, he must give them responsibilities, assure them that their contri¬ butions are important to the over-all company goals, and he must make them want to win. When he evaluates the performance of his men, he confers with them to the extent of mutual recognition of jobs well done, he counsels with men about more effective ways of coping with problems, and he helps them determine the efficiency of their departments. PROMOTING TEAM PLAY In addition to developing subordinates as individual persons, the presi¬ dent’s job is to develop his vice-presidents into a more effective team. Team spirit is a contagion which starts at the top of an organization and spreads downward and outward in an ever expanding manner. It springs from an incisive understanding of people plus a keen enjoyment of working with them. After our gruff President began to show signs of improvement and it became an increasing pleasure to work with him, the idea of improvement began to spill over onto his Vice-Presidents. Two of these men had experienced a conflict of personalities from the day one had joined the company seven years prior. Each knew that this conflict was not contri¬ buting to the efficient operation of the company, or to the motivation of the employees in their departments. They could not seem to unlock horns. The Vice-President of Manufacturing accused the Vice-President of Finance of empire-building and of being uncooperative and stubborn on issues which concerned them both. It was true that he spent his time with the employees in the finance department, made no moves approved a pro- 216 The Texas Journal of Science 1951, No. 2 June 30 posal, and did not discuss his problems with any of the other Vice- Presidents. The two found it almost impossible to collaborate on common problems when neither understood the other. The President knew that getting the feel of another man’s problems is one of the most subtle and critical issues in building a team of key men. By enabling his men to discuss their problems with the psychologist, the President paved the way for mutual understanding by helping each interpret the causes underlying the other’s behavior. The Vice-President of Manufacturing had previously looked only at the isolation techniques of the other man. He now attempted to look into the causes of those empire-building tactics. He discovered that the Finance Officer had been required to earn the family livelihood at age fourteen because of the loss of his father, and from those experiences he felt a need for companionship and a distaste for competitiveness. Identification with subordinates was not simply a desire to work in isolation; it was a means of fulfilling his need for close association with others. The Vice-President of Finance found it easier to do this with subordinates than with people on his own level in other departments because of the normal conflicting situations arising between departments. The Vice-President of Manufacturing saw the need to make it easier for his associate to discuss problems. When some one in the finance depart¬ ment made an error, the Production Officer should be tolerant rather than critical. He found that he needed also to spend time outside the company with the "isolationist” to develop a feeling of ease between them and cultivate harmonious relations. With friendlier treatment, the Finance Offiicer came to feel his associate was not so aggressive, so domineering, so repulsive. They both began to see each other’s strengths where once they could notice only limitations. Their new relationship enabled them to think together and coordinate their departments. The finance department was able to show the manufacturing department where large sums of money could be saved. By working together, each group could reinforce the special abilities of the other. This kind of teamwork gave the President a feeling of inner satis¬ faction, for he realized that by taking steps to improve himself he had set into motion a chain reaction which developed subordinates and promoted team play. His own improved mental health enabled him to understand himself and to appreciate the other person’s style of play. Management, by its use of the social sciences, is continuing to display the dynamic leadership which has always characterized American leaders in business and industry-leadership of action rather than of words and gestures — -leadership which dares to explore uncharted courses. 1951, No. 2 June 30 Reef Paleontology 217 SOME ASPECTS OF REEF PALEONTOLOGY AND LITHOLOGY IN THE EDWARDS FORMATION OF TEXAS WILLIAM H. MATTHEWS Department of Geology Texas Christian University ABSTRACT The detailed lithology and paleontology of two rudistid reefs in the Edwards formation (Lower Cretaceous) are assembled with interpretations of classification and paleoecology of rudistid reef faunas. On the basis of mode of preservation the reefs are divided into siliceous and calareous groups. The best preserved fossils found in the Edwards are recovered from the reef facies, and those specimens from the siliceous reefs have undergone remarkable preservation. The shells of these organisms have been completely replaced by silica and may be studied in great detail. A comarison between the calcareous and siliceous faunas shows that the variations are mainly due to slight environmental differences rather than to mode of preservation. Field relations are the basis for suggesting that these rudistid reefs are tabular and should probably be called biostromes. These biostromes represent a special problem because they are essentially porous, organic concentrations entirely encased in limestone. The paleoecology suggests that the reefs were deposited in a relatively shallow epicontinental sea. The waters were warm, cleat, of normal salinity, and populated by an abundance of pelecypods, gastropods, and corals. INTRODUCTION AND ACKNOWLEDGMENTS This paper presents the results of a study of some of the shell deposits within the Edwards formation which have been referred to as the rudistid reefs. Most of these reefs have been replaced by calcereous material, but som have undergone complete silicification. In these silicified reefs are found many excellently preserved fossils. Many of these specimens appear to be new species. Three siliceous reefs and three calcareous reefs were included in the detailed study. Many more such reefs were observed in the field. Field work was done in Bell, Williamson, Coryell, Hamilton, McLennan, Johnson, Hood, Mills, Kerr and Somervell counties. Specimens were collected at each local¬ ity and later studied in detail in the laboratory. The major lithologic, paleon- tologic, and paleoecologic data for one calcareous and one siliceous reef will be discussed in some detail. Appreciation is expressed to Dr. Leo Hendricks, Texas Christian University, for his encouragement and assistance in this study. Dr. H. B. Stenzel of the Bureau of Economic Geology, Austin, Texas, suggested the study of the silicified reefs and offered many helpful suggestions. Special thanks are due to Dr. Samuel P. Ellison of the University of Texas, for reading and criticizing the manuscript. Acknow¬ ledgment is made to: Professor W. M. Winton and the Texas Christian University Geology Department for use of equipment; Dr. Willis G. Hewatt of T.C U. for certain ecologic data; Professor L. W. Ramsev of T.C.U prepared the plates; Dr. A. Myra Keen, Stanford University, identified some of the specimens; Dr. H, B. Blank, Texas A & M offered information concerning the Georgetown Reef. 218 The Texas Journal of Science 1951, No. 2 June 30 EDWARDS FORMATION: GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS FACIES The Fredericksburg group presents a complex assortment of facies, corresponding to various conditions of sedimentation. The primary facies exhibited are: 1. Marginal or littoral facies: consists of sands, sandstones and sandy shales. 2. Neritic facies : represented by widespread marls, marly limestones, and chalky limestones of the Walnut, Comanche Peak and Kiamichi formations. 3. Reef facies: may be possible local modifications between littoral and neritic, and are dominated by organic deposits. These deposits consist of coquina detrital and shelly limestone, and organic limestone of several types. LITHOLOGY The Edwards is composed primarily of limestones but there are marl and limestone strata present which become slightly arenaceous. The lime¬ stones in some localities are composed of a white, crystalline, practically pure calcium carbonate. Other beds, however, have impurities such as silica, sodium chloride, and more rarely, iron pyrite. Varying degrees of consolidation are present in the different starta grading from strongly indurated, light-brown, sub-lithographic limestone to a very pulverulent, finely divided chalk, apparently redeposited after intra- formational solution. A distinct surface lithological feature of the Edwards is the so-called "honey-comb” or "bored” limestone (see Plate I). This rough, porous rock is the result of the removal of the more calcareous mater¬ ial by solution. The resistant rock that is left is more indurated, and possibly more siliceous, than the dissolved rock. The writer has observed similar results with pieces of Edwards limestone immersed in dilute hydrochloric acid. The insoluble residue has the "honey-comb” appearance described above. PALEONTOLOGY This paper deals primarily with certain paleontological aspects of the Edwards formation so only general remarks about the fauna will be in¬ cluded at this point. The fauna of the Edwards, like the faunas of many Comanchean formations, is in need of careful study and revision. Work on the paleontology of the Edwards has been handicapped by the nature of the limestone and its great resistance to weathering. As a result most of the specimens that are found are poorly preserved. Some fossils have been re¬ placed by silica, many excellently preserved and easily studied. One singular feature of the Edwards is the fact that the rudistids of North America are most highly developed in number and kind in this for¬ mation. Further, the best preserved fossils from the Edwards are those col¬ lected from the biostromes. REVIEW OF REEF TERMINOLOGY The term "reef” has been used in such a variety of ways in geological and biological literature that some of the more common terms used in de¬ scribing "reefs” should be reviewed. The typical reef structure is represented by the coral reef. Vaughan (1911, p. 238) gives the following definition of such a reef: "a coral reef is a ridge or mound of limestone, the upper surface of which lies, or lay at 1951, No. 2 June 30 Reef Paleontology 219 the time of formation, near the level of the sea, and is predominantly com¬ posed of calcium carbonate secreted by organisms, of which the most im¬ portant are corals.53 Wilson (1950, p. 181) has defined the term reef as follows: "a reef is a sedimentary rock aggregate, large or small, composed of the remains of colonial-type organisms that lived near or below the surface of water bodies, mainly marine, and developed relatively large vertical dimensions as com¬ pared with the proportions of adjacent sedimentary rocks.33 The term bioherm was proposed by Cumings and Shrock (1928, p. 599) and applies to those structures of reef -like, mound-like or lens-like nature, which are of definite organic origin and were embedded in rocks of different lithology. In an attempt to further limit the use of the term reef Cumings (1932, p. 3 34) proposed the name biostrome. Definitely bedded structures such as shell beds and crinoidal beds were to be included in this term. A typical biostrome in the North Texas area is the Walnut shell rock or Walnut conglomerate. These beds of Gryphaea and Exogyra possess the typical biostromal structure. In addition the term "reef” has been applied to such inorganic struc¬ tures as sand bars. Certain types of ore bodies have been termed "reefs” in mining terminology. Strtuctures of this type obviously do not fulfill the major requirements for a reef as outlined above. EDWARDS RUDISTID REEFS CLASSIFICATION The shell concentration of rudistids, caprinids, oysters, corals, and gastropods so abundant at certain stratigraphic levels in the Edwards have long been referred to as "reefs,” both in the literature and in general dis¬ cussion. As outlined above the primary considerations for the designation of a true reef or bioherm may be sumarized as follows: 1. The structure must be of organic origin. 2. The structure must possess amound-like or lens-like form 3. The structure must have risen above the surrounding bottom at the time of its formation. 4. The structure must be embedded in rocks of different lithology. 5. The structure must not be layered, stratified or otherwise show evidence of bedding planes. Most of the rudistid and caprinid reefs described in this paper do not conform to the above requirements. Some of the more important differences are noted below: 1. So far as can be determined by field work, most rudistid reefs do not have the typical mound-like structure. Mound-like deposits have been reported but none of the reefs in this study are of this nature. Further field work may show that there are many such exposures, but at the present the evidence for this is inconclusive. 2. None of the reef exposures display the increased dip that would be expected on the flanks of a structure rising from the sea bottom. Most of the material is in a nearly horizontal position. 3. It is difficult to determine if the reefs were embedded in rocks of different lithology” as no lateral gradations or contacts were found in vertical cross- section. In general limestone occurs above and below the reef material. 4. While there have not been any bedding planes observed within the actual reef material there are certain exposures which exhibit well defined contacts of the reef material with overlying and underlying beds. This probably indicates 220 The Texas Journal of Science 1951, No. 2 June 30 a definite change in sedimentation in the intervals preceding and succeeding deposition of the reef material An exposure of this nature certainly may be called a "layer” of material despite the fact that bedding planes are absent within the "layer”. The writer has observed 5 such layers alternating with as many layers of non-reef material. This type of bedded structure would not conform to the definition of a true reef or bioherm. In view of the evidence listed above these shell concentrations might be more properly termed biostromes. More extensive field work may disclose true bioherms of rudistids, but the results of this investigation show these deposits to be biostromal in nature. The term reef as used in this paper will apply only to the local outcrop or exposure being described. In speaking of the areal extent of these deposits the term biostrome will be used. BELTON-KILLEEN (CALCAREOUS) REEF The Belton-Killeen Reef is a typical calcareous reef. It is located in Bell County on the Edwards escarpment, 5.6 miles west of Belton on High¬ way 190. The reef has been exposed in a road metal quarry. Stratigraphically the exposure is the middle of the Edwards, as the reef is overlain by the so-called "gastropod ledge” which marks the middle of the Edwards in Bell County. This ledge contains calcite replacements of many small fossils which are usually revealed in cross section after the rock has been fractured. The rock composing the ledge is a dense, fine-grained, light brown colored limestone with a conchoidal fracture. In the Belton- Killeen reef the bed has an average thickness of about 10 inches. This ledge is overlain by about 6 feet of thin-to medium-bedded limestone with inter¬ beds of white to yellow colored, flaky marl. Some chert is found associated with the section. The reef lies directly under the limestone section and has a thickness of about 2 feet. If the excavation had been carried deeper, more beds of reef material would have been exposed. The floor of the quarry is of heavy lime¬ stone with scattered traces of reef matereial in the top. This limestone may represent the top of a non-reef bed. The total depth of excavation in the quarry is from 10 to 12 feet. The 2 feet of reef material has a distinct con¬ tact with the bed above it but the lower contact is gradational. A typical piece of calcareous reef material may be seen in Plate II. The reef is composed primarily of the remains of caprinulid and caprinid type pelecypods as in the other calcareous reefs. Caprinula anguis (?) and Mono pleura pinguiscula (?) are the most abundant pelecypods represented in the lower portion of the reef; Radiolites davidsoni is found at the top. Other species collected were Monpleura marcida (?), Caprina sp. indet., Toucasia patagiata and T oucasia texana. Pecten duplicostata is well repre¬ sented throughout the reef and is the most abundant species with the ex¬ ception of the predominant rudistids and caprinids. Many of these pectens are well preserved and some of them are quite large. The pectens are pri¬ marily represented by badly weathered internal molds, Chondrodonta mun- soni and Phacoides acutelineolatus are present but not as common as at other calcareous reefs. The shells of the pelecypods have been bored by many worms or other types of boring organisms. Definite Cliona or gastropod bor¬ ings could not be found. The most abundant gastropod is a species of Anchura or Aporrhais, but the specimens are poorly preserved. Three speci¬ mens of Lunatia (?) were also found, all badly eroded. 1951, No. 2 June 30 Reef Paleontology 221 The following specimens were collected at this locaality: Pelecypoda : Radiolites davidsoni Hill 1893 Toucasia patagiata (White) 1884 Toucasia texana (Roemer) 1852 Caprinula anguis (Roemer) 1888 Caprina sp. indet. Monopleura marcida (?) White 1884 Pecten duplicostata Roemer 1849 Chondrodonta munsoni (Hill) 1893 Phacoides acute-lineolatus (Roemer) 1888 Gastropoda : Anchura (?) Nerinea aff. incisa Giebei 1853 Lunatia (?) sp. THE GEORGETOWN ( SILICEOUS) REEF The Georgetown Reef is one of those which has undergone silicification. Other silicified localities are in Mills and Kerr Counties. This one is located on the top of a cliff on the North Fork of the San Gabriel River in William¬ son County, approximately 10.1 miles southwest of Georgetown. The main reef is farily localized but large fragments of chert contain¬ ing the remains of rudistids are found scattered over an area of about one square mile. The largest part of the reef is approximately 159 yards in its long axis trending roughly northeast and southwest. It has an approximate width of about 40 or 50 yards. To the northeast and to the southwest of the main reef are smaller concentrations of reef material at the same strati¬ graphic level. These smaller bodies are much more silicified than the main reef, consisting primarily of rudistids enclosed in chert. Fossils in this type of material are so greatly altered as to be useless for study. The most abundant specimens in these small concentrations are a caprinid or caprinu- lid type pelecypod, and no other specimen of any type was collected. Other fossils are assumed to be completely altered or removed by weathering. The interpretation given here is that the main reef and the smaller reef concentrations represent the lower part of the original reef and that these portions of the reef are still in place. The material from the base of the reef consists of a cherty deposit, in some places found in conjunction with dolomitic limestones. This rock is apparently in place and makes up the greater part of the reef. At one outcrop where the reef is exposed on the surface of the ground there is a definite horizontal gradation of the reef material into the typical "Roney- comb” Edwards limestone. One large block that was found in place represents what may be the bottom of the reef. This large piece of dolomitic limestone has cherty shell fragments embedded in its upper surface and these grade into shell-free limestone below. The down¬ ward gradation of the rudistid breccia into the more calcareous limestone suggests that this may be the bottom of the reef. This view is further supported by the fact that an examination of the hill below the reef did not reveal an outcrop of reef material. These facts may also be advanced for support of the opinion that the reef is in place and is remnantal in nature. The scattered reef remnants are composed of rock containing the silicified remains of rudistids, gastropods, Pecten, and the branching coral Cladophyllia, although the latter is not abundant. Monopleura pinguiscula and Caprina are the predominant pelecypods, and Nerinea and Pileolus the 222 The Texas Journal of Science 1951, No. 2 June SO predominant gatropods. The above specimens are found in blocks of reef material that have been separated from the reef and scattered about the surface of the ground. The fossils are completely replaced with silica and the internal cham¬ bers of many of the forms resemble geodes lined with quartz crystals. The rock mass that formerly held these shells together has been removed by solution leaving only the siliceous material. Some of these blocks have a core of cherty or dolomitic limestone holding them together. The blocks are stained a deep red color due to the presence of iron oxides. The best speci¬ mens were collected from blocks of this type, and the small specimens found scattered about the ground have probably weathered out of similar blocks. The definite grouping of the specimens in such a piece of material plus the relatively small amount of shell breakage, debris, and alteration lends support to the thesis that these rocks represent the upper part of the reef. When these blocks are studied in detail they aid in reconstruction of the original reef environment. A description of a typical block of this type is given below: The block (M264-C; No. 12), weighs 7 pounds and is about 4 inches wide and 1 1 inches long. Most of the surface of the rock is stained a dark red color. The lower portion of the block is composed of siliceous limestone impregnated with many silicified shell remains. The upper part of the block is composed of a well preserved fossil assemblage. The most conspicuous specimen in this group is a large Pecten duplicostata . On the shell of this Pec ten are found scars left by worms, and boring gastropods. One section of a straight serpulid worm tube is on the shell, along with the remains of nine young rudistids which have used the shell for attachment. Only the large convex valve of the Pecten remains and is oriented with the convexity upward. The inside of the shell is filled with sediment and the sediment also covers approximately l/4 inch of the ventral margin of the shell. The rock in which the Pecten is imbedded is full of small shell fragments. A small specimen of Pileolus (?) lies buried near the ventral edge of theh Pecten. The remains of several small Nerinea, Cerithium , a portion of Clado- phyllia , and fragments of Pileolus, occur on the surface of the rock. The rest of the block is composed of rudistid shells in varying stages of disinte¬ gration, the fragments ranging from a fraction of an inch to 3 or 4 inches in size. Many of the internal chambers of the rudistids are completely filled with quartz crystals. Throughout this mass of shells and on the surface cf many of them are the fragmental remains of the shells of many other or¬ ganisms. Plate III, illustrates a block similar to the one described above. The specimen in the plate is from the Kerrville Reef which displays a similar lithology. The fauna of the Georgetown Reef offers a complex assortment of specimens in varying degrees of preservation. Caprina eras sip bra (?) is most abundant, and Monopleura pinguiscula is next in abundance. Toucasia texana and a species of Capr inula complete the rudistid and caprinid fauna. The genus Radiolites was not found at this locality. The only other pelecypod collected was Pecten duplicostata which is common. The right valves of Pecten were all that were found and these are believed to have washed into the reef after the animal was dead. Gastropods are numerous and varied at Georgetown. The peculiar cap¬ like gastropod, Pileolus whitneyi is abundant and many different sized speci- 1951, No. 2 June 30 Reef Paleontology 223 mens may be found. Nerinea is next in abundance and at least four species are present. Actual determination of species is difficult because most speci¬ mens lack the aperture and are badly eroded. Some nerineas are quite large and many are encrusted with worm tubes. Anchura, Cerithium roemeri, Cerithium , spp., Lanai ia (?) pedernalh , Trochus ( Tectus ) t exanus and Fusinus (?) are common. Two gastropods found are believed to be either new genera or represent extensions of range of Paleocene -Eocene genera. These are Cyclostrema (?) and Circulopsis (?), both are are at this ex¬ posure. Microscopic gastropods are abundant and a few microscopic peleey- pods were discovered in samples of soil from around the reef. The only coral present is Cladophyllia furcifera, and it is comparatively rare. One specimen of a plant fossil was found and it may have been the root of a small tree. The specimen was in place and a small sepcimen of Monopleura pinguisicula was attached to it. The following species were collected from the Georgetown Reef: Polychaeia : Serpulio worm tubes Anthozoa : Cladophyllia furcifera Roemer 1888 Pelecypoda : Caprina crassifihra (?) Roemer 1852 CaprinuJa (?) sp. Toucasia texana (Roemer) 1852 Monopleura pinguscula White 1884 Pecten duplicostata Roemer 1849 Gastropoda : Pileolus whitneyi Ikins and Clabaugh 1940 Nerinea spp. Anchura sp. indet. Cerithium roemeri Ikins and Clabaugh 1940 Cerithmm bushwackense Ikins and Clabaugh 1940 Cerithium sp. Lunatia (?) pedernalis (Roemer) (not Hill) 1852 Trochus ( Tectus ) texanus Roemer 1888 Fusinus (?) Cyclostrema (?) Circulopsis (?) The above list contains only the species collected for this paper. The Texas Memorial Museum of the University of Texas has a large and com¬ prehensive collection of the Georgetown Reef fauna. The Kerrville reef, which is also silicified, has a more varied and abundant gastropod fauna than any reef studied. ECOLOGIC IMPLICATION OF BIOSTROME FAUNAS The Edwards biostrome fauna includes pelecypods, gastropods, corals, sponge spicules, Foraminifera, echinoid spines, and annelid borings. Of these, pelecypods are most abundant although the number of species is small. Gastropods are varied and abundant. Corals are common in some exposures and rare in others. Sponge spicules are found in washed samples, and the borings of Cliona may be found on pelecypod shells. Some foraminifers are found; Liioula is the most common form and is only in the siliceous reefs. Borings and tubes of annelid worms occur at many localities. Occasional echinoid spines, and test fragments may be present in surface samples, and a few complete echinoids were collected at Kerrville. No bryozoans or brachiopods were noted at any of the exposures studied. Cephalopods are not 224 The Texas Journal of Science 1951, No. 2 June 30 known in the Edwards biostromes, and this bears out the interpretation, that cephalopods have never been reef dwellers. The oyster Chondrodonta munsoni is more abundant in the northern exposures of the formation, probably indicating a shallower sea in that direc¬ tion. No corals were found and very few of the carnivorous gastropods were in the beds containing Chondrodonta. The absence of these specimens lends support to the interpretation that the environment was possibly water of less than normal salinity. Radiolites is commonly found in the same localities as Chrondrodonta . Both fossils have thick, ribbed shells indicating adaptation to life in shallow waters affected by wave action. In some locali¬ ties, however, Radiolites was associated with a rich gastropod fauna, but Chondrodonta was absent. In exposures where Chondrodonta and Radiolites occur together Radio¬ lites is always found higher in the section than Chondrodonta. The regularity with which this occurs may be evidence of an ecologic succession of Chon¬ drodonta upward to Radiolites . Cladopbyllia, Pleurocora, and other corals are found in the exposures dominated by Monopleura , T oncasia, and Caprina. The gastropod, Nerinea, is abundant where corals are found, and these two forms are interpreted as requiring the same physical environments: Nerinea required a firm substatum on which to live, and the structure of the animaTs shell suggests that it inhabited a relatively quiet bottom. Pecten duplicostata is associated with rudistids at several exposures, but only single valves were found. Pecten is a free-swimming mollusk and these shells are assumed to have been washed into the reef after the death of the animal. PLATE 1 — The typical "honey-comb” Edwards limestone. Goldthwaite, Mills County, Texas. Paleontology §§§§1 wMmMmB mmM^bhwmbbw j^Sfefl^WyMBBBEHM lilill PLATE II— Portion of calcareous rudistid reef three miles north Priddy, Mills County, Texas. sill if## PLATE III — Portion of siliceous rudistid reef. (Note quartz crystals in internal chambers of the caprinids ) . Kerrville Reef, 15 miles southwest of Kerrville, Kerr County, Texas. 226 The Texas Journal of Science 1951, No. 2 June 30 Those exposures which have been silicified are rich in excellently pre¬ served gastropods. Most of the gastropods were carnivores attracted by these large pelecypod concentrations. Holes in the shells of pelecypods bears out the presence of these predators. Browsing, herbivorous snails were also pres¬ ent and are represented by such genera as Nerita, Neritina, A porrhais, and Pileolus. All of the gastropods are marine forms, occurring more commonly where corals and Mono pleura and Toucasia are abundant. The gastropods represent the largest contribution in total number of genera and species to the total biota of the biostromes. Tubes of annelid worms, chiefly the genera Serpula and Spirorbis , are found encrusting many shells in the biotromes. Spirorbis lives in a tube coiled in a flat spiral and is attached to various specimens. It was found at only two localities and to the writer’s knowledge this genus has not been pre¬ viously reported in the Comanchean of Texas. Lituola and Ammornar ginulina are the Formaminifera found in the biostromes. These also suggest a warm, shallow, clear, marine environment. The abaundant shell fragments in many of the biostromes suggests the presence of scavengers, but no positive evidence of scavengers was found. Juveniles of most genera and species are present throughout the bio¬ stromes. The young of Toucasia and Mono pleura are commonly found clus¬ tered on the shells of mollusks and corals, and young gastropods are also abundant. The beds above and below the biostromes are easily distinguished from the biostromes on the basis of lithology and fossil content. This sharp con¬ tact between the two lithologies indicates a sudden change in deposition, at which time the biostrome was covered by a layer of non-biostromal lime¬ stone. This alternation of biostromal and non-biostromal beds may be ob¬ served as many as five times at a single exposure,. SUMMARY ( 1 ) The use of the term "reef” in the literature is reviewed briefly. (2) The lateral-vertical relations of the organic layers writh the surrounding rocks suggest that the "rudistid reefs” should be termed biostromes. (3) The biostromes do not appear to occur at the same stratigraphic level. This observation is based on the acceptance of the Comanche Peak-Edwards contact representing the same time level throughout. (4) The fossils which have been replaced by silica show e>cellent preservation. (5) Possible occurrence of new' species and extensions of geologic range of certain species are noted. (6) The paleoecology suggests that these biostromes wrere deposited in a relatively shallow (10 to 20 fathoms) epicontinental sea. The waters wTere warm, clear, of normal salinity, and populated by an abundance of pelecypods, gastropods and corals. The pelecypod concentrations attracted a large number of carniv¬ orous marine snails. LITERATURE CITED Turnings, E. R., and R R. Shrock — 1928 — Niagran coral reefs of Indiana and adjacent states and their stratigraphic relations. Geol. Soc. America Bull. 39 : 579-620. - 1932 — Reefs or bicherms? Geol. Soc. America Bull. 43:331-332. Vaughan, T. W. — 1911 — Physical conditions under which Paleozoic corals were formed. Geol. Soe. America Bull. 22 : 238-252. Wilson, W. B. — 1950 — Reef definition. Am. Assoc. Petroleum Geologists Bull. 34 (2) : 181. 1951, No. 2 June 30 Control of Poisonous Plants 227 THE USE OF HERBICIDES IN THE CONTROL OF POISONOUS RANGE PLANTS IN TEXAS OMER E. SPERRY Department of Range and Forestry A. & M. College of Texas The various problems of poisonous range plants have paralleled the development of the range industry in Texas. The earliest research in this field was centered around the identification of the poisonous plants and the determination of symptoms and toxicity. The Loco Weed Laboratory at Alpine and the Substation near Sonora were established as units of the Texas Agricultural Experiment Station for early investigations. Through these stations, the veterinary research workers on the A. & M. Campus, and federal investigators, a large number of Texas range plants have been isolated as poisonous. Through the feeding of these plants much information has been made available regarding symptoms and lethal dosages. After the poisonous plants are recognized, animals must be kept away from them or the plants must be removed from the range. In some cases of poisoning, relief measures can be administered if applied in time. The problem of poisonous range plants has increased in importance in recent years. With stocking rates maintained at a high level or increased during the past 50 years, the actual carrying capacity has been greatly reduced. The change from open range to fenced pastures has restricted animal movement and choice of forage. Weeds and browse have necessarily b:en taken as forage instead of once abundant grass. In this way, poisonous plants, although always present on our ranges, have been consumed in lethal quantities. Ranchmen are thus faced with a range management problem of plant eradication or control. Eradication can be carried out in small areas and on a limited scale, but over large areas control must be achieved if poisoning is to be averted. There are three general methods used in the control of poisoning or in the control of the poisonous plants. These are grouped under the headings of mechanical, biotic and chemical. The mechanical includes cultivation in restricted areas, mowing, especially on open pastures, a limited amount of flooding, hand pulling or cutting, hand grubbing, and in some instances burning. The biotic methods are heavy grazing of limited areas by large numbers of animals so that none is apt to get a lethal dosage, changing the type of stocking as from sheep to cattle or goats, deferment of infested areas for a few months of the grazing season or longer and lighter stocking rates. The two latter methods allow the perennial plants, especially grasses, to increase in vigor and density and thus by competition control the weedy species. Chemicals have been used on range plants, at least experimentally, since about 1930. The early chemicals experimented with were the various chlorates, iron and copper sulfates, acids, oils, arsenic als and salt. Herbicides have been used, both experimentally and practically, for several years. Early experimental work with chemicals was done by Jones, Hill and Bond (1932) on the Experiment Station at Sonora in 1931. Jones and 228 The Texas Journal of Science 1951. No. 2 June 30 his coworkers tried out several chemicals and obtained some good kill results on bitterweed. Only fair results were obtained with crude and fuel oils. Up to six per cent sulfuric acid was used but its use was not recommended because it was hazardous to use and the kill obtained was not satisfactory. At the conclusion of their work, Jones and his coworkers recommended calcium chlorate as a herbicide for bitterweed. Twelve pounds of the chemical in 200 gallons of water per acre gave the best results. This method was not given wide application probably due to the volume of water necessary. Since much of our range land has been reduced to poor condition by continued heavy grazing, weeds, both annual and perennial and secondary grasses constitute much of the range vegetation. Not all weeds are poison¬ ous, and many weed species, both poisonous and non-poisonous, are seldom eaten. In other words, it is usually a hungry animal that grazes weeds to any extent. The extended periods of drought in the Trans-Pecos and Edwards Plateau regions during 1946, 1947, 1948 and into 1949 retarded grass growth to the extent that many weeds have been consumed and much poisoning has occurred. Also, during the past few years, herbicides have been developed to the degree that they can be used over large acreages. Trichoracetate (T.C.A.), 2,4-D, 2,4,5-T, and some of the arsenicals have shown the most promise. Of these, the hormone weed killers have been given most consideration as they can be used in control work without removing animals from the range. Oils as carriers and as boosters for the herbicides are also being used. About fifty species at some time or place have been proved poisonous to range livestock. All, of course, are potential killers, but many of the species are catalogued as poisonous due to a few scattered killings. There are, however, about twenty species that take a toll every year and , when conditions are right, account for the loss of many thousand head of live¬ stock over the state. I will discuss a few of the more important species upon which research and practical field v/ork have been done with herbicides. Starting in about 1945, 2,4-D was tried on bitterweed in the Edwards Plateau area. Trial areas were treated on the Sonora Experiment Station and on ranches in Sutton and Edwards Counties. The initial results were promising, as this selective herbicide could be used to kill the bitterweed without damage to grass. These herbicides are not toxic to livestock, and thus the range can be used while control measures are applied. The first trial plots on the O. Q. Marshall Ranch in Edwards County in 1946 obtained satisfactory kill with all formulations of 2,4-D at 1000 ppm. Two applications in 1947 applied in the same manner as the 1946 trials, did not secure satisfactory kill. An area sprayed on the Sonora Station in 1947 obtained satisfactory kill. Lee Allison in Sutton County secured good results on 10 sections by spot-spray work with knapsack sprayers. Numerous other trial applications against bitterweed, through chemical companies, by County Agricultural Agents, and by the ranchmen met with varied degrees of success in this general area. These early treatments were put on with hand sprayers or stock spray equipment with water as a carrier. The rate of application ranged from about 50 to over 100 gallons of water. In general, the best kills of bitterweed with 2,4-D during 1946 to 1948, were obtained by treatments with the ester forms at concentrations of about one pound 1951, NoV 2 June 30 Control of Poisonous Plants 229 of acid equivalent per acre. An airplane-applied treatment with diesel oil as a carrier in Crockett County in 1948 did not obtain satisfactory results. Rain and flooding obscured possible results. The distribution and current control measures on bitterweed were discussed by Sperry (1949), and the continued work on this weed has led to rather extensive control treatments in some parts of Texas. Herbi- cidal treatments still seem to get erratic results. A summarization of 2,4-D work together with the effects of 2,4-D on bitterweed seed formation and germination was published as a Texas Agricultural Experiment Station Progress Report, Number 1279, (Sperry, 1950). An extensive program of spraying bitterweed was carried out in Sterling County in 1949. Earlier work in this area was done on the Fowler McIntyre Ranch. McIntyre obtained excellent results when plants were sprayed in the early growth stage. Cattle sprays, airplane and jeep-mounted yellow-devil, boom-spray equipment have been used on the various ranches in Sterling County. Low gallonages with water and diesel oil as carriers were used to apply .44, .50 and .88 pounds of 2,4-D per acre in the 1949 program. While most of the ranchmen were pleased with the results, poor to only fair kill was obtained in the overall work. Several thousand acres in all were treated. The enthusiasm from this 1949 program ran high, and several ranchmen purchased jeep-mounted buffalo turbines to continue the practice. Treatments applied in 1950 in the Sterling area were erratic and did not obtain satisfactory results on the whole. Areas of bitterweed have also been treated both experimentally and practically in the Trans-Pecos and Edwards Plateau, but results have been spotty. Rayless goldenrod has been known as a poisonous plant on Texas ranges for about 40 years. In monthly treatments from January until June, FIGURE 1 — Field crew counting bitterweed plants to determine rate of kill by 2, 4-D. The Texas Journal of Science FIGURE 2 — Boom spray equipment used to spray test areas of loco in Presidio County. FIGURE 3 — Rayless Goldenrod plant killed by spraying with 2,4-D in Crane County. 1951, No. 2 June 30 Control of Poisonous Plants 231 1949, 66 to 100 per cent kill was obtained. The best kill was obtained in April and May. On the strength of the 1949 results, 80 acres were treated by plane in May, 1950. Since this plant is a perennial, final results cannot be obtained until next year, but from 65 to 99 per cent kill, was indicated in late October. The herbicides were applied in water and diesel oil, and the best kill appeared to be with BK 64 at one pound acid equivalent to the acre. BK 64 contains esters of 2,4-D and 2,4,5-T in the ratio of 66 2/3 per cent and 33 l/3 per cent respectively. The first chemical work on locoweed to the writer’s knowledge was done on the Allison, Childers and Bogel Ranches south of Marfa in Presidio County in December, 1947. Apparently excellent kill was obtained, but Mexican laborers grubbed the area, including the treated plants, before final results could be checked. There was not enough locoweed in 1948 to continue our tests, but extensive field tests have been carried on during 1949 and 1950. While our results to date do not permit us to make positive recommendations, we can say that we have obtained satisfactory results by spot-spray treatments with concentrations of the ester of 2,4-D at 2000 to 4000 ppm. Our wo^k on Ridell’s senecio and threadleaf senecio (also called groundsels) also indicate that the ester of 2,4-D and the combination of the esters of 2,4-D and 2,4,5-T are the best herbicides to use in the control of this weed. Higher volume sprays have given better results than low gallonage treatments. Garboncillo and peavine, two annual species of the genus Astragalus , have been killed with herbicides in Presidio County during 1949 and 1950. The most consistent results have been with the so-called brush killers in which 1/3 to l/2 of the active herbicide was 2,4,5-T. No significant in¬ crease in kill was secured when two per cent diesel oil was added to the water emulsion of these sprays, A good kill of desert baileya was obtained with 2,4-D in a single treat¬ ment in 1949, but not enough of the weeds were available in our experi¬ mental area in 1950 to confirm our results. In the case of Loco, senecio, groundsel, peavine and baileya, I have cited primarily experimental work in connection with the Agricultural Experiment Station. A number of ranchmen, Extension Service men, chem¬ ical workers and commercial operators have also done considerable work. It is thus evident that herbicidal control of the species of poisonous plants is a tool in range management and that range improvement through deferment, lighter stocking and other good practices is still the best long¬ time program for range areas. Herbicides can be used to an advantage when physiologically vigorous plants can be treated with killing concentrations. Each species and each site is an individual problem and thus only the fol¬ lowing general suggestions can be made: 1. Susceptibility of the plant to the chemical should be ascertained. There Is a difference in the rate of kill between amines and ester forms. Some weed killers have added 2,4,5-T. This may increase the price but not increase the efficiency. 2. The time of application is important. Physiologically vigorous, growing plants in pre-bloom stages of growth are more susceptible than mature plants. 232 The Texas Journal of Science 1951, No. 2 June 30 3. The plant environment must be considered. Plants growing on dry hill sites are usually harder to kill than plants growing in valleys. High wind does not allow good coverage and creates high evapora¬ tion. In general all soil and climatic conditions have a bearing. 4. In 2,4-D and 2,4, 5 -T, know the amounts of active ingredients per gallon. The various formulations contain from two to four pounds of the acid equivalent of the herbicide per gallon. Make up solutions in parts per million (ppm) by weight or apply on a basis of pounds of the acid equivalent per acre. LITERATURE CITED Jones, S. E., W. H. Hill and T. A. Bond — 1932 — Control of the bitterweed poisonous to sheep in the Edwards Plateau region. Bull. Tex. Agric. Exp. Station 464. Sperry, Omer E. — 1949 — The control of bitterweed (Actinea odorata) on Texas ranges. J. Range Management 2 : 122-127. - 1950 — The effects of 2, 4-D on bitterweed seed formation and germination. Prog. Kept. Tex. Agric. Expt. Station 1279. 1951, No. 2 June 30 Crude Fiber Metabolism 233 CRUDE FIBER METABOLISM OF COLLEGE WOMEN ON SELF-SELECTED DIETS FLORENCE I. SCOULAR, CHARLOTTE COLLIER, AND FAYE McCARTY School of Home Economics, North Texas State College The role of complex carbohydrates, lignin, cellulose, and hemiceliulose in the diet has attracted the attention of individuals over a long period of time. It is known that some complex carbohydrate is needed for desirable intestinal tone and stimulation of intestinal muscles, to assist in satisfactory gastro-intestinal activity and to regulate bowel elimination. Vegetable bulk or fiber is composed of cellulose, hemiceliulose and lignin. There are no digestive enzymes active on these, but the intestinal bacteria may decompose as much as 80 to 8 5 per cent of food cellulose and hemiceliulose. Those not decomposed are excreted in the feces. When the digestive tract is slow, usually more of the cellulose and hemiceliulose are decomposed than when the tract is rapid. On the same daily intake over a period of time, the fecal cellulose and hemiceliulose will vary in the same individual. A limited number of studies on the disappearance of complex carbohy¬ drates from the digestive tracts have been made to show its effect on the laxation rate of men and children. Williams and Olmsted (1936) investi¬ gated the residue found in ten food substances from different sources. Their subjects were three healthy men. Their investigation revealed that lignin and cellulose disappeared less readily than hemiceliulose. They, also, found that a high percentage of lignin decreased the disappearance of cellulose and hemiceliulose. Hummel, Shepherd, and Macy (1940) used children as subjects to determine the effect of changes in food intake upon the lignin, cellulose, and hemiceliulose contents of diets. It was indicated in this study that the nutritional processes were influenced by the kind of fiber, the source, and the level of the intake. From a study of eleven healthy men, Cowgill and Anderson (1932) placed the physiological roughage at from 90 to 100 mg/kg of body weight. This conclusion was drawn after feeding washed and unwashed bran to the subjects. Hummel, Shepherd, and Macy (1943) concluded from their study of children that 170 to 3 30 mg/kg of body weight was neither too much nor too little for normal laxation. The purpose of this study was to determine the total crude fiber and lignin of the diets selected by college women and to compare these values with the laxation rates. PROCEDURE The twenty-seven subjects lived in the Home Management Duplex, North Texas State College, Denton, Texas, during the study. Eight, four or five-day balance periods were used. In each balance period the menus were planned by the girls to meet the provisions of the Texas Food Standard. The food supply was quantita¬ tively the same with the exception of milk. Coffee, without cream, sugar candy, and carbonated beverages were permitted ad libitum. TABLE I DAILY CRUDE FIBER INTAKE AND EXECRETION WITH LAXATION RATES AND THE PER CENT OF CRUDE FIBER DISAPPEARING IN THE DIGESTIVE TRACT _ 234 The Texas Journal of Science 1951, No. 2 June 30 £ o Rate OOOOOOOOOv^OOO OCOOOOOOOOOOVMTN c o (N^ (N oo oo ri q ia c q^oqoocoq^iNCOONfN A NddOHHHHHHHHHN < x < A Total xoxflmxroooo*-ic\ oo'OooC\csCNOO\ON'Or-r^oO'^ % water 'r%oqxfxf\D\0'Opoqooopr';r^r^r^;r^ A xf A A A A A xo \o xo xo oo o ©ooAAAiAArAiAAAAA Esti¬ mated cxcNcvjcxoqoqoqrorococnoooq oq A A A A\b \o \d xo \d vd xo A A A Total | Days ob¬ served rrixf»^w^v^irN>r>irM^xj,rri'^|i^ mirNirNirNv^irNi^u^irNXfxrxfxfxf Subject X .> -H OO . . M H ,-A^ < < < ^ ffl" H H o ^ ^ P pq ^ 0 X A P X ^ P naP pq P ^ pu A p Edwards (1932) ; Feunteun (1949) ; Forbes, et al (1926) ; French (1941, 1946) ; Gaalaas (1945, 1947); Gaztambide Arrilaga (1948); Hammond (1932); Hammond, et al (1941); Henderson (1927, 1927a) ; Hernandez Naus (1944) ; Kendall (1948) ; Labarthe (1945, 1946) ; Lecky (1934/35, 1949) ; Lee and Phillips (1948) ; Manresa (1939) ; Manresa and Gomez (1937) ; Ochoa (1944) ; Quinlan, et al (1948) ; Pastoral Review (1949) ; Ragsdale, et al (1948) ; Rhoad (1935a, 1936, 1938, 1944, 1944b, 1949a) ; Rhoad and Black (1943, 1949) ; Riek and Lee (1948) ; Riemerschmid (1943) ; Seath (1947) ; Seath and Miller (1946, 1947, 1947a) ; Turbet (1949) ; Villares, et al (1947, 1947a, 1947b, 1947c). BREEDING FOR ADAPTATION TO THESE CONDITIONS If then, considering these things, it is not always economical to at¬ tempt maximum improvement in environmental factors, such as manage¬ ment or nutrition, in order to maintain a herd of cattle under tropical and subtropical conditions, the best thing to do is to develop livestock capable of enduring these conditions (Schneider, 1950) and producing a high rate of return for the time, trouble, and money invested. This, in a few words, is really the genesis of modern crossbreeding for climatic adaptation which has formed the basis of so many Gulf Coast herds. PURPOSE, EXTENT, AND DEFINITION OF CROSSBREEDING Although some zoologists consider all breeds of domestic cattle as sub¬ species of Bos taurus , calling the European breeds Bos i auras typicus and the Indian breeds Bos taurus indicus , the terminology used in this paper is that commonly accepted by cattle geneticists and breeders who consider them two distinct species, Bos taurus and Bos indicus. If this second concept is correct, then crosses between Brahman and European cattle are, properly, hybrids, rather than crossbreeds, under Cobb’s (1950) definition which states that crossbreeding is the process of mating individuals of different breeds of the same species, and hybridizing the re¬ sult of mating individuals of separate species. However, for the sake of convenience, all crosses of domestic cattle are spoken of herein as crossbreds, The Texas Journal of Science Courtesy C. M. Caraway and Sons FIGURE 2— Prince Peter Albert, a modern Shorthorn. and only in the case of crosses with other Bovidae, such as bison and yaks, is the term hybrid used. This usage here does not argue the merits of either case. It is a semantic one, designed to avoid confusion among those most interested, and to ease the task of the author in collating the literature. This crossbreeding, then, as defined above, is done for two basic rea¬ sons. The first is to get progeny that shows more rapid development or greater yield under a given set of conditions than either parent. The second is to inject into a new line some of the better characteristics of both par¬ ents in the hope that, through future selection, a new breed will be devel¬ oped, superior to either of the parents. This will, of course, apply to both beef and dairy breeds, but for the next few pages we will confine ourselves to the former, dealing with dairy breeds in a later portion of this paper. Baker and Black (1950) say: "Observations based on the experience of cattlemen in the (Gulf Coast) region, as well as the results of scientific investigations, indicate that the so-called standard beef breeds-— Hereford, Shorthorn, and Aberdeen-Angus-— are not sufficiently adaptable to the humid environment nor do they attain satisfactory size. Purebred heat- resistant Brahman and Afrikander cattle, although well adapted to the en¬ vironment, as a rule do not have the type of beef carcass most desired by the domestic trade. Combining the natural vigor and heat-resistance of these cattle with the beef-producing qualities of the standard beef breeds has resulted in the production of many crossbred types and one new breed of great importance.” 1951, No. 2 June 30 Climate, Cattle, and Crossbreeding 257 Cattlemen have long been aware, through observation, that a cross of different breeds produces offspring which is apt to be larger, hardier, and more vigorous than the parent stock. Generally these crossbreeds mature earlier, and have excellent powers of resistance to unfavorable conditions. As "the basic principle behind beef enterprise is the desire to produce an animal under range conditions that will yield more high quality beef per acre with less cost, thus returning a bigger net profit to the producer” (Smith, 1948), the cattle industry of the Gulf Coast has been quick to utilize these facts. Operating under Cobb’s (1950) second premise; i.e., the development of a new breed, many crosses have been tried, and much effort has been devoted to the establishment of various crossbred lines, such as the Brangus, Brafcrd, Santa Gertrudis, Charbray, Beefmaster, and others, the breeders hoping to establish new breeds that will breed true and retain the desirable effects of the cross. These efforts and their beginning will now be discussed in some detail, with particular attention to the Texas Gulf Coast. BEGINNING OF THE CATTLE INDUSTRY IN TEXAS Cattle first came to Texas about 1690, brought in by the Spanish priests who founded the missions (Lewis, et al 1950). By 1731, a dozen missions had been established in East and South Texas, with cattle raising as one of their chief means of support. Ranches on large land grants followed the missions, and, by 1800, cattle in uncounted thousands roamed on either side of the Rio Grande. Probably of Andalusian ancestry, they were the founda¬ tion stock of the Texas Longhorn (Sanders, 1925). By the end of the Civil War, these Longhorns (Fig. 1) had increased enormously, and though some were slaughtered for hides, bones, and tallow, the number thus used was comparatively small. Dobie (1941) estimated that there were 6,000,000 cattle in Texas when trail driving began. Courtesy Barret Hereford Ranch FIGURE 3 — HG Proud Mixer 73, a fine type of modern Hereford. 258 The Texas Journal of Science 1951, No. 2 June 30 Trail driving brought about a revolution in the cattle industry. Three- year-old steers, previously worth only a dollar or two, were now worth $20.00 a head, heavy steers commanding somewhat better prices per pound than scrawny ones. Cattlemen, quick to note this, began to devise ways and means of developing and delivering more of this stock. Long before the war, Shorthorn (or Durham) cattle (Fig. 2) had been common in the east, and renowned as beef producers. As early as 1870, cattle of this breed had reached Louisiana. As their fame spread westward, every ranchman in Texas who heard of and could afford them, was quickly in the market for some of these fine bulls, to improve his scrubby Longhorn stock. Among the first to seize the opportunity were Captains Mifflin Kenedy and Richard King of South Texas. In the New Orleans Picayune of Janu¬ ary 3, 1874, an item stated that "an important shipment of blooded stock takes place by the steamship Mary, of the Morgan Line, to Rockport, Texas. It consists of 15 Brahma and eight Durham bulls; also two fine cows . . . The stock was . . . purchased for Captain M. Kenedy ... to cross and im¬ prove his stock on . . . the Laureles.” From the same source comes the state¬ ment that "three years ago Captain Kenedy purchased a lot of 120 head of cattle, partly Brahma and partly Durham. The above is the second importa¬ tion of bulls made by Captain Kenedy this winter" (Ashton, 1950). Captain King began herd improvement shortly after the above date by importing Shorthorns for his Santa Gertrudis Ranch. Charles Goodnight brought in still others from Colorado when he opened the Texas Panhandle to cattle breeding in 1876, although he later used Herefords, after this breed became popular. Courtesy U. S. Department of Agriculture FIGURE 4 — Modern type polled Angus cow. 1951, No. 2 June 30 Climate, Cattle, and Crossbreeding 259 FIGURE 5 — Francois, a full blood Charolais bull, eight years old from the Lawton herd at Sulphur, Louisiana. Herefords (Fig. 3) were introduced into Texas in 1876 by Captain W. S. Ikard of Archer City, after a visit to the Centennial Exposition in Philadelphia (Lewis, et ai, 195 0). After the hard winter of 18 80-8 1 had clinched their claim to being the one breed best capable of survival under range conditions, they rapidly became the favorite beef cattle in the United States, maintaining their supremacy to the present. Polled Angus (Fig. 4) were brought in by the XIT Ranch in 18 86; Polled Durhams by J. F. Green of Gregory, about 1895-96; and there were North Devons on La Parra and Santa Gertrudis Ranches about 1900. Red Polled cattle were once fairly popular as a dual-purpose breed, but their numbers have declined with specialization in beef and dairy production. Recently some minor breeds have also been attracting attention along the Gulf Coast. Among these are Devons, Red Sussex, and Charolais. CHAROLAIS The Charolais, a French breed (Fig. 5 ) , is becoming a favorite with some breeders, although as yet there are comparatively few in this country, 260 The Texas Journal of Science 1951, No. 2 June 30 FIGURE 6 — A Fine Afrikander Bull, from the Bear Creek Ranch near San Antonio. most of them being raised in the Rio Grande Valley. These are largely descendants of cattle imported into Mexico by Mr. Jean Pugibet, of Obregon. Bred mostly in the French Department of Nievre, their name stems from the fact that they are natives of Charolais, in Burgundy. Used as triple¬ purpose animals in their homeland, their general form is that of a superior beef animal, with broad back, deep, capacious body, and short legs. A coat of pure white or cream-colored hair and the reddish flesh color of skin on the muzzle and about the eyes suggest the white Shorthorn and, as a matter of fact, white Shorthorn bulls were used many years ago in improving the Charolais cattle. As beef producers they are in a class by themselves among the French breeds, producing finely marbled beef of very high quality. Sanders (1925) states that they require more care and better feeding than most cattle but, given this, they yield an excellent return. Cattle raisers along the Gulf Coast disagree with this, having found them exceptionally hardy and excellent rustlers. Harl Thomas, of Raymond- ville, says (personal communication) "The impression we have gained from our experience with the Charolais is that they are a very hearty cattle, which is contrary to Mr. Sanders’ statement.” For other material on this breed, see also Blin (1949) ; Brasse Brcssard (1943) ; Cezard and Ruelle (1949) ; C'ollares (1949/1950) ; Gonzales (1944) ; Laguiche (1943) ; Marks (1948) ; Masse (1950) ; Metenier (1947) ; Placier (1947) ; Vianna and de Miranda (1948). 1951, No. 2 June 30 Climate, Cattle, and Crossbreeding 261 AFRIKANDERS The Afrikander (Fig. 6) is relatively new to the United States, having been imported from South Africa in 1931. There has been considerable discussion about the origin of this breed. Apparently It descended from some Zebu stock, and from cattle imported by the early Dutch settlers, but it is rather unlikely that any portion of Brahman blood was disseminated widely enough from North Africa of Egyptian times, to serve as a possible foundation for the Afrikander. How¬ ever, Mr. George S. Oettle, who lived In South Africa for nearly 65 years, recently suggested to me that the Zebu cross (if there is one) had prob¬ ably been Introduced through the Portuguese colony of Lorenco Marques, to which Indian cattle were imported at a very early date. From here they were spread widely by native cattle raiding and by their use as trek-oxen, between that colony and Johannesburg, in South Africa. Whatever their genesis, Afrikanders are big, hardy animals, possessing many of the desirable Brahman characteristics, and fairly well adapted to the Gulf Coast of the United States, as well as other tropical and subtropical areas. They are resistant to drought, ticks, and other insects, as well as disease, and when crossed with some of the more popular beef breeds, have produced offspring with sufficient hardiness to cope with climatic condi¬ tions along the Gulf Coast. However, they are rather narrow of body, leggy, and somewhat fine-boned, and lack some of the good qualities of the Brahman. Further data on these cattle may be found in Basutoland ( ? 1949) ; Bonsma (1949a); Chiffe and Babel (1949) ; Fisher (1944) » Hamman (1948, 1947, 1948, 1949) ; Johnson (1947) ; King (1944) ; Netto (1947^ ; Olivier (1948) ; Opperman (1949) ; Pastoral Keview (1949) ; Willemse (1950). BRAHMANS All of these breeds, except the Afrikander, while excellent in their own areas, have not been too satisfactory along the Gulf Coast, or in simi¬ lar climates. As a result, in a search for stock that would correct inherent deficiencies of the European breeds, cattlemen early turned to Zebus, or as they are called here, Brahmans. Brahmans (Fig. 7) were apparently first introduced into the United States in 1849, by J, B. Davis, who served for many years as agricultural adviser to the Turkish government. Dr. Burch Schneider doubts very much the commonly repeated story that Davis obtained these animals in Turkey. He says (personal communication) : "Dr. Davis obtained twelve head of Angora goats from Persia. Eleven of these arrived safely in England. The Earl of Derby was greatly attracted by them. Dr. Davis offered to trade him a pair of goats for an Indian bull and cow from the zoo in London. These animals had been brought there by the British East India Company. The Early of Derby was a man of influence, and in two days notified Dr. Davis that he had arranged it.” (See also Schneider, 1949b). These then, were evidently the animals that Davis brought with him, reasoning that they would do well there, and help improve cattle of that area. Unfortunately, all traces of these were lost during the Civil War (Gresham, 1947). In 18 54, Richard Barrow, of Louisiana, trained a repre¬ sentative of the British Government in the technique of sugar farming, refusing to accept pay. In gratitude the English presented Mr. Barrow with four Brahman bulls which quickly attracted attention because of the quality 262 The Texas Journal of Science 1951. No. 2 June BO Courtesy Paleface Kancnes FIGURE 7 — Nomad, top Brahman herd sire at the Paleface Ranch. of their offspring from native cattle. These matured early; their meat was of high quality; they were good grazers, and possessed, to a high degree, immunity from pests and insects. Apparently some descendants of these cattle were contained in the Kenedy shipments of 1871 and 1874. Between the time of the first Kenedy shipments and 188 5, J. M. Frost and Albert Montgomery bought a number of grade bulls from Mr. Barrow, and in the latter year bought two bulls in Calcutta, India, shipping them to New Orleans. They used these in carrying out the work begun with the Barrow crossbreds, and obtained such excellent results that their crossbred bulls were in great demand by other ranchers for breeding stock. In 1904, Hagenbeck’s show, at the St. Louis World’s Fair, exhibited a Brahman bull, brought in directly from India. This bull, one of the best imported up to this time, was bought by A1 McFaddin of Victoria, Texas, to furnish pure-blooded stock for his herd, supplementing an earlier (1884) purchase of grade Brahmans (two cows and 20 bulls) in Louisiana. In 1906, A. P. Borden, of the Pierce Estate, and T. M. O’Connor im¬ ported a number of Brahmans from India. Dr. Burch Schneider (personal communication) says, "I have a letter from Mr. Sam T. Cutbirth, General Manager of the Pierce Ranch, Ltd., in which he states, 'With reference to 1951, No. 2 June 30 Climate, Cattle, and Crossbreeding 263 your question as to the number of females included in the Pierce Estate 1906 importation of Brahman cattle direct from India, I wish to advise that as shown by our records, 5 1 head of Brahman cattle were landed out of such importation, consisting of 46 bulls and five females. During the course of several months, while in quarantine, the U. S. Government killed 16 bulls and two females, leaving 30 bulls and three females finally shipped to the Pierce Ranch, at Pierce, Texas/’ (See also Mohler and Thompson— -1909— - 26th Ann. Rept. U. S. Bur. Anim, Ind., pp. 81-98). Apparently one bull from this shipment went to Al McFaddin. A few subsequent importations have been made from Brazil, where Brahmans became established in the 1880’s. These Indian cattle presented many advantages to the Gulf Coast cattleman. Briefly, these are: L They sweat freely, with the result that heat bothers them less than it does Eu¬ ropean breeds. 2. Brahmans, using the well-developed panniculus membrane characteristic of the breed, are able to twitch their skin readily and dislodge insects in a manner that European breeds cannot. 3. Their breeding span is longer than that of British breeds (Schreiner, 1947). 4. Although they reach sexual maturity late, Brahman bulls are apparently capable of serving more cows than bulls of other breeds, experience having shown that it takes only about 40 per cent as many to mate 100 cows as it does with European bulls. (Tabor 1948, 1948a, 1948b). 5. They will travel long distances to water; Brahmans move freely. Their walking pace is fast, and they are not inconvenienced by breaking into a jog-trot. This permits them to grase over a large area, and in times of feed shortage, when water is distant, enables them to keep in better condition than cattle of other breeds. 6. Brahman crossbred calves mature more rapidly than those from standard beef breeds, weighing more at weaning time than non Brahman calves (Black, Semple, and Lush, 1934). 7. Brahmans are very resistant to ticks. Stallworth (1948) says that probably a number of factors contribute to this. "Their short hair may restrict lodgement. Their skies secrete sebum which, with sweat, may be repellent. Their hide, although thin, is dense and difficult to puncture. This may prevent lodgement and explain the large number of dead nymph ticks that can be seen in the normal sites for lodgement. States of immunity and of resistance to disease may be difficult to differentiate in field observations; however, many instances of immunity have been shown to be genetic in origin. Ranchers in the United States estimate and value resistance to tick fevers in terms of the percentage of Zebu blood. They are so sure of their observations that descending percentages of mortality are given as the expected results, when full- blood, half, quarter, and cattle with lower fractions of Zebu are brought from tick- free to tick-infested regions.” Kelley (1943) says that in 1938, 18 Brahman and one Santa Gertrudis bull ( % Brahman) were shipped from the United States to Queensland, Australia. Until this time none of them had been in tick-infested areas, and so, as a protective meas¬ ure, they were inoculated with blood from a known tick fever carrier. Only one of them, the Santa Gertrudis, showed any marked inconvenience. Dr. Work (personal communication) says: "From personal experience with Brahman cattle throughout Central America, I am not in agreement with this state¬ ment that Brahmans are more resistant to ticks. Checking this with others who have spent many years in the American tropics and with authorities in the Zoology Di¬ vision here, I find these people to be in agreement with me on this matter of being tick resistant.” 8. The statement is frequently made that Brahmans are practically immune to pink-eye, cancer-eye, and are resistant to screw worms and anaplasmosis. Dr. Work (op. cit.) comments on this: "Under similar degrees of exposure to infection there is no experimental evidence that Brahman cattle are any more immune or resistant than any other cattle to some of these infectious diseases or to certain parasites. Cancer eye, which is associated with presence or lack of pigment, is a different matter, and I would not disagree on that point.” 264 The Texas Journal of Science 1951, No. 2 June 30 9. They are good grazers, consuming approximately the same amount of food as other cattle but, unlike European breeds, do not gorge themselves. They eat at any time during the day, as apparently the sun bothers them very little. Brahmans will be out in the field eating while the European breeds are in the shade because of heat. "However, there are some data to show that Indian cattle eat less, so have to eat more often, which is why hey are cut in the fields when other cattle are resting.” (Work, op. cit.) . 10. In general, Brahmans or Brahman crosses command a ready sale to the meat packer. The work of Black, Semple, and Lush (1934), made in cooperation with Texas A. & M. College and the King Ranch, was partially responsible for this popularity. This showed that crossbred calves from Brahman sires weighed 91 pounds more per head than ITerefords and Shorthorns, as they came from the pasture at about seven months, all things being equal except breeding. These calves sold for more per hun¬ dred pounds to the packer and paid the ranchman 28.44 per cent more money on the packers’ market. The statement frequently made by Brahman breeders and the journals devoted to that breed that there was less shrinkage from feedlot to market, and that the dressing percentage was higher in the Brahman crosses, is not too well borne out by the actual material in the bulletin. Dr. H. C. McPhee, of the U. S. Department of Agriculture, points out (personal communication) that "The Brahmans yield an average of 75.7 pounds of edible meat per 100 pounds of carcass and the Brahman x Shorthorns yield 78.1 pounds. The 2.4 pounds difference per 100 pounds of carcass was composed of 2.4 pounds more fat for the Brahman x Shorthorns; 1.1 pounds more eye muscle for the non-Brahman; and 1.1 pounds more other lean for the Brahman x Shorthorns. Two of these figures cancel out, leaving the average advantage for the Brahman blood as 2.4 pounds more fat per 100 pounds of carcass. In other words, the Brahman crossbreds carried a little more finish.” I have seen the further statement, in Journals devoted to Brahmans, that meat of the Brahman crossbreds scored highest in color, texture, palatability, intensity, and desirability of fat and aroma. This is not entirely born out by the facts. Dr. McPhee points out that the conclusions read as follows: "In color of the meat, comparisons of the samples tested were variable and inconclusive.” "Data on palatability of the cooked meat showed only slight differences.” "The texture of the meat from the Brahman crossbreds was rather consistently coarser than that from the Herefords and Shorthorns. The meat from the Brahman crossbreds was judged to be slightly less tender than that of the Herefords and Shorthorns.” "Minor differences in cooking losses through drippings and evaporation appeared to be independent of the breed of the cattle.” "Taking into consideration the various factors of palatability and varying tests of the judges, the cooked meat of part Brahman and non-Brahman steers is considered to be approximately equal in desirability.” Dr. McPhee's own conclusion is that the statement mentioned above is not justi¬ fied. For other discussion of the breed, see Ashton (195Ca) ; Ayyar (1944) ; Baughman (1946) ; Benjamin (1945); Borden (1910); Bcnadonna (1949); Briquet Junior and Abreu (1949); Carneiro (1943) ; Cavendish (1948) ; Cobb (1950a) ; Das Gupta (1945) ; Drenner (1949) ; Duckworth (1949); Duckworth and Eattray (1948); Evans (1949); Farley (1949); Fisher (1948); Fowler (1950); Freitas (1947); Jacobs (1949); Joshi (1949); Kaura (1944); Khan (1947) ; Lourgs (1944) ; Lush (1946) ; Matoso (1944) ; Menezes (1944) ; Mundhe (1944, 1945) ; Paar (1923); Patil (1945, 1945a, 1945b); Phillips (1944); Prabhu (1944); Riggs (1949); Sagstetter (1947); Schneider (1947, 1948, 1949. 1949a); Smith (1949); U. S. Coordinator Inter-America^ Affairs (1945); Veiga (1945); Ve.’ga, et al (1948, 1948a); Ware (1947); Whitcomb (1949, 1950). SANTA GERTRUDIS This breed (Fig. 8), the only one so far recognized by the United States Department of Agriculture (Baker and Black, 1950), was the result of a gift bull presented by T. M. O’Connor to the King Ranch. This bull was sired by a Brahman bull out of a registered Shorthorn cow. "He, along with many Shorthorn bulls, was turned into a pasture where there were 3,000 unregistered, but purebred, Shorthorn cows” (Scudder, 1948). 1951, No. 2 June 30 Climate, Cattle, and Crossbreeding 26 5 FIGURE S — Coton, Santa Gertrudis King Ranch herd sire. The years 1910 to 1918 marked the exploratory period in the develop¬ ment of this breed, during which progeny of the O’Connor bull were com¬ pared with purebred European cattle under the same conditions. Because the crossbreds were superior, in 1918 the breeding program was extended to include all purebred Shorthorns on the ranch. Selection for beef type and red color was initiated among the Brahman-Shorthorn crosses with the object of developing a new breed (Kleberg, n.d., 1931, Rhoad, 1949). Using this foundation stock, after 17 years of effort and breeding skill, the ranch developed a new breed of cattle, one with fixed qualities that bred true (Ashton, 1936), although it was not until years later that the Department of Agriculture recognized it. The real beginning of the Santa Gertrudis was the great bull "Monkey” whose prepotence served to stamp the characteristics of the breed on his offspring. Dr. McPhee says (personal communication) that this calf was branded in the fall of 1920 and "was essentially a first cross of Brahman and Shorthorn, both parents being somewhat impure as to breed. The sire was "Vinotero” one of the 52 Borden Brahman bulls purchased by the King Ranch in 1918 for an intensive effort to develop a new breed. This bull was of the Guzerat type but showed considerable Nellore, Krishna Valley, and Sind characteristics. The dam of "Monkey” was a grade Short¬ horn cow possessing considerable milk production and containing about one- sixteenth Brahman blood which came down from the original O’Connor bull through his son, 'Chemerra’.” By using Monkey’s sons and grandsons on first cross heifers, and again on the double cross resulting from mating first cross bulls on first cross heifers, and finally adopting in-and-in line breeding methods, the Santa Gertrudis breed has been evolved (Smith, 1948). 266 The Texas Journal of Science 1951, No. 2 June 30 Their blood contains approximately three-eighths Brahman and five- eighths Shorthorn. Big, generally cherry-red, horned, with large, slightly drooping ears, Santa Gertrudis cattle have retained a portion of the pen¬ dulous Brahman dewlap and abdominal skin, although the hump has dis¬ appeared. They breed true to type, are resistant to heat and insects, have good beef conformation, are good rustlers, produce plenty of milk, and will average from one to two hundred pounds more than British breeds under identical range conditions. Calves usually weigh more than five hundred pounds at eight months, and four-year-old steers, when finished for market off grass, will weigh around 1,400 pounds. One breeder, Mrs. Worth Wright, of Kingsville, has recently developed a polled strain of this breed. The breed has found widespread acceptance. Dr. John Ashton says (personal communication): "I am proud to state that in 1941, upon being named Cultural Attache to Nicaragua . . . ., I introduced ten young bulls of the Santa Gertrudis breed, in cooperation with the Minister of Agricul¬ ture and the government of that country. I was present when they arrived, and I must say they created quite a sensation! They actually weighed about the same as their three-year-olds, although their ages ranged from 11 to 13 months only. Their color, too, impressed the ranchmen of that country most favorably: they had never seen before animals of that cherry-red color, and they seemed to like it immeasurably.” For further material see Gonzales (1947) ; Johnson (1947) ; Rhoad (1944b, 1950) ; Teige (1950) ; Work and Smith (1946). CROSSES OTHER THAN SANTA GERTRUDIS While the Santa Gertrudis has been the only valid new breed developed in the Gulf Coast region, or for that matter in North America, cattlemen of the area have tried almost every cross possible among beef breeds, with very little success until the Brahman appeared in the picture. "Since that time practically all crossing on any large scale has included the blood of the Brahman to some degree” (Smith, 1948). RED SUSSEX-BRAHMAN CROSS One of the most recent and interesting importations of cattle was made by Lawrence Wood of Refugio. About January, 1950, he received one bull and ten heifers of Red Sussex cattle (Fig. 9) from England, and in January, 1951, made another importation, following the lead of his father, who has a number of these cattle on his ranch at Bandera. This breed has been long and favorably known in England, where it is found in Sussex, Kent, Surrey, and Hampshire, being descended from the same parent stock as Devonshire cattle which (about 1900) were bred on the Santa Gertrudis and La Parra Ranches (Ashton, 1950). The Sussex— large, heavy-boned, and dark-red in color— is valued in its native country as a good grazer and beef producer. Originally imported to the United States in 18 84, by Overton Lea, of Nashville, Tennessee, some Sussex cattle found their way into the south and southwest, but never attained any general distribution in this country. They have, however, been bred in Maine and Canada. When Lea showed his cattle at the Chicago Fat Stock show in the eighties, they took many prizes, and their showing of finely marbled beef on the block attracted much attention (Sanders, 1925). 1951, No. 2 June 30 Climate, Cattle, and Crossbreeding 267 FIGURE 9— Red Sussex Cows and Calves from the herd of Lawrence Wood, Refugio, Texas. Part of the Lea herd came to Texas in 1892, when Mr. Wood's grand¬ father purchased foundation stock for his herd at Refugio. These Sussex cattle were used for crossing with native cattle, and, although the herd was later broken up and sold, Mr. Wood said (personal communication) that it was possible to see the Sussex imprint on cattle of the area for many years after the herd dispersed. The O’Connor herd also included a number of Sussex about this time. A few years ago, Mr. Wood’s father, remembering these early cattle, purchased breeding stock for his Bandera ranch, and later, upon his father s insistence, and impressed by the cattle themselves, Mr. Wood made the importations mentioned. One bull in the second importation went to John J. O’Brien, of Refugio, and another to Raymond Harrison, of Wharton. The record of this breed in South Africa, under conditions approxi¬ mating those of the Texas coastal prairies, has been very impressive. In that country, where cattle of all breeds compete for the title of best animal in the show, the Sussex has won repeatedly against all comers. For instance, in the 1939 Rand show, which is one of the great stock shows of the world, Sussex won the interbreed beef classes over all other breeds, placing first in the following classes; 1. Four the get of one sire. 2. Dam and two of her progeny. 3. Three generations group in direct line. 4. Five bulls from one herd. Purebred Sussex grades and crosses have won championships at all the leading South African shows including Johannesburg, The Royal, Pieter¬ maritzburg, Bloemfontein, Pretoria, Durban, and Kimberley. 268 The Texas Journal of Science 1951, No. 2 June 30 Courtesy U. >3. Department of Agriculture FIGURE 10 — Half-Bred Brahman X Angus herd bull #51 from experimental herd at Jeanerette, Louisiana. Sussex in South Africa have generally been crossed with the Afrikander, and "it is admitted that the wide divergence in type between the (to that country — Ed.) indigenous Afrikander and the original English red cattle gives the fullest play to hybrid vigor, a highly important factor in creating early maturity, increased growth, vigor, and a substantial bonus in weight of beef” (Orford, 1950). Sussex are also used in Australia (Lloyd, 1946). Mr. Wood has bred his Sussex bull to a number of grade Brahmans, and at present has several beautiful little cherry-red calves from this cross, as well as others from his purebred Sussex heifers. A number of purebred Brahman heifers, also bred to this bull, have not yet calved. It will be most interesting to see whether these crossbreeds do as well here as the Afrikander-Sussex cross has done in South Africa, and whether they present any advantages over crosses with standard beef breeds. the brahman-angus cross OR BRANGUS For years the Paleface Ranch, of San Antonio, has been crossing English breeds of beef cattle with Brahmans, and in a recent letter M. B. Levi says, "We have discontinued the Hereford and Shorthorn crosses, having found in our own pasture the Angus cross was superior.” This decision was based upon body conformation, distribution of flesh, amount of finish, dressing 1951, No. 2 June 30 Climate, Cattle, and Crossbreeding 269 percentage, and ability to finish fast on the least amount of feed or pasture consumed. Before Hereford and Shorthorn crosses were discontinued, they found that uniformity of color ran about 80 per cent for the Brahman- Angus cross (Fig. 10) against 40 per cent for the Brahman-Hereford, and 30 per cent for the Brahman-Shorthorn, Results of experiments carried on with this cross at the Iberia Live¬ stock Experimental Farm (Rhoad and Black, 1943; Black. 1947; Baker, 1949) are most enlightening. Comparisons of weights between northern bred cattle and cattle bred on this farm show a difference of 206 pounds for poor European cattle. Me¬ dium and fat cattle were considerably, less, but, even so, good cattle of north¬ ern breeds showed as much as 272 pounds less weight. At the present market, this amounts to an extraordinary loss in profit through southern breeding of purebred and very high grade European cattle. Under identical conditions, steer calves of first and second generation Brahman- Angus half- breeds, and first generation Afrikander- Angus halfbreeds reached a weaning weight of 450 pounds in the shortest time when compared to three-eighths- breds, quarter-breds, and purebred Angus. The same results held when steers were fed out to a weight of 750 pounds after weaning, although differences in efficiency of gain between groups during the feedlot period were not sta- Courtesy Francis I. Savage FIGURE 1 1— King, a Braford herd bull on the Savage Ranch at Bay City. Al¬ though some of his offspring were light to brindle in color, their beefiness, heavy bone and good conformation more than offset this. 270 The Texas Journal of Science 1951, No. 2 June 30 tistically significant. Although beef conformation of the halfbreeds was not as good as that of the purebreds, they excelled in carcass yield. Purebred Angus required 560 days from birth to reach slaughter weights, or approximately 92 to 100 days longer than halfbreeds, 65 days longer that quarter-breds, and 47 days longer than three-eighths bred steers, the quarter and three- eighths denoting the amount of Brahman blood in the various crosses. The halfbreed calves, with Brahman blood on the sire’s side, showed a daily gain for a period of 298 days of slightly more than one and one-half pounds for bull calves and about one and five-eighths pounds per day for heifer calves. Calves with Brahman blood on the dam’s side showed a considerably larger gain for 228 days. Bull calves averaged 1.97 pounds per day, heifer calves 1.84 pounds. The tests further revealed that the Brahmans topped all other cattle in the percentage of time used for grazing, resting in the shade less than three per cent of the time (Tabor, 1948, 1948a). Experiments at Essar Ranch (Keesee and Richardson, 1949) have shown that cattle of the present three-eighths— five-eighths strain possess the following characteristics: they are hardy, practically immune to infec¬ tions, and suffer very little from foot rot, lump jaw, pneumonia, and other cattle diseases."' The rumen (paunch for roughage) is smaller than in the English breeds, but they feed often, possessing Brahman ability to graze dur¬ ing the heat of the day, because of lower body temperature, and their feed¬ ing is little affected by the heat of subtropical summers. These small rumens are advantageous, making for a higher dressing percentage. THE BRAHMAN-HEREFORD CROSS OR BRAFORD Francis I. Savage (1950), of Bay City, Texas, reports that on his ranch Brahman-Hereford crosses (Fig. 11) have been bred up to the fifth generation, with noticeable improvements; namely, higher dressing percentage, more uniform color, and a greater demand by the stocker buyers, as well as the packers, for this type of cattle. He states that, by introducing new Brahman and Hereford blood from time to time, they are able to breed Braford sires to Braford dams without inbreeding. However, they have had little success with line breeding. McGill Brothers, in the Alice-Falfurrias area, are also leading breeders of Brafords. They found that, in large pastures with no supplemental feed, Braford cattle are better adapted to this climate than are Herefords. Ear ticks and screw worms have become a minor factor, and the Brafords are much more resistant to diseases, especially hemorraghic septacemia. The crosses are apparently better rustlers and, being resistant to insects, will graze when the purebreds are in the shade fighting flies. As a result, at weaning, crosses will outweigh the Herefords from 100 to 200 pounds (Smith, 1948). Rhoad and Black (1943) say that when only purebred Herford bulls were used on either native or grade Hereford foundation cows, best results were gained by first grading up the foundation herds with these bulls, then crossing first-generation heifer offspring with Brahman bulls, and finally * Dr. Work (op. cit.) says: “This matter of immunity to infections has been checked with outstanding research veterinarians and they agree that it would be preferable to make a less positive statement in this respect.” 1951, No. 2 June 39 Climate, Cattle, and Crossbreeding 271 back-crossing the hybrid offspring with purebred Herefords. The resulting animals were five-eighths Hereford, one-fourth Brahman, one-eighth foun¬ dation stock. Second best results were obtained by back crossing first generation grade Hereford heifers with purebred Hereford bulls, and then crossing the second generation heifers with Brahman bulls, producing finally animals one-half Brahman, three-eighths Hereford, one-eighth foundation stock. Brahman-Hereford crosses have shown consistent advantages in weight for age over grade Herefords at the East Texas Pasture Station at Lufkin (Knapp, et al, 1948, 1949, 1950; Knapp, 1950). Calves mothered by half- blood Brahman-Hereford cows have had an advantage over calves mothered by Hereford cows and sired by a half-blood Brahman-Hereford bull. Similar advantages in weight for crossbreds were obtained at the Sonora Ranch Experiment Station in a crossbreeding program with Brahman and Hereford cattle between 1920 and 1929. In the course of this work the Sonora station bred and "fattened out” five different calf crops consisting of both grade Hereford and Brahman-Hereford crosses. Table I, prepared by Riggs (1950), will serve as a basis of comparison between these two stations and the Iberia Livestock Experimental Farm at jeanerette, Louisiana, where some work was also done with the Brahman- Hereford cross. However, the number of animals dealt with in these tables is small, and considerably more data are needed before final conclusions can be drawn (Work, op. cit.). FIGURE 12—-This Charbray bull from the herd of Howell Jones weighed 2370 pounds at 27 months. At three years, he weighed 2735 pounds. 272 The Texas Journal of Science 1951, No. 2 June 30 TABLE I — WEANING WEIGHTS OF CALVES FROM COWS OF DIFFERENT BREEDING IN TEXAS AND LOUISIANA. SYSTEM OF MATING TEXAS LOUISIANA No. of Weaning No. of Weaning Calves Wgt. lbs. Calves Wgt. lbs. Hereford bull on r/2 Brahman cows — Lufkin . . . . . . . 21 464.6 59 496.4 Sonora . . . . . 105 448.9 Hereford bull on 34 Brahman cows Lufkin . . . . . . 14 447.2 28 459.3 Brahman bull on high grade or purebred Hereford cows Lufkin . . . . . . . 30 411.2 Sonora . . . . 205 383.3 8 362.5 Hereford bull on high grade Hereford cows Lufkin . . . . . . . 20 330.0 Sonora . Half-blood Brahman x . . . 134 372.9 Hereford bull on high grade Hereford cows Lufkin . . . . . . . . . 33 344.7 Table II, also prepared by Riggs, compares the Lufkin and Sonora work. TABLE II — WEIGHTS OF CATTLE OF DIFFERENT BREEDING FROM 7 TO 30 MONTHS OF AGE AT LUFKIN AND SONORA, TEXAS. Year No. of Weight in lbs at different ages, mos. Calves 7 12 18 24 30 LUFKIN Calves out of Hereford dams by Heieford sire: 1944 . . 14 350 436 526 542 831 1945 . . 6 286 320 496 525 720 Calves out of Hereford dams by V2 Brahman x V2 Hereford sire: 1944 .7 379 451 703 628 896 1945 .5 318 391 557 610 755 Calves out of 34 Brahman x 34 Hereford dams by Hereford sire: 1944 .8 413 518 737 762 970 1945 1 400 500 680 640 930 SONORA, 1921-29 Calves out of Hereford dams by Hereford sires: 134 373 398 610 583 794 Calves out of Hereford dams by Brahman sires : 205 383 425 653 623 841 Calves out of 34 Hereford x 34 Brahman dams by Hereford sires : 105 449 470 680 608 920 Tabor (1948b) and Cipollini (1949) have discussed these results extensively, and Bray (1933) reported marked advantages in weight of Brahman crosses over grade calves of British breeds. There is also some evidence to show that, by use of Brahman bulls, Hereford heifers can be bred at a year old, with much less mortality than when Hereford males are used (Albaugh and Asmus, 1948) 1951, No. 2 June 30 Climate, Cattle, and Crossbreeding 273 THE BRAHM AN -CHAROLAIS CROSS OR CHARBRAY The production of Charbrays (Figs. 12, 13) is rapidly increasing in popularity. Lawton (1950), of Sulphur, Louisiana, reports that his three- eighths Brahman— -five-eighths Charolais cross is producing an even larger animal than he has been getting from his half breeds. Jones (1950) reports that, while calves are usually very small at birth, they grow rapidly, putting on 100 pounds a month on good grass. The Charbray cross shows up as a nice well-rounded animal, very long, with exceptionally heavy forequarters, and a very deep body. In those of the best type the heart girth is tremendous. Breeders state that rapid growth of the Charolais and ruggedness of the Brahman combine to produce a beef-type animal that is a good grazer, a fast breeder, and one that is easy to handle. Grown cows weigh from 1700- 2200 pounds; grown bulls from 2 500-3200 oounds. One bull calf, given special attention, weighed over 1200 pounds at one year of age, and a 3 -months-old calf weighed 346 pounds. Other examples are a 4-year-old bull that weighed 2765 pounds and a 3 -year-old cow that weighed 1410 pounds (Smith, 1948). Courtesy Harl Thomas FIGURE 13 — Three-fourths Charolais — one-fourth Brahman calf from the Thomas herd weighed 740 pounds at six months, ten days. 274 T he Texas Journal of Science 1951, No. 2 June 30 Those breeders using this cross are very enthusiastic about it, and there is apparently a big demand for the animals, both in this country and elsewhere. It is interesting to note (Pagot, 1950) that large-scale utilization of Charolais for crossbreeding is being made near Segou, in French Sudan, and in French Morocco. They are crossed with Zebu stock and the half-breed and three-quarter-bred animals resulting from this are said to be excellent. In Argentina they are crossed with both Brahman and European breeds, giving superior beef cattle, and in Brazil they have also been used with the native Caracu breeds, such as the Curraleira, the Gurapeva, and the Mocho. Charolais are used for crossbreeding in Colombia, Chile and Venezuela in South America, Italy in Europe, and on the islands of Martinique, Cuba, and Mauritius. For further material see Doutressoulle (1942) ; Gerald (1948) ; LeRoy (1948) ; McCarthy Barry (1946) ; Ramsey (1947) ; Vianna and De Miranda (1948). THE BRAHMAN-SHORTHORN-HEREFORD CROSS LASATER’s BEEFMASTERS Nature, by survival of the fittest, produced, in the aurochs and other wild oxen, cattle that could live and do well under existing conditions. They were hardy, good rustlers, good breeders, fleet of foot, powerful, and aggressive, because they had to be to survive. The ones that did not measure up were culled, rapidly and effectively, by the predators of the time, and by the rigorous conditions under which they existed. Briefly, a similar process of selection is the basis of the Lasater herd of "Beefmasters” (Fig. 14). However, instead of breeding for survival characteristics necessary to primitive cattle, the Lasaters have stressed gentleness, fertility, weight, conformation, thriftiness, and milk production, with the ultimate aim of developing an animal that will produce the maxi¬ mum amount of beef with a minimum amount of cost, under range conditions. Any animal not measuring up to these conditions is culled, and because this culling is done very early, the progress of the herd in attaining these attributes has been quite rapid. The "Beef master’’ program was begun in 1908, with special emphasis being placed on development of a strain of cattle that would produce a choice, quick-maturing, heavy calf at eight months of age, under range conditions, with no supplemental feeding. Progeny testing methods are being used to determine the superiority of animals, and all characteristics deemed non-essential have been disregarded. As these cattle are bred under range conditions, no exact pedigrees are kept. However, the herd averages a little under one-half Brahman blood, the remainder being divided about equally between Hereford and Shorthorn. Color is disregarded, but, as the herd has grown, each year a higher per¬ centage of calves has been red, an outcome that might perhaps be expected, as apparently red or dark brown were prevailing colors in primitive cattle. Tom Lasater says (personal communication) that, under South Texas range conditions, Beefmasters will outweigh the English breeds by 30 per cent at any age, when raised without supplemental feeding. They are good milk producers, have a high resistance to disease and insect pests, and are good rustlers, capable of walking long distances to water. 1951, No. 2 June 30 Climate, Cattle, and Crossbreeding 275 Photo courtesy Lasater Ranch FIGURE 14— -Don Rubio, a Lasater Beefmaster at the age of six months, 24 days, weighed 592 pounds. This calf was range raised, without creep feeding. These cattle are apparently very hardy, adjusting easily to various climatic conditions. In 1947, a demonstration herd was placed in Mason County, Texas, a area having a higher rainfall as well as being somewhat cooler than the home ranch. The elevation is approximately 15 00 feet. These cattle continued to produce heavy, high quality calves with no supplemental feeding. Forty-four calves from this herd averaged 616 pounds at an average age of eight months (Allred, 1950). In 1948, another demonstration herd was sent to Chanute, Kansas. These animals weathered 23° below zero in open lots, with no shelter and no ill effects. June 1, 1949 about 300 head of Beefmaster breeding stock, consisting mostly of yearling heifers and yearling bulls, was moved from Falfurrias to the Lasater Ranch at Matheson, Colorado. The following spring the calf crop began dropping about the 20th of March, and by May 15th an 80 per cent calf crop was on the ground. After 22 months the total death loss in this Matheson herd, includ¬ ing all cattle yearlings and older, was less than 0.2 5 per cent. In tests, conducted recently by Texas A & M and the United States Department of Agriculture at Balmorhea, Texas, "a group of six Beef- masters made an average daily gain of 2.5 pounds during the 143 days of the tests. One calf, Don Madero, weighed in at 678 pounds at an approxi- 276 The Texas Journal of Science 1951, No. 2 June 30 mate age of ten months. One hundred and forty-three days later he weighed 1,112 pounds, having made an average daily gain of 3.03 pounds. The two highest gaining groups in the test both represented new breeds carrying Brahman blood — -the Beef masters and Santa Gertrudis” (Brugman, 1950). See also Scruggs (1948). the brahman-shorthorn cross OR BRAHORN Only eight or ten Texas cattlemen are at present doing any appreciable amount of Brahman-Shorthorn crossing. According to J. P. Impson, of Beeville, calves of the first cross are more vigorous, grow faster, and are heavier at any age than European breeds. Experimental data on this cross are given in Black, Semple, and Lush (1934), and articles on these cattle have appeared from time to time in various journals. Among others, the A. P. George Ranch breeds this cross (Morris, 1945). THE BRAHMAN-BROWN SWISS CROSS OR BRA-SWISS At least two breeders in Texas, E. W. Brown, Jr., of Orange, and George W. Lyles, of San Antonio, have been experimenting with this cross (Fig. 25). It has, however, been difficult to develop any information on these cattle as a beef breed, or the reason for crossing. Howe (personal communication) says that, in Jamaica, Brahman-Brown Swiss crosses were used exclusively for dairy cattle, which, however, did not come up to Ayr¬ shire and Jersey crosses for this purpose. He does not feel that they compare well with either Devon or Angus as foundation stock for beef cattle. Dennis O’Connor (personal communication) suggested that the pur¬ pose of such. a cross here might be to make unwanted calves from dairy cows more saleable as beef. Mr. Lyles recently (February 11, 1951) was quoted in a newspaper interview to the effect that Brown Swiss (Fig. 15) in this area are a dual- purpose breed, producing both beef and milk. He made no statement as to the effects of crossbreeding. Brown Swiss are fairly large. Mature cows of the heavy type run from 1200 to 1300 pounds; bulls weigh from 1700 to 1900 pounds. BRAHMAN-RED POLLED CROSS See Australia (1946) ; Kelley (1949) ; Patton (1949) and Figure 16. OTHER AMERICAN CROSSES We have already noted the crossbreeding of range cattle and the gradual up-building of herds by use of European purebreds, but we have so far paid little attention to crosses other than these and the Brahman. However, as early as 188 5, Burras McGhee, of West Feliciana Parish, Louisiana, crossed the Devon and Red Shorthorn to produce what was known as the "McGhee Cattle.” These cherry-red cattle showed remarkable ability to adapt themselves to local conditions. They were good milkers. 1951, No. 2 June 30 Climate, Cattle, and Crossbreeding 277 Courtesy G. D. Sluss FIGURE 15 — This Brown Swiss bull, bred and owned by G. D. Sluss of Eldorado, Kansas, was grand champion nine times at State shows. He weighed 2719 pounds at the time this picture was taken. Still found in considerable numbers in Florida and Mississippi, Cobb (1950) says they are excellent foundation stock on which to build improved herds. At present their characteristics are more Devon than Shorthorn. Doubtless there were other sporadic occurrences of such crossing of two pure breeds of European cattle, but apparently the first organized experimental work of this type, aimed at producing better beef cattle for the Great Plains area, was that done by the Bureau of Animal Industry, cooperating with the Montana Agricultural Experiment Station. From 193 8 through 1947, extensive experiments were made to determine the possibili¬ ties of maintaining hybrid vigor through continual crossing of Hereford, Shorthorn, and Aberdeen Angus. The first cross was between Shorthorn bulls and Hereford cows. The first generation females were then bred to pure Aberdeen Angus bulls to produce the second generation. These second generation females were then bred to purebred Hereford bulls. Data thus accumulated indicate that average performance of all three generations of crossbreeds was better in nearly every characteristic than average performance of purebreds under the same conditions. Progeny of individual sires among both purebreds and crossbreds showed considerable variation in rate of gain and selling price per hundredweight. The authors conclude that crossbreeding can be carried on with most profit where the rancher is able to crossbreed systematically, and where he feeds his own steers for market or sells them direct to the feeder (Phillips, 1947; Knapp, B., et al, 1949). (No new breed was envisaged in this pro¬ gram. It was merely a study of whether or not a continuous three-breed-cross was a desirable way of producing cattle in the area (Work, op. cit.). 278 The Texas Journal of Science 1951, No. 2 June 30 FIGURE 16 — Pusolda, a Sahiwal-Red Poll cow bred at the Hope Experimental Farm in Jamaica. She weighed 1054 pounds at five years old. After Hammond. CROSSBREEDING OUTSIDE THE UNITED STATES The success of the Brahman crossbreeds in the United States has attracted considerable attention in other cattle raising countries of the world, and it might be interesting to glance over this field very briefly. AFRICA We have already noted the use of Red Sussex in South Africa (Orford, 1950). Glanfield (1950) notes their use in Southern Rhodesia as foundation stock for crossing with indigenous breeds, particularly Afrikanders. Similar experimentation is going on in French West Africa (Pagot, 1943, 1950). The Livestock Service of the French Overseas Territories Projects is establishing more experimental farms throughout the territory. One of these is to be the Intercolonial Institute of Animal Genetics. Here studies will be conducted on control of sleeping sickness in cattle and on possibilities of cross breeding the best breeds of French cattle, such as Normandy, Charolais, Montebeliarde, Tarentais, and Swiss, with native Zebu or Brahman stock. These are the Sudanese, Bororodji, and Arabian Zebus, or (as we call them) Brahmans. The Montebeliarde, a French breed, has been used in the Cameroons with good results, as have Normandy and Swiss cattle in Madagascar. Nor- mandys have also been used in Colombia. Other African areas using Brahman blood are Kenya, and the Gold Coast. Oddly enough, in at least one instance, these African Brahmans have come, not from India, or from native African stock, but from America- In 1949, the Norris Cattle Company, of Ocala, Florida, shipped two bulls and four heifers to Mauritius, off the eastern coast of Madagascar. The significant thing about this is that it was 10,00.0 miles from Ocala to Mauritius, and only 2,000 miles from India, the original home of the breed. 1951, No, 2 June 30 Climate, Cattle, and Crossbreeding 279 Those further interested in the area should consult various papers under the Afrikander and French West African sections, as well as the following: Adam (1915) ; Aillerie (1926) ; Aldige (1912); Anderson (? 1948); Bettini (1940, 1941, 1943, 1944); Bisschop (1938, 1949); Bonsma (1940, 1949) ; Bonsma, et al (1940, 1943) ; Cameron (1945) ; Christopher (1949) ; Couture (1948) ; Denjean (1950) ; Dietierle (1946) ; Doutressoule (1942, 1947, 1948, 1948a) ; Doutressoule, et al (1949, 1949a) ; Drahon (1949) ; Ducloux (1930) ; Faulkner (1947, 1949*) ; French (1939, 1940) ; Gillain (1947) ; Girard (1947, 1949) ; Gold Coast (1949) ; Goor (1948) ; Gray (1950) ; Grimpet (1948) ; Guillermo (1949) ; Gutierrez de Miguel (1948) ; Gutteras (1948) ; Kendall (1948) ; Kenya (1946) ; Kone (1946) ; Kwashne and Levy (1944) ; Laizet (1948, 1949) ; Larrat, et al (1948) ; Magneville (1946) ; Malbrant, et al (1947) ; Mandon (1948) ; Mauritius (1946) ; Miller (1947) ; Nigeria (1946) ; Northern Rhodesia (1947) ; Myasa- land, n.d. ; Pierre (1906) ; Prigent, et al (1942) ; Prunier (1946) ; S. — (1949) ; St, Croix (1944) ; Seychelles (1941/45) ; Staniforth (1948) ; Stewart (1949) ; Swaziland (1949) ; Tan¬ ganyika Territory (1941, 1943/45) ; Tobback (1944) ; Uganda Protectorate (1940/45) ; Union of South Africa (1947, 1947a) ; Yasseur and Belle (1950) ; Wilson (1946). AUSTRALIA Australian crossbreeding with Brahmans began in 193 3 (Atkinson, 1949), with the importation of 19 animals. In the next 14 years these multiplied and produced more than 15,000 crossbred cattle. In the begin¬ ning, the great proportion of this expansion was in tick-infested territory, but the success of these cattle has been so outstanding that they are now spreading to other areas. Australian cattlemen are so well pleased with the cross that they have recently imported new Brahman blood from various sources. The Australian Council of Scientific and Industrial Research reports (Kelley, 1943, and various Progress Reports) that Brahmans have been crossed with Herefords, Polled Herefords, Shorthorns, and Polled Short¬ horns (Kelley, 1938, 1948, 1949; O’Loghlen, 1948). One breeder is attempting the establishment of a new breed, using a red Brahman bull imported from Florida, crossed on Polled Shorthorn heifers (Elliot, 1950; Atkinson, 1950). Dr. Work (personal communication) has called my attention to the fact that, not all Australians are enthusiastic about Brahmans. He quotes an article in the Pastoral Review, November, 1949, page 1064, which states positively . . . "that it has not yet been proved that Zebu or Zebu cross cattle are more suited to Australian tropical conditions than other breeds/’ Furthermore, he says, "the Australian Poll Hereford Society makes the state¬ ment that British breeds do better in the tropics than the Zebus.” If this latter statement by the Australian breeders is correct, Australia is perhaps the only place it would hold true, experience of cattlemen in other tropical countries being almost diametrically opposed to that of these Austral¬ ians. See also. Annual Reports of the Australian Council for Scientific and Industrial Re¬ search ; Griffiths (1945); Kelley (1932a); Lynch (1946, 1946a). BRAZIL Brazil is the home of many fine Zebu cattle, and here Indian strains are preserved with much more purity than in the United States. The four chief races are the Gyr or Gir; the Nellore; the Guzerat, Gujerat or Guj erat-Kankre j (Shah, 1947); and the Indubrazil. While there are many purebred herds of the various races, these herds also furnish breeding bulls for such ranches and Marajo (Stegemann, 1949), where they are crossed with local cattle introduced into Brazil many centuries ago from the Portuguese colonies. For other data on this area see numerous references under the Brahman section and the following: Chieffi (1946); Domingues and Abreu (1949): Helman (1946, 1950) ; Menezes (1946) ; Neto (1945) ; Oliveira (1945) ; Veiga (1945) ; Veiga, et al (1946) ; Villares (1943, 1945, 1945a, 1946, 1946a). 280 The Texas Journal of Science 1951, No, 2 June 30 PERU Brahman crosses are also valuable in Peru (Brooks, 1947), At Tingo Maria, 9° south of the equator, the few farmers who tried to raise native cattle without introducing Zebu blood have failed. At the Cooperative Agricultural Experiment Station, out of 79 head of cattle lost over a period of time, only 11, or 13 per cent, carried Brahman blood; the remain¬ der were pure Bos taurus. A beef cattle program, based on crosses of Brah¬ man, Hereford, and native cattle, clearly demonstrated that European purebreds were unable to withstand the climate. Brahman crosses were much superior in every respect. For other material on this area see Brooks (1949) ; Cortez (1943) ; Institute of Inter- American Affairs (1947) ; O’Brien (1944). ARGENTINA For data on the huge cattle industry of Argentina, including Brahmans and Brahman crosses, see Finch (1946; 1948, 1949, 1950) ; Helman 11948) ; Keith (1948) ; Labarthe (1946) ; Lerena (1948). VENEZUELA See Caravajal Madrid 11946); Duque Herrera (1947); Ferrer Domingo (1946, 1947); Moya (1946) ; Rivas Larralde (1944) ; Vasquez (1947). OTHER SOUTH AMERICAN COUNTRIES Zebu blood is also used in Uruguay, Paraguay, Colombia (where there is considerable cattle raising), Bolivia, British Guiana, and Ecuador. For further material see Bernal (19461 ; British Guiana (1949) ; Ecuador Estacion Expt. (1950) ; Espinosa Lillo (1946) ; Garbrecht (1945) ; Katz (1944) ; Moraes Filho (1945) ; Maria Stella Estacion Sosa (1949) ; Mercer (1948) ; Moore (1945) ; Ortega (1947) ; Reyes (1947) ; Santiago Mejia (1945) ; Sarasati Aparicio (1946) : Stewart (1944) ; Terrazas (1948). CENTRAL AMERICA AND THE WEST INDIES Brahmans and Brahman crosses are found in Mexico, Guatemala, Panama, Cuba, and Puerto Rico. Hereford bulls from the Straus Medina Ranch, of Texas, were purchased by the Puerto Rico Agricultural Develop¬ ment Company for crossing with scrub Brahman cows, native to the country, hoping to increase the dressing percentage of the local cattle by at least 10 per cent. Cattle are also raised in Jamaica, El Salvador, Guadeloupe, and the Dominican Republic, as well as other countries and islands throughout the area. In all, or nearly all of these, crossbreeding of one sort or another has taken place. For further data, see Anonymous (1947) ; Arrilaga (1947) ; Avella (1946) ; Buffon (1944) ; Caribbean Commission (1946) ; Celis Arena] (1946) ; Cestero (1945) ; Choussy (1944) ; Cortes (1945, 1947) ; Davis (1947) ; Dominica (1941-1946) ; Gaztambide Arrillaga (1948) ; Grana (1949) ; Hernandez (1950) ; Jamaica (1949) ; Leeward Islands (1949) ; Miller (1945) ; Miller (1946) ; Navarro (1945) ; Peraza (1945) ; Pico (1946) ; Prieto (1950) ; Quate (1947) ; Ruiz Diaz (1950); St. Lucia (1944); St. Vincent (1945); Simmons Quiroz (1946); Trinidad and Tobago (1945/46) ; Ussery (1947) ; Vera Perez (1946) ; Zamora (1946). ISLANDS OF THE PACIFIC AND THE EAST INDIES Brahmans for crossbreeding have recently been shipped to Guam, Ponape, Palau, Yap, and Saipan, in an effort to make natives of those islands self-supporting by establishing a cattle breed suited to the climate. This problem is one that is also confronting the British Government in the Fijis. There are Brahmans in Hawaii, the Philippines, New Guinea, Java, Ceylon, Cambodia, Malaya, Tonkin, and Celebes. 1951, No. 2 June 30 Climate, Cattle, and Crossbreeding 281 For these countries see Baradat (1949) ; Besnault (1949) ; Fisher (1945) ; Gantt (1944J ; Habaragoda (1944) ; Herweijer (1950) ; Hoekstra (1950) ; Jauffret and Autret (1948) ; Mac- Menamin (1944) ; Marsh and Dawson (1947) : Shephard (1944, 1945) ; Turbet (1949) ; Ver (1950) ; Villegas (1948) ; Wright (1946). DAIRY CROSSES Just as cattlemen have tried the effect of crossbreeding to develop better beef cattle for the Gulf Coast and for other tropical and subtropical areas, so have dairymen been trying the effect of various crosses, hoping to develop a dairy animal capable or large milk production, yet possessing resistance to those tropical conditions which inhibit productivity of northern breeds. INDIA Improved dairy types of cattle adaptable to tropical and subtropical climatic conditions are being developed in India with pure Brahman (Zebu) stock. Ogilvie (1947), writing of Sahiwal and Tharparkar dairy cattle of India, says that line breeding, selection ,and herd management results with these cattle clearly indicate that both breeds might be valuable in the southern United States, as they resist high diurnal temperatures and extreme temperature variations, while giving greater milk production than other Indian breeds. The Sahiwal shows conformation tending towards a dual- purpose cow, a type which has been experimented with at Nagpur (Patil, 1946/47). Brahman milking quality is highly variable. "The annual average pro¬ duction in India is about 600 pounds of milk per cow. Certain cows of the Sahiwal breed have given as much as 11,000 pounds annually with excep¬ tionally good feed, care, and management .... "The percentage of butterfat in Brahman milk is above the average for Western breeds. It compares favorably with the milk of the Channel Island cattle. There are occasional milk samples that test abnormally high. This is also true of other breeds. There is no basis for the statement that the average test of Brahman milk is six or seven per cent. When this statement comes from travelers who have been in India, it probably arises from a confusion with buffalo milk, which is common there. In research in India (Schneider et ah, 1948), recently published, on 772 lactations with Indian cows, daily milk samples taken at two-week intervals gave an average of 5.09 per cent fat. In these investigations great care was taken to have all milkings supervised, and to have the milk samples represent the entire yield. Another average derived from a compilation of many samples from different parts of the country gives 4.8 3 per cent fat. The exact conditions of sampling of all of these latter tests that were averaged are unknown” (Schneider, 1949). "Experience in India has shown that high grade and purebred animals of European dairy breeds such as the Holstein do not produce satisfactorily in that country. Many of the animals become thin. 'Banters,’ or animals that breathe rapidly and laboriously during hot weather, are frequent. Inability to withstand the hot climate is reflected in their milk production” (Phillips, 1946). Average production figures, under conditions on the better-managed farms that were doing constructive breeding work, for 282 The Texas Journal of Science 1951, No. 2 June 30 animals with varying amounts of European blood (mostly Holstein) (Fig. 25) as published by the Imperial Council of Agricultural Research (1941), are as follows: Breeding of Cows Number of Records rivg. Amt. of Milk Lbs. Vs imported blood . 21 4,839 34 imported blood . . . . . . 173 5,982 V2 imported blood . . . . 589 6,977 % imported blood ..... . . . ... 204 6,985 % imported blood . . 396 6,664 % imported blood . . 86 6,180 First-cross animals have been known to produce as much as 19.500 pounds of milk in a lactation period of 300 days. One crossbred cow had 18 calves during her lifetime and yielded a total of 154,779 pounds of milk. For high production under tropical conditions either a plan for continuous crossbreeding or a blending of the right proportion of blood of the best Indian and European dairy breeds must be determined through experimenta¬ tion. This is not an easy task. "Instead of the level of milk production being increased as the amount of imported blood is increased beyond the level of 1/2 to 5^8, there is an actual decrease, even though the genes for milk production have presum¬ ably been increased by the introduction of more Holstein or other blood of dairy breeds. These data, accumulated under varying conditions in several parts of India, bring out the importance of resistance to a tropical environ¬ ment if production is to be satisfactory. "The summer weather of India is, of course, more severe than that of the southern portion of the United States. More data are needed, particu¬ larly in the Gulf Coast area, to determine how seriously the summer climate interferes with milk production” (Phillips, 1946). Schneider (1944) has written very extensively on milk production in India, and for further material bearing- on the same subject, the reader is referred to French (1940a) ; Hen- derson (1917, 1927, 1927a) ; Johnston and Singh (1930) ; Kartha (1933, 1934) ; Kothavala (1931) ; Laing (1944) ; Littlewood (1933) ; MacGuckin (1933. 1933a, 1937) ; M'anresa (1937) ; Matson (1928, 1929, 1946) ; Morrison (1937) ; Oliver (1933, 1934, 1937, 1938) : Parr and Sen (1947) ; Patil (1946/47) r Pepperal (1946) ; Reed (1949) : Rhoad (1945) ; Royal (Indian) Commission on Agriculture (1928) ; Sayer (1934) ; Saxena (1950) ; Shearer (1909) ; Sikka (1931) ; Singh (1947) ; Watson (1930) ; Williamson (1947) ; Wright (1937). UNITED STATES The Red Sindhi, (Figs. 17, 18, 19) another Indian breed, has been chosen by the Bureau of Dairy Industry for experimentation in this country (Rusoff and Scott, 1950). Two bulls of this breed* were imported in 1946, and at present 92 crossbred dairy heifers have been born in the Southern Regional Dairy Cattle Breeding Project. Eighty-three are 50 per cent Red Sindhi, five are 75 per cent, and four are 2 5 per cent Red Sindhi, the re¬ mainder of their breeding being either Jersey or Brown Swiss. Preliminary results indicate that Indian cattle can be used to introduce heat tolerance into domestic dairy breeds, a trait to some degree already inherent in the Jersey (Freeborn, et al, 1934; Harrison, 1941; Hammond, 1932; Bonsma and Pretorius, 1943; Riemerschmid and Elder, 1945) and perhaps respon¬ sible for the preponderance of this breed in the southern dairy states (Davidson, 1927). "Only a small number of the Sindhi-Jersey crossbred heifers have freshened to date (1950). None has yet completed a full lactation period, * Dr. Work informs me that two Red Sindhi heifers were also imported, but gives no date. Courtesy U. S. Department of Agriculture FIGURE 17 — Little SK-101 poses, somewhat against his will, with his parents at the Agricultural Research Center of the U. S. Department of Agriculture, Beltsville, McL, where he was born early in August, 1947. His mother — a Golden Medal Jersey — has a very high milk production record. His father, Carril — is a Red Sindhi im¬ ported by the Department in 1946 from India, where this breed is one of the popular milking strains of Brahman or humped cattle, able to withstand extremely hot, dry weather. 283 284 The Texas Journal of Science 1951, No. 2 June 30 9fHH ■■I v- ■1 wma Courtesy U. S. Department of Agriculture Courtesy U. S. Department of Agriculture FIGURE 19— This cow, SX-13, and her bull calf, SX-155, are part of the Bureau of Dairy Industry’s experimental dairy held at Beltsville, Md. S-13 carries one-half blood of the Red Sindhi strain of Brahman cattle of India and one-half of the domestic Jersey breed. SX-155, the first bull born to the half Sindhi and half-Jersey cows, is three-fourths Sindhi and one-fourth Jersey. 1951, No. 2 June 30 Climate, Cattle, and Crossbreeding 285 but most are producing at a satisfactory rate. The first three heifers, in their six months exceeded the production of their purebred Jersey dams at Beltsville” (Reed, 1950). See also Fohrman (1946, 1946a, 1946b, 1947) ; Shrode and Leighton (1950). JAMAICA J. W. Howe (to whose paper and personal aid I am indebted for much of the Jamaican data) says (1949) that the Jamaican Department of Agriculture has been conducting experiments on the Government Stock Farm at Hope, Jamaica, since 1915, hoping to develop a tropical dairy breed. They crossed northern cattle with Brahmans of the Nellore and Hissar breeds. The northern breeds included Ayrshire, Brown Swiss, Red Polled, Guernsey, Holstein, and Jersey. Hissar bulls, which came of a breed primarily developed for work cattle (Khan, 1950), were found to be unsuitable for dairy purposes because of their nervous temperament and low production (Cousins, 1933 ). Nellore crosses were slow maturing and unsatisfactory as milk producers. With the introduction of Sahiwal cattle in 1921, the other two breeds were discarded. Among European breeds, Ayrshires, Brown Swiss, and Red Polled were less suitable for crossing than the others and were discarded, only Jersey, Guernsey, and Holstein cows being retained. Because of the heat-resistant qualities of the Jersey, it is peculiarly suited for crossing with Brahmans to produce a tropical breed, a quality that may be possessed by the Guernsey (Figs. 20, 21), although Howe does not say so. In work with Holsteins, Fohrman (1928), Metivier (1928), French (1939, 1940), and Hammond (1932) all found this breed suitable for crossing, although Hammond states that, while the Holstein-Brahman cross produced more milk, the Jersey-Brahman cross might be more suitable for general dairying because of its greater ability to stand heat. Sahiwal crosses produced, like other Brahmans (Kelley, 1932), cattle resistant to most tropical complaints and highly resistant to tick fever. As to the amount of Brahman blood necessary for combined disease resistance and milk production, Matson (1929) found halfbreeds satisfactory in India; Ducloux (1930) recommends 40 per cent in Tunisia; Harrison (op. cit.) and Metivier (op. cit.) found 25 per cent sufficent in Trinidad. Howe (1948) concludes that animals with Brahman blood have a higher birth weight and grow more rapidly than northern purebreds, rate of growth increasing with the amount of Brahman blood. Halfbreeds appear to be most suitable for milk production in Jamaica, although further research is needed to determine whether this is due to heterosis. Number of services per calf decreased slightly as Brahman blood increased. The age at which heifers first calved also increased with the amount of Zebu blood, as did length of dry periods, length of service periods, and the period of gestation. None of these changes was significant except with the Jersey crosses. Here the number of services per calf, age at first calving, and the length of the gestation period were considerably different from Holsteins and Guernseys. Milk production during a lactation increased as the amount of Zebu blood increased, greatest production being given by the halfbreeds. Butter- fat content increased with the amount of Zebu blood, that of the Jersey 286 The Texas Journal of Science 1951, No. 2 June 30 cross testing one per cent more than the purebreds. Differences in the other breeds were 0.42 per cent increase for the Guernsey and 0.95 per cent for the Holstein. See also Lecky (1949). AUSTRALIA There are a number of Australian dairy herds containing Brahman blood, ranging from as low as one-sixteenth to as high as half- and three- quarter breds. Brahman-cross cows have been found to give (in some herds) FIGURE 20 — Colin, a Sahiwal-Guernsey bull at the Hope Experimental Farm in Jamaica. Age, six years. Weight, 1730 pounds. After Hammond. FIGURE 21 — Marchioness 12th, a grade Zebu-Guernsey cow at the Hope Ex¬ perimental Farm in Jamaica. Record: 45 pounds. Age, seven years. Weight, 972 pounds. After Hammond. 1951, No. 2 June 30 Climate, Cattle, and Crossbreeding 287 as much as 20 per cent more milk than herds of European breeds under the same conditions. Moreover, they respond more quickly to improved conditions in their natural feed. A rainfall of .75 inches was sufficient to show a marked change in milk production in only two or three days. Brahman crosses have also been found to withstand prolonged droughts better than European purebreds, Other desirable features mentioned are resistance to ticks, insects, cattle diseases generally, and longevity. FRENCH WEST AFRICA Selection of a dairy strain of Azawak Zebus was started in 193 5 in the Filingue station in the Niger Colony. Cows were chosen from a herd managed in the same manner as those of the natives, under open-range conditions. No feeding was done, but once a week a supplement of com¬ pound salt was given. This was bought on the local market and was the same as that normally used by the natives. In 1943 the production of the cows in the selected herd ranged from 1,500 to 3,150 lbs. In a non-selected native herd the production was only 900 lbs. Each year since 1942, some bulls have been given to the breeders whose herds are well handled. All these bulls have been able to keep their good condition under very severe native management. Their offspring are very promising. Very close in-breeding, used to fix the type of the breed, has not given any harmful, results (Pagot, 1950). See also Richards (1946). TUNISIA Experimentation on dairy crosses in Tunisia has been carried on for some time (Harrison, 1941; Metivier, 1928). PERU At the Cooperative Agricultural Experiment Station, Tingo Maria, Peru, Brooks (1947) states that a program is now under way aimed to produce a type of dairy animal adapted to adverse tropical conditions of this region, by crossing Brahmans with native dairy-type cows, and then introducing blood of a high-producing breed of dairy cattle of the Bos taurus group, in this case, the Guernsey. Selected native dairy-type cows are used, for the sake of economy, and for a certain factor of milk pro¬ duction which they may be able to inject into the cross. Brahman blood is used solely to introduce necessary resistance thus enabling crossbreds to withstand adverse tropical conditions. Guernseys are used exclusively for the factor of high milk production that it is hoped may be obtained from that source. Crosses are made of these three breeds to obtain varying concentrations of Brahman and Guernsey blood in order to determine the amount of each which will result in optimum balance between the factors of resistance and production. When sufficient data have been accumulated from various crosses to permit the reliable interpretation of results, the cross showing the best performance will be followed exclusively and the others abandoned. 288 The Texas Journal of Science 1951, No. 2 June 30 In 1947, the Tingo Maria herd consisted of 48 halfbred Brahman- native females sired by the Indubrazil bull, 3 Brahman-Guernsey females, and 1 1 three-quarter Brahman females. Sixty-one native foundation females have been used, producing a total of 76 heifer calves which have gone into the breed program. Of these 137 females, 63, or 47 per cent, carry some percentage of Brahman blood. The Brahman bull used was typically Gyr in all of his characteristics. The quality of the first crossbred Brahman heifer was excellent, and Brooks believes that a strain of crossbreds can be developed that will be of great value to the Peruvian dairy industry. See also Brooks (1949, 1949a). OTHER COUNTRIES Brazil and the Philippines are both developing Brahman crossbred dairy types (Rhoad, 1938, 1943). Similar research is being carried on in Trinidad (Harrison, 1941) and doubtless in other tropical countries. For further discussiqn of this and of the effects cf the tropics on dairy cattle, see Arsuaga and Lombardo (1944) ; Barrioio (1944) ; Bettini (1947) ; Beukenkamp (1946) ; Cippo- loni (1949a) ; Cruz (1945) ; Curasson (1946, 1949) ; Fohrman (1946, 1946a, 1946b, 1947) ; Fchrman and Larue (1948) ; Gaalaas (1945) ; Good (1946) ; Graves (1947) ; Hilder and Fohr¬ man (1947); Kumaran (1947); Phillips (1944a): Reed (1946, 1948, 1949, 1949a); Regan (1947) ; Rhoad (1944a) ; Ribiero (1944) ; Robertson (1949). CROSSES OTHER THAN BRAHMAN Dairymen of many countries have been studying problems of cross¬ breeding with a great deal of interest, and have tried many crosses among cattle of European origin. In the United States, as a portion of the "Southern Regional Dairy Cattle Breeding Project”, Guernseys, Holsteins, Brown Swiss, and Ayrshires are being crossed in an effort to develop, through breeding and selection, strains of high-producing, heat-resistant animals. In other portions of the world, local breeds are being crossed, recrossed, The Cattlema i FIGURE 22 — A Zebu-Yak hybrid (after Zawadowsky ) . 1951, No. 2 June 30 Climate, Cattle, and Crossbreeding 289 uncrossed, and crossed out in an attempt to produce a dairy breed that will better fit those areas. However, space does not permit a thorough discussion of these particular crossbreeding programs here, and for further reference on this matter the reader is directed to the bibliography at the end of the paper. HYBRIDS There are several important types of bovine animals that are inter- fertile. These include European cattle, Brahmans, yaks, and American bison or buffalo. Some six types of hybrids may be produced by mating these species, or five, if one belongs to the zoological school which holds that European and Indian cattle are not separate species. Some of these hybrids are very useful, others are merely in the experimental stage to determine their possible utility (Phillips, 1944a, 1946a, 1948). Two of these, if one considers European-Brahman crosses as hybrids, are of very great economic importance, but as we have already dealt fully with domestic cattle, we will consider only the second at this time, and deal with the less Important crosses later. YAK AND YAK-CATTLE HYBRIDS IN ASIA Yaks (Fig. 26) are indigenous to the mountainous regions of Central Asia, and are the most important livestock kept by the Tibetans. They are also of considerable importance to Mongolian peoples further north (Phillips, Tolstoy, and Johnson, 1946), and the practice of hybridizing them with domestic cattle, a few of which may carry some Brahman blood, is quite common in both areas (Fig. 22). Phillips, Johnson, and Moyer (1945) briefly described these crosses. Lus (1936) found that these hybrids were The Cattleman FIGURE 23— A Bison- Yak hybrid. 290 The Texas Journal of Science 1951, No. 2 June 30 Courtesy F. K. Kristjansson FIGURE 24 — Hybrid Yak-Bison yearling female from the Canadian Experimental herd. larger than either parent. However, although stronger, and capable of bearing heavier burdens, they do not have the stamina of the yaks; their hoofs are softer, and they are more apt to become lame. Moreover, the hybrids cannot negotiate difficult terrain as well. They are more affected by cold, and are not as good rustlers, having difficulty at times in gleaning a living from the scanty pastures. Advantages are greater size, increased milk production, greater ease of handling, and ability to withstand a warmer climate, so that they can be used at lower altitudes (Phillips, et al, 1946). Pien nin male hybrids, as the cross is called, are reputed to be sterile (Lus, 1936; Zawadowsky, 1931; Zuitin, 1930) a contention borne cut by the work of Zuitin and Ivanova (1936) and Ivanova (1938). However, according to these authors, a one-eighth yak — seven-eighths domestic bull sired progeny. A similar observation was made by Ljubimov ( 1938). Female hybrids are fertile (Phillips, et al, 1946; Lus, 1936; Vlasov, Gershenzon, and Poliakov, 1932). Similar results have been observed in crosses between bison and domestic cattle (Deakin, Muir, Smith, and McLellan, 1942). It was concluded by Phillips, et al (1946) that the hybrids between yaks and native cattle of the area were useful utility animals. However, they suggest that even better animals could be provided by the use of superior domestic bulls of breeds, such as the Brown Swiss, instead of non¬ descript local cattle. They state that effective utilization of hybrid females The Cattlemar FIGURE 25— Fig. 1. A Red Sindhi bull. Fig. 2. A Red Sindhi cow. Fig. 3. A Jersey-Red Sindhi hybrid. Fig. 4. A three-quarter Red Sindhi and one-quarter Jersey female. Fig. 5. A Brown Swiss-Red Sindhi hybrid. Fig. 6. A three-quarter Red Sindhi and one-quarter Brown Swiss female. Fig. 7. A three-quarter Red Sindhi and one- quarter Holstein female. Fig. 8. A three-quarter Red Sindhi and one-quarter Holstein female. Fig. 9. A typical native cow of Szechwan Province, China. Fig. 10. A Holstein- Szechwan native hybrid. Fig. 1 1 . A three-quarter Holstein and one-quarter Szechwan native female. Fig. 12. A seven-eighths Holstein and one-eighth Szechwan native fe¬ male. ^ G * pS U -C I. ; ^-d h ^ u ^ n g c Q a G Gd: o s!H 5 « ji c ; e ^ >* % 'R n I i g^G &&S; ° Soo^i ;“3 iP-o-lw^ °'5’c"i^ a ^ « e -1^ 2S«i< § § #5 ^ G<-** • £ >* G d, ..‘3.tJ 11 y 3 i fl ^1 T3 S op «o J| 3*C o .y v^ w W)S^^ -G ■*-> uid ° JJ -G to <3 >p G dj d rj +_. d . Agric. 18 : 137-139. Hartung, A. M. — 1948 — They tried to produce a new kind of cow. West Livestock J. 34(B) : 118-119. Cattalo. Helman, M. B. — 1946 — Caracterizacion de las razas Nelore, Guzerath y Gir. Agr. y Ganad. 22(9) : 3-9. - 1948 — El Cebu en la Argentina. Rev. Ganad. (Habana) 8(9) : 24-25. - 1950 — Reflexiones sobre el Cebu y la hibridacion. Rev. Ganad. (San Salvador) 9(124)/ 125) : 31-32. Henderson, G. S. — 1917 — Pusa dairy herd. Agric. J. India 12 : 328. - 1927 — The introduction of foreign milk stock into India for crossbreeding. J. Central Bur. Anim. Husb. and Dairying in India 1 : 7-8. - 1927a — Evidence of officers serving under the Government of India. Rept. Roy. Comm. Agric. India 1 : 137. Hernandez, C. — 1950 — El Cebu en Cuba. Rev. Ganad. (Habana) 10(5) : 44-50. See also Agro- tecnica 4 : 65-77. Hernandez Naus, A. — 1944 — La fecundacion y sus relaciones con la climatologia en el ganado lechero. Indus. Lechera 26 : 549-565. Herweijer, C. H.— 1950 — The development of cattle breeding in South Celebes and the possi¬ bility for development of (beef) cattle farms. (In Dutch) Hermera Zoa 57 : 221-239. Hilder, R. A., and M. H. Fohrman — 1947 — Analysis of the production records of crossbred dairy cattle. (Abs.) J. Dairy Sci. 30: 551. - 1949 — Growth of first generation crossbred dairy calves. J. Agric. Res. 78 : 457-459. Hoekstra, P. — 1950 — Veeteelproblemen in Indonesia gezien in het iicht der historie. (Cattle breeding problems in Indonesia seen in the light of history). Groningen. Wolters. Howe, J. W. — 1949 — The effect of varying amounts of Zebu blood on the adaptability of dairy cattle to conditions in Jamaica. Trop. Agric. 26 : 33-42. Imperial Council of Agricultural Research — 1941 — Milk records of cattle in approved dairy farms in India. {Part I. Cows) Misc. Bull. 36. Manager of Publications, Delhi, India. Institute of Inter- American Affairs — 1947 — Livestock in Peru. Including a description of SCIPA’s cattle import program. A special report. Food Supply Division, Instit. Inter- Amer. Affairs. Washington, D. C. 37 pp. Ivanova, V. V. — 1938 — Kvoprosu izucenija plodovitosti samcov gibridov jaka s rogastym skotom. (On the fertility of hybrids of yak x cattle). Izv. Akad. Nauk. S.S.S.R. (Otd. mat. - est., Ser. Biol.) 1938:883-884, 1 fig. (English summary). See also Anim. Breed¬ ing Abs. 7: 117, 1939. — . — and I. M. Liubimov — 1948 — Fertile hybrid bulls. (In Russian) Useoiuzn. Akad. Sel’skokhoz. Nauk im. V. I. Lenina. Dok. 13(11) : 42-48. Iwanoff. E. — 1911 — Die fruchtbarkeit der hybriden des Bos taurus and des Bison americanus. Biologisches Centralblatt 31 : 21-24. Jacobs, W. S. — 1949 — History of Brahman importations. Amer. Brahman J. 3(11) : 15-17, 38. 298 The Texas Journal of Science 1951, No.. 2 June 30 Jamaica Department of Agriculture — 1949 — Annual Report for the year ended 31st March, 1947. Kingston. Govt. Printer. 3u pp. See also other years. Jauftret and Auiret — 1948 — Les laits et la production iaitiere au Tonkin. (Milk and milk production in Tonkin). Rev. Elev. Med. Vet. Pays Trop. (n.s.) 2:5-30. Johnson, R. — 1947 — Tailor-made cattle for Arizona. Ariz. Farmer 26(17) : 1, 8-9. Breeding the Santa Gertrudis and Afrikander crossbred cows. Johnston, D. P„ and S. Singh Kartar — 1930 — The Lyallpur Agricultural College dairy herd, 1914 to 1929. J. Central Bur. Anim. Husb. and Dairying in India 3 : 132-141. Jones, C. J. -1907 — Breeding catalo. Araer. Breeders’ Assoc. Ann. Rept. 3:161-165. Jones, Howell B. — 1950 — C'harbray cattle at Hilltop Ranch. Zebu J. 2(3) : 22. Joshi, N. R. — 1949 — Indian cattle strains and characteristics. Proc. Amer. Brahman Centen¬ nial. Charleston, South Carolina. Pp. 17-28. Kariha, K. P. R. — 1933 — Note on subject 15. Proc. Mtg. Bd. Agric. India 1 : 181-186. - 1934 — A note on the comparative economic efficiency of the Indian dairy cow, the half bred cow and the buffalo as producers of milk and dairy fat. Agric. and Live¬ stock in India 4 : 605. Katz, C. — 1944 — La ganaderia del Ecuador. Ecuador. Primera Zona. Cam. de Agr. Rev. 6(53/55) : 37-46. Dairy cattle and milk production. Kaura, R. L. — 1944 — Deterioration of cattle in certain parts of India and its probable causes with some practical suggestions to overcome them. Indian J. Vet. Set. and Anim. Husb. 14 : 132-145. Keesee, Paul A., and Travis Richardson — 1949 — The Angus-Brahman beef breed. Tex. Live¬ stock J. 8(4) : 40, 48. Keith, A. — 1948 — La raza Aberdeen-Angus en el pasado y en 1948. Aberdeen-Angus (Buenos Aires) 1948(40) : 26-29. Kelly, R. B. — 1932 — Zebu (Brahman) cross cattle and their possibilities in North Australia. Australian Council Sci. and Industry, Pamphlet. 27. - 1932a — The development of a new breed of cattle for a tropical environment. Austral¬ ian Vet. Journ. 8: 2. - 1938 — Zebu- (Brahman-) cross cattle and their possibilities in North Australia. Aus¬ tralian Council Sci. and Indust. Res., Prog. Rept. 3:1-30, illus. (Mimeo). - - 1943 — Zebu-cross cattle in northern Australia. Australian Council Sci. Indust. Res., Bull. 172. - 1948 — Zcbu-cross cattle in Northern Australia. Observations in Queensland. Prog Rep. Australian Council Sci. Indust. Res. 6 : 1-26. See also Brahman-Breeder-Feeder 15(3) : 7-8, 10-13. - 1949 — Zebu cattle in Australia. Brit. Agric. Bull. 2 : 217-220. Kendall, S. B. — 1948 — Relationship between breed of cattle and ability to maintain a con¬ stant body temperature under tropical conditions. Vet. J. 104: 112-115. Kenya — 1946 — Colony and Protectorate of Kenya. Annual Report of the Veterinary Depart¬ ment 1944. Nairobi. Govt. Printer. 23 pp. See other years also. Khan, A. W. — 1950 — Origin of the Hissar breed of cattle. Indian Farming 8 : 471-472. See also Brahman Breeder-Feeder 16(2) : 16-17. King, F. M. — 1944 — Red Africander cattle of South Africa. West. Livestock J. 22(43) : 61-62. Includes description of the King Ranch in Texas. Kleberg, R. J., Jr. — n.d. — The Santa Gertrudis breed of beef cattle. Kingsville, Texas. 13 pp. - 1931 — The Santa Gertrudis breed of beef cattle. The Producer 13(1) : 3-7. Knapp, B., Jr., Baker, A. L., and R. T. Clark — 1949 — Crossbred beef cattle for the northern Great Plains. U. S. Dept. Agric. Circ. 810 : 1-15. - - — -Baker, A. L., Quesenberry, J. R., and R. T. Clark — 1941 — Record of performance in Hereford cattle. Bull. Montana Agric. Exp. Sta. 397. Knapp, W. C. — 1950 — Weights, grades and yields of 7/8, 3/4, 1/8, Hereford-Brahman crosses. Paper presented at 1950 meeting of Southern Agricultural Workers. - Jones, H. C.» and J. K. Riggs — 1948 — Cross-breeding increases weight of cattle in coastal areas. Cattleman 35(2) : 54. See also Tex. Agric. Exp. Sta. Prog. Rept. 1129. - 1949 — Brahman-Hereford crosses for slaughter — calf production. Tex. Agr. Exp. Sta. Prog. Rept. 1206 : 1-2. Popular version of data contained in this report was given in Arizona Cattlelog 5(10) : 42-43. June, 1950. — - 1950 — Value of Brahman-Hereford crosses demonstrated. Tex. Livestock J. 9(2) : 63. Kone, K. — 1948 — Le boeuf au Lac Tchad de las region de NTJuigmi ; mileu d’elevage. (Lake Chad cattle of the N’Guigmi Region and their environment). French West Africa. Insp. Gen. de i’Elevage. Bull. Serv. Elev. Indus. Anim. Afr. Occid. Franc, (n.s.) 1(2): 47-65. Kothavala, Z. R. — 1931 — Milk production in India. Ninth International Dairy Congress, Copenhagen. Conference Papers, Section 5:1-10. Kozarin, F. S. — 1933 — (Yaks and yak-cattle hybrids). Skotovodstvo, No. 11/12:40-47. See also Anim. Breeding Abs. 2 : 12-13, 1934. Kumaran, J. D. S. — 1947 — Dairy cattle improvement work of the Indian Agricultural Re¬ search Institute — India. (Abs.) J. Dairy Sci. 3.0 : 553. Kushner, H. F. — 1938 — The blood composition in yaks, in cattle, and in their hybrids in connection with the heterosis of the hybrids. C. R. (Dokl.) Acad. Sci. U.S.S.R., (n.s.) 19 : 185-188. See also Anim. Breeding Abs. 7 : 117, 1939. Kwashne, J., and Uriel Levy— 1944— Cattle breeding in Tunis. (In Hebrew) Hassadeh 24(5): m-176. Labarthe, C. A. — 1945 — A raca Holandeza e seus mesticos com o Zebu no melhoramento do gado leiteiro na zona tropical. Rev. dos Criadores 16(15) : 26-27 ;16(6) : 9-12. - 194g — Posibilidades de la utilization de algunas razas cebuinas en el mejoramiento ganadero del norte de la Republica Argentina. Cong. Bras, de Vet. 3, Porto Alegre, 1945. Pp. 737-752. Laguiche, J. de — 1943 — La race Charollaise en Amerique du Nord. C. R. Acad, d Agr. de France 29 : 279-280. Introduction by M. Piettre. Laing, A. D. G. M.— 1944 — Dairy farming in India : description of a dairy herd and its care and management, on a military dairy farm. New Zeal. J. Agr. 68: 325, 327. Laizet, G. — 1948 — La race bovine tarentaise nee et elevee en Algerie. Rev. Agr. de l’Afrique du Nord 46 : 232-233. 1951, No. 2 June 30 Climate, Cattle, and Crossbreeding 299 - 1949 — Monographic de la race bovine tarentaise nee et elevee en Algerie. Colon. branc. de Tunisie 59(2085) : 3-4. Lake, H. C. — 1947 — high living yak. Our Dumb Anim. 80(9) : 13. Larrat, R., Camara, A., and P. Chalumeau — 1948 — Les bovins N’Dama du Senegal. French West Africa. Insp. Gen. de 1’Elevage. B. des Serv. de 1’Elevage et des Indus. Anim. (n.s.) 1(4) : 15-21. Lawton, J. A. — 1950 — Eight years of Charbra breeding. Zebu J. 2(3) : 14. Lecky, T. P. — 1934/35 — Dairy cattle breeding in Jamaica. J. Jamaica Agric. Soc. 1934/35: 38-39. - 1949 — The Hope Jerseys ; a study of the bleeding of Jersey cattle at Hope Agricul¬ tural Station, Jamaica. Jamaica. Dept. Agr. B. (n.s.) 42:62. Lee, D. H. K., and Ralph W. Phillips — 1948 — Assessment of the adaptability of livestock to climatic stress. J. Anim. Sci. 7 : 391-425. Leeward Islands — 1949 — Report of the Director of Agriculture for the year 1948. Bridgetown, Barbados. Advocate Co., Ltd. Printers. 74 pp. See also other years. Lerena, G. — 1948 — Las reses bravas ; relacion zootecnica de nuestro ganado indigena con las castas de lidia. Chacrn 19(218) : 22, 109. Camargue cattle in Argentina. Leroy, A. M. — 1946 — As fazendas de criacao experimentais brasileiras : utilidade e futuro dos trabalhos de cruza Charoles x Zebu. Rev. de Agr. (Piracicaba) 21 : 379-381. Lewis, R. D., et al — 1950 — Beef cattle investigations in Texas ; 1888-1950. Bull. Tex. Agr. Exp. Sta. 724 : 1-79, 19 figs. Liang, T. S. — 1948 — Studies on the Sikong yak. (In Chinese) Agr. Assoc. China J. 186:45-50. Lisbre, F. X. — 1921 — Hybrides hybridite et hybridation. Mem. Acad. Sci. Belles-Lettres et Arts (Lyon) 17 : 187. Littlewood, R. W. — 1933 — Crossbreeding for milk. Indian J. Vet. Sci. Anim. Husb. 3:325-337. Ljubimov, I. M. — 1938 — O rabote oirotskoi ipytnoi stancii po' gibridizacii jaka (Poephagus grunniens L.) s. rogatym skotom (Bos taurus L.). (The work of the Oirat experiment station on the hybridization of yak x cattle.) Izv. Akad. Nauk. S.S.S.R. (Otd. mat - est., Ser. Biol.) 1938:879-882, 1 fig. (English summary) See also Anim. Breeding Abs, 7 : 117-118, 1939. Lourgs, B. — 1944 — O boi asiatico como fator economico na zona da mata. (Asiatic cattle as an economic factor in the matas of Brazil). Campo (Rio de J.) 15:41-44. Lus, J. — 1936 — Sarlykii hainyki (Yaks and their hybrids with cattle), in “Domasnie Zivotnye Monogoloo” (The Domestic Animals of Mongolia), pp. 293-348. All Russian Academy of Sciences. Reviewed by Kislovsky in J. Heredity 29 : 27-32. Lush, J. A. — 1946 — Brahman cattle, 1920-1929. Brahman Breeder-Feeder. Jan. 1946 : 96. — - -Jones, J. M . , Dameron, W. H., and O. L. Carpenter — 1930 — Normal growth of range cattle. Bull. Tex. Agri. Exp. Sta. 409 : 1-34, illus. Lynch, C. — 1946 — Experiencias na Australia com o gado Zebu. Agr. e Pecuaria 17(279): 33-34. - 1946a — Australian Zebu cattle ; plan to develop tropical areas. New Zeal. Farmer Weekly 67(12) : 11. McCarthy Barry, L. L. — 1946 — El Cebu y el Charollais des razas que pueden resolver un problema ganadero de suma importancia. Rev. Pecuaria, No. 97 : 30-31, 33. McMena.min, J. P. — 1944 — Zebu cattle do well in New Guinea. Land (Syney) (Land Farm & Sta. Ann.) No. 1709 : 37. MacGuckin, C. W. — 1933 — Note on subject 10. Proc. Bd. Agric. in India 1933 : 146-149. - —1933a — Circle standing orders. Northern Circle, Livestock. Lahore Cantt. - 1937 — Crossbred and grade dairy cattle in India. Indian J. Vet. Sci. Anim. Husb. 7 : 263-272. Magneville, A. — 1946 — La race bovine tarine. Rev. Agr. de l’Afrique du Nord 44 : 339-340. Malbrant, R., Receveur P., and R. Sabin — 1947: — Le boeuf du lac Tchad. (Lake Chad Cattle) . Rev. d’Elevage et de Med. Vet. des Pays Trop. (n.s.) 1 : 37-42 ; 109-129. Origin and distribution of Kouri cattle. Mandon, A. — 1948 — L’elevage des bovins et 1’ insemination artificielle en Adamaoua (Camer- oun francais). ( Cattle breeding and artificial insemination in Adamawa, French Cameroons). Rev. Elev. Med. Vet. Pays Trop. (n.s.) 2: 129-149. Manresa, Miguel — 1934 — A quarter century of work on animal improvement. Philippine Agric. 23 : 433-443, illus. - 1937 — General observations on animal husbandry in India. Philipp. Agric. 26 : 341-376. - 1939 — Animal breeding njethods used in the formation of types of cattle suitable for raising in the tropics. Philipp Agric. 28 : 479-490. - — -and F. Gomez — 1937 — Fluctuation of body temperatures in the Indian Nellore breed of cattle. Philipp. Agric. 26(6): 504-507. Maria Stell Estacion Sosa — 1949 — Brahman experiments in Paraguay, South America. Amer. Brahman J. 4(7) : 13-15. Marks, M. — 1948 — Nivernais Charolais. Amer. Brahman J. 3(4) : 7, 9. Marsh. T. D., and Dawson, V. — 1947 — Animal husbandry in Malaya. I. Cattle in Malaya. Malaya Agr. J. 30: 204-211. Breeds. Masse, A. — 1950 — Ameliorer la production laitiere dans la race bovine Charolaise. Comptes Rendus Acad. d’Agr. de France. 36 : 520-522. Matoso, J. — 1944 — O Zebu nos tropicos. Rev. Ceres 6 : 82-91. Matson, J. — 1928 — Some lessons learnt in regard to cattle and dairying during 25 years farming in India. J. Central Bur. Anim. Husb. and Dairying in India 2 : 5-12. - 1929 — Report on Indian crosses. Imperial Bureau Animal Genetics. Ms. - 1946 — The influence of heterosis in the progeny tests ; from records of 32 years’ breeding experience in seventeen herds of the Government of India’s dairy farms. New Zeal. Soc. Anim. Prod. Proc. 6 : 73-77, processed discussion 77-80. Mauritius — 1946 — Colony of Mauritius. Annual Report of the Department of Agriculture, 1945. Port Louis. J. Eliel Felix, Acting Govt. Printer. 34 pp. See other years also. Menezes, D. G. de — 1944 — O rei zebu e seus aspectos e problemas atuais. (The Zebu and its present prospects and problems). Bol. Indust. Anim. (n.s.) 7(3/4) : 201-214. - 1946 — The Brahman cattle in Brazil. Brahman Breeder-Feeder 12(1) : 67-73. Mercer. E. — 1948 — Wisconsin dairy cattle improve Guatemala stock ; pure bred Holstein, Brown Swiss and Guernseys build more productive Central American herds. Wis. Agr. & Farmer 75(18: 8. 300 The Texas Journal of Science 1951, No. 2 June 30 Mentenier, F. — 1947 — Apres les grands concours blancs 1’elevage nivernais progresses. J. de ia France Agr. 87 : 141. Prices and development of the Charolaise cattle. Metivier, H. V. — 1928— Tropical dairy cattle. Trop. Agric. 5: 131-133, 188. Miller, J. G. — 1945 — Beef cattle production. Jamaica Agr. Soc. J. 49:197-199. Miller, W. C. — 1946 — Survey of animal husbandry, feed, management and veterinary services in the West Indies. Trinidad and Tobago. Bull. Devel. Welfare W. Indies, No. 19; 1-40 ; Ibid, British Guiana. No. 19A : 1-44. - 1947 — Report on animal health and husbandry in the Gold Coast Colony. Accra. Govt. Prtg. Office. 30 pp. Montagnes, J. — 1946 — Cattalo, the new quadruped. Countryman 34 : 285. Cross between buf¬ falo and Canadian domestic cattle. - 1947 — Add bisons to cattle and you have cattalo. Natl. Live Stock Prod. 25(6) : 16. Moore, O. — 1945 — The cattle industry of Colombia. Foreign Agric. 9 : 150-156. Moraes Filho, R. V. de — 1945 — El Zebu como factor decisive en el mejoramiento del ganado paraguayo. Paraguay, Min. de Agric. Rev. 10 : 49-52. Mornet, P., and K. Kone — 1941 — Le zebu peulh Bororo. (The zebu of the Bororo Fulani). Bull. Serv. Zootech. Epizoot. Afr. Occid Franc. 4 : 167-180. Morris, D. J. — 1945 — The A. P. George Ranch. Tex. Livestock J. 4(8) : 60; 4(9) : 49. Morrison, F. B. — 1937 — Reports on livestock improvement. Philipp. J. Anim. Ind. 4 : 349-367. Moya, M. A. de — 1946 — El Cebu como aporte a nuestra ganaderia. Agr. Venezol. 10(114): 23-28. Mundhe, B. B. — 1944 — Nomadic cattle breeders of Gujerat and Kathiawar — 1. Indian Farm¬ ing 5: 315-317. - 1945 — Nomadic cattle breeders of Gujerat and Kathiawar. II. Indian Farming 6 : 60-63. Navarro, R. C. — 1945 — El ganado Cebu. M'ex. Sec. de Relacion Exteriores, Rev. del Com. Exterior 10(3) : 17-22 ; 10(4) : 19-23. Nelson, J. — 1946 — How practical are cattalo? Buffalos and domestic cattle have long been crossbred. Amer. Feed & Grain Dealer 30(10) : 8-9, 27, 42. Neto, F. A. — 1945 — O zebu brasileiro e a XI. exposicao de Uberaba. Bull. Soc. Coop, da Indus. Pecuaria do Para. 13(58) : 15-17. Netto, A. — 1947 — Uma importacao e uma raca bovina esquecida ; o gado Africander. Rev. dos Criadores 18(1) : 42-44. Nigeria— 1946 — Annual Report on the Agricultural Department for 1944. S. P. No. 13/1946. Lagos. Govt. Printer. 47 pp. See other years also. Northern Rhodesia — 1947 — Government of Northern Rhodesia. Veterinary Department. An¬ nual Report for the year 1945. Lusaka. Govt. Printer. 14 pp. See other years also. Nyasaland-— Various Reports of the Department of Agriculture and the Veterinarians De¬ partment. O’Brien, G. T. — 1944 — Livestock raising in the Andes. West. Livestock J. 22(43): 17, 70. Mainly about the cattle of Peru. Ochoa, F. — 1944 — El ganado de raza en los clirnas medios (de Colombia). Rev. Nac. de Agr. (Bogota) 37(477) : 81-87. Ogilvie, F. B. — 1947 — Cattle breeding in India ; the development of milk production in two Indian breeds of cattle. J. Heredity 38(1) : 23-28. See also Cattleman 34(2) : 20-21. Oliveira, L. C. de — 1945 — C'ontribuicao ao estudo das posibilidades da raca Gir. Soc. Coop, da Indus. Pecuaria do Para. B. 13(55) : 26-28. Olivier, L. — 1948 — Africander cattle breeder and his policy. (In Afrikaans) Landbouweekblad 30(1516) : 38-39, 60. Oliver, A. — 1933 — The better economic exploitation of livestock in India. Agric. and Live¬ stock in India 3 : 573-578. - — 1934 — Potentialities of dairying and mixed farming in India. Agric. and Livestock in India 4 : 363-370. — — — -1937 — Report on a village inquiry regarding cattle and the production and consumption of milk in certain breeding tracts of India. Govt. Press Simla. - - — 1938 — A brief summary of some of the important cattle breeds in India. Imp. (Indian) Council Agric. Res., Misc. Bull. 17. O’Loghlen, Frank — 1948 — Beef cattle in Australia. Sydney, Australia. F. H. Johnson Pub. Co. See Review in Cattleman 34(9) : 77-78, 80-81. Opperman, H. B. K. — 1949 — The Afrikander as draft oxen. (In Afrikaans) Landbouweekblad 30(1553) : 44-45. Orford, H. J. — 1950— Sussex in South Africa with particular reference to its cross with the Afrikander. Sussex Cattle Brochure. Sussex Herd Book Society. London. Pp. 60-63. Ortega, P. M. — 1947 — La ganaderia y la agricultura en el Cauca. Ganado 1(3): 8-9. Cattle raising and rice culture on a ranch in Department of Cauca, Colombia. Paar, V. V. — 1923 — Brahman (Zebu) cattle. U. S. Dept. Agric., Farmer’s Bull. 1361. Pagot, J. R. — 1943 — Les Zebus de l’Azawak. Bull. des. Services Zootechniques et des Epi¬ zootics 6 : 155-163. — — - — 1950 — Cattle of French West Africa. Cattleman 36(9) : 25-26, 58-64. Parr, C. H., and S. Sen — 1947— Effects of four times milking and handling on the yield of milk in cows of the Tharparkar breed. Indian J. Vet. Sci. & Anim. Husb. 17 : 75-84. Pastoral Review — 1949 — Fertility and hardiness of cattle breeds. Effects of climatic condi¬ tions. Past. Rev. 59 : 722. Afrikander and Afrikander-Shorthorn cross. Patil, M. D. — 1945 — Red calves in Kankrej cattle, a hereditary character. (Abs.) Indian Sci. Cong., 32d, Nagpur, Proc. 3 : 36. - 1945a — The sex-ratio in Kankrej cattle. (Abs.) Indian Sci. Cong., 32d, Nagpur, Proc. 3:36. - 1945b — The weight at birth of calves of Kankrej cattle. (Abs.) Indian Sci. Cong., 32d, Nagpur, Proc. 3 : 36. Patil, S. T. — 1946/1947 — Study of the crossbreed strains evolved at the Agriculture Dairy Farm, Nagpur, with special reference to their utility as dual purpose animals. Nagpur Agric. Coll. Mag. 21 : 67-76. - 1947 — Selection and upkeep of breeding bulls. Nagpur Agr. Col. Mag. 22(1) : 32-36. Patton, T. W.— 1949— Southland cattle. Red Poll News 13(2): 20, 28-32. Name for cross breed of Red Polled x Brahman. 1951, No. 2 June 30 Climate* Cattle, and Crossbreeding 301 Pepperal, E. A. — 1946 — The dairy industry of India. Report on an, investigation with recom¬ mendations. 1945. Manager of Pub. Delhi, India. 40 pp. Peraza, V. M. — 1945 — El ganado Cebu en Cuba. Liborio 5(5/7) : 9-10. Phillips, R. W.— 1944— The cattle of India. J. Heredity 35: 273-288. Also in Cattleman 31(3) : 11-16, 40-42. Devoted mainly to a description of the breeds. - 1944a — Livestock improvement In China. Chinese Min. of Agr. and Forestry. Chung¬ king. 160 pp. - 1946 — Adaptability of cattle to tropical and subtropical climates. Cattleman 33(1) : 16-17, 29, 32, 36-37. Very good, thorough discussion. - 1946a — Bovine hybrids. Cattleman 33(3) : 13-16, 52. - 1946b — A eriaeado do gado Zebu nos elimas quentes. Fazenda 41(1) : 46-49. - 1947 — Breeding better livestock, in “Science in Farming.” U. S. Dept. Agric., Year¬ book of Agriculture 1943-47 : 33-60. - 1947a — Producing better beefsteaks. U. S. Dept. Agric. Yearbook of Agric. 1943-1947 : 61-69. - 1948 — Breeding livestock adapted to unfavorable environments. F.A.O. Agric. Studies 1 : 1-182, 71 figs., extensive bibliography. — — —Black, W. H., Knapp, Bradford, Jr., and R. T. Clark — 1942 — Crossbreeding for beef production. J. Anim. Sci. 1 : 213-220. — , — --Johnson. R. G., and Raymond T. Moyer — 1945 — -The livestock of China. U. S. State Dept. Pub. 2249 s 1-174, 77 figs., biblio. - Tolstoy, I. A., and Ray G. Johnson — 1946 — Yaks and yak-cattle hybrids in Asia. J. Heredity 37(6) : 163-170 ; 37(7) : 207-215, ills. Pic®, F. — 1937 — El mejoramiento del ganado lechery en los tropicos. Rev. de Agric. de Puerto Rico 29 : 269-289, ills. - 1946 — Razas de ganado leehero. Rev. Ganad. (San Salvador) 6(74/75) : 21-25. From El Gran Diarlo de la Nacion. Pierre— 1906 — L’Elevage en Afrique Occidental© Franeaise. ChalameL Paris. Placier, R. — 1947 — La race bovine charolaise vivement appreciee aux quatre coins du monde. Moissen 3(99) : 3. Prafohu, S. S. — 1944 — Genetics and the (draft and dairy) cattle problem of India. Allahabad Farmer 18: 60-76. Prieto, R. — 1950 — Crianza de ganado Cebu en Cuba, eomo fuente fabulosa de riqueza. Rev. Ganad. (Habana) 10(12) : 36-37, 48. Prigent, R., Kane, P., and B. Ka — 1942 — Elevage du boeuf en Mauritanie. (Cattle breeding in Mauritania). Bull. Serv. Zootech. Epizoot. Afr. Occid. Franc. 5:235-241. Prunier, R. — 1946 — Les bcvins du Lac Tchad. Farm & Forest 7 ; 123-125. Pugh, B. M. — 1946 — Agriculture in the Monba country of the Balipara Frontier Tract, Assam. Allahabad Farmer 20 : 154-156. Quate, G. S. — 1947' — Beef production in Guatemala. Amer. Brahman J. 2(1) : 8-9. Quinlan, J., Roux, L. L., Van Aswegen, W. G„, and M. de Lange — 1948 — Researches into ster¬ ility of cows In South Africa. The Influence of : (I) Dry rations, (ii) Lack of exercise, and (ii!) Lack of sunlight on reproduction of beef heifers and cows. Onderstepoort J. Vet. Sci. and Anim. Indus. 23(1/2) : 269-347. Ragsdale, A. C., Brody, S., Thompson, H. J., and D. M. Worstell — 1948— Environmental physiology with special reference to domestic animals. II. Influence of temperature, 50° to 105° F., on milk production and feed consumption in dairy cattle. Bull Mo. Agr. Expt. Sta. Res. 425 : 1-27. Ramsey, Cl — 1947 — A new breed of cattle. Farm & Ranch 66(9) : 6. C'harbray breed. Rangaswamy, C. M., and T. M. Paul — 1946 — Augmenting milk production. Indian Vet. J. 23:112-117. Management of dairy cattle in India. Reed, O. E.- — 1346 — Is the cross-bred dairy cow on the way? Country Gent. 116(6) : 15, 61-64. - 1948 — Breeding experiments with dairy cattle. U. S. Bur. Dairy Indus. BDIM-Inf.-62, 6 p. - 1949 — The progress in crossbreeding with dairy cattle of Indian • origin. Proc. 12th Internatl. Dairy Cong. Sect. 1 : 607-608. - 1949a — The influence on the efficiency of milk production in the tropics of the intro¬ duction of new breeds of dairy cattle, the improvement of fodder, supplies and other measures. Proc. 12th Internatl. Dairy Congr. Sect. 6 : 308-313. - 1950 — Report of the Chief of the Bureau of Dairy Industry, 1950. U. S. Dept. Agric. Washington. 26 pp. Regan, W. A. — 1947 — Hybrid vigor In dairy herds by crossing .in breed. Calif. Dairyman 27(6) : 22-23. Regan, W. M„ and G. A, Richardson — 1938 — Reaction of the dairy cow to changes in environ¬ mental temperature. J. Dairy Sci. 21 : 78-79. Reyes, R. V, — 1947 — Explotacion del ganado en los tropicos gran-colombianos. (The cattle industry in the tropics of Gran Colombia). Rev. Grancolomb. Zootec. Hig. Med. Vet. 1 : 592-598. Rhoad, A. O. — 1935 — Production of Brazilian dairy cattle under penkeeping system. Zeitsehr, f. Zucht., Reihe B. Tierzueht w. Zuchtungsbiol. 33 : 105-108, ills. - 1935a — The dairy cow in the tropics. Proc. Amer. Soc. Anim. Prod. 28 : 212-214. - 1936 — The influence of environmental temperature on the respiratory rhythm of dairy cattle in the tropics. J. Agric. Set. 26 : 36-44. - 1938 — Mejoramiento del ganado en la America Tropical. (The improvement of dairy and beef cattl© in tropical America). Pan. Amer. Union, Ser. sobre Agric. 128:1-22, ills. - 1938a — Some observations on the response of purebred Bos taurus and Bos indicus cattle and their crossbred types to certain conditions of the environment. Proc. Amer. Soc. Anim. Prod. 31 : 284-295. - 1940 — Absorption and reflection of solar radiation in relation to coat color in cattle. Proc. Amer. Soc. Anim. Prod. 1940 : 291-293. • - 1941 — Climate and livestock production, in “Climate and Man.” Yearbook of Agri¬ culture 1941 : 508-516. - 1943 — A criacao do gado leitero. (The breeding of dairy cattle). Ceres (Vicosa) 4 i 281-284. 302 The Texas Journal of Science 1951, No. 2 June 30 - - 1944 — The Iberia heat tolerance test for cattle. Trop. Agric. 21 : 162-164. - 1944a — El clima y la produccion ganadera. Rev. de Agr. (Costa Rica) 16:43, 45, 49-51. As related to cattle in Costa Rica. - 1944b — Problemas en el meporameiento de los bovinos en el tropico. Rev. Pecuaria, No. 66/67 : 11-13. Santa Gertrudis breed an example of what can be done. - 1945 — El mejoramiento del ganado vacuno de carne y de ieche en la America tropical. Rincon Campesino 6(57) : 18-23. - 1949 — The Santa Gertrudis breed : the genesis and genetics of a new breed of cattle. J. Heredity 40: 115-126. - 1949a — Development of dairy breeds for the tropics. Reprint of paper presented at the Twelfth International Dairy Congress, Stockholm, 1949. 4 pp. Originally printed in Sect. 5 : 199-202, Papers and Communications. - 1950 — The genesis and genetics of the Santa Gertrudis breed of beef cattle. (Abs.) Internatl. Cong. Genet. Proc. (1948) 8:650-651. 1949. — - and W. H. Black — 1943 — Hybrid beef cattle for subtropical climates. U. S. Dept. Agr. C'irc. 673: 1-11, 7 figs. - 1949 — Hybrid beef cattle for subtropical climates. Brahman Breeder-Feeder 15(10) : 23, 26-30. - Phillips, R. W„ and W. M. Dawson — 1945 — Evaluation of species crosses of cattle by polyallel crossing. J. Heredity 36 : 367-374. Ribeiro, J. A. — 1944 — Por que o Sul de Minas nao deve criar zebu ; o zebu como inimigo n. 1 da industria de laeticinios. Rev. dos Criadcres 15(8): 23-25. Richards, P. H. — 1946 — Observations on the reproduction of zebu cattle in southern Nigerian dairies. Trop. Agr. (Trinidad) 23 : 103-108. Riek, R. F., and D. H. K. Lee — 1948 — Reactions to hot atmospheres of Jersey cows in milk. J. Dairy Res. 15 : 219-226 ; 227-232. Riemerschmid, Gertrud — 1943 — Some aspects of solar radiation in its relation to cattle in South Africa and Europe. Onderstepoort J. Vet. Sci. and Anim. Indus. 18 : 327-353. - and J. S. Elder — 1945— The absorptivity of solar radiation of different hairy coats in cattle. Onderstepoort J. Vet. Sci. and Anim. Ind. 20 : 233-234. Riggs, J. K. — 1949 — Brahman cattle and their influence in beef production. Tex. Livestock J. 8(4) : 50, 52. - 1950 — Crossbreeding and its influence in the development of cattle breeding program for the South. Tex. Livestock J. 9(4) : 44-45. Rivas Larralde, G. — 1944 — Cebu, el ganado del tropico. Agr. Venezolano 8(95/96) : 18-21. Robertson, A. — 1949 — Crossbreeding experiments with dairy cattle. Commonwealth Bur. Anim. Breeding and Genet. Anim. Breeding Abs. 17 : 201-208. Rothwell, G. B. — 1924/30 — Report of the Dominion Animal Husbandman for the year end¬ ing March 31, 1924/30. Dom. Canada Dept. Agric. Govt. Printer. Ottawa. Royal (Indian) Commission on Agriculture — 1928 — Abridged report. Govt. Central Press. Bombay, India. Ruiz Diaz, I. M. — 1950 — El ganado C’ebu. Rev. de Agr., Comm, e Indus. (Panama) 8(110): 26-27. RusofF, L. L., and G. W. Scott — 1950— Blood studies of crossbred cattle (Abs.) Proc. Assoc. So. Agr. Workers 47 : 85. S — , D. W. G. — 1949 — Beef cattle potentialities of East and Central Africa. Fmr’s Wkly. (Bloemfontein) 78:46-47, 49. Sagstetter, G, — 1947 — Brahmans and their crosses ; how the infusion of blood of Indian cattle is revolutionizing the Gulf Coast cattle industry. Stockman 7(10): 12, 107-110. St. Croix, F. W. de — 1944 — Some aspects of the cattle husbandry of the nomadic Fulani (in Nigeria). Farm and Forest 5:29-33. St. Lucia — 1944 — Report on the Department of Agriculture, St. Lucia, 1943. St. Lucia. Govt. Printer. 16 pp. See other years also. St. Vincent — 1945 — -Annual Report on the Agricultural Department, St. Vincent, 1944. Kingstown. Govt. Prtg. Office. 19 pp. See other years also. Sanders, Alvin Howard — 1925 — The taurine world. Nat. Geog. Mag. 48(6) : 591-710, 76 ills. Santiago, Mejia — 1945 — El ganado romo-sinuano : un product© de Colombia. Agr. Trop. 1(11) : 19-22. Sarasti Aparicio, E. — 1946 — El ganado Cebu como marvilloso productor de carne y leche en los tropicos. Asoc. Colomb. de Ganad. B. Ganad. 18 : 41-44. Savage, F. I. — 1950 — Twenty years of Braford production. Zebu J. 2(3) : 12-13. Saxena, H. C.— 1950 — The Red Sindhi herd of the Allahabad Agricultural Institute. Allaha¬ bad Farmer 24 : 193-206. Sayer, Wynne — 1934 — Feeding and handling experiments on the Pusa pedigree Sahiwal herd. Agric. and Livestock in India 4 : 105-126. Schafer, E. — 1937 — Der wilde Yak (Poephagus grunniens mutus Perez.) Zool. Garten Leip¬ zig 9 : 26-34, 6 figs. See also Anim. Breeding Abs. 6 : 285, 1938. Schneider, B. H. — 1944 — Breeding for milk production in India. Allahabad Farmer 18 : 2-36. See also Brahman Breeder-Feeder 13(2) : 24-27, 30, 41-46, 48-50, 52-53. A fine, well documented discussion. — — 1947 — Indian strains and characteristics. Amer. Brahman Cong. Proc. 1 : 100-129. - 1948 — The doctrines of Ahimsa and cattle breeding in India. Sci. Monthly 67 : 87-92. — 1949 — Cattle of India. Expanded from a talk made to Directors of A.B.B.A. November 8, 1948. Cattleman 36(2) : 23-25, 73-78. - 1949a — The doctrine of Ahimsa and cattle breeding in India. Cattleman 35(9) : 26-28, 96-97. Reprinted from Scientific Monthly 67 : 87-92, 1948. - 1949b — India’s gift to America. Proc. Amer. Brahman Centennial. Charleston, South Carolina. Pp. 4-16. - 1950 — Climate and cattle. The American Brahman 1(7) : 15-16, 20-21, 32-34. Excellent paper. - et al — 1948 — The composition of milk. Imperial Council Agric. Res. Misc. Bull. 51. Schreiner, Charles, III — 1947 — Brahman cattle and their introduction into the U. S. Brah¬ man Breeder-Feeder 13(8) : 7-12. Schutte, D. J. — 1935 — Factors affecting the growth of range cattle in semi-arid regions. Onderstepoort J. Vet. Sci. and Anim. Indust. 5 : 535-617. 1951, No. 2 June 30 Climate, Cattle, and Crossbreeding 303 Scruggs, C. G.' — 1948 — The Beefmaster blend. Prog. Farmer, Tex. Ed., 63(4) : 17. Seudder, Carl, Jr. — 1948 — Brahman crossbreeds for beef production. Brahman Breeder-Feeder 14(7) : 5, 42-43. Seath, D. M. — 1947 — -Heritability of heat tolerance in dairy cattle. J. Dairy Sci. 30 : 137-144. ■—and G. D, Miller — 1946 — The relative importance of high temperature and high humid¬ ity as factors influencing respiration rates, body temperature, and pulse rate of dairy cows. Jour. Dairy Sci. 29 : 465-472. - — -1947 — Heat tolerance comparisons between Jersey and Holstein cows. J. Anim. Sci. 6(1) : 24-34. Seychelles — 1941/45 — Colony of Seychelles. Annual Reports of the Department of Agriculture for the years 1939/1944. Victoria. Mah§. Govt. Printing Office. 9 pp. ; 7 pp. ; 5 pp. ; 5 pp. ; 6 pp. ; 7 pp.. See other years also. Shah, R. B. — 1947 — The Gujerat — Kankrej. Brahman Breeder-Feeder 13(7) : 1-9. Shearer, E. — 1909 — Recent exports of high class Indian cattle. Agric. J. India 4: 390-391. . Shephard, C. Y. — 1944 — Report on agricultural policy for Fiji and the Western Pacific High Commission territories. Legislative Council, Fiji. Council Paper No. 24. Reconstruc¬ tion Paper No. 7, C. F. 2/24. Suva. F. W. Smith, Govt. Printer. 40 pp. - - - — -1945 — The Western Pacific High Commission Territories. (I) Tonga. (II) Solomon Islands. (Ill) Gilbert Islands. (IV) New Hebrides. Trop. Agric. 22 : 160-163 ; 179-183 ; 200-202; 216-221. Shrode, Robert R., and R. E. Leighton — 1950 — The possibility of using Brahman blood in the breeding of dairy cattle. Tex. Livestock J. 9(4) ; 48-49. Sikka, La! Chand — 1931 — Statistical studies of records of Indian dairy cattle. Indian J. Vet Sci. Anim. Husk 1:63-98. II. (1933). Ibid 3:240-253. Simmons Quiroz, H. — 1946 — Tipos, clases y razas de ganado vacuno y su presentacion para exhibirlo. Panama. Min. de Agr. y Com. Rev. de Agr. y Com. 5(54) : 49-73. Singh, B. — 1947 — The blood-group identification of various Indian breeds of cattle in India. Indian Vet. J. 24(1) : 13-30. Tests with Holstein-Friesans and various Zebu breeds. Smith, C. — 1949- — Zebu. Brahman Breeder-Feeder 15(6) : 5-10. Smith, H. M. — 1948— Some reports on crossbreeding beef cattle in Southwest Texas. Bull. Tex|. State Bd. Voc. Education 487 : 1-32 21 figs. Stallworth, M. C. — 1948 — Brahman cattle. Brahman Breeder-Feeder 14(6) : 21-23, 28. Staniforth, A. R. — 1948 — Dairy farming in the tsetse fly belt of the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan. East African Agr. J. 13 : 224-227. Stegemann, H. de M. — 1949 — Zebu cattle on Marajo. Brahman Breeder-Feeder 15(8) : 7-9. Stewart, J. L. — 1949 — Africa awaits Union's indigenous breeds ; value of African Shorthorn, Afrikander and Zebu as basis for development ; need for hardy milkers. Farmer’s Weekly (Bloemfontein) 78: 4(1-47, 49. Sylvestre, P. E.„ Logan, V. S., and G. W. Muir — 1948 — Hybridization of domestic cattle and . the bison. Dom. Can. Dept. Agric. Nov. 19, 1948. 4 pp. Mimeo. Swaziland Department of Native Land Settlement — 1947 — Annual Report for the year ending 31st December, 1946. Mbabane. Dept. Nat. Land Settlement. 10 pp. See also other years. Tabor, G. E. — 1948 — Production for profit. Brahman Breeder-Feeder 14(2) : 48-52. - 1948a — Ninety-nine years of crossbreeding. Brahman Breeder-Feeder 14(6) : 5-6, 8-9, 12-15, 29. — — ■ — 1948b — Bos indlcus, the packers’ premium. Brahman Breeder-Feeder 14(10) : 13-14, 16-17. Tanganyika Territory — 1941/45 — Annual Reports of the Department of Veterinary Science and Animal Husbandry for the years 1939/40. 1942/44. Dar Es Salaam. Govt. Printer. 4 pp. ; 8 pp. ; 15 pp. ; 17 pp. ; 20 pp. See other years also. Teige, J. — 1950 — The Santa Gertrudis cattle in Texas. (In Norwegian) Buskap ©g Avdratt 1950(2) : 12-14, 49. Terrazas, I. — 1948 — El Zebu para Bolivia. Campo (La Paz) 2(20) : 5-7. Tobback, L. — -1944 — Cattle-breeding in the Belgian Congo. Anglo-Belg. Tr. J. 31 : 152-155. Reprinted from Message (Belg. Rev ) No. 38:36-41. Trinidad and Tobago — 1945/46 — Administration Reports of the Director of Agriculture for the years 1944/45. Trinidad and Tobago. Govt. Printer. 16 pp. ; 20 pp. See other years also. Turbet, C. R. — 1949 — The acclimatization of European breeds of cattle in the tropics. Fiji Dept. Agric, J. 20 : 70-74. Uganda Protectorate — 1940/1945 — Annual Reports of the Veterinary Department for the years ended 31st December, 1939/44. Entebbe. Govt. Printer. 23 pp. ; 7 pp. ; 6 pp. ; 6 pp. : 8 pp. : 12 pp. See other years also. Union of South .Africa. Dept, of Agriculture — 1947 — The Drakensberger. I. — III. Farming in South Africa 22 : 783-794, 830. - 1947a — Annual Report of the Department of Agriculture for the year ended 31st Au¬ gust 1946. Farming in South Africa 22 : 77-351. See other years also. U. S. Office of the Coordinator of Inter-American Affairs — 1 945 — India’s cattle improve trop¬ ical American breeds. Foreign Com. Weekly 19(6) : 6-7,41. Ussery, H. E. — 1947 — The range cattle industry in Venezuela. A special report. Food Supply Division, Instit. Inter-Amer. Affairs.. Washington, D. C. 15 pp. A reprint of the 1946 edition. Vasqwez, J. N. — 1947 — Desarrollo y fomento de la ganaderia bovina en el Dto. Torres, Estado Lara. Agr. Venezel. 11 (20) : 12-16. Vasseur, A., and G. Belle — 1950 — Le lait devan t la justice; contribution a 1’etude des laits de vaches de race Hollandaise produits au Maroc. Terre M’arocaine 24 : 400-402. Veiga, J. S. — 1945 — A pele e a pelagem na raca Gir. Rev. Rural Bras. 25(294) : 14-17. — - — — — -Chieffi, A., .and O. M. Paiva — 1946 — Duracao do periodo de gestacao em femeas da raca Nelore e idade na epoca da primeira cria (Gestation period and age at the first calf in Nellore cows (Ongole breed). Sao Paulo U. Facial, de Med. Vet. Rev. 3(3) : 55-59. English summary. — — — -Chieffi, A., and J. Abreu — 1948 — Desenvolvimento ponderal de animals das racas indi- anas, do naseimentos aos 24 meses, criados na Fazenda Experimental de Criacao, em Uberaba. (Weight increase in Zebu cattle from birth to twenty-four months at the Experimental Farm, Uberaba). Publ. Inst. Zootec. (Rio de J.) No. 1:1-48. English summary. 304 The Texas Journal of Science 1951, No. 2 June 30 Ver, R. Z, — 1950 — The growth and development of some purebred and grade calves. Philip¬ pine Agric. 33 : 149-165. Vera Perez, L. — 1946 — Un tipo de ganado bovine ideal para el Estado de Tabasco. Tierra (Mexico, D. F.) No. 13:702-704. Vianna, A. T., and R. M. de Miranda — 1948 — C'ontribucao ao estudo do comportamento do charoles e dos mesticos charoles — cebu na F. C. de S. Carlos. (A study of Charolais and Charolais-Zebu crossbreeds at the Experimental Farm of Animal Breeding, San Carlos). Publ. Inst. Zootec. (Rio de J.) No. 2:1-31. Villares, J. B. — 1943 — O gado indiano e a pelagem da raca Gir. Sao Paula (State). Sec. da Agr., Indus, e Com. Notas Agr. 6 : 480-483. A strain of Brahman breed of beef cattle. — - 1945 — Contribuicao para o estudo da raca Nelore. I. Nelore de pele preta e Nelore de pele cremosa. Rev. Rural Bras. 25(294) : 24-27. - 1945a — Contribuicao para o estudo da raca Nelore. Rev. dos C'riadores 16(3): 11-19; 16(4) : 9-15. - 1946 — As racas zebuinas na XII Exposicao Nacional de Animais e Productos Derivados. Sao Paulo. Dept, da Prod. Anim. B. de Indus. Anim. (n.s.) 8(4) : 84-97. - 1946a — A representacao das racas indianas. Rev. dos Criadores 17(11) : 57-59. Zebu cattle. Villares, J. B. — Jordao, L. P., and F. P. Assis — 1947 — Climatologia. VIII. Posibilidades do Zebu na producao de leite em Sao Paulo, Rev. dos Criadores 18(10) :64-68 ;18 (11) -.40-44. - 1947a — Zootechnic climatology. VIII. Possibilities of Zebu cattle in milk production in Sao Paulo. 1. Milk production in tropical regions. (In Portuguese) Rev. dos Criadores 18(9) : 31-34. - 1947b — Zootechnic climatology. VIII. Possibilities of Zebu cattle in milk production in Sao Paulo. (In Portuguese) B. de Indus. Anim. 9(1/2) : 3-21. - 1947c — Livestock climatology. VII. Possibilities of Zebu in Sao Paulo milk produc¬ tion. B. Milk-producing capacity of the Zebu breeds. (In Portuguese) Soc. Rur. Brasil- eira. Rev. 27(325) : 12-16. Villegas, V. — 1939 — Livestock industries of Cochin China, Cambodia, Siam, and Malaya, Philippine Agric. 27 : 693-725. - — 1948 — (Importation of cattle from Pakistan). Philipp. Agric. July/Sept. 1948: 79-81. Vlasov, P., Gershenzon, S., and A. Poliakov — 1932 — (Yaks). Probl. Zhivotn. No. 1:48-57, 4 figs. See also Anim. Breeding Abs. 1 : 95-96, 1933. Ware, Sir F. — 1947 — Indian cattle in the United States of America. Empire J. E'xpt. Agric. 15: 213-215. Watson, J. A. S. — 1930 — Cattle breeding and its problems. J, Central Bur. Anim. Husb. and Dairying in India 3: 142-146. Reprinted from J. Univ. Coll, of Wales 16. Whitcomb, Gale — 1949 — The Brahman in America. Proc. Amer. Brahman Centennial. Charleston, South Carolina. Pp. 114-120. - 1950 — The Brahman in America. Brahman Breeder-Feeder 16:16, 18, 20, 22. White, W. T., Phillips, R. W.. and E. C. Elting — 1946 — Yaks and yak-cattle hybrids in Alaska. J. Heredity 37(12) : 354-358. Willemse, G. S. — 1950 — Africander the best beef breed for Southern Africa. Rhodesian Farmer 4(4) : 20. Williamson, G. — 1947 — The Tharparkar or Thari breed of cattle ; definition of characteristics. Indian Farming 8 : 65-69. Wilson, S. G. — 1946 — The seasonal incidence of calving and of sexual activity in Zebu cattle in Nysaland. J. Agr. Sci. (London) 36,: 246-257. Work, S. H., and L. R. Smith — 1926 — The livestock industry of Nicaragua. For. Agric. Rept. U. S. Depit. Agric. 12 : 1-49. Wright, N. C. — 1937 — Report upon the development of the cattle and dairy industries of India. Govt. Printing Office. Mgr. of Pubs. Delhi, India. — - 1946 — Report on the development of cattle breeding and milk production in Ceylon. Eastern No. 179. Sessional Paper XX. Colombo, Ceylon. Govt. Press. Zamora, C. O. — 1946 — Cross breeding Brahmans and Holsteins in Guatemala. Amer. Brahman J. 1(3) : 10. Zawadowsky, M. M. — 1931 — Zebu-yak hybrids. J. Heredity 22 : 296-313. Zuitin, A. I. — 1930 — (Yaks). Izv. Biuro Genetike (Akad. Nauk. S.S.S.R.) (Bull. Bur. Genetics) 1930(8) : 77-89, 3 figs. English Abstract, pp. 88-89. See also U. S. Exp. Sta. Rec. 64(5) : 430. 1931. - 1935 — (Chromosomes in yaks). (Poephagus grunniens L.). C. R. (Dokl.) Acad. Sci. U.S.S.R., (n.s.) 4:81-83, 1 fig. See also Anim. Breeding Abs. 4:33. - 1938 — New data on the chromosome number in yak (Poephagus grunniens L.). C. R. (Dokl.) Acad. Sci. U.S.S R., (n.s.) 19:201-202, 3 figs. See also Anim. Breeding Abs. 7: 118-119. 1939. - and V. V. Ivanova — 1936 — The data on the structure of the testes of hybrids of yak and cattle. C. R. (Dokl.) Acad. U.S.S.R. (n.s.) 4(13) : 75-77. See also Anim. Breeding Abs. 5 : 398. 1951, No. 2 June 30 The Giant Walking Stick 305 NOTES ON THE GIANT WALKING STICK, MEGAPHASMA DENTICRUS (STAL) (ORTHOPTERA: PHASMATIDAE) 1 2 ORIN P. WILKINS 2 and OSMOND P. BRELAND 2 The University of Texas INTRODUCTION This walking stick is of considerable interest because it is the largest species that occurs in the United States. Despite the large size of the insects, however, they are not seen very often in some areas where they are known to occur. This is doubtless due to their stick-like form and dull coloration, and also to the fact that their movements are few and deliberate. The female of this phasmatid was originally described from Louisana and placed in the genus Diapberomera (Stal 1875). Scudder (1901) retained the species in this genus and reported collecting several specimens from Texas. In 1903 Caudell, in a revision of the group, erected the genus Megapbasma for this species, described the male and redescribed the female. Since that time there have been a few papers published relative to incidental observation and collection of the species. Somes in 1916 pointed out that Megapbasma denticrus was not uncommon in the Ozark region although it had heretofore been regarded as primarily a Gulf State form. He found adults and young on trees and shrubs and postulated that their habits were probably similar to those of Diapberomera femorata (Say), the best known and most widely distributed species of phasmatid in the United States. Beamer (1932) recorded the species from Kansas, and Balduf (1942) identified a specimen from Illinois. Megapbasma denticrus is now known to occur in a relatively large area in the central and southern United States (Hebard 1943). This region is bounded on the east by Louisana and Indiana, and on the north by Illinois, Iowa and Kansas. The known western limits are Kansas, Oklahoma and the Chisos mountains, Texas. This phasmatid also occurs in Mexico ( Shelf ord 1908). Until 1949 it was generally believed that the gaint walking stick was relatively rare in the region of Austin, Texas. The writers and other workers had collected an occasional specimen, but never more than a few per season. On July 22, 1949, Mr. Alvin Flury, a graduate student, reported a large concentration of walking sticks in a area approximately four miles east of Austin. Investigation revealed that the insects were Megapbasma denticrus. The writers studied this aggregation intermittently over a period of several weeks, and more than 100 living specimens were brought to the laboratory for additional observation. The following notes are a result of this work. 1. The family name is also written as Phasmidae ; some workers consider the walking sticks as a distinct order (Phasmida or Phasmatodea), and recognize several families. 2. The writers appreciate the assistance of Dr. A. B. Gurney who confirmed the determina¬ tion of the insects and who gave valuable suggestions relative to phasmid literature. They also wish to thank M'iss Grace Hewitt who made the drawings, and Mr. Robert Hedeen who helped in the work. 306 The Texas Journal of Science 1951, No. 2 June 30 FIELD OBSERVATIONS The walking sticks occurred in a small patch of woods which covered an area roughly 600 by 450 yards. The trees were principally elm ( JJlmus eras si folia and Ulmus americana) and mesquite ( Prosopis glandulosa) , al¬ though an occasional tree of other species was present. The trees and shrubs varied from a few inches in height to a maximum of some 100 feet. The highest concentration of the insects was in the lower branches of the trees, but a few were observed as high as 50 to 60 feet in some of the larger trees. The insects were found principally on elm. There were approximately as many elms as all other species of trees combined, but the relatively small number found on other trees indicated some preference for elm. Of 51 specimens collected throughout the area, and which were associated with a particular kind of tree, 3 8 were from Elm. Seven were found on cedar, while two were recovered from mesquite, hackberry and gum elastic. Only a few specimens were found on the ground, and none were seen in a meadow which bounds the wooded area on three sides. Despite the relatively large number of the insects, there was no indication that foliage had been damaged as sometimes occurs in the presence of large concentrations of D. femorata. In fact none of the insects were ever seen to eat in the field. A majority of the walking sticks were either in actual copulation or were seen in pairs within a foot or so of each other. The act of oviposition was not observed in the field, but occasional small objects which were heard hitting the leaves may have been eggs. The ground was heavily littered with debris, and less than a half dozen eggs were discovered although several attempts were made to find them. The number in this concentration was probably similar to the one reported from Kansas by Reamer in which he observed several hundred specimens (Hebard 1943). It was estimated that there were well over 1000 insects in the Austin concentration. The principal difference in these two aggregations was apparently in the proportion of males and females. In Kansas less than a dozen females were seen, but in this one, the proportion was more nearly equal. In one collection of 88 specimens, 39 were females and 49 were males. The insects in the above collection were measured from the anterior end of the head to the tip of the abdomen. The males ranged from 99 mm. to 13 8 mm.; the females from 112 mm, to a maximum of 155 mm. Although the smallest female was considerably smaller than the largest male, only once was the female of a copulating pair observed to be the smallest. In this instance the female was 112 mm, long as opposed to 125 mm. for the male. By the end of August, only a few individuals were still alive in the field. Several dead specimens were observed still clinging to trees and shrubs. During the summer of 1950, several trips were made to the same area, but no walking sticks were observed. The wife of the owner of the property, who originally discovered the aggregation, stated that she had seen only an occasional specimen throughout the summer. It will be of interest to see whether or not large numbers occur in 1951, since it is generally accepted that the eggs of some phasmatids do not hatch until the second year. 1951, No. 2 June 30 The Giant Walking Stick 307 LABORATORY OBSERVATIONS More than 100 living insects were brought into the laboratory and confined in wire cages for observation. Elm leaves were supplied for food while water was furnished in dishes into which were placed the bases of twigs to make the water more easily accessible. The phasmatids showed a distinct preference for the top and sides of the cages and here they congre¬ gated in groups, often remaining motionless for long periods of time. EATING AND DRINKING Although feeding was not observed in the field, several individuals of both sexes were seen to take food in the laboratory. This process was essentially the same in all observed cases. The insects would start eating at the edge of a leaf and move gradually inward for a short distance. Eating continuously they would then circle back toward the leaf margin. As a result, they made small crescent-shaped cuts in the leaf margin. They would then return to the original starting point and repeat the process which gradually enlarged the semi-circular indentation. All insects observed began their feeding at a margin to their left and proceeded toward their right. Insects were seen to take food only during the first week in captivity, although some lived for an additional two weeks. Several males were seen to drink, but no females. These insects des¬ cended the branches, paused just above the water and then immersed their heads completely below the surface. The insects remained in this position for several minutes during which time the mouth parts were in continuous motion. After removing their heads from the water the walking sticks usually climbed up the branches and took up their usual position near the top of the cages. COPULATION Copulation was observed in the cages in the laboratory, and as a rule, pairs would remain either partially or completely engaged for several hours. The usual procedure was as follows: a male would approach a female and assume a dorsal position. The male would then curve his abdomen lateral and ventral to that of the female, at the same time rotating the posterior segments somewhat so that the ventral surfaces could be applied to the ventral surfaces of the female’s abdomen. The claspers of the male which extend ventrally from the last abdominal segment, would then grasp the first complete abdominal segment of the female. (Morphologically, the first complete abdominal segment is the second one; the first being partly fused with the metathorax) . The tip of the male’s abdomen was then pushed backward under that of the female and the two ventral surfaces were ap¬ posed. The claspers grasped firmly the female’s abdomen near the base of the eighth true segment and sexual union made between the genitalia which occur in the ventral region of the eighth segment of both sexes. One pair was seen to remain in the copulation position almost continuously for more than seven hours. During this period, the claspers were released only once for a period of five minutes, after which copulation was resumed. 308 The Texas Journal of Science 1951, No. 2 June 30 EGGS AND EGG DEPOSITION Many species of phasmatids such as Diapheromera femorata , simply drop their eggs at random with no attempt to conceal them (Hutchings 1920). However, a few species, the so-called Florida or two-striped walking stick (Anisomorpha buprestoidea (Stoll) for example, are known to make some provision for the protection of the eggs. The females of the above species have recently been reported to dig holes in the ground in which they deposit the eggs (Hetrick 1949). Other phasmatids such as Pseudo- sermyle tr uncat a Caudell, glue their eggs to a substratum (Caudell 1914). The bottoms of the wire cages containing the walking sticks were covered with white paper so that if eggs were deposited they could be easily seen. The writers’ attention was first attracted to egg deposition by the sounds made by the eggs striking on the floor of the cages. The first egg deposition was observed the first afternoon of captivity, and during sub¬ sequent days, more than 750 eggs were secured. This continued inter- mittantly for approximately a week after which no eggs were obtained, although some insects lived a total of three weeks in captivity. So far as could be determined, no preference was shown for a particular time of day for egg deposition. At night, eggs striking the paper could be heard for some time after lights were turned off in the laboratory. All females actually observed depositing eggs did so either during the copulatory process or with several males clustered around them. During copulation, the male disengaged the genitalia from that of the female before the egg appeared; the claspers, however, retained their grasp at the base of the eighth abdominal segment. The abdomen of the female could be seen TWO VIEWS of an egg of the giant walking stick, Megaphasma denticrus (Stal). 1951, No. 2 June 30 The Giant Walking Stick 309 to contract and the egg would appear beneath the eighth abdominal segment. The- genitalia would usually be reengaged just anterior to the egg before the egg was completely extruded. The average time for complete egg deposition was approximately seven minutes and in some cases several eggs were deposited consecutively at five to seven minute intervals. The eggs of M. denticrus (Fig. 1) are seed-like objects varying in color from a light to a dark brown. They are approximately 4 % millimeters long and three millimeters in diameter. A lighter longitudinal area occurs on one side, in the center of which is an oblong area that is raised slightly above the general surface of the egg. At one end is a grill-like cap somewhat variable in structure; a circlet of hairs is attached at the base of the cap. The end opposite the cap is rounded with a small irregular projection near the center. When the eggs are deposited, the rounded ends appear first and the raised area is usually directed dorsally. The writers have not seen the eggs of D. femorata , but from the published descriptions (Hutchings 1920 and others) , the eggs of M. denticrus while distinct, appear to be somewhat similar. Several hundred of the eggs were placed in a finger bowl lined with filter paper and the finger bowl put in a large glass dish containing moist cotton. The dish was kept covered and at laboratory temperatures, while eggs were dissected periodically to check embryonic development. EMBRYONIC DEVELOPMENT AND EMERGENCE The first dissections were made within a week after the eggs were deposited. At this time, the egg contents consisted of a membraneous sac filled with a semi-fluid orange-colored material. On that part of the mem¬ brane in contact with the raised portion of the egg covering was a region resembling this area in shape. Near the end of September, some two months after the eggs were deposited, a thickened whitish area appeared inside the membrane, ventral to the differentiated area on the membrane. This region continued to differentiate and by the end of October, recognizable em¬ bryonic insects were present. Near the end of November completely developed insects occurred in many of the eggs examined, and at this time nymphs emerged normally from several eggs. Just before emergence the fully developed nymph is coiled within the egg with the tip of the abdomen in contact with or very near the head. It greatly resembles the nymph of Aplopus maye'ri Caudell within the egg as figured by Stockard (1909). The legs are mostly enclosed within the circle of the body, with the antennae curled posteriorly alongside the ab¬ domen. The head is nearest the end of the egg with the grilled cap, while the dorsal part of the thorax is directly under this end. The dorsal part of the abdomen passes under the raised outer region of the egg, curves downward around the end of the egg and passes anteriorly to the head. Emergence of the nymphs was observed several times, and this occurred through the end of the egg on top' of which is attached the grilled cap noted above. The function of this grill work, if any, was not determined. It was easily detached and many were knocked off by accident. In most cases the caps had already separated from the eggs before emergence began. The significance of this separation, and whether or not there is a mechanism that influences this are not known. In a few cases, the caps were seen to be still attached to the operculum of eggs from which young phasmatids had apparently emerged. 310 The Texas Journal of Science 1951, No. 2 June 30 At the time of emergence, a circular region of the egg, or operculum, separates from the remainder of the egg although it may remain partially attached along one edge. From the hole thus formed the nymph starts emerging. The first part to appear is the dorsal region of the thorax which is pushed outward until the head is freed from the egg. The insect slowly draws itself out, the antennae and distal regions of the legs being the last parts of the body to be freed. In some cases the tarsi could not be entirely freed from the egg and the insects died within a short time. The complete emergence process as seen in the laboratory required from several to more than 24 hours. Approximately 3 5 nymphs emerged over a period of several weeks. These were a bright green in color and varied in body length from nine to 15 millimeters, the average being approximately 12. A variety of green leaves and grasses were supplied, but none were seen to feed. Elm leaves, which adults had been observed to eat earlier in the season, were no longer available at the time of nymphal emergence. Some of the insects lived for several days but all died without molting. No emergence occurred after March 1, 1950, which was approximately eight months after the first eggs had been deposited. SUMMARY 1. An aggregation of more than 1000 specimens of the giant walking stick, Mega phasma denticrus (Stal) was discovered near Austin, Texas, in July, 1949. Field observations extending over several weeks have been recorded. 2. Measurements were made of large numbers of both males and females and more than 100 were collected and confined in the laboratory. 3. Copulation, feeding and egg deposition in the laboratory, and the structure of the eggs have been described. 4. Several hundred eggs were deposited in the laboratory. These were kept at laboratory temperatures and dissected at intervals. General obser¬ vations on development are recorded. 5. More than 30 nymphs emerged in the laboratory but all died without molting. The process of nymphal emergence from the egg is described. LITERATURE CITED Beamer, Raymond H. — 1932 — The giant walking-stick (Megaphasma denticrus (Stal) found in Kansas. Journ. Kansas Ent. See. 5 : 28. Caudell, A. N. — 1903— The Phasmidae, walking sticks of the United States. Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus. 26 : 863-886. - 1914 — The egg of Pseudosermyle truncata Caudell. Proc. Ent. Soc. Wash. 16 : 96. Hebard, Morgan — 1943 — The Dermaptera and orthopterous families Blattidae, Mantidae and Phasmidae of Texas. Trans. Amer. Ent. Soc. 68 : 239-310. Hetrick, L. A.— 1949 — The oviposition of the two-striped walking stick, Anisomorpha bupres- toides (Stoll) (Orthoptera, Phasmidae). Proc. Ent. Soc. Wash. 51:103-104. Hutchings, C. B.— 1920 — Popular and practical entomology. Walking sticks. Can. Ent. 52: 241-245. Scudder, Samuel H. — 1901 — The species of Diapheromera (Phasmidae) found in the United States and Canada. Pschye 9 : 187-189. Shelford, R. — 1908 — Phasmidae. Biologia Centrali-Americana, Insecta. Orthoptera 2 : 343-377. Somes, M. P. — 1916 — The Phasmidae of Minnesota, Iowa and Missouri (Orth.). Ent. News 27 : 269-271. * Stal, C. — 1875 — Recensio Orthopterorum. Pt. 3:1-105. Stockholm. Stockard, Charles R. — 1909 — Inheritance in the “walking stick’’, Aplopus mayeri. Biol. Bull. 16: 239-245. * Original not seen. 1951, Mo. 2 June 30 Problems of Industries Using Sea Water 311 PROBLEMS OF INDUSTRIES USING SEA WATER GUST AYE HEINEMANN * Southern Alkali Corporation, Corpus Christi, Texas The diminishing availability of fresh water supplies has tended to bring to the forefront the industrial utilization of seawater for such pur¬ poses where it can be used. Due to its high salinity, the use of seawater is limited and, for that reason, it cannot be used directly for boiler purposes. It does, however, find extensive use as a coolant in various types of plants such as for turbine condensers, in central power plants, in chemical and other industrial plants, in the manufacture of various products from sea¬ water and, to some extent, in oil refineries. As an example of some of the tremendous quantities of seawater used for cooling purposes, it might be pointed out that in Corpus Christi the industrial utilization of seawater as a coolant exceeds by approximately six times the entire domestic and industrial uses of fresh water. Along with the advantages accruing from the use of seawater as a cooling medium, there are also a number of disadvantages. One of these disadvantages, or problems, is that of fouling, which may be defined as the presence of various forms of algae, barnacles, mussels, oysters and other forms of marine growth. Although this problem is by no means peculiar to seawater, it is believed that in the usual case the problem is considerably more severe than with fresh water. Whereas, in the normal fresh water supply we are not concerned with shell growths, this becomes a serious problem in most instances where seawater is being used. The effect of such growths may be felt in several ways. First, due to the rough surface and to the volume occupied by such fouling in cases where seawater is pumped through pipe lines or heat exchange equipment, the carrying capacity of the lines or of the other units may be seriously diminished. In the case of heat transfer equipment, the fouling has the added effect of lowering the heat transfer coefficient, thus forcing the unit to operate far below its rated capacity. This would be a most serious consequence in the operation of such heat exchange equipment as turbine condensers which are usually designed very closely, and where small differences in capacity can produce wide changes in the power output of the turbine. The two previously mentioned effects are quite apparent, but there are others which may require some additional explanation. Wherever shelled growths cement themselves to a metal surface, a corrosion cell may be set up which will result in deep pitting at that point. If the shelled organism is completely adherent to the metal at the spot where it is attached, little or no corrosion may be expected. In many cases, however, the surfaces are uneven, allowing water to penetrate beneath one portion, thus setting up a condition favorable to the formation of an oxygen concentration cell. In other words, there will be different oxygen concentrations at the points underneath the cell base and elsewhere at the surface of the metal, setting * Address given at Rockport, Texas. October 27, 1949, at the First Semi-Annual Seminar of Marine Science of the Marine Laboratory of the Texas Game, Fish and Oyster Commission. 312 The Texas Journal of Science 1951, No. 2 June 30 up an electrolytic cell which is likely to cause attack at one point. This is particularly common in the case of many species of barnacles and may occur with other growths with equal facility. Another different but important form of corrosion is encountered when in the process of expansion of the base by growth, an organism surrounds and covers another organism which ultimately dies. Following death of the organism, decomposition will set in with probable formation of hydrogen sulfide, causing an acid condition and resulting in accelerated corrosion at that point. Still another detrimental effect which may be noted is in areas where shelled organisms have developed, and where the velocity of the water is relatively high. In this instance, a turbulent area is set up immediately adjacent to the shell, frequently causing erosion or pitting of the pipe or tube. Although the mechanism of this attack may not appear to be obvious, it becomes understandable when one considers the rather great turbulence set up by the water passing by a barnacle or other shell at rather high velocity. This turbulence will greatly erode the metal and cause pitting much in the same manner as continually dropping water will wear away a stone. In the previous discussion, several of the problems associated with the effects of fouling in the use of seawater have been enumerated. Although the problems mentioned could be extremely serious, if not controlled, there are, fortunately, effective means of control of such growths which are not too difficult to apply in most instances. Probably the most common use of prevention is the use of chlorine. In the presence of active or residual chlorine in the water, the growth of fouling organisms is effectively prevented. Therefore, if sufficient chlorine is added to the water at all times there can be no growth of fouling organisms. While the continuous addition of chlorine to the water is certainly thoroughly effective in preventing such growths it has been found that it is not always necessary to add the chlorine continuously for effective control. Starting with a perfectly clean surface over which seawater is flowing it has been found that initially only a relatively few organisms with algae or shell growths will affix themselves to the surface and commence the reproduction cycle. If therefore the chlorination cycle is adjusted so that these organisms are permitted to grow to the point where they can be killed with subsequent dosage of chlorine and before they have had an opportunity to develop to the point where they are so firmly entrenched on the surface that they cannot be easily removed the control is virtually as effective as with continuous chlorination. This then has the effect of resulting in a consider¬ able saving of chlorine as compared to the method of continuous chlori¬ nation. Inasmuch as exact cycles to be used will depend in large measure upon the rate of growth and type of fouling organisms, these cycles will vary considerably from one area to another. For instance, in the relatively warm waters of the Gulf Coast, it may be necessary to chlorinate for periods as long as forty minutes out of each two hours. In the cold northern waters, chlorination may be reduced to time sycles such as fifteen minutes during each eight hours, and in some instances, may be completely elimi¬ nated during certain seasons of the year. Where the fouling is principally the result of mussel groths, abnormally warm water temperatures in a particular area may also be effective in stopping the growth of these 1951, No. 2 June 30 Problems of Industries Using Sea Water 313 organisms. As an example, it has been reported at the recent A.S.M.E. meeting in New London, Connecticut"' — that the mussels which are preva¬ lent in the New England area will not grow when the water temperature is in excess of 82°F. This, of course, does not apply to waters in the Gulf Coast area where the growth of shelled organisms may be extremely prolific, even at temperatures as high as 90°F. It has also been found that when shelled organisms such as mussels are the cause of fouling, intermittent chlorination such as that previously mentioned is effective up to the time when they have had an opportunity to develop their protective shell. After the shell has been developed, the mussels will close their shell when irritated by the presence of residual chlorine and can exist for periods as long as 3 to 4 days or more without being forced to open the shell and be killed by the chlorine. For this reason, if chlorination is being established in a plant where no control has been attempted or where, due to interruptions in the chlorination cycle, the mussels have been given an opportunity to develop their protective shell, it is necessary to chlorinate continuously without interruption for at least 3 to 4 days to effect a kill. At the time when the Southern Alkali plant commenced operations in 1934, some delays were encountered in the installation of chlorination equipment, making it necessary to operate the plant for a period of several months prior to establishing fouling control by the use of chlorination. Based on experience which had been reported to us by others, a 3 to 4 day chlorination period was employed before endeavoring to work out an intermittent control cycle. After a period of about three days, it was found that all the screens in the seawater lines were clogging so badly that it was necessary to keep someone on the job almost continuously to clean them. During a relatively short interval following the three day continuous chlorination period, many hundreds of bushels of mussels and other shelled growths were flushed from the line. This serves to indicate the rapid growth of these shelled organisms under favorable conditions. Although chlorination is the most widely used means of control, other forms may be used under special circumstances. In a few cases, the use of hot water has proved to be very effective in controlling fouling where the particular pipe line or piece of equipment may be taken out of service or the conditions altered in some manner so that hot water may be introduced into the unit. This has been used to some extent locally in a power station having two parallel intakes. While one intake was being used as such for a period of time, the other was used as a discharge for the warm water for the condensers. During the time that a particular intake was being used for the incoming cool water, considerable fouling would develop in that intake. When the flow was reversed and warm water discharged through it, the fouling organisms were effectively killed. Effective control was established in this manner without the necessity of resorting to chlorination. A third method of controlling fouling which may be applied is in the use of high copper alloys. For this to be effective, however, it is necessary for the rate of corrosion attack on the copper to be at such a rate that the thinning will be approximately one-thousandth of an inch per year or greater. Unfortunately, there are a number of conditions which may Control of Marine Fouling in Sea Water Conduits and Cooling Water Systems Including Exploratory Tests on Killing of Shelled Mussels, by Harold E. White. 314 The Texas Journal of Science 1951, No. 2 June 30 prevail to prevent this rate of attack or to render the copper ineffective in the prevention of fouling. These conditions may be enumerated as follows; 1. The copper alloy may be protected galvanically by a less noble metal such as iron or steel. 2. A calcareous or lime deposit may form on the metal from the sea¬ water, protecting the surface from attack. 3. Adherent corrosion products may form a film on the surface, protecting the base metal from further attack. 4. The metal surface may be accidentally or intentionally coated with grease or oil. There are a few specialized cases where copper sulfate can be applied to the water for the purpose of preventing the growth or killing fouling organisms. However, because of difficulties involved in the application of copper sulfate, it is not used as a common means of control. Under certain conditions, hydrogen sulfide may be present in the sea¬ water, especially in coastal areas. The presence of the hydrogen sulfide under these conditions may be attributed to pollution of the water with domestic sewage or organic waste of various types which tend to decrease the concentration of oxygen in the water. In cases where pollution is sufficiently intense to result in anaerobic conditions, hydrogen sulfide may be produced as the result of the reduction of sulfates which are normally present in the water. Although the presence of hydrogen sulfide in the water may tend to act in a manner very similar to that of chlorine, being toxic to many of the fouling organisms, it can be extremely corrosive to many metals and particularly to copper alloys, such as those commonly used for turbine condensers and other similar equipment. Although the addition of the chlorine to such waters will oxidize the sulfide to the sulfate form, this means of control is usually impractical because of extremely high chlorine demand under these conditions. Because of this fact, copper alloys of a type tending to be relatively resistant to the action of hydrogen sulfide, are indicated under these conditions. The various copper alloys used for seawater service will be discussed later. The second phase of the discussion will involve the consideration of various corrosion problems encountered in the use of seawater and the mitigation of these problems. Considering, first, the corrosion of iron and steel by seawater, one problem which is commonly encountered is that of sheet piling. Surprisingly enough, the corrosion of sheet piling is said to be quite uniform on specimens exposed throughout the world, with the average corrosion rate approximating a penetration of .005 of an inch per year. The attack on the piling is usually most pronounced in the splash zone just above the high tide level, and to a lesser degree just, below the mean low tide level. The mechanism of this attack will not be discussed, it having been covered very thoroughly in an article by H. A. Humble. * There are several possible means of protection which can be applied to sheet piling. Probably the simplest of these in areas where the wave action is not severe, is the application of a heavy grease coating, particularly of the type containing a corrosion inhibiter. While this is by no means completely effective, it is of considerable assistance in reducing the rate of attack. A second means of protection and one which is treated in consider- * Cathodic Protection of Steel Piling on Seawater, by Mr. H. A. Humble, buplished in the September, 1949, issue of CORROSION. 1951, No. 2 June 30 Problems of Industries Using Sea Water 315 able detail in the paper by Mr. Humble is the use of cathodic protection. In this instance, blocks of magnesium are connected electrically to the piling at suitable intervals, and immersed in the water. In this type of protection, the magnesium, being submerged in the water, sets up a battery action resulting in the gradual attack of the magnesium but protecting the piling adjacent to it. Unfortunately, cathodic protection is of lesser value in the splash zone just above mean high tide, but since this represents the easiest spot in which to apply protective coatings such as paints or greases, a combination of the two systems is usually desirable, where the rate of attack on the piling is of sufficient magnitude to warrant these measures. For piping seawater, either steel or cast iron is satisfactory to a certain degree, although the corrosion may be severe, and especially so in the case of steel. Generally speaking, the composition of steel, until one gets in the high alloy range, is not of particular consequence, although there is frequently some diminution in the extent of pitting with some of the low alloys. Nor¬ mally stainless steels are not recommended for use with seawater due to their tendency to pit in the presence of chloride ions. In a few cases, however, the type 316 stainless steel alloy, which contains from sixteen to eighteen per cent chromium, ten to fourteen per cent nickel, and two to three per cent molybdenum has been used successfully. Normally it can be used successfully only under conditions of high velocities which tend to minimize the pitting effect. There has been a considerable tendency to play down the use of stainless steel in seawater, in fact to the extent that distributors of stainless steel have very definitely discouraged its application. A few tests have been in service at this plant for several years in which the appearance of the 316 stainless steel alloy has been excellent. In view of the fact, how¬ ever, that stainless steel can be subject to very severe pitting under certain conditions, its use has not been particularly encouraged. Although cast iron is attacked quite similarly to low alloy steel, the graphite phase remaining on the surface as a result of the corrosion tends to exert a controlling effect after the first attack. In other words, the first attack is on the iron itself, leaving a layer on the surface which is fairly high in graphite and which is not, in itself, attacked. Low alloy cast irons are said to be somewhat better than straight cast iron. Probably the most economical and effective means of piping seawater, particularly the larger size pipe, is by use of cement lined cast iron or steel, which is finding increased usage in many localities for either seawater, or for that matter, for fresh water. In the absence of a suitable photograph of the inside of a pipe line used to conduct seawater,, Figure 1, showing the interior of a cast iron cooling box, will serve to illustrate the effect of sea water on cast iron. This unit consists of a number of cast iron tubes each 2-5/16” outside di¬ ameter by 1-3/4” inside diameter inserted into a cast iron tube sheet. Sea¬ water flows through the tubes and is used to cool a solution on the outside. It will be noted that the interior of each tube is virtually blocked as the result of tuberculation. Tuberculation is a form of rusting caused primar¬ ily from oxygen in the seawater which attacks the cast iron, forming rounds of rust which increase in size over a period of time. When a unit of this type has been in operation for a period of not over three to four months, the tubes are virtually blocked and must be cleaned. 31 6 The Texas Journal of Science FIGURE 1. ***■***+ r! ;i: ■ " ■ .?■• - ; .■■■ ■ ; FIGURE 2 1951, No. 2 June 30 Problems of Industries Using Sea Water 317 Figure 2 shows one of the tubes which has been removed from service and the tuberculation scraped from it, exposing a layer of graphitized iron. This particular tube was in service for a period of approximately 4-5 years, at which time it was taken out of service because there was so little metal remaining that it was no longer serviceable. The inner layer represents the graphitized iron, while the thinner outer layer represents the parent metal. In this particular illustration the section has been allowed to dry, causing a separation between the graphitized metal and the parent metal. Under service conditions, no apparent gap exists between the two sections. As has been previously mentioned, much of this attack can be attrib¬ uted to the presence of oxygen in the water, resulting in the formation of the rust spots or tubercles on the surface of the metal. This attack leaves the graphitized area depleted in iron and with little mechanical strength. There have been some claims that the attack is accentuated by bacterial action, but it does not appear to be a factor in this particular case. Oxygen corrosion of this type can be practically eliminated by means of vacuum deareation of the water where the problem is of such a magnitude that the relatively high cost of deareation equipment can be justified. A typical installation for deareation of water consists of a tank packed with rick-rack or a number of wooden slats stacked over each other. The water enters the tank at the top, falling over the rick-rack, exposing a large surface for the removal of the oxygen. A high vacuum, usually of 27” of mercury or greater, is applied to the tank and the deareated water continu¬ ously removed from the bottom by means of an atmospheric leg or pump. Unfortunately, this operation is moderately expensive and frequently cannot be justified despite its effectiveness. Another means of circumventing the effects of oxygen attack is the use of galvanizing or the application of zinc coating, which is very useful in many instances. Although the rate of attack of seawater on zinc is mod¬ erately high, a typical galvanized coating will prolong the life of steel or cast iron piping in seawater by at least several years. It also has the addi¬ tional advantage over some other types of coating that if there is a defect or scratch in it, as long as the coating exists it will protect the steel. Figures 3 and 4 will illustrate, to some degree, the effectiveness of the use of gal¬ vanizing which was applied to some cast iron coolers of the trombone type. In this type of cooler, seawater is allowed to fall over a series of cast iron pipes, in this case 8” in diameter, stacked on top of each other with a short gap between. In Figure 3 a portion of such a cooler which has not been galvanized is illustrated after approximately three years service. From the roughened surface, it can be seen that the attack has been very severe. In this instance, a portion of the rust scale has become partially loosened from the pipe, thus providing an insulated blanket and reducing the capacity of the particular unit to a great extent. Figure 4 illustrates a similar unit in operation the same length of time. This unit was galvanized and it can be seen that none of the roughened effect appears as in Figure 3, and the capacity of this unit is essentially the same as when it was new. Although five years or more service life may be expected for galvan¬ izing in this particular case, in other instances where galvanizing has been used on steel piping in cooling service the life has been in the order of only 318 The Texas Journal of Science 1951, No. 2 June 30 FIGURE 3 ■■ ■ : FIGURE 4. 1951, No. 2 June 30 Problems of Industries Using Sea Water 319 1-2 years. The life of galvanizing in seawater service will depend a great deal upon the exact conditions under which it is used and the thickness of the galvanized coating applied. Another means of mitigation or corrosion by seawater is the use of non- ferrous tubes, particularly the copper alloys. For turbine condensers, marine piping, particularly in the smaller sizes, and in other similar applications involving the use of seawater, certain copper alloys have been found to be extremely effective. This is not true, however, in a soda ash plant which involves the use of ammonia in the system. In this instance, copper alloys cannot be used because of the possibility of contact with the ammonia which causes an extremely high rate of attack on copper or its alloys. This explains the considerable use of cast iron for soda ash production in place of the copper alloys which have much lower corrosion rates. TABLE I COPPER ALLOYS Copper Nickel Zinc Aluminum Tin % % % % % 90-10 Cupro Nickel (a) ...89 10 70-30 Cupro Nickel .... . . . 70 30 Aluminum Brass (b) ... ... 16 21.95 2 Aluminum Bronze . ...95 5 Admiralty Alloy . ... 10 29 1 Muntz Metal . . . . . 61.5 38.5 . . Red Brass . . . . . . . 85 15 (a) 1% Iron Added (b) 0.05% Arsenic Added Table I will illustrate some of the principal copper alloys which are found to be very resistant to seawater attack. The first listed, the so-called 90-10 Cupro Nickel, is a comparatively new alloy. Although it has not had wide usage up to the present time, it is becoming increasingly popular and gives indications of being one of the principal alloys for future turbine con¬ densers and similar applications. The second alloy listed is also extremely effective and is the Navy standard 70-30 Cupro Nickel. This alloy may be obtained as such or with the addition of a small percentage of iron which is presumed to increase its resistance to impingement attack. The third alloy, illustrative of an aluminum brass composition, has also been found to be a very excellent metal for marine applications, as has aluminum bronze. The last three alloys listed are some of the older ones and, while they still find a great deal of use in marine service, they are becoming of diminishing im¬ portance. Until fairly recently the Admiralty alloy or one of its several variations was used in virtually all marine installations. The Muntz metal alloy is still used to some extent, particularly for tube sheets and similar uses. Red Brass is fairly effective for small piping and is quite readily available, although it is not normally used in the larger applications. Although atmospheric corrosion problems may not have a direct bear¬ ing on the industrial utilization of seawater, it is necessarily obvious that where seawater is used increased corrosion may be expected from the location of a plant in a coastal area due to the presence of salt air and the high humid¬ ity conditions prevailing in the area. 320 The Texas Journal of Science 1951, No. 2 June 30 For the protection of steel structures and equipment, a number of paints have been developed which are quite effective in reducing the amount of corrosion. The more common of these involve the use of red lead or zinc chromate primers followed by the application of a suitable resistant finish coat. In the painting of steel, the preparation of the surface is of first im¬ portance and regardless of the quality of the primer or finish used, the over¬ all job is of little value if the surface on which the paint is applied is not thoroughly cleaned. Although it is not always possible to sandblast the surface, it is, never¬ theless, by far the most superior method of surface preparation. In instances where sandblasting is not possible, it may be necessary to resort to other means such as wire brushing, chipping, etc., but in the latter cases the paint life would possibly be one-half of what might be expected where the surface had been properly cleaned such as by sandblasting. Where practical, the use of galvanized steel, preferably followed by the application of a resistant coating is very effective in preventing corrosion. Actually, the galvanized metal itself, without the protection afforded by the coating material, will last for a number of years. However, due to the fact that the application of a protective finish, such as a bituminous material, is very cheap and easy, and since little or no surface preparation is required, the applications of such coatings are usually indicated and will prolong the life of galvanized metal indefinitely. Another structural material which is believed will find a surprising amount of use in coastal areas is aluminum. Actually, when we speak of aluminum, we are speaking not of a single metal or alloy but one of a number of alloys. TABLE II ALUMINUM ALLOYS Per Cent of Alloying Elements — -Aluminum and Normal Impurities Constitute Remainder Alloy Copper Silicon Manganese Magnesium Zinc Chromium 3S 1.2 24S 45 0.6 1.5 61S 0.25 0.6 1.0 0.25 63S 0.4 0.7 52S 2.5 0.25 75S 1.6 2.5 5.6 0.3 Table II illustrates some of the more common types of aluminum alloys which are very useful and which will find increasing usage in coastal areas. The 3S alloy is the so-called commercially pure aluminum with the addition of 1.2 % manganese. This is a very common type and is very resistant to salt air and salt water corrosion. The 24S alloy illustrates a type of aluminum alloy which is very useful in many applications, but is definitely not indi¬ cated for use in coastal areas without proper protection. The presence of copper in that alloy tends to accelerate corrosion from exposure in coastal areas. Specimens of aluminum of -that alloy exposed under such conditions are likely to fail after a relatively short time because of severe pitting, unless coated with a protective material which may be either in the nature of a paint or by another expedient which is similar to galvanizing. In the latter case, a thickness of another aluminum alloy is applied to the surface of the 1951, No. 2 Problems of Industries Using Sea Water 321 June 30 base metal. This surface layer may comprise 5 to 10% of the total thickness of the metal and will consist of an aluminum such as the 75S containing moderate amounts of magnesium and zinc. Protection to the base metal is afforded by the fact that the surface layer is more active than the base metal, much as galvanizing is to steel. In the event of any attack on the surface either by pitting or by mechanical damage, the base metal is pro- tected even up to the time when as much as 50% of the surface layer has been destroyed. This combination, which is known as Alclading, affords the mechanical benefits of a base metal with good mechanical but poor chemical properties with good chemical resistance on the surface layer. Other alloys listed, such as the 52S, 6 IS and 63S each provide certain combinations of mechanical properties and reasonable chemical resistance in marine atmospheres and are frequently used in that service. However, due to the fact that aluminum is a relatively active metal, certain precau¬ tions must be employed when it is used, especially in marine exposures. Under normal circumstances it must not be coupled with other metals such as copper alloys or with iron and steel. In this instance, proper protective means must be used to prevent such metallic contact. An exception to this rule, and one which is somewhat surprising, is the use of stainless steel with alum¬ inum. In this instance there appears to be no significant acceleration of the corrosion of the aluminum by virtue of the contact with stainless steel. By means of illustration of the relative resistance of aluminum in marine atmospheres as compared to steel, a set of test panels have been exposed in an area where they are consistently subjected to atmospheric con¬ ditions prevalent in this locality and to a virtual rain of seawater spray. In this series of panels was included an unpainted steel panel approximately 16 gage thickness. At the end of the first year’s exposure the steel panel had completely disintegrated so that it was no longer possible to hold it on the test rack. The aluminum panels have been exposed in this location for a period of four years and are still in excellent condition. It is the hope that in this presentation some indication of the problems encountered in industrial utilization of seawater have been enumerated. By no means have all of them been covered and the impression should not be gained that all the problems have been solved. Actually, we have some only a very short way in the solution of the problem of the industrial utili¬ zation of seawater, and there is a great deal of work to be done in the future before a final answer can be obtained. 322 The Texas Journal of Science 1951, No. 2 June 30 THE EFFECTS OF VARIOUS CONCENTRATIONS OF MALEIC HYDRAZIDE ON TOMATO AND ETIOLATED BEAN PLANTS VICTOR A. GREULACH Department of Botany University of North Carolina Chapel Hill, N. C. The writer (1950) has reported much more marked growth inhibition of tomato plans by maleic hydrazide than that observed by Schoene and Hoffmann (1949), including inhibition of leaf growth, changes in leaf morphology, and inhibition of growth of stems in diameter, none of which was reported by Schoene and Hoffmann. Since the plants treated by the writer were younger than those used by Schoene and Hoffman the experi¬ ments reported here were conducted on plants which were not treated until they were 47 days old, in an effort to secure information as to the effect of age at time of treatment on the degree of growth inhibition and response secured. The effect of the maleic hydrazide on the reproductive develop¬ ment of the tomato plans was also observed, since delay and inhibition of reproduction by maleic hydrazide has been reported for other species by Naylor (1950), Miller and Erskine (1949), White (1950) and Moore (1950). Mitchell, Wirwille and Weil (1949) have reported that nicontinium compounds have interesting growth inhibiting effects on bean plants grown in complete darkness, inhibiting both hypocotyl and stem elongation and promoting growth of leaves and stem diameter, thus virtually counteracting the morphological etiolation effects. Since maleic hydrazide has not been ap¬ plied to plants kept continuously in the dark the experiment reported here was conducted in an effort to determine whether its effects might be similar to those of the nicotinium compounds. Methods . Seeds of Earliana tomatoes ( Lycopsersicon esculentus L.) were planted in flats on February 11, 1950 and transplanted to 4-inch clay pots on March 3, one plant per pot. On March 30 the plants were sprayed with water or one, 10, 100, 500, 1000 or 2000 p.p.m. of the diethanolamine salt of maleic hydrazide, with 10 plants per treatment. The lengths of the main stems and branches were measured weekly for five weeks, and at each of these times observations were made of the general condition of the plants, and the flowers and fruits were counted. Seeds of Red Valentine beans ( Phaseolus vulgaris L.) were planted in 4-inch clay pots on February 13, 1950 in a dark room, where they were kept throughout the experiment. On February 20, when the plants averaged 7.3 cm. in height they were sprayed with water or one, 10, 100 or 1000 p.p.m. of maleic hydrazide (M. H.), six plants per treatment. Measurements of hypocotyl and stem length and observations were made at two-day intervals until eight days after treatment. Results. The amount of stem growth of the tomato plants from the time of treatment to the end of the experiment (five weeks) is shown in Fig. 1 and in Table I. Concentrations of 100 p.p.m. and less caused no in- 1951, No. 2 June 30 Effects of Maleic Hydrazide on Plants 323 hibition of growth, while the growth inhibition by 500 and 1000 p.p.m. did not appear to be statistically significant. The 2000 p.p.m. concentration of M. H. did inhibit growth significantly, but growth was reduced to only about half that of the controls by the end of the five weeks, while with the tomato plants treated when 20 days old and reported on by the writer pre¬ viously (1950) the growth of plants which received 2000 p.p.m. of M. H. was only l/20 of the growth of the controls. In the previous experiment the plants completely stopped growth within six days after treatment, but in this experiment it was three weeks after treatment until growth finally stopped. TABLE I Effect of maleic hydrazide on etiolated beans 4 days after treatment and on tomatoes 35 days after treatment, with standard deviations. Concentration of M. H., p.p.m. Beans Tomatoes Hypocotyls, cm. Stems, cm. Stems, cm. Flowers, number 0 13.2±0.77 10.5±2.6 22.0±4.6 5.4±2.4 1 14.6±1.65 8.9±0.6 22.3±4.7 6.6±1.8 10 12.0±2.3 9.3+2.0 2 1.4 ±3. 2 4.2±2.6 100 12.9±2.4 10.1 ±0.7 20.5±4,1 5.7±2.2 500 16.5±3.1 4.3±2.8 1000 3 3. 6 ±2.1 1.8 ±1.-3 16.9±4.2 3.4±2.5 2000 10.3 ±=1.9 0.6±0.9 EFFECT OF 1000 and 2000 p.p.m. of maleic hydrazide on the growth of tomato plants treated 47 days after planting. The growth curves for 1, 10 and 100 p.p.m. were almost identical with the curve for the controls, while the curve for 500 p.p.m. was essentially the same as the curve for 1000 p.p.m. These were omitted from the graph to avoid a confusion of closely spaced lines. 324 The Texas Journal of Science 1951, No. 2 June 30 Loss of apical dominance and subsequent branching occurred in only half of the plants receiving 2000 p.p.m., in one of the plants receiving 500 p.p.m., but not in any other treatment. The branch on the plant sprayed with 500 p.p.m. was 42 cm. long, while the branches on the plants sprayed with 2000 p.p.m. of M. H. averaged 41.4 cm. in length at the end of the experiment. There was no inhibition of stem growth in diameter nor of leaf growth. No anthocyanin developed in any of the treated plants, nor were there any modifications of leaf morphology such as reported previouly by the writer ( 1950) . Blooming began about a week later in the plant which received 10 p.p.m. or more of M. H. than in the controls or the plants sprayed with one p.p.m. However, a significant reduction in the number of flowers per plant on a cumulative basis was effected only by 2000 p.p.m. (Table I) . Half of the plants in this treatment had not developed any flowers by the end of the experiment. Although too few fruits developed on any of the plants by the end of the experiment to permit any valid generalization, it is interest¬ ing that none of the fruits on plants sprayed with 1000 or 2000 p.p.m. at¬ tained a diameter of more than 0.5 cm. before abscising. The other treat¬ ments did not appear to affect fruit development. No concentration of M. H. used inhibited the growth of the etiolated bean hypocotyls, and only the 1000 p.p.m. concentration inhibited the growth of the stems (Table I). This concentration inhibited stem growth completely within 96 hours, while all other plants continued to grow until the end of the experiment. No treatment affected leaf development or stem diameter, and even the plants rceiving 2000 p.p.m. had a structure typical of etiolated plants. Discussion. A comparison of the effects of M. H. on the tomato plants in this experiment with those on younger plants in a previous experiment (1950) indicate that age of the plants at the time of treatment is probably an important factor in the degree of growth inhibition and morphogenic effects produced. The experiments also indicate that 100 p.p.m. or lower concentrations of M. H. have virtually no effect on either beans or tomatoes as used in these experiments, which is in line with the findings of various other investigators. However, it should be noted that both 10 and 100 p.p.m. did delay the appearance of flowers on the tomato plants by about a week, which indicates that reproductive development may be affected by lower concentrations than vegetative development, although only 2000 p.p.m. brought about marked inhibition of reproductive development. Al¬ though all plants treated with 2000 p.p.m. of M. H. completely stopped growing, it should be noted that only half of them lost apical dominance and developed branches. As far as could be determined, apical dominance was lost only when the terminal bud died, which does not agree with the observation of Naylor and Davis (1950). The marked difference in response of the etiolated bean plants in this experiment to M. H. and in the experiment of Mitchell, Wirwille and Weil (1949) to nicotinium compounds indicates that the two growth inhibitors act in fundamentally different ways. The failure of the M. H. to inhibit hypocotyl growth while it did inhibit stem growth provides added evidence that it inhibits cell division rather than cell elongation, as has been sug¬ gested previously by Greulach and Atchison (1950). 1951, No. 2 June 80 Effects of maleic hydrazide of Plants 325 SUMMARY 1. Etiolated bean plants seven days old and tomato plants 47 days old were sprayed with various concentrations of maleic hydrazide. 2. Concentrations of one, 10 and 100 p.p.m. of maleic hydrazide had no effect on the growth of bean plants in the dark, while 1000 p.p.m. in¬ hibited stem growth but not growth of the hypocotyls. 3. Concentrations of one, 10 and 100 p.p.m. did not effect the growth of the tomato plants; 500 and 1000 p.p.m. caused slight growth inhibition of dubious significance; 2000 p.p.m. caused marked growth inhibition. 4. The effects of M. H. were much less marked than in plants in a previous experiment which were treated at an earlier age. There were no effects on stem diameter, leaf size or leaf shape as in the previously reported experiment, nor did any anthocyanin develop. 5. Apparently apical dominance was lost only after the death of the terminal bud. 6 . Reproductive development of the tomatoes was almost completely inhibited by 2000 p.p.m., while lower concentrations exhibited some inhibi¬ tory effects. LITERATURE CITED Greulach, Victor A. — 1950 — Growth inhibition and injury of plants by maleic hydrazide. Texas J. Sci. 2 : 219-221. - andEarlene Atchison — 1950 — Inhibition of growth and cell division in onion roots by maleic hydrazide. Bull. Torey Bot. Club 77 : 262-267. Miller,, Richard R. and Donald Erskine — 1949 — The prevention of fruit formation on some ornamental trees. Proc. Nat. Shade Tree Conf. 25 : 88-100. Mitchell, John W., J. W. Wirwille and Leopold Weil — 1949 — Plant growth regulating prop¬ erties of some nicotinium compounds. Science 110 : 252-254. Moore, Rufus H. — 1950 — Several effects of maleic hydrazide on plants. Science 112 : 52-53. Naylor, Aubrey W. — 1950 — Observations on the effects of maleic hydrazide on the flowering of tobacco, maize and cocklebur. Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci. 36 : 230-232. — - and E. A. Davis — 1950 — Maleic hydrazide as a plant growth inhibitor. Bot. Gaz. 112 : 112-126. Schoene, D. L. and Otto L. Hoffmann — 1949 — Maleic hydrazide, a unique growth regulant. Science 109 : 588-590. White, David G. — 1950 — Blossoming of fruits delayed by maleic hydrazide. Science 111 : 303. 326 The Texas Journal of Science 1951, No. 2 June 30 BOOK REVIEWS STUDIES IN MUSLIM ICONOGRAPHY. I. THE UNICORN. Richard Ettinghausen. Wash¬ ington. The Freer Gallery of Art. ix, 209 pp., 48 pis. 1950. $3.00. The history of the unicorn is long and varied and the description of this fabulous beast took many forms. Some benighted writers had the termer- ity to refer to it as merely a horse with a horn, but the Romans were more explicit. Pliny states that the very fierce animal called the monoceros "has the head of the stag, the feet of the elephant, and the tail of the boar, while the rest of the body is like that of the horse; it makes a deep lowing noise, and has a single black horn, which projects from the middle of its forehead, two cubits in length. This animal, it is said, cannot be taken alive.” The myth, as has been shown by Odell Shepard (Lore of the Unicorn, 1930) and Willy Ley (The Lungfish, the Dodo and the Unicorn, 1948) undoubtedly originated with the rhinoceros, of which reports had reached the Western countries from time to time. However, until the present volume, little was known of the unicorn in Mohammedan literature, or, more specifically, of its pictorial representa¬ tion in Muslim books and art. Ettinghausen has done a superlative piece of research on this and has also shown that the horn so highly prized by apothecaries of the world of Islam, was, as is shown by pictorial representations, generally walrus tusk. More rarely it was the horn from a narwhale. Many illustrations of the beast are found in the old Mohammedan texts. They called it (mostly) karkadann, which is also the name of rhinoceros, and it took every conceivable form. Ettinghausen’s plates show lupine uni¬ corns, antelope-like unicorns, unicorns that look like cattle, leonine forms, and half a dozen others, while one karkadann even looks like a rabbit! Ley has pointed out that the unicorn myth began to die out in Europe once the rhinoceros became known to many people. Apparently the same thing happened in the Muslim world, for Ettinghausen notes that "in the eighteenth century, al-Qazwini manuscripts of inferior quality, and thus destined for the simple and impecunious, showed illustrations of the karka¬ dann, in which a kind of dreary resemblance to the rhinoceros emerged. The text, of course, still tells the old tales and superstititions, but the minia¬ tures have now nearly caught up with the actual animal. The encounter with reality is, however, disenchanting. The ferocious and yet impressive character of the old monster has gone and all that remains is an immense and unpre¬ possessing hulk of a body. No new ramifications of the age-old myth could possibly grow up around this sort of an animal.” The book is a beautiful example of typography, and the plates are both excellent and interesting. The extensive bibliography (282 titles) adds a great deal to the worth of the publication, also, because it lists English trans¬ lations of a great deal of Asiatic material. The book is interesting if you are interested in the history of science and the beginning of things, and should have some appeal for zoologists. It is a readable, accurate account of a belief that is extremely old, and a fine job. 1951, No. 2 June 30 Book Reviews 327 THE BEHAVIOR OF ENGINEERING METALS. H. W. Gillett, John Wiley and Sons, 1951. This excellent book may well be described as its author’s biography, for his life was so completely devoted to this field and so many subjects are covered, that it is really the work of a lifetime. In an effort to be broad, it has been necessary to be concise, and one wishes that Dr. Gillett had lived to expand this book into an encyclopedia. Anyone working with metals should have an acquaintance with this book. Ferrous as well as nonferrous metals are included, the treatment being roughly in proportion to their use in industry. The range of data covered may be visualized by noting some of the Chapter Headings; The Statistical Approach, Light Wrought Alloys, Titanium and Zirconium, Metal Films and Surfaces, Severe Service at High and Low Temperatures. Besides introducing the reader to numerous details under these heads, almost every chapter contains a lengthy list of references for further details. This list goes far to bridge the gap between a brief, index work, and an en¬ cyclopedia. Here, again, is a sign of Dr. Gillett’s own merit, for in almost every case, these references are to recent, native publications that can be secured, rather than to erudite and inaccessible ones.— -Charles e. balleisen, SOUTHWEST RESEARCH INSTITUTE, SAN ANTONIO, TEXAS. NANSEN. E. E. REYNOLDS. Penguin Books. Harmondsworth, Middlesex, England. 1949. One Shilling Six. 1951 marks the ninetieth anniversary of the birth of Fridtjof Nansen. His was a varied life; one that would well bear imitating by scientists of today. He was not only a great scientist but also a great citizen and humani¬ tarian. His investigations in the field of oceanography and the marine sciences are well matched by his performance as Norwegian Minister in London and by his gigantic activities when attempting to resettle the DP’s of World War I. With all his interest in the sciences, he never forgot that the progress of civilization is made by the collective action of individuals and that those individuals should be considered as individuals and not merely as so many thousand subjects. Perhaps his outstanding achievement was the arctic voyage in the "Fram.” This was an undertaking approached only by the exploit of Admiral Byrd in spending the antarctic winter alone, many miles from the rest of his men. Nansen and his men embarked in the Fram in 1893 and sailed east¬ ward from Norway along the coast of Siberia. As winter approached, they turned north, became frozen in the ice, and slowly drifted north and west. After more than a year of this slow drifting, Nansen and a single companion left the ship and traveled across half the frozen arctic sea to Spitzbergen. Both he and his companion, the Fram and all her crew arrived safely in Norway after three years of traveling. Nor was this his only such experience. A few years before, he had led the first party to cross the Greenland ice cap. Truly, a study of his methods and work is well worth while today. His exploits, risky as they may seem to us, were carefully planned beforehand in every last detail and to such an extent that he was seldom, if ever, confronted by an unexpected situation. This tedious attention to detail and endless planning paid off well in all his work.— CHARLES E. BALLEISEN, SOUTHWEST RESEARCH INSTITUTE, SAN ANTONIO, TEXAS. w O * S o x 5> OJ M d *3 T3 " M G OJ) c/3 O C Q-g 1951, No. 2 June 30 Regional Meetings 329 PROGRAM of Texas Academy of Science Regional Meeting Corpus Christi April 6, 7, 1951 HEADQUARTERS NUECES HOTEL Section 1 — Physical Sciences Room 227 Nueces Hotel FRIDAY, APRIL 6 — 9:00-12:00 F. F. Mikus, Presiding 9:00 Decomposition Pressures of Ammonium Formate Robert B. Hill, Texas A. and I. College 9:20 Adaptation of the Electron Microscope to Electron Diffraction Studies of Molecular Vapors — Paul Cutter, Del Mar College 9:55 An Hypothetical Cosmogony — James C. Axtell, Texas A. and I College 10:00 Radiological Medicine-— W. R. Metzger, M. D., Corpus Christi, Texas 10:45 Certain Techniques of Velocity and Energy Selection Emmett Wiley, Texas A. and I. College 11:10 Adult Education Through Industrial Research Charles O. Balleisen, Southwest Research Institute 11:35 The Program of the Department of Oceanography at A. and M. College of Texas — -Dale F. Leipper, A. and M. College of Texas Section 11 — Biological Sciences Lounge Room Nueces Hotel FRIDAY, APRIL 6 — 9:00 - 12:00 E. R. Bogusch Presiding 9:00 Science as a Basis for Physical Education Eldon D. Brinley, Texas A. & L, Kingsville, Texas 9:20 The Import of Catastrophic Mass Mortalities Along The Texas Coast for Conservation of Marine Fisheries Gordon Gunter, Inst. Marine Science, Port Aransas, Texas 9:40 Air-borne Molds as Causes of Respiratory Allergic Diseases in Texas Homer E. Prince, M. D., Houston, Texas 10:00 Free Amino Acids of Mosquitoes (334 x 4 lantern) Don W. Micks, Med. Branch, Univ. of Texas, Galveston, Texas 10:20 A Proposed Standard for Testing Industrial By-Products to Be Released in Marine Waters F. M. Daugherty, Jr., Marine Laboratory, Rockport, Texas 10:40 Conservation Everett R. Dawson, Game, Fish and Oyster Commission, Austin, Texas 11:00 A Check List of Birds of the Rio Grande Delta Mrs. Irby Davis, Harlingen Schools 11:20 Notes on the Taxonomy of the Giant Water Bugs (Belostomatidae) of the Western Hemisphere (334 x 4 lantern) — D. Warren Craik, U. C. C. 11:40 Brush Invasion in the Texas Tamaulipan Edwin R. Bogusch, Texas A. & I., Kingsville, Texas 1951, No. 2 June 30 3 30 The Texas Journal of Science FRIDAY, APRIL 6 — 2:00 - 5:00 Pauline James, Presiding 2 :00 Incidence of Tapeworm Occurrence in Turkeys Raymond Henry, Texas A. & L, Kingsville, Texas 2:15 Current Status of White-winged Dove in Texas Charles Hand, Texas A. & L, Kingsville, Texas 2:30 Food Analysis of Bob White Quail Arturo Garcia and Alonzo Lopez, Texas A. & I., Kingsville, Texas 2 :45 Texas Cave Fauna — -Barbara Jesse, Texas A. & I., Kingsville, Texas 3:00 The Diet of the Woodrat During Periods of Drought Barbara Everhart, Texas A. & L, Kingsville, Texas 3:15 Melanistic Tendencies of Troost’s Turtle Robert Pruessner, Texas A. & I., Kingsville, Texas 3:30 Population Studies of Turtles in Kleberg County Edweina Edwards, Texas A. & I., Kingsville, Texas 3 :45 The Occurrence of Coliform Bacteria in South Texas Waters Aubrey McCameron, Texas A. & I., Kingsville, Texas 4:00 Forms of Native Wildlife on Padre Island Fred Bucanek, Texas A. & L, Kingsville, Texas 4:15 Age Immunity in Transplantation of Rat Tumor John B. Loefer, Foundation of Applied Research 4:35 Viola reidia Corp. sp. nov. Mrs. Bruce Reid, Big Thicket Association, Silsbee, Texas 4:45 Preliminary Notes on Nesting Association in a Texas Pond Pauline James, Texas A. & I., Kingsville, Texas Section III — Social Science Crystal Room, Nueces Hotel FRIDAY, APRIL 6 — 9:00 - 12:00 C. A. Gregg, Presiding 9:00 Purpose and Function of Municipal Government in Organized Society W. C. Collier, City Manager, Corpus Christi, Texas 9:30 Failing Responsibilities to Our Children Jere A. Daniel, Probation Officer, Juvenile Dept., Corpus Christi, Texas 10:00 Legal Requirements for Educational Administrators in Texas Public Schools James W. Askew, Superintendent Schools, Skidmore, Texas 10:30 The Importance of History— -James A. Creighton, Roy Miller High School 11:00 The Importance of Understanding Economics and Its Place in the General Social Science Field — Mr. John Perkins, Del Mar College FRIDAY, APRIL 6 — 2:00-4:00 Minton White, Presiding 2:00 The Impeachment of James E. Ferguson— R. W. Steen, Texas A. & M. 2:30 Teacher Tenure in Texas— E. L. Bowden, U. C. C. 3:00 — -The Library as a Patent Force in the Social Growth of the Community Richard Gillespie SATURDAY, APRIL 7 — 9:00 - 12:00 Paul Cutter, Presiding 9:00 Esterification of Maleic Anhydride Ben F. Freasier, Texas A. and I. College 9:30 Hydrolysis and Saponification of Dimethyl Maleate Robert D. Seeley, Texas A. and I. College 10:00 A Chemical Interpretation of the Reaction of Alkali Metals with Liquid Ammonia — William C. McGavock, Trinity University 10:30 The Gasogene — J. A. Scanlan and B. H. Amstead, University of Texas 11 :00 The Strength of Metals at Low Temperatures John R. Watt, University of Texas 11:40 Solutropes — F. F. Mikus, Texas A. and I. College June 30 1951, No. 2 Regional. Meetings 331 SATURDAY, APRIL 7 — 8:00 - 12:00 D. Warren Craik, Presiding 8:00 Simple Monochrome and Duochrome Photomicrography in High School Biology — John W. Sarver, W. B. Ray High School, Corpus Christi, Texas 8:20 Effects of Soil Media Upon the Rooting of Ornamental Plants. Leo L. Bailey, Texas A. & L, Kingsville, Texas 8:40 Distribution of Phosphate and Nitrogen in Root Tips (334 x 4 lantern) W. E. Norris, George Turner and James Moyer, SWTSTC, San Marcos, Texas 9:00 Use of Different Indices in Measuring Respiration of Different Segments of the Growing Root Tip (334 x 4 lantern) W. E. Norris, James Moyer, and George Turner, SWTSTC, San Marcos, Texas 9:20 Food Analysis in Notropis venustus venustus from Lake Travis L. V. Guerra, University of Texas 9 :40 Home Ranges of Peromyscus maniculatus and Perognatbus hispidus in Johnson-grass pasture — L. K. Hay, University of Texas 10:00 Local Differentiation in the Pocket Gopher ( Geomys per sonatas) in Southern Texas — -T. E. Kennerly, University of Texas 10:20 Local Variation in Populations of the Collared Lizard (Crotaphytus collaris ) W. L. Thompson, University of Texas 11:00 The Reptiles and Amphibians of the Tamaulipan Biotic Province Ralph W. Axtell, University of Texas 11:20 Mammals of the Tamaulipan Biotic Province W. F. Blair, University of Texas 11:40 Curve Fitting— Ben South, Texas A. & L, Kingsville, Texas SATURDAY, APRIL 7—9:00 - 12:00 E. L. Bowden, Presiding 9:00 Social and Educational Problems Facing Youth of Spanish Name in Texas A. O. Lerma, Member of Board of Education, Corpus Christi 9:30 Religious Education in Texas— Nat. C. Bettis, U. C. C. 9:30 Social Science Apace with Educational Developments Jack L. Martin, T. C. U. 10:00 Personnel Relations Fenton Holm, Personnel Director, Corn Products Refining Company 10:00 Guiding Principles in Curriculum Making for Science Lewis R. Fisher, Texas A. & I. College Junior Academy Terrace Room, Driscoll Hotel SATURDAY, APRIL 7 — 9:00 - 12:30 Velma Wilson, Presiding 9:00 Greetings from the Texas Junior Academy Committee Wayne Taylor, Denton High School 9:15 Production and Investigation of Smoke Rings Ed Coughlin, Roy Miller High School 9:30 Infant Mortality in Texas Sandra Hollenbeck, Harlingen High School 9:45 Gulf Coast Chemical Industries Grace Riemann, Brownsville High School 10:00 Garments from Gas— E. T. Lindsey, Assistant to the Plant Manager, Celanese Corporation of America, Bishop, Texas 10:30 Construction of a Radio— Seinwil Perl, Brownsville High School 10:45 Extraction of Caffeine from Tea Evelyn Sutter, Brownsville High School 11:00 Famous Experiments in Science— Marion Bennett, Ray High School 11:15 A Jet Propulsion Model — -Hector Cisneros, Brownsville High School 11:30 Crystals— Robert Lattimore, Brownsville High School 11:45 Various Micro-organisms Observed in a Hay - Infusion James Wicker, Roy Miller High School 12:00 Building an Electric Motor— Alan Lilyholm, Roy Miller High School 12:15 Silkworms- — -Sister Aloysius, Incarnate Word Academy, Corpus Christi 332 The Texas Journal of Science 1951, No. 2 June SO El Paso Meeting GENERAL PROGRAM 8:00 P.M. 8:30-10:00 A.M. 10:00-12:00 A.M. 12:30- 1:15 P.M. 2:00- 4:30 P.M. 4:30- 6:00 P.M. 7:30 P.M. 9:00-11:00 A.M. 10:00-12:30 A.M. 11:00-11:45 A.M. 12:00- 1:30 P.M. 12:00- 1:30 P.M. 1:30- 3:30 P.M. 1:30- 5:30 P.M. 3:30- 5:00 P.M. 3:30 P.M. 7:00 P.M. SUNDAY, APRIL 29, 1951 Meeting of the Executive Committee, S. W. Div., A.A.A.S. Library, Science Bldg., Texas Western College MONDAY, APRIL 30, 1951 Registration. Foyer Magoffin Auditorium, T.W.C. Registration will continue through Wednesday. General Session. Magoffin Auditorium, T.W.C. Music: T.W.C. Music Department Address of Welcome: President Wilson H. Elkins Response: Prof. C. W. Botkin, President, S. W. Div. A.A.A.S. Greetings: Dr. Howard A. Meyerhoff, Administrative Secre¬ tary, A.A.A.S., Washington, D. C. Greetings: Dr. Kirtley F. Mather, President, A.A.A.S., Harvard University. Luncheon will be served at the College Dining Hall, followed by address by Dr. Kirtley F. Mather on "Earth and Man Today.” Section Meetings. Reception at the home of President and Mrs. Elkins, T.W.C. Campus. Dinner in Juarez, New Tivoli Cafe. TUESDAY, MAY 1, 1951 Section Meetings. Field Trip to Phelps Dodge Refinery. A lecture including slides and movies on "The Use of Tissue Cultures in Experimental Biology and Medicine,” by Dr. C. M. Pomerat, Medical Branch, The University of Texas, Galves¬ ton. Dr. Pomerat is a member of the Texas Academy of Science. Luncheon, College Dining Hall. Joint luncheon of the Texas and New Mexico Academies of Science. Green Room, Hilton Hotel. Section Meetings. Guided tour through Fort Bliss. Open House of Cotton Memorial Building (art exhibit and refreshments) and the El Paso Centennial Museum. Campus. Section Business Meetings. Annual Dinner. College Dining Hall. Greetings: Dr. C. C. Doak, President of the Texas Academy of Science. Address of Prof. C. W. Botkin, retiring President. "Some Contributions of the Desert to Man’s Welfare.” WEDNESDAY, MAY 2, 1951 A.M. Business Session and Election of Officers, Southwestern Division. Magoffin Auditorium. A.M. Section Meetings. P.M Luncheon. College Dining Hall. P.M. Joint Symposium on "Potentialities of Desert and Arid Lands.” P.M. Guided tour through American Smelting and Refining Plant. P.M. John Wesley Powell Lecture: "Nature and the Question of Rain Making,” Dr. E. J. Workman, President, and Director of Research and Development, New Mexico School of Mines, Socorro, N. M. Magoffin Auditorium. THURSDAY, MAY 3, 1951 Trip to White Sands Proving Ground, New Mexico. Time and place of rendezvous and route to be taken will be announced at the General Business Session, Wednesday. 9:00-10:00 10:00-12:00 12:00- 1:30 1:30- 5:30 2:15 8:00 1951, No. 2 June 3© The First Idealist 333 THE FIRST IDEALIST A jellyfish swam in a tropical sea, And he said, "This world it consists of me: There’s nothing above and nothing below That a jellyfish ever can possibly know (Since we’ve got no sight, or hearing, or smell), Beyond what our single sense can tell. Now, all that I learn from the sense of touch Is that fact of my feelings, viewed as such. But to think they have any external cause Is an inference clean against logical laws. Again, to suppose, as I’ve hitherto done, There are other jellyfish under the sun, Is a pure assumption that can’t be backed By a lot of proof or a single fact. In short, like Hume, I very much doubt If there’s anything else at all without. So I come at least to the plain conclusion, When the subject is fairly set free from confusion, That the universe simply centers in me And if I were not, then nothing would be.” That minute, a shark who was strolling by Just gulped him down, in the twink of an eye; And he died, with a few convulsive twists. But, somehow, the universe still exists. Grant Allen The Texas Journal of Science 1951, No. 2 June 30 DIRECTIONS FOR THE PREPARATION OF MANUSCRIPTS 1. Manuscripts should be submitted to the editor, Texas journal of science, BOX 867, rockport, Texas. Manuscripts may be subject to minor editorial alterations in order to conform to the general style of the Journal. All manuscripts must be typewritten and double spaced with wide margins. The fact that a footnote is usually printed in small type, closely spaced, does not make it any less likely to need correction than any other portion of the manuscript, and the practice of some authors to single space such interpolations makes it exceedingly diffi¬ cult to make the necessary editorial corrections. This also applies to bibliographies. 2. Each manuscript should be accompanied by an abstract, not more than two hundred and fifty words in length. If the editorial board finds it advisable, the abstract may be published instead of the paper. If the paper can be improved or condensed the editor may return it for such changes. 3. The following form should be adhered to in typing any paper:— Title Name of Author Affiliation of Author Body of Paper Literature Cited 4. References or bibliographies should be arranged alphabetically at the end of the article, without numerical designation. References in the text should be by author’s name and date of publication. The use of extensive footnotes should be avoided wherever possible* These are troublesome to the editor, and a nuisance to the printer, as they have to be properly spaced in the composing, which takes increased time and raises costs. 5. A typical bibliographical entry should be as follows: — Doe, John, and W. C. Rowe — 1943 — How to prepare a bibliography. Tex. J. Sci. 6(2): 1-13, 3 figs., 2 pis. - 1943a — How not to prepare a bibliography. Tex. J. Sci. 3(1): 1-26, 2 figs., 3 pis., 2 maps. - 1947 — Mistakes often made in preparing a bibliography. Tex. J. Sci. 1(1): 7-15, 2 pis. The above is a standard form that makes it immeasurably easier for the editor to handle. Please be accurate about the volume, part and page numbers. A poor bibliography is worse than none at all. 6. Cuts and other figures will be accepted up to the limit of the Academy publishing budget. All illustrations should be in black and white for zinc cuts where possible. Half-tones require special paper 1951, No. 2 June 30 The Texas Journal of Science and, if too expensive, may be charged to the author. Drawings and illus¬ trations should be carefully prepared for reproduction. Legends should be precise and included with the drawings and illustration. 7. Tables should be limited to necessary comparisons and, if pos¬ sible, should be clearly typed or hand lettered ready for photography. 8. Arrangements have been made with the publisher to furnish proofs to the editor so that two copies may be sent to the author for proof reading before publication. However, it is very necessary to return this corrected proof and manuscript promptly or the paper will have to be omitted from that issue of the quarterly and another substituted on which the author has been more prompt. Moreover, remember that extensive changes in the subject matter of the paper after the type has been set are expensive, and time consuming. If such changes must be made the expense will, of necessity, fall on the author. 9. The following schedule of prices will apply to reprints, subject to change. All orders must be sent directly to the publisher on sheets enclosed with the galley proof. The editor assumes no responsibility for reprints and all arrangements are strictly between the author and the publisher. Checks must accompany reprint orders. This of course does not apply to institutional orders, but only to those Academy members ordering personal copies. This keeps bookkeeping at a mini¬ mum and also keeps the publisher in a good humor. It is felt that this is the most desirable way to handle the matter, despite the fact that formerly it was the custom for the editor to obtain the reprints from the publisher and to collect from the individual member. 100 Copies On Ordinary M. F. Book Paper Pages Pages Pages 1 Page 2 Pages 3 to 4 5 to 8 9 to 12 4.63 5.78 7.95 10.78 15.40 Each Additional 4 Pages or part thereof 2.84 Each Additional 100 Copies 1.58 2.12 3.02 3.98 4.89 Each Additional 4 Pages or part thereof .91 10. Above all, be sure name of author, title of paper and author’s affiliations are on the Ms itself, also on all cuts. Pages 12 to 16 15.40 5.81 The Editorial Board The Texas Journal of Science June 30 1951, No. 2 Professional Directory J. BRIAN EBY Consulting Geologist 1404 Esperson Bldg. Ph. CH-4776 Houston, Tex. LEONARD J. NEUMAN Registered Professional Engineer Geological and Geophysical Surveys Petroleum Engineering Reports Houston, Texas Geophysics Office Engineering Office 943 Mellie Esperson Bldg. Ph. Preston 2705 Ph. FA-7086 LEO HORVITZ Geochemical Prospecting Horvitz Research Laboratories Houston, Texas Ph. KE-5545 3217 Milam Street MICHEL T. HALBOUTY Consulting Geologist and Petroleum Engineer Shell Building Houston 2, Texas Phone PR-6376 SHERMAN NELSON - OIL — Royalty — Leases Seguin, Texas WILLIAM H. SPICE, JR. Cqnsulting Geologist 2101-03 Alamo National Building SAN ANTONIO 5, TEXAS HERSHAL C. FERGUSON Consulting Geologist and Paleontologist Esperson Building HOUSTON, TEXAS 8251^2 Gravier Street New Orleans, La. JOHN S. IVY Geologist 1124 Niels Esperson Bldg. Houston, Texas PETTY GEOPHYSICAL ENGINEERING COMPANY Seismic Gravity Magnetic Surveys 317 Sixth St. San Antonio, Texas COCKBURN OIL CORPORATION 1740 Commerce Building HOUSTON 2, TEXAS E. E. ROSAIRE Prospecting for Petroleum DALLAS, TEXAS H. KLAUS Geologist KLAUS EXPLORATION COMPANY Lubbock, Texas Consulting Geologists Appraisals Reservoir Engineers DeGOLYER and MacNAUGHTON Continental" Building DALLAS, TEXAS FARNSWORTH & CHAMBERS COMPANY, INC. Contractors and Engineers 3018 Leeland Houston, Texas Phone AT-2451 1951, No. 2 June 30 The Texas Journal of Science Professional Directory Continued COASTAL OIL FINDING COMPANY Gravity Meter Surveys Esperson Building Houston 2, Texas As a courtesy to the Academy, in doing business with our advertis¬ ers, please make mention of the fact that you saw their advertise¬ ment in The Texas Journal of Science. FOR SALE AT WITTE MUSEUM Brackenridge Park, San Antonio 9 “Wild Flowers of San Antonio and Vicinity” — Schulz “Texas Cacti” — Schulz & Runyon . §3.00 “Snakes of Bexar County” — J. Walker Davenport . . . $2.00 (Limited edition) Annotated Catalogue Amphibians and Reptiles — Bexar County, Texas — John K. Strecker (Collector's Item) . $1.25 Quality TIRES and BATTERIES AT YOUR GULF DEALERS’ The Texas Journal of Science 1951, No. 2 June 30 A MUST for Visitors When visiting sunny Treasure Isle, for business or for pleasure, your stay is not complete until you've had an opportunity to dine in the beautiful Turf Grill. Don't miss seeing one of the South's finest eating rooms. TURF GRILL 2216 Market • Galveston, Texas 1951, No. 2 June 30 The Texas Journal of Science TAYLOR EXPLORATION COMPANY SEISMIC SURVEYS CONSULTING 2118 Welch Houston, Texas The Texas Journal of Science 1951, No. 2 June 30 Petroleum Products of proven quality AMERICAN BRAHMAN BREEDERS ASSOCIATION 2711 S. MAIN • EMBLEMATIC OF THE BEST IN MODERN MERICAN BEEF BRAHMANS HOUSTON 2, TEXAS SEISMIC EXPLORATIONS, INC. 1007 South Shepherd Drive Houston, Texas Established — 1932 June 30 1951, No. 2 The Texas Journal of Science c4lway,3 ChooAe an Affiliated National Hotel! 29 Fine Hotels in 21 Cities AFFILIATED NATIONAL HOTELS Hotel ALABAMA Admiral Semmes . . Mobile Hotel Thomas Jefferson . ..Birmingham DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA Hotel Washington . ...Washington INDIANA Hotel Claypool . ..Indianapolis LOUISIANA Jung Hotel . New Orleans Hotel DeSoto . New Orleans NEBRASKA Hotel Paxton . . Omaha NEW MEXICO Hotel Clovis . Clovis SOUTH CAROLINA Hotel Wade Hampton . Columbia TEXAS Hotel Stephen F. Austin.. Hotel Edson . Hotel Brown wood . Hotel Baker . Hotel Travis . Hotel Cortez . Hotel Buccaneer . Hotel Galvez . Hotel Jean LaFitte . Coronado Courts . Miramar Court . Hotel Cavalier . Hnt.pl Plaza . Austin . Beaumont . Dallas . Dallas . El Paso . Galveston . . Galveston . Galveston . Galveston . Galveston . Laredo Hotel Lubbock . . Lubbock Hotel Falls . . Marlin Hotel Cactus . HMel Mpnjpr ....San Angelo ..San Antonio Angeles Courts . ...San Antonio VIRGINIA Hotel Mountain Lake Mountain Lake Hotel Monticello . Norfolk Schlumberger Well Surveying Corporation Electrical Well Logging Gun Perforating Houston, Texas ROBERT H. RAY CO. Gravity Meter Survey and Interpretation FOREIGN - DOMESTIC 2500 Bolsover Rd. Houston 5, Texas QUINBY se7!cTen* 1951, No. J June 30 HOUSTON, TEXAS wines.' i i q r K r,K s A Nl) A II A M l': A t; n r S i From the World’* L Markets! - »j+ «j* «j+ *j. -*j* *j* ♦** *j* *j* *j. «j* »j« GEOCHEMICAL SURVEYS 3806 Cedar Springs Rd. Dallas 4, Texas & 1152,/2 North Second St. Abilene, Texas The Texas Journal of Science “A name worth remembering” You can benefit from our many years experience in the personnel field. Executive, Office, Sales and Technical Personnel Member National Employment Board, Chamber of Commerce and Employment Counselors 409 Bankers Mortgage Bldg. Houston 2, Texas CONSERVATION COUNCIL AND COCOUNCILLORS President : John G. Sinclair, Medical Branch, University of Texas Secretary: L. S. Paine, Dept. Economics, A. and M. College, College Station Human health, hygiene and public health: C. D. Leake, Medical Branch, University of Texas, Galveston Human genetics, heredity, eugenic and dysgenic practices. C. P. Oliver, Department Zoology, University of Texas, Austin Cocouncillor : Spurgeon Smith, Biology Department, SWTC, San Marcos Human mind. Preservation of mental and emotional qualities : Robert Sutherland, Hogg Foundation, University of Texas, Austin Social institutions and economics. Custom, law, prejudice, etc. : L. S. Paine, Department of Economics, A. and M. College, College Station Cocouncillors : Mrs. Louise Johnson, Extension Service, A. & M. College, College Station Miss Francis Moon, Department Public Welfare, Houston Lyle Saunders, Race Relations Research, University of Texas, Austin A. B. Melton, Denton Roy Donahue, economics, A. and M. College, College Station Young scientific talent: C. M. Pomerat, Tissue Culture Laboratory, Medical Branch, University of Texas Cocouncillors : Collegiate grade, Charles La Motte, Biology, A. and M. High school grade, Gretta Oppe, Ball High School, Galveston Conservation education and publicity. Public relations.. J. B. Rutland, State Department of Education, Austin Cocouncillors : Health. Mrs. M. Hayes, Dallas Health Museum, Dallas Health. D. B. Taylor, Department of Education, Austin Forest and range. D. A. Anderson, Forest Service, A. and M. Soil. David O. Davis, Box 1898, Fort Worth Wild Life. Everett Dawson, Game, Fish and Oyster Commission, Austin State Parks, Norfleet Bone. Texas State Parks, Austin UNESCO. Ethics and Philosophy. J. G. Sinclair, Medical Branch, Galveston Population problems. Net reproductive rate and controls. J, G. Sinclair, Department of Anatomy, Medical Branch, University of Texas, Galveston Food quality and responsible factors. L. W. Blau, Humble Oil and Refining Co., Houston Soil and water conservation especially in relation to crops. Paul Walser, Soil Conservation Service, Temple, Texas Councillor M. A. Hartman, Fort Worth Animals adapted to Texas agriculture. Jack Miller, College Station Plants adapted to Texas agriculture. Simon E. Wolff; Ft. Worth Marine resources J. L. Baughman, Biologist, Game, Fish and Oyster Commission, Rockport Wild life preservation. State Parks and refuges. B. B. Harris, Biology Department, N.T.S.T.C., Denton. Cocouncillors : Ernest G. Marsh, Wildlife, Game, Fish and Oyster Commission, Austin Norfleet G. Bone, State Parks Board, Austin Forest and range. Forests as lumber. Vernon A, Young. Forest and Range, A. and M. College, College Station Cfiemurgy. Forest and crops as industrial materials, etc. Victor Schoffelmayer, Southwest Research Foundation, San Antonio Underground water and rivers. Paul Weaver, Gulf Oil Corporation, Houston Oil and gas. William Murray, State Railroad Commission, Austin Sulphur . . . . . . . Ceramic materials. Industrial and decorative. F. K. Pence, Ceramic Engineering, U. of Texas, Austin Metals Kenneth Campbell, Sheffield Steel Co., Houston Paleontological collections. Glen L. Evans, Paleontology, Univ. of Texas, Austin Archeological collections. T. N. Campbell, Department of Anthropology, University of Texas, Austin PURPOSE: To encourage and coordinate research in Texas by bringing scientific work ere together and by publishing the results of their investigations ; to advise individuals and the government on scientific matters ; to assemble and maintain library and museum facilities. ORGANIZATION: The activities of the Academy embrace all scientific fields. In the Senior Academy, there are five Sections: Physical, Biological, Social, and Geological Sciences, and Conservation. Regionally, the Senior Academy is divided into three branches : East Texas, South Texas and West Texas. The Collegiate Academy promotes the organization of eciepce clubs in colleges and universities. The Junior Academy encourages scientific activities in secondary schools. MEMBERSHIP: “Any person engaged in scientific work, or interested in the promotion of science” is eligible to membership. PUBLICATIONS: The Proceedings and Transactions of the Academy are incorporated in THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE, published quarterly. Other publications are memorials, monographs* surveys and news letters. MEETINGS : State-wide annual meetings are held in the fall/ and regional meetings in the spring of each year. DUES: Annual members, $5 per year. Life members, at least $50.00 in one payment. Sustaining Members, $10 per year. Patrons, at least $500.00 in one payment. Life members and patrons are exempt from dues, receive all publications, and participate as active members. SUBSCRIPTION RATES : Members $3 per year. Single copies $1.25 each. CHAPTER FOUR the Fascinating Story of the Search for Oil X.rl Specialized seismograph equipment used today in the continuing search for new oil reserves has evolved from years of laboratory and field work by geologists and physicists ... by mechanical, electrical and electronic engineers ... by hundreds of practical men with an inbred aptitude for pe¬ troleum exploration. Still, exhaustive work and study go on in an effort to further im¬ prove present equipment. In General Geophys¬ ical laboratories, scientists and engineers de¬ sign and build every piece of equipment used by General field crews. Other General tech¬ nicians are investigating theories advanced for the development of new specialized equip¬ ment. That’s why General is better equipped today than ever before to accurately locate and determine conditions favorable to find¬ ing new oil reserves. ± it/ J ./ A. With the acceptance of geology by the oil industry as a guide to pros¬ pecting, the technique of first importance to the industry became that of surface structural mapping ... of a hunt for surface anticlines. About the year 1913, however, detailed sur¬ face mapping with the plane table — taken over from the topographic branch of the United States Geological Survey by W. T. Griswold in mapping the Cadiz, Ohio, quad¬ rangle — became the order of the day. By the middle 20’s, practically all of the areas re¬ garded as attractive for oil prospecting in the Mid-Continent had been mapped and the method had practically exhausted its useful¬ ness. From E. DeGolyer’s Book, etThe Devel¬ opment of the Art of Prospecting ” THE SEPTEMBER 30, 1951 PUBLISHED QUARTERLY BY THE TEXAS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE EXECUTIVE COUNCIL (1951) President Ex. Vice President Secretary-Treasurer Im. Past President Editor Pres. Conserv. Coun. Rep. to A.A.A.S. V. Pres. Sec. I. Physical V. Pres. Sec. II. Biological V. Pres. Sec. III. Social V. Pres. Sec. IV. Geological C. C. Doak Willis G. Hewatt Gladys H. Baird C. M. Pomerat J. L. Baughman J. G. Sinclair C. D. Leake D. B. Calvin W. Frank Blair Roy Donahue Horace R. Blank V. Pres. Sec. V. Conservation Vernon Young Collegiate Academy Charles LaMotte Junior Academy Greta Oppe A and M College Texas Christian U. P. O. Box 228 Medical Br., U. of G. F. O. C. Medical Br., U. of Medical Br., U. of Medical Br., U. of Univ. of Texas A and M College A and M College A and M College A and M College Ball High BOARD OF DIRECTORS President Ex. Vice President Secretary-Treasurer Im. Past President Elected Director W. Elected Director Elected Director W. R. Woolrich, Dean L. W. Blau E. DeGolyer J. Brian Eby 0. S. Petty C. C. Doak W. G. Hewatt Gladys H. Baird C. M. Pomerat Armstrong Price Gordon Gunter Don O. Baird A and M College Texas Christian U. P. O. Box 228 Medical Br., U. of T. A and M College Marine Inst., U. of T. S.H.S.T.C. BOARD OF DEVELOPMENT (1950) Engineering, U. of T. Humble Oil & Refining Co. DeGolyer & McNaughton Consulting Geologist Petty Geophysical Co. MEMBERSHIP COMMITTEE College Station Ft. Worth Huntsville Galveston Rockport Galveston Galveston Galveston Austin College Station College Station College Station College Station Galveston College Station Ft. Worth Huntsville Galveston College Station Port Aransas Huntsville Austin Houston Dallas Houston San Antonio Chairman — A. A. L. Mathews, Abilene Otto Watts, Chemistry, Hardln-Simmons Paul C. Witt, Chemistry, A.C.C. Alpine G. P. Smith, Dean, Sul Ross Wm. McAnulty, Science, Sul Ross Arlington W. L. Hughes, Biology, N.T.A.C. Austin Frank Blair, Zoology, U. of T. Ronald K. Deford, Geology, U. of T. Beaumont Homer A. Dennis, Math, Lamar Belton Lucille Capt, Biology, Mary Hardin-Baylor Brownwood E. T. Huff, Dean, Howard Payne College Station Luther Jones, Agronomy, A. & M. G. W. Schlesselman, Geography, A. & M. Russell Couch, Biochemistry, A. & M. Commerce Elsie Bodeman, Biology, E. T. S. C. Corpus Christi R. A. Eads, Chemistry, Corpus Christi U. PftllflB E. P. Cheatum, Biology, S.M.U. V. Schoffelmayer, Chemurgy, 4440 Beverly Arthur Richards, Geology, S.M.U. H. C. Tidwell, Southwestern Medical Denton B. B. Harris, Dean, N.T.S.T.C. Spencer Stoker, Social Science, T.S.C.W. Fort Worth Willis Hewatt, Biology, T.C.U. Joseph Morgan, Physics, T.C.U. Haskell M’cClintock, Biology, Texas Wesleyan Geology, University of Houston Freeport C. M'. Shigley, Research. Dow Chemical Co. Galveston C. M. Pomerat, Medical Branch, U. of T. Ludwik Anigsten, Medical Branch, U. of T. Georgetown Oscar A. Ullrich, Dean, Southwestern U. Houston A. A. L. Mathews, Geology, U. of H. J. Brian Eby, Geology, Esperson Bldg. F. C. Elliott, Dean, Dental Branch, U. of T. Hardy Kemp, Director, Baylor Medical Huntsville Don O. Baird, Biology, S.H.S.T.C. Kingsville John L. Nierman, Chemistry, A. & I. Lubbock E. N. Jones, Vice President, Texas Tech R. W. Strandtmann, Entomology, Texas Tech J. N. Michie, Math, Texas Tech Arthur W. Young, Agronomy, Texas Tech Nacogdoches Wm. T. Chambers, Geography, S.F.A.S.T.C. E. L. Miller, Biology, S.F.A.S.T.C. San Antonio Sister Joseph Marie Armer, Incarnate Word J. B. Loefer, Foundation Applied Research Jacob Uhrich, Biology, Trinity U. San Marcos - C. S. Smith, Biology, S.W.T.S.T.O. Stephenville S. F. Davis, Chemistry, John Tarleton Waco W. T. Gooch, Chemistry, Baylor Floyd Davidson, Biology, Baylor Volume III, No. 3 Published Quarterly at September 30, 1951 San Marcos, Texas (Entered as Second Class Matter, at Postoffice, San Marcos, Texas, March 21, 1949) The Texas Journal of Science - ★ - EDITOR J. L. Baughman Chief Marine Biologist Texas Game, Fish and Oyster Commission Rockport, Texas ASSOCIATE EDITORS Dr. Charles F. Squire Dept, of Physics The Rice Institute Houston, Texas Dr. Claude C. Albritton. Jr. Dept, of Geology Southern Methodist University Dallas, Texas Dr. W. Frank Blair Dept, of Zoology The University of Texas Austin, Texas Dr. Thomas N. Campbell Dept, of Anthropology The University of Texas Austin, Texas Dr. John G. Sinclair Dept, of Anatomy, Medical Branch University of Texas, Galveston, Texas Manuscripts and correspondence on the Journal should be addressed to The Editor Texas Journal of Science Box 867 Rockport, Texas ADVERTISING MANAGER Guy N. Turner 1404 Esperson Building Houston,,, Texas Volume III Number 3 CONTENTS - + - The Southwest Research Institute. Ray Neumann . 335 The Use of Rock Wall Construction by the Indians of the Big Bend in Texas. Victor J. Smith . 343 Vegetaiton of the Southwest — -Past and Present. Howard J. Dittmer . 350 Small Stream Water Utilization Problems — Texas. Trigg Twichell . 356 A Survey of the Sites of the Paleo-Indian in the Middle Rio Grande Valley, New Mexico. Frank C. Hibben . 362 Gulf Coast Geosyncline. Fred R. Haeberle . 368 Exfoliation and Weathering on Granite Domes in Central Texas. Horace R. Blank . . 376 Toxicity Levels of Hydrocyanic Acid and Some Industrial By-Products. F. M. Daugherty, Jr . 39 1 Suitable Media for Growing Mass Cultures of Pneumococcus. John B. Loefer and Russell G. Weichlein . 397 The Reduviidae of Texas. Joe C. Elkins . . 407 Ecological Distribution of the Birds of the Stockton Plateau in Northern Terrell County, Texas. Wilmot A. Thornton . 413 The Eels of the Northern Gulf Coast of the United States and Some Related Species. Isaac Ginsburg . 431 Description of a New Pelecypod of the Genus Anadara from the Gulf of Mexico. Leo George Hertlein . 487 Notes . 490 Book Reviews 493 BIOLOGICAL AND CHEMICAL LABORATORIES of Southwest Research Institute, with Cable House in right background. A landmark in the vicinity, Cable House has been converted into offices and library for the Institute. These buildings are but two of fourteen which comprise the laboratories and shops of Southwest Research Institute. THE SOUTHWEST RESEARCH INSTITUTE RAY NEUMANN Director of Public Relations Southwest Research Institute A nonprofit, public service organization conducting scientific research for industry on a cost-fee basis, Southwest Research Institute has grown in three years from a twelve-man staff in two buildings to more than 200 people in fourteen buildings. Located on 4,000 acres of fertile Essar Ranch soil immediately west of historic old San Antonio, the Institute is flanked by two sister research units in the Institute of Inventive Research, which assists inventors, and the Foundation of Applied Research, which is concerned largely with funda¬ mental work in medicine and agriculture. 0CT2 6 1951 335 336 The Texas Journal of Science 1951, No. 3 September 30 INTERIOR VIEW of Southwest Research Institute’s machine shop. The purpose of the three-unit structure, dedicated to making science work for the common man, is to provide the ways and means of solving industrial research problems, find manufacturers for worthwhile inventions, develop preventatives and cures for the ills of man and beast, and in general to better the lot of mankind. Founded by Tom Slick, youthful San Antonio oil producer and rancher, the organization has a panel of trustees composed of eminent scientists and technologists, educators, scientific editors and industrialists from over the United States. These men govern the operation of the organization. Taking orders from the trustees is the staff whose head is Dr. Harold Vagtborg, widely known as the builder of Armour Research Foundation and more recently president of Midwest Research Institute. Dr. Vagtborg, a native of Copenhagen but reared and educated in this country, is one of the leading proponents of industrial research in the nation. He was chosen by the Institutes’ trustees as the man best able to develop them in the interest in public service. All people connected with the institutions are cognizant of the fact that "today’s science is tomorrow’s industry” and in order to better serve the area in which they are located, Southwest and its affiliates concern themselves not only with industrial but with agricultural and livestock research, utilizing Essar Ranch for test acreage. 1951, No. 3 Southwest Research Institute 337 September 80 THE FOUNDATION OF APPLIED RESEARCH and Southwest Research Institute conduct continuing programs in agriculture. This is a scene wherein Dr. Frederick Bieberdorf, Botanist (left) and Dr. John Loefer, Biologist, (right foreground) are examining soil being seeded with Australian type of buffel grass. S'wRI was established specifically to assist manufacturers, trade asso¬ ciations, processors, growers, governmental agencies and individuals to improve their products, to utilize wastes and by-products, to solve technical problems and to build new industries. The laboratories5 research program is geared entirely to industrial progress. With an experienced staff, Southwest, largest of the three scientific units, is assisting manufacturers and processors not only in the southwest, but throughout the United States and in such countries as Cuba, Brazil, Peru, Panama, Mexico and several European nations to secure their com¬ petitive positions and increase profits by providing pooled research facilities and technological manpower at a considerably lower cost than by other means. To large corporations, the Institute with its excellent equipment and able staff offers the fresh approach , often the key to solving difficult industrial problems. To the new or small company it brings the services of a large departmentalized research organization at a fee based on actual cost in manhours and laboratory expenses. For all practical purposes, the Institute functions as an extension of a business organization’s own technological facilities. Because companies sponsoring research projects are usually seeking to improve products or processes, and prefer not to inform their, competitors thereof, many of the Institute’s projects are conducted in a completely 338 The Texas Journal of Science 1951, No. 3 September 30 DR. FREDERICK BIEBERDORF, Institute Botanist, examines culture of airborne molds. 1951, No. 3 September 30 Southwest Research Institute 339 EVALUATING NEW TYPE of cattle spray at Southwest Research Institute confidential manner. Therefore the Institute seldom discloses the names of sponsors or the nature of research projects. Past sponsoring companies, however, have included the Texas Company, Celanese Corporation of America, United Gas Pipeline Company, Clarke Brothers, Butler Manu¬ facturing Company, Continental Oil Company, the Office of Naval Re¬ search and many other Government agencies. Altogether, Southwest Research Institute has served more than 400 companies, groups and individuals and is now conducting research at a rate of $1,000,000 a year- — all on a cost basis. Assisting Dr. Vagtborg as Department heads are such well-known scientists and technologists as Mr. Don Abbott, Director of Special Projects; Dr. Paul M. Erlandson, Chairman of Physics; Dr. W. B. Mather, Chairman of Mineral Technology; Mr. N. C. Penfold, Supervisor of Engines, Fuels and Lubricants Research; Mr. C. D. Pengelley, Chairman of Engineering Mechanics; Dr. C. L. Shrewsbury, Chairman of Agricultural Chemistry and Associate Director of the Foundation of Applied Research; Mr. C. W. Smith, Director of Housing and Construction Technology, and Dr. J. S. Swearingen, Chairman of Chemical Engineering. The organization includes a rapidly expanding technical library of more than 7,000 volumes and the Departments of Biology; Botany; Chem¬ istry; Engines, Fuels and Lubricants Evaluation and Development; Physics, 340 The Texas Journal of Science 1951, No. 3 September 30 ELECTRONICS RESEARCH is occupying engineers and physicists at Southwest Research Institute. Here is specially built machine designed to bring to a successful conclusion a research project sponsored by a manufacturing company. SCENE IN SOUTHWEST RESEARCH INSTITUTE foundry where castings are made in the building of new machinery to perform new processes developed in laboratories of Foundation of Applied Research and Southwest Research Institute. 1951, No. 3 September 30 Southwest Research Institute 341 ENGINES, FUELS and LUBRICANTS RESEARCH occupies an entire department of South¬ west Research Institute. Electronics and Instrumentation; Engineering Mechanics; Chemical Engi¬ neering and Mineralogy. These are augmented by the Institute’s large machine and carpenter shops. Unique in that it is closely affiliated with two other scientific research institutes as well as a ranch, Southwest also has the distinction of working principally in seven large common denominator fields of activity in its Divi¬ sions of Fire Technology, Oceanography and Meteorology, Petroleum Tech¬ nology, Housing, and Construction Technology, Special Projects, Military Research and Development, and in the foreign field with an International Division. Inauguration of each of the Divisions was undertaken only after exhaustive studies showed the Institute how it could best serve the public interest in the commercial, industrial and agricultural development of the Southwest and the Gulf Coast. The Housing and Construction Technology Program, for example, is two-fold in that it performs research and field studies in construction tech¬ niques and also conducts a nationwide program of quality housing. The latter assists the public, merchant builders and architects in identifying quality in materials and workmanship by awarding certificates of approval on housing units which pass its rigid standards of quality. THE INSTITUTE OF INVENTIVE RESEARCH Providing a comprehensive service at no initial cost to inventors in order to develop worthwhile inventions, the Institute of Inventive Research also assists manufacturers and processors by providing them with new items 342 The Texas Journal of Science 1951, No. 3 September 30 for their production lines. In addition, the Institute also serves society by bringing to completion new products and processes which might otherwise be abandoned. To date, IR has screened more than 42,000 invention submittals of which it selected only 141 for development. At present, its development program is closed to the acceptance of additional items until such time as it has marketed a number of those now being tested and patented. Samples of this organization’s work may be found in the new Poulter Method of Seismic Exploration for oil which eliminates the drilling of shot holes ordinarily used in this work; the Youtz-Slick Lift-Slab Building Method successfully used to reduce costs in erecting concrete slab buildings; an insecticide spray gun which eliminates the formerly tedious labor of mixing insecticides with water, and other devices and processes. THE FOUNDATION OF APPLIED RESEARCH Engaging in virtually any field of scientific inquiry giving promise of yielding practical benefits to mankind, the Foundation of Applied Research is the oldest of the three organizations and owns the property, buildings and equipment with which they operate. This organization’s activities have covered research programs in such spheres as medicine, biology, botany, agriculture, livestock improvement and veterinary science. Among its programs presently is one exploring a new approach to the problem of cancer. Southwest and its affiliated organizations, their qualified staffs and modern equipment are able to undertake almost any type of scientific re¬ search. In scope, their objectives are as broad as the industrial potentials of the Southwest region itself. 1951, No. 3 September 30 Rock Wall Construction 343 THE USE OF ROCK WALL CONSTRUCTION BY THE INDIANS OF THE BIG BEND IN TEXAS VICTOR J. SMITH Sul Ross State College Alpine, Texas Possibly the most picturesque develoment of Indian life in America lies in the Southwestern area of the United States and includes the present states of Arizona and New Mexico as well as a small amount of Western Texas. This is a region of cliffs, canyons and plateaus; of limited fertile areas ad¬ jacent to springs or bordering mountain streams and the more placid rivers. Between these fertile districts stretch areas of mountain and semi-arid country. Texans reluctantly admit that the Big Bend was practically without pottery making and that to the west the arts of both pottery making and masonry wall construction for shelter had been developed to a marked de¬ gree. At the same time, we wonder just how much culture spread had been under way or what diffusion of ideas related to several important cul¬ ture traits might have been in process when arrested by the increasing in¬ roads of the European settlers which finally stopped the normal exchange of ideas between adjacent areas. Contrasting strongly geographically with other portions of Texas, it is not surprising that the area of West Texas included in the great bend of the Rio Grande has yielded evidence that these prehistoric peoples left many clues indicating the development of a culture peculiarly their own, but in some respects similar to their neighbors to the West and Northwest. FIGURE 1 — Low walls built between larger boulders for partial protection. Supposed to have been covered overhead with skins. Lympis Canyon. 344 The Texas Journal of Science 1951, No. 3 September 30 FIGURE 3 — Byrd Mine "Handprint Shelter." Typical wall work in front of small room shelter. This "cave" contained many interesting handprints made by scraping away the background from smoke covered rock. 1951, No. 3 September 30 Rock Wall Construction 345 It is the purpose of this paper to report on the evidence of the use of rock wall construction by the Indians dwelling in the Big Bend of Texas. The evidence reported upon falls into seven types or categories, each dis¬ cussed in terms of a typical site as follows: RUBBLE FILLING FOR PROTECTION AGAINST WEATHER At a small "room shelter” fourteen miles north of Alpine on the Davidson Ranch the Indian "tenants” had improved this small naturally- formed room by filling in a space on the northwest side of the room with roughly piled rock wall work which formed an effective protection against wind and weather. In other shelters, however, the idea never seemed to have occurred to the occupants. It may have been that an easier method was used in which skins were stretched over the opening. ROUGH ROCK WALLS BETWEEN VERTICAL ROCKS AT THE SIDES OF CANYON WALLS These are frequently observed at the top of the talus slope, are usually from three to four feet high and sometimes span the "V”-shaped opening between rocks from three to six feet apart. Some of the walls are com¬ pletely filled in behind; others stand without fill as if they served for small pens or storage areas. Some were thought to be graves but proof of such burials has not been established. Those lower in the valleys, especially along Lympia Creek, would well serve for small animal pens or storage bins. WALLS BETWEEN ROCKS TO MAKE ROOM SHELTERS Somewhat similar to the above, but found on level areas where rock boulders jut up in favorable three or four-group arrangements, are observed rough wall spans between the boulders to a height of three or four feet, one side open and evidently suited to skin covering to complete an entirely satis¬ factory room shelter. These "casas” occur along Lympia and elsewhere. FIGURE 4 — Sunny Glen "Cave.” A long wall enclosed this shelter. 346 The Texas Journal of Science 1951, No. 3 September 30 FIGURE 5 — Open wall along trail thought to be an ambush or protection against raiders. 1951, No. 3 September 30 Rock Wall Construction 347 ROCK WALL WORK IN FRONT OF LARGE ROCK SHELTERS The most important and extensive of several such uses of rock wall is to be observed in Sunny Glen Canyon where a large overhanging rock shelter is further protected by a low rock wall some twenty feet long and three feet high. This wall was so constructed as to afford protection to the occu¬ pants of the shelter against an enemy approaching from the valley below as well as from small animals and unpleasant air currents. HILLTOP ROCK CIRCLE FORTIFICATIONS The most interesting of several rock circle walls is to be seen on the old Hancock Ranch north of Alpine and not far from the Mendoza Trail, now almost identical with the Santa Fe right-of-way between Presidio and San Angelo. Artifacts attested to a village or camp site near a small spring at this point. Back of the camp is a sharp escarpment continuing for some distance so that a group occupying the camp was well protected from the rear. Just south of the camp was a small conical hill which overlooked the valley approaches to the north and south. On the top of this hill was dis¬ covered a low stone wall some twenty or more feet in diameter. The circular fortification commanded the slope and could have been defended by a small group of warriors against a considerable number of attackers. Near this fortified hill, to the south, was observed a cluster of numer¬ ous "beehive” or conical shaped rock mounds, heaped from the good supply of loose rocks at hand. Excavations determined no positive evidence of their use as graves though the slightly hollow core and deposits suggested their use as hastily made graves. SMALL ROCK CIRCLES CALLED "MACHINE GUN NESTS” At many points in the Big Bend rock circles are found. Some are quite large in diameter and are so spaced as to suggest their use in cere¬ monial gatherings. Others are from six to ten feet across and seem to have been used as weights to hold down the edges of circular tents in areas where stake driving was most difficult. Another huge rock circle, more than 100 feet in diameter, with spaced rocks or boulders, the size of which would require many men to move into symmetrical position is found in Sunny Glen canyon. Since such circles are not classed as walls, they are not dis¬ cussed further in this report. The use of low rock walls in circular form commonly called "machine gun nests” may be best observed at the top of a long low ridge projecting from the flat valley near Skillman Grove in Jeff Davis County. Here a group of six such protective walls range along to top of a high ridge. To the north was a steep slope up which an enemy must climb exposed to the fire from the chain fort above. To the south the defenders were protected by a high bluff. A number of broken arrow points were picked up in the area below these walls. AMBUSH OR TRAIL FORTIFICATIONS A. Rising sharply out of Ranger Canyon and leading "over the hills” to the country south of Alpine, may be seen a definitely travelled trail. Ranchmen say that this path has been used since the earliest settlers came to the ranch country. As one climbs up the steep incline no sign of rock wall work is to be seen. If one pauses about two-thirds up the steep wind- 348 The Texas Journal of Science 1951, No. 3 September 30 ing trail, however, and looks back, he will see a low rock wall built from a huge boulder close beside the path, first at right angles to the trail and then curving some twenty feet to the left, which would flank any group of unwelcome travellers making the ascent. All of this rock work is com¬ pletely hidden to this day by mountain shrubbery from the low side and FIGURE 6 — Typical rough wall work found throughout the Big Bend in Texas. Used for fortifications and protection against weather. FIGURE 7 — Remains of wall built up to overhanging rock ceiling to form rooms. Doorway has caved away since first observed. 1951, No. 3 September 30 Rock Wall Construction 349 the whole setting forms an ideal protection for a party, however small, who might be determined to defend the passage or to surprise intruders. B. A similar situation, but on less rugged terrain, may be observed near the Alpine-Fort Davis highway just as it enters Musquiz Canyon. Fol¬ lowing a path during a reconnaissance trip, the writer climbed over what first appeared to be a low rock mound. Upon investigation, this proved to be a portion of wall which had been tramped down by constant passage of cattle and deer. Again the layout had the appearance of military breast¬ works in the form of a defensive wall well • screened by native vegetation to one coming up the canyon. Looking back from the upper side, however, low walls are to be seen from boulder to boulder and curving to form a protection for as many as thirty men hidden to defend the approach or to surprise a party for booty. WALLED ROOMS All of the wall work discussed thus far has been in the nature of un¬ coursed rubble, without evidence of mortar or any great knowledge of coursed masonry. Only once was our search for the typical walled room and doorway, of the Southwest been rewarded. High on the south hogback of Twin Sisters Mountain lies a peaceful little valley, with running water and safe from the trails below. Ranchmen have found it profitable to dam this stream which now affords a good supply of water for cattle on the upper pasture of the Lane Ranch. Here the overhanging rock shelter, so often found with high ceilings, hangs low so that the idea of building up the wall to touch the "ceiling” was used. The result was two rooms with doorways. Our first trip to this interesting spot developed evidence of a small camp site as well as the walled shelters. Due to the presence of rattle¬ snakes, no complete excavation was made. Several years later a second ex- pendition was to find that time and construction work on the dam had resulted in rapid deterioration and the loss of some of the camp area under the surface of a small lake. Here, however, was definite evidence of the use of doorways and multiple rooms as well as some mud mortar used to make a tighter and stronger wall. The camp evidence was not unusual, being similar to many other open camps with their flint chippings, broken, mor¬ tars, pestles, mullers and rock fragments. A mile away, down in Ranger Canyon, the Cave Dwellers of the Big Bend had lived for many years in a huge shelter yielding specimens of basketry, sandals and many artifacts typical of the Cave People, but no wall work. This evidence, from widely scattered observations in West Texas,' seems to indicate that the idea of masonry walls for protection and shelter was gaining a slow foothold among the Trans-Pecos groups and that the use of walls for protection from an enemy was rather widely known and used. 350 The Texas Journal of Science 1951, No. 3 September 30 VEGETATION OF THE SOUTHWEST- PAST AND PRESENT * ** HOWARD J. DITTMER * * Biology Department University of New Mexico Southwestern United States has a topography as extreme as any in continental North America and undoubtedly exceeded by few areas in the world. The lowest point in this region is 137 feet above sea level in the Southwestern corner of Arizona; while the highest points are above 14,000 feet, reached by several peaks in Colorado and 13,600 feet in the Sangre de Cristo range of New Mexico. Consequently we have a great diversity of flora inhabiting these many topographic types. Not only have we altitude to consider in studying the distribution of plants, but the area embracing over 3 50,000 square miles has a considerable spread in latitude. In middle western U. S. the land ex¬ tending from the Mississippi River to the Rocky Mountains is flat and, broken only by the river valleys, has little variation in vegetation. In South¬ western U. S. we have a vast desert vegetation, with many different arid regions each occupied by its own particular dominants. The northern arid plains are dominated by Sage brush, ( Artemisia tridental a) and some species of rabbit brush. These regions are conspicuous in northern Arizona and northern New Mexico, extending into Colorado and much farther north¬ ward, far out of our range. The salt plains are generally occupied by salt¬ bush, ( Atriplex spp. ) , Allenrolfea occidentals, greasewood ( Sarcobatus vermiculatus) , and salt grass ( Distichlis stricta) Fortunately this associa¬ tion is much more limited and is generally confined to arid salt valleys, as the Estancia valley of New Mexico and certain playas in southern and western Arizona. Next to the salt-enduring vegetation, and now occupying very extensive areas of southern New Mexico and many parts of Arizona, is the creosote-bush ( Larrea tridentata) and salt bush ( Atriplex spp) asso¬ ciation. Creosote bush prefers a loose well-drained soil and is usually found on sloping, rolling land. Although some species of salt bush are often found with it, this plant usually grows in a more compact soil, often occupying the lower slopes and flat areas between dominant stands of creosote bush. Most conspicuous in southwestern flora are the cacti and their rela¬ tives. Southern Arizona’s vegetation is unique with this type of plant. Here we have many more different species and a few unusual genera found no¬ where else. For most of us it is a great thrill to see for the first time the giant Sahuaro, the organ pipe cactus, and the Joshua tree. These plants, although conspicuous in the flora of the southern Arizona desert, grow in close association with many other species including the acacias, franserias, prickly pears and chollas; farther up the slopes in the desert areas are the palo verdes, ocotillos, and Lycium. Although some few grasses will descend * The writer is indebted to the American Philosophical Society for a research grant from its Penrose Fund to further work in this investigation. ** Presented at the joint meeting of the Texas Academy of Science and the American Asso¬ ciation for the Advancement of Science, El Paso, April 30, May 1, 2, 1951. 1951, No. 3 September 30 Vegetation of the Southwest 351 into these desert areas, the little grazing that occurs has almost completely removed them so that grasses, in general, have remained in the higher areas of more adequate rainfall. Considering the total area of Southwestern United States, grasses oc¬ cupy at least potentially by far the greatest acreage. This is especially true of New Mexico, western Texas, the Colorado plains areas, and approximately one-fourth of the state of Arizona. Except for the mountain areas, almost all of New Mexico could be considered a grassland even though considerable areas of this land no longer have grass as the dominant plant. For many years this region has been overgrazed to the extent that palatable species no longer grow under the minimum climatic conditions provided. Instead, we find the grasses replaced in the southern portion of the state by desert shrubs such as creosote bush, mesquite, and tarbush. The middle and northern lati¬ tudes have had their grasses replaced by sagebrush, snakeweed, and rabbit brush. The sandy-area grasses have been replaced by Dalea, mesquite, Ephedra and a few hardy annuals. In western Texas extending down into the Big Bend country, in New Mexico in isolated areas, and especially in Arizona around the elevations of 4,500 feet, there is a chaparral cover, often exceedingly dense in its habit of growth. Some of the shrub and tree species that compose this area are Manzanita, madrona, mountain mahogany, buckthorn, and Apache plume. In the upper areas of this belt, the scrub live oak is often a very important member of the association. Generally the land occupied by these communi¬ ties is rough and of poor grazing quality. This belt forms the meeting place of the desert grassland and woodland communities. Quite comparable to this chaparral association is the pinon-juniper belt generally north of the chaparral and occupying the foothills of mountains of somewhat better climatic conditions than those to which we have previ¬ ously referred. Few mountain areas in the southwest are so dry and so hot that they will not have a pinon-juniper association. The one-seeded junipers occupy the lower areas of this belt while the pinon pines grow better in the upper margins. Above this belt and extending down into it slightly in the northern areas is Juniperus scopulorum, while in the southern area the alli¬ gator-bark juniper is more prominent. This association ordinarily would make good grazing land, because the blue grama grass occupies most of the soil between these trees. However, as is so common throughout the south¬ west, overgrazing has hit this belt as hard as the grasslands themselves. An¬ other plant found in this belt, although it does better in the high grassland area, is winterfat ( Eurotia lanata) . It is one of the outstanding browse plants throughout the southwest, but in many areas it has been almost com¬ pletely wiped out. To many people, the loveliest areas of the southwest are the mountains. In most sections the forests begin at an altitude of 6,000 feet but you feel you have really reached timber when you are around 7,000 feet. Here the ponderosa pine, most valuable tree of the southwest, predominates. Associat¬ ing with the yellow pine, and extending much above it in elevation, is the Douglas fir. Although a much larger tree than the ponderosa pine, it is not as abundant. If it were it would greatly exceed the pine in value. Higher still is the Engleman spruce, and in our northern mountains the Colorado blue spruce. In patches throughout most of our mountains, often occupying considerable areas, are the white fir and aspens. Other trees, as well as num¬ erous colorful shrubs and herbs, contribute to the flora of these mountains. 352 The Texas Journal of Science 1951, No. 3 September 30 Southwestern mountains provide playgrounds and recreational areas for thousands both winter and summer. In addition, they contribute greatly to the economy of other thousands. Forests are also necessary for the protec¬ tion of our water sheds in addition to the more tangible uses we commonly think of in connection with timber. It is our earnest hope that they will be judiciously used and not exploited as extensively as our grasslands. One hundred years ago travel throughout the southwest was at a snail’s pace compared to that of today. Consequently it was necessary for the early settlers and explorers to carry food with them or live off the land. Since vegetation was so necessary for their successful migrations, these early travelers took close cognizance of it. It is very enlightening to read the day by day accounts of these travelers, and from them we can piece together the flora present at that time and make a comparison with that of today. One very interesting expedition, in charge of Lt. Edward F. Beale (Re-edited by Lesley, 1949), involved the use of camels as pack animals. The expedition began in San Antonio, Texas, and shortly after leaving there the recorders began to describe the vegetation. In the vicinity of the Sabanal river the log includes these comments, "Post oak and mesquite are the principal growth of timber.” "The first part of our journey today carried us through a country very much like that of yesterday, during which dis¬ tance (15 miles) grass was very abundant” . . . "As soon as the camels ar¬ rive they are turned loose to graze, but appear to prefer to browse on the mesquite bushes and the leaves of a thorny shrub, to the finest grasses.” About 75 miles farther another comment was made from which the following quotation is taken. "This morning we found at our camp, for the first time, a shrub, of which we are to see a great deal between this and the end of our journey, and in many places shall find no other wood. It is as greasewood, and I was delighted to see the camels seek it and eat it with the greatest apparent relish.” North of El Paso Lt. Beale made some additional comments concern¬ ing grass. Fie was now in the Jornado del Muerto range about 20 miles northeast of Las Cruces. He says, "Nothing could exceed the beauty of the country we have travelled over this morning. The whole extent, as far as vision reached ahead, was a level plain, covered thickly with the most luxurious grass, and filled with beautiful wild flowers, while on each side the mountains in the distance, nearly covered with clouds, loomed up grandly. Hundreds and hundreds of thousands of acres, containing the greatest abundance of the finest grass in the world, and the richest soil are here lying vacant, and looked upon by the traveller with dread, because of its want of water.” All the way up the Rio Grande to Albuquerque the expedition en¬ countered excellent grazing land and a valley with many cottonwood trees on the banks. Peculiarly, no comment is made of creosote bush. Consid¬ ering the prevalence of this shrub, now dominant over much of the area traversed by the expedition, it seems reasonable to assume that one hundred years ago blue grama grass occupied the land now supporting little more than creosote bush. Overgrazing probably removed the grass, allowing the creosote bush to come in from outlying areas. From Albuquerque, Beale’s expedition traveled westward. The same favorable comments were made concerning the abundance of grass. In the Zuni country of western New Mexico he made this comment, "What a stock country! rI have never seen anything like it; and I predict for this part of New Mexico a larger population . . 1951, No. 3 September 30 Vegetation of the Southwest 353 In northern Arizona the expedition traversed some mountain country in the vicinity of Mount Sitgreaves. Here Lt. Beale measured a pine tree which he says was 19 feet in circumference and of very great height. This expedition finally reached California where Lt. Beale had a home. He had traveled from the Gulf of Mexico to the shores of the Pacific Ocean with¬ out the loss of a single man through a country of hostile Indians and a region seriously short of water. Fortunately grass was much more abund¬ ant then than it is now. I venture to say such an expedition today over the same route would be far more hazardous if it were done with the same equipment, roads, and animals as used in 18 50. The only change would be in the amount of grass available. Somewhat earlier, a trader began a series of journeys into the south¬ west from Independence, Missouri. In all he made eight trips. On some he stopped at Santa Fe, and on one or two occasions he went as far as Chi¬ huahua City. This man was Josiah Gregg (1849a, 1849b), from whose ac¬ counts the following notations are taken. Gregg described what he considered the southwest’s finest heritage. "But by far the most indigenous product of the soil of New Mexico is its pasturage. Most of the high table-plains afford the finest grazing in the world, while for want of water, they are utterly useless for most other purposes. That scanty moisture which suffices to bring forth the natural vegetation is insufficient for agricultural productions, without the aid of irrigation. The high prairies of all Northern Mexico differ greatly from those of our border in the general character of their vegetation. They are remarkably destitute of the gay flowering plants for which the former are so celebrated, being mostly clothed with different species of a highly nutri¬ tious grass called grama , which is of a very short and curly quality. The highlands, upon which alone this sort of grass is produced, being seldom verdant till after the rainy season sets in, the grama is only in perfection from August to October. But being rarely nipt by the frost until the rains are over, it cures upon the ground and remains excellent hay ... equal if not superior to that which is cut and stacked from our western prairies.” Gregg writes about the mountains from El Paso northward as being clothed with pine, cedar, and a dwarf species of oak, and that the valleys are timbered with cottonwood and occasionally mezquite. He becomes most enthusiastic about the country in his description of the northern mountains when he journeyed westward from the vicinity of Taos. About this country he recorded, "Between the Brazos and Red River, there is surely the most beautiful and picturesque region I have ever beheld. I saw some of the finest timber, generally oak ... not that scrubby oak which characterizes so much of the Texan territory . . . but large black and bur- oak; such as would answer all the purposes for which the largest timber is useful. Between those two rivers, no doubt there is destined to be one of the most dense and prosperous settlements. The fertility of the soil is not exceeded by any I have seen; and, from the high and undulating character of the country, there can be no doubt of its being very healthy.” Whipple’s ( 18 56) expedition in 18 53 covered much the same territory as Beale in going westward to California from Albuquerque. However, he entered the Southwest from the east. In northeastern New Mexico, on suc¬ cessive days he made these comments concerning the vegetation, "We en¬ camped near the mouth of Wine creek, where were acres of land covered 354 The Texas Journal of Science 1951, No. 3 September 30 with grape-vines, looking like a cultivated vineyard . . . wild grapes were again abundant, tempting the men, some of whom had already suffered severely from eating to excess.” Whipple and his party traveled through the Inscription Rock region of New Mexico then on to the Little Colorado and southwestward into Ari¬ zona. The descriptions of the flora recorded by Whipple and his botanist, Dr. Bigelow, indicate that the species of plants and general distribution of them were much the same then as today with the exception of grass which, of course, was more abundant then. Writing of this more southern vege¬ tation Whipple states: "Upon the slopes of the hills we find in the vege¬ tation an agreeable change from that of the higher country we have left. Agave Mexicana is quite abundant. It is the beautiful American aloe, or Century plant, called in this country Mexcal. The Apaches roast it for food; Mexicans distil from it a spiritous liquor.” Farther along in the vicinity of Pueblo Creek Whipple says, "The rich black loamy soil we have passed over is covered most luxuriantly with the excellent grama-grass, so often referred to as being abundant throughout this region, called by Mexicans 'de china.’ ” The cacti greatly impressed Dr. Whipple and Dr. Bigelow; many refer¬ ences are made about them and new species were described. In the vicinity of the Rio Santa Maria they collected species of Cereus, Opuntia , and a Mamillaria; they also described a large Echinocactus (hedgehog cactus) which was used not only for food, but also served as the sole culinary ap¬ paratus. Naturally the one that impressed them most was the Cereus gigan- teus (giant sahuara) which they found scattered upon the hills and which Whipple states has never before been seen except in the vicinity of the Rio Gila. The cacti apparently were even more abundant as they proceeded westward, but in the record they still state that grama grass is growing upon the hills. In this desert region a direct quotation, I believe, would again be appropriate. "The country affords excellent grazing lands, similar to, but less extensive than those of New Mexico. The grass is highly nutritious. Cactaceae are abundant. Tall and beautiful yuccas, the offensive Larrea Mexicana (creosote bush), and obione (greasewood) , complete the vegeta¬ tion. Wood is almost entirely wanting. For campfires we depend upon twigs of obione or the soft pulpy stalks of the yucca.” Traversing the Southwest, the Military Expedition headed by Emory (1848, 18 57) left Fort Leavenworth, went directly west to Pike’s Peak, and then southward. Lt. Abert made most of the notes for the party and listed a great number of plants all along the route. In northeastern New Mexico camp was made in a place which was described as a beautiful valley of fine grass and pools of cool water, where the wild liquorice grew plenti¬ fully. The stream near which they camped was a tributary of the Moro. Continuing southward, the party camped near the Rio Pecos where the village of Pecos is situated and where they found excellent grass. Travelling southwestward, this military party recorded the Mimbres mountains as being traversed by small streams of pure water and fringed with a stunted growth of walnut, live oak, and ash. The soil was observed as of excellent quality from the valleys to the hilltops and covered with a luxuriant growth of grama grass. The expedition everywhere found abundant grass, wrote enthusiastically of the cacti in Arizona, and finally described the live oaks and wild oats in California. In southwestern New Mexico extend¬ ing from Silver City south to the Mexican border, but especially south of 1951, No. 3 September 30 Vegetation of the Southwest 355 Animas, there are several small areas of large live oaks. In appearance this type of vegetation is very similar to the live oaks in eastern California. The big difference today is that wild oats occupy the soil under and around these oaks in California while in New Mexico grama covers much of the soil where it has not been overgrazed, and where it has the prickly poppy and herb P silo strophe are very successful invaders. The early explorers, including the Spanish of the 16th and 17th cen¬ turies, record few if any species present then that we do not have today. However, there have been some changes. Deciduous species such as walnut, ash, hackberry, and even cottonwood occupied in greater numbers more valleys and stream beds than they do today. Probably the necessity of fire wood and building material caused their removal. In the mountains, more recent lumbering operations have seriously depleted many forest lands which have not been properly replanted. But the most serious maltreatment of our natural vegetation has been carried out on our plains and mesa lands. Settlement of the southwest by "Anglos” and increase in the numbers of Mexicans and Spanish Americans in the last seventy years has apparently resulted in serious depletion of southwestern soils and a tremendous change in grassland vegetation. Once described by early settlers as the finest grazing land they had ever seen, these highland grasslands now support a dominant vegetation of creosote bush, tar- bush, and other unpalatable species. Restoration by these soils to the luxuri¬ ance of grass that once covered them cannot be accomplished in a short time. An article published last year and written by Dr. J. L. Gardner (1950) reports that some of this land now protected from grazing for 30 years is but slowly recovering its grassy cover. To be sure, it has a much better stand of grass than that of unprotected land, but a human generation is a long time to wait for restoration and again ultimate usage. If we are to use our ranges for grazing as extensively as we once did a more successful grass will have to be discovered or greater rainfall will have to be provided for more vigorous growth of the species we now have. LITERATURE cited Emory, Lieut. Col. W. H. — Notes of a military reconnaissance, from Fort Leavenworth, in Missouri, to San Diego, in California, including part of the Arkansas, Del Norte, and Gila Rivers. Washington. Wendell and Van Benthysen. Printers. - 1857 — Report on the United States and Mexican Boundary Survey made under the direction of Secretary of the Interior. Vol. 1. Washington. A, O. P. Nicholson, Printer. Gardner, J. L. — 1950 — Effects of thirty years of protection from grazing in desert grassland. Ecology 31(1) s 44-50. Gregg, Josiah — 1849 — Commerce of the prairies or the journal of a Santa Fe trader during eight expeditions across the great western prairies and a residence of nearly nine years in northern Mexico. 2 vols, Philadelphia, J. W. Moore. Lesley, Lewis Burt — 1949 — Uncle Sam’s camels, the journal of May Humphreys Stacey sup¬ plemented by the report of Edward Fitzgerald Beale (1857-1858). Cambridge. Harvard University Press. Whipple, A. W. — 1856 — -Reports of explorations and surveys to ascertain the most practi¬ cable and economical route for a railroad from the Mississippi River to the Pacific Ocean made under the direction of the Secretary of War in 1853-4, according to ac¬ counts of Congress of March 3, 1853, May 31, 1854, and August 5, 1854. Vol. III. Washington, Beverley Tucker, Printer. 3 56 The Texas Journal of Science 1951, No. 3 September 30 SMALL STREAM WATER UTILIZATION PROBLEMS— TEXAS TRIGG TWICHELL * ** Hydraulic Engineer U. S. Geological Survey Austin, Texas Small streams draining areas of 50 square miles or less and having a sufficient quantity of water of good chemical quality that can be converted to beneficial uses are a great asset to any community. The successful devel¬ opment of these streams as a dependable source of water supply is depend¬ ent upon basic water resources data. Today more than 2 million people living in 139 Texas towns and cities depend upon streams for their domestic water supplies. Eighty-three of these towns are utilizing the water resources of small streams. A further analysis shows that of these 83 towns 68 have outgrown the present source of supply; consequently, new facilities must be constructed to meet current and anticipated demands. Hauling water to meet the domestic and sanitary needs of communities is a common event for some towns during periods of even normal rainfall. The people in some west Texas towns, at times, have paid more for a barrel of drinking water than for a barrel of crude oil. Small streams are utilized by many farmers, small municipalities and in¬ dustry for irrigation, stock, and water supply purposes with varying de¬ grees of success. Without adequate stream-flow information investments for such utilization frequently result in a loss to the users. The unregulated flood flow of many small streams in practically every section of the state carries away fertile soils and destroys or damages bridges and other valu¬ able property. Towns and cities are finding it increasingly difficult to design storm sewers and open channels to drain flood flows from valuable property. It is estimated that over 50 per cent of the cost of all highway bridges is for structures crossing streams draining less than 10 square miles. Large sums of money are now being spent on joint soil and water conservation measures. Soil conservation agencies are now planning the construction of many hundreds of flood detention and water conservation reservoirs for controlling floods on streams draining areas of 1 5 square miles or less. These reservoirs will be designed for controlling floods that may be expected to occur once every ten years, with larger flood flows being only partially con¬ trolled because this is now believed by the designers to be the most eco¬ nomical practice for current conditions. The cost of these programs, if executed, will be many million dollars. A review of engineering reports of major floods that have occurred on small streams traversing San Antonio, Houston, Fort Worth, Coleman, Wichita Falls, and numerous other towns, readily reveals the enormous dam¬ age to property and loss of life that result from unregulated flood flows. Much property damage is due to the fact that owners of overflow lands are not aware of the possible flood discharge, flood heights, and the frequency with which major floods may occur. In 1921 a flood in the Apache, Alazan, * Publication authorizd by the Director, U. S. Geological Survey ** Presented at the Texas Academy of Science Meeting, College Station, Texas, April 7, 1951 1951, No. 3 September 30 Small Stream Problems 357 San Pedro and Olmos Creeks and the San Antonio River, each draining less than 50 square miles, destroyed or damaged property valued at $3,245,700, and caused the loss of 52 lives in the City of San Antonio and vicinity. In 1946 San Antonio experienced another major flood resulting in the loss of several lives and property damage estimated at $2,606,300. Stream flow records collected during this flood show that Olmos Reservoir on Olmos Creek held back flood waters which otherwise would have greatly increased flood damages, and that the unregulated streams whose flood plains were clogged with homes and other developments caused the major damage. United States Geological Survey publications — Water Supply Paper 488, "The Floods in Central Texas in September 1921,” and Circular No. 32, "Floods of September 1946 at San Antonio, Texas,” prepared in coopera¬ tion with the Texas State Board of Water Engineers, contain valuable basic hydrologic data that will be needed by designing engineers in planning additional flood protection for that community. Unfortunately this type of basic information is available for only a very few small watersheds in Texas. The increasing number of thickly populated centers, the construction and maintenance of the highway system, the expansion of industry, the in¬ creased demands for electric power, and the need for conserving the soil and water of the state, all introduce engineering problems that deal with the control and conservation of the surface water resources of small streams. As a result of these complex activities, factual information that shows the true stream flow or runoff characteristics of small streams is necessary. Before the designing engineer can proceed with plans for the construction of bridges and flood control or other water-use structures, he must determine from the most dependable sources the pertinent flow characteristics of the respective stream. Stream flow does not occur in a uniform pattern — climatic conditions, surface geology, vegetation, topography, evaporation and transpiration are -factors that affect the variations of flow. Major floods occur infrequently and at irregular intervals often many years in length; the smaller floods occur more frequently and at shorter intervals of time; and ordinary and drouth flows fluctuate with rainfall. Drouths of five-year duration are not uncommon in west Texas. There is no way to measure accurately the variations of stream flow except from continuous records of flow collected for ten or more years at or near the site of the proposed de¬ velopment. When factual stream flow data are not available, the engineer must make the best possible estimate of flood or drouth flows, average annual flow, etc., from rainfall data and theoretical means which are subject to considerable error and which tend to encourage over-design in order to insure safety. An example of the means employed in estimating extreme flood flows, flood frequencies, average annual flow and the flow during extended drouths where factual information is not available, is demonstrated in the Corps of Engineers’ report on Hords Creek Reservoir near Coleman, Texas. The following excerpts are from Appendix I entitled "Hydrology” of that report: "The rainfall records at Coleman (Nr.), Glen Cove, and Santa Anna cover a short period of time during which no major storms occurred over the watershed. The rates therefore do not indicate the maximum rates that have occurred or will occur on the watershed. Hourly rainfall records are available at Abilene, Austin and Taylor .. . . 358 The Texas Journal of Science 1951, No. 3 September 30 "Storms experienced over watershed. — Little is known of the storms that have occurred over the Hords Creek watershed . . . Based on information obtained from local residents the July 1900 storm reached cloudburst proportions in the headwaters of Hords Creek. However, at Coleman only 5.40 inches of rainfall was recorded dur¬ ing the storm period . . . "Floods. — The maximum known floods that have occurred on the Hords Creek watershed are those of July 1900, September 1900, and July 1932. No definite in¬ formation is available as to the stages or discharge reached by the floods of July and September 1900. Local residents testify that the September 1900 flood was slightly higher at Coleman than the flood of July 1932. The flood of July 1900 was reported to have taken the lives of ten people residing in the lowlands adjacent to Coleman and to have caused considerable property damage. The flood of July 1932, the maxi¬ mum of record, was the only flood along Hords Creek for which highwater marks could be recovered . . . "Resources. — A study was made of the water resources of the Hords Creek water¬ shed that could be made available as a water supply for the city of Coleman by pro¬ viding conservation storage in the proposed reservoir. The only records of runoff available for Hords Creek are those estimated for the gage above Coleman (drainage area 64 square miles) for a three-year period 1941 to 1943, inclusive . . . This short period does not include the critical drought period and is not long enough to pro¬ vide a good average. Therefore, it is necessary to estimate the runoff at the dam site by other means for the period 1906 to 1940, inclusive . . . "The estimated average annual net evaporation loss from the proposed Hords Creek Reservoir would amount to 30.1 inches over the perior 1906-1943, inclusive. During the critical period of storage, September 1915 through September 1918, the estimated net annual evaporation loss would be 43.0 inches. The maximum annual net evaporation loss was 53.6 inches in 1917. "Reservoir design flood. — Hydrologic data for the Hords Creek watershed is very limited; therefore, the magniture of the floods that have occurred at the dam site and at Coleman are unknown, except as indicated by high-water marks and re¬ ported by old residents.” These statements illustrate the manner in which factual hydrologic data are utilized in planning this type of project, and where factual data are not available show the extent to which the designing engineer must use estimated factors to plan an expensive structure to protect the population of a town from flooding and to impound water for municipal needs. The Corps of Engineers analyzed all available but fragmentary factual hydrologic data not only for the Coleman vicinity but that available for other areas having, what is believed to be, similar rainfall and runoff char¬ acteristics. Basic data fell far short in supplying the information needed and it was necessary to employ synthetic methods in estimating flood and other runoff characteristics of Hords Creek. Other engineers may agree that the methods used in making these estimates provide the necessary factor of safety for flood control and municipal water supply. It is recognized, how¬ ever, that a more efficient design and probably a material saving of money could have been made if continuous stream flow records of this creek had been available for a period of twenty years or longer. The Corps of Engineers fully recognizes the importance of having basic hydrologic data for planning flood control and water conservation projects. In 193 8 Congress authorized the Corps of Engineers to make comprehensive investigations of the flood control needs on the major streams of the country. That agency examined the stream flow investgiation pro¬ grams conducted by the U. S. Geological Survey in cooperation with states and municipalities. In Texas where this program was found inadequate, the Corps of Engineers transfered funds to the Geological Survey for the estab¬ lishment of new gaging stations at critical points on the major streams and their larger tributaries. Over fifty new gaging stations were estab¬ lished at that time for planning flood control projects. As the proposed con- 1951, No. 3 September 30 Small Stream Problems 359 struction programs developed, new gaging stations were added, and where reservoirs had been constructed gaging stations were installed to facilitate and to check the operation of the respective projects. These gaging stations usually record the flow entering the reservoir, the daily content of the reservoir, the quantity of water diverted from the reservoir, and the quan¬ tity passing downstream. This information is not only of value in operating or improving the respective projects, but furnishes hydrologic information that will be highly useful in planning new developments in the same vicinity. It is gratifying to note that through the foresight of the Texas State Board of Water Engineers, the U. S. Geological Survey, and the Corps of Engineers, many valuable basic stream flow data have been available to the planning and designing engineers for practically all major flood control and water conservation projects constructed on the larger Texas streams during the past few years. Some of these records, such as those for the Trinity River at Dallas, Brazos River at Waco, Colorado River at Ballinger and Colorado River at Austin, record daily stream flows from as early as 1898. These long-time records show flow characteristics of these major rivers for both flood and drought periods, including the historical floods of 1908, 1913, 1935, 1936 and 1938. The correlation of a long time record, such as those mentioned, with a shorter record and historical flood peaks at a proposed construction site is invaluable in developing stable structures, economical design and proper uses of the water. The rapidity with which the Hords Creek project developed did not permit time to obtain important stream flow data and it was necessary that the engineers design the project on less dependable information. Factual stream flow information now being col¬ lected on Hords Creek will be utilized by the Corps of Engineers in check¬ ing the operations of the reservoir and to provide a sound basis for im¬ provements if necessary. Hords Creek Reservoir has a storage capacity below the top of the service spillway of 2 5,3 00 acre-feet which includes 2,240 acre-feet of con¬ servation storage for the City of Coleman’s water supply. Inflow from the 48 square miles above the dam since the gates were closed April 7, 1948, has been considerably below the estimated average annual runoff. Records show that during this three-year period the runoff, all of which was re¬ tained in the reservoir, has been less than one-half of the estimated average annual yield. The maximum quantity of water stored so far was 4,080 acre- feet August 9-10, 1949, and at the end of February 195 1, 2,380 acre-feet was impounded. Since November 1949 diversions for municipal use have averaged about 3 5 acre-feet per month. This briefly illustrates the small yields of a watershed when droughts or sub-normal rainfall occur. The chemical quality of water is also an important factor in deter¬ mining the practical uses to be made of a particular water resource. In West Texas especially, highly mineralized soils or geologic formations over or through which water flows contribute a natural mineral contamination that in many localities renders the water unfit for all beneficial uses. Chemical quality of water investigations have been initiated recently to study the quality of water on a few of the west Texas streams. These investigations should be expanded to obtain information on every stream of the region that may serve as a source of water supply. 360 The Texas Journal of Science 1951, No. 3 September 30 Wasteful water-use practices should be eliminated and all types of water developments coordinated where feasible. The consumption of water for non-beneficial uses should be reduced to a minimum. In this connection it is believed advisable that the stockmen, farmers and others be furnished basic information that would improve the design of and reduce water losses through evaporation from the thousands of stock ponds and other small reservoirs that have been constructed in recent years. By general observa¬ tion the majority of stock ponds are dry following periods of low rain¬ fall. These ponds are usually saucer shaped, having relatively large water surfaces with maximum water depths of not over four or five feet. As a result most of the water may be dissipated through evaporation during one relatively short drought period. Ponds constructed so they are narrow and deep or trench-like and properly proportioned to the drainage basin would reduce the ratio of the water lost by evaporation to that stored in the ponds. Also, a careful study of the actual water requirements for stock and do¬ mestic needs should be made, and when known, the pond constructed to impound only the amount of water that will meet these needs and pro¬ vide for anticipated evaporation and other losses. This type of pond con¬ struction will allow excess flows to pass on downstream for the beneficial use of others. In the past the demand for stream flow data and the manner in which funds have been provided have limited investigations principally to the larger streams of the state. Of the 242 stations now in operation less than 5 percent of them are on streams draining areas of less than 200 square miles. Runoff characteristics of the small streams are quite different from those of the larger streams. Floods are of very short duration, and extended droughts may reduce the flow to zero or very small quantities for much longer periods of time than for larger streams. Wider variations in actual water yield may occur between adjacent small streams than between the large ones because of abrupt changes in topography, geology and vegetation. Although it is not possible to collect stream flow records on every small stream, through a planned investigation that recognizes variations in climate, geology, topog¬ raphy and vegetation, it is possible to collect records of representative small streams that will supply valuable basic data for planning and designing all types of water control structures, bridges etc. Basic data on water resources, topography and geology are essential in planning for orderly development and the continued economy of a region. The planning and designing engineer of any resources project (private or government) must have pertinent basic data for the specific area under study if he is to develop stable and serviceable structures. The collection of these data is fundamentally a function of govern¬ ment. Such data are not only used extensively by many Federal agencies but the comprehensive scope of such investigations and the planning and cost of these operations can only be executed and sustained by stable gov¬ ernmental agencies, staffed with specialized technical and administrative per¬ sonnel. For example, the collection of much of the water resources infor¬ mation requires obtaining information at or near points of proposed de¬ velopment many years in advance of construction and through extended climatic cycles. The financing of such projects by private concerns is not feasible. The importance of obtaining basic data in natural resources develop- 1951, No. 3 September 30 Small Stream Problems 361 ment was emphasized by the Commission on Organization of the Executive Branch of the Government (Hoover Commission). The Task Force in Natural Resources (Appendix L) states on page 27: "It is foolhardy, however, for the Federal Government to undertake a develop¬ ment program running into billions of dollars without spending enough money to obtain basic hydrologic data essential to sound planning and construction . . . The Committee, therefore, recommends the immediate expansion of the programs of the basic data collecting agencies, so the topographic mapping, ground water studies, stream gaging program, sedimentation studies, evapotranspiration studies, and runoff and erosion studies can keep pace with development programs.” A technical review of past water development projects (dams, bridges, irrigation, hydroelectric and municipal water supply) within Texas reveals a surprising number of projects that have been structural or economic failures because the planners and designers did not have sufficient basic data. The Texas State Board of Water Engineers and the U. S. Geological Survey, through their cooperative investigational programs, are now form¬ ulating plans for the establishment of a number of stream flow stations on typical small streams in various sections of the state in order to obtain this much needed information. It will be necessary, however, that appropria¬ tions, both from the state and the federal government, be increased before this expanded program can be inaugurated. 362 The Texas Journal of Science 1951, No. 3 September 30 A SURVEY OF THE SITES OF THE PALEO-INDIAN IN THE MIDDLE RIO GRANDE VALLEY, NEW MEXICO FRANK C HIBBEN * Department of Anthropology University of New Mexico Albuquerque, New Mexico In the years since the war, five major sites and a number of minor ones have come to light in the Middle Rio Grande Valley which seem to extend the Cochise variety of gathering culture farther east than heretofore demonstrated. ALBUQUERQUE SITE The first of these sites was encountered accidentally during the normal activities of the Albuquerque Sand and Gravel Products Company. The main gravel pit of this concern lies on the southern edge of Albuquerque, New Mexico, involving two river terraces in that area. The commercial workings at this spot have penetrated deeply through recent alluvia and into stratified gravels. Professor Kirk Bryan has worked in this area with a view towards more exactly dating the gravels with the various stages of the Wisconsin Recession. Unfortunately, Professor Bryan’s untimely death has halted these researches, as yet unfinished. However, the work thus far accomplished as well as the abundant faunal material, indicated that the gravels are Pleistocene and of considerable antiquity. Some twenty-two feet below the original surface in this gravel pit, an occupation level was encountered as the power shovel removed sand and gravel during the commercial operations. The area was marked by scat¬ tered circular hearths in the form of lenses of charcoal. In general the de¬ marcation of the occupation level could be traced with accuracy by a thin line of humus, although gravel and water-laid lenses of sand occurred both above and below the cultural stratum. Along this occupation line as well as embedded in the semi-consolidated gravels below occurred a considerable number of faunal remains. Those which occurred definitely in the cultural stratum are here listed in order of importance: Mammoth _ ( Elephas sp.) Bison _ ( Bison sp.) Horse _ ( Equs sp.) Camel _ ( Camelops sp.) Wolf _ ( Canis or hi pus) Large cat _ ( Felis sp.) Ground Squirrel ( Citellus sp.) ** Segments of mammoth tusks and whole teeth were common on and around the site area. Long bones and fragments of other mammals of typical late Pleistocene assemblage also occurred frequently. Most of the bones * Presented at El Paso during the 1951 joint meeting of the Texas Academy of Science and the American Association for the Advancement of Science. ^Identification of these remains is still in progress. 1951, No. 3 September 30 Rio Grande Paleo-Indian Sites 363 were surrounded or accompanied by yellow ochre, a circumstance which has been noted at other Early Man sites in the Rio- Grande area. Some of the bone specimens were somewhat rolled as though water-washed. At this same occupation level there were recovered forty-two crudely chipped implements. Undoubtedly many more were not recovered as the nature of the commercial operations here precluded screening or careful excavation. The employees of the Albuquerque Sand and Gravel Products Company were most cooperative in recovering bones and implements from this level. In many cases, however, it was impossible to determine without fear of equivocation that the implements or the faunal material originated from the one stratum. Enough implements, however, were found in place to justify the supposition that all similar tools came from the one area and at a single level. During the course of anthropological meetings in Al¬ buquerque in 1947, Professor Loren Eiseley, Dr. T Dale Stewart, Dr C Ber¬ trand Schulz and Dr Helmut de Terra examined the site and aided with their various professional opinions The Albuquerque site is distinctive in that the tools are of rude outline and indeterminate usage. No projectile points of any description were re¬ covered, and the chipping techniques exhibited in the artifacts seem to denote a rudimentary tradition of stone working. Some time ago Professor Bryan (Bryan, 1938; 1939) pointed out that there were certain evidences in the southwestern area which seemed to indicate the existence of cultures marked by rudely chipped implements apparently without projectile points. The material of the artifacts from the Albuquerque pit is a cherty slate. These pieces were originally pebbles which were roughly chipped on one or two sides to form a chopper or scraper. The instruments vary in outline and size with little classification possible. Perhaps the most revealing item of the Albuquerque site was a single basin-shaped milling stone of sandstone which occurred on this same level. This was recovered in place so its location could be verified. The occurrence of a milling stone of this form associated with mammoth and other fauna of late Pleistocene date does not appear startling in light of the Cochise finds (Sayles and Antevs, op. cit.) from southern Arizona. Professor Bryan was much impressed by a similar find of a milling stone from the Durst Horizon near Abilene, Texas. The entire area of the occupation site in the Albuquerque gravel pit was perhaps an acre. The operations of the Albuquerque Sand and Gravel Products Company have now gone beyond the limits of the charcoal and instrument bearing stratum. There are, however, indications of other similar sites not only in this pit, but also in others in the Albuquerque area. In the gravel pit of the Springer Company to the north of Albuquerque there have occurred fire hearths, the bones of mammoth, horses, and occasional rough implements whose provenience unfortunately could not be exactly deter¬ mined. ' COMANCHE SPRINGS SITE Some twenty-five miles to the south of Albuquerque in the vicinity of the small town of Tome, another place of importance in the survey of Early Man was discovered by, two students of the University of New Mex¬ ico"'. This site is known locally as Comanche Springs. At this spot a con¬ siderable volume of water issues out of the piedmont of the Manzano Moun¬ tains not far from the mouth of Comanche Canyon (Denny, 1941). In re-r 364 The Texas Journal of Science 1951, No. 3 September 30 cent times there has been erosional cutting through the alluvia so as to re¬ veal cross-sections of the deposits in a series of jagged arroyos. Near the confluence of two arroyos, just below Comanche Springs proper, a bone bed of limited extent has been revealed by erosion. The Comanche Springs bone strata lie some eight feet below the origi¬ nal surface of the ground, although the terrain is so eroded that the primary level is difficult to determine. The bones are embedded near the base of a blue clay stratum which is clearly demarked in a basin-like depression of some two acres extent. Professor Bryan noted that the Comanche Springs site was similar to the stratification at Clovis, New Mexico (Antevs, 193 5, 1950). Apparently the Comanche Springs area was a pond or basin possibly with the same general geologic history as the area of Blackwater Draw near Clovis. Mixed with the bones at the bottom of the blue clay layer and scattered along the soil line which marked the edge of the original depression, some twenty-two rough implements have been recovered. These implements are all of quartzite of varying degrees of fineness and texture. The shapes and out¬ lines display the same rude and casual manufacture as the tools from the Albuquerque gravel pit site. A number of the pieces from Comanche Springs may well be rejects or flakes incidental to manufacture. Some, how¬ ever, are indubitably scrapers or choppers of sorts (see illustrations). Several basin-shaped milling stones of shallow depression have also been found at the Comanche Springs site. Unfortunately, none of these was found in place, although their disposition seemed to indicate that they had weathered out of the same stratum as the bone material in the normal course of erosion. There is considerable Pueblo and Apache material of more recent centuries in this same area and some artifacts of obviously late date are strewn on top of the most recent alluvial deposits. Of the general dating of the artifact and bone bearing level of the blue clay, however, there seems to be little doubt. All bone material iden¬ tified is bison. Most of the bison bones are friable and only one horn core has been recovered to date. This one piece, however, is of the generally straight variety which is associated with B. antiquus rather than with the more modern forms. It is interesting to note that the artifact repertoire at Comanche Springs is essentially the same as that in the Albuquerque pit. No projectile points appear to be present. Only crudely chipped implements oc¬ cur at the site with the possibility of the presence also of basin-shaped mill¬ ing stones. RIO PUERCO SITES A third site, or series of sites, of importance have been encountered in the very deep erosional cuts of the Rio Puerco de Este twenty-five miles to the south and west of Albuquerque. The Rio Puerco is a tributary of the Rio Grande which flows almost parallel to the latter, then converges to enter the Rio Grande Valley near the small town of Bernardo. The Puerco Valley is, however, separated from the Rio Grande by only a low divide and is, in reality, a part of the main valley system. The recent history of the Rio Puerco has been one of erosional cutting of great magnitude. This process, while alarming to the Soil Conservation Service, has revealed a number of deeply buried hearths and living areas which add materials to the sequence of early life in the Albuquerque area. * The author is indebted to Mr. John Fisher and Mr. Donald Narquis for their aid and interest in locating this site. 1951, No. 3 September 30 Rio Grande Paleo-Indian Sites 365 The Rio Puerco fire hearths occur in groups such as the one five miles down stream from the small railroad station of Suwanee. Here, approxi¬ mately ten circular areas of charcoal and ash have been cut through by the main Rio Puerco and by several side arroyos. The charcoal lenses are ellipti¬ cal in cross section and from five to fifteen feet in diameter, roughly circular in outline. Between these areas, occupational levels and soil lines can easily be traced by scattered charcoal flecks and occasional implements. In general, the fire hearths stretch along a primitive terrace level which dips sharply toward the situation of the present Rio Puerco as though the occupation represented by these hearths of charcoal had been situated on a slanting river bank. The hearths now lie some thirty feet below the surface at their deep¬ est portion to twelve feet in the other extreme. There is considerable indica¬ tion that further studies may reveal a series of hearths at different levels, pos¬ sibly indicating a somewhat extensive occupation in this area. Any doubt as to the human authorship of these charcoal lenses is re¬ moved by the presence of milling stones and manos accompanying them. At the edge of one hearth, twenty-three feet below the surface, occurred two basin-shaped milling stones lying together. In another charcoal area, three well-formed one-handed manos had been placed in a small pile. Another hearth produced a single mano of the same design. These basin milling stones and the one-handed manos which accompanied them are of the same general character as those from the Albuquerque gravel pit and the Comanche Springs area. Their similarity to Cochise material is also obvious. It is more difficult to determine the exact stage of the Cochise series where this simi¬ larity is greatest (Sayles and Antevs, op. sit.). Rough stone implements from the Puerco sites are more scarce. Only six have been recovered in indubitable association with the charcoal fire lenses. These are, however, of the rough chopper-scraper type, similar in these respects at least to the tools from the other Middle Rio Grande situa¬ tions. The materials from the Rio Puerco are chert and quartzite. Bone remains are scarce to absent, in or around the Rio Puerco hearths. A few splinters of bone appear and a single bison tooth has been identified. Some faunal material has been recovered from comparable depths in the banks of the Rio Puerco but not close enough to the fire hearths to arouse more than casual interest. Some pieces of charcoal in the hearth lenses are of sufficient size to identify varieties of wood involved. These so far recognized include pine, box elder, walnut, and cottonwood or poplar. * Professor Bryan’s excellent work on the headwaters of the Rio Puerco (Bryan, 1936) has unhappily not as yet been extended to cover the mid portion of that drainage. Just before his death, Professor Bryan was work¬ ing on the sediments involved in the Rio Puerco fire hearths. From these preliminary investigations the human evidences here appear to be related to number two fill (Bryan, 193 6). This would indicate that the Puerco sites are considerably later than evidence at the Albuquerque gravel pit or Comanche Springs. Indeed, if Professor Bryan’s tentative identification of the fill is substantiated by further work, the Rio Puerco fire hearths are roughly contemporaneous with the middle levels of Bat Cave (Mangelsdorf, 1949). Although the primitive corn from Bat Cave was found in the lower portions of the upper level, it arouses the possibility that even agriculture, * Wood Products Laboratory, Washington, D. C. 3 66 The Texas Journal of Science 1951, No. 3 September 30 as evidenced by the finds in Bat Cave, may overlap with levels heretofore regarded as well before agricultural beginnings. Thus the users of the basin milling stones of the Rio Puerco may possibly have ground corn on these implements rather than gathering wild seeds as previously supposed. The artifact complex of the Puerco fire hearths is essentially the same as that in the other two areas of the Middle Rio Grande Valley. The Puerco sites emphasize the basin-shaped grinding stone and the one-handed mano to the semi-exclusion of the roughly-chipped tools, but the combination is the same. SANTA ANA SITES In several dry canyons to the west of Santa Ana Pueblo on the Jemez Wash, a series of fire hearths have been uncovered by recent erosion. This area is no great distance from the Rio Grande Valley proper or the Puerco sites just mentioned. The Santa Ana hearths appear at all levels in the sides of the arroyos and also have been laid bare by surface movement of wind blown material. About a hundred hearths or charcoal lenses are scattered over an area of five hundred acres which is cut by several arroyos. Most of these are charcoal de¬ posits occasionally in prepared pits. Some hearths are outlined by broken boulder fragments showing the effects of fire. One charcoal area was sur¬ rounded and overlaid with large slabs of limestone. None of the Santa Ana fire hearths are accompanied by pottery al¬ though the area is close to historic and prehistoric pottery sites. A few hearths of the Santa Ana group are fifteen to twenty feet below the sur¬ face with two well defined silt depositions above. Indications of age from geological correlations are yet to be determined. Basin-shaped milling stones and one-handed manos accompanied a number of these fire hearths. Crudely chipped choppers and scrapers are also fairly common. Projectile points and chipped blades are scarce but present. The projectile points are notched, stemmed and of considerable size (largest 6 cm. in length). Although the series is too small as yet to draw any conclusions, the few points recovered from the Santa Ana sites are very similar to those from the San Pedro level of the Cochise series such as the examples from Ventana Cave (Haury, 1950) of that horizon. The points from the Santa Ana sites are also similar to those of the San Jose Complex (Bryan, 1943) near Grants, New Mexico. The blades from the charcoal lenses are lanceolate in outline. These occur in a number of connections in Southwestern sites and are not especially chronologically diagnostic. The exact typological connections of these sites may appear more clearly when the collection of artifacts recovered is enlarged. LA JOYA SITES Near the small town of La Joya, fifty miles down river from Albu¬ querque, and on the La Joya Grant, another series of sites have come to light which seem to belong to the early period of Rio Grande prehistory. These are fire hearths and associated artifacts which have been uncovered by wind erosion along the west side of the La Joya marshes and south of the marshes. A number of deep blow outs with accompanying sand dunes have cut into underlying sediments of old river terraces. Fire hearths have appeared in a number of these depressions. Three basin-shaped milling stones and the same 1951, No. 3 September 30 Rio Grande Paleo-Indian Sites 367 number of one-handed manos have been found with two of the hearths re¬ vealed in this manner. Crudely chipped choppers and abundant flakes also accompany the hearths. There seems little doubt from all of this accumulated evidence that there existed in this part of the Southwest during the late glacial and early recent times a series of gathering cultures similar to those which have al¬ ready been demonstrated for southern Arizona. LITERATURE CITED Antevs, Ernst — 1935 — The occurrence of flints and extinct animals in the pluvial deposits near Clovis, New Mexico. Proc. Acad. Nat. Sex. Phila. 87 : 304-312. - 1937a — Climate and early man in North America, in Early Man. J. B. Lippincott Co. Philadelphia. - 1937b — Studies on the climate in relation to early man in the Southwest. Carnegie Institute Yearbook 36. Washington. - 1950 — (Wormington, H. M.) Appendix by Ernst Antevs in Ancient Man in North America. Denver Museum of Natural History Popular Series No. 4, 3rd. ed., revised. Denver, Colorado. Bryan, Kirk — 1936 — Successive pediments and terraces of the Upper Rio Puerco in New Mexico. J. Geol. 44(2) : 145-172. - 1938 — Prehistoric quarries and implements of pre-American aspect in New Mexico. Science 87(2259) : 343-346. - 1939 — Stone cultures near Cerro Pedernal and their geological antiquity. Bull. Tex. Archaeological and Paleontological Society 2. Abilene, Texas. - and Joseph H. Toulouse, Jr. — 1943 — The San Jose non-ceramic culture and its rela¬ tion to puebloan culture in New Mexico. American Antiquity 8 (3) : 269-280. Campbell, E. W. C., et al. — 1937 — The archaeology of Pleistocene Lake Mohave. Southwest Mus. Papers, No. 11. Los Angeles, California. Campbell, William H. and Elizabeth W. Campbell — 1937 — The Pinto Basin Site. Southwest Mus. Papers, No. 9. Los Angeles, California. Denny, C. S. — 1941 — Quaternary geology of the San Acacia area, New Mexico. J. Geol. 49(3) : 225-260. Haury, Emil W. (and collaborators) — 1950 — The stratigraphy and archaeology of Ventana Cave, Arizona. University of New Mexico Press and University of Arizona Press, Albuquerque and Tucson. Mangelsdorf, Paul C. and C. Earle Smith, Jr. — 1949 — New archaeological evidence on evolu¬ tion in maize. Botanical Mus. Leaflets Harvard University 13(6) : 213-247. Sayles, E. B. and Antevs, Ernst — 1941 — The Cochise Culture. Medallion Papers, No. 29. Gila Pueblo. Globe, Arizona. 368 The Texas Journal of Science 195L No. 3 September 30 GULF COAST GEOSYNCLINE FRED R. HAEBERLE Standard Oil Company of Texas Amarillo, Texas INTRODUCTION The concept of the geosyncline is originally an American idea. James Hall, in 18 59, first mentioned the fact that the Appalachian Mountains contained a greater thickness of sediments than the formations of equivalent age exposed further to the west. These sediments were dominantly sand¬ stones and shales, thus the site of the present day mountain range was originally an area of maximum accumulation of clastic sediments. This idea was taken over by J. D. Dana, who proposed the term geosynclinals for these belts of accumulation of thick sediments along borders of continents. He gave three examples of geosynclinals, two of which are today included in the Appalachian chain, and a third, the Triassic basin of Connecticut which contains several thousand feet of continental, unfolded sediments. Dana’s term has since been modified to geosyncline and applied in many areas and in many different ways. The region surrounding the Gulf of Mexico has been as thoroughly explored, geologically speaking, as any area in the world. As a result of this intensive study, the area is frequently referred to as a geosyncline. The purpose of this paper is to briefly examine the "type” geosyncline and to compare it with the Gulf Coast area. The region under study will be restricted to the Texas, Louisiana and Mississippi coastal areas, as this is the area generally considered to contain the Gulf Coast Geosyncline. For reasons to be listed later, the study will be restricted to formations of Cenozoic age only. THE APPALACHIAN GEOSYNCLINE Detailed studies of the Appalachian Geosyncline show that it has several characteristics which might be used as criterion for comparison with other areas. The geosyncline was rather long, extending from Alabama through New York, Canada and at least as far as Newfoundland. It was generally restricted in width to a band less than 150 miles, although at one time it did extend from eastern New York State to Cincinnati, Ohio. Structurally, the geosyncline was composed of a source area, a deep basin of clastic deposition that shallowed toward a foreland of marine shale and limestone deposition. At least three major basins that contain an unusually thick sedi¬ mentary section are known, one in Alabama, one in West Virginia, and one in Pennsylvania. Large deltas have been recognized in several places, such as the Queenston delta in New York and Pennsylvania in the Ordovician for¬ mations, the Catskill delta in the Devonian formations of New York and Pennsylvania, and the Chaleur Bay delta on the Gaspe Peninsula of Canada in the Devonian formations. The source area for the clastic material in the geosyncline was to the east away from the present continent, while the geo¬ syncline itself was located on the continental block. Sediments that filled the geosyncline as it slowly sank were elastics on the eastern side that 1951, No. 3 September 30 Gulf Coast Geosyncline 369 gradually graded into marine shales and finally into marine limestones fur¬ ther westward. The geosyncline was frequently altered by diastrophism and finally destroyed during the Permian. The other example cited by Dana was quite different. The Triassic basin of Connecticut was only about 100 miles long and 2 5 miles wide. Struc¬ turally, it was a monocline formed by downfaulting along the eastern margin. This created a basin into which from 10,000 to 13,000 feet of elastics and a large amount of igneous material were poured. No marine fossils or sediments are known. The source for the detrital material was to the west. There are some very prominent differences between the examples cited by Dana. As more and more has been learned about the Appalachian area, it has become more apparent that it has had a diverse history and its structure is far more complicated than was believed in Dana’s time. GULF COAST AREA Figure 1 shows the outline of the region under discussion in this paper. It has been limited to the Texas, Louisiana and Mississippi coastal regions as extending the discussion either to the east or south would enter two different provinces and introduce several extraneous problems. For several reasons the author considers that deposition of the geosyn¬ clinal type of sediments began in the Gulf Coast in the early part of the Cenozoic and not in the Upper Cretaceous. First, the Cenozoic deposits differ greatly from the underlying Cretaceous formations, as the Lower Cretaceous deposits are dominantly calcareous limestones and even the Upper Cretaceous deposits are calcareous enough to be classed as marls. (Storm, 1945, p. 1307) The Cenozoic deposits are primarily elastics. There is a disconformity, or in some places an unconformity, separating the Cretaceous FIG.I. OUTLINE MAP OF AREA FIG. 1 — Outline map of area under consideration. Region of Cenozoic deposition shown by dashed line. Cross-sections indicated by lines A- A’, B-B’, and«C-C\ 370 The Texas Journal of Science 1951, No. 3 September 30 and Cenozoic formations. This break in deposition is general throughout North America. If there is any Gulfward thickening or changing of the Cretaceous sediments, it is hardy noticeable where the Cretaceous formations have been penetrated by the drill. The Cenozoic formations definitely thicken toward the Gulf and change to a more marine facies. There is also a sharp faunal break between the two systems. In addition, faunal zones of the Cretaceous, such as Exogyra cancellate and some 14 other species, can be traced from Texas to New Jersey. This widespread range would seem to indicate conditions of remarkable stability in a large area, not conditions of geosynclinal development. There were periods during the Eocene when downwarping and rapid sedimentation did not take place. This is demon¬ strated by the presence of lignite beds over a fairly large part of eastern Texas during the Eocene and by the presence of some deposits of cannel coal in Webb County. The presence of coal and lignite would indicate areas of low relief, wide swamps, and a certain amount of stability over part of Texas. That few beds of great thickness are known would seem to show that the region, although stable, was far less stable than western Pennsyl¬ vania when the coal measures of that state were deposited. The fact that the coal deposits of this area are limited both in size and thickness seems to show that the general geosynclinal depositional conditions were interrupted only briefly. Since these differences indicate a different type of environment and a different type of deposition between the Mesozoic and the Cenozoic, the thickness of Mesozoic sediments beneath East Texas and Northern Mexico will not be considered. The evidence for classifying the Gulf Coast as a geosyncline is predomi¬ nantly found in the sediments of the region. The Cenozoic formations thicken and dip toward the Gulf of Mexico, reaching an estimated thickness of over 2 5,000 feet. The deepest part of the Gulf of Mexico, the Sigsbee Deep, reaches 12,000 feet, so it is believed that the Gulf Coast has the general structure of a syncline, with the northern flank represented in the present day Gulf Coast and the southern flank hidden beneath the Gulf of Mexico. The sediments in the syncline are dominantly clastic in Texas, Louisiana and most of Mississippi, largely the result of deltaic deposition. In southeastern Mississippi there is a facies change from the clastic, deltaic deposits to those of a marine facies. (Bornhauser, 1947, p. 707.) That the Cenozoic deposits thicken toward the Gulf of Mexico has been proven by thousands of wells. That they thin beneath the Gulf of Mexico is logical, since the bottom of the Gulf is shallower than depths reached by drilling on land, 20,000 feet in Mississippi and almost 15,000 feet in Texas. Although it is logical, no proof in the form of well data exists that this region has the structural form of an elongated syncline. However, geophysical work (Barton, Ritz, and Hickey, 1936) indicates that a large trough trends approximately parallel to the present coast line with its axis slightly inland from the present shoreline. There is no evidence that the formations have a definite synclinal structure in this trough however. Sources for the sediments deposited in the Gulf Coast during the Ceno- zcic were to the west, northwest and north. Ample source material was available in these directions to supply the needed material to fill a large trough such as is found here. Not all of the deposits in the Cenozoic are 1951, No, 3 September 30 Gulf Coast Geosyncline 371 deltaic, however. As one moves toward the Gulf of Mexico, as might be expected, the deltaic sediments are gradually displaced by marine shales. No marine limestones in any quantity are known . The Cenozoic history of the Gulf Coast has been so well described by various authors that there is little point in discussing it in detail. The bibliography lists a few of the more recent important papers dealing with this subject. It may be summed up briefly by saying that throughout the Cenzoic the region was characterized by a series of transgressive and regress¬ ive seas with a gradual offlap of the Gulf of Mexico to the south and southeast, so that younger formations were deposited successively closer to the present day shore line. Figures 2 A, B, and C are cross-sections drawn through the Gulf Coast of Texas and Louisiana showing the generally accepted theories concerning the structure of the syncline. The south flank of each of these cross-sections is inferred and cannot be proven. IS THE GULF COAST A GEOSYNCLINE? Criterion as to whether the Gulf Coast is a geosyncline or not can come only from comparison with the "type” geosyncline. This comparison may be either structural, sedimentary or historical. As previously mentioned, the Appalachian Geosyncline is composed of three structural features; the source area, the basin of deposition and the foreland. The source area was the old land mass of Appalachia, whether it be called a continent or island archipelago. The basin area is today the present Appalachian Mountains, while the foreland is the flat-lying lime¬ stone belt immediately west of the present mountains. In the Gulf Coast the source area was the present continental mass, the basin of deposition ran parallel to the edge of the Gulf of Mexico and the foreland is unknown. Perhaps it did not exist. FIG. 2A — Diagrammatic cross-section through Corpus Christi, Texas. Modified from Storm. 372 The Texas Journal of Science 1951, No. 3 September SO 100 MILES SCALE FIG. 2B— -Diagrammatic cross-section through Houston and Galveston, Texas. Modified from Barton, Ritz and Hickey. FIG. 2C — Diagrammatic cross-section through Shreveport and Jennings, Louisiana. Modified from Barton, Ritz and Hickey. In neither the Appalachian nor the Gulf Coast was sedimentation uni¬ form. In both, localized areas are known that contain greater sedimentary sections than is considered normal in nearby areas. In the Appalachian region these areas are the three main basins mentioned above. In the Gulf Coast, the Rio Grande Embayment, the Central or Houston Embayment and the deep area around the present Mississippi River delta all have thicker sedimentary sections than the intervening regions. 1951, No. 3 September 30 Gulf Coast Geosyncline 373 The angle of dip of the flanks of these two synclinal areas is quite different. Both have one steeply dipping flank and one gently dipping one. In the Appalachian Geosyncline the steeply dipping flank was located next to the source area and the gently dipping flank was on the side of the foreland. In the Gulf Coast this relationship is reversed and the gently dipping flank is nearest the source area. As a result, the source area of the Appalachian Geosyncline is extremely close to the belt of maximum deposi¬ tion and in the Gulf Coast they are separated by a considerable distance. From this has risen the fact that thick conglomerate belts are common in much of the Appalachian area but comparatively rare in the Gulf Coast. The Appalachian Geosyncline was located on the edge of the craton, the consolidated, immobile central shield of the continental mass. The source for the sediments was on the seaward side, away from the craton, and the clastic formations thicken toward it. The Gulf Coast had its source area on the continental side nearest the craton and the clastic deposits thicken away from it. In addition, the Gulf Coast syncline was not located on the margin of the craton, but was a considerable distance from it. Thus, structurally, the Gulf Coast resembles the Appalachian Geosyn¬ cline except for the location of the source area in relation to the belt of maximum deposition and in the apparent absence of a foreland in the Gulf Coast. In addition, the relationship of the downwarped area of the Gulf Coast to the craton is obscure. The sediments of the Appalachian Geosyncline were largely elastics near the source, grading into marine shales and limestones as the foreland was approached. The gradation from elastics to marine shales is known in the Gulf Coast, but not the further gradation to limestones. Apparently the deposition in the deep trough of both areas was characterized by the rapid depositing of material from streams in a series of coalescing deltas interbedded and interrupted by occasional marine invasions. Rock types include graywackes, arkoses, sands, conglomerates and shales. One of the interesting comparisons between the Gulf Coast area and the Appalachian Geosyncline is found in the length of time the two existed. The Appalachian Geosyncline lasted approximately 300 million years if it is considered to have begun in Cambrian times and ended at the close of the Permian. If it is considered to have lasted only until Middle Permian times, the life of the geosyncline was still 270 million years. During this time approximately 40,000 feet of sediments were laid down. The Gulf Coast has had a maximum life of approximately 60 million years if it is considered to have originated in Eocene times and is still in existence. If it is considered to have closed at the end of Miocene times it had a life span of less than 30 million years. This would indicate that deposition in the Gulf Coast was at least four times as rapid as in the Appalachian Geosyncline. Lawson (193 8) has gone so far as to state that a geosyncline is not developed until the depositional syncline is destroyed and mountain-making inaugurated. If this be true, then the Gulf Coast can not be a geosyncline. Most authorities believe that Lawson’s idea goes too far and that geosyn¬ clines can exist prior to their destruction. If the Gulf Coast and the Appalachian Geosyncline are compared closely, eliminating the idea of orogeny, many similarities can be noted. Sedimentary conditions are very similar with the exception of the marine limestone facies. There are several 374 The Texas Journal of Science 1951, No. 3 September 30 differences between the two, such as the absence of the foreland, the location of the deep basin of deposition and the source area, and the location of the geosyncline with respect to the craton. There is a growing tendency among geologists to speak of geosynclinal sediments (Pettijohn, 1949, p. 443) and to consider any area containing a certain type of sediment to be a geosyncline. This type of sedimentation is generally deltaic and consists primarily of the graywacke suites and sand¬ stones mixed with shales. However, this may lead to confusion as it refers solely to the deposits occurring in the deep trough of the geosyncline and separates them from the foreland deposits. In many cases it is not so easy to to separate them. The confusion between the use of the term geosynclinal deposits by some and the restricting of the use of the term geosyncline to structural features by other authors can be seen when the Michigan basin is referred to as a basin by some authors and as a geosyncline by others. The author has seen one example in which three small ''geosynclines” opened into a large geosyncline. Wherever deltaic deposits are known, geosynclines have come into existence. Efforts to separate geosynclines from basins by defining geosynclines as large, elongated, thick sequences of deltaic deposits clarify the issue somewhat, but there is little or no agreement as to what is large or thick. It might be better to view geosynclinal deposits as a whole, com¬ bining the deep trough and the foreland deposits. Thus, geosynclinal deposits would then consist of trough deposits grading gradually into foreland de¬ posits. They would not be separated into two distinct units. If one or the other of the facies is absent, then the deposits would not be geosynclinal, but would be separated into two subdivisions and handled separately. If the view be taken that a geosyncline should have the same struc¬ tural features as the "type” geosyncline, then the Gulf Coast in not a true geosyncline. Kay (1944) and Schuchert (1925) recognized the differences between the Gulf Coast and the Appalachian Geosyncline and proposed the terms exogeosyncline and parageosyncline, respectively, to distinguish be¬ tween them. If the view be taken that a geosyncline is an area containing a great thickness of sedimentary deposits of the graywacke type, then the Gulf Coast is still not a geosyncline as the deposits of this area are too well- sorted to be classed as graywackes. However, if any area containing an elongated belt of sedimentary rocks of great thickness is considered a geo¬ syncline, then the Gulf Coast is a geosyncline. In this case geosynclines are probably much more common throughout the world than previously sup¬ posed. So much more has been learned about the Appalachian Geosyncline since Dana first proposed the term geosynclinals, it seems necessary to the author to restrict usage of the term. The widespread application of the term to any thick sedimentary basin destroys the significance of the term as it is widely used today. So many other geosynclines in the past, the Rocky Mountain or Franciscian or Alpine for example, correspond in their major structural features, location and history to the "type” geosyncline, that it seems advisable to limit the use of the term geosyncline to only those fea¬ tures that conform with the original. This is not intended to mean, as Lawson suggests, that the geosyncline must be destroyed before it can be called a geosyncline. Rather, it is intended to suggest that before an area be referred to as a geosyncline, the presence of both trough and foreland facies of deposition and a relationship between the depositional area and 1951, No. 3 September 30 Gulf Coast Geosyncline 375 the craton similar to that of the "type” geosyncline be established. It would then be necessary to adopt some modifying term or terms to fit the large basins of deposition that vary from the original specifications. Such terms would indicate that deposition had occurred in a trough similar to the depositional troughs of a geosyncline, but the foreland facies was absent. ORIGIN OF THE SYNCLINAL AREA The argument as to whether the mass of sediments in the Gulf Coast caused subsidence there, or whether the mass of sediments accumulated as a result of the subsidence has waged long and often furiously. The author is inclined to agree with the school that feels that the weight of a sedimen¬ tary column alone is not sufficient to cause subsidence and that the sub¬ sidence is primarily the result of tectonic causes. Once started, the mass of sediments may have assisted further sinking, but the origin was the result of other causes. The Gulf Coast synclinal belt may well have had its origin in the collapse and downwarping of the Gulf of Mexico plate, postulated by Schuchert (1935, p. 21) as beginning in late Jurassic times. If this downwarped area extended westward it would have removed the remnants of Llanoria, the source for the clastic sediments of central Texas and Okla¬ homa during the Palezoic. By the end of the Paleozoic, Llanoria had been so worn down that no material was coming from it. No Triassic or Jurassic deposits are known in the eastern part of Texas, yet a good Cretaceous sec¬ tion is present. If the area were downwarped in late Jurassic times, it would no longer act as a barrier and the Cretaceous seas would then spread across Texas. Continued downwarping, possibly aided by faulting along the Bal- cones zone, would permit the Gulfward tipping of the Cenozoic depositional area and tilt the Cretaceous beds. According to Bornhauser (1947, p. 709), southeastern Mississippi remained as a submarine platform or plateau sepa¬ rated by synclines from the land mass to the north. As the Gulf of Mexico plate sank, this platform may have acted as a foreland and today stands as the only possible remnant of that foreland available to us. LITERATURE CITED Barton, D. C., Ritz, C. H., and Hickey, M. — 1936 — Gulf Coast Geosyncline. Gulf Coast oil fields. A.A.P.G. Tulsa, Oklahoma. Bornhauser, M. — 1947 — Marine sedimentary cycles of Tertiary in Mississippi Embayment and Central Gulf Coast area. Bull. A.A.P.G. 31: 698-712. Carsey, J. B. — 1950 — Geology of Gulf Coastal area and continental shelf. Bull. A.A.P.G. 34: 361-385. Dunbar, C. O. — 1949 — Historical geology. John Wiley. New York. Kay, G. M,-— 1947 — Geosynclinal nomenclature and the craton. Bull. A.A.P.G. 31 : 1289-1293. Lawson, A. C. — 1938 — The flotation of mountains — a theory of orogensis. Sci. Monthly 47 : 429-438. Lowman, S. W. — 1949 — Sedimentary facies in Gulf Coast. Bull. A.A.P.G. 33 : 1939-1997. Murray, G. E. — 1947 — Cenozoic deposits of central Gulf coastal plain. Bull. A.A.P.G. 31 : 1825-1850. Pettijohn, F. J. — 1949 — Sedimentary rocks. Harpers. New York. Schuchert, C. — 1925 — Sites and nature of North American geosynclines. Bull. G.S.A. 34: 151-230. Stephenson, L. W. — 1933 — The zone of Exogyra cancellata. Bull. A.A.P.G. 17 : 1351-1361. Storm, L. W. — 1945 — Resume of facts and opinions on sedimentation in Gulf Coast region of Texas and Louisiana. Bull. A.A.P.G. 29 : 1304-1335. 376 The Texas Journal of Science 1951, No. 3 September 30 EXFOLIATION AND WEATHERING ON GRANITE DOMES IN CENTRAL TEXAS HORACE R. BLANK Department of Geology A. & M. College of Texas INTRODUCTION Coarse-grained granite crops out over large areas of the Central Mineral region of Texas in Burnet, Llano, Mason, Gillespie, and Blanco counties (Paige, 1912, maps; Barnes, 1947, pp. 17-22, 44-87). At some places these outcrops take the form of rounded hills or domes of bare rock, ranging from a few hundred fee to more than half a mile in diameter, and rising from a few feet to about 400 feet above the surrounding land surface. These domes are particularly well developed in the vicinity of Enchanted Rock, which is near the Llano-Gillespie county line about 19 miles south- southwest from Llano, and in the neighborhood of Katemcy in northern Mason County. Enchanted Rock is the largest of a group of granite domes in its vicinity. The main summit rises about 42 5 feet above Sandy Creek at its base to an elevation of about 1800 feet above sea level. A photograph of its north face appears in the Llano-Burnet geologic folio (Paige, 1912, illus. sheet), and a description of the granite mass, with two excellent photo¬ graphs, is given by Barnes (1947, pp. 77-78 and Pi. 2 & 3). The present writer studied the area on several occasions during the years 1947, 1948, and 1949. His thanks are due to Mr. T. O. Toleman, of Georgetown, Tex., who assisted him on the longest of these visits and furnished several photographs. Outcrops in the neighborhood of Katemcy have also been described by Barnes (1947, pp. 81-82, 86-87). The writer’s studies in this region were made in the summer of 1949, and included several summits in the area south-southeast from Katemcy, the Flatrock dome on the Katemcy-Fredonia road about six miles east of Katemcy and three miles west of Fredonia, and Spy Rock, about 3.5 miles southwest from Fredonia. .At all these localities that rock is substantially the same. It is a coarse pink granite consisting essentially of pink microcline, white plagioclase, quartz, and biotite. The largest grains are those of the microcline, which at places reach several centimeters in length and give the rock a porphyritic texture. The quartz and biotite, though in grains much smaller than the feldspars, are still plainly visible. Detailed descriptions, both megascopic and microscopic, of the granite at Enchanted Rock, at a point 0.5 mile south¬ east of Katemcy, at Flatrock dome, and at Spy Rock are given by Barnes (1947, pp. 77-78, 81-82, 86-87, and 86, resp.), together with chemical analyses of samples from Enchanted Rock and from the Flatrock dome. A Rosiwal analysis of a specimen from the Flatrock dome is given by Keppel (1940, p. 975). 1951, No. 3 September 30 Weathering of Granite Domes 377 ORIGIN OF GRANITE DOMES The formation of domes in granite and similar massive, coarse-grained rocks is generally considered to be due to a process of exfoliation, whereby relatively thin, curved sheets of rock spall off from the mass from time to time, eventually imparting a rounded form to the remaining unbroken mass. This process has been attributed to the unequal expansion and con¬ traction of the constituent minerals caused by temperature changes resulting from insolation, but these changes have been shown to be inadequate by Tarr (1915), Blackwelder (1933), and Griggs (1936). Exfoliation may perhaps be caused by the hydration of minerals (Blackwelder, 1925), but is believed to be more commonly due to the release of internal stresses as a result of the relief of pressure accompanying the removal of the overlying rocks by erosion (Matthes, 1930, pp. 114-117; Farmin, 1937; Reiche, 1945, pp. 9-10). White (1945; also 1944, p. 33 5) believes that exfoliation, although present, plays a very minor part in the formation of the granite domes of the southeastern Piedmont, and that their shapes are due primarily to granular disintegration of the rock brought about by chemical weathering. The writer’s studies indicate that in central Texas exfoliation and granular disintegration are both important processes in the degradation of the large granite exposures. EXFOLIATION AND WEATHERING AT ENCHANTED ROCK EXFOLIATION That exfoliation has been an important process in the formation of the domes at Enchanted Rock is evidenced by the huge rock sheets whose remnants cover parts of the dome surfaces (Fig. 1). These sheets range in thickness from a few inches to more than ten feet, and conform in FIG. 1 Exfoliation shells and residual blocks. View southwest from main dome, Enchanted Rock, Texas. 378 The Texas Journal of Science 1951, No. 3 September 30 curvature to the general surface of the dome The thicker ones are ex¬ tensively broken, by joints perpendicular to the dome surface, into large, more or less rectangular blocks. Sheets of the order of one foot or less in thickness are also abundant, and at places take the form of concavo- convex lenses 100 feet or more in diameter. These break up into rectangular slabs up to 2 5 feet in length, whose detachment from the main mass of the dome is evidenced by their hollow sound when struck. At a few places two of these slabs were found tilted upward against each other in the form of a truss, with a triangular tent-shaped open space beneath (Fig. 2). While some of these "tents” may be the result of lateral pressure caused by creeping movements of the neighboring slabs, at others the limbs of the truss are parallel to the topographic contours and evidence of creep is lacking. These appear to be due to the actual popping up or ^'blistering” of the rock itself. That such "blisters” are still forming may be seen on the east side of the main dome. Here the granite is sound and unbroken in the larger sense, but more or less circular sheets, from one half to one inch thick and several feet in diameter, are continually loosening and spalling off from the rock surface (Fig. 3). The spalls themselves quickly break up and disappear, but their semi-detached edges are everywhere in evidence, and duplicate the thicker slabs on a small scale. On the very steep west and southwest sides of the largest dome the expansion of the granite has caused the splitting off of enormous pieces of rock, thirty or more feet thick and over a hundred feet high, along fractures parallel to the nearly vertical dome surface. Some of these pieces, together with many blocks from the somewhat thinner sheets, have tumbled forward down the slope, resulting in a confused pile of blocks resting on each other at all angles, with sizable openings or caves beneath and between them. FIG. 2 — "Tent blister.” Southeast side of main dome, Enchanted Rock, Texas. 1951, No. 3 September 30 Weathering of Granite Domes 379 iii#! s FIG. 3 — -Recent exfoliation blisters. Southeast side of main dome, Enchanted Rock, Texas. FIG. 4 — Effects of irregular disintegration. Enchanted Rock, Texas. 1951, No. 3 September 30 Weathering of Granite Domes 381 GRANULAR DISINTEGRATION The numerous large blocks resting on many of the less steep slopes of the domes at Enchanted Rock create the impression that they have split off from the summits and then slid down to their present position. C'oser examination, however, shows that most of them are still in place, and although creep has occurred here and there, for the most part movement of the blocks has been very slight, and they now rest in perfect order. Talus slopes are absent except at the base of the very steep west side. In some of the valleys between the domes the great blocks from the breaking up of opposite exfoliation sheets almost meet, yet there is no evidence of the smaller fragments which should have fallen or been washed into such places. It is evident that a great deal of rock, loosened by exfoliation, has disappeared from the surface of the domes, but that very little of it has fallen or slid to their base. Instead the rock seems to have disappeared by granular disintegration in place, and the resulting angular sand or gruss has been washed into Sandy Creek and its tributaries. This granular disintegration is the result of chemical weathering, as pointed out by White (1945, p. 277). In the central Texas granites the process seems to begin with an oxidation of the biotite and hornblende, producing rusty stains, and a chalking of the plagioclase. Eventually these minerals decompose or dissolve sufficiently to permit the rock to fall apart, and the resulting sand is composed of microcline and quartz. Weathering begins almost as soon as the sheets of rock are loosened by exfoliation, making a sample of the entirely unweathered granite rather difficult to collect. The unbroken dome surfaces seem perfectly sound and hard, but the rock in all the loose slabs is at least somewhat rusted and often somewhat friable. The surfaces of many of the large blocks crumble under a hammer, and large microcline grains can easily be pried out from them. The vertical surfaces of some of the larger blocks are pock-marked with ridges and pits up to a foot or more in diameter, in a manner suggestive of wind erosion. Pillar-like forms and pedestal rocks also occur here and there (Fig. 4). All these forms appear to be due to local differences in the rate of disintegration, and wind action has had little if anything to do with their development. EFFECTS OF RUNNING AND STANDING WATER Water, on the other hand, seems to be a very important agent in the process of granular disintegration. The larger blocks commonly show more advanced disintegration toward the bottom than toward the top. The water running down the surface of the unbroken granite both promotes the disintegration of the loose blocks and removes the disintegration products, with the result that the blocks become undercut. Spaces large enough to walk through are commonly found beneath and between the larger ones, and afford shade for the angora goats grazing in the vicinity. Continued under¬ cutting produces pedestal or "balanced” rocks, which may topple over before they finally disintegrate. One such block at Enchanted Rock turned over between 1947 and 1949. Incised Channels — At a few places channels several inches deep have been worn in the surface of the hard unbroken granite by the action of running water alone. They must be due entirely to the solvent action of the 382 The Texas Journal of Science 1951, No. 3 September 30 water, as there is no source of sand or other corroding material. The sides and bottoms of the channels are rough from protruding quartz grains, but much unattacked microcline is also evident, and apparently the mineral which has suffered most from the corrosive action of the water is the plagioclase. In its chemical attack the water may be assisted by acids from the decay of the sparse grass on the top of the dome, or from the abundant goat manure. Weather Pits — Many shallow round or elliptical depressions in the solid granite occur on the flat or gently sloping summits of several of the domes at Enchanted Rock. They range from a few feet to 30 feet or more in diameter, and from a few inches to about one foot in depth. Many retain water for some time after rains. Most of them overflow or drain through a low point of the rim into other depressions or down over the smooth granite of the steeper slopes of the dome, but a few have no observable inlet or outlet. Many contain gravelly soil, rich in particles of disintegrated granite, which supports a little grass, cactus, and a few other plants, with an occasional small live oak tree. Others show no soil, but contain disintegrated granite gruss, often with small slabs of broken rock (Fig. 5). Similar small slabs and blocks lie scattered over much of the summit of the main dome. A few larger depressions were also observed, ranging up to 100 by 200 feet across, filled with soil and supporting grass and small trees. One of these occurs on the summit of the first dome southwest of the main dome. Another on the north side of the main dome, below the summit but at the top of the very steep slope, is a pocket-like valley open on the north side only and fully 1 5 feet deep, with steep side walls. These walls are exfoliating inward, toward the depression, and breaking into large blocks. Depressions on the flat summits of large exposures of granite and similar rocks have been described by several observers. Mathes (1930, pp. 63-64 and Pi. 33) named those in Yosemite National Park ''weather pits”, and believed their development to be promoted by the presence in the rock of local aggregates of readily soluble minerals, and their enlargement to be due to both chemical and mechanical weathering. Anderson (1931, pp. 58-59 and Pi. XIII) described "bath tub” depressions as much as four feet deep on granodiorite in Cassia County, Idaho, which he attributed to the breach¬ ing by rain water of a "case-hardened” shell of chemically weathered rock. Lester (1938) observed pits in granite and granite gneiss at and near Stone Mountain, Georgia, and attributed them in part to exfoliation, in part to solution, and in part to the abrasive action of wind-blown quartz. L. L. Smith (1941) described the weather pits on granite in South Carolina in considerable detail. He believed them to be initiated by small slight con¬ cavities produced by spalling, and to be enlarged by the more rapid chemical weathering resulting from the accumulation of water and decayed vegetable matter in the depressions. He ascribed the removal of the products of this weathering to flushing of the pits by rain water and to deflation by wind during dry weather. White (1944, pp. 3 37-3 39) attributed the weather pits on the granites of the southeastern states to the breaching of "indurated veneers” (similar to Anderson’s case-hardening) by patches of moss or similar vegetation. Depressions called "tinajitas” on flat surfaces of limestone in trans-Pecos Texas were described by Udden (1925, p.5) and later by J. F. Smith and 1951, No. 3 September 30 Weathering of Granite Domes 383 Albritton (1941), and L. C. King (1942, pp. 104-105 and Fig. 118) noted "rock tanks” on the surface of flat-lying sandstones in South Africa. Whatever combinations of processes may be responsible for the growth of weather pits in granite, it seems evident that at Enchanted Rock exfolia¬ tion plays a major role in their initiation. Most of these summit depressions appear to originate as expansion blisters like those described above, and they therefore may be of large size from their beginning. Around the edges of many of them the rock sounds hollow, and here and there open spaces can actually be seen where their rims are partially detached from the under¬ lying rock. Around some of the larger depressions the rims are rounded convexly upward and inward (Fig. 5), suggesting that their originally sharp edges have been modified by continued spalling. This would agree with the definite evidence of exfoliation toward and into the largest hollows above described. Some of the smaller weather pits show the etched and slightly undercut edges noted by observers in other localities. At such pits exfoliation spalling has either ceased or has been slower than the solution of the rock. Rock Doughnuts — -Two of the many weather pits found by the writer at Enchanted Rock are surrounded by raised annular rims of solid granite. The larger is located on the west side of the main dome, just above the nearly vertical portion of the west face, and a smaller one occurs on the east side of the first large dome to the southwest. These have been called "rock doughunts” by the writer and are more completely described in another paper now in preparation. Additional examples occur in the Katemcy region. The rock doughnuts consist of a nearly circular weather pit, from about six inches to about six feet in diameter, encircled by a rounded annular ridge up to about six inches high and 18 inches wide. In shape they resemble half of a doughnut, or an automobile inner tube split in the plane FIG. 5 — Weather pit, with remnants of exfoliation shell. Large pit with rounded rim in right background. Summit of main dome, Enchanted Rock, Texas. 384 The Texas Journal of Science 1951, No. 3 September 30 of the wheel (Fig. 6). In some examples the annular ridge in turn is surrounded by a shallow depression, which shows evidence of scour by running water and connects with shallow channels in the rock above and below. The larger doughnut at Enchanted Rock contains a little gravelly soil, with grass, but no loose slabs or flakes, nor any other evidence of derivation from an exfoliation blister. The granite in all parts of the doughnuts apparently is identical with that in the surrounding dome surface, and is sound and hard throughout. The origin of the rock doughnuts is extremely puzzling, and the writer has as yet no satisfactory explanation for them. Their rarity in comparison with the total number of weather pits suggests that they are due to some unusual modification or extension of the processes responsible for the latter. They may possibly be due to differences in the corrosive effect of the water in sheet floods descending the dome, caused by the checking of the velocity of the water as it flows over a weather pit already full. This explanation is difficult to apply to certain doughnuts in the Katemcy region which occur on surfaces sensibly horizontal. Or water standing in a weather pit may possibly penetrate the surrounding granite and indurate it on evaporation, but no evidence of such induration was found by the writer anywhere in central Texas. Thus there are serious objections to both these explanations. The problem is more fully discussed by the writer in the paper above referred to. EXFOLIATION AND WEATHERING IN THE KATEMCY REGION EXFOLIATION Exfoliation is much less evident on the domes of the Katemcy region than at Enchanted Rock, although here and there its effects can be observed. At various places in the large granite area south of Katemcy there are clusters of blocks which appear to be the remains of thick exfoliation FIG. 6 — "Rock doughnut.’’ Flatrock dome, three miles west of Fredonia, Texas. 1951, No. 3 September 30 Weathering of Granite Domes 385 sheets. At Flatrock dome the walls of a hollow on the north side are breaking up and moving inward much the same manner as at the large hollow on Enchanted Rock. Small scale spalling, so prominent at Enchanted Rock, is also taking place at some of the domes in the Katemcy region but is much less pronounced. GRANULAR DISINTEGRATION On the other hand, solution and granular disintegration of the granite appear to be the dominant processes. No talus was found around any of the domes, but the flat country around and between them is largely covered by "granite wash”, consisting of a coarse sand of quartz and microcline, through which occasional outcrops protrude. As at Enchanted Rock, the dome surfaces are, for the most part, hard and sound, but all detached blocks and boulders show more or less weathering and friability. A very perfect balanced rock, the result of disintegration and undercutting, was found on one of the domes about two miles south of Katemcy (Fig. 7). Others were noticed at Spy Rock. At the latter place solution and disintegration have enlarged joints in one of the domes into canyons two or three feet wide and 5 0 or more feet deep. EFFECTS OF RUNNING AND STANDING WATER The effects of running and ponded water are much more pronounced in this region than at Enchanted Rock. They are shown in the development of incised channels, in the dissection of the tops of some of the domes, and in the nature of the weather pits. On the south side of the Flatrock dome channels cut by running water are well developed in a more or less dendritic pattern, and are incised several FIG. 7 — Balanced rock. About two miles south of Katemcy, Texas. 386 The Texas Journal of Science 1951, No. 3 September 80 inches into the solid granite (Fig, 8). As at Enchanted Rock, the sides and bottoms of these channels are rough from corrosion rather than corrasion, and there is no source of detrital material, other than disintegration of the granite itself, which could have supplied the water with cutting tools. The most striking example of water attack on the granite is found at a small unnamed dome 1.5 miles south-southeast from Katemcy and about 0.5 mile west of the county road. The entire top and south slope of this dome are carved into a fantastic maze of weather pits, ridges, and channels up to three feet deep. Most of the larger pits outlet through wind¬ ing channels connecting them with others and forming veritable incised meanders, with thin-necked spurs and isolated knobs (Figs. 9 and 10). Small FIG. 8 — Incised water channels. Flatrock dome, three miles west of Fredonia, Texas. FIG. 9 — Dissected slope of unnamed dome 1.5 miles south-southeast from Katemcy, Texas. 1951, No. 3 September 30 Weathering of Granite Domes 387 FIG. 10 — Dissected summit of unnamed dome 1.5 miles south-southeast from Katemcy, Texas, showing deep weather pits and rock doughnuts. 388 The Texas Journal of Science 1951, No. 3 September 30 new weather pits are forming on the tops of some of these knobs and else¬ where on the as yet undissected areas of the dome surface. The entire sur¬ face suggests karst topography in miniature, but on granite instead of limestone. Some of the weather pits contain a gruss of microcline and quartz. From many others, whose outlets have been cut down to their floor levels, this has been washed out, revealing a flat floor of hard granite. Many of the larger and deeper pits show slightly undercut rims. Over this entire dome the rock surface is rough, apparently from differential solution of the minerals in the coarse-grained granite. The sides and floors of the weather pits are also rough, but in many pits the rock is considerably smoother in a narrow zone just below what appears to have been a high water mark. Very little exfoliation appears to be in progress on this dome, a few thin spalls being the only indication of it. Likewise there is little direct evidence of granular disintegration, probably because there are so few de¬ tached pieces on which its progress can be observed. The granite gruss on the floors of some of the weather pits, however, and the granite wash sur¬ rounding the dome, indicate that solution and disintegration of the rock are going on here as elsewhere. The dissection of this dome and the "bath tub” size of the weather pits seem analogous to the phenomena at the Cassia City of Rocks in Idaho described by Anderson (1931, pp. 58-59), though on a smaller scale. No "case-hardening,” however, nor any "indurated veneer” as described by White (1944), was observed by the writer here or anywhere else in central Texas. Numerous weather pits were observed on other granite exposures in the vicinity of Katemcy, although no other dome was dissected to the extent of the unnamed one just described. For the most part the weather pits are small, and none of the very broad, shallow type was observed. None could be traced directly to exfoliation spalls, as at Enchanted Rock, for none had semi-detached or broadly rounded edges. From all indications, both their initiation and enlargement were due to solution and disintegration rather than to exfoliation. Several rock doughnuts were also found in the Katemcy region. Some of these were more perfect than those at Enchanted Rock, and had rela¬ tively broader annular ridges. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS It would appear that both exfoliation and granular disintegration are important processes in the formation and development of the erosion sur¬ faces on the granites of central Texas. At any one time and at any one place either process may dominate the other, but both go on simultaneously, as pointed out by White (1945, p. 277). In central Texas exfoliation seems to be the first process, and the one primarily responsible for the rounded forms of the dome. This is indicated by the rock sheets, blocks, boulders, and blisters in all stages of detachment so well shown at Enchanted Rock, and present though less abundant at most of the exposures studied in the Katemcy region. The writer has no doubt that this exfoliation is caused by the release of stresses within the granite itself. Furthermore, this release must in many cases be accomplished by the continuous removal by erosion of the outer 1951, No. 3 September 30 Weathering of Granite Domes 389 portions of the granite mass; otherwise exfoliation should long since have ceased. The obviously recent expansion of the rock toward the nearest open space, whether it be a hollow, a weather pit, or merely, as in one observed case, a wide joint, seems convincing evidence that exfoliation is still going on. The tent blisters and thinner exfoliation spalls are strikingly like the manifestations of "popping rock” which the writer has experienced in deep excavations into granite gneiss in New York City. In rocks which have solidified or have otherwise been formed under stress, it would appear that up until the time that all stress has been relieved every change in shape or volume, from whatever cause, necessitates some readjustment of the rock. Granular disintegration, the result of the chemical weathering and the solution by rain water of some of the constituents of the rock, is respon¬ sible for the removal of the exfoliated granite and for the minor features of the dome surfaces, such as incised channels, weather pits, and rock dough¬ nuts. On the unbroken dome surface this process must be extremely slow, except perhaps where running water concentrates in channels. Pieces which have become detached by exfoliation, however, are open to attack by air and water from above and below. Attack seems to be more rapid from the under side, where the water can remain longer in contact with the rock, and undercutting results. This is in agreement with theories of the origin of pedestal rocks advanced by Bryan (192 3, pp. 3-5; 1927, pp. 8-9) and by Crickmay (1935, pp. 745 and 754), and the shapes of many of the parti¬ ally disintegrated boulders at Enchanted Rock seem to support their con¬ clusions. Where the rate of exfoliation of a granite mass far exceeds the rate of granular disintegration, the domes may acquire an imbricate structure, as at Half Dome in Yosemite Valley, due to the accumulation and overlapping of the exfoliated sheets (White, 1945, p. 277, referring to Matthes, 1930, Pi. 48-50). Where the two are more nearly balanced, as at Enchanted Rock, numerous detached sheets and blocks will be present, but there will also be large areas of smooth unbroken rock surface. Where the rate of dis¬ integration exceeds that of exfoliation, as at the unnamed dome 1.5 miles south-southeast from Katemcy, and probably also at the Cassia City of Rocks in Idaho described by Anderson, detached boulders will be few, and the dome surface wil be deeply pitted and dissectd. It is evident that the periodic exfoliation of large, thick sheets of rock would prevent the development of incised channels, sharp-lipped deep wather pits, rock doughnuts, and any other products of the solution- disintegration process which require a long time for their formation. Small- scale exfoliation in the form of blisters and spalls, however, would initiate and enlarge weather pits, which would be of the broad and shallow type. Thus not only the abundance but also the nature of the weather pits should give some indication of the balance between the two processes. There remains the interesting question why, on the same type of rock and under the same climatic conditions, exfoliation should be so much more active at Enchanted Rock than on the domes in the Katemcy region, about 3 8 miles to the northwest. That such is the fact further supports the conclusion that exfoliation is caused by stresses inherited from the condi¬ tions under which the rock was formed, which are largely unknown but which might be expected to vary locally. Enchanted Rock is somewhat 390 The Texas Journal of Science 1951, No. 3 September 30 closer to the border of its granite mass than are the domes studied in the Katemcy region. Beyond this nothing in the writer’s observations bears on this particular problem. LITERATURE CITED Anderson, A. L. — 1931 — Geology and mineral resources of eastern Cassia County, Idaho. Idaho Bur. Mines & Geol. Bull. 14: 3 69 pp., 19 pi. Barnes, V. E., Dawson, R. F., and G. A. Parkinson — 1947 — Building stones of central Texas. Bull. Univ. Texas 4246: 198 pp., 5 pi. and map. Blackwelder, E. — 1925 — Exfoliation as a phase of rock weathering. J. Geol. 33 : 793-806. - 1933 — The insolation hypothesis of rock weathering. Am. J. Sci. 26:97-113. Bryan, K. — 1925 — Pedestal rocks in the arid Southwest. Bull. U. S. Geol. Surv. 760A: 1-11. - 1927 — Pedestal rocks formed by differential erosion. Bull. U. S. Geol. Surv. 790A : 1-19. Crickmay, G. W. — 1935 — Granite pedestal rocks in the southern Appalachian piedmont. J. Geol. 43 : 745-758. Farmin, R. — 1937 — Hypogene exfoliation in rock masses. J. Geol. 45 : 625-635. Griggs, D. T. — 1936 — The factor of fatigue in rock exfoliation. J. Geol. 44 : 783-796. Keppel, D. — 1940 — Concentric patterns in the granites of the Llano-Burnet region, Texas. Bull. Geol. Soc. Am. 51: 971-1000. King, L. C. — 1942 — South African scenery, a textbook of geomorphology. Oliver & Boyd, ltd., Edinburgh. Lester, J. G. — 1938 — Geology of the region around Stone Mountain, Georgia. Thesis abstracted in Univ. Colo. Studies, Gen. Series (A), 26:88-91. Matfhes, F. E. — 1930 — Geologic history of the Ycsemite valley. U. S. Geol. Surv. Prof. Paper 160: 137 pp., 52 pi. Paige, S. — 1912 — Llano-Burnet folio, Texas. U. S. Geol. Surv. Geol. Atlas, Folio 183 : 16 pp., 1 illus. sheet, 6 maps. Reiche, P. — 1945 — A survey of weathering processes and products. Univ. N. Mex. Pub. Geol. 1 : 87 pp. Smith, J. F., and C. C. Albritton, Jr. — 1941 — Solution effects on limestone as a function of slope. Bull. Geol. Soc. Am. 52 : 61-78. Smith, L. L. — 1941 — Weather pits in granite of the southern piedmont. J. Geomorph. 4 : 117-127. Tarr, R. S. — 1915 — A study of some heating tests, and the light they throw on the cause of disaggregation in granite. Econ. Geol. 10 : 348-357. Udden, J. A. — 1925 — Etched potholes. Bull. Univ. Texas 2509: 9 pp. White, W. A. — 1944 — Geomorphic effects of indurated veneers on granites in the southeastern states. J. Geol. 52 : 333-341. - 1945 — Origin of granite dc-mes in the southeastern piedmont. J. Geol. 53:276-282. 1951, No. 3 September 30 Toxicity of Hydrocyanic Acid, Etc. 391 TOXICITY LEVELS OF HYDROCYANIC ACID AND SOME INDUSTRIAL BY-PRODUCTS F. M. DAUGHERTY, JR. Marine Laboratory Texas Game, Fish and Oyster Commission * and JACK T. GARRETT Monsanto Chemical Company INTRODUCTION Disposal of industrial by-products has long been a major conservation problem. In recent years chemical and other industries have come in ever in¬ creasing numbers to the Texas coast, bringing with them a threat to marine resources. If properly handled, wastes of this type may be introduced to marine waters without harmful results. In many cases industries are approaching these problems with experi¬ mentation prior to the time of actual production. The compounds dealt with herein are, in part, such by-products. In anticipation of other problems of this nature it was deemed advisable to establish a standard for analyses (Daugherty, 1951). Since the physical properties of salt water vary from area to area a standard animal is indicated. The pin perch, Lagodon rhomboides (Linnaeus) was chosen for three reasons: (Daugherty, 1949; 1951): 1. It is found in great abundance. 2. It is widely distributed. 3. It occupies a position of low to median toxicity tolerance, when compared with 21 common species of fish. The method of Hart, Doudoroff, and Greenbank (1945), was con¬ sidered because of its consistency and reproductibility. In this method refer¬ ence water was used, acclimatization time was standardized, as was feeding during acclimatization, temperature was rigidly controlled, and 24 hour median tolerance limits were established. It was decided, however, that with the natural uncontrollable physical properties of sea water a standard fish rather than standard physical conditions would be more desirable. It is pos¬ sible, on this basis, for industries to conduct satisfactory tests to establish safe tolerance levels of their by-products prior to disposal (Daugherty, 1951). METHOD Large battery jars were used as aquaria, each with 30 liters of fresh sea water and a continuous air source. No attempt was made to control the temperature, which varied from 13.7 to 20.4° C. Eight newly caught speci¬ mens of Lagodon rhomboides were placed in each aquarium and allowed an acclimatization period of 22 to 24 hours. Thus, there was no necessity for feeding or changing water. These fish ranged from 57 to 113 mm. standard length. In each test or run one or two jars of fish were used as controls. Present address : Suitland, Md., Division of Oceanography, U, S. Navy Hydrographic Office. 392 The Texas Journal of Science 1951, No. 3 September 30 $ 3 H lip 7 - <■ • -~r . , 'ppiT "* ....... ■■ ' • FIG. I — The toxic levels of hydrocyanic acid for Lagodon rhomboides. FIG. 2 — The toxic levels of lactonitrile for Lagodon rhomboides. 393 1951, No. 3 September 30 Toxicity of Hydrocyanic Acid, Etc. After the acclimatization period the test compounds were introduced in a series of dilutions based on parts per million by weight. Tests were al¬ lowed to continue until all fish died or until it was evident that the remain¬ ing fish would survive. In some cases it was necessary to run second and sometimes third tests in order to determine narrow toxicity levels. The time of each death was recorded. TESTS HYDROCYANIC ACID — Hydrocyanic acid is a very weak acid that hydrolyzes quite rapidly in a basic medium to produce relatively non-toxic materials. Since the pH of sea water is slightly basic this hydrolysis is favored, and tends to reduce the toxic effects. A series of seven concentrations ranging from 0.010 to 1.000 p.p.m. were treated. Deaths occurred in all concentrations above 0.050 p.p.m. (Table 1). There were no deaths in the control. LACTON1TRILE — Lactonitrile is an a-hydroxy nitrile and as such is unstable. This compound decomposes very rapidly in a basic medium to give hydrocyanic acid and acetaldehyde, which are both toxic materials (Anon., 1949). This is the reason that acetaldehyde was tested. A series of 10 concentrations ranging from 0.0 5 to 3.50 p.p.m. were tested. Deaths occurred in all concentrations above 0.10 p.p.m. (Table 1). There were no deaths in the controls. ACRYLONITRILE-— Acrylonitrile is an olefinic cyanide that is quite stable chemically and undergoes basic hydrolysis very slowly. The products ;>f this hydrolysis are amides and acids and do not represent particularly toxic materials (Mamiya, 1941). FIG. 3- — The toxic levels of acrylonitrile for Lagodon rhomboides. 394 The Texas Journal of Science 1951, No. 3 September 30 FIG. 4 — The toxic levels of 1, cyanobutadiene 1, 3 for Lagodon rhomboides. ':L Eff'It! 1 . if: : fj 1 1 ; J ' j MJr| if ■■ ■ is }i| r? . L±i - % . • ‘"i.j ? i 111 / i/| " | . | gj iS / ii il 1 a . fill a iggig iPl] its 1 i ■ HI ; • ; • : r. ri.Lpj .j rrt flf: : t r;f ::::: ||i .. jof •-1 ii :fli Hi Ii ]-•; :;r j:. . . , . ■ ; : ; t 4|y rat;] pin • « - o'- . :3Xi±i.r~ , ± r. illi Wm. m r * ' ** * f . i .: .... n !ai|5 djji i mw fei It | r-irra ; ;;; . 1 fill ii ■: W[7r : :: rfj ill rlt It / i / . y : ;T «v?: 1 i if! Ffd ::::: u it h:\- / FIG. 5 — The toxic levels of acetaldehyde for Lagodon rhomboides. m t Deaths 1 Percent Deaths 1951, No. 3 September 30 Toxicity of Hydrocyanic Acid, Etc. 395 A series of 16 concentrations ranging from 0.2 5 to 60.00 p.p.m. were tested. Deaths occurred in all concentrations above 20.00 p.p.m. (Table 1). There were no deaths in the controls. 1 — CYANOBUTADIENE, 1, 3 — This compound is an olefinic cyanide chemically very similar to acrylonitrile and undergoes basic hydrolysis to a similar degree. A series of 17 concentrations ranging from 1.0 to 80.0 p.p.m. were tested. Deaths occurred in all concentrations above 50.0 p.p.m. (Table 1). There were no deaths in the controls. ACETALDEH YDE— -Acetaldehyde is a carbonyl compound tested in this problem because it is a decomposition product of lactonitrile. A series of nine concentrations ranging from 5.0 to 70.0 p.p.m. were tested. Deaths occurred only in 70.0 p.p.m. There were no deaths in the controls. TABLE 1— PERTINENT TOXIC LEVELS OF HYDROCYANIC ACID AND OTHER COMPOUNDS TESTED. Max. p.p.m. Min. p.p.m. 24 hr. Med., Min. p.p.m. Compound at which no deaths occurred at which deaths occurred Tol. limit Total deaths Hydrocyanic Acid . . . 0.050 0.075 0.069 0.100 Lactonitrile . . . 0.100 0.250 0.215 0.500 Acrylonitrile . . . 20.000 30.000 24.500 30.000 1, Cyanobutadiene 1,3 50.000 60.000 71.500 70.000 Acetaldehyde . . . 60.000 70.000 70.000 # Two fish survived 96 hours. DISCUSSION Twenty-four hour median tolerance limits (Table 1; figs. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5) were determined by plotting the toxic concentrations against the per cent deaths on semi-log paper and interpolating (Williams, 1948). In the tests of hydrocyanic acid, lactonitrile, and acrylonitrile, the 24 hour median toler¬ ance limits were found to be less than the minimum concentrations at which deaths occurred (Table 1, Figs. 1, 2, 3). This would indicate that these com¬ pounds could only be discharged safely at the maximum concentrations at which no deaths occurred, or preferably at a lesser concentration. This should also apply to the other two compounds tested or to any toxic sub¬ stance. Materials introduced to sea water at these levels would be further diluted and disseminated by its currents, thus increasing the margin of safety. In this series of tests the changes in pH and salinity were so insignifi¬ cant, that it is not deemed necessary to discuss them. CONCLUSIONS The compounds tested were found to be unsafe for disposal in sea water when in excess of the following concentrations: Hydrocyanic acid _ _ _ 0.0 5 p.p.m. Lactonitrile _ _ _ 0.10 p.p.m. Acrylonitrile _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 20.00 p.p.m. 1, cyanobutadiene, 1, 3 _ 50.00 p.p.m. Acetaldehyde _ ... _ 60.00 p.p.m. 396 The Texas Journal of Science 1951, No. 3 September 30 LITERATURE CITED Anonymous — 1949 — Cyanamide new products bulletin. Technical Publication of the American Cyanamide Company, New York. 1 : 74-82. Daugherty, F. M. Jr. — 1949 — The effects of some chemicals used in oil well drilling on marine animals. Unpublished report to the Texas Game, Fish and Oyster Commission. - - — 1951 — A proposed standard for testing industrial by-products to be released in' marine waters. In Press. Hart, W. B., Peter Doudoroff, and John Greenbank — 1945 — The evaluation of the toxicity of industrial wastes, chemicals, and other substances to freshwater fishes. Contribution of the Waste Control Laboratory. The Atlantic Refining Company. Philadelphia. Mamiya, Yasumi — 1941 — Hydrolysis of acrylonitrile with caustic soda. Jour. Soc. Chem. Indust. (Japan). 44:860-862. Williams, James Elmer Jr. — 1948— The toxicity of some inorganic salts to game fish. Un¬ published Master’s Thesis, Louisiana State University. 1951, No. 3 September 30 Mass Culture of Pneumococcus 397 SUITABLE MEDIA FOR GROWING MASS CULTURES OF PNEUMOCOCCUS * ** JOHN B. LOEFER AND RUSSELL G. WEICHLEIN * * Foundation of Applied Research San Antonio, Texas The centrifugate from dense thriving cultures of Diplococcus Pneu¬ moniae was needed for certain experiments. The problem of producing such cultures was a very real one even though much has been written about growth of pneumococcci and many commercial media are recommended. The organism is reputedly difficult to culture, and for this reason we thought it worthwhile to outline some of the procedures which enabled us to produce mass cultures repeatedly. MATERIALS AND METHODS For these experiments we used Diplococcus pneumoniae , type II, strain D39S, kindly furnished by Miss Amy S. Roe, to whom we are also indebted for the formula of fresh heart-neopeptone broth medium, which is as fol¬ lows: BEEF HEART INFUSION : Fresh beef heart, chopped (free of fat) . 1 lb. Water, distilled . 500 ml. Heat to 80° - 85° C. for 45 to 60 minutes and filter while hot. FRESH HEART-NEOPEPTONE BROTH: Beef Heart Infusion (prepared as above) . . 500 ml. Water, distilled . . . 500 ml. Neopeptone, Difco . 10 gm. NaCl . . 5 gm. Dextrose . 0.5 gm. NaOH, N/l, adjust to pH 7.8 with approx . 14 ml. The fresh heart-neopeptone broth medium will be referred to as FHNB. Other abbreviations used are: BFII for Brain Heart Infusion, Difco; TP for Tryptose Phosphate Broth, Difco; DHNB for dehydrated heart-neopeptone broth (90 gms. of Difco Beef Heart for Infusion are substituted for the pound of fresh beef heart in the first formula and this infusion is used in the second formula). The eight Baltimore Biological Laboratory preparations which were used are designated in table 1. Stock cultures for each series were prepared in the following way. Either dehydrated cultures or smooth colonies on blood agar base slants were used to prepare a saline or FHNB suspension. After recovery from a passage through mice, a stock flask of FHNB or other medium was inocu¬ lated and usually used at 12-24 hours, when percent light transmission was approximately 50, to inoculate an entire series. The minimum ratio of in¬ oculum to medium inoculated was 1:300. All cultures were incubated at 37° C. * Presented at 1950 Annual Meeting. Dallas, Texas. ** Aided by grants from G. D. Searle & Co., and Mr. and Mrs. Lewis J. Moorman, Jr. 398 The Texas Journal of Science 1951, No. 3 September So An alkaline reaction appears to be essential for good growth of pneu¬ mococci (Dernby and Avery, 1918; Avery and Cullen, 1919; Lord and Nye, 1919; Kelley, 1938). For this reason hydrogen-ion concentration of all media was adjusted to pH 7.6-7. 8 with N/l NaOH before inoculation. Readings of cultures were taken at intervals during the growth period with a Beckham glass electrode pH meter. Whenever moderate to good growth had occurred, pH of the cultures was ususlly 5.0 or below. Sterile sodium carbonate solution (10%) was added to such cultures in quantity sufficient to bring the reaction to pH 7.8 again. Subsequently, there was another period of growth, providing other growth factors were present in adequate amounts. This procedure was employed repeatedly. For practical purposes, however, one or two neutralizations were usually sufficient to ob¬ tain very dense cultures. In preliminary experiments, growth was visually estimated, and some attempts were made to measure the quantity of bacteria per unit volume of culture fluid with the protozoacrit devised by Elliott (1939), a modifi¬ cation of the hematocrit. Percent transmission of monochromatic light by bacterial cultures proved to be most suitable for recording growth. It should be pointed out here, however, that optical density of the cultures is in part accounted for by precipitation of proteins which occurs when the reaction falls to pH 5.0 or thereabouts as a result of acid formation in carbohydrate- containing media. A Coleman Junior Spectrophotometer, model 6A, was used, with wave length setting at 610 millimicrons. Each point on any graph represents an average of several culture readings. The bile solubility test was performed on most culture samples on which transmission readings were obtained. This proved to be a very good test for the pneumococcus in cultures less than 48 hours old, but bile solu¬ bility was not a reliable criterion of purity in older cultures. Samples from cultures were frequently examined under a phase microscope and any con¬ taminated cultures were discarded. EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS Several types of commercial media, recommended for the culture of pneumococci and other bacteria difficult to culture, were compared in a preliminary test. Two percent concentrations of the media listed in Table TABLE 1. GROWTH OF PNEUMOCCUS IN VARIOUS MEDIA Percent Growth at Medium Dextrose 3 days Trypticase, BBL . . 0.05 ++ Trypticase Soy Broth, BBL ... . 0.05 + + Nutri Peptone, BBL . . . 0.05 + Phytone, BBL . . 0.05 + + Polypeptone, BBL . . . 0.05 + Thiotone, BBL . . 0.05 + Myosate, BBL . . . 0.05 + Thioglycollate Medium, BBL . 0.05 + + FHNB . . 0.05 + + + + BHI . . 0.2 + + BHI+2% fresh serum . . 0.2 ++ TP . . 0.2 ++ TP + 2% fresh serum . . 0.2 4 — b TP-BHI (1:1) . . 0.2 ++ + TP + 0.01% agar . . 0.2 ++ + -|- = some growth + + + = good growth + + moderate growth 4- + -f- + = excellent growth 1951, No. 3 September 30 Mass Culture of Pneumococcus 399 1 were prepared in five hundred ml. amounts. The pH of each was adjusted to 7.6 and each type of medium was dispensed in equal quantities into 300 ml. Erlenmeyer flasks. All media contained dextrose, either 0.0 5 or 0.2%, as shown. Fresh bovine serum was added aseptically to two of the several types of media designated. All flasks were given a one milliliter inoculation from a 24-hour stock grown in a Trypticase medium. After in¬ cubation for three days, visual estimates of growth indicated that the fresh heart-neopeptone broth medium was superior to the others tested. In another experiment, flasks containing FHNB plus 0.0 5 and 0.2% dextrose, respectively, were inoculated with Diplococcus pneumoniae. Yields, as determined with the protozoacrit, were 2 5-30 times as high from the cultures with 0.2% dextrose as from those containing only 0.05% sugar. The pH also had changed from 7.6 to 4.9, whereas it remained near 7.0 in the 0.05% dextrose-FHNB medium. It seemed obvious that the additional carbohydrate was responsible for the increased yield and high acidity. Growth enhancement by dextrose was noted by previous investigators (cf. review by White, 1938, pp. 38-9). In some experiments as much as 8% dextrose was used. Other reports suggested that if more than 1% was present, acid production was so great as to cause autolysis. Pochon (1940a, 1940b) used only 0.2-0. 4% for studies on growth in a peptone medium, and most commercial dessicated media contains less. A paradoxical situa¬ tion appears to exist with respect to utilization of dextrose and growth of pneumococcus. Dextrose in large amounts accelerates growth, but the acid formed from it may cause death. According to Hewitt (1932) 77% of it is converted to lactic acid. Lord and Nye (1919) indicated that pH 5.15 was probably the death point for this bacterium. Saline suspensions at pH 5.3, in fact, could not be tolerated for more than one hour; those at 5.6 for only three hours, and at pH 6.1 survival time was only six hours. It seemed logical, therefore, to provide sugar in large amounts, but to neutralize the acid in cultures before the pneumococcus perished. The next experiment described was planned to mediate the phases of this paradox and to test the effect of different concentrations of dextrose. Sixty liters of TP-BHI-FHNB (6:1:1) was prepared and autoclaved in three-liter quantities in one-gallon glass containers. The pH was adjusted to 7.8 by aseptic addition of alkali. Appropriate volumes of sterile solu¬ tions with high dextrose content were aseptically added to flasks to obtain quadruplicate sets containing the following respective dextrose concentra¬ tions: 0.2, 0.82, 1.45, 2.7 and 5.2%. All flasks of media were uniformly inoculated from a young FHNB culture. Samples were drawn from all cul¬ tures at intervals during a 49-hour period as designated in figure 1, which shows light transmission and pH values. The small arrow preceding a pH value signifies that the culture reaction was adjusted to that point. It may be seen that there is a direct correlation between optical density and quan¬ tity of dextrose present up to 1.45%. After 33 hours incubation, even though additional dextrose is present, lack of some unknown factor or factors other than dextrose appears to limit growth. It is patent that 0.2% dextrose is entirely inadequate for best growth, even for a relatively short incubation period. It was apparent from the results of the first experiment that other peptone broths or combinations thereof might be more favorable to produc¬ tion of mass cultures than the TP-BHI-FHNB which was used in the dex¬ trose experiment. Accordingly, the media already referred to and some others 400 The Texas Journal of Science 1951, No. 3 September 30 were prepared as per directions for each preparation (2.5-3 .7% concentra¬ tions) .Mixtures were also prepared as shown in figures 2 and 3. In all cases, dextrose was added to obtain a 5% concentration and pH was adjusted to 7.8. There were four 5 00 ml. Erlenmeyer flasks for each respective type of medium and each contained 2 50 milliliters. Each flask of the entire series was inoculated with one milliliter from an 18 -hour stock culture (FHNB- 5% dextrose medium; % light transmission = 54). Light transmission and pH readings were taken after an 18-hour incubation period and recorded as shown in figures 2 and 3. The reaction of all cultures was adjusted to 7.8. Following the addition of alkali, optical density of cultures decreased. In favorable media (figure 2) recovery occurred rapidly and culture densities at 46 hours reached what appears to be a maximum. The results also in¬ dicate that combinations of BHI and FHNB were better than either alone. Autoclaving FHNB a second time appeared to be detrimental. 1951, No. S September 30 Mass Culture of Pneumococcus 401 6B INCUBATION TIME-HOURS O 402 The Texas Journal of Science 1951, No. 3 September 30 In media that were less favorable to growth (figure 3), cultures, after acid neutralization, did not recover their original density. This was inter¬ preted to indicate a lack of some factor or factors necessary for growth of the bacterium. Since there was no increased growth when the dextrose concentration was greater than 2.7%, it was thought that possibly some factor was limit¬ ing the availability of dextrose. If such were the case, addition of the needed substance to the medium should improve growth. A TP-BHI-FHNB (6:1:1) medium was prepared in a quantity sufficient for 12 three-liter cultures, as in the dextrose experiment described above. Four flasks received thiamin enough to provide lfxg. per ml., and four other flasks received the following mixture with final concentrations of each ingredient as indicated: 1951, No. 3 September 30 Mass Culture of Pneumococcus 403 Ingredient Concentration — 1 1 g. per ml. Cysteine-HCl . 0.132 Glutamine . . . . . 0.132 Ascorbic acid . 0.066 Carotene . . . 0.0132 Vitamin A . . . . 0.0132 All flasks were inoculated from the same 18 -hour stock. Density and pH readings were made at 10 hours and the hydrogen-ion concentration was adjusted to pH 7.8. At 15 hours second readings were taken and adjust¬ ments made. Figure 4 indicates that neither the addition of thiamin nor the addition of cysteine and the other compounds made any appreciable differ¬ ence in growth. An experiment was also carried out in which different concentrations of sucrose and dextrose were compared, both when filtered and aseptically added to the FHNB medium, and when autoclaved together. Optical density readings were taken on 2 2 -hour cultures without carbohydrate and on cultures containing M/100, M/10 and M/l concentrations, respectively. 404 The Texas Journal of Science 1951, No. 3 September 30 Growth was best with M/lO and M/l sugars. Density of cultures was lower with M/l 00 sugar and lowest in controls to which no carbohydrate had been added. All dextrose and sucrose cultures were readjusted to pH 8. 2 -8. 6 and reincubated several days longer when light transmission readings were re¬ taken. All cultures with M/ 1 0 and M/ 1 sugar had increased in density to a comparable extent, whereas those with less than this amount had not. The experiment verifies the findings shown in figure 1, which indicated that when dextrose was present to the extent of 1.45%, growth was as good after the first and second additions of alkali as when more sugar had been added. In the present experiment either sucrose or dextrose, 1.7- 1.8%, was adequate for maximum growth. Whether the sugar was sterilized by filtration and added aseptically to autoclaved FHNB, or autoclaved with it, made no appreciable difference in growth. The same was true when 2 M concentrations of these sugars were compared. In figure 5 is shown graphically the data obtained from mass cultures 1951, No. 3 September 30 Mass Culture of Pneumococcus 405 designated as series II, III, IV and V. Various combinations of BHI and FHNB were used with dextrose adequately supplied. By using these combi¬ nations and neutralizing the acid formed at one or more intervals during growth very dense cultures were obtained. Percent light transmission at harvest ranged from 26 to 32. It may be noted that after periods of growth, the pH had fallen as low as 4. 7-4. 9. Series V indicates that after cultures had fallen to pH 5.3, as the reading at 70 hours showed, growth continued until light transmission at 91 hours had fallen to 28%, and final pH at harvest was 4.9. DISCUSSION These experiments, in the main, have shown that the amount of utiliz- able sugar and the reaction of the medium are two very important factors that must be regulated for successful culture of pneumoccus en masse. Although the importance of these factors has previously been recognized, their practical application has been difficult. These experiments indicate that hydrogen-ion concentration of cultures may remain as low as pH 4.7 for at least 24 hours and the pneumococcus still be viable. They also indi¬ cate that growth takes place at pH 5.3, for in series V growth continued until the culture reached pH 4.9 twenty-one hours later. In a number of cultures pH was raised from 5.0 or thereabouts to as high as 8.6, and dur¬ ing another incubation period growth continued until the reaction again became quite acid. The degree of acid tolerance here reported is definitely higher than that observed by Lord and Nye (1919). They indicated that pH 5.15 was probably the death point. Dernby and Avery (1918) stated that a pH above 8.3 would not permit growth, although pH 8.6 did not de¬ stroy our culture, even when they were exposed over 24 hours. It is quite probable, of course, that a strain difference could account for the greater tolerances we observed. Or perhaps conditions other than pH of the medium we used were more nearly ideal and therefore permitted survival of the pneumococcus. Glucose may be replaced with sucrose or vice versa as Avery and Cullen (1919) reported. The minimum concentration that was needed for best growth at 3 3 hours was about 1.45%, although amounts used were as high as 5.0%. Addition of thiamin did not yield increased growth when high concentrations of sugar were used. Autoclaving sugar with the medium was neither deleterious nor beneficial to growth. Addition of blood and serum has been advocated to improve growth in peptone media (White, 193 8, pp. 42-3). Kelley (1938) also reported that growth in serum broth was better than in broth alone. In our experi¬ ments the addition of 2% fresh bovine serum to either TP or BHI contain¬ ing 0.2% dextrose yielded no better growth than controls without serum. Many other factors have been reported to affect the culture of pneu¬ mococcus. Dubos (1948) emphasized the importance of a low redox poten¬ tial and pointed out the value of certain reducing agents and glutamine. A mixture containing glutamine and cysteine was added to cultures in one of our series, but they seemed not to stimulate growth that was already ex¬ cellent. It is quite probable that adequate quantities of these substances were already provided by the complex FHNB medium, as well as adequate amounts of choline, suitable amino acids, various vitamins and other sub¬ stances indicated as essential by the report of Adams and Roe (1945). 406 The Texas Journal of Science 1951, No. 3 September 30 The synergistic effect of BHI and FHNB is interesting and could be explained by the assumption that different essential factors are limited in amount in each type of medium. The relatively unfavorable effect of TP may be due to the fact that ,as conventionally prepared, its peptone content is relatively low compared to that of BHI. Perhaps one or more essential growth factors that it contains are used up after a short incubation period. It remains to be determined whether or not an increased concentration of the protein constituents of any of the media tested, with a corresponding increase of the salt ingredients would benefit growth of pneumococcus. It is also quite possible that TP may contain bacteriostatic substances. If so, the addition of large quantities of thiols might serve to neutralize them. The best method for producing mass cultures of pneumococcus will probably utilize a constant drip apparatus for the addition of alkali. This would permit one to maintain the pH at or near the optimum level for growth. Some preliminary results indicate that the technical difficulties are readily surmountable, and the procedure would make continuous culture possible. SUMMARY Various commercial media were tested for their capability of support¬ ing mass cultures of Diplococcus pneumoniae , type II. A fresh heart-neo¬ peptone broth medium, Difco Brain Heart Infusion or various combinations of both were suitable. Combinations of the two were better than either alone. It was necessary to provide a minimum of 1.45% dextrose to obtain best growth after one or two pH adjustments. Amounts as high as 5% did not improve growth under the conditions of the experiments. Sucrose could be used to replace dextrose. Autoclaving sugar with the medium had no deleterious effect on growth. Initial reaction of the medium was usually pH 7.8, although viability was not lost when adjustments were made to as high as pH 8.6. Viability was also maintained even though acidity became as high as pH 4.7. Best results were obtained when the cultures were re¬ adjusted to their initial pH several times during their incubation period. LITERATURE CITED Adams, M. H., and A. S. Roe — 1945 — A partially defined medium for cultivation of pneu¬ mococcus. J. Bact. 49 : 401-409. Avery, O. T., and G. E. Cullen — 1919 — Hydrogen ion concentration of cultures of pneumo¬ cocci of the different types in carbohydrate media. J. Exp. Med. 30 : 359-378. Dernby, K. G„ and O. T. Avery — 1918 — -The optimum hydrogen ion concentration for the growth of pneumococcus. J. Exp. Med. 28 : 345-357. Dubos, R, J. — 1948 — Bacterial and Mycotic Infections of Man. J. B. Lippincott, Philadelphia : 785 pp. Elliott, A. M. — 1939 — A volumetric method for estimating population densities of protozoa. Trans. Amer. Mic. Soc. 58 : 97-99. Hewitt, L. F. — 1932 — Bacterial metabolism. II. Glucose breakdown by pneumococcus vari¬ ants and the effect of phosphate thereon. Biochem. J. 26 : 464-471. Kelley, W. H. — 1938 — Effects of acidity upon the growth of pneumococcus in culture media containing proteins. J. Exp. Med. 67 : 667-674. Lord, F. T., and R. N. Nye — 1919 — The relation of the pneumococcus to hydrogen ion con¬ centration, acid death-point and dissolution of the organism. J. Exp. Med. 30 : 389-399. Pochon, J. — 1940a — Metabolism of some strains of streptococcus cultured in peptone-glucose medium, ompt. rend. soc. biol. 134 : 366-369. - 1940b — Influence of glucose on the metabolism of pneumococcus. Compt. rend. soc. biol. 134 : 505-507. White, B.— -1938 — The biology of pneumococcus. The bacteriological, biochemical and im¬ munological characters and activities of Diplococcus pneumoniae. N. Y. The Common¬ wealth Fund : 799 pp. 1951, No. 3 September 30 Reduviidae of Texas 407 THE REDUVIIDAE OF TEXAS JOE C. ELKINS American Optical Company Instrument Division Dallas, Texas Before 1913 no comprehensive work on the family Reduviidae (Hemip- tera, Heteroptera) existed for North America. Stal’s Enumeratio Hemiptero- rum (1872) furnished a means for the determination of the genera then known. Champion’s work on the Rhynchota (1898) considered the Redu¬ viidae of Central America, including many species that ranged as far north as the United States. Fracker (1913) published the first North American monograph, with a key to fifty-six genera and one hundred sixty-eight species. Subsequently, Readio (1927) monographed the Reduviidae of America north of Mexico, and although this work was essentially biological, it did assemble the best of all previous work. In 1906 Barber published a systematic account of the Heteroptera of South Texas, which included the Reduviidae. At the present time, Dr. R. L. Usinger, University of California, Berkeley, California, is monographing the reduviid species of North America with an additional consideration of the genera of the world. This project will probably not be completed for several years because of the enormous amount of work that such a task presents. This paper represents a four year survey of the Reduviidae of Texas. Due to the large area of the State, undoubtedly there are many more species to be found. The latest synonymy has been checked in accordance with the check list of Wygodzinsky (1949). All statements concerning habitat and distributional notes not other¬ wise credited are from my own observations. I am deeply indebted to Prof. H. J. Reinhard, Texas A. & M. College, College Station, Texas, for giving me access to the Texas A. & M. collection for study, and for his wholehearted aid and advice. I also wish to thank Prof. Juan Badillo, Texas A. & I. College, Kingsville, Texas, and Mr. H. A. Freeman, Southern Methodist Unversitv, Dallas, Texas, for invaluable help in collecting. Subfamily APIOMERINAE Apiomerus crassipes (Fabricius, 1803). HABITAT: In both trees and open fields. Es¬ pecially abundant in early fall on thistles and composite flowers. DISTRIBUTION: Com¬ mon throughout the State. Readio (1927) states that this species is probably universal over the entire United States. Apiomerus flaviventris Herrich-Schaeffer, 1848. HABITAT: Not known. DISTRIBUTION: Readio (1927) lists this species from Texas. I personally have never seen an indi¬ vidual from the State. Apiomerus immundus Hergroth, 1898. HABITAT: I have one individual collected with a sweep net in open field. DISTRIBUTION: Readio (1927) lists this species from Texas. The sole individual in my collection was collected near the Red River north of Gains- ville, 5-15-50. Apiomerus longispinis Champion, 1899. HABITAT: The few individuals in my collec¬ tion were collected in open fields. DISTRIBUTION: Individuals from Bexar Co., Ft. Davis, Kingsville, and College Station. 408 The Texas Journal of Science 1951, No. 3 September 30 Apiomerus spissipes (Say, 1825). HABITAT: Trees, bushes, flowers, and open fields. DISTRIBTION: Throughout the State. Most abundant species of this genus. Subfamily ECTRICHODIINAE Rhiginia cinctiventris (Stal, 1872). HABITAT: Under stones, logs, and debris. Occas¬ ionally seen at electric lights. DISTRIBUTION: Common throughout the State. Rhiginia cruciata (Say, 1832). HABITAT: Under stones and logs. DISTRIBUTION: Abundantly collected at electric lights through the summer along the Gulf Coast and in East Texas. Sparse throughout the rest of the State. Subfamily EMESINAE Emesaya banksi McAtee & Malloch, 1925. HABITAT: Not known. I have one topotype from Bexar County, collected floating in a stream. Obviously this individual had either fallen off vegetation or washed from flood debris. DISTRIBUTION : Bexar County. Emesaya brevipennis brevipennis (Say, 1832). HABITAT: Common in flood debris and in Spanish moss. Readio (1927) reports this species as occurring about cob webs in old barns and vacant houses. DISTRIBUTION: Common throughout the State. Emesaya brevipennis australis McAtee & Malloch, 1925. HABITAT: Flood debris and Spanish moss. DISTRIBUTION: East Texas and Gulf Coast. Emesaya -incisa McAtee & Malloch, 1925. HABITAT: Flood debris. DISTRIBUTION: Devil’s River, Val Verde Co.; Pecos River, Reeves Co. Empicoris errabundus (Say, 1832). HABITAT: Flood debris, Spanish moss, and under dead leaves. DISTRIBUTION: Common throughout the State. Empicoris reticulatus McAtee & Malloch, 1925. New record. HABITAT : Flood debris, Spanish moss, and under dead leaves. DISTRIBUTION : Sparse throughout the State. Empicoris rubromaculatus ( Blackburn, 1889) . New record. HABITAT : Readio (1927) reports this species on dead willow branches, in Spanish moss, and on cabbage pal¬ metto leaves. DISTRIBUTION : One individual, College Station. Empicoris subparallelus McAtee & Malloch, 1925. HABITAT : Not known. DISTRIBU¬ TION : Described from Cayamas, Cuba. McAtee & Malloch ( 1925) report one indi¬ vidual, a female, from Brownsville. I have never seen an individual from the State. Gardena messalina McAtee & Malloch, 1925. HABITAT : Usinger (in litt. ) reports finding this species in wood rat nests around Brownsville. DISTRIBUTION : Individuals from Dallas, Commerce, Brownsville. Described from Victoria. Gardena poppeae McAtee & Malloch, 1925. HABITAT: Flood debris. DISTRIBUTION: In addition to one topotype from Victoria, I have three individuals collected along the Guadalupe River, Gonzales. Lutevopsis sp. New record. One individual, collected at an electric light, Harlingen. The specific identification of this individual is doubtful; however, it better fits the brief description that McAtee & Malloch (1925) ascribe to L. muscicapa Bergroth, rather than L. longimanus Champion which is found in Mexico and Florida. Con¬ cerning the type locality of L. muscicapa, McAtee & Malloch ( 1925) state, "Dr. Bergroth has expressed a doubt as to the region from which this species came. It is labeled 'Borneo', but he suspects that it may really be South America.” Metapterus aberrans McAtee & Malloch, 1925: HABITAT : One individual collected in Spanish moss, San Marcos. DISTRIBUTION : Described from Austin. Other individuals from College Station and San Marcos. Met ap ter us annulipes ( Stal, 1866). New record. HABITAT : One individual found in Spanish moss, San Marcos. Readio (1927) reports this species beneath bark and on the foliage of shrubs, and hibernating beneath logs and old rails. DISTRIBUTION: One individual, San Marcos; one individual, College Station. Metapterus banksii McAtee & Malloch, 1925. New record. HABITAT: One individual collected along the Pecos River, Reeves Co. Metapterus fraternus (Say, 1832). HABITAT: Flood debris and Spanish moss. Oc¬ casionally found at electric lights. Readio (1927) reports finding individuals along damp banks of ponds and beneath loose boards and sticks. DISTRIBUTION: Common throughout the State. Most abunant of the genus. Metapterus normae Elkins, 1951. HABITAT: One individual on a dead palm leaf; two others at electric lights. DISTRIBUTION: Lower Rio Grande Valley. Three individuals, Harlingen; one individual, Weslaco. Ploiaria denticauda McAtee & Malloch, 1925. New record. HABITAT: Not known. DISTRIBUTION : One individual found at an electric light, Harlingen. Ploiaria reticulata (Baker, 1910). New record. HABITAT: Flood debris. DISTRIBUTION: 1951, No. 3 September 30 Reduviidae of Texas 409 Five individuals collected along the Guadalupe River, Gonzales. Ploiaria similis McAtee & Malloch, 1925. HABITAT. Not known. DISTRIBUTION: De¬ scribed from Borwnsville. I have never seen an individual from the State. Ploiaria texana (Banks, 1909). Described from College Station. McAtee & Malloch (1925) state, "We have examined the type of this species (Mus. Comp. Zool.) and possibly we have renamed it in our P. similis. However, the abdomen of type is miss¬ ing and the genitalia have neither been figured nor described; specific identification thus is impossible.” Ploiaria uniserata McAtee & Malloch, 1925. HABITAT: Not known. DISTRIBUTION: Described from Brownsville. I have never seen an individual from the State. Stenolemus spiniventris Signoret, 1859. HABITAT: Not known. DISTRIBUTION: Mc¬ Atee & Malloch (1925) synonymously described this species as Stenolemus spiniger, holotype and allotype, Brownsville. Other individuals recorded from Mexico and Guatemala. Subfamily HARPACTORINAE Acholla multispinosa (DeGeer, 1773). New record. HABITAT: Foliage of trees. EIS- TRIBUTION : Sixty individuals collected in Dallas. I have not seen this species from any other portion of the State. Typically Canadian and Eastern United States in dis¬ tribution. Arilus cristatus (Linne, 1763). HABITAT: Trees, shrubs, flowers, and grassland. DIS¬ TRIBUTION: Common throughout the State. Atrachelus cinereus (Fabricius, 1796). HABITAT: Trees, shrubs, flowers, and grass¬ land. DISTRIBUTION: Sparse throughout the State. Castolus ferox (Banks, 1910). New record. HABITAT: Grass along roadside. DISTRI¬ BUTION : One individual, Big Bend National Park. Typically from Arizona. Doldina interjungens Bergroth, 1913. New record. HABITAT: Grass and trees. Occas¬ ionally at electric lights. DISTRIBUTION: One individual, College Station. Abundant along Gulf Coast. Doldina praetermissa Bergroth, 1913. New record. HABITAT: Not known. DISTRIBU¬ TION: Sparse at electric lights in East Texas. Pitchia aptera Stal, 1859. HABITAT: In grass along ponds and streams; grass in shady protected places. DISTRIBUTION: Sparse throughout the State. Pitchia spinosula Stal, 1859. HABITATS Same as for F. aptera. Readio (1927) reports finding individuals in bases of clumps of grass. DISTRIBUTION: Sparse throughout the State. Heza similis (Stal, 1859). New record. HABITAT: Readio (1927) reports an indi¬ vidual from the leaf of an oak tree. DISTRIBUTION: One individual in the Texas A. & M. collection from the Big Bend National Park. Typically Florida in distribution. Pselliopus harheri Davis, 1912. HABITAT: Trees and grass. DISTRIBUTION: Sparse throughout the State. Pselliopus cinctus (Fabricius, 1776). HABITAT: Trees, shrubs, and grass. DISTRIBU¬ TION : Sparse throughout the State. Pselliopus latifasciatus Barber, 1924. HABITAT: Trees, shrubs, grass, and flowers. DISTRIBUTION: Common throughout the State. Repipta flavicans (Amyot & Serville, 1843). HABITAT: Not known. DISTRIBUTION: Readio (1927) lists this species from Texas. I have never seen an individual from the State. Repipta mucosa Champion, 1899. HABITAT: Not known. DISTRIBUTION: Readio (1927) lists this species from Texas. I have never seen an individual from the State. Repipta taurus (Fabricius, 1803). HABITAT: Trees, grass in shady spots, and Spanish moss. Abundant at electric lights. DISTRIBUTION : Common throughout the State. Rocconota annulicornis (Stal, 1872). HABITAT: Mr. L. M. Sibley (in litt.) reports taking this species with a sweep net in Southern Louisiana. DISTRIBUTION: Readio (1927) reports this species from Texas. T have never seen an individual from the State. Sinea confusa Caudell, 1901. HABITAT: Open grassland. DISTRIBUTION: Sparse throughout the State. Sinea complexa Caudell, 1900. New record. HABITAT: Grass and flowers. DISTRIBU¬ TIONS Rare in central and south Texas. Sinea coronata Stal, 1862. HABITATS Open grassland. DISTRIBUTION: Sparse in South Texas. 410 The Texas Journal of Science 1951, No. 3 September 30 Sine a raptoria Stal, 1862. New record. HABITAT: I have one individual collected by Mr. O. Sanders in grass, Mexico. DISTRIBUTION : Two individuals, College Station. Sine a rileyi Montadon, 1893. HABITAT: Shrubs and open grassland. DISTRIBUTION: Sparse throughout the State. Sinea diadema (Fabricius, 1796). HABITAT: Abundant in sunny grassland; less com¬ monly found in Spanish moss, shady situations, and on the foliage of trees and shrubs. DISTRIBUTION: Exceedingly abundant throughout the State. Most common of the genus. Sinea sanguisuga Stal, 1862. HABITAT: Open grassland. DISTRIBUTION: Abundant throughout the State. Sinea spinipes Stal, 1862. HABITAT: Abundant in open grassland; sparse in forests. DISTRIBUTION: Abundant throughout the State. Sinea dejecta Stal, 1862. New record. HABITAT: Not known. DISTRIBUTION: One in¬ dividual from Dallas. Typically Mexican and Central American in distribution. Readio (1927) reports this species from Arizona. Zelus angustatus Hussey, 1925. New record. HABITAT: Grass in both sunny and shady situations. DISTRIBUTION : East, central, and south Texas. Typically from Florida. Zelus audax Banks, 1910. HABITAT: Banks (1910) collected individuals from cedar trees. DISTRIBUTION : One individual from Weslaco; one individual from College Station. Zelus bilobus Say, 1832. HABITAT: Trees, bushes, and grassland. Found hiberating in Spanish moss. DISTRIBUTION : East, central, and south Texas. Zelus cervicalis Stal, 1872. HABITAT: Grassland, bushes, and low trees. DISTRIBUTION: Throughout the State. Zelus exsanguis Stal, 1862. HABITAT: Trees, shrubs, and open fields. DISTRIBUTION: Common throughout the State. Zelus laevicollis Champion, 1899. HABITAT : Grassland, Spanish moss, bushes, and trees. DISTRIBUTION : Throughout the State. Zelus longipes (Linne, 1767). New record. HABITAT : One individual collected in grass on roadside. DISTRIBUTION : One individual, Hidalgo. Typically Mexican and South American in distribution. Zelus occidus Torre Bueno, 1913. New record. HABITAT: Grassland. DISTRIBUTION : scarmce throughout the State. Typically Californian in distribution. Zelus pictipes Champion, 1899. New record. HABITAT: Trees, shrubs, and grassland. DISTRIBUTIONS Abundant in Lower Rio Grande Valley. Sparse throughout the rest of the State. Readio ( 1927 ) lists this species from Arizona, Mexico, and Guatamala. Zelus renardii Kolenati, 1857. HABITAT : Trees, bushes, Spanish moss, grassland, cul¬ tivated fields, and flowers. DISTRIBUTION : Abundant throughout the State. Most abundant of the genus. Zelus socius (Uhler, 1872 ) . New record. HABITAT : Trees, bushes, flowers, grassland. DISTRIBUTION : Newt to Z. renardii, the most abundant species of the genus, which makes it surprising that this constitutes a new record for the State. Subfamily MICROTOMINAE Microtomus purcis ( Drury, 1872) . HABITAT : Under the bark of trees. DISTRIBUTION : Common throughout the State. Microtomus luctuosus ( Stal, 1854) . HABITAT : Under the bark of mesquite trees. DIS¬ TRIBUTION : Sparse in South Texas. Subfamily PIRATINAE Melanolestes abdominalis ( Herrich-Schaeffer, 1848). HABITAT: Beneath rocks, logs, and general debris. Common at lights. DISTRIBUTION: Abundant throughout the State. Melanolestes picipes ( Herrich-Schaeffer, 1848). HABITAT: Beneath rocks, logs, and general debris. Occasionally at lights. DISTRIBUTION: Common throughout the State. Rasahus biguttatus (Say, 1832). HABITAT: Under rocks and logs. DISTRIBUTION: Sparse throughout the State. Rasahus hamatus (Fabricius, 1781). HABITAT: Under rocks and logs. DISTRIBUTION: Common throughout the State. Rasahus thoracicus Stal, 1872. HABITAT: Not known. DISTRIBUTION: One individual taken at electric lights, Hidalgo. 1951, No. 3 September 30 Reduviidae of Texas 411 Subfamily REDUVIINAE Reduvius personatus (Linne, 1758). HABITAT: Under logs and in rodent nests. Oc¬ casionally at electric lights. Readio (1927) states, "There seems to be no doubt about the species being normally an inhabitant of houses and other dwellings as nymphs, and coming to the lights at night as adults.” DISTRIBUTION: Sparse throughout the State. Zelurus bicolor (Stal, 1859). HABITAT: Not known. DISTRIBUTION: Readio (1927) doubtfully lists this species from Texas. I have never seen an individual from the State, Subfamily SAICINAE Oncer otrachelus acuminatus Say, 1831. HABITAT: In short grass in moist situations. Common at electric lights. DISTRIBUTION : Common throughout the State. Oncerotrachelus pallidus Barber, 1922. HABITAT: Not known. DISTRIBUTION: Abun¬ dant electric lights in west and south Texas. Saica apicalis Osborne & Drake, 1915. New record. HABITAT: Not known. DISTRIBU¬ TION: One individual collected at light, Texarkana. Typically Central American in Distribution. Subfamily STENOPODINAE Ctenotrachelus mexicanus ( Champion, 1898) . New record. HABITAT : Not known. DISTRIBUTION : One individual at electric light, Texarkana. Typically Mexican and Central American in distribution. Readio (1927) lists this species from North Carolina. Diaditus pictipes Champion, 1898. HABITAT: Not known. DISTRIBUTION : Common at lights in Lower Rio Grande Valley. Gnathobleda litigiosa Stal, 1862. New record. HABITAT : Not known. DISTRIBUTION : One individual at light, Dallas. Narvesus carolinensis Stal, 1862. HABITAT : Under rocks and logs. Occasionally at electric lights. DISTRIBUTION : Sparse throughout the State. Oncocephalus apiculatus Reuter, 1882. HABITAT : Under rocks, boards, and logs. Nymphs occasionally found in grass. DISTRIBUTION : Sparse throughout the State. Found most abundantly at electric lights. Oncocephalus geniculatus ( Stal, 1872) . HABITAT : Under rocks, boards, and logs. DISTRIBUTION : Sparse throughout the State. Most abundantly found at electric lights, Oncocephalus nuhilus Van Duzee, 1914. New record. HABITAT : Under rocks, boards and general debris. DISTRIBUTION : Rare in Central Texas; common in south and west Texas. Pnirontis infirma Stal, 1859. HABITAT: Not known. DISTRIBUTION : Sparsely found at lights throughout the State. Pnirontis languida Stal, 1859. HABITAT: Not known. DISTRIBUTION : Commonly found at electric lights in east, south, and west Texas; sparsely found at electric lights in the rest of the State. Pnirontis modesta Banks, 1910. New record. HABITAT: Not known. DISTRIBUTION : Rare at electric lights in South Texas. Pygolampis pect oralis (Say, 1832 ) . HABITAT : Under rocks and boards. Occasionally found in grass. Found abundantly at electric lights. DISTRIBUTION : Common through¬ out the State. Pygolampis sericea Stal, 1859. HABITAT: Not known. DISTRIBUTION : Readio (1927) lists this species from Texas. I have never seen an individual from the State. Stenopoda cinerea Laporte, 1833. HABITAT: Under rocks, boards, and logs. Abundant at electric lights. DISTRIBUTION: Common throughout the State. Subfamily TRIATOMINAE Triatoma gerstaeckeri (Stal, 1859). HABITAT: Nests of wood rat, Neotoma sp., crow’s nest, chicken houses, and in the stall of horses and cattle. In addition, Pack- chanian ( 1939) has found individuals about hogs. DISTRIBUTION: San Marcos, San Antonio, Pine Springs, Corpus Christi, Kingsville, College Station. In addition I have individuals from Dallas and Denton counties that exhibit a more northern range than is usually attributed to this species. Usinger (1944) lists specimens from Brownsville, Sonora, Victoria, Los Borregos, Rio Frio, Santa Maria, Laredo, Beeville, and Three Rivers. 412 The Texas Journal of Science 1951, No. 3 September 30 T riatoma lecticularius (Stal, 1859). HABITAT: Davis, et al. (1943), lists Neotoma micropus as the host. DISTRIBUTION: One individual collected on an oak leaf at Elam Springs, Dallas Co. T riatoma lecticularius occulta (Neiva, 1911). HABITAT: Nest of Neotoma sp. DISTRI¬ BUTION: In my collection are individuals from College Station and Kerrville. Usinger (1944) lists individuals from Maverick Co., Ervendberg, San Antonio, Three Rivers, Temple, Winter Haven, and Cameron. T riatoma neotomae Neiva, 1911. HABITAT: Neiva (1914) lists Neotoma micropus as a host. DISTRIBUTION: Usinger (1944) lists this species from Brownsville. 1 riatoma protracta woodi Usinger, 1944. HABITAT: Usinger (1939) lists Neotoma albigula as the host. DISTRIBUTION: Reeves County and Uvalde. Usinger (1944) lists this species from Sunny Glen Ranch, Brewster Co. T riatoma rubida uhleri (Neiva, 1911). HABITAT: Wood (1941) lists Neotoma albigula, as the host for T. rubida. DISTRIBUTION: Usinger (1944) lists this species from El Paso. T riatoma sanguisuga (Leconte, 1855). HABITAT: Human habitations, dog houses, chicken houses, rodent nests, stalls of horses and cattle. In addition, Usinger (1944) records Neotoma floridana as a host. DISTRIBUTION: North, central, south, and east Texas. T riatoma sanguisuga indictiva (Neiva, 1912). HABITAT: Wood (1941) lists Neotoma as the host, distribution: Usinger (1944) records this species from El Paso. T riatoma sanguisuga texana Usinger, 1944. HABITAT: Neotoma sp. Occasionally found at lights. Davis, et. al. (1943) lists Neotoma micropus as the host. DISTRIBUTION: Uvalde, Kerrville, Camp Bullis, San Antonio, and Reeves County. Usinger (1944) lists individuals from Uvalde, Duval Co., and Winter Haven. SUMMARY A survey of the Reduviidae of Texas revealed ten sub-families, thirty- seven genera, ninety-four species, and seven subspecies of which tewnty-five species constitute new records for the State. LITERATURE CITED Banks, N. — 1910 — Four new Reduviidae. Ent. News, Philadelphia. 21 : 324-325. Barber, H. G. — 1906 — Heteroptera from southwestern Texas. Mus. Brooklyn Inst. Sci. Bull. 1 : 225-289. Champion, G. C. — 1897-1901 — “Insecta. Rhynchota. Hemiptera-Heteroptera,” in Biologia Cen- trali Americana. Vol. 2. London. Davis, D. J., T. McGregor, and T. de Shazo — 1943 — Triatoma sanguisuga (Leconte) and Triatoma ambigua Neiva as natural carriers of Trypanosoma cruzi in Texas. Pub. Health Rep. 58 : 353. Elkins, J. C. — 1951a — A new species of Metapterus. Field and Laboratory 2 : (in press). - 1951b — A female neallotype of Emesaya incisa McAtee & Malloch, 1925. Field and Laboratory 2 : (in press). Fracker, S. B. — 1913 — A systematic outline of the Reduviidae of North America. Proc. Iowa Acad. Sci. 19:217-252. McAtee, W. L. and J. R. Malloch — 1925 — Revision of the American bugs of the Reduviid subfamily Ploiariinae. Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus. 67 : 135 pp. Neiva, A. — 1914 — Contribuicas para o estudo dos Reduvidas Hematofagos. I. Mem. Inst. Oswaldo Cruz. 6 : 36. Packchanian, A. — 1939 — Natural infection of Triatoma gerstaeckeri with Trypanosoma cruzi in Texas. Pub. Health Rep. 54 : 1547. Readio, P. A. — 1927 — Biology of the Reduviidae of America North of Mexico. Univ. Kansas Sci. Bull. 17 : 5-291. Stal, C. — 1872 — Enumeratio Reduviinorum Americae, in Enumeratio Hemipterorum. Svenska Vet. Akad. Handl. 10 (4) : 1-159. Usinger, R. L. — 1939 — Descriptions of new Triatominae with a key to genera. Univ. Calif. Publ. Ent. 7 (3) : 33-56. _ 1944 — The Triatominae of North and Central America and the West Indies and their public health significance. U. S. Pub. Health Serv. Pub. Health Bull. 288. Wood, S. F. — 1941 — Notes on the distribution and habits of Reduviid vectors of _ Chagas’ Disease in the southwestern United States. 1 & II. Pan-Pac. Ent. 17 : 85-94, 115-118. Wygodzinsky, P. — 1949 — Elenco Sistematico de los Reduviiformes Americanos. Univ. Naciona] de Tocuman, Inst, de Med. Reg. 473 : 192 pp. 1951, No. 3 September 30 Birds of the Stockton Plateau 413 ECOLOGICAL DISTRIBUTION OF THE BIRDS OF THE STOCKTON PLATEAU IN NORTHERN TERRELL COUNTY, TEXAS WILMOT A. THORNTON * Department of Zoology- University of Texas INTRODUCTION Serious ornithological work has been carried out in very few areas of Trans-Pecos Texas. Knowledge of the ecological distribution of birds in this part of the state is decidedly limited. The Stockton Plateau, an extensive limestone formation along the western side of the Pecos River, has never been intensively studied in the past. The northeastern part of Terrell County, on the Stockton Plateau, lies within the Chihuahuan biotic province as restricted by Dice (1943) and Blair (1950). Studies of avian distribution have been made in three other areas of Trans-Pecos Texas, Brewster County (Van Tyne and Sutton, 1937), the Guadalupe Mountains (Burleigh and Lowery, 1940), and northwestern Presidio County (Phillips and Thornton, 1949). Of the three, the Guadalupe Mountains lie within the Navahonian province of Dice (1943), and the others lie in the Chihuahuan province. Field work was carried out in an area of northeastern Terrell County, on the ranch of N. D. Blackstone (Fig. 1) with frequent short trips to areas on three neighboring ranches. The Dunlap ranch takes in part of the Pecos River, and the Hicks and Chandler ranches are adjacent to the lower part of Independence Creek where it has become a permanent stream. Material was first collected and observations were first made on a trip to the Blackstone ranch during the period of April 8 to 10, 1949. A second very brief 24 hour stop-over was made on May 1. The bulk of the collecting was done during a five-week period from June 5 to July 7, 1949. Two additional trips were made to check the winter population of birds on November 24 to 26, and December 28 to 3 0, 1949. I wish to thank Mr. N. D. Blackstone for his many courtesies extended during the periods of field work. Dr. W. F. Blair was most helpful in offering advice and criticism in the preparation of this report. I am especially indebted to Mr. T. E. Kennerly and Mr. C. H. Strachn, for major assist¬ ance in the collection and prepaartion of skins. To other members of the summer field party to Terrell County in 1949 who contributd information, I extend my thanks. I wish, also, to thank Mr. W. W. Milstead and Mr. M'. J. Fouquette who accompanied me on the November trip as well as Mr. H. W. Phillips, who assisted in the collection and preparation of skins, during the field trip in December. I am grateful to Dr. George Miksch Sutton for critically reading the manuscript and for kindly identifying many of the specimens. ECOLOGICAL RELATIONSHIPS OF THE REGION The Stockton Plateau is a westward extension of the Edwards Plateau. The Pecos River separates these two areas of Cretaceous limestones. The area studied in Terrell County lies in the northeastern part of the Stock- ton Plateau. * Presented at the 1950 Annual Meeting, Dallas, Texas. 414 The Texas Journal of Science 1951, No. 3 September bu Two factors of major importance are responsible for the gradual change in plant and animal distribution on the two sides of the Pecos River. These are topography and rainfall. The average annual rainfall in the collecting area is seldom as much as 16 inches as opposed to the increasingly heavier precipitation to the east of the Pecos. Weather stations to the east of northeastern Terrell County show a much greater average annual rainfall than do the nearest stations west of the Pecos. At Sonora, in Sutton County, and at Kerrville, in Kerr County, the average annual rainfall for 15 and 36 years, respectively, was 22.71 and 2 8.92 inches. The weather station at Fort Stockton in central western Pecos County is approximately 100 miles northwest of the area under consideration. The annual rainfall there, over a period of 5 6 years, has averaged 15.13 inches. Sanderson is approximately 60 miles south and west of the area studied. The records of rainfall for 12 years show an annual average of 12.08 inches (U.S.D.A., 1930). Going from the Edwards Plateau west to northeastern Terrell County, on the Stockton Plateau, the land changes from comparatively level or gently sloping areas of, for the most part, dense cedar brakes, to heavily eroded areas forming sharp breaks in the topography. The surface is divided into steep, flat-topped mesas with wide canyons between them. Mesas in this area are considerably smaller than those found farther west (Tharp, 1944). Surface runoff on steep slopes has removed most of the normally thin top-soil along mesa tops and sides, exposing the limestone beneath and thereby severely limiting the amount of vegetation. In the broad canyons or valleys between mesas and the wide flat areas at the mouths of these canyons, where edaphic conditions are much more favorable, plant cover is greater. Recorded elevations at several oil wells on mesa tops in this area range from 2,284 to 2,515 feet above sea level. The mesas rise 200 to 400 feet above the floors of the inter-mesa valleys. A well located along the Pecos River several miles above the Dunlap ranch has an elevation of 1,967 feet. There is a difference of approximately 500 feet between the Pecos valley and the mesa tops. Webster (1950) described a number of associations for the Chihuahuan biotic province in this area. Eleven of these major plant associations are here described, in somewhat modified form. Although no species of bird could definitely be said to be limited to any single association there were, never¬ theless, decided species preferences for certain associations over others. As would be expected, availability of water provided a major limiting factor in many cases. The ecological association, as here defined, includes all plants and ani¬ mals occurring within a relatively stable environment regardless of the stage of ecological succession. CEDAR SAVANNAH ASSOCIATION This is a characteristic association of flat mesa tops throughout the area. The thin soil supports a scattered growth of small cedars ( Juniperus ashei) . Extensive patches of tobosa grass ( Hilaria mutica ) and buffalo grass ( Buchloe dactyloides) form the principal ground cover. Twenty-two breeding birds were recorded in this association and, although no species were restricted to mesa tops, such forms as mourning doves and western lark sparrows were common nesting birds. Birds of the Stockton Plateau 1951, No. 3 September 30 MOUTH OF LIGON CANYON on Blackstone Ranch, northeastern Terrell County, Texas. Inter-mesa valley in foreground with characteristic vegetation of rnesquite and creosote bush. In the background a typical mesa slope shows the dominant cedar ( Juniperus Ashei ) of the cedar — ocotillo association. The persimmon — shinoak as¬ sociation can be seen as a dark line of vegetation along the base of the rimrock. MESQUITE --CREOSOTE BUSH ASSOCIATION The wide canyon floors between the mesas, and the broad, flat areas stretching out from the canyon mouths are covered by a variety of minor plant sub-communities here grouped in one extensive association. Mesquite ( Prosopis juliflora) and creosote bush ( Larrea divaricata) constitute the dominant vegetative covering for the majority of those areas where collecting was done. Forty-two of the 60 breeding or probably breeding bird species were recorded in this extensive association, which includes much of the available water in the form of wind-mill tanks. Cactus wrens, cardinals and pyrrhuloxias were very common here. No species could be said to be definitely limited to this association, although the gray vireo (Vireo vicinior ) was recorded nowhere else. PERSIMMON— SHINOAK ASSOCIATION Below the rims of the mesas, underlying limestone formation outcrops, as a "rimrock”. This rimrock is included in the persimmon — shinoak association. The dominant woody vegetation, persimmon ( Diospyros texana ) and shinoak ( Quercus sp. ) , is found along the base of the rimrock. Fourteen species of birds were observed in this association. Nests of the turkey vulture, red-tailed hawk and canyon wren were found here. Some of the others possibly nested here, but the nests were not found. 416 The Texas Journal of Science 1951, No. 3 September 30 M % — ,1 HACKBERRY ASSOCIATION at Gravel Springs on Independence Creek, Blackstone ranch, northeastern Terrell County. 4 I H : 1 iliiliist ■n INDEPENDENCE CREEK on Hicks ranch, northeastern Terrell County. Live oaks line both sides of the creek here where it is a permanent stream. 1951, No. 3 September 30 Birds of the Stockton Plateau 417 CEDAR- -OCOTILLO ASSOCIATION The sloping sides of the canyons, between the persimmon — shinoak association of the rimrock and the mesquite — creosote bush association of the canyon floor, are considered a part of this association. Such plants as catclaw ( Acacia sp „) take the place of ocotillo ( Fouquieria splendens) on more gentle slopes. In this association I recorded twenty of the species that were breeding in the region. None was found to be restricted to this association, although the rock sparrow and the canyon towhee were probably more common along the higher levels of the slopes than elsewhere. CEDAR- -SHIN OAK ASSOCIATION Cedar and shinoak are the dominant woody plants in the narrow canyons. The steep rocky slopes and the tall cedars in the canyon beds are the favorite haunts of the jay ( Aphelocoma coerulescens) , and of some of the smaller species such as Scott’s oriole, titmouse, and Arkansas goldfinch. Nineteen species of birds were recorded from this association. SALT CEDAR ASSOCIATION Dense stands of salt cedar ( Tamarix gallica ) occur along both banks of the Pecos River on the Dunlap ranch, growing to a height of 20 feet in some areas. Alluvial soil under these trees is practically free of other plant growth due to intense shading by the thick green canopy of leaves. Twenty species of birds were recorded in this association. The most common were possibly Cooper’s tanager and the cardinal. Screech owls were present in some numbers, and barred owls were occasionally heard. HACKBERRY ASSOCIATION Two associations occur near Gravel Springs on the Blackstone ranch. One has an almost pure stand, several acres in extent, of tall hackberry trees ( Celtis reticulata). This association is encircled by the mesquite-sumac-condalia association to be discussed below. The presence of permanent underground springs is undoubtedly mainly responsible for the unusual growth of vegetation. Nothing comparable to this area was found in any other part of the ranch. From the many feathers in the area and from reports by Blackstone, this spot has long been a favorite roost for the wild turkey. It was also found to be a common roost of many turkey vultures. Fifteen species of breeding birds were observed. Cooper’s hawk and the black-chinned hummingbird were nesting here. Gnatcatchers ( Folioptila caerulea ) and cardinals were among the more common birds. It is surprising that mockingbirds, which were common in nearby associations, were never observed in this area. MESQUITE— SUMAC— CONDALIA ASSOCIATION This association, an area of dense, for the most part impenetrable, brush, surrounds the hackberry association at Gravel Springs. Among the 23 species of birds recorded here, long-tailed chats were very common. WALNUT— DESERT WILLOW ASSOCIATION The stream bed of Independence Creek along its entire length is included in this association. Walnuts ( Juglans rupestris ) and desert willows ( Chilopsis linearis) are the dominant woody plants in the stream bed and extend back from it in many places. Thirty-two breeding species of birds were found here. FIELD ASSOCIATION Several acres on Hicks’ ranch are irrigated through canals from a large spring. Several of the fields are kept in cultivation, while others have been left in their natural state. In these latter areas the vegetation has grown profusely. The luxuriant plant growth in this association cannot be found elsewhere in the collecting area. Dickcissels were observed only in this association, although they probably ranged also along the stream bed in this area. Eighteen species were found to be present. LIVE--OAK ASSOCIATION Live oaks ( Quercus virginiana ) extend in a narrow strip on both sides of Independence Creek, which is a permanent stream in this area. This association proved of especial interest because it contained several species not recorded in any 418 The Texas Journal of Science 1951, No. 3 September 30 of the other, more arid, associations. Two species not previously reported from the Trans-Pecos were taken here; the yellow-throated vireo ( Vireo flavifrons ) , and the white-eyed vireo ( V . griseus) . Twenty-three species of breeding birds were found. Wood pewees, titmice, and cardinals were the most common. ANNOTATED LIST OF SPECEES The following annotated list includes 84 species of birds seen or collected on five trips, from April to December, 1949, to northwestern Terrell County. Seventy-two of the 84 species were collected, and 12 are sight records. A total of 190 specimens was collected from all trips. These are in the Texas Natural History Collection, Department of Zoology, University of Texas. Numbers for the individual specimens are the catalogue numbers in the Texas Natural History Collection. Wherever possible, gonads of individual birds have been measured, using the largest testis or ovum in each case. All measurements are in millimeters. The nomenclature followed is that of the American Ornithologists’ Union, Check-list of North American Birds (1931), with the exception of certain subsequent changes of names put forth in the Supplements to the check-list. Ardea herodias — Great Blue Heron. Sight Record: June 29, July 5. Great blue herons were observed on several occasions, during June and July, flying over the Pecos River and Independence Creek where the creek is a permanent stream. Nettion carolinense (Gmelin) — Green-winged Teal. Sight Record: April 9. Two green-winged teal were observed, in April, on the dirt tank at West Martin Well. Cathartes aura teter Friedmann — Western Turkey Vulture. 1 ad. $ cedar savannah association, June 26. Two nests, each with one juvenile not yet able to leave o. i _ MILES AREA STUDIED on Blackstone ranch in northeastern Terrell County. Area studied (enclosed in half circle) at mouth of Independence Creek and along Pecos River. 1951, No. 3 September 30 Birds of the Stockton Plateau 419 the nest, were seen on June 8 and 9. These nests were in caves in the persimmon- shinoak association along the rimrock of the mesa. One was trapped in a steel trap in the cedar savannah association near West Martin Well. Measurements taken on this specimen (in mm.) are: wing, 520; tail, 259; tarsus, 65; culmen, 2.5. These measurements follow closely those for C. a . teter as described by Friedmann (1933). Accipiter cooperii (Bonaparte) — Cooper’s Hawk. 1 juv. 2, hackberry association, June 22. A nest of this species about 25 feet from the ground, in a hackberry tree, was discovered on May 1 near Gravel Springs. An adult bird was on the nest. On June 7 part of an eggshell, dull white in color, was found at the base of the nesting tree, and the nest contained three young birds with the remiges just beginning to develop. One was removed and eventually raised to maturity by J. S. Mecham, who subsequently checked the nest several weeks after the young hawk was captured and reported that the other nestlings were far advanced both in size and plumage as compared to the one being raised in camp. On June 22, the two "nest” birds were able to fly. One, a female, was collected. Buteo jamaicensis fuertesi Sutton and Van Tyne — Fuertes’s Red-tailed Hawk. 1 yg. 2 , 1 yg. $ , persimmon-shinoak association, June 11, 13; 2 ad. 2, persimmon- shinoak association, June 28-30. Two nests were observed, one on June 11 and one on June 30, in the persimmon-shinoak association. The nest discovered early in June was empty, while two fully feathered young birds were observed close by. The second nest apparently had been empty for some time. This large species was the most common hawk of the area, and it was observed most often around the mesa tops and rimrock. The young birds, male and female, are both heavily marked on sides and upp^ portions of the abdomen with large, black, arrow-shaped spots. The breasts of both birds are colored a cinnamon-rufous. The lower part of the abdomen of the m?l specimen is solid white; that of the female has a tinge of rufous. Thighs of both are crossed with bands of dark brown, outlined with rufous. Analysis of stomach contents of the four specimens showed an almost complete diet of lubber grasshoppers ( Brachystola magna) . Normal food of this species con¬ sists of small mammals and reptiles (Fisher, 1893). A complete examination was made of the stomach contents of two of the specimens. The first stomach contained one lubber grasshopper and the tail of a snake, possibly a ribbon snake ( Thamnophis eques) . A second stomach contained parts of eight partially digested lubber grass- hopers. These birds were present in November and December. Circis cyaneus subsp. — Marsh Hawk. Sight Record: November 26. One marsh hawk was seen in November at the mouth of Independence Creek. Falco sparverius sparverius Linnaeus — Eastern Sparrow Hawk. 1 ad. $ , mesquite- creosote bush association, November 24. There is no evidence that this species is a summer resident in the area studied. A pair of these birds was recorded in November, at Little Horse Head Tank. The male was collected at this time. Sparrow hawks were present again in December, although not common at that time. The stomach of the one specimen contained parts of Hymenoptera and Hemiptera. Colinus virginianus — Bob-white Quail. Sight Record: June 10. This species was occasionally reported in the cedar savannah association at West Martin Well. On June 24, D. J. Edson observed a bob-white with several young in this association. Callipepla squamata pallida Brewster — Arizona Scaled Quail. 1 ad. $ , mesquit - creosote bush association, April 9; 1 ad. 2, cedar savannah association, June 17. Several coveys of scaled quails were recorded during early April along mesa slopes in the cedar-ocotillo association and in the mesquite-creosote bush association. A single bird was collected in the cedar-savannah association near West Martin Well in June. Meleagris gallopavo intermedia Sennett — Rio Grande Turkey. Sight Record : May 1, 1949. Wild turkeys were heard calling, and two were seen in the hackberry association at Gravel Springs. Numerous wing and tail feathers were found in this association. The buff color of the tips of the tail feathers indicates that these birds belong to the race intermedia. The birds were infrequently observed during June and July in the mesquite-sumac-condalia association and in the mesquite-creosote bush association. Chararins vocifems vociferus Linnaeus — Killdeer. 2 ad. 2 , ova enlarged, cedar savannah association, June 8, 17; 1 ad. 2, ova enlarged, walnut-desert willow- association, July 7. The killdeer is restricted to areas with available water, notably windmill tanks in the different canyons, man-made dams across heads of steep canyons, and lower Independence Creek, where it is a permanent stream. 420 The Texas Journal of Science 1951, No. 3 September 30 On July 1, three juvenile killdeer were observed running about on a sandbar of Independence Creek, near the Chandler ranch house. Actitis macularia (Linnaeus) — Spotted Sandpiper. 1 ad. $, ovum 2.3 mm., May 2. A small rainpool in a low cleared area, in the mesquite-sumac-condalia association near Gravel Springs, provided the only record for this species. Zenaidura macroura marginella (Wood house) — Western Mourning Dove. 1 ad. d, 12.6 mm., walnut-desert willow association, July 7. Nests of this species were numerous in low cedar trees of the cedar savannah association. Measurements on one adult male (in mm.) : wing, 149; tarsus, 22; bill, 14. The last nesting record of one of these birds was made on July 7, in the mesquite-creosote bush association of Ligon Canyon. The nest contained one newly hatched young and one pipped egg. Nesting probably continues through the summer. The birds were present in large numbers in December. ColumBigallina passerina subsp. — Sight Record: April 9, July 2. This species was first observed in the mesquite-creosote bush association near the Blackstone ranch house in April. Blair saw one at Canyon Fifty-Six well in July. Coccyzus americanus americanus (Linnaeus) — Yellow-billed Cuckoo. 1 ad. $, 2 ad. $ , breeding, mesquite-creosote bush association, June 17-22; 1 ad. $ , testis 8.7 mm., mesquite-sumac-condalia association, May 5; 1 ad. $ , walnut-desert willow association, June 8. This species was calling in May near Gravel Springs in the mesquite-sumac-condalia and hackberry associations. A male collected then was found to have enlarged testes. A nest containing two light blue, unspotted eggs was observed in the mesquite-creosote bush association of Ligon Canyon on June 18. A female prepared on June 17 was found to have a crushed, hard-shelled egg in the oviduct. The species was not found in November or December. Geococcyx calif ornianus (Lesson) — Road-runner. 1 ad. $, egg in oviduct, hackberry association, June 10; 1 yg. d, mesquite-creosote bush association, June 15. Road-runners were observed only in hackberry, mesquite-sumac-condalia and mesquite- creosote bush association. The range of these birds, however, probably included most or all associations in the area. On June 10, a female collected from the hackberry association was found to be carrying a dull white, hard-shelled egg measuring 38.2x30.1 mm. in her oviduct. Stomach contents of this bird consisted of three partially digested lubber grasshoppers ( Brachystola magna ) and fresh remains of a blind snake ( Leptolyphlops d. dulcis) . Otus asio cineraceus (Ridgway) — Mexican Screech Owl. 1 ad. $, live oak association, July 2. Screech owls were most common in the live oak association bordering Independence Creek between Hicks and Chandler ranches. They were present, also, in the salt cedar association along the Pecos River near the Dunlap ranch. Examination of stomach contents of one specimen showed parts of three partially digested lubber grasshoppers. None were found in November. Dr. Sutton tentatively identified the one specimen as belonging to the race cineraceus , which is the breeding form in Brewster County, bordering Terrell County to the southwest (Van Tyne and Sutton, 1937). Bubo virginianus pallescens Stone — Western Horned Owl. 1 ad. 9 , persimmon- shinoak association, June 21. Horned owls were occasionally seen as they flew from the heads of the steeper canyons. In these canyons, they remained during the day within the comparative protection of the persimmon and shinoak, along the base of the rimrock. The stomach of the one specimen collected was found to contain many lubber grasshoppers ( Brachystola magna ) and partially digested parts of one tarantula. The specimen agrees in color and size with specimens of pallescens from Presidio County, Texas. The wing measures 340 mm. Strix varia subsp. — Barred Owl. Sight Record: July 4. This species was heard calling in July during evening and early morning hours on the Dunlap ranch, in an area of dense salt cedar along the Pecos River. Phalaenoptilus nuttalli subsp. — Poor-will. 1 ad. d , enlarged testes, cedar-ocotillo association, April 11; 2 ad. $, breeding 1 yg. $, mesquite-creosote bush association, June 12-18; 1 ad. d testis 5.5 mm., cedar savannah association, July 5. Poor-wills were calling strongly from the cedar-ocotillo association on Blackstone ranch early in April. During June and July, they were recorded from the cedar savannah, mesquite- creosote bush, cedar-shinoak, and cedar-ocotillo associations. Dr. Sutton, after examining these birds, preferred not to identify them subspecifically until able to investigate further the validity of the race P. n. nitidus , described from the Nueces River, Texas. 1951, No. 3 September 30 Birds of the Stockton Plateau 421 Stomach analysis on several of the specimens collected showed the presence of Coleoptera, mostly June beetles of the family Scarabidae, several kinds of Lepidoptera, and a few Diptera of the family Tipulidae. Cbordeiles minor asseriensis Cherrie — Cherrie’s Nighthawk. 5 ad. $ , 1 ad. $ , breeding, mesquite-creosote bush association, June 10-25; 2 ad. $, breeding, cedar savannah association, June 10-17. Sutton examined seven of the specimens and found them to be of the race asseriensis. Three specimens, however (numbers 92, 94, 95), he considered to be asseriensis approaching henryi. The latter subspecies is said to be the breeding form in Brewster County, which borders Terrell County to the southwest. Several of the birds collected were seen flying in pairs, with individuals going through characteristic courtship antics of the species. Although no nests were located, it is quite probable that all of these birds represent the breeding population in the general area. The species was recorded from the cedar savannah association of the mesa tops and from the mesquite-creosote bush association of the valley floors. Analysis of the stomach contents of several of these birds, showed them to contain large numbers of flying ants (Formicidae) with a few insects of the orders Homoptera and Hemiptera, representing two families, the cicadas (Cicadidae) and the stink bugs ( Pentatomidae ) . Cbordeiles acutipennis subsp. — Texas Nighthawk. Sight Record: June 23. Indi¬ viduals probably referable to this species were observed flying low over the Pecos River on Dunlap ranch. They flew quietly and were never observed in the characteristic diving motions of Cherrie’s nighthawk (C. minor). Archilochus alexandri (Bourcier and Mulsant)— Black-chinned Hummingbird. 1 ad. $ , mesquite-creosote bush association, April 9. These hummingbirds were observed in April around mesquite trees near East Martin Well. A female was collected at this time. A nest containing two very young birds was found in the hackberry association on June 14. An adult bird was feeding the nestlings at the time of discovery. The nest was situated well out near the tip of the limb, about 10 feet from the ground, in close proximity to the nest of a Cooper’s hawk. Chloroceryle americana septentrionalis (Sharpe)— Texas Kingfisher. 1 ad. $ Independence Creek, June 23; 4 juv. $, Independence Creek, June 23. The A.O.U. Check-list (1931), gives the breeding range of this species as extending westward in Texas to take in Val Verde County. Discovery of these birds in northeastern Terrell County constitutes a range extension of several miles and adds to the list of breeding birds from Trans-Pecos Texas. Nests were found in the steep banks along Independence Creek near the Chandler ranch house and in the banks and draws on both sides of the Pecos River, near the mouth of Independence Creek. On June 22, W. W. Milstead discovered a nest containing five juvenile birds, on the south side of a small, dirt draw which empties into the Pecos River close to the mouth of Independence Creek The entrance hole into the clay soil of the ravine bank was eight feet above the muddy floor of the draw and had an approximate diameter of three inches. A tunnel about 12 inches in length and curving slightly downward connected the entrance with the nest cavity proper. The floor of this tunnel had been solidly packed by the feet of the adult birds as they entered and left the nest. No nesting materials were found in the cavity, which, according to Milstead, had a diameter of approximately five inches. Examination of numerous other holes along Independence Creek showed many variations in length and curvature of the tunnels. Some ran along for as much as three feet with no nesting cavity present; others curved sharply before entering the nest cavity; while still others ended blindly after only a few inches. Dendrocopos scalaris symplectus (Oberholser) — Texas Woodpecker. 1 ad. 9, 1 yg. $, mesquite-creosote bush association, June 17-20; 1 ad. $ No. 143, mesquite- creosote bush association, June 25. Despite Todd’s (1946) contention that symplectus is a synonym of cactophilus, Sutton’s examination of material while identifying my specimens led him to believe that coastal birds of southern Texas and northeastern Tamaulipas were whiter (especially above) than Arizona birds; he therefore named my specimens symplectus approaching cactophilus. Two females from Hidalgo County, Texas, are whiter above and slightly more pale gray below (with spotted chest markings) than are the three specimens from Terrell County. These small wood¬ peckers were reported from most of the associations below the flat mesa tops during June and July. They were not recorded in winter. Muscivora forficata (Gmelin) — Scissor-tailed Flycatcher. 2 ad. $ , breeding, 1 juv. $ , 1 ad. ?, mesquite-creosote bush association, June 9. Nests of this species were located at tanks on the Blackstone ranch and near an artificial pond on the Hicks ranch, which shows a possible preference of the species for nesting sites near 422 The Texas Journal of Science 1951, No. 3 September 30 water. All were in the mesquite-creosote bush association. The species was recorded, however, in several other areas, notably in the cedar savannah, live oak, salt cedar, walnut-desert willow, and field associations. Myiarchus cinerascens cinerascens (Lawrence) — Ash-throated Flycatcher. 1 ad. 2, hackberry association, June 7; 1 ad. $, testis 10.0 mm., mesquite-creosote bush association, June 16. Daily observations in June and July showed this species present in at least six out of the 11 associations. They were recorded from the mesquite- creosote bush, mesquite-sumac-condalia, hackberry, cedar-shinoak, live oak, and salt cedar associations. One nest, examined on June 16, was in what was probably an abandoned woodpecker hole in a fence post. The dark cavity contained three small, whitish eggs with heavy dark streaks and one dead young. This had been pushed to one side of the cavity. The adult female was captured as she attempted to fly from the hole, and then released. The species was not recorded in November and December. Contopus richardsonii richardsonii (Swainson) — Western Wood Pewee. 1 ad. 2 No. 194, live oak association, June 29. The live oak association on the Chandler ranch proved to be the only area in which this species was observed during the summer. It was not recorded in winter. Pyrocephalus rubinus flammeus van Rossem — -Vermilion Flycatcher. 3 ad. $ , 1 ad. $ , all breeding, 1 juv. $ , mesquite-creosote bush association, April 9-July5. Three adult males measure (in mm.), respectively: wing, 81.5, 81.4, 85.0; tail, 61.0, 61.4, 61.2. All of them are very light in coloration, having a definite orange tint in the crown and undersurface. They differ distinctly in color from comparative speci¬ mens of the subspecies mexicanus from southern Texas. The two breeding females examined differ greatly in the plumage coloration on the belly and under tail coverts. One is a salmon-pink, and the other is a light yellow. A nest examined on June 15 was approximately 10 feet from the ground in a mesquite tree of the mesquite- creosote bush association. Located well out near the tip of a horizontal limb, it was small and cup-like, and contained two newly hatched young. Petrochelidon pyrrhonota tachina Oberholser — Lesser Cliff Swallow. 1 ad. $ , rock bluff association, June 23. A large nesting colony of cliff swallows, numbering in the hundreds, was discovered by J. A. Herrmann along an overhanging bluff of the Pecos River. One specimen was collected by him at this time. Sutton examined this specimen and found it to be of the subspecies tachina. The wing measured 104 mm. Examining this bluff on June 29, 1 found the area below the nests littered with fragments of egg shells, with here and there a dead nestling which had apparantly fallen from the nest. Clusters of old and empty nests were found in similar locations bordering the river. Aphelocoma coerulescens woodhouseii (Baird) — Woodhouse’s Jay. 1 ad. 2, ova enlarged, 1 yg. $ , 1 ad. $, 2 yg. $, mesquite-creosote bush association, April 8-December 28; 1 yg. 2, cedar-shinoak association, June 15; 1 yg. $, persimmon- shinoak association, June 18. Woodhouse jays could be found in most of the narrow canyons and canyon heads in the persimmon-shinoak and cedar-shinoak associations. They were observed infrequently in the mesquite-creosote bush association of Ligon Canyon. Present at all times of field work from April to December, these jays were never seen or heard in the cedar-savannah association of the mesa tops. They are undoubtedly permanent residents and breed in the area, although no nests were found. Cofvus cryptoleucus Couch — White-necked Raven. Sight Record: July 1. This species was observed once; near the Hicks ranch headquarters. Pams atricristatus subsp. — Black-crested Titmouse. 1 ad. $ , 1 juv. 2 , 1 juv. 2 , cedar-shinoak association, June 2 7 -November 25; 1 yg. $, testis 5.5 mm., live oak association, June 30; juv. $ , persimmon-shinoak association, June 14. The one adult bird measures slightly larger, for wing and tail, than comparative specimens from Hidalgo and Webb Counties, Texas. The forehead has a tinge of rusty, but coloration of back and sides is not appreciably different from that of birds from southern Texas. This bird might tentatively be called P. a. sennetti (Ridgway). Individuals collected during June and July were all young or juvenile birds. They were most commonly found in steep canyons and canyon heads, where the dominant vegetation consisted of cedar and shinoak. Auriparus flaviceps ornatus (Lawrence) — Verdin. 1 ad. 2 , 1 ad. $ , breeding, mesquite-creosote bush asociation, June 22-27 . These birds were breeding during June and July and were recorded from the mesquite-creosote bush, cedar-shinoak, mesquite-walnut and live oak associations. Three young birds were observed in the 1951, No. 3 September 30 Birds of the Stockton Plateau 423 mesquite-creosote bush association in June. Verdins were not found in November and December. Van Rossem (1930) reviewed the races of A. flaviceps. The one male collected agrees in size and color with his diagnosis of the subspecies ornatus. Psaltriparus minimus plumheus (Baird) — Lead-colored Bush-Tit. 1 yg. 6,1 ad. 6, cedar-shinoak association, June 13-27. The bush-tit apparently prefers the cedar- shinoak association found along heads of small, steep canyons. It was found there in flocks of from 20 to 30 birds, and was also recorded from the mesquite-creosote bush, cedar-ocotillo, and walnut-desert willow associations. Thryomanes bewicki cryptus Oberholser— -Texas Wren. 3 ad. $ , 1 ad. $ , breeding, mesquite-creosote bush association, June 9-30; 1 ad. S , breeding, 1 juv. 6 , cedar-shinoak association, June 13; 1 juv. 2, live oak association, June 30; 1 juv. $ , cedar savannah association, July 6. Three specimens of the Texas wren were examined by Sutton, who determined them as " Thryomanes bewicki cryptus approach¬ ing T. b. eremophilus ” This wren was most common in the mesquite-creosote bush association, but it was also recorded from the cedar savannah, walnut-desert willow, and cedar-ocotillo associations. It was present in the mesquite-creosote bush association in November and December. Campylorhynchus brunneicapillus couesi Sharpe — Cactus Wren. 2 ad. $ , breed¬ ing, 1 ad. $, mesquite-creosote bush association, June 16-23; 1 yg. $, cedar-shinoak association, June 15. Nests of this species were abundant throughout the mesquite- creosote bush association, where it was one of the most common birds. Cactus wrens were seen and heard occasionally in the cedar-shinoak and cedar-ocotillo associations. One of the permanent residents of the area, this species was present in the more densely vegetated parts of the mesquite-creosote bush association in November and December. The nests were most commonly placed within the comparative security of the tasajillo ( Opuntia leptocaulis) although some were placed six to eight feet high in mesquite trees which offered little concealment. Each of the two nests collected contained four eggs. Timothy grass ( Muhelenbergia monticola ) formed the lining of the nest cavity, the tunnel to the outside opening, and the area around the mouth of the opening. The bulk of the nest was composed of coarse sticks and twigs. Four fresh eggs collected on July 6 have a rather unusual pattern for cactus wren eggs. Ovate in shape, with a pinkish-white ground color, they are heavily spotted and blotched with rufous, concentrated mostly around the larger end. Two were broken in transit. The two remaining eggs measure (in mm.): 22.0x17.3 and 22.7x17.5, the average for the two being 22.4 x 17.4. Measurements were taken on one other set of four fresh eggs collected July 5. These have the more common salmon pink ground color more or less evenly covered by small rufous specks. The measurements of these four eggs average 23.0x16.4 mm. Dawson (1923) mentioned that there are two egg-pattern types in this species. Catherpes mexicanus albifrons (Giraud) — White-throated Canyon Wren. 1 ad. 6 , 1 ad. 2 , persimmon-shinoak association, June 29. Following Grinnell and Behle (1935), only two subspecies of the canyon wren are here recognized within the United States. Measurements on three adult birds are (in mm.) : one male; wing, 64.0; tail, 55.6; two females; wing, 64.3 and 59.4; tail, 54.6 and 52.5. Canyon wrens were heard along the rimrocks of all mesas in the area studied. They were often observed in the persimmon-shinoak association and in the walnut-desert willow association. The species was present in November and December and appeared to be a permanent resident. Mimus polyglottos leucopterus (Vigors) — Western Mockingbird. 1 ad. S, testis 10.1 mm., mesquite-creosote bush association, June 16. Mockingbirds were common throughout virtually the entire area from April through December. They were never observed in the hackberry association near Gravel Springs. Oreoscoptes montanus (Townsend) — Sage Thrasher. 1 ad. 6, cedar-ocotillo association, November 26. The sage thrasher was observed in the cedar-ocotillo association of Ligon Canyon in November. The species was not recorded during the spring or summer, and is probably a winter resident and transient in the area. T urdus migratorius propinquus Ridgway — Western Robin. 1 ad. 2 , mesquite- sumac-condalia association, November 25. Not present as a breeding bird during the summer, the species was found to be very common throughout the area in November and December. Sialia currucoides (Bechstein) — Mountain Bluebird. 1 ad. 2, mesquite-creosote bush association, December 28. Large flocks of bluebirds, or mixed flocks including cedar waxwings, were observed at all of the tanks examined in the area in December. 424 The Texas Journal of Science 1951, No. 3 September 30 One specimen was collected in the vicinity of Ligon Tank in the mesquite-creosote bush association of Ligon Canyon. These birds are resident here only in winter. Polioptila caerulea amoenissima Grinnell — Western Blue-gray Gnatcatcher. 1 ad. 3, hackberry association, June 7. Western blue-gray gnatcatchers were present in large flocks in the hackberry association in May. This was one of the most common species of this same association in June and July. They were also common in the live oak association on the Chandler ranch. Occasionally they occurred in the cedar- ocotillo association. The birds were not found in winter. Regulus calendula calendula (Linnaeus) — Eastern Ruby-crowned Kinglet. 1 ad. 3, 1 ad. 9, cedar-shinoak association, November 25-26. Recorded only in November, this species was collected only in one of the small "header” canyons of Ligon Canyon in the cedar-shinoak association. Bombycilla cedrorum Vieillot — Cedar Waxwing. 3 ad. $ , mesquite-creosote bush association, April 9, December 28. Cedar waxwings were present in large flocks at East Martin Well on April 9. They were not observed again until November, when large flocks were seen at several tanks in the mesquite-creosote bush association. These birds are probably winter residents. Lanius ludovicianus — Shrike. Sight Record: December 29. Shrikes were recorded only in winter, although some would be expected to be permanent residents (see A.O.U. Check-list, 1931). In December, shrikes were not uncommon in the mesquite- creosote bush association. Vireo atricapillus Woodhouse — Black-capped Vireo. 1 ad. 3, cedar-shinoak association, June 15. A single specimen of this species, in breeding plumage, was collected in the cedar-shinoak association near the head of Ligon Canyon. Vireo griseus noveboracensis (Gmelin) — -White-eyed Vireo. 1 ad. 3 testis 5.9 mm., live oak association, June 30. One male, in breeding condition, was collected on the Chandler ranch in the live oak association. Sutton found this specimen to conform to the race noveboracensis as reviewed by Burleigh and Lowery (1945). Measurements of this male (in mm.) are: wing, 62.5; tail, 49.0. The white-eyed vireo has not been reported from Trans-Pecos Texas before now, and this record represents a westward range extension of several hundred miles for the subspecies n oveboracensis. Vireo bellii medius Oberholser — Texas Vireo. 1 ad. 3 , hackberry association, June 7; 2 ad. 3, enlarged testes, live oak association, June 22, 30. The live oak association of lower Independence Creek appeared to be the favorite haunt of these birds. The species was recorded in only one other area, the field association on Hicks’ ranch. Sutton made the subspecific identification. Vireo vicinior Coues — Gray Vireo. 3 ad. 3 , mesquite-creosote bush association, April 9-June 30. Breeding in June. These birds were recorded only from the mesquite- creosote bush association. Three were seen in this association in the vicinity of East Martin Well in April. One male, collected June 28. near Little Horse Head Canyon, was found to have enlarged testes. Vireo flavifrons Vieillot — Yellow-throated Vireo. 1 ad. 3, live oak association, June 30. Several individuals of this species were seen and heard in the live oak association on the Chandler ranch during the latter part of June and the first part of July. Two other vireos ( V . bellii and V. griseus ) were seen and collected at the same time. All three species were breeding in the area. This is the first record for this principally eastern species in Trans-Pecos Texas. Dendroica coronata (Linnaeus) — Myrtle Warbler. 1 ad. 3, mesquite-condalia association, November 27; 1 ad. 3, mesquite-creosote bush association, December 28. This species was heard and seen on November 26 in the mesquite-sumac-condalia association at Gravel Springs, where one specimen was later collected. During December, large flocks of them were present throughout most of the area, especially in the mesquite-creosote bush association. They are winter residents in this part of Terrell County. Measurements on two males (in mm.) are respectively: wing, 80 and 78; tail, 58 and 60. lcteria virens auricollis (Lichtenstein) — Long-tailed Chat. 2 ad. 3, breeding, mesquite-sumac-condalia association, May 2; June 7. Chats were probably breeding in the mesquite-sumac-condalia association at Gravel Springs, although no nests were discovered. They were one of the common birds of this association. This species was present in considerable number in the salt cedar association along the Pecos River, and it was also seen in the walnut-desert willow association bordering parts of Independence Creek. Present in the area from May to December, they are apparently 1951, No. 3 September 30 Birds of the Stockton Plateau 42 5 permanent residents. One chat was seen in December at Little Horse Head Tank in the mesquite-creosote bush association. The tails of the two male specimens measure (in mm.) : 82 and 81, respectively. Passer domesticus — -English Sparrow. Sight Records: June 5 through July 7. Individuals and nests were common at the Blackstone ranch headquarters. The species was never recorded far from human dwellings. Sturnella neglecta Audubon — Western Meadowlark. 1 ad. $ , mesquite-creosote bush association, November 24. The western meadowlark was present in considerable numbers during November and December, but it was not recorded in the spring or summer. This species was common in the mesquite-creosote bush association. Agelaius phoeniceus subsp. — Red-wing. 1 ad. S, testis 11.1 mm., field association, July 5. Red-wings were recorded from two associations. In June and July, they were found in the field association in the vicinity of the Hicks ranch. Individuals were unquestionably nesting in this association, although no nests were observed. The only other record is from Little Horse Head Tank, in the mesquite- creosote bush association. Icterus spurius (Linnaeus) — Orchard Oriole. 3 ad. $ , 2 yg. $, all breeding, mesquite-creosote bush association, June 9-20; 1 juv. $ , walnut-desert willow association, June 10. These birds were observed in all of their different plumages during June and July. They were not found in November and December. Orchard orioles were to be seen generally throughout the area below the mesa tops, but appeared to be most common in the walnut-desert willow asscoiation near the Blackstone ranch headquarters. A nest was examined on June 20 in a lone mesquite tree ( Prosopis juliflora) near the Blackstone ranch house. Located near the tips of the branches approximately 10 feet off the ground, the semi-pendent nest was composed chiefly of horse hair with a few bits of string tightly interwoven and laced to the branches. The nest lining had a considerable amount of sheep’s wool. One egg, with two holes apparently pecked in it, was found stuck to the bottom. The egg had numerous dark brown scrawls, heavy and light, on a white background, mostly at the blunter end. The egg measured (in mm.) : 23.5 x 15.9. Icterus cucullatus cucullatus Swainson — Swainson’s Hooded Oriole. 1 ad. $ , testis 8.2 mm., mesquite-creosote bush association, July 7. The presence in Terrell County of the nominate race of hooded oriole was one of the most interesting results of my work. Sutton made the subspecific identification. Measurements (in mm.) on the male collected are: wing, 83.5; tail, 93.0. This Mexican form has been taken in Texas only twice before, once from Brewster County (Van Tyne and Sutton, 1937, Sutton, 1948) and once from the vicinity of Del Rio, in Val Verde County (Burleigh and Lowery, 1941). A hooded oriole was seen in the mesquite trees near the Dunlap ranch house on July 3. The bird, a male, was in fine breeding plumage. On July 7 a male was collected from a mesquite tree near the Hicks ranch house. A female was observed in this same area on July 6. Icterus parisorum Bonaparte — Scott’s Oriole. 1 ad. $ , testis 8.7 mm., cedar- shinoak association, June 29. A male and a female Scott’s oriole were seen by Kennedy in a small draw west of Little Horse Head Canyon on June 27. He collected an adult male with enlarged testes at the head of this same draw in the cedar-shinoak association on June 29. Icterus bullockii bullockii (Swainson) — Bullock’s oriole. 1 ad. $ , 1 ad. $, all breeding, mesquite-creosote bush association, June 9-25; 1 juv. $, live oak associa¬ tion, June 23. First recorded in May, Bullock’s oriole comprised a conspicuous breeding resident. This species had a wide distribution in ecological associations of the area, and was found from flat mesa tops down to broad inter-mesa valleys in all but the most densely wooded areas. Average measurements on three adults (in mm.) are: wing, 101.2; tail, 80.3; culmen, 19.0. These agree in size with the race I. b. bullockii. Molothrus ater obscurus (Gmelin) — Dwarf Cowbird. 2 ad. $ , 2 ad. $, breeding, mesquite-creosote bush association, June 12-25; 1 ad. $ No. 462, testis 6.9 mm., cedar savannah association, June 17. This species seemed to be most concentrated in the salt cedar and walnut-desert willow associations. It was observed, however, at tanks in the mesquite-creosote bush association and in the cedar savannah association during June and July. These birds were not found in winter. An adult female collected on June 18 was found to have a soft-shelled egg in the oviduct. Piranga rubra cooperi Ridgway — Cooper’s Tanager. 1 ad. $ , walnut-desert willow association, June 8; 1 ad. $ , testis 8.7 mm., mesquite-creosote bush association, June 24. Cooper’s tanagers were most abundant during June and July in the mesquite- 426 The Texas Journal of Science 1951, No. 3 September 30 creosote bush and salt cedar associations on the Dunlap ranch. They were also fairly common in the walnut-desert willow, hackberry, mesquite-sumac-condalia and live oak associations. Richmondena cardinalis canicauda (Chapman) — Gray-tailed Cardinal. 1 ad. $, testis 10.0 mm., cedar-shinoak association, June 8; 1 ad. $ , testis 10.1 mm., mesquite- creosote bush association, June 14. The cardinal was one of the most common birds in summer, fall, and winter, and was recorded in all associations except the field association. Pyrrhuloxia sinuata subsp. — Pyrrhuloxia. 1 ad. $, ovum 2.1 mm., mesquite- creosote bush association, June 10. Few associations in this area lacked pyrrhuloxias. No evidence of their presence was found, however, during June or July in the canyon heads, or in the hackberry association. They apparently preferred the more brushy areas of the broad inter-mesa valleys and gentle mesa slopes. They were one of the most common birds of the mesquite-creosote bush association, and were reported daily from the following associations: cedar savannah, cedar-ocotillo, mesquite-sumac- condalia, live oak, salt cedar and walnut-desert willow. Pyrrhuloxias form a part of the permanent resident population of this area. Guiraca caerulea interfusa Dwight and Griscom — Western Blue Grosbeak. 1 ad. $ , 1 ad. $ , breeding, mesquite-creosote bush association, June 16-26; 1 ad. $ , hackberry association, May 1; 1 ad. $ , testes enlarged, walnut-desert willow association, June 14. This species was present in early May, but it was not recorded in November and December. These birds were observed during June and July in six of the major associations of the area, including the walnut-desert willow, field, live oak, mesquite- sumac-condalia, hackberry, and mesquite-creosote bush associations. They were espe¬ cially common in the salt cedar association. Passerina versicolor versicolor (Bonaparte) — Varied Bunting. 1 ad. $, testis 7.0 mm., mesquite-sumac-condalia association, June 10; 1 ad. $, testis 8.2 mm., mesquite- creosote bush association, June 16. The two specimens were in fine breeding plumage. One was taken in Ligon Canyon, and the other was obtained at Gravel Springs. Testes of both males were enlarged. Passerina ciris pallidior Mearns— Texas Painted Bunting. 3 ad. $ , 2 ad. $ , all breeding, mesquite-creosote bush association, June 17-26. Painted buntings were first recorded in early May, in the mesquite-sumac-condalia association at Gravel Springs. They were breeding in the area during June and July in the mesquite- creosote bush association, and were also observed in the field, live oak, walnut-desert willow and hackberry associations. Sutton made the subspecific determination. Three adult males measure (in mm.), respectively: wing, 73, 73, 73; tail, 55, 56, 56. Two females measure, respectively: wing, 68, 67; tail, 55, 53. Spiza americana (Gmelin) — Dickcissel. 1 ad. $ , testis 7.6 mm., field association, July 7. Several dickcissels were observed in the field association on the Hicks ranch by Blair, where he collected one male. This appears to be the first record of the dickcissel in Trans-Pecos Texas. While nests were not found, it is probable that these birds formed part of the breeding population. Carpodacus mexicanus frontalis (Say) — Common House Finch. 1 ad. $ , 1 ad. $ , breeding, cedar savannah association, June 24. This species was recorded from the cedar savannah association at West Martin Well. A pair was collected in this area on June 24, and both birds were in breeding condition. The species was observed once in the mesquite-creosote bush association. These finches were common in November and December at Little Horse Head, Ligon, and East Martin Tanks, and at Gravel Springs. Spinus psaltria psaltria (Say) — -Arkansas Goldfinch. 1 ad. $, testis 5.7 mm., cedar-shinoak association, June 28. Few records of these goldfinches were obtained. The one specimen was collected in Little Horse Head Canyon in the cedar-shinoak association. They were observed on two different occasions in the walnut-desert willow association near the Blackstone ranch headquarters. Chlorura chlorura (Audubon) — Green-tailed Towhee. 1 ad. $, mesquite-sumac- condalia association, November 25. Green-tailed towbees were found only in the fall and winter, and apparently do not breed in the area. They were more often heard than seen, and their cat-like mewing call was common in the mesquite-sumac-condalia association, although the species was not restricted there. Individuals were found to occur wherever brushy vegetation predominated. Pipilo maculatus articus (Swainson) — Arctic Towhee. 1 ad. $ , mesquite-creosote bush association, November 24. Arctic towhees were observed in November in Horse Head Canyon, in the thickest parts of the mesquite-creosote bush association. They 1951, No. 3 September 30 Birds of the Stockton Plateau 427 are considered winter residents. Measurements (in mm.) on the one specimen are: wing, 86.0; tail, 96.0. The amount of white in the tip of the outer tail feather measures 33.0 mm. Pipilo fuscus texanus van Rossem — Texas Brown Towhee. 4 ad. $ , 1 ad. $ , all breeding, mesquite-creosote bush association, April 9-June 18; 1 ad. $ , testis 12.3 mm., mesquite-sumac-condalia association, May 2; 1 ad. $, testis 12.3 mm., cedar- shinoak association, June 9. This species was observed at all times of field work from April to December, and is a permanent resident. Very secretive, they were recorded in all associations affording enough vegetation for concealment, and were observed regularly in the cedar-savannah, cedar-shinoak, cedar-ocotillo, mesquite-sumac-condalia and mesquite- creosote bush associations. Measurements taken on six adult birds (in mm.) are: wing, 92.0, 92.0, 95.0, 98.0, 100.0, 96.0; tail, 94.0, 97.0, 95.0, 98.0, 100.0, 96.0. The averages on these six males are: wing, 95.5; tail, 96.6. These measurements most closely approximate those for the subspecies texanus as described by van Rossem (1934). Calamospiza melanocorys Stejneger — Lark Bunting. 1 ad. $ , mesquite-creosote bush association, November 26. Lark Buntings were first recorded on November 26 near the tank in Ligon Canyon. Flocks of 20 to 30 were seen in many parts of the mesquite-creosote bush association. They were present in much larger numbers in the same association during December. This species is a winter resident. Poocetes gramineus confinis Baird — Western Vesper Sparrow. 1 ad. $ , mesquite- creosote bush association, November 24. This species was recorded only in November, when it was found in the mesquite-creosote bush association in Horse Head Canyon. The one specimen, an adult male, measured (in mm.) : wing, 85.4; tail, 83.6; exposed culmen, 11.0; depth of bill at base, 7.0. The bill is much darker in coloration than in comparative material examined from Webb and Jim Hogg Counties, Texas. Chondestes grammacus strigatus Swainson — -Western Lark Sparrow. 1 ad. $ , 1 yg. $ , 2 ad. 9, mesquite-creosote bush association, April 8-November 25. The cedar savannah association was favored by these birds during June and July, and it was here that nests, eggs, and young were recorded. The lark sparrow was also recorded from the walnut-desert willow, mesquite-creosote bush, and field associations. In November and December, they were most common at tanks in the mesquite-creosote bush association and at Gravel Springs in the mesquite-sumac-condalia association. A nest containing six fresh eggs was discovered on June 10 in the cedar-savannah association at West Martin Well. It was in a small cedar approximately five feet from the ground and close against the main part of the trunk. The materials in the thick outer cup consisted chiefly of cedar twigs and bark firmly held together by horse hair, iavelina hair and grasses. Diameter of the circular nest opening was 57.1 mm., and the nest was 38.0 mm. deep. Each egg was quite blunt at both ends. One end of the egg had a somewhat larger diameter than the other. The ground color was white or faintly bluish white with dots and scrawls of a blue-black color, mostly around the larger end. Each larger dot was outlined by a small, reddish-blue circle. Measurements on five eggs (in mm.) are: 20.0x16.4; 20.5x17.3; 20.0x17.3; 20.0x17.0; 19.7 x 16.6; 19.6x16.2. The average of five eggs is 19.9 x 16.7. Aimophila mficeps eremoeca (Brown) — Rock Sparrow. 1 ad. S, 1 ad. 9, breeding, mesquite-creosote bush association, June 9-16; 2 ad. $, breeding, cedar- shinoak association, June 9, 10; 1 ad. $ , testis 9.0 mm., persimmon-shinoak association, June 21; 1 juv. 9 No. 6 16, cedar savannah association, June 20; 1 ad. 9 No. 612, persimmon-shinoak association, December 29. The rock sparrow is one of the common breeding species and these birds were most often recorded from the higher parts of the mesa slopes in the cedar-ocotillo association and from the steeper canyon heads in the cedar-shinoak association. They were occasionally seen on the mesa tops and in the Jbroad areas between the mesas. Sutton referred my specimens to the race eremoeca. Measurements on the seven specimens (in mm.) are four males, wing, 62.5, 64, 67, 65; tail, 63, 65.5, 69, 70; three females, wing, 62, 62.5 — ; tail, 63, 66.5, 64. Amphispiza hilineata deserticola Ridgway — Desert Sparrow. 1 ad. 9 , ova enlarged, mesquite-creosote bush association, June 7; 1 juv. $ , cedar savannah association, June 9; 1 juv. 9, 1 juv. $ , cedar-shinoak association, June 16-20. This species was common and occurred in all associations studied. These birds seemed most plentiful in the mesquite-creosote bush association, where several individuals in juvenile plumage were observed. They were present in fall and winter, and they are apparently resident in the area throughout the year. Spizella passerina arizonae Coues — Western Chipping Sparrow. 1 Imm. $ , mesquite-creosote bush association, November 24. These birds were first recorded in 428 The Texas Journal of Science 1951, No. 3 September 30 November from Little Horse Head Tank in the mesquite-creosote bush association. They were also present in December and were observed throughout the general area. They form a part of the winter resident population. Spizella pallida (Swainson) — Clay-colored Sparrow. 2 ad. $ , mesquite-creosote bush association, November 27, December 28. The clay-colored sparrow was a common species throughout the mesquite-creosote bush association in November and December. Since it was not found in the summer it appears to be a winter resident only. Spizella breweri breweri Cassin — Brewer’s Sparrow. 1 ad. $ , mesquite-creosote bush asociation, December 28. Brewer’s sparrow was recorded only in December. The one specimen was taken in the mesquite-creosote bush association at Little Horse Head tank. Spizella pusilla arenacea Chadbourne — Western Field Sparrow. 1 ad. $ , cedar- ocotillo association, December 29. These sparrows were observed in December in small flocks at all of the tanks in the mesquite-creosote bush association. One specimen was collected near the rimrock in the cedar-ocotillo association of Ligon Canyon. Its measurements (in mm.) are: wing, 52.9; tail, 62.0; thus fitting the original description for the race (Chadbourne, 1886). Zonotrichia leucophrys leucophrys (Forster) — White-crowned Sparrow. 1 ad. $ , mesquite-creosote bush association, November 2. White-crowned sparrows were abundant throughout the area in November and December. This was one of the most common species present in December, when large flocks were seen. While it did not form a part of the summer resident bird population, the species was present on the Blackstone ranch as late as April 10. Melospiza lincolnii — Lincoln’s Sparrow. Sight Record: November 25. Lincoln’s sparrow was present in November at Little Horse Head and Ligon Tanks in the mesquite-creosote bush association. The species is probably a winter resident. TOTAL KNOWN AVIFAUNA The 84 species of birds seen or collected in the area of study in northeastern Terrell County are classed as summer resident breeding birds, winter residents, permanent residents, or transients. Sixty of these 84 species were breeding in the area as evidenced by nests and young, or by the presence of enlarged gonads and condition of the plumage. Twenty-three of the 60 species breeding or probably breeding in the area, April through July, were present in November and December, and are considered to be permanent residents. No individuals of the remaining 37 breeding species were found in the area in November and December, and it is believed that they leave the area before winter. Twenty of the 84 species seen or collected appear to be winter residents only. Four species, the raven, vesper sparrow, spotted sandpiper and green-winged teal, possibly occur in the region only as migrants. The raven is a common breeding bird in northwestern Presidio County (Phillips and Thornton, 1949) and is a breeding bird in Brewster County (Van Tyne and Sutton, 1937). The absence of this species as a breeding form in northeastern Terrell County is unusual. Possibly further work in the area will reveal this species to be a breeding bird rather than a transient. FAUNAL AND BIOGEOGRAPHIC RELATIONS OF THE BIRDS Eastern Terrell County is biologically a transitional area. The birds of this area represent five major faunal elements. Twenty-three (38.3%) of the 60 breeding or probably breeding bird species are wide ranging forms that occur throughout much of North America and consequently occur in many biotic provinces. Fourteen species (23.3%) have their centers of distribution in Mexico and range into the region from the south, although some extend their range north of this region. These forms include: Callipepla squamata, Chordeiles acutipennis, Chloroceryle americana, Dendrocopos scalaris, Pyrocephalus rubinus, Pams atricristatus , Campylor- hynchus brunneicapillus , Vireo vicinior, Icterus cucullatus, Icterus parisorum, Pyrrhu- loxia sinuata, Passerina versicolor, Spinus psaltria, and Aimophila ruficeps. Fourteen species (23.3%) range widely in the western part of North America and occur there in several biotic provinces. Included here are the following species: Geococcyx calif or nianus, Phalaenoptilus nuttalli, Archilochus alexandri, Myiarchus 1951, No. 3 September 30 Birds of the Stockton Plateau 429 cinerascens, Contopus richardsonii, Aphelocoma coerulescens, Auriparus flaviceps, Psaltriparus minimus, Cat herpes mexicanus, Vireo Bellii, Icterus hullockii, Carpodacus mexicanus, Pipilo fuscus, and Amphispiza bilineata. Seven species (11.6%) range widely in the eastern part of North America. These species are as follows: Meleagris gallopavo, Strix varia, Vireo griseus, Vireo flavifrons, Icterus spurius, Spiza americana, and Passerina ciris. Two species (3.3%) range in the Great Plains region south through central and western Texas. These forms include: Muscivora forficata, and Vireo atricapillus. The Pecos River has been used by numerous authors as a line of demarcation separating eastern and western floras and faunas. Dice (1943) used this river as a dividing line to separate his Chihuahuan biotic province in the west from provinces farther east. Blair (1950) in his division of the state into biotic provinces uses the Pecos River as a dividing line between the Chihuahuan province to the west and the Balconian and Kansan provinces to the east. The principal barrier here, as he points out, is not the river itself but a climatic factor, and the actual line of demarcation may be as much as 100 miles wide. The area studied in northeastern Terrell County, then, represents an area of transition in regard to its avian fauna, with such forms as Vireo griseus, Spiza americana , and Vireo flavifrons , which range chiefly in the eastern part of the United States, breeding in the same localities with such western forms as Icterus hullockii , Carpodacus mexicanus , and Aimophila ruficeps. The transitional nature of this area is indicated also by intergradation here between several geographic races that occur west of the Pecos, in Brewster and Presidio Counties and respective, related, races which are mostly found east of the Pecos River in central and southern Texas. Several specimens of Chordeiles minor were determined by Sutton to be C. m. asseriensis approaching C. m. henryi. The subspecies henryi is thought to be the breeding form in the more western, Brewster County, while asseriensis ranges east of the Pecos River (see A.O.U. Check-list, 1931). The wood¬ pecker, Dendrocopos scalaris, is of the race cactophilus in northwestern Presidio County (Phillips and Thornton, 1949) and in Brewster County (Van Tyne and Sutton, 1937). Dendrocopos s. symplectus is the probable form ranging east of the Pecos River and south along the Texas coast. In northeastern Terrell County the breeding birds were determined by Sutton as D. s. symplectus approaching cactophilus. This is the eastern race symplectus which probably reaches the western limit of its range in this area. Webster (1950) discussed the transitional aspect of the vegetation. The creosote bush-tarbush association covers extensive areas in the deserts of the southwestern United States. In northeastern Terrell County the tarbush (Flourensia) has been replaced by mesquite. The equivalent mesquite-creosote bush association covers a large part of the surface in this region. FOOD RELATIONS OF PREDATORS Drought conditions in northeastern Terrell County in recent years have had a very deleterious effect on plant and animal life in the area. Rainfall at Sheffield totaled only 8.65 inches in 1948. Only 2.40 inches of rain fell there during the first five months of 1949 (see U.S.D.A., 1948 and 1949). The effect of this long dry period on animal life of the region was apparent during the summer field work. Herrmann (1950) found the small mammal populations to be extremely low in the summer of 1949. Many of the predatory birds which depend upon small mammals for food were forced to turn to other food sources or to leave that part of the drought area. Lubber grasshoppers ( Brachystola magna) were very abundant throughout June and July and were found to be the chief source of food for such species as the red-tailed hawk ( Buteo jamaicensis) , the screech owl ( Otus asio) , and the horned owl (Bubo virginianus) . These three predators normally would feed on the small mamals, birds, and reptiles in the area supplementing their diet, to a greater or less degree, with insects (Fisher, 1893). It is of interest to note that these predators can, by changing their food habits, apparently survive and breed in an area when their natural food has become scarce. The stomach contents of all the predator species of birds examined during June and July contained mostly lubber grasshoppers. 430 The Texas Journal of Science 1951, No. 3 September 30 SUMMARY Serious ornithological work has been carried out in very few areas of Trans-Pecos Texas, and a knowledge of the bird distribution in this part of the state is decidedly limited. Field work was done in an area of northeastern Terrell County in April, May, June, July, November and December, 1949. The Stockton Plateau is a westward extension of the Edwards Plateau. The Pecos River separates these two areas of Cretaceous limestones. The area studied in Terrell County lies in the northeastern part of the Stockton Plateau. Eighty-four species of birds were recorded. Twelve of these were recorded on sight alone. Sixty of the 84 species were breeding or probably breeding in the area. A total of 190 specimens was collected. Eastern Terrell County is biologically a transitional area. The birds of this area represent five major faunal elements. Twenty-three (38.3%) of the 60 breeding or probably breeding bird species are wide ranging forms that occur throughout much of North America and consequently occur in many biotic provinces. Fourteen species (23.3%) have their centers of distribution in Mexico and range into the region from the south, although some extend their range north of this region. Fourteen species (23.3%) range widely in the western part of North America and occur there in several biotic provinces. Seven species (11.6%) range widely in the eastern part of North America. Two species (3.3%) have their center of distribution in the Great Plains region. Drought conditions prevailed prior to the work in 1949. This long dry period had a marked deleterious effect on the plant and animal life. The lubber grasshopper ( Brachystola magnet) was found to form the chief source of food for the predatory bird species in this area during June and July. LITERATURE CITED American Ornithologists’ Union — 1931 — Check-list of North American Birds. American Ornithologists’ Union, Lancaster, Pa. : 526 pp. Burleigh, Thomas S. and George H. Lowery, Jr. — 1940 — Birds of the Guadalupe Mountain region of western Texas. Occas. Pap. Mus. Zool. L. S. U. 8 : 85-151. - 1941 — Hooded oriole again recorded in the United States. Auk 58 : 101. - 1945 — Races of Vireo griseus in Eastern United States. Am. Mid. Nat. 34 : 526-530. Blair, W. Frank — 1950 — The biotic provinces of Texas. Tex. Jour. Sci. 2 : 93-117. Chadbourne, A. P. — 1886 — On a new race of the field sparrow from Texas. Auk 3 : 248. Dawscn, W. L. — 1923 — The birds of California. South Moulton Co. 2:662-667. Dice, Lee R. — 1943 — The Biotic Provinces of North America. Univ. Mich. Press, Ann Arbor, 78 pp. Fisher, A. K. — 1893 — The hawks and owls of the United States. Bull. U.S.D.A. 3 : 1-210. Friedmann, Herbert — 1933 — Critical notes on American vultures. Proc. Biol. Soc. Wash. 46: 187-190 Grinnell, J. and William H. Behle — 1935 — Comments upon subspecies of Catherpes mexicanus. Condor 37 : 247-251. Herrmann, J. A. — 1950— The mammals of the Stockton Plateau of northeastern Terrell County, Texas. Tex. Journ. Sci. 2 : 368-393. Phillips, Homer W. and Wilmot A. Thornton — 1949 — The summer resident birds of the Sierra Vieja range in southwestern Texas. Tex. Jour. Sci. 1 : 101-131. Sutton, George Mikseh — 1948 — Comments on Icterus c. cucullatus Swainson, in the United States. Condor 50 : 257-258. Tharp, B. C. — 1944 — The mesa region of Texas : an ecological study. Proc. and Trans. Tex. Acad. Sci. 27 : 81-91. Todd, W. E. Clyde — 1946 — Critical notes on the woodpeckers. Ann. Carnegie Mus. 30: 312. United States Department of Agriculture — 1930— Climatic summary of the United States. Sec. 33, Southeastern, Texas. - 1930 — Ibid., Sec. 31, Southwestern, Texas. United States Department of Commerce — 1948 — Climatological data, Texas. 53. - - 1949 — Ibid. 54. van Rosoem, A. J. — 1930 — The races of Auriparus flaviceps (Sundevall). Trans. San Diego Soc. Nat. Hist. 6 : 199-202. - 1934 — A subspecies of the brown towhee from south-central Texas. Trans. San Diego Soc. Nat. Hist. 7 : 371-372. Van Tyne, Josselyn and George Miksch Sutton — 1937 — The birds of Brewster County, Texas. Misc. Publ. Mus. Zool. Univ. Mich. 37 : 1-119. Webster, G. L. — 1950 — Observations on the vegetation and summer flora of the Stockton Plateau. Tex. Journ. Sci. 2 : 234-242. 1951, No. 3 September 30 Eels of the Gulf Coast 431 THE EELS OF THE NORTHERN GULF COAST OF THE UNITED STATES AND SOME RELATED SPECIES ISAAC GINSBURG U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service INTRODUCTION This paper is a continuation of studies carried out on the fishes of the northern Gulf coast of the United States. The last account of the eels of this region in a single publication, was included in a paper published nearly 60 years ago by Jordan and Davis (1891). The present paper brings the account up to date and describes some new species. The specimens on which this paper is based are chiefly from five sources: those in the U. S. National Museum, and the Museum of Compara¬ tive Zoology; those collected by the "Atlantis” in 1937 and now deposited in the Bingham Oceanographic Collection; those obtained by the U. S. Fish and Wildlife research boat "Pelican” during 193 8-40; specimens obtained by the Texas Game, Fish and Oyster Commission and sent in by Mr. J. L. Baughman. I wish to express here my gratitude to the authorities of these institutions who granted me the privilege and the free use of their facilities to pursue these studies. The geographic limits with which this paper deals are from the Rio Grande to the region between Cape Romano and Cape Sable, Florida. The species recorded from, or those which have been found to occur in this stretch of the coast during this investigation, are here treated. The Florida Keys are not included. The fish fauna at the Keys is different, being, by and large, similar to that of the West Indies and Central America. Three extra-limital species are included. Two are from the Atlantic coast of the United States, one obtained by the Pelican, the other by the Albatross, both representing a new genus and species and encountered dur¬ ing the present comparative study. The third species, Gymnothorax ocellatus from Brazil, is included for comparative purposes, because two Gulf species often have been identified with it. The main object of this paper is to elaborate the external characters by which the species in the region concerned may be distinguished and readily identified. While the species have been compared where necessary and available with those from other regions to establish their identity, no attempt was made to revise the families or genera to which they belong. As this paper does not represent a revision of the genera on a world wide basis, the given generic definitions include only the characters common to the species here treated, and they are not repeated under the species accounts. For the same reason, no attempt was made to compile a complete synonymy or bibliography to the genera and species. As a further consequence, the complete geographic distribution of every species was not determined from records in the literature. However, in most cases all available specimens were examined, including those from extra-limital localities, and the entire geo¬ graphic distribution of the specimens examined is stated under the accounts of the species. 432 The Texas Journal of Science 1951, No. 3 September 80 The classification of eels into families is at present in a state of flux, and it is difficult to decide for the purposes of a faunal study of a limited number of species, such as this paper is, their proper allocation by family. The number of apodal families has been gradually increased by authors. By this process of subdivision, each family comes to comprise one, or a small number of genera that are more nearly related. On the other hand, in gen¬ eral, this process lends itself readily to continued expansion until a point may be reached where the family as a convenient unit in classification loses a great deal of its usefulness. It appears that this point has been reached and exceeded with respect to the classification of the eels adopted by a number of authors. The number of apodal families that have been proposed, which contain but one or two or a small number of genera form a large percentage of the total, strikingly more so than in other orders or suborders of fishes that are now in an active stage of speciation, that is, excluding relict or otherwise exceptional orders. This excessive splintering of the families does not seem to represent a real advance in the classification of Apodes. Cer¬ tainly from the standpoint of convenience too many eel families have been proposed. Without attempting a complete historical review of family subdivision of the Apodes, the following two authors who present the most compre¬ hensive outline of the subject are here briefly discussed. Regan (1912) in a short paper divides the order Apodes into 17 families. Trewavas (1932), after a study of "some rare eels” increases the number of families to 22. However, these authors leave some important questions unanswered. How many genera, in the few of their families that include a number of genera, have they studied? Do the characters that they use for separating the fami¬ lies differ from genus to genus, and if so, to what extent? Are the bound¬ aries between the families sharply marked, or are some of the genera transi¬ tional as they often are in classification? Besides, the subfamily category is a convenient device often used in taxonomic practice which might be ap¬ plied also in the classification of the Apodes. The present stage of the subdivision of the Apodes into families being unsatisfactory, in this faunal account especially, which represents but a moderate segment of the total known number of genera and species of eels, it seems best for the purpose of convenience to hold down the number of families. Therefore, the species here treated are divided into 5 families. This in general, is in accord with that used by previous authors, with the follow¬ ing exceptions. According to Regan and also Trewavas, Dysomma and Dy- sommina should be placed in a separate family, Dysommidae; while Hoplun- nis should probably be laced in the Nettastomidae according to the classifica¬ tion outlined by Trewavas. Workers who wish to pursue the division of groups of genera in greater detail, might divide the genera here assigned to the family Congridae, into three subfamilies, Congrinae, Nettastominae and Dysomminae. However, it would seem best to defer any such division until a thorough comparative study is made of these and related genera on a world wide basis. Judged by the material forming the basis of this study, it is apparent that our present knowledge of the eels of the Gulf is fragmentary. (This statement applies to other regions as well.) Of about half the species here treated only one or a very few specimens have been collected so far, some September 30 1951, No. 3 Eels of the Gulf Coast 433 of them taken from the stomachs of other fish. Some of the species have not been rediscovered since their original description, on the basis of one or two specimens, 60 years ago or so. Of the other species, excepting Anguilla rostrata, the number of specimens collected up to now is very moderate. This state of affairs is quite understandable. Eels living offshore are usually obtained by trawling. However, they are generally tenacious of life, and considering their shape and manner of locomotion, an eel finding itself in a trawl is able to wiggle its way out through the meshes of the net. It is only a luckless individual which is temporarily trapped by the mass of fish in the trawl, that is landed on deck. From the preceding premises, it seems reasonable to conclude that the number of species of eels which remain unknown, constitute a considerable percentage of the total number of liv¬ ing species. DEFINITIONS Terms applied to certain measurements used in this paper have the following significance. LENGTH— total length, from tip of snout to posterior end of fish, including the caudal fin when present, which in eels is short and forms a virtually negligible part of the total length. BODY— distance from tip of snout to vent. TRUNK — distance from upper angle of gill opening to vent, or from its anterior angle when the gill opening is horizontal or oblique. TAIL— distance from vent to posterior end of fish, including the caudal fin when present. The above four measurements were made by stretching the specimen on a table, sticking vertically 4 ordinary dressmaker’s pins in the table, at the two ends of the fish, opposite the upper or anterior corner of the gill opening, and at the vent, and measuring the distance between the pins by a steel tape graduated to millimeters. The measurements as actually made deviate somewhat from measurements taken on a straight horizontal line between verticals through those four points; but such devia¬ tion obviously is virtually negligible. The following measurements were made with a Vernier caliper, except that the antedorsal was sometimes measured by means of pins as outlined above, when that measurement was long. ANTEDORSAL — distance between tip of snout and origin of dorsal fin. head — distance between tip of snout afid upper or anterior corner of gill open¬ ing. UPPER JAW AND LOWER JAW — distance between the tip of either jaw and the corner of the mouth as observed externally. The latter point is not easy to determine with precision, and it also differs somewhat with the state of preservation of the specimens. Consequently, these measurements are only roughly approximate. .SNOUT— distance from its tip to anterior margin of eye. EYE — horizontal distance between two vertical tangents, through anterior and posterior margin of eye, respectively. The outline of the eye is indefinite in some species, and the snout and eye measurements in such species are only very roughly approximate. DEPTH — -measured at a point just in front of vent, except where otherwise specified. PECTORAL — distance on a straight line between the upper angle of its base and its tip. CAUDAL — distance from its tip to end of last vertebra. This measurement is of moderate importance in distinguishing a few of the species from their relatives, and was determined only for such species. MEASUREMENT— Figures for measurements given under each species refer to percentages of the total length, except when otherwise indicated. As proportional measurements change with growth, figures for measurements have been segregated into size groups w’here the material permitted, generally into two size groups. In such cases measurements of the smaller specimens are given in parenthesis. It is to be noted especially that one important measurement, that of the tail, generally de- 434 The Texas Journal of Science 1951, No. 3 September 30 creases with growth, and conversely, the body increases. As the tail or body measure¬ ment is usually a good specific character, or even a generic character in a limited sense, it is important to correlate it with the length of the specimens measured. DENTITION — The dentition is of much importance in the classification of eels, and is hereafter described under the various genera and species. On the roof of the mouth cavity, the teeth are roughly disposed in three series, as follows. 1. A bilaterally symmetrical series on the side of the upper jaw, consisting of one or more rows, depending on the genus or species. These teeth are hereafter described as jaw teeth. 2. A median series on the anterior part of the upper jaw, consisting of a single arched row, or of a patch of teeth. In the following descriptions the teeth in this series are designated premaxillary teeth. 3. A series on the midline of the palate, behind the premaxillary teeth, consist¬ ing of one or more rows, or a tapering band, or a patch of teeth. These are hereafter designated as palatal teeth. The latter term should not be confused with "palatine teeth” used in describing the dentition on the palatine bones of other fishes. What are designated as palatal teeth in this paper, are usually currently described by authors as "vomerine” teeth. However, the homology of the dentigerous bones in eels is still open to question, and the osteology of comparatively few species has so far been elaborated by workers to serve as a basis for general conclusions. Further¬ more, the series of teeth on the palate differs in position with the species. Especially in some exotic species from the standpoint of this paper having jaws of ordinary length, the teeth on the palate are placed far back on the roof of the mouth, and it is very doubtful whether they are borne by the vomer. It seems then that the term "vomerine” teeth, designating teeth borne by a definite bone, the vomer, as used for other fishes, does not always apply to eels. Therefore, for practical taxonomic pur¬ pose, the non-commital term palatal teeth is here used, simply signifying the median series of teeth on the palate. This term is adequate and is generally useful in describ¬ ing the dentition in the species of this order. The three series of teeth are confluent anteriorly or more or less separated, depending on the genus or species and to some extent also on intraspecific individual variability .- The number of rows of teeth in any series is sometimes used as a specific or even generic character, and it often is a usable taxonomic character. However, in using this character, it should also be borne in mind that in many species the number of rows increases with growth. This change with growth has been noted for several of the species included in this account, as for instance in Ophichthus gomesii. In listing the specimens examined under each species, M.C.Z. refers to the Museum of Comparative Zoology; B.O.C. stands for Bingham Oceanographic Collec¬ tion; while numbers without letters are those in the catalog of the U. S. National Museum. KEY TO THE FAMILIES OF APODAL FISHES BASED ON THE SPECIES FROM THE NORTHERN PART OF THE GULF a. Posterior nostril placed above upper lip, on a horizontal through lower margin of eye or higher. Without or with a slightly raised rim. Caudal fin present, continuous with dorsal and anal, posterior end of fish thus surrounded by a continuous fin fold. b. Gill opening larger than eye. Pectorals present. c. Scales present. Lower jaw somewhat projecting _ _ ANGUILLIDAE (p. 43 5). cc. Scales absent. Upper jaw slightly or notably projecting _ CONGRIDAE (p. 436). bb. Gill opening subequal to or smaller than eye. Pectorals absent _ MURAENIDAE (p. 458). aa. Posterior nostril placed on upper lip or in that position when lip undifferentiated, with a wide flaring margin (except in Verma, an ophichthid genus lacking all fins, nostril placed just above lip and without raised edge). 1951, No. 3 September 30 Eels of the Gulf Coast 43 5 d. Caudal fin present, continuous with dorsal and anal - _ • _ ECHELIDAE (p. 463). dd. Caudal fin absent, posterior end of fish without fin fold, dorsal and anal ending at some distance from posterior end (absent altogether in Verma ) _ OPHICHTHIDAE (p. 465). family AN GUILLID AE This family is represented by only one species in the western Atlantic, the common fresh water eel. ANGUILLA Shaw Anguilla Shaw, General Zoology, vol. 4, pt. 1, p. 1 5, 1803 (genotype Muraena anguilla Linnaeus by tautonymy) ANGUILLA ROSTRATA (LeSueur) Muraena rostrata LeSueur, Jour. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia 1(5): 81, October 1817 (Cayuga and Geneva Lakes, New York) Muraena bostoniensis LeSueur, ibid. (Boston market, Massachusetts) Muraena serpentina LeSueur, ibid. (Newport, Rhode Island) Muraena argentea LeSueur, 1. c., p. 82 (Boston Bay) Muraena macrocephala LeSueur, 1. c., p. 82 (Saratoga, New York) Anguilla chrisypa Rafinesque, Amer. Monthly Mag. & Critic. Rev. 2(2) : 1 2 0, December 1817 (Lake George, Hudson River, Lake Champlain; refers to LeSueur ’s paper, showing that it was published earlier) Anguilla blephura Rafinesque, ibid. (Long Island) Anguilla laticanda (an evident lapsus or printer’s error for laticauda) Rafin¬ esque, 1. c., vol. 3, no. 6, p. 447, 1818 ("Ohio Eel”) Anguilla bostoniensis Gunther (in part), Cat. Fish. British Mus. 8: 31, 1870 (Boston; account based in part on specimens from China and Japan and includes more than one species) — Jordan, Manual of the Verte¬ brate Animals of the Northeastern United States, p. 56, 1929 (S. Greenland to Brazil) Anguilla chrysypa Jordan and Davis, Rep. U. S. Comm. Fish. 1888: 668, 1891 (Maine to Mexico and West Indies; synonymy) — Jordan and Evermann, Bull. U. S. Nat. Mus. 47(1): 348, 1896 (Maine to Mex¬ ico; West Indies; synonymy) Anguilla rostrata Bean, Science 29: 871, 1909 (states that rostrata has prior¬ ity over chrisypa)— Jordan, Copeia 1917: 86 ( rostrata has priority over chrisypa) — Schmidt, Rep. Smithsonian Inst. 1924: 279-314, 1925 (life history) — Ege, Dana Report 16: 89 and passim, 1939 (literature on distribution summarized on p. 149; Labrador to Guiana, including the West Indies; synonymy) Scales cycloid, small, elongate, moderately imbricated with a peculiar and characteristic arrangement in irregular groups, longitudinal axis of scales in any one group running either downward and forward, or downward and backward, scales in one group running at right angles to those in an adjacent group. Compressed, rather deep. Tail moderately tapering, longer than body. Eye moderate, 2.C-2.8 in snout (in 4 specimens 530-624 mm). Mouth and jaws of medium extent ; lower jaw 3. 0-3.1 in head ; angle of mouth approximately under posterior margin of eye. Snout notably depressed, broad, blunt, 4.4-4. 9 in head ; lower jaw somewhat projecting. Lips forming a well developed fold, separated by a rather deep groove. Posterior nostril without a raised rim, placed near eye, on a horizontal through its upper margin or a little below ; anterior nostril ending in a short tubule, placed near an¬ terior lateral corner of snout. Tongue free, well developed. Gill opening transverse, lateral, near to and in front of pectoral base, its upper angle at some distance below upper pec¬ toral angle, its lower angle below pectoral base. Dorsal origin much nearer vent than gill opening. Pectoral, dorsal, anal and caudal well developed, the latter three fins continuous. Teeth of medium size, subequal, in tapering bands in jaws and on palate ; bands in jaws 43 6 The Texas Journal of Science 1951, No. 3 September 30 of moderate width ; palatal band broad in front, becoming abruptly narrower and tapering to a point opposite eye ; premaxillary teeth in a patch continuous with palatal band, except for a slight, somewhat hourglass-like constriction between the two areas of teeth ; teeth in jaw moderately or slightly separated from palatal and premaxillary teeth. Color olivaceous, brownish or grayish, almost uniform except lighter on ventral aspect ; without spots or other markings. Measurements of 4 specimens 530-624 mm, and 2 specimens 188-271 mm, all six from the Gulf Coast of the United States: body 43-46 (40-48), trunk 29-32 (27-30), tail 54-58 (57-60), antedorsal 34-36 (31-33), head 13.0-13.5 (12.5-13.5), upper jaw 3. 9-4.3 (3. 2-3. 7), lower jaw 4.2-4.6 (3.6-4.1), snout 2.7-3.1 (2.4-2.7), eye 1.1-1. 4 (1.5-1. 6), depth 6.4-7.9 (6.3), pectoral 4.7-5. 7 (3.7-3.91. In the two smaller specimens eye 1.5-1. 9 in snout, lower jaw 3. 3-3. 5 in head, snout 4. 9-5.1 in head. (These three ratios of the 4 larger specimens given above in diagnosis.) Two specimens from the coast of Massachusetts and one from Cuba, comparable in size to the preceding 4 larger Gulf specimens, average the jaws, snout and pectoral shorter and the eye larger, but the divergence is not pronounced. Gulf Coast specimens of this species were examined from the following locali¬ ties: mouth of the Rio Grande, Fort Clark, Corpus Christi, Copano Bay, New Braun¬ fels, San Marcos Springs, Colorado River at Austin and Galveston Bay, Texas; Grand Isle, Baton Rouge and New Orleans, Louisiana; Vicksburg and Jackson, Mississippi; Pensacola and Apalachicola, Florida. The largest specimen is 805 mm from Fort Clark. This species is distinguished from all known Gulf eels by the presence of scales which are arranged in a characteristic manner. It is often necessary to scrape off the mucous in order to see the scales. The snout is notably broad and flat and the lower jaw somewhat projecting. The dorsal origin is much nearer to the vent than the gill opening. The teeth are rather small and in bands. It differs from Conger caudilimbatus and most other eels here treated by the notably backward insertion of the dorsal fin. NOMENCLATURE * — The scientific name of the common American fresh water eel has been changed repeatedly and its usage is still marked by instability. The main points in the nomenclatorial history of the species are, therefore, here briefly reviewed. At the turn of the century, chrisypa, one of two names proposed by Rafinesque in 1817 for this species, or its amended form chrysypa, was generally used by Ameri¬ can authors. Bean (1909) and Jordan (1917) concluded that the five names proposed by LeSueur in the same year for this species, have date priority over Rafinesque’s names, and LeSueur’s name rostrata which has line or page priority over his other four names, came into general usage. In 1929, Jordan pointed out that Gunther (1870) who presumably was the first reviser, chose the name bostoniensis, and since then most American authors, but not all, used the latter name for the species. Ege (1939) who published the most comprehensive account of the genus as a whole, and the best one so far, uses the name rostrata. Two names, bostoniensis and rostrata, are then currently in use for this same species. The choice between these two names depends on a decision as to who was the first reviser. The pertinence of accepting Gunther as the first reviser is open to question. First, Gunther’s work is not a revision in the true sense of the word. It is rather a compilation reinforced by original observations on a limited amount of specimens. Second, Gunther did not separate his specimens properly, and his account under the name bostoniensis is based on a mixture of two distinct species. Third, Gunther was uncertain in regard to the status of all five names proposed by LeSueur for this same species. While he places rostrata, argentea and macrocephala in the synonymy of his bostoniensis, he lists serpentina among the doubtful species. On the other hand, Ege’s work on the genus Anguilla is so comprehensive and of such quality as to truly deserve the title revision. It seems to me that the extent and quality of an author’s work should be considered in deciding the question as to who was the first reviser. In case of doubt, especially, this latter factor should be considered. Therefore, I accept Ege as the first reviser and the name rostrata, as used by that author is here employed for the common American fresh water eel. family CONGRIDAE Scales absent. Moderately stout to slender. Tail moderately to much longer than body, except a little shorter in Neoconger. Mouth rather small to large; upper jaw slightly to notably projecting beyond lower, premaxillary teeth well exposed or covered with the mouth closed. Lips separated from or continuous with surface of skin. Posterior nostril placed in front of middle or lower half of eye, close to eye or *This paper was written and submitted for publication before the revised international rules of zoological nomenclature appeared in print, adopting the principle of page or line priority, in place of the rule of the first reviser. According to the revised rules, the species name of the common American fresh water eel should be rostrata, as it is here Used. 1951, No. 3 September 30 Eels of the Gulf Coast 437 at a moderate distance away, with or without a slightly raised rim. Anterior nostril in a short, broad tubule, except in Neoconger , placed near end of snout or at a mod¬ erate distance behind, about on a horizontal through posterior nostril, except in Congrina. Tongue free or adnate, depending on the genus. Gill opening moderate to large, lateral or placed very low, that is, altogether entering ventral as well as lateral aspect, transverse or horizontal. Dorsal, anal, pectoral and caudal fins present, vertical fins continuous around posterior extremity of fish; caudal short or rather long (for an eel). Dentition differing widely with the genus; canines on palate present or absent; jaw, as well as premaxillary teeth, subequal or differing moderately within each series, without large canine teeth, except in Hoplunnis. Of the species of eels here treated, those belonging to the family Congridae differ from species of other families in external characters as follows. They differ from the Echelidae and Ophichthidae in having the posterior nostril buccal, instead of labial, and they differ further from the latter in having a caudal fin fold. They differ from the Anguillidae in lacking scales, and from the Muraenidae in having a pectoral fin and larger gill opening. KEY TO THE GENERA AND SPECIES OF THE FAMILY CONGRIDAE a. Palatal teeth small, in an elongate, rounded, or somewhat tapering patch, or in a single row, without canines. Lower jaw about as wide as upper. b. Dorsal origin over pectoral or gill opening. Tail longer than body, 5 3-72. Tongue free. Upper and lower lip differentiated. Palatal teeth not extending to opposite eye. Eye large, 2.4-4. 1. Pectoral medium to rather long, 4. 2-7. 4. c. Snout only a little projecting beyond lower jaw. Premaxillary teeth partly exposed and beginning nearly at end of snout. Upper lip in a well developed, upturned fold, not covered by a fold of skin on cheek. Caudal short, 1.1 -1.2. d. Dorsal beginning approximately over middle of pectoral. Teeth in main outer row somewhat incisor like, closely approximated.. ^ _ _ Conger caudilimbatus (p. 439). dd. Dorsal beginning approximately over pectoral base. Teeth in main outer row pointed, moderately spaced _ _ _ _ _ _ _ | _ -Congermuraena impressa (p. 441). cc. Snout notably projecting beyond lower jaw, rather tapering. Premaxillary teeth nearly all exposed, beginning consid¬ erably behind tip of snout. Upper lip moderate, not forming an upturned fold, covered by a broad, thick fold in the loose skin of the cheek. Caudal 2.2 -7.7 _ Congrina (p. 442). e. Tail 61-71, depth 4. 5-6. 8, trunk 16.5-20.5. Teeth in palatal patch subequal or the posterior teeth slightly larger, the patch usually oblong, sometimes nearly wedge-shaped. f. Body 39, antedorsal 19, head 19.5 and caudal 7.7 in a speci¬ men 128 mm. _ _ _ IJH _ _ _ _ _ Congrina macrosoma (p. 443). ff. Body 29-35, antedorsal 12.5-14.0, head 13.5-18.0 and caudal 2. 2-5. 2 in 6 specimens 75-308 mm; same measure¬ ments 31-37, 14.0-16.5, 14-17 and 3. 4-6.0 in 6 specimens 340-464 mm _ aG _ Congrina flava (p. 444). ee. Tail 73, depth 3. 5-3. 6, trunk 13.5-14.5, antedorsal 13.0-13.5, head 12.5-13.0 and caudal 2.2-2. 5 in 2 specimens 13 5-202 mm. Teeth in palatal patch unequal, the posterior teeth nearly caninoid, the patch wedge-shaped. Congrina gracilor (p. 445). 438 The Texas Journal of Science 1951, No. 3 September 30 bb. Dorsal origin over, or a short distance in front of vent. Tail a little shorter than body, 47-49. Tongue virtually adnate. Upper lip not, and lower lip slightly, differenti¬ ated. Palatal teeth extending to opposite eye. Eye small, 0.7-0. 9. Pectoral short, 1.8-2. 7. Caudal 2. 6-3. 3. Snout tapering, short, extending moderately beyond lower jaw _ Neoconger mucronatus (p. 446). aa. A median row of widely spaced canines on palate. Lower jaw narrower than upper. Tongue adnate. g. Jaws somewhat beloniform, rather slender and bony. Upper jaw not forming a trough for reception of lower jaw. Palatal canines in median row 6-8. A very long canine on each side of lower jaw, other teeth unequal. Premaxillary teeth canine, exposed. Body notably slender and tapering, depth 2. 0-2. 7. Dorsal origin at a short dis¬ tance before gill opening. Tail 74-77 _ Hoplunnis (p. 447). h. Teeth in jaws in three rows. Caudal probably short. Tail notably taper¬ ing at posterior end. Row of large teeth on palate flanked by small teeth. i. Anterior teeth in inner row of lower jaw notably larger than outer teeth, widely spaced. A row of small teeth in upper jaw at angle of mouth between outer band of teeth and midline of palate. Large palatal teeth 8. Antedorsal 10; head 11.5 -Hoplunnis tenuis (p. 448). ii. Anterior teeth in inner row of lower jaw not as large in comparison with outer teeth, rather closely approximated. No row of teeth in upper jaw behind outer band of teeth. Large palatal teeth 6. Ante- dorsal 7.5; head 9— _ _ Hoplunnis diomedianus (p. 449). hh. Teeth in jaws in two rows. Caudal notably long (for an eel). Tail moderately tapering. Large palatal teeth not flanked by small teeth. No row of teeth in upper jaw behind outer band of teeth. Large palatal teeth 6 _ Hoplunnis macrurus (p. 450). gg. Jaws anguilliform, covered with thick skin, the upper jaws having appearance of eel-like width. Lower jaw fitting into trough formed by upper jaw and soft parts surrounding it. Palatal canines in median row 3-4, without small teeth beside them. Teeth in lower jaw sub¬ equal, without a long canine. Premaxillary teeth moderate, not ex¬ posed, or absent. Body moderately deep and tapering, depth 5 .6-5.7. j. Vent at a considerable distance behind pectoral, tail 72. Dorsal origin at a short distance behind end of pectoral. Band of teeth in upper jaw extending nearly its entire length; dentition of lower jaw similar to that of upper. No premaxillary teeth Dysommina rugosa (p. 450). jj. Vent notably far forward, under end of pectoral; tail 81-83. Dorsal origin a little in front of pectoral base. Band of teeth in upper jaw short, ending before angle of mouth; dentition of lower jaw dissimi¬ lar to that of upper, teeth larger, in a single row, well spaced. Two premaxillary teeth _ Dysomma apbododera (p. 452). CONGER Cuvier les Congres Cuvier, Regne Animal, ed. 1, t. 2, p. 231, 1817 (French name only; two species included, Muraena conger Linnaeus and M. my ms L.; no genotype indicated). 1951, No. 3 September 30 Eels of the Gulf Coast 439 Conger Oken, Isis, p. 1183, 1817 (Cuvier’s French name latinized) — Internat. Comm. Zook Nomencl., Opinion 93, p. 5, 1926 (The name Conger ascribed to Cuvier, 1817 and Muraena conger Linnaeus desig¬ nated as its genotype by plenary power.) Ariosoma Swainson, Natural History of Fishes Amphibians and Reptiles, voh 1, p. 220, 183 8 (genotype Ophisoma obtusa Swainson by subse¬ quent designation) Ariosoma Swainson, 1. c„, voh 2, p. 196, 1839 Ophisoma Swainson, 1. c., voh 2, p. 3 34, 1839 (evidently a substitute name for Ariosoma ) Ophisoma Swain, Pr. Ac. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia 1882: 283, 1883 ( Ophisoma obtusa Swainson designated as genotype) . Conger is near in relationship to Congermuraena and the differences between them are discussed below under the account of the latter. The generic characters are included below in the description of the single species here treated. Of late years the name Ariosoma has been used by American authors for that genus which was formerly known as Congermuraena. This unfortunate nomenclatorial change stems from Jordan’s "Genera of Fishes” (1919, pp. 193 and 272). However, Ariosoma is apparently a synonym of Conger , and is here added to the synonymy of this genus, as a reexamination of the pertinent literature shows that Jordan’s con¬ clusion is not tenable. Ariosoma was first introduced by Swainson (1938, p. 220) in connection with a general discussion of the biology and anatomy of fishes, as a new genus with a brief diagnosis- — which by the way applies to several congrid genera, but this is beside the point — and without mentioning any species. Later, the same author (1839, p. 196) in connection with a summary arrangement of the genera, includes Ariosoma, with virtually the same diagnosis and again without mentioning any species. Further on in the same volume (p. 334), where he gives a somewhat more elaborate account of most genera, Ariosoma is left out, but he includes a genus Ophisoma for which he gives virtually the same diagnosis as he previously gave for Ariosoma. He also places Ophisoma in the same position with respect to the other genera, that was previously occupied by Ariosoma. There is hardly any question that Swainson introduced Ophisoma as a substitute for Ariosoma, although he does not so state. These two names, therefore, must go together. Under Ophisoma he mentions two species, obtusa and acuta, which he describes further on in the same volume (pp. 395-396), but no genotype is designated. Bleeker (1864, p. 20) recognizes, Ophisoma as a valid genus, the summary ac¬ count of which he heads as follows: ” Ophisoma Swns . — Ariosoma Ssnns. — Conger¬ muraena Kp.” Bleeker also states: "Spec. typ. Ophisoma balearicum Blkr. = Ophisoma acuta Swns.?” Evidently what Bleeker did was to designate balearicum as the geno¬ type of Ophisoma; but this is unacceptable because balearicum was not one of the originally contained species. Bleeker also indicated that the O. acuta of Swainson might be the same as balearicum, but he questions it, and where an author uses a query in indicating a genotype it cannot be accepted as a valid genotype designation. Therefore, Jordan is in error in concluding that Bleeker designated a genotype for Ophisoma and hence by implication also for Ariosoma for which Ophisoma is a sub¬ stitute. Swain (1883) designates obtusa as the genotype of Ophisoma, which also must be taken as the genotype of Ariosoma. These two generic names thus presumably become synonyms of Conger, as O. obtusa Swainson is now thought to have been based on a specimen of the common Conger conger, although it does not appear that a definite study has ever been made to settle this question. CONGER CAUD1LIMBATUS (Poey) Ecbelus caudilimbatus Poey, Rep. Fis. Nat. Cuba 2:249, ph 2, fig. 8, 1867 (Cuba) Ophiosoma caudilimbatus Poey, Syn. Pise. Cub., p. 424, 1868 (Cuba) Conger caudilimbatus Poey, Emim. Pise. Cub., p. 152, 1876 (Cuba) Conger caudicula Bean, Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus. 5: 43 5, 1882 (Pensacola) 440 The Texas Journal of Science 1951, No. 3 September 30 Leptocep/oalus caudilimbatus Jordan and Davis, Rep.U. S. Comm. Fish. 1888: 666, 1891 (Tropical Atlantic, Pensacola to Madeira) — Jordan and Evermann, Bull. U. S. Nat. Mus. 46(1): 3 5 5, pi. 57, fig. 149, 1896 (Tropical parts of Atlantic; Pensacola to Cuba and Madeira) Moderately compressed to subterete, rather deep. Tail moderately tapering, moderately longer than body. Eye large, 1. 0-1.2 in snout. Jaws and mouth medium large ; lower jaw 2. 7-3.1 in head; angle of mouth under space between posterior margin of pupil and eye; premaxillary teeth partly exposed with the mouth closed. Snout 4-5 in head, moderately tapering, extending a little beyond lower jaw ; premaxillary teeth extending nearly to its anterior margin. Upper lip well separated, in form of notably well developed, upward- directed fold ; lower lip a well developed fold. Posterior nostril rather large, placed at a moderate distance in front of eye and on a horizontal through its middle or a little below, near edge of broad upturned lip, its margin slightly raised ; anterior nostril in a moderate tubule, placed nearly on lateral profile at a short distance from end of snout. A pore in front of and over anterior nostril ; one behind anterior nostril at beginning of lip fold, one over and a little in front of posterior nostril. Tongue free, well developed. Gill slit mainly lateral, transversely curved : of medium extent, its width about equalling distance between the two fellows. Dorsal origin over middle of pectoral, varying a little both ways ; dorsal, anal and pectoral fins rather well developed ; caudal comparatively short. Teeth in outer, in the main, row in each jaw closely approximated, anterior teeth tapering, pointed, posterior teeth, for greater extent of row, compressed, almost incisor like but their distal edge more or less obliquely truncate, forming an almost continuous cutting edge ; inner teeth in jaws mainly in one row, well separated from outer row, somewhat pointed but short and stout, almost molar-like, the row ending for some distance before angle of mouth, smaller inner teeth for a short distance anterior to stout teeth in two rows in upper jaw, in three rows in lower jaw ; palatal patch of teeth wedge-shaped, not extending far backward, greater part of patch consisting of two rows of short, stout, almost molar-like teeth, converging pos¬ teriorly to one tooth on midline, front part of patch, in a small area, having small, slender, pointed teeth in 4 irregular rows ; premaxillary teeth in 4 irregular, lengthwise rows, the teeth at the periphery of the patch larger than all other teeth, caninoid ; jaw, palatal and premaxillary teeth fairly separated. Yellowish without distinctive markings, vertical fins edged posteriorly with blackish or dusky. In a small specimen from Key West, 128 mm (131526), the teeth are fewer, the palatal patch ends in 2 stout teeth on midline, one behind the other, and the dorsal and anal are edged with whitish. I assume that these are juvenile characters. Measurements of 5 specimens 218-334 mm and one specimen 128 mm: body 43-46 (41), trunk 26-29 (24), tail 54-57 (59), antedorsal 19-21 (2D, head 16.0-17.5 (17.5), upper jaw 6.0-7. 4 (6.4),' lower jaw 5. 5-6. 5 (5.7), snout 3. 5-4. 4 (4.1), eye 3. 4-4.1 (3.7), depth 4.9-6. 3 (3.9), pectoral 4.S-6.5 (5.4), caudal 0.5-1. 1 (1.2). Specimens examined from or off the following localities: Dauphin Island, Ala¬ bama (B.O.C. 2937, collected by the Atlantis); Pensacola (30709, the type of caudicula; 33000) and Key West (131526), Florida; Cuba (M.C.Z. 9324, two cotypes of caudilimbatus). The measurements of these six specimens given above. One specimen was taken by the Atlantis at 20 fathoms. No depth records are avail¬ able for the others. This species is distinguishable from the Atlantic Conger oceanicus by the more forward insertion of the dorsal, and by averaging a relatively longer body and shorter tail. The species of Congermuraena have the dorsal origin still farther forward, over the pectoral base. CONGERMURAENA Kaup Congermuraena Kaup, Cat. Apodal Fish Brit. Mus., p. 108, 18 56 (genotype Muraena balearica De la Roche by subsequent designation) Congromuraena Gunther, Cat. Fish. Brit. Mus. 8: 40, 1870 (evidently an emendation of Congermuraena ) Congermuraena Jordan and Davis, Rep. U. S. Comm. Fish 1888: 659, 1891 (Congermuraena placed in synonymy of Ophisoma Swainson, but the genotype of the former designated as balearica) Congrellus Ogilby, Proc. Linn. Soc. N. S. Wales 23: 286, 1898 (genotype Muraena balearica De la Roche by original designation) The separation of Congermuraena as a genus distinct from Conger, rests on tenuous grounds. The two genera are chiefly separated by the position of the dorsal origin and the character of the dentition. However, the dorsal origin in Conger caudilimbatus is intermediate between that of Conger conger and Congermuraena impressa. Also, the inner teeth in the jaws of C. impressa are similar in form and arrangement to the teeth in the outer row of C. conger or C. caudilimbatus. In recent years the generic name Congermuraena was replaced by Ariosoma by American authors. However, Ariosoma is apparently a synonym of Conger as dis¬ cussed above under that genus. 1951, No. 3 September 30 Eels of the Gulf Coast 441 CONGERMURAENA 1MPRESSA (Poey) Conger impressus Poey, Mem. Hist. Nat. Cuba 2:318, 1860 (Cuba) Ophisoma impressus Poey, Rep. Fis. Nat. Cuba 2: 248, pi. 3, fig. 2, 1867 (Cuba) Ophiosoma im pressus Poey, Syn. Pise. Cub., p. 424, 1868 (Cuba) Congromuraena impress a Poey, Enum. Pise. Cub., p. 132, 1876 (Cuba) Ariosoma minor Howell Rivero, Mem. Soc. Cub. Hist. Nat. 8: 3 39, 193 5 (Havana, Cuba) Compressed to subterete, depth moderate. Tail moderately tapering for a moderate or short distance, moderately longer than body. Eye large, 1.1-1. 3 in snout. Mouth and jaws of medium extent ; lower jaw 3. 4-4.1 in head ; angle of mouth approximately under anterior margin of pupil ; premaxillary teeth a little or slightly exposed with the mouth closed. Snout 3. 8-4. 7 in head, blunt or bluntly pointed, extending slightly or moderately beyond lower jaw, the anterior premaxillary teeth placed nearly at its tip. Upper lip moderately or well de¬ veloped and separated by a groove, with an upwardly directed fold ; skin on cheek mod¬ erately loose not forming a fold to cover the lip ; lower lip separated forming a notably well developed fold. Posterior nostril large, without a raised edge, placed at a moderate distance in front of eye and a little below a horizontal through its middle ; anterior nostril with a broad, low tubule, placed at lateral outline, a short distance from end of snout, at begin¬ ning of upper lip fold. A rather large pore directly behind anterior nostril, and a small one near lip at a short distance from eye ; a medium sized pore at some distance over anterior and posterior nostril. Tongue free. Gill opening transversely curved, lateral, placed rather low, near ventral profile, of medium extent, the space between the two fellows wider than the opening. Dorsal origin over gill opening ; dorsal, anal and pectoral rather well devel¬ oped ; caudal short. Teeth small, subequal, no canines ; in bands of moderate width in jaws, 4 irregular rows anteriorly tapering to 2 rows posteriorly ; palatal patch elongate, wedge- shaped, 4 irregular rows anteriorly tapering to one row posteriorly for 1-3 teeth, ending opposite posterior nostril ; premaxillary patch roughly in 6 rows on a transverse axis ; pre¬ maxillary, palatal and jaw teeth continuous, or nearly so, as a consequence, entire dentition of upper jaw forming a broad area in front and continued backward in three tapering bands ; posterior teeth in innermost row in jaws rather closely approximated, blunt, some¬ what compressed ; posterior palatal teeth stout and rather blunt ; other teeth slender, pointed ; the preceding description of dentition based on specimens 211-235 mm ; in a 272 mm speci¬ men bands of teeth somewhat wider anteriorly and posterior single row of palatal teeth continued to a vertical midway between posterior nostril and eye ; a specimen 180 mm dif¬ fering in that the jaws having a single row for a short distance near angle of mouth, a continuation of the innermost row. Almost uniformly light brownish or yellowish, under side of belly somewhat lighter ; no distinctive markings ; posterior part of vertical fins edged with dusky or black. Measurement of 4 specimens, 211*272 mm: body 45-48, trunk 29-31, tail 52-55, ante- dorsal 16.5-17.5, head 16.0-17.5, upper jaw 4. 6-5. 6, lower jaw 4-5, snout 3. 4-4.6, eye 3. 1-3. 5, depth 4.4-6. 9, pectoral 5. 0-6. 8, caudal 0.8-1. 2. Specimens examined from or off the following localities: Cape Hatteras, North Carolina (155002, collected by the Pelican); St. Augustine, Florida (155003, Peli¬ can); Dauphin Island, Alabama (B.O.C. 2938, collected by the Atlantis); Cuba (37568, sent in by Poey and now labeled Congermuraena impressa; M.C.Z. 33452, holotype of Ariosoma minor). Total examined 5 specimens 180-272 mm. Depth records for the first 3 listed specimens range 11-20 fathoms. The types of ( Ariosoma ) Congermuraena selenops (Reid, 1934, p. 4) have the gill openings larger and placed lower than impressa and the two species also differ in some proportional measurements as shown below. Norman (1925, p. 314) gives some measurements of specimens from Brazil, which he identified as belonging to Congermuraena opisthophthalmus (Ranzani) and Mediterranean specimens of C. balearica (De la Roche). Norman’s measurements of 5 specimens of balearica 275-364 mm and 7 specimens of opisthophthalmus 175-280 mm, reduced to proportional figures and compared with 2 types of selenops 342-474 mm and 4 of impressa 211-272 mm, are as follows, the four ranges under each measurement are in order opisthophthalmus, selenops, impressa and balearica : body 42-44, 43, 45-48, 47-48; trunk 26-28, 24-26, 29-31, 31-34; tail 57:58, 57-58, 52-55, 52-53; head 15-16.5, 16.5-18.5, 16.0-17.5, 14-15.5. Therefore, impressa has a longer body and trunk and shorter tail than opisthophthalmus and selenops, while balearica diverges on the average still farther from the latter two species in the same measurements. Also, selenops and opisthophthalmus about agree in the body and tail measurements and differ in the head and trunk measurements. Nearly the same differences and similarities are noted in comparing impressa with balearica. The differences, in general, are not pronounced and some of these names have been synonymized by authors. It is evident that the 4 species, if indeed all of them are distinct in reality, need to be further compared directly by the study of adequate samples. Norman’s Congromuraena guppyi from Tobago Island described in the paper cited, is said to have: "Teeth bluntly conical or granular . . .” and apparently does not belong to the genus Congermuraena. 442 The Texas Journal of Science 1951, No. 3 September SO CON GRIN A Jordan and Hubbs Congrina Jordan and Hubbs, Mem. Carnegie Mus. Pittsburgh 10: 196, 1925 (genotype Congermuraena aequorea Gilbert and Cramer by original designation) Congrina Reid, Smithsonian Misc. Coll. 91 (15): 7, 1934 (discusses rela¬ tionship of Congrina, presents a key comparing it with some of its near relatives, and names the species belonging to it) Compressed, rather deep or depth moderate. Tail notably or excessively tapering, considerably longer than body. Eye rather large, 1.1 -1.7 in snout. Jaws and mouth of medium extent; lower jaw 3. 1-3. 8 in head; angle of mouth under space between posterior margin of pupil and eye; premaxillary patch of teeth exposed with the mouth closed. Snout 3.4-4. 3 in head, moderately tapering, extending notably beyond lower jaw and premaxillary teeth. Upper lip moderate, not forming an upwardly directed fold, separated by a moderate groove, closely apposed to edge of jaw; skin on cheek and snout notably loose, forming a broad, thick fold overhanging and covering the moderate lip; processes from buccal ossicle (see below) impinging on loose skin of fold, and may be seen or felt without dissection. Lower lip differentiated, forming a well developed fold. Posterior nostril large, near eye and on a horizontal through its middle, its edge slightly or moderately raised; anterior nostril placed on ventral aspect of snout or nearly so, opposite anterior part of premaxillary patch of teeth, its edge well raised. Two pores, in a lengthwise row close to midline on ventral aspect of snout, the posterior one near premaxillary teeth, the two fellow rows diverg¬ ing forward; a very large pore, about as large as nostril, on dorsal aspect of snout, near its lateral profile and not far from its tip; a series of three pores along margin of fold on cheek. Tongue free, well developed. Gill opening transversely curved, lateral, of medium extent, the space between the two fellows wider than opening. Dorsal origin over gill opening; dorsal, anal, pectoral and caudal fins rather well developed. Teeth rather short, pointed, differing moderately in size in different series; teeth in jaws in bands tapering backward; palatal teeth somewhat stouter than others, in a rounded or somewhat elongate or subtriangular patch, not extending to a vertical through posterior nostril, moderate canines or caninoids in palatal patch present or absent, depending on the species; premaxillary teeth somewhat longer than others (excluding the canines when present), in a transversely oblong patch somewhat rounded in front; palatal, premaxillary and jaw teeth slightly or hardly separated from one another. Almost uniformly yellowish, under side of belly some¬ what lighter, sometimes with a purplish tinge; no distinctive markings; posterior part of vertical fins usually edged with black. The above is an outline of the characters common to the four western Atlantic species examined. Their differences are outlined under the accounts of the species. Congrina differs chiefly from Congermuraena and Conger as follows. In Congrina the upper lip is narrow and closely apposed to the edge of the jaw. The skin on the head is excessively loose, and forms a fold at the lower part of the cheek, which covers the lip, at least in preserved specimens. The snout well overhangs the under¬ slung mouth, and its ventral aspect, from the premaxillary teeth to its tip is of con¬ siderable extent. The caudal is rather long and pointed. The pores on the snout and cheek are excessively enlarged and numerous. In Congermuraena and Conger the upper lip is well developed and forms an upwardly directed fold. The skin on the head is moderately loose and does not form a fold, leaving the upper lip exposed. The snout is obtuse and hardly extends beyond the premaxillary teeth. The caudal is short and rounded. The pores are moderate in size and number. The above differences have been determined mainly for the species here treated and for the genotype, aequorea of Gilbert and Cramer. Whether Congrina can be separated on the basis of these characters when all the relevant species are considered remains to be seen. Reid (above citation) separates Congrina from Congermuraena (which he calls Ariosoma) to a large extent by the structure of the buccal ossicle. I partly dissected one specimen each of Conger oceanicus (Mitchill), Congermuraena selenops (Reid) and Congrina flava (Goode and Bean), as follows. I made a longitudinal slit in the skin of the lower part of the cheek, pulled the skin loose and deflected it both ways, and cleaned away part of the connective tissue to partly expose the buccal ossicle. While this, of course, does not constitute a thorough study of this structure, 1 nuy in a preliminary way describe it as follows. In all three species, the buccal ossicle is trough shaped, with the trough turned on the side, and having its bottom entad and its open side ectad. From the upper and 1951, No. 3 September 30 Eels of the Gulf Coast 443 lower margin of the lengthwise lips of the trough two or three bony processes extend downward and upward, respectively. In C. oceanicus and C. selenops the processes are rather broad and the opposite fellows from above and below are connected by a strong ligament. They are not visible on the outside in undissected specimens. In Congrina flava the processes are longer and narrower and rather loosely connected. They impinge on the skin and may be appreciated on the outside or felt by pressing a scalpel or needle against them. Evidently, the difference in this structure between the three species is, in general, not fundamental. In none of the three species do the bony processes enter the lip. Reid states: "bones of facial canal sending pointed processes to edge of lip.” Evidently, by "lip” he meant the lengthwise fold of skin on the lower part of the cheek, which, however, is separated from the narrow lip by a lengthwise groove. FIGURE 1. — Congrina macrosoma; from the holotype; Bingham Oceanographic Col¬ lection 3939; 128 mm, off Isle Derniere, Louisiana. CONGRINA MACROSOMA , new species Moderately deep, the tail moderately tapering. Palatal patch of teeth transversely oblong, its posterior teeth only slightly larger than anterior teeth ; in a specimen 128 mm irregular rows of teeth roughly as follows : anterior teeth in upper jaw 4, in lower jaw 5 ; across widest part of palatal patch 6 ; premaxillary patch, across 7, along longitudinal axis 5. Measurements of holotype: body 39, trunk 19, tail 61, antedorsal 19.0, head 19.5, upper jaw 7.4, lower jaw 5.5, snout 4.8. eye 4.1, denth 6.4, pectoral 6.8, caudal 7.7. HOLOTYPE — B.O.C. 39'39 ; Atlantis Station 2840 ; lat. 28° 19’ N, long. 90° 59’ W, off Isle Derniere, Louisiana ; 31 fathoms ; March 25, 1937 ; 128 mm. This species has a notably shorter tail and concomittantly a longer body than its three western Atlantic congeners, the difference being of such degree as to make it fairly certain that the one specimen examined represents a distinct species. On the assumption that the holotype is a small specimen of a larger species, the difference is probably greater than the single specimen indicates. In the species of Congrina, as 444 The Texas Journal of Science 1951, No. 3 September 33 well as in other eels, the tail also differs intraspecifically with growth, being relatively longer in the smaller specimens; while the small holotype has the tail shorter than larger specimens of the other three species. This species also has the antedorsal, head, jaws and caudal longer than in the other three species. The dentition is about as in flava and it is probably most nearly related to that species. CON GRIN A FLAVA (Goode and Bean) Congermuracna flava Goode and Bean, Oceanic Ichthy., p. 13 8, pi. 42, fig. 1 59, 1895 (off Trinidad, Grenada and Florida, lectotype indicated below) — Jordan and Evermann, Bull. U. S. Nat. Mus. 46(1): 357, 1896 (after Goode and Bean) Congrellus flavus Jordan and Everman, ibid., pt. 4, pi. 5 8, fig. 150, 1900 (generic name changed in labeling figure) Congrina flava Reid, Smithsonian Misc. Coll. 91(15): 7, 1934 (placed in Congrina) Moderately deep, the tail moderately tapering in comparison. 'Palatal patch of teeth usually transversely oblong in the smaller specimens, longitudinally oblong in large fish, sometimes nearly wedge-shaped jin a small specimen); the teeth in the patch subequal or( the posterior teeth slightly larger. Bands and patches of teeth increasing in width and size with growth ; not arranged in regular rows, but very roughly, in terms of irregular rows, in 2 specimens 183 and 464 mm, respectively, as follows : anterior part of upper jaw 4 and 7 rows, of lower jaw in 5 and 8 rows ; widest part across palatal patch 6 and 8 rows ; pre¬ maxillary patch, across 7 and 10 rows, along longitudinal axis 6 and 9 rows. Measurements of 11 Gulf of Mexico specimens divided into 3 size groups 340-464 (6), 183-308 (4), 75 (1) ; the following measurements given in same order: body 31-37, 31-33, 29; trunk 17.0-20.5, 16.5-18.0, 17 : tail 63-69, 67-69, 71 ; antedorsal 14.0-16.5, 13.5-14.0, 13 ; head 14-17, 14.5-15.5, 13.5 ; upper jaw 5. 3-6.2, 5. 5-5. 6, 5.2 ; lower jaw 4.1-5. 1, 4. 1-4.3, 4 ; snout 3. 8- 4.1, 3. 7-4.1, 3.8; eye 2.4-2.9, 2.4-3.1, 1.9; depth 4.S-6.8, 5.1-6.5, 4.7; pectoral 5.0-6.7, 4.9- 5. 7, 5 ; caudal 3. 4-6.0, 2. 2-5. 2, 4.3. The lectotype from Trinidad, 240 mm : body 35, trunk 17.5, tail 65, antedorsal 16.5, head 18, upper jaw 5.8, lower jaw 4.9, snout 4.2, eye 3.2, depth 5.8, pectoral 6, caudal 4.9. As compared with like sized Gulf specimens, the Trini- FIGURE 2. — Congrina flava ; U. S. N. M. 155001; 183 mm; off Padre Island, Texas. 1951, No. 3 September 30 Eels of the Gulf Coast 445 dad specimen has a moderately shorter tail and longer head. These might prove to be popu¬ lation differences. Specimens examined from off the following localities: Trinidad (44612, the lecto- type; 152573 taken with the lectotype). Yucatan (M.C.Z. 28080; Blake Station CCLXIV) ; Padre Island, Texas (154999 and 155001, collected by the Pelican) ; Mississippi Delta, Louisiana (155000 and 155004, collected by the Pelican; B.O.C. 3923-4, collected by the Atlantis); Dauphin Island, Alabama (B.O.C. 3927, Atlantis). Total examined 13 specimens 75-464 mm; taken in 14-89 fathoms. LECTOTYPE — U. S. N. M. 44612. As two species were included in the original account, a specimen from off Trinidad, 240 mm, a drawing of which was published by the authors, is hereby designated as the lectotype. The differences between flava and macrosoma and gracilior are discussed under the accounts of those two species. Structurally flava is nearest to macrosoma. CONGRINA GRACILIOR, new species Congermuraena flava Goode and Bean (in part), Ocean. Ichthy., p. 13 8, 1895 (The holotype and para type have been separated from the specimens listed in the original account.) Slender, tail notably tapering, becoming almost hair-like for some distance posteriorly. Palatal patch of teeth wedge-shaped ; the posterior teeth in patch larger than anterior teeth, nearly large enough to be designated caninoid. Teeth in 4 irregular rows in upper jaw anteriorly, in 5 rows in lower jaw ; palatal patch in 4 rows at widest part ; premaxillary patch in about 8 irregular rows across and 5 along a longtitudinal axis. Measurements of 2 specimens 135-202 mm : body 27, trunk 13.5-14.5, tail 73, antedorsal 13.0-13.5, head 12.5-13.0, upper jaw 4. 8-5.0, lower jaw 3. 7-3. 8, snout 3. 2-4. 2, eye 2. 6-3.0, depth 3. 5-3. 6, pectoral 3. 9-4. 2, caudal 2. 2-2. 5. HOLOTYPE.— U. S. N. M. 44617; Albatross Station 2402, lat. 28° 36’ N, long. 85° 33’ 30” W ; 111 fathoms ; March 14, 1885 ; off Cape San Bias, Florida ; 202 mm. PARATYPE.— M.C.Z. 37165; Blake Station CCLXIV; lat. 23° 13’ N, long. 89° 10’ W; off Yucatan, Mexico ; 84 fathoms ; 135 mm. This species compared with nearly like-sized specimens of macrosoma, flava (Goode and Bean) and thysanochila Reid (1934, p. 7), is strikingly more slender, Figure 3. — Congrina gracilior; from the holotype; U. S. N. M. 44617; 202 mm; off Cape San Bias, Florida. 446 The Texas Journal of Science 1951, No. 3 September 80 and its posterior end, for a considerable distance, is very attenuated, almost hair-like. It has a shorter body, trunk, antedorsal and head and a longer tail than the other three species. The palatal patch of teeth is wedge-shaped as in thysanochila, while the size of the teeth in the patch is intermediate between that species and the other two. In thysanochila the posterior teeth in the palatal patch are notably enlarged, canine to caninoid; in macrosoma and flava the teeth in the patch are subequal or the pos¬ terior teeth slightly enlarged; while in gracilior the posterior teeth are intermediate in si2e. NEOCONGER Girard Neoconger Girard, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia 10: 171, 1858 (geno¬ type Neoconger mucronatus Girard by monotypy) Chrinorhinus Howell Rivero, Proc. New England Zool. Club 13: 8, 1932 (genotype Chrinorhinus torrei Howell Rivero by monotypy) This is a strongly marked genus, differing especially from all other congrid genera here treated by the point of insertion of the dorsal, over the vent or nearly so. The generic characters are included under the account of the single species de¬ scribed below where it is compared with another western Atlantic species of this genus. NEOCONGER MUCRONATUS Girard Neoconger mucronatus Girard, Proc. Ac. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia 10: 171, 18 58 (St. Joseph Island, Texas) — Girard, U. S. and Mex. Bound. Survey, Ichthyology: 77, 18 59 (St. Joseph Island, Texas) — -Jordan and Davis, Rep. U. S. Comm. Fish 1888: 646, 1891 (after Girard) — Jordan and Evermann, Bull. U. S. Nat. Mus. 47(1): 3 62, 1896 (after Girard) Subterete, depth moderate; skin rather loose and preserved specimens often having a characteristic wrinkled appearance, forming a honeycombed or transversely ridged effect. Tail hardly tapering, except at the very end, a little shorter than body. Eye small, 2. 3-3. 4 in snout. Jaws and mouth small ; lower jaw 3. 1-3. 8 in head ; angle of mouth slightly behind eye, premaxillary teeth not exposed with mouth closed in normal position. Snout short, 4. 6-5.2 in head, tapering, extending moderately beyond lower jaw. Upper lip continuous with skin of cheek or separated by a slight groove at posterior part of mouth ; lower lip slightly better differentiated. Posterior nostril rather large, elongate, placed near eye and on a horizontal through its middle, with a slightly raised rim ; anterior nostril smaller, without raised rim, at a moderate distance from end of snout. Tongue adnate or slightly free for a short distance in front. Gill opening transverse, placed on lower half of side, distance be¬ tween the two fellows subequal to opening. Dorsal rather low, its origin sometimes over anus, usually a short distance more anteriorly ; anal somewhat higher than dorsal. Pectoral short. Caudal of medium length. Teeth small, tapering, pointed, very moderately differing in different regions ; in two irregular rows in jaws anteriorly, becoming one row posteriorly or one row throughout ; palatal teeth in one or two rows anteriorly, one row posteriorly, reaching to opposite eye or nearly angle of mouth ; premaxillary teeth in two short, slightlv diverging rows, somewhat overlapping palatal and jaw teeth or closely approximated. Color in all specimens except one, yellowish without distinctive markings; a small specimen (98 mm) is much lighter than the others ; one specimen having a closely woven reticulate pat¬ tern of very fine brown lines against a lighter background. Measurements of 8 specimens 210-302 mm and 1 specimen 98 mm; body 51-53 (53). trunk 42-44 (42), tail 47-49 (47), antedorsal 48-52 (51) ; the following measurements determined on only 5 of the larger specimens: head 8.5-10.2 (11.5), upper jaw 2. 9-3. 8 (4.3), lower jaw 2. 5-3. 2 (3.8), snout 1.8-2.3 (2.4), eye 0.7-0.8 (0.9), depth 4.1-5.2 (3.6), pectoral 2.0-2. 7 (1,8), caudal 2. 6-3. 3 (3.1). Contrary to the general trend in the ontogeny of eels, the small speci¬ men of this species has the tail as short as^ in extreme variants of the large specimens, in¬ stead of being longer as in other eels. Specimens examined from or off the following localities : Mississippi Delta, Louisiana (B.O.C. 29346, Atlantis). The following lots all from Texas: Padre Island (154997, Pelican); Corpus Christi Pass (154998, Pelican); St. Joseph Island (861, 4 cotypes). Total examined 9 specimens 98-302 mm. Depth records for all except the types, range 11-70 fathoms. The head of an eel which Woods (Copeia, 1942 (3) : 191) identified as of this species, apparently does not belong to it, judged by the author’s description. Neoconger torrei (Howell Rivero), the holotype of which was examined (M.C.Z. 32786), differs from mucronatus as follows: the tail is slightly longer than the body, 51 per cent in length; the palatal teeth end slightly more forward, under anterior margin of eye; the tongue is free to a greater degree than in an extreme variant of mucronatus. The differences are slight and more adequate samples need to be com¬ pared directly, if these two species are really distinct. From all other Gulf eels N. 1951, No. 3 September 30 Eels of the Gulf Coast 447 mucronatus is easily distinguished by the combination of its generic and specific characters. HOPLUNNIS Kaup Hoplunnis Kaup, Abh. Naturw. Ver. Hamburg 4(abt. 2): 19, 1860 (geno¬ type Hoplunnis schmidti by monotvpy) Compressed, very slender. Tail tapering, much longer than body. Eye medium, 2. 8- 3. 7 in long snout. Jaws somewhat beloniform, long (for an eel), slender, bony, covered with a moderate or thin skin; lower jaw somewhat narrower than upper, 1.9- 2. 1 in head. Mouth large, its angle a little behind eye. Premaxillary and jaw teeth exposed with the mouth closed. Snout long, 2. 5-2. 9 in head, a little projecting beyond lower jaw. Lips hardly or slightly differentiated from rest of skin. Posterior nostril large, elongate, with a very slightly raised rim, placed at a moderate distance in front of eye and opposite its middle; anterior nostril large, its rim well raised, not far from end of snout. A row of 4-5 large, elongate pores on lower part of cheek, at edge of jaw; a small pore in front of anterior nostril and another one farther in front, near tip of snout; 2 larger, widely spaced pores at some distance behind an¬ terior nostril. Tongue adnate. Gill opening lateral but low, in front of and in large part below pectoral base, somewhat oblique or curving transversely, of medium extent, somewhat smaller than space between the two fellows or subequal to it. Dorsal origin at a moderate distance before gill opening; dorsal and anal fins rather well devel¬ oped; pectoral moderate; caudal moderate to rather long. Teeth slender, pointed; in 2 or 3 irregular rows on side of jaws; lower jaw with a large upright tooth on a side near its anterior end (in 2 specimens a smaller tooth directly behind it on one side), 3-4 small teeth in a row in front of large tooth (in one specimen a small tooth forming part of a second row); inner row of teeth dissimilar in the two jaws, in lower jaw anterior inner teeth for greater part of jaw much larger than other jaw teeth, widely spaced in diomedianus and macrurus, close-set in tenuis; premaxillary teeth 5 in a curving row, the anterior or middle tooth largest, the posterior tooth very small (premaxillary teeth preserved in one specimen, in the other three specimens examined partly destroyed, but the traces left seem to agree with above statement) . Midline of palate with a row of 6-8 very large, upright fangs; a median row of 2-4 small teeth directly in front of the large teeth, one similarly small tooth sometimes forming a rudimentary second row; small teeth beside or between the large teeth present or absent. This genus is strongly characterized, especially by its dentition and jaws. The median row of palatal 6-8 fangs and the relative size and arrangement of the teeth in the jaws are unlike that of the other species here treated. The jaws are slender and uneel-like in appearance. In the shape of the jaws it approaches the genus Netta- stoma jRafinesque. These two genera also have the dentiiton of a similar pattern, dif¬ fering in that Hoplunnis has some of the teeth long, fang-like. Although the diverg¬ ence is considerable the two genera are probably not too remote in relationship. I found it very difficult to solve to my entire satisfaction the problem of specia- tion in the genus Hoplunnis with the available material, and my tentative solution here expounded is based to a large extent on the biologically unsatisfactory method of drawing conclusions by analogy, based on my experience in the study of intra¬ specific variability in other species of eels and fishes in general. Only four Gulf specimens of Hoplunnis were examined. The morphological differences between these four specimens are such as to make it seem likely that they belong to three species, considering intraspecific variability and interspecific differences in most other eels. Tentatively, the four specimens are so treated. Nevertheless, by some stretch of the imagination, the differences between these four specimens might be conceived as coming within the range of variability of a single species. On the other hand, offshore or deep water eels are difficult to obtain in numbers. It will probably be many years before adequate samples are obtained to determine intraspecific individual variability, ontogenetic changes and sex differences. Meanwhile, it is thought desirable to display the morphological differences between the four specimens by separating them into 3 species, and it is very probable that this treatment will prove to be correct. Specimens of the genotype, H. schmidti, from Puerto Cabello, are not available for comparison. Judged by its account it differs from the three species here described as follows. Unlike tenuis and diomedianus it has two rows of teeth in the jaws. It 448 The Texas Journal of Science 1951, No. 3 September 30 Figure 4. — Hoplunnis tenuis ; from the holotype; U. S. N. M. 152574; 390 mm; off Cape San Bias, Florida. differs from macrurus in having small teeth alongside the palatal fangs, and the figure indicates that it has a short caudal. It differs from all the three species in having 10 palatal fangs. HOPLUNNIS TENUIS, new species Notably tapering-, becoming- very attenuated and narrow at posterior end. Caudal dam¬ aged but apparently short. Teeth in jaws in 2 rows anteriorly, becoming 3 rows posteriorly for greater extent of jaw ; teeth in outer row very small ; teeth in inner two rows larger anteriorly becoming smaller posteriorly, near angle of mouth the teeth in the 3 rows sub- equally small, except those in inner row of lower jaw slightly larger than others ; teeth in middle row similar in both jaws, moderately larger than those in outer row anteriorly, gradually decreasing in size posteriorly : anterior teeth in inner row of upper jaw slightly larger than those in middle row, gradually decreasing in size posteriorly ; anterior teeth in inner row of lower jaw, for its greater extent, notably large as compared with outer teeth, nearly straight, 10 in number, very widely spaced, moderately decreasing in size posteriorly then becoming abruptly smaller and approximated at some distance before angle of mouth and also decreasing in size posteriorly. Large palatal teeth in median row 8 (a smaller tooth between the last two fangs) ; teeth in row flanking median row numerous, small, close-set. A row of moderate length having small teeth, in upper jaw near angle of mouth, on a line between outer band of teeth and midline of palate. (Small teeth in front of large canine of lower jaw destroyed.) Specimen examined apparently faded ; ground color light yellowish ; upper aspect, and side of posterior part of tail, sprinkled with tiny dark spots, generally with diffuse bound¬ aries, many of them in form of a ring, often having a black central point. Measurements of a female 390 mm : body 25.5 ; trunk 14 ; tail 74.5 ; antedorsal 10 ; head 11.5 ; upper jaw 6.0 ; lower jaw 5.6 ; snout 4.6 ; eye 1.2 ; depth 2.7 ; pectoral 2.7 ; caudal dam¬ aged, probably close to 1.0. HOLOTYPE— U. S. N. M. 152574. Albatross Station 2402, lat. 28° 36’ N, long. 85° 33’ 30” W, off Cape San Bias, Florida ; 111 fathoms ; March 14, 1885 ; female with ripe eggs, 390 mm. This species is nearest diomedianus, differing chiefly in having the anterior large teeth in the inner row of the lower jaw widely spaced and fewer, a row of teeth in upper jaw at angle of mouth behind the outer band, and 8 fangs on the palate. The antedorsal and head are longer than in diomedianus, and the small teeth on the palate alongside the fangs are smaller and much more numerous. 1951, No. 3 September 30 Eels of the Gulf Coast 449 HOPLUNN1S DIOMEDIANUS Goode and Bean Hoplunnis dtomedianus Goode and Bean, Ocean. Ichthy., p. 146, pi. 43, fig. 163, 1895 (Albatross Station 2402; lat. 28° 36’ N, long. 85° 33’ 30” W; off Cape San Bias, Florida; 111 fathoms; longitude given in original account an error) —Jordan and Evermann, Bull. U. S. Nat. Mus. 47(1): 361, 1896 (after Goode and Bean) Hoplunnis schmidti Jordan and Evermann, ibid., pt. 4, pi. 5 8, fig. 151, 1900 (the figure, evidently a copy of that by Goode and Bean, bearing different name than text) Notably tapering, becoming narrow and attenuated posteriorly. Caudal damaged but apparently short. Dentition about as described above for tenuis with the following exceptions : inner anterior teeth in lower jaw somewhat smaller, slightly curved, rather close set, 18-21 in number (counting on both sides) ; large palatal teeth in median row 6 ; teeth flanking median row somewhat larger, spaced, few (4 on right 3 on left) ; no row of teeth in upper jaw near angle of mouth entad of the outer band. Small teeth in front of large canine of lower jaw preserved, 3 on right side, 4 on left with a still smaller tooth in a second row. Specimen examined apparently faded ; ground color yellowish ; with very small dark spots, very sparse anteriorly, somewhat more numerous on posterior part of tail ; some of the spots in form of a tiny dark point surrounded by diffuse dark ring ; caudal, and posterior part of dorsal and anal for a short distance, black. Measurements of a male 424 mm : body 22.5 ; trunk 13.5 ; tail 77.5 ; antedorsal 7.6 ; head 9.2 ; upper jaw 4.6 : lower jaw 4.5 ; snout 3.2 ; eye 1.1 ; depth 2.0 ; pectoral 1.7 ; caudal damaged, probably near 1.0. LECTOTYPE — Goode and Bean state that they base their species on a "single individual.” However, since they give the correct range of 6-8 for the large teeth on the "vomer” they apparently had more than one specimen. According to the Na¬ tional Museum catalog, the number given by the authors in the original account, 44240, contained 3 specimens one of which was deposited at Stanford. The jar bear¬ ing the given number now contains two specimens which were examined and found to represent two species. In order to avoid ambiguity one of these specimens, a male 424 mm, apparently the one figured and described in the original account, is here designated as the lectotype. The other specimen is here made the holotype of tenuis. The species is nearest tenuis as discussed under that species. FIGURE 5. — Hoplunnis macrurus; from the holotype; U. S. N. M. 152565; 373 mm; off Mississippi Delta. 450 The Texas Journal of Science 1951, No. 3 September 30 HOPLUNNIS MACRURUS , new species Posterior taper moderate. Caudal notably long (for an eel). Teeth in jaws in 2 rows; teeth in outer row small ; teeth in inner row of upper jaw moderately larger anteriorly, be¬ coming smaller posteriorly to subequal outer teeth at angle of mouth ; anterior teeth in inner row of lower jaw, for its greater part, large, nearly straight, widely spaced, 10-15 in number, decreasing in size posteriorly, at some distance before angle of mouth becoming rather abruptly smaller and close-set, at angle of mouth only slightly larger than outer teeth. Large palatal teeth in median row 6 ; no smaller teeth alongside main row ; in female 3 small teeth on midline, one each on the posterior interspaces between the large teeth, these small teeth absent in male. Upper jaw without a row of teeth near angle of mouth behind outer band. Three small teeth in front of anterior large canine of lower jaw. Ventral aspect and greater part of side light yellowish ; dorsal aspect dusky, under magnification tiny black points surrounded by very narrow light area very sparsely scattered within dusky ground color ; midback with a series of light colored spots against the dusky background ; a narrow zone immediately below the dusky area thickly sprinkled with very small spots ; the dusky area petering out at a moderate distance from end ; the very small spots continued and spreading over this moderate posterior extent, rather profuse above, very sparse below ; with a slight irrideseent silvery tinge all over ; caudal and posterior end of dorsal and anal black. Measurements of 2 specimens 373-411 mm : body 24.0-25.5, trunk 13.5, tail 74.5-76.0, antedorsal 9.5-10.0, head 10.5-12.0, upper jaw 5. 4-5. 8, lower jaw 5. 2-5. 8, snout 3. 8-4. 3, eye 1.3, depth 2. 4-3.0, pectoral 2. 5-2. 8, caudal 4. 1-4.6. HOLOTYPE'. — U. S. N. M. 152565; iat. 29° 14’ N, long. 88° 35’ W; off Mississippi Delta, Louisiana ; 40 fathoms ; Stewart Springer ; July 13, 1950 ; male, 373 mm. PARATYPE.— U. S. N. M. 152566; lat. 29° 11’ N, long. 88° 50’ 30” W; off Mississippi Delta, Louisiana ; 38 fathoms ; Stewart Springer ; September 12, 1950 ; female with ripe eggs, 411 mm. The teeth in the inner row of the lower jaw of macrurus are as in tenuis; while the absence of a row of teeth in the upper jaw behind the outer teeth and the number of fangs on the palate are as in diomedianus. It differs from both in having 2, instead of 3, rows of teeth in the jaws. The posterior part of the tail is not as attenuated as in the other two species. The caudal of macrurus is rather unusually long, and it probably differs from tenuis and diomedianus also in this character; but this is not altogether certain because the caudals in the specimens examined of those two species are somewhat damaged. DYSOMMINA, new genus Genotype: Dysommina ntgosa, new species This genus differs from Dysomma by the more backward position of the vent and the more forward position of the dorsal origin. The two American species belonging to these two genera which were directly compared also differ considerably in the dentition as discussed below. The gill opening is horizontal instead of being vertical or nearly so. In the position of the vent and the dorsal origin, Dysommina nearly agrees with Dysommopsis Wood-Mason and Alcock (1891, p. 137) but differs from the latter in having pectorals. Nettastoma brevirostre Facciola (1887, p. 166) appears to be another related species from the Mediterranean. Judged by its account, that species is either referable to Dysommopsis or should be referred to still another distinct genus. It seems to nearly agree with Dysommopsis muciparus in the relative positions of the dorsal origin, gill opening and vent, and in lacking pectorals; but the two species seem to differ in the dentition, although neither description is given in sufficient detail for constructive comparative purposes. Grassi and Calandruccio (1896, p. 349) did establish a genus Todarus based on N. brevirostre Facciola, without discussing its characters. However, the name Todarus is preoccupied, according to Neave’s "Nomen- clator Zoologicus.” DYSOMMINA RUGOSA, new species Notably compressed, moderately deep. Tail moderately tapering, much longer than body. Eye rather small, 2.2 in snout. Mouth and jaws rather large ; lower jaw 2.4 in head, narrow, fitting into a trough formed by upper jaw and its surrounding soft parts ; anterior aspect of both jaws corrugated with transverse, well developed ridges formed by skin ; angle of mouth under posterior margin of eye ; teeth not exposed with the mouth closed. Snout 3.4 in head, blunt, extending a little beyond lower jaw. Upper surface of head to some distance behind eye, and lower jaw, with small papillae and tiny cilia-like outgrowths of skin, sparse posteriorly more numerous anteriorly. Upper lip not differentiated ; lower lip separated by a slight groove at angle of mouth only. Posterior nostril notably large, placed at a short dis¬ tance from eye, opposite its lower half, with a raised, slightly fimbriated border ; anterior nostril in a short broad tubule, placed not far from end of snout. Pores rather small, 4 on lower part of cheek near rim of gape, almost but not altogether aligned in a lengthwise row, the first under anterior nostril, the fourth under middle of eye ; one behind anterior nostril and one over it ; a somewhat larger pore nearly in a horizontal line with latter, at some distance behind,, and somewhat nearer midline. Tongue adnate. Gill opening low, alto- 1951, No. 3 September 30 Eels of the Gulf Coast 451 FIGURE 6. — Dysommina rugosa; from the holotype; U. S. N. M. 131594; 196 mm; off Cumberland Island, Georgia. gether entering ventral as well as lateral aspect, placed horizontally, below and its greater part in front of pectoral base, of medium extent, subequal to distance between the two fellows. Dorsal origin at a short distance behind end of pectoral ; dorsal and anal rather well developed ; pectoral rather small ; caudal comparatively well developed, truncate. Teeth in jaws small in bands of 4 irregular rows, extending from anterior end of jaws to angle of mouth ; palatal teeth 4 moderate canines, widely separated, in a median row, the first placed a little behind beginning of jaw teeth, the fourth opposite anterior margin of pupil ; each tooth placed in center of hummock of soft tissue; no premaxillary teeth (first tooth per¬ haps homologous with anterior 2 teeth on palate of Dysomma aphododera, see discussion be¬ low). Almost uniformly yellowish; the fins somewhat lighter; no distinctive markings. Measurements of type specimen: body 28.0, trunk 13.5, tail 72, antedorsal 18.5, head 15.5, upper jaw 6.5, lower jaw 6.4, snout 4.4, eye 2.0, depth 5.6, pectoral 3.2, caudal 3.2. HOLOTYPE — U. S. N. M. 131954. Albatross Station 2667; lat. 30° 53’ N, long. 79° 42’ 30” W ; off Cumberland Island, Georgia ; 273 fathoms ; May 5, 1886 ; 196 mm. The two American related species, Dysomma aphododera and Dysommina rugosa differ further, besides the characters discussed above under the genus, in the den¬ tition as follows. In D. aphododera the band of teeth in the upper jaw is notably shorter than in D. rugosa. The dentition in the lower jaw of D. aphododera is differ¬ ent than that in the upper, consisting of a single row of larger teeth, while in D. rugosa the dentition in both jaws is similar. On the plate, D. aphododera has 3 spaced teeth on the midline preceded by two smaller teeth side by side; while D. rugosa has 4 spaced teeth on midline only. Therefore, for descriptive purposes D. aphododera is said to have premaxillary teeth, while D. rugosa is said to lack such teeth. However, these statements perhaps overemphasize the difference, as it is possible that the anterior median tooth of D. rugosa is properly homologous with the two anterior teeth of D. aphododera. DYSOMMA Alcock Dysomma Alcock, Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. (6)4:459, 1889 (genotype Dysomma bucephalus Alcock by monotypy) — Alcock, Descriptive Cat. Fish. Investigator, p. 192, 1899. 452 The Texas Journal of Science 1951, No. 3 September 30 Dysomma is compared above under Dysommina with two related genera. It is distinguished from other congrid eels by the anterior position of the vent in combi¬ nation with the moderate jaws, the narrow lower jaws and the dentition. The generic characters are included below under the description of aphododera, the one species here treated. I am not altogether certain that aphododera is congeneric with bucephalus, the genotype of Dysomma. It nearly agrees with the published figure of that species in general appearance; and the position of the vent and the dorsal origin. However, the dentition of bucephalus is not described in sufficient detail for constructive com¬ parison. These two species are further compared below. Sinomyrus angustus Lin (1933) is probably congeneric with aphododera, judged by its original description. Several other species have been described under Dysomma since it was first estab¬ lished, none of them from American waters. The several species described need to be compared directly, as it is possible that they are not all congeneric. References to these species are given by Bohlke (1949). DYSOMMA APHODODERA, new species Compressed, moderately deep. Tail moderately tapering, much longer than body ; vent on a vertical through tip of pectoral or slightly before ; trunk a little shorter than pectoral. Eye small, 3.0-3. 5 in snout. Jaws rather long ; lower jaw 2.5 in head, notably narrow, noting into a trough formed by upper jaw and its surrounding soft parts ; anterior aspect of both jaws corrugated by moderate, transverse ridges in the skin ; teeth on side of upper jaw slightly exposed with the mouth closed. Mouth large, its angle at a considerable distance behind eye, a vertical through middle of eye about bisecting lower jaw. Snout 4.5 m head, blunt, extending a little beyond lower jaw. Upper surface of head to some distance behind eye and lower jaw, with small tabs, numerous anteriorly, becoming fewer and smaller posteriorly. Upper and lower lip not differentiated. Posterior nostril large, with slightly raised rim, placed close to eye, at its lower part ; anterior nostril not far from end of snout, in a short, broad tubule. Pores rather small, 4 pores in a row on cheek near rim of gape, the first a little behind anterior nostril, the fourth under posterior margin of eye; a pore behind anterior nostril, one over it, about halfway to midline, and another one a rather short distance behind latter. Tongue adnate. Gill opening low, its entire outline FIGURE 7. — Dysomma aphododera; from the holotype; U. S. N. M. 154992; 218 mm; off Padre Island, Texas. 1951, No. 3 September 30 Eels of the Gulf Coast 453 entering ventral as well as lateral aspect, placed under pectoral base, its position oblique but more inclined to the vertical, rather small, subequal to space between the two fellows. Dorsal origin a little in front of pectoral base ; dorsal, anal, pectoral and caudal moderately developed. Teeth in upper jaw small, pointed, in a narrow band having two irregular rows anteriorly and three posteriorly, the inner teeth somewhat larger than outer, the band be- beginning at some distance from anterior end of jaw, about opposite first palatal canine, and ending at some distance before angle of mouth ; teeth in lower jaw much larger than those in upper jaw, in one row, widely spaced, about 7 on a side ; palatal teeth largest of all, 3 straight, widely spaced canines in a lengthwise row on midline, the last one opposite eye ; premaxillary teeth 2, side by side, somewhat larger than teeth in lower jaw; each tooth, except those in upper jaw, suri'ounded by a thick, conical hummock of soft tissue. Yellow¬ ish, nearly uniform, anterior ventral aspect somewhat lighter ; no distinctive markings. Measurements of 2 specimens 218-226 mm : body 17.5-18.5, trunk 2. 5-3. 2, tail 81-83, antedorsal 13.5, head 14.5-15.5, upper jaw 6. 4-6. 9, lower jaw 5. 7-6. 2, snout 3. 2-3. 5, eye 1. 0-1.1, depth 5. 6-5. 7, pectoral 3. 7-3. 9, caudal 2. 7-2. 8. HOLOTYPE.— U. S. N. M. 154992. Pelican Station 117-1 ; lat. 26° 30’ N, long. 96° 26’ W ; off Padre Island, Texas ; 50 fathoms ; February 5, 1939 ; 218 mm. PARATYPE. — U. S. N. M. 154993. Pelican Station 108-11 ; off Port Aransas, Texas ; 37 fathoms ; 226 mm. As compared with the account of D. bucephalus Alcock (see citation under genus) aphododera differs in having the position of the vent a little more backward in relation to the position of the pectoral, and the pectorals shorter. Very likely other differences will appear on direct comparison of specimens. Table 1. — Erequency distribution of the tail length in 3 species of Gymnothorax , segregated by size; expressed as a percentage of the total length. 454 The Texas Journal of Science 1951, No. 3 September 30 Table 2. — Frequency distribution of the trunk length in 3 species of Gymnothorax, expressed as a percentage of the total length. Table 3. — Frequency distribution of the head length in 3 species of Gymnothorax, expressed in thousandths of the total length. 1951, No. 3 September 30 Eels of the Gulf Coast 45 5 4 56 The Texas Journal of Science 1951, No. 3 September 30 Table 4. — Frequency distribution of the depth of the body in 3 species of Gymnothorax, expressed in thousandths of the total length. species specimens distribution length of 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90 95 100 105 110 depth measured just before anus saxicola 285-380 1 7 4 3 nigromarginatus 294 - 37 6 1 3 1 1 ocellatus 344 - 366 1 1 1 saxicola 395-447 1 4 3 3 2 1 nigromarginatus 390-452 1 3 2 1 ocellatus 388-431 1 2 1 saxicola 471-583 2 2 2 nigromarginatus 611 1 ocellatus 497 - 542 1 1 depth measured at gill opening saxicola 285 - 380 1 2 4 2 1 4 1 nigromarginatus 294 - 376 1 2 3 ocellatus 344 - 366 1 1 1 saxicola 395 - 447 1 3 6 2^ 1 1 nigromarginatus 390-452 2 3 1 1 ocellatus 388-431 V 1 1 1 1 saxicola 471-583 1 3 2 1 1 nigromarginatus 611 1 ocellatus 497 - 542 1 1 1951, No. 3 September 30 Eels of the Gulf Coast 457 Table 5. — Frequency distribution of the length of the lower jaw in 3 species of Gymnothorax, expressed in thousandths of the total length. Table 6. — Frequency distribution of the snout length in 3 species of Gymnothorax , expressed in thousandths of the total length. species length of specimens 23 26 distribution 29 32 35 38 saxicola 285-380 6 3 4 2 n igro ma r gin at us 294-376 1 2 3 ocellatus 344 - 366 2 1 saxicola 395 - 447 1 5 4 3 1 nigromar ginatus 390-452 4 3 ocellatus 388-431 1 3 saxicola 471-583 3 2 2 1 nigromar ginatus 611 1 ocellatus 497 - 542 2 458 The Texas Journal of Science 1951, No. 3 September 30 Table 7. — Frequency distribution of the numerical value of the ratio of the tail divided by the head in 3 species of Gymnotborax. family MURAENIDAE Three species belonging to this family, comprised within one genus, occur in the northern part of the Gulf. They may be distinguished from other Gulf eels by their small gill opening in combination with the absence of a pectoral, the medium or rather large mouth with strong jaws, and the single row of rather broad, subtriangular, shark-like teeth in the jaws. Characters common to the three species and one South American species which is here included for comparative purposes, are stated under the following account of the genus. GYMNOTHORAX Bloch Gymnotborax Bloch, Ichthyologie ou Histoire Naturelle . . . des Poissons, pt. 12, p. 67, 1797 (genotype Gymnotborax reticularis Bloch by subse¬ quent designation) — Internat. Comm. Zool. NomencL, opinion 93, in Smithsonian Misc. Coll. 73 (4): 5, 1926 ( Gymnotborax reticularis fixed as the genotype by the plenary power of the commission). Variably stout anteriorly, well tapering posteriorly. Tail longer than body or moderately shorter. Eye and snout medium; mouth and jaws medium to rather large, angle of mouth behind eye, a vertical through middle of eye about bisecting lower jaw or slightly nearer angle of mouth; usually upper jaw slightly longer than lower, sometimes the lower jaw slightly longer, often the two jaws subequal. Pre¬ maxillary teeth not exposed with the mouth closed. Lips not differentiated. Posterior nostril medium, without a raised margin, placed a little above eye, on or directly behind a vertical through its anterior margin; anterior nostril ending in a tubule, near end of snout, on a horizontal through middle or lower margin of eye. Tongue adnate. Gill opening equalling eye diameter, varying a little both ways, placed on middle of side or a little below. Dorsal and anal rather well developed, continuous with caudal, the dorsal becoming notably high in large specimens. Dorsal origin placed in advance of gill opening. (It is difficult to localize with precision the point of origin of the dorsal in the species of this genus without dissection. Hence, the point of origin given under the species accounts is approximate only. Especially, the antedorsal measure- 1951, No. 3 September 30 Eels of the Gulf Coast 459 ments given below are very roughly approximate.) Pectoral absent. Teeth in jaws rather broad, compressed, tapering, in a single row, posterior and greater number of teeth rather abruptly smaller than a few anterior teeth, subtriangular, pointing upward and backward, somewhat shark-like; premaxillary teeth indistinguishably forming one continuous row with teeth on side of upper jaw; a median row of small palatal teeth placed notably backward, beginning at a point opposite eye (sometimes a few teeth beside main row); anterior palatal fangs present or absent depending on the species. KEY TO THE SPECIES OF GYMNOTHORAX a. Teeth entire; 2-3 median anterior fangs on palate; with a light reticulate pattern against dark background _ moringa (p. 459). aa. Teeth in jaws serrate; without median fangs on palate; with whitish spots against a darker background. b. Anal usually almost solid black or brown; dorsal typically with a broad, black or brown interrupted margin. Head 12.6-18.9. c. Tail 45-54 in the larger specimens; dark lengthwise lines on head usually well marked; white spots larger _ saxicola (p. 461). cc. Tail 54-59 in the larger specimens; dark lengthwise lines on head very faint or absent; white spots typically smaller and more widely spaced. _ _ nigromarginatus (p. 461). bb. Anal usually with a series of spots resembling the segments of a circle; dorsal typically with a series of bands arranged in pairs. Head 11.2- 13.7. Tail 54-57. White spots rather large and widely spaced __ _ _ « _ ocellatus (p. 463 ) . GYMNOTHORAX MORINGA (Cuvier) Muraena maculata nigra Catesby, Natural History of Carolina, Florida and the Bahama Islands, vol. 2, pi. 31, 173 8 Muraena moringa Cuvier, Regne Animal, ed. 2, vol. 2, p. 352, 1829 (based on Catesby) — Gunther, Cat. Fish. Brit. Mus. 8: 120, 1870 ("Tropi¬ cal parts of the Atlantic’5)- — Jordan, Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus. 7: 197, 188 5 (Catesby’s plate identified) Gymnothorax moringa Goode, Bull. U. S. Nat. Mus. 5: 72, 1876 (Catesby’s plate identified with specimens from Bermuda) — Jordan and Davis, Rep. U. S. Comm. Fish. 1888: 601, pi. 75, 1891 (Pensacola to Rio de Janeiro and St. Helena) Lycodontis moringa Jordan and Evermann, Bull. U. S. Nat. Mus. 47: 395, pi. 65, fig. 171, 1896 (Pensacola to Rio de Janeiro and St. Helena) Moderately stout anteriorly becoming notably so in large specimens. Tail longer than body. Eye 2.1-2; 4 in snout ; lower jaw 2. 0-2.2 and snout 4.8-5. 3 in head. Gill opening sub¬ equal to eye diameter or a littie larger. Dorsal origin on a vertical nearer gill opening than angle of mouth or midway between. Teeth entire ; 2-3 large moveable fangs in a median row on palate a little behind premaxillary teeth, widely separated from posterior row of small palatal teeth ; 2 anterior teeth at symphysis somewhat smaller than teeth immediately following. General color brown with irregular, tortuous yellow lines forming a reticulate pattern extending on the dorsal and anal ; on underside of head and trunk yellow color expanded and color pattern may be described as a yellow ground color irregularly spotted with brown. Measurements of 2 specimens 879-894 mm and 2 specimens 579-704 mm : body 45-47 (43-44), trunk 31 (29), tail 54-55 (56-57), antedorsal 11.5-12.0 (11), head 14.5-17.0 (14.0-15.5), upper jaw 7. 1-8.0 (6.6-7.0), lower jaw 7. 2-7. 8 (6. 4-6.9), snout 2. 9-3. 6 (2. 8-2. 9), eye 1.3-1. 5 (1.3-1. 4), depth 6.8 (6.3-7. 9). Localities for the above 4 specimens: Gulf of Mexico (43948, sent in fresh by a New Orleans fish dealer, exact locality not given). Key West (35036) and Garden Key (6794), Florida. The specimens examined, except possibly the first one listed, are not from the northern Gulf coast. Baughman (1950, p. 128) states that Reeve M. Bailey identified a specimen from Freeport, Texas in the U. M. M. Z. as belong¬ ing to this species. 460 The Texas Journal of Science 1951, No. S September SO FIGURE 8. — Gymnothorax saxicola; U. S. N. M. 152241; 420 mm; off Pensacola, Florida FIGURE 9. — Gymnothorax saxicola; U. S. N. M. 154989; 395 mm; off Charleston, South Carolina. 1951, No. 3 September 30 Eels of the Gulf Coast 461 This species is readily distinguished from all Gulf eels by its distinctive color pattern. As compared with 'the other two Gulf muraenid species it differs in having entire, instead of serrated, teeth in the jaws, and in having 2-3 anterior, moveable fangs on the midline of the palate. GYMNOTHORAX SAXICOLA Jordan and Davis Gymnothorax ocellatus var. saxicola Jordan and Davis, Rep. U. S. Comm. Fish. 1888: 606, 1891 ("abounds about the Snapper Banks”) Lycodontis ocellatus saxicola Jordan and Evermann, Bull. U. S. Nat. Mus. 47(1): 399, 1896 (Pensacola Snapper Banks; Cuba) In medium sized specimens rather stout anteriorly, and tail usually longer than body, sometimes subequal to it; stouter, tail shorter than body in large fish. Eye 1.3-1. 8 in snout; lower jaw 2. 2-2. 9 and snout 4.5-6. 0 in head. Gill opening subequal to eye diameter or a little smaller. Dorsal origin on a vertical midway between angle of mouth and gill opening, varying a little both ways. Teeth in jaws rather well serrated on anterior and posterior margin, except anteriormost teeth usually serrated on posterior margin only ; row of small palatal teeth very variable, usually 6-10 in number, varying 2-13 ; anterior fangs on midline of palate absent ; teeth at symphysis subequal to teeth immediately following. Ground color on side and dorsal aspect brown of a variable shade of intensity, some¬ times with a grayish tinge ; with whitish rounded spots against the darker background ; spots relatively large (as compared with nigromarginatus) , usually subequal to interspaces or nearly so, often rather smaller than interspaces ; in the smaller specimens spots often wider than interspaces, the darker color then forming a reticulate pattern around the spots ; ventral aspect almost uniformly whitish or yellowish, except in the larger specimens color pattern of sides often faintly continued on ventral aspect ; an area on side and underside of head, directly behind gill opening, with well marked, lengthwise, dark streaks more or less irregular and anastomosing ; a moderate extent near end of fish with white, lengthwise, oblique or confluent bands ; dorsal with a broad black or dark brown margin, interrupted (might also be described in other words as margin having a series of short bands), some¬ times continuous or nearly so for a variable distance at posterior part of fish ; anal usually almost all black or brown. Measurements of 9 specimens 380-471 mm: antedorsal 11.5-15.0, upper jaw 5. 7-8.0, eye L 7-2.5. Specimens examined from or off the following localities: Cape Lookout and Cape Fear, North Carolina; Charleston, South Carolina; Cumberland, Sapelo and Ossabaw Islands, Georgia; Amelia Island, Biscayne Bay, Key West, Cape Sable, Clear¬ water Harbor, Cedar Keys, Cape St. George, Cape San Bias and Pensacola, Florida; Mobile, Alabama. The available depths for some of these lots range 11-50 fathoms. Total number of specimens examined 39, 249-583 mm, including 4 taken in Florida without more definite locality records. The largest specimen is from Charleston. NEOTYPE — U. S. N. M. 34280; Cedar Keys, Florida; Henry Hemphill; 430 mm. As no type appears to have been set aside by Jordan and Davis, the above specimen is hereby designated as the neotype. The authors mention Cedar Keys in their account and the specimen designated is possibly one of those examined by them; but there is no way now of definitely identifying their specimens. This species is very close to nigromarginatus and the differences between them are discussed under the account of that species. GYMNOTHORAX NIGROMARGINATUS (Girard) Neomuraena nigromarginata Girard, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia 10: 171, 1858 (St. Joseph’s Island, Texas) — Girard, U. S. Mex. Bound. Surv., p. 76, pi. 41, 18 59 (based on same specimen) Gymnothorax ocellatus var. nigromarginatus Jordan and Davis, Rep. U. S. Comm. Fish. 18 88: 606, 1891 (based on type) Lycodontis ocellatus nigromarginatus Jordan and Evermann, Bull. U. S. Nat. Mus. 47(1): 399, 1896 (Pensacola; St. Joseph’s Island, Texas) Moderately stout anteriorly in the larger specimens. Tail longer than body. Eye 1. 4-2.0 in snout ; lower jaw 2. 3-3. 3 and snout 4. 7-6.0 in head. Gill opening somewhat smaller than eye diameter. Dorsal origin on a vertical usually nearer gill opening than angle of mouth, sometimes midway between. Dentition virtually the same as that described above for saxicola- General color pattern about the same as in saxicola differing from that species as fol¬ lows : white spots smaller than in saxicola, smaller than interspaces, sometimes subequal to interspaces in the smaller specimens ; dark lengthwise streaks on head rather faint or im¬ perceptible ; a moderate distance near end of fish with comparatively large, rounded cr elongate white spots. Measurements of 7 specimens 391-452 mm: antedorsal 11.0-13.5, upper jaw 5. 3-6. 4, eye 1. 2-2.0. Specimens examined from or off the following localities : Padre Island, St. Joseph Island and Galveston, Texas; Point au Fer, Isle Derniere, Mississippi Delta, 462 The Texas Journal of Science 1951, No. 3 September 30 FIGURE 10. — Gymnothorax nigromarginatus; U. S. N. M. 131153; 433 mm; off Morgan City, Louisiana. and Errol Island, Louisiana; Pensacola, Florida. Depth records are available for 9 out of 12 lots and range 10-35 fathoms. Thirteen specimens examined, 294-452 mm, six of which were obtained by the Pelican and 3 by the Atlantis. In addition to the above 13 specimens, one large specimen, 611 mm. (M.C.Z. 35110) from Pensacola, differs considerably in its proportional measurements, as shown in tables 1-7. Its shorter head and more slender body are notable, especially in consideration of the regular changes in growth shown by the other two species. Two suggestions might be made to explain these differences. First, it might be sug¬ gested that it is an abnormal specimen. It is abnormally large in size for its species; and correlated with its unusual size, its body proportions are also abnormal. Second, it is possible that the normal growth changes in this species, when the specimens attain to a relatively large size are different than in the other two species with which it is here compared. NEOTYPE. — U. S. N. M. 7004; St. Joseph Island, Texas; Wurdemann; 391 mm. According to Girard’s account his type specimen bears U. S. N. M. number 860; but that number cannot now be located. The specimen designated as the neotype bears the same data as Girard’s original specimen, and judging by his plate, it is also of the same length. Consequently, it is very likely that it is Girard’s original type and that inadvertently it has been entered twice in the National Museum catalog. This species is very close to saxicola and single specimens cannot always be iden¬ tified with certainty. The bulk of specimens, especially the larger specimens, are dis¬ tinguishable at a glance by differences in the color pattern. In typical nigromarginatus specimens the white spots are smaller, and the lengthwise lines on the head are faint or absent, instead of being well marked as in typical saxicola. In comparing the size of the spots it should be noted that in both species, in general, the spots relatively decrease in size with growth and specimens of approximately like size are best compared. Sixteen of the specimens of both species examined were collected recently by the Fish and Wildlife research boat ' Pelican” and by the "Atlantis.” The others preserved for longer periods, some of them for 60 years or more, generally show the color pattern fairly well. The two species also differ in proportional measurements. Seven such measure¬ ments are presented in tables 1-6. They are of differing degrees of divergence, and 1951, No. 3 September 30 Eels of the Gulf Coast 463 intergrade more or less with the extent of intergradation more pronounced in the smaller specimens. The greatest degree of divergence is shown by the tail length which intergrades very moderately in the two smaller size groups. The length of the lower jaw intergrades widely in the smaller specimens, less so in the larger fish. However, the latter measurement is not as reliable as that of the tail, because it is not susceptible of precise determination. Of the characters determined the least degree of divergence is shown by the snout length. One ratio between two of these measurements, the tail length divided by that of the head (table 7), shows a moderate degree of inter¬ gradation in the larger fish. All in all, it is evident that we are dealing here with two distinct, but morpho¬ logically more or less overlapping populations. In general, the differences between them are somewhat like the differences between two subspecies of the same species; but the degree of divergence is perhaps greater than what is usual between two coordinate subspecies. This combined with the fact that the two populations also over¬ lap geographically at least over a part of their ranges perhaps makes it desirable to treat them as two independent species. GYMNOTHORAX OCELLATUS Agassiz Gymnothorax ocellatus Agassiz, Selecta genera et species piscium . . . Brasil- iam, p. 91, pi. 50b, 1829 (Brazil) Moderately stout anteriorly in the larger specimens. Tail longer than body. Eye 1.4-1. 9 in snout ; lower jaw 2. 2-2. 5 and snout 4. 3-5. 6 in head. Gill opening subequal to eye diameter or a little smaller. Dorsal origin nearer gill opening than angle of mouth. Dentition virtually as described under saxicola except that the serrations are rather weaker. General color pattern very similar to that of saxicola and nigromarginatus, with white spots against a darker background ; the white spots about as large as in saxicola, but rather more widely spaced than in that species, the interspaces generally wider than the spots somewhat as in nigromarginatus ; lengthwise dark lines on head well marked or faint (the latter perhaps due to fading, specimens examined having been preserved for about 85 years) ; dorsal typically with a series of short, wide, somewhat oblique, black or brown bands, usually arranged roughly in pairs, the interspace between the two in the pair less than preceding and following interspace, a streak on margin of fin of same color as bands bridging over interspace between the two in a pair, but not the space between adjacent pairs ; bands often very short not extending far below margin (color pattern of dorsal of such variants approaching that of saxicola or nigromarginatus), often the two bands in the pair more or less fused, becoming normally so for some distance near end of fish ; anal with a series of spots in form of segments of a circle with the curved side proximad, the straight side usually coalesced with adjacent ones forming a continuous dark margin for the fin. Measurements of 10 specimens 242-542 mrn : antedorsal 8.5-12.0, upper jaw 4.8-5. 9, eye 1.3-1.9. The above 10 specimens from Rio de Janeiro, Brazil (M.C.Z. 9067 and 9086). The typical color pattern of the dorsal and anal in ocellatus is unlike that of saxicola and nigromarginatus; although there is considerable variation and individual variants sometimes approach those two species in the color of the fins. The white spots are usually as large as in saxicola. but rather widely spaced as in nigromarginatus. In most proportional measurements (see tables 1-6) ocellatus nearly agrees with nigromarginatus , in the trunk length it is nearer to saxicola, while the head is shorter than in both northern species. family ECHELIDAE Species belonging to this family have, like the Ophichthidae, the posterior nostril placed on the lower lip or the edge of the gape. They differ from the Ophichthidae in having a caudal fin, the dorsai, anal and caudal fin fold being continuous around the posterior end of the fish. Two species of this family, belonging to separate genera, occur in the Gulf. KEY TO TFIE SPECIES OF ECHELIDAE a. Dorsal origin in front of vent. Palatal teeth in two rows anteriorly be¬ coming one row posteriorly, extending to opposite angle of mouth. -- - Myrophis punctatus (p. 464). aa. Dorsal origin behind vent. Palatal teeth one or two only, placed between beginning of rows of jaw teeth; without a band or row of teeth on midline of palate _ Ahlia egmontis (p. 465). 464 The Texas Journal of Science 1951, No. 3 September 30 MYROPH1S Liitken My ro phis Liitken, Vidensk. Medd. Naturh. Foren. Copenhagen 1851: 14, 18 52 (genotype Myrophis punctatus Liitken by monotypy) This genus is compared with Ahlia under the account of that genus. MYROPHIS PUNCTATUS Liitken Myrophis punctatus Liitken, Vidensk. Medd. Naturh. Foren. Copenhagen 1851: 15, pi. 1, figs. 2 and 2b-d, 18 52; also, in a translation of the article in Archiv Naturg., Jahrg. 18, bd. 1, p. 270, 18 52 (said to have been brought by an expedition to the West Indies, locality not stated) — Jordan and Davis, Rep. U. S. Comm. Fish. 1888: 640, 1891 (West Indian Fauna, from Texas to Surinam) — Jordan and Ever- mann, Bull. U. S. Nat. Mus. 47: 371, 1896 (West Indian Fauna, coast of Texas to Surinam) — Parr, Bull. Bingham Oceanog. Coll. 3 (4) : 12, 1930 Myrophis lumbricus Jordan and Gilbert, Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus. 5: 261, 18 82 (Galveston, Texas) Slender, compressed or rounded. Tail longer than body, moderately tapering. Eye medium, 1.3-2. 3 in snout, covered by thick skin. Mouth and jaws moderate; lower jaw 3. 4-4. 5 in head ; angle of mouth at seme distance behind eye, a vertical through middle of eye about bisecting lower jaw or a little nearer angle of mouth ; premaxillary teeth covered or moderately exposed with the mouth closed. Snout rather blunt, moderately projecting beyond lower jaw, 5. 7-7. 9 in head. Upper lip not differentiated ; lower lip separated by a groove for about its posterior half or more, narrow. Posterior nostril large, located on rim of gape, just in front of a vertical through anterior margin of eye, its outer half with a rather wide, flaring border, its inner margin not raised ; anterior nostril placed near lateral profile, at a short distance from end of snout, in a short tubule, broader at the base, its distal margin irregularly sinuate, its upper part with a small somewhat pointed tab. Tongue adnate. Gill opening lateral, somewhat oblique, rather small, less than the distance between the two fellows. Dorsal origin usually midway between gill opening and vent or moderately nearer vent, sometimes a little nearer gill opening ; dorsal, anal and caudal fins rather low, continuous around posterior end. Pectoral moderate (for an echelid). Teeth rather small, pointed, moderately differing in size; no canines; teeth in upper jaw in two irregular rows ; anterior teeth of lower jaw somewhat larger and in two rows, in one row poster¬ iorly ; palatal teeth in two rows anteriorly, in one row posteriorly, the teeth growing- smaller backward and extending approximately to opposite angle of mouth ; premaxillary teeth in one arched row, usually 5 in number, varying 3-7 ; jaw, palatal and premaxillary teeth in rather close proximity to one another. Ground color yellowish or brownish ; anteriorly lower half a nearly uniform color, upper half or so very thickly peppered with tiny dark specks, the speckled part increasing in width posteriorly to cover nearly entire side near posterior end of fish. Measurements of 7 specimens 223-356 mm and 4 specimens 121-146 mm : body 39-41 (38-40) ; trunk 30-31 (28-29) : tail 58-61 (60-62) ; antedorsal 24-29 (24.5-26.0) ; head 9.0-10.5 (9-11) ; upper jaw 2. 5-3. 3 (2. 5-3. 2) ; lower jaw 2. 1-3.1 (2. 1-3.0) : snout 1.3-1. 8 (1.2-1. 9) : eye 0.6-0. 9 (0. 6-1.1) ; depth 2. 7-3. 2 (2. 7-3. 4) ; pectoral 1.3-2. 2 (1.0-1. 5) ; distance from dorsal origin to vent 11.5-15.5 (12.0-14.5), 1.9-2. 6 (2. 0-2. 4) times in trunk. Specimens examined from the following localities: Corpus Christi, Aransas Pass, Copano Bay, Warwick Bayou and Galveston (including the type of Myrophis lumbri¬ cus, 30896), Texas; Grande Isle, Louisiana; Biloxi, Mississippi; Dauphin Island, Ala¬ bama; Boca Grande and Fort Jefferson, Florida; Beaufort, North Carolina. The largest specimen is 356 mm, from Beaufort. One large specimen, 426 mm, landed at Freeport, Texas, by a fishing boat, pre¬ sumably taken off the coast of Texas, and submitted by J. L. Baughman differs from the smaller specimens on which the above account is based, as follows. The teeth are more numerous; in three irregular rows in the upper jaw; in two rows in the lower jaw; in three rows on the palate tapering to one row posteriorly. Many of the teeth are comparatively stouter and not as pointed as in the smaller specimen. The pre¬ maxillary teeth are absent, but the bone is irregularly pitted and it seems as though teeth were present in earlier life. Its other characters, as well as its proportional measurements, agree with or fall within the range of variation of the smaller speci¬ mens. It is darker than the smaller specimens; but the densely puncticulate color pattern of punctatus is evident, although somewhat obscure. It is evidently an indi¬ vidual of this species, the differences noted being due to its size. The smaller specimens of this species are apparently taken along the coast, generally in muddy places; although habitat data for most constituent samples exam¬ ined are lacking. The large specimen, brought in by a fishing boat, was very likely taken offshore. The fragmentary data available would then seem to suggest that the smaller specimens live inshore and move out offshore to attain to some size. 1951, No. 3 September 30 Eels of the Gulf Coast 46 5 AHLIA Jordan and Davis Ahlia Jordan and Davis, Rep. U. S. Comm. Fish. 1888: 639, 1891 (genotype My ro phis egmontis Jordan by original designation and by monotypy) This genus differs from Myrophis Liitken by the absence of a row of palatal teeth. Parr (1930) reduces Ahlia to the synonymy of Myrophis chiefly because of the discovery of new species showed that the position of the dorsal origin, one of the two characters by which the two genera were formerly distinguished, cannot be main¬ tained. He then suggests the possibility that the difference in the dentition might be a growth character. However, I examined small specimens of A. egmontis, as small as 57 mm, and find that the dentition is essentially as in the adult, including the lack of a median palatal row of teeth. As the palatal dentition is one of the main characters, perhaps the primary character, that is currently used for separating echelid genera, and it is in general of generic importance in the classification of apodal fishes, it seems that the difference in the dentition is enough to maintain Ahlia as distinct from Myrophis, af least tentatively, until the family is revised. As to the dorsal origin, it appears that in many related echelid species, this character differs widely with the species and varies intraspecifically to a considerable extent. Consequently, this char¬ acter, as it relates to such species, is best considered as being important at the species level only. The status of Ahlia is also discussed by Myers and Storey (1939, p. 158) and Wade (1946, p. 199), who conclude that it deserves recognition. AHLIA EGMONTIS (Jordan) Myrophis egmontis Jordan, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia 36: 44, 188 5 (Egmont Key, Florida) — Parr Bull. Bingham Ocean. Coll. 3(4): 9, 193 0 (included in key) Ahlia egmontis Jordan and Davis, Rep. U. S. Comm. Fish. 1888: 639, 1891 (based on type)- — Jordan and Evermann, Bull. U. S. Nat. Mus. 47: 73 0, pi. 60, fig. 15 8, 1896 (based on type) Slender, compressed. Tail longer than body, moderately tapering. Eye medium, 1.3-2. 3 in snout. Mouth and jaws moderate ; lower jaw 3. 5-4.0 in head ; angle of mouth at a moderate distance behind eye, a vertical through middle of eye nearer angle of mouth than tip of lower jaw ; premaxillary teeth covered or a little exposed with the mouth closed. Snout blunt, moderately projecting beyond lower jaw, 5. 1-6.1 in head. Upper lip not differentiated ; lower lip partly differentiated by a short groove at angle of mouth. Posterior nostril large, placed at rim of gape, its larger part within the gape, under anterior margin of eye, its outer anterior part only with a wide, flaring, soft margin ; anterior nostril a broad, low tubule, placed at lateral profile a short distance from end of snout, upper margin of tubule indented, with a narrow, short tab rising from low point of indentation. Tongue adnate. Gill opening lateral, moderately oblique, rather small, less than space between the two fellows. Dorsal origin at a moderate distance behind vent ; dorsal, anal and caudal moderately de¬ veloped, continuous around posterior end. Pectoral moderate (for an echelid), subequalling snout. Teeth in jaws in one row ; in upper jaw the rows from the two sides approach closely in front ; palatal teeth two, side by side, or one on midline, placed so as to bridge space between the two rows of jaw teeth or slightly in front ; premaxillary teeth 3-5, in a curved row. Color almost uniformly yellowish or brownish in gross effect, without definite color marks visible to naked eye ; under magnification tiny, almost microscopic, dark dots appear, very densely sprinkled over entire fish except lower part of head and trunk and fins. Measurements of 3 specimens 329-410 mm and 2 specimens 209-276 mm: body 42-43 (40-41), trunk 33-34 (33). tail 57-58 (59-60), antedorsal 43-45 (44-45). head 8.4-8.9 (7.9-S.4), upper jaw 2. 6-2. 7 (2. 5-2. 7), lower jaw 2.2-2. 4 (2. 1-2. 3), snout 1.4-1. 5 (1.4-1. 6), eye 0. 8-1.0 (0.6-0. 9), depth 2.7 (2. 0-2. 7), pectoral 1.3-1. 7 (1.0-1. 6), distance vent to dorsal origin 1. 2-3.0 (3. 6-4. 7). Specimens examined from the following localities in Florida: Egmont Key (the type, 35086), Boca Grande, Alligator Reef, Tortugas. The largest specimen is 410 mm. This species is readily distinguished from Myrophis punctatus, its nearest rela¬ tive in the Gulf by the position of the dorsal origin behind the vent, the presence of only one row of teeth in the jaws and the absence of a row of palatal teeth. family OPHICHTHIDAE Scales absent. Moderately stout to excessively slender and worm-like. Tail longer than body to shorter than trunk. Mouth small to very large, upper jaw longer than lower and premaxillary teeth, wTien present, more or less exposed, except in Mystrio- phis jaws subequal in front. Lips partly or almost wholly separated by a groove, or continuous with surface of head. Posterior nostril large, rounded, partly or wholly surrounded by a raised membranous edge, placed on lip (or in a position normally 466 The Texas Journal of Science 1951, No. 3 September 30 occupied by the lip, when lip indistinguishable), under anterior margin of eye or more forward, except in Verma a narrow slit placed just above lip. Anterior nostril opening in a bulging tubule, or a spheroidal protuberance, except in Letharchus, placed nearly in a horizontal line with posterior nostril. Tongue adnate, except in Mystriophis and Gordiichthys. Gill opening transverse, oblique, or lengthwise in large part, mod¬ erate or large. Dorsal, anal and pectoral fins present or absent; caudal absent, the dorsal and anal, when present, terminating at some distance before end of tail, leav¬ ing posterior point without fin fold. Teeth tapering, pointed, small to large, moder¬ ately or hardly differing in size in different series in most genera; palatal and jaw teeth in one to four irregular rows, depending on the species, and also on intraspecific change with growth in some species; premaxillary teeth in a single arched row, mod¬ erately or well separated from palatal and jaw teeth, except absent in Letharchus. For practical purposes, based on readily determinable, external characters, fishes of this family are recognized by the finless posterior point, and by the position of the posterior nostril, placed on the lip or just above it. KEY TO THE OPHICHTHID EELS HERE TREATED a. Lips differentiated by a well marked groove. Posterior nostril an elongate or oval slit, without a raised flaring rim, with a straight flap attached , entad of the upper margin; placed directly above groove separating lip. All fins absent. Tail longer than body. Worm-like _ _ Verma kendalli (p. 468). aa. Lips not differentiated or only slightly so near angle of mouth. Posterior nostril variably large, rather rounded, with a broad flaring edge; placed on rim of gape, or slightly above. Dorsal present (hidden in Crypto pterygium and visible externally as a slight ridge) ; anal and pectoral present or absent. b. Dorsal origin behind gill opening. Posterior nostril moderately large, placed a little above rim of gape and at some distance in front of eye (except in Ophichthus gomesii) . Tail longer than body. Pectoral rather well developed. Comparatively stout eels, with a variably large gape and strong jaws and dentition (except in O. gomesii). Teeth in jaws extending their entire length. c. One or two teeth on palate and 2-4 anterior teeth on side of each jaw notably larger than others, canine. Tongue free. Jaws subequal in front _ Mystriophis (p. 468). d. Largest spots in medium sized specimens subequal to distance from tip of snout to posterior margin of eye, roughly in 3 lengthwise rows at widest part of spotted area (spots change in size and number with growth, see descriptions and discussion in text) _ _ Mystriophis intertinctus (p. 470). dd. Largest spots in specimens of about comparable size subequal to snout, roughly in 3 lengthwise rows _ Mystriophis mordax (p. 470). ddd. Largest spots in specimens of about comparable size a little smaller than snout, roughly in 6 lengthwise rows _ - Mystriophis punctifer (p. 474). cc. Teeth medium to rather large, their size only moderately differing in the different series. Tongue adnate. Snout moderately projecting be¬ yond lower jaw _ Ophichthus (p. 475) e. Tail 53-57; lower jaw 2. 1-2. 5 times in head. Palatal teeth in one row, except 2 teeth side by side in front of row present or absent. Pos¬ terior nostril moderately large, placed a little above edge of gape and at some distance before eye. With a median row of white spots. Teeth rather large. 1951, No. 3 September 30 Eels of the Gulf Coast 467 £. Dorsal origin over end of pectoral or at a moderate distance more for¬ ward or slightly behind. Antedorsal distance 14.0-17.5. White spots comparatively large, eye divided by largest spots equalling 0.7- 1.4 _ _ _ _ 2 _ Ophichthus ocellatus (p. 476). ff. Dorsal origin behind a vertical through pectoral end at a distance nearly equalling snout length. Antedorsal distance 19.0. White spots rather small, the largest 2 in eye _ _ _ _ _ _ 1 _ Ophichthus gut lifer (p. 476). fff. Dorsal origin behind a vertical through pectoral end at a distance a little over three snout lengths, nearly equalling postorbital part of head. Antedorsal distance 23.5. White spots subequal to eye _ ■ _ _ _ Ophichthus retropinnis (p. 477) . ee. Tail 62-67; lower jaw 2. 8-3. 2 times in head. Palatal teeth in 2 rows, becoming 4 irregular rows in large specimens. Posterior nostril not¬ ably large, placed on rim of gape under anterior margin of eye. With¬ out a median row of white spots. Teeth moderate. Dorsal origin over pectoral end or a short distance more forward _ _ _i~- _ _ _ _ _ Ophichthus gomesii (p. 478). bb. Dorsal origin before gill opening, on a vertical a little behind angle of mouth. Posterior nostril notably large, placed on rim of gape under anterior part of eye. Tail shorter than body. Pectoral very small or absent. The depth moderate or notably slender, with small mouth and rather weak jaws. Snout tapering, well overhanging lower jaw. g. Anterior mandibulary teeth moderately or slightly larger than posterior ones; anterior palatal, and premaxillary teeth, when present, mod¬ erately large. Tongue adnate (unknown for Crypto pterygium) . h. Dorsal, and anal when present, exposed. i. Pectorals very small. Gill opening lateral, transverse or oblique, the dis¬ tance between the two fellows subequal to opening. Tail subequal to trunk or moderately shorter, tail 44-47, trunk 47-50. Very slen¬ der, subterete to moderately compressed, the depth 1.1 -2. 6. Teeth in upper jaw beginning before eye and ending a short distance from angle of mouth. Anal present _ Bascanichthys (p. 478). j. Depth 1.7-2. 6, 2. 2-3.1 times in head; upper jaw 1.2-1. 8 times in depth _ __ — - - - - — - - Bascanichthys teres (p. 479). jj. Depth 1.1-1. 6, 3. 4-5. 4 times in head; upper jaw 0. 7-1.0 times in depth - - - i - - - Bascanichthys scuticaris (p. 480). ii. Pectorals absent. Gill opening placed low, near ventral profile, its out¬ line altogether visible when viewed from ventral aspect, running lengthwise in large part, the space between the two fellows less than the opening. Tail much shorter than trunk; tail 39-41; trunk 51-54. Moderately elongate, compressed, the depth 2. 2 -3.0. Row of teeth in upper jaw very short beginnning under eye and ending some dis¬ tance from angle of mouth. k. Anal fin and premaxillary teeth present .. Callechelys muraena (p. 480). kk. Anal fin and premaxillary teeth absent _ Letharchus velifer (p. 481). hh. Dorsal and anal fins hidden under the skin, visible externally as a slight ridge. Tail 33, trunk 61. Slender, compressed, depth 1.7 _ - - - - Cryptopterygium holochroma (p. 482). gg. Anterior mandibular teeth rather well or notably larger than posterior ones; anterior palatal and premaxillary teeth well enlarged (perhaps 468 The Texas Journal of Science 1951, No. 3 September 30 enough so to be designated canine). Tongue free (unknown for irretitus ). Tail 3 5-3 6, trunk 5 8. Body excessively elongate, worm¬ like, the depth 0.9-1. 3 _ ... Gordiichthys (p. 483). I. Palatal teeth in one row, anterior 4 large, posterior 6 abruptly smaller - - - _ Gordiichthys irretitus (p. 483). II. Palatal teeth 5, large, in two rows; no small teeth behind anterior large ones - Gordiichthys springeri (p. 484). VERMA Jordan and Evermann Verma Jordan and Everman, Bull. U. S. Nat. Mus. 47(1): 374, 1896 (geno¬ type Sphagehranchus kendalli Gilbert by monotypy) This genus differs from all other eels here treated by the absence of all fins. The posterior nostril, in its position and structure, differs from other ophichthid eels (and from echelids as well), and it is doubtful whether this genus properly belongs to the Ophichthidae. VERMA KENDALLI Gilbert Sphagehranchus kendalli Gilbert, Bull. U. S. Fish. Comm. 9: 310, 1891 (off Turkey Key, Florida; 2 5 fathoms) — Jordan and Davis, Rep. U. S. Comm. Fish 1888: 615, 1891 (based on type) Verma kendalli Jordan and Evermann, Bull. U. S. Nat. Mus. 47(1): 375, 1896 (apparently based on original specimen) Very slender, rounded, vermiform. Tail longer than body, moderately tapering for a rather short distance. Eye very small, 1.8-2. 9 in snout. Mouth and jaws medium ; lower jaw 3. 5-4. 8 in head ; angle of mouth at a considerable distance behind eye ; tip of lower jaw only a short distance in front of vertical through anterior margin of eye ; premaxillary teeth slightly or hardly exposed with the mouth closed. Snout rather long, 5. 3-5. 8 in head, tapering, notably projecting beyond lower jaw. Lips differentiated by a well developed groove, except for a short distance in front. Posterior nostril an elongate narrow or oval slit, without a raised edge, with an oval flap attached a little within its upper margin, placed just above groove separating lip, under anterior margin of eye ; anterior nostril a broad somewhat elongate tubule, placed on ventral aspect cf snout, near lateral profile, at some distance from end of snout. Tongue adnate. Gill openings medium, oblique, placed very low, its complete outline better viewed from ventral than lateral aspect, the space be¬ tween the two fellows narrower than opening. All fins absent. Teeth small, pointed, taper¬ ing ; no canines ; in one row in jaws and on palate ; palatal teeth extending to a short dis¬ tance behind a vertical through posterior margin of eye ; premaxillary teeth moderately larger than others, in a V-shaped row, typically 5 in number, often any one tooth in row missing ; jaw, palatal and premaxillary teeth rather well spaced. Color a nearly uniform yellowish, sometimes with a grayish or purplish tinge ; no distinctive markings in preserved specimens. Measurements of 5 specimens 171-311 mm: body 45-47, trunk 40-41, tail 53-55, head 6. 0-6. 3, upper jaw 2. 2-2. 8, lower jaw 1.3-1. 8, snout 1.1 in all, eye 0.4-0. 6, depth 1.2-1. 4. Specimens examined, including the type (44304), taken on the coast of Florida in 25-42 fathoms, off the following localities: Turkey Key, Key West, Fowey Rock, Miami. The largest specimen is 311 mm. This species is readily distinguished from all eels here treated by the following combination of characters: its extremely slender, vermiform body, the characteristic overhanging long, tapering snout, the structure and position of the posterior nostril, the absence of all fins and the dentition. M YSTRIOPHIS Kaup Mystrio[)his Kaup, Cat. Apod. Fish. Brit. Mus., p. 10, 18 56 (genotype Ophisurus rostellatus Richardson by monotypy) Echiopsis Kaup, ibid., p. 13 (genotype Ophisurus intertinctus Richardson by monotypy) Crotalopsls Kaup , Abhand. Naturw. Ver. Hamburg 4 (abt. 2): 12, 1860 (genotype Crotalopsis punctifer Kaup by monotypy) Moderately deep, moderately tapering for a rather short distance posteriorly, subterete to moderately compressed. Tail a little longer than body. Eye medium, 1.5-2. 7 in short snout. Mouth and jaws large; lower jaw 1. 8-2.1 in head; angle of mouth far behind eye, posterior margin of eye considerably nearer tip of snout than 1951, No. 3 September 30 Eels of the Gulf Coast 469 angle of mouth; jaws subequal in front or upper slightly longer than lower. Snout rather short, 6. 3-8. 3 in head, very moderately tapering. Lips not differentiated. Pos¬ terior nostril moderately large, placed slightly above rim of gape and a little in front of eye, its outer rim widely flaring, inner rim slightly or moderately flaring; anterior nostril placed rather close to posterior one, with a moderately raised suborbicular tubule. Tongue moderately free. Gill opening placed on lower half of side, trans¬ versely curved, large, wider than the distance between the two fellows. Dorsal origin behind a vertical through end of pectoral at a distance about equal to pectoral length, varying a little both ways; dorsal and anal fins rather well developed; anal having a variable stretch, at a short distance from its end, lower than parts immediately pre¬ ceding and following; a similar stretch on dorsal i .sually of lesser development. Pec¬ toral moderately developed. Teeth tapering, pointed; size of teeth differing widely in different positions, some of them conspicuously large, canine; teeth in jaws extend¬ ing over their entire length; palatal and jaw teeth in two rows for their greater part, the two rows in the jaw well separated; teeth in lower jaw in one row anteriorly, in two rows on side for nearly its entire length, the posterior 2 to 4 teeth in the anterior single row rather large, canine, graduated, growing larger posteriorly, the teeth in the outer row directly behind canines small, increasing in size posteriorly, becoming large on middle of side, but not as large as anterior canines, then decreas¬ ing again backward to angle of mouth, teeth in inner row small, not notably differing in size; relative size of teeth on side of upper jaw about same as in lower, except some small teeth, in front of anterior 2-4 canines, placed directly over anterior canines of lower jaw, anterior canines of upper jaw placed directly over the small teeth fol¬ lowing the canines in lower jaw, teeth in inner row of upper jaw somewhat larger than similarily placed teeth in lower jaw; premaxillary teeth 4-9 in a single curved row, decreasing in size from symphysis backward, well or moderately separated from teeth on side of jaw; one large straight canine, the largest of all, on midline of palate, at a short distance behind premaxillary teeth, very often a second tooth very close to and before, beside or behind it, the second tooth, when present, usually smaller, sometimes the two teeth subequal, posterior palatal teeth comparatively small, in two rows converging backward and becoming a single row for a short distance pos¬ teriorly, not reaching to opposite angle of mouth, often a few additional teeth form¬ ing additional rudimentary one or two rows; the small palatal teeth separated by a short interval from the one or two anterior canines. Ground color usually yellowish or brownish sometimes grayish, with a pinkish tinge; the ventral aspect moderately or notably lighter than upper part, uniformly colored; upper part for about half or two-thirds the width spotted; spots on head very small or mere dark points, thickly sprinkled, becoming larger on nape; dorsal and anal with a dark or black margin, continuous or interrupted. Mystriophis differs from Ophichthus in having well developed canines; the snout is shorter and does not project beyond the lower jaw, and the mouth is larger. It differs from all ophichthid genera here treated, except Gordiichthys, in having the tongue moderately free. Jordan and Davis (1891,p. 634) place the species here described in the genus Mystriophis, and this treatment was generally followed by later authors. However, the type of that genus, Ophisurns rostellatus Richardson (18 44, p. 105), is described by its author, and by Gunther (1870, p. 56), as having the palatal teeth canine and in a single row. It is, therefore, possible that it is genetically distinct from the species here included in Mystriophis. If so, our species should be placed in Echiopsis. But lacking specimens of rostellatus for comparison current usage is here followed. Structural characters given under the genus heading are practically the same in the three species here treated and are not repeated under their accounts. The size and number of the spots differs with the species and intraspecifically with growth. The spots are not arranged in definitely regular rows, especially in the species in which the spots are numerous. However, in order to present the differences between the species they are described as though they were in rows. The number of rows as stated under the species descriptions rather refers to the number of spots touched by an imaginary very narrow transverse band placed across the widest part of the spotted area. The characteristic color pattern of every species evidently does not fade except after very long immersion in preservative. It is well marked in every specimen form¬ ing the basis of the following accounts of the species. A few specimens examined that were preserved nearly 100 years ago are partly faded and are not included in these accounts. 470 The Texas Journal of Science 1951, No. 3 September 30 I have been unable to solve with a measure of satisfaction the problem of speciation among the Gulf eels of the genus Mystriophis by means of the available material. Proportional measurements and the dentition are nearly alike in the speci¬ mens examined, or they do not indicate any possible differences of specific magni¬ tude. They differ conspicuosly in the color pattern, in the relative size and number of the spots. A comparison of large available specimens shows such a striking differ¬ ence in the color pattern that taxonomists will generally agree that more than one species is involved. The main difficulty is that the size and number of spots change with growth. They decrease in relative size and increase in number as the fish grows. Therefore, in order to distinguish the species properly by the color pattern, it is nec¬ essary to have an adequate sample in a graded size range in every species and compare specimens of approximately like size. Such a necessary collection of specimens is not now available. Consequently, a final and definitive solution of the problem must await the accumulation of more extensive collections. Tentatively, based on the scant number of specimens examined, three Gulf species are here distinguished by color only. What is presumably the type of one species, mordax, was examined. The proper application of the other two names, intertinctus and punctifer, the types of which were not examined, is attended with a considerable measure of doubt. Three large specimens of punctifer, 890-1190 mm, compared with 2 specimens of mordax 940-1110 mm, and 3 specimens of intertinctus 842-977 mm, have the spots much smaller and much more numerous. The 3 specimens present such a strikingly different appearance that there is hardly any question that they belong to a distinct species. While it is difficult to express such a difference in terms of definite figures, it is decidedly abrupt without any gradually intergrading specimens. In a 646 mm specimen of punctifer the spots are relatively larger and less numerous than in the large specimens of the same species; but distinctly smaller and more numerous than in comparable specimens of the other two species. The difference in the color pattern between mordax and intertinctus is not as striking as between either one of these species and punctifer. When compared size for size, the spots in mordax are smaller than in intertinctus (but notably larger than in punctifer ) and more widely spaced. The difference in appearance is such as to indicate to a high degree of probability that the specimens examined represent two distinct species. MYSTRIOPHIS INTERTINCTUS (Richardson) Ophisurus intertinctus Richardson, Voy. Erebus and Terror, p. 102, 1844 (West Indies) Ophichthys intertinctus Gunther, Cat. Fish. Brit. Mus. 8: 57, 1870 (West Indies) Mystriophis intertinctus Jordan and Davis, Rep. U. S. Comm. Fish. 1888: 63 5, 1891 (West Indian fauna, north to western Florida) In specimens 230-372 mm largest spots larger than distance from tip of snout to pos¬ terior margin of eye, roughly in 2 lengthwise rows, without smaller interpolated spots ; in specimens 728-842 mm largest spots slightly larger than snout and eye combined, roughly in 3 lengthwise rows, a few smaller spots interpolated between the larger ones : in specimens 958-977 mm largest spots subequal to snout and eye combined or slightly smaller, roughly in 4 rows, a moderate number of smaller spots interpolated between the large ones. Specimens examined from off or at the following localities: Cape Fear, North Carolina (151927, 151981); Clearwater Harbor (23635) and Pensacola (17126, 32758), Florida; west Florida (22865, 49797); St. Thomas (6956, specific identifi¬ cation of locality not given). Altogether 8 specimens examined 230-977 mm. The largest specimen is from off Cape Fear; the largest Gulf specimen is 842 mm from Pensacola. This species is recognized by its large spots as discussed under the account of the genus. MYSTRIOPHIS MORDAX (Poey) Conger mordax Poey, Mem. Hist. Nat. Cuba 2: 319, 1860 (Cuba) Macrodonophis mordax Poey, Rep. Fis. Nat, Cuba 2: 2 52, ph 2, fig. 9, 1867 (Cuba) — Poey, Syn. Pise. Cub., p. 42 5, 1868 (Cuba) Crotalopsis mordax Poey, Enum. Pise. Cub., p. 153, 1876 (Cuba) Table 8. — Ranges of proportional measurements of three species of Mystriophis, segregated in size groups, expressed as a percentage of standard length. 1951, No. 8 September 80 Eels of the Gulf Coast 471 472 The Texas Journal of Science 1951, No. 3 September 30 FIGURE 11. — -Mystnophis intertinctus; U. S. N. M. 151927; 977 mm; Cape Fear, North Carolina. FIGURE 12. — Mystnophis mordax; U. S. N. M. 152990; 1110 mm; off Mississippi Delta. 1951, No. 3 September 30 Eels of the Gulf Coast 473 FIGURE 13. — Mystriophis mordax; from the type; M. C. Z. 9220; 940 mm; Cuba; specimen evidently faded in part. In a specimen 351 mm largest spots a little smaller than snout and eye combined, roughly in 3 lengthwise rows ; in specimens 428-671 mm largest spots about equalling sncut, roughly in 3 lengthwise rows; in 2 specimens 940-1110 mm largest spots smaller than snout and a little larger than eye, roughly in 4 lengthwise rows ; interpolated spots in all specimens, many or in moderate numbers. Specimens examined from or off the following localities: Padre Island, Texas (154995, Pelican Station 113-8; 30 fathoms); off Mississippi Delta; 30 fathoms; Stewart Springer; 1110 mm; the largest specimen (152990); Tampa (152251) and Garden Key (5984), Florida; Cuba (M.C.Z. 9217 and 9220, the latter the type). Altogether 6 specimens 351-1110 mm. In the size of the spots this species is in a sense intermediate between mordax and intertinctus, but distinctly nearer the latter and rather widely discontinuous with that of mordax. The spots are smaller and usually more widely spaced than in like- sized specimens of intertinctus. Specific differences in the size and spacing of the spots on the nape, as well as on the body, are well marked on direct comparison of speci¬ mens size for size. The relationship between the three species is further discussed under the account of the genus. It is doubtful whether the specimen which is entered as the type of mordax in the catalog of the Museum of Comparative Zoology, is in reality the same specimen which served as the basis of Poey’s description of that species. The author states: "Le corps . . . couvert de taches . . . les plus grandes ne depassant pas cinq milli¬ metres . . .” This statement applies well to large specimens — such as Poey described — of that species which is here designated as punctifer: ; while the largest spots in the presumed type specimen actually are about 10 mm. Assuming that this specimen is the type, it is difficult to see how Poey could have made this error in view of his categorical statement. Nevertheless, the name here applied is based on the assumption that it is the type. A minor discrepancy is in the length of the specimen. Poey gives the length of his specimen as 990 mm, whereas the specimen in the M.C.Z. measures 940 mm. However, this discrepancy may be explained as being partly due to shrink¬ age and partly to the difficulty of making very accurate measurements of eels which have become curled in preservative. 474 The Texas Journal of Science 1951, No. 3 September 30 MYSTRIOPHIS PUNCTIFER (Kaup) Crotalopsis punctifer Kaup, Abh. Naturw. Ver. Hamburg 4 (abt. 2): 13, pi. 1, fig. 3, 1860 (Puerto Cabello) — Springer and Allen, Copeia, 1932 (2): 105 (off Horn Island, Mississippi; specimen now bears U. S. N. M. 12 591 1 and is the largest one included in the following account) Ophichthys punctifer Gunther, Cat. Fish. Brit. Mus. 8: 56, 1870 (Puerto Cabello) In a specimen 646 mm largest spots slightly smaller than snout, slightly larger than eye, an imaginary narrow transverse band crossing widest part of spotted area touching about 6 of larger spots ; interpolated spots moderately smaller than large spots ; in 3 speci¬ mens 890-1190 mm largest spots smaller than eye, the above imaginary band touching about 10 spots ; spots variable in size but not definitely divisible into two size groups. Specimens examined: Texas; landed by a fishing boat at Freeport, Texas, appar¬ ently captured off the coast of that state, sent in by J. L. Baughman of the Texas Game, Fish and Oyster Commission; 2 specimens 890-950 mm (152240). Off Corpus Christi Pass, Texas; Pelican Station 108-12, lat. 27° 42’ 30” N, long. 96° 21’ 30” W; 35 fathoms; 646 mm (154996). 12 miles off Horn Island, Mississippi; Stewart Springer; November 17, 1931; 1190 mm (125911). This species is characterized by its small and numerous spots when compared size for size with specimens of the other two species of Mystriophis, as discussed under the account of the genus. FIGURE 14. — Mystriophis punctifer; U. S. N. M. 125911; 1190 mm; off Horn Island, Mississippi. 1951, No. 3 September 30 Eels of the Gulf Coast . 475 OPHICHTHUS Ahl Ophichthus Ahl, Specimen Ichthyologicum de Mureana et Ophichtho. Inaug. Dissert. LJpsala, p. 6, 1789 (genotype Muraena ophis Linnaeus by later designation) Ophichthys Bleeker, Atlas Ichthyologique des Indes Orientales Neerlandaises 4: 36, 1864 ( Ophichthys [sic] opbis Ahl = Muraena ophis Linnaeus designated as genotype) Moderately deep, tapering. Tail longer than body. Eye medium, 1. 3-2.0 in snout. Mouth and jaws rather large; lower jaw 2. 1-3.2 in head; angle of mouth at some dis¬ tance behind eye, a vertical through middle of eye bisecting lower jaw or a little nearer its tip than angle of mouth; premaxillary teeth slightly or a little exposed with the mouth closed. Snout of moderate length and taper, 4.8-6. 1 in head, moderately extending beyond lower jaw. Lips hardly or very moderately differentiated, lower lip usually somewhat more so than upper. Posterior nostril placed at some distance before eye and a little above rim of gape, its size and raised rim moderate (except in gomesii, see its description); anterior nostril ending in a tubule, near edge of gape at a moderate distance from end of snout. Tongue adnate. Gill opening placed on lower half of side, transversely curved, moderately large, subequal to interval between the two fellows. Dorsal origin behind gill opening, differing from a short distance in front of a vertical through end of pectoral to a moderate distance behind. Dorsal and anal fins rather low or moderate, more or less modified posteriorly, a variable stretch of fin lower than parts immediately preceding and following, the rays in this stretch thicker than others (see below discussion of this structure). Pectoral comparatively rather well developed. Teeth tapering, pointed, moderate to rather large, moderately differing in size in different areas, none conspicuously larger than others to be desig¬ nated canine; teeth extending over entire length of jaws; typically teeth in jaws in two rather well separated rows and in one or two rows on palate depending on the species; inner row of lower jaw often more or less incomplete in ocellatus and retropin- nis\ in gomesii teeth in jaws and on palate increasing in number with growth to form bands of teeth in large specimens; premaxillary teeth 4-8 in a single curved row, some¬ times one tooth behind row in gomesii; groups of premaxillary, jaw and palatal teeth slightly or rather well separated from one another. The differences between Ophichthus and the other genera of its family are indi¬ cated in the key. It is most nearly related to Mystriophus and the differences between them are discussed under that genus. The name Ophichthus rests on uncertain grounds; because later authors failed to identify definitely Muraena ophis Linnaeus which has been designated by Bleeker as the genotype of Ophichthus. Norman (1922, p. 296) describes a new genus and species, Acanthenchelys spinicauda, based on a specimen from Tobago. He also states that Ophichthus ocellatus LeSueur belongs to the new genus which is "distinguished by the structure of the anal fin . . . having a series of short spines not far from the end of the tail.” I made an attempt to study the variability of this character in ocellatus and the other species here placed in Ophichthus and found it very difficult of precise determi¬ nation; because it is not sharply marked and depends to a large extent on the state of preservation of the specimens. Often the fins are contracted and adhere tightly to the body, or the specimens, including the fins, are too hardened by the preservative. Subject to these serious limiting factors, this structure and its variability may be de¬ scribed as follows. In ocellatus the anal fin for a moderate and variable stretch, at a moderate dis¬ tance before its end, is lower than the parts immediately preceding and following. The rays in this stretch are shorter and thicker and rather spine-like in appearance. Usually they are flexible at the tips, but sometimes moderately pungent. Often speci¬ mens seem to have this structure poorly developed or lacking, but such specimens are usually hardened by preservative and it is not possible to be certain whether the seem¬ ing lack of the structure is due to preservation. In favorably preserved specimens, the same structure is discernible also in the dorsal fin. Sometimes it is present in the dorsal and seemingly lacking in the anal or vice versa. In the one specimen each examined of guttifer and retropinnis this structure is present both in the dorsal and anal. In gomesii the same structure is discernible in the dorsal and anal in favorably preserved specimens, except that it is not as well developed as in the preceding three 476 The Texas Journal of Science 1951, No. 3 September 30 species, the rays are not as thick and they are more flexible. Also, the modification seems to be more often lacking than in ocellatus. Because of the difficulties in the precise determination of this character, it is not used here for the practical purpose of distinguishing the genera and species. OPHICHTHUS OCELLATUS (LeSueur) Mur aeno phis ocellatus LeSueur, Jour. Acad. Nat. Sc. Philadelphia 5: 108, pi. 4, fig. 3, 1 82 5 (South America) Ophichthys ocellatus Gunther, Cat. Fish. Brit. Mus. 8: 68, 1870 (Mexico) Ophichthus ocellatus Jordan and Davis, Rep. U. S. Comm. Fish. 1888: 630, 1891 (Snapper Banks near Pensacola) — Jordan and Evermann, Bull. U. S. Nat. Mus. 47(1): 383, pi. 64, fig. 169, 1896 (West Indian fauna, south to Brazil, north to Pensacola) — Schroeder, Copeia 1941 (1): 45 (off Pensacola; guttifer synonymized with ocellatus ) Lower jaw 2. 3-2. 6 in head. Dorsal origin usually in front of a vertical through pectoral end, at a distance about equalling eye diameter, varying from half an eye diameter to nearly the length of the snout (in 17 specimens), often directly over pectoral end (in 6), sometimes slightly behind this vertical (half an eye diameter behind in 1). Teeth rather large ; teeth in inner row of lower jaw. except for a short distance anteriorly, smaller than those in outer row and variable in number from a nearly complete row to a few ; most inner teeth of upper jaw subequal in size, and also in number to outer teeth ; palatal teeth in a single row extending to opposite posterior margin of eye or moderately behind, except often two small teeth, side by side, in front of anteriormost tooth, sometimes two such pairs or only one such tooth or absent altogether, anterior 2-5 teeth in main row rather large, subequal or moderately unequal, usually separated by an interval from following teeth, latter teeth smaller and decreasing in size posteriorly. Ground color brown above, yellowish below ; a row of rather large white spots, nearly median in position, along almost entire length of fish ; largest spots in any one specimen usually about equalling eye diameter, the ratio of the eye divided by the spot varying 0.7-1. 5 ; nuchal region often with a whitish, rather narrow stripe anteriorly and a few irregularly scattered spots, smaller than the median spots, posteriorly, sometimes with some other, shorter stripes or rows of small eoalescent whitish spots ; pores on head and lower jaw often marked by small brown spots. Measurements of 6 specimens 393-588 mm and 2 specimens 162-293 mm : body 46-47 (43-44), trunk 33-35 (32-33), tail 53-54 (57), antedorsal 14.0-17.5 in 21 specimens 342-594 mm (14.0-14.5), head 12.0-13.5 (10-11), upper jaw 5. 0-6. 3 (4.1-5. 0), lower jaw 4.6-5. 9 (3. 8-4. 3), snout 2.2-2. 7 (1. 9-2.0), eye 1.2-1. 7 (1.2), depth about 3. 3-4.1, not accurately de¬ terminable in most specimens examined (3.6), pectoral 4. 4-5. 5 (2. 7-3. 6). Upper jaw in head 2. 1-2.3 (2. 2-2. 5). Specimens examined from or off the following localities: Mobile, Alabama; Pensacola (including those recorded by Schroeder, 10 of those specimens that were preserved; M.C.Z. 35109), Cedar Keys, Englewood, Nassau Sound, Captiva Key and Matanzas Inlet, Florida; Brunswick, Georgia; Charleston and Sullivan Island, South Carolina; Beaufort Inlet, North Carolina. Six depth records recorded for the lots examined range 5-79 fathoms. The largest specimen is 640 mm from off Matanzas Inlet. The difference between this species, retropinnis and guttifer are discussed under the account of the latter. OPHICHTHUS GUTTIFER Bean and Dresel Ophichthys guttifer Bean and Dresel, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington 2: 99, 18 84 (Gulf of Mexico) Ophichthus guttifer Jordan and Davis, Rep. U. S. Comm. Fish. 1888: 630, 1891 (Snapper Banks near Pensacola)- — Jordan and Evermann, Bull. U. S. Nat. Mus. 46(1): 383, pi. 64, fig. 168, 1896 (Snapper Banks off Pensacola) Lower jaw 2.1 in head. Dorsal origin behind a vertical through pectoral end, at a dis¬ tance nearly equalling length of snout. Teeth rather large ; inner teeth in lower jaw, except for a short distance anteriorly, smaller than those in outer row, and fewer in number, more widely spaced ; teeth in both rows of upper jaw subequal in size and number ; palatal teeth in a single median row divided into two parts by a short interval, anterior part in front of eye level consisting of 4 teeth, increasing moderately in size posteriorly, posterior part longer, ending on a vertical at some distance behind eye, the teeth decreasing in size posteriorly. Light brown above, yellowish below ; a lengthwise, nearly median series of white spots from head to within a short distance from posterior end, largest of white spots approxi¬ mately 2 times in eye ; nuchal region with a transverse row of very small whitish spots anteriorly, and some shorter lengthwise rows in front of it, and with a few small, irregu¬ larly scattered, whitish spots posteriorly. 1951, No. 3 September 30 Eels of the Gulf Coast 477 Measurements of type specimen : total length 572 mm, body 46, trunk 33, tail 54, ante- dorsal 19, head 13, upper jaw 6.5, lower jaw 6.1, snout 2.5, eye 1.4, depth 3.8, pectoral 4. Upper jaw in head 2. .... Specimen examined: sent by Silas Stearns from Pensacola, Florida, without further data, probably captured by a fishing boat in the Gulf of Mexico, the type of species (32647). Three species of Ophichthus occurring in the Gulf, ocellatus, guttifer and retro- pinnis, agree in having a median series of white spots, and nearly agree in the den¬ tition, in the relative length of the body and tail and most other measurements. The differences between them are here conveniently discussed together. The chief difference is in the relative position of the dorsal origin. In 24 speci¬ mens of ocellatus examined, 23 have the dorsal origin on a vertical through the end of pectoral or a variable and short distance in front of this vertical, varying to a snout length in front as a maximum. In only one specimen of the 24, the dorsal originates slightly behind this vertical, at a distance about equalling half an eye diameter. In the single known specimen of retropinnis the dorsal origin is at a distance behind that ver¬ tical equalling a little over three snout lengths. Although retropinnis was not rediscov¬ ered since it was described more than 60 years ago, it is evidently a valid species. The size of the white spots in retropinnis is about as in ocellatus. The dorsal origin in the single type specimen of guttifer is rather intermediate between the above two species, but nearer to ocellatus. It is behind the vertical indi¬ cated above, at a distance slightly less than the length of the snout or about equalling \V2 times the eye. The type of guttifer thus differs appreciably from the 24 speci¬ mens of ocellatus examined. Another difference is in the size of the white spots which are appreciably smaller in the type of guttifer. The size of the white spots in ocellatus varies with the individual and also in different parts of the body of the same specimen. The size of the largest spots in the 24 specimens of ocellatus examined varies from a little larger than the eye to slightly more than 2/3 the eye diameter as a minimum, while in guttifer the largest spots are Vi the eye diameter. The relative size of the spots in the two species is fairly indicated in the two figures published by Jordan and Evermann ( above citation ) . From the above comparison of the type of guttifer with a fair sample of ocellatus , 24 specimens from a considerable geographic range of the species, I draw the follow¬ ing conclusion. There is some possibility that the type of guttifer is an extreme variant of ocellatus. However, in that case it would be necessary to assume that it is an ex¬ treme variant in two characters. Considering the evidence, it is more likely that it represents a valid species. Furthermore, in order to solve the entire problem satisfac¬ torily it is necessary to determine the intraspecific variability in the position of the dorsal origin and the size of the spots in retropinnis also. Since the position of the dorsal origin in the cype of guttifer is to a certain extent intermediate between that in ocellatus and retropinnis, there is also a remote possibility that guttifer is based on an example of retropinnis. Consequently, from a practical viewpoint it seems best to recognize tentatively all three species as distinct. Very likely this will prove to be correct after an examination of adequate samples when they become available. Differences in the position of the dorsal origin between the three species are also shown by the relative length of the antedorsal distance; 14.0-17.5 per cent of the length in 23 specimens of ocellatus, 19.0 and 23.5 in the types of guttifer and retro¬ pinnis, respectively. OPH1CHTHUS RETROPINNIS Eigenmann Ophichthys retropinnis Eigenmann, Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus. 10: 116, 1888 (Pensacola, Florida; taken from the stomach of a fish) Ophichthtts retropinnis Jordan and Davis, Rep. U. S. Comm. Fish 1888: 630, 1891 (based on same specimen) — Jordan and Evermann, Bull. U. S. Nat. Mus. 46(1): 3 83, 1896 (Snapper Banks off Pensacola) Lower jaw 2.4 in head. Dorsal origin behind a vertical through pectoral end at a dis¬ tance a little more than three snout lengths, nearly equal to postorbital part of head. Teeth rather large, inner row of lower jaw incomplete and the teeth notably smaller than in outer row ; in upper jaw both rows complete and the teeth subequal ; palatal teeth virtually in a single row extending to a vertical a little behind eye, the teeth decreasing in size pos¬ teriorly, a short interval between third tooth in row and the following teeth, two teeth side by side, one on either side of midline, at some distance in front of and smaller than first tooth in median row. The specimen examined, taken from the stomach of a fish, is in an early stage of digestion. The skin on the left side is nearly all gone, but on the right side enough is left to show a number of the white median spots the largest of which are subequal to the eye. 478 The Texas Journal of Science 1951, No. 3 September 3(J Measurements of type specimen : length 523 mm, body 47, trunk 35, tail 53, antedorsal 23.5, head 12, upper jaw 5.2, lower jaw 4.9, snout 2.2, eye 1.5, depth 3.2, pectoral 5.1. Upper jaw in head 2.3. Specimen examined: the type (38054), 'taken from the stomach of some other fish” and "sent in by Mr. Silas Stearns,” presumably taken by a fishing boat off Pensacola, Florida. The differences between this species, ocellatus and guttifer are discussed above under the account of the latter. OPHICHTHUS GOMES1I (Castelnau) Opbisurus gomesii Castelnau, Animaux nouveaux ou rares l’Amerique du Sud, p. 84, pi. 44, fig. 2, 18 5 5 (Rio de Janeiro) Opbicbthys gomesii Gunther, Cat. Fish. Brit. Mus. 8: 60, 1870 (after Castelnau) Opbicbtbus gomesii Jordan and Davis, Rep. U. S. Comm. Fish. 1888: 632, 1891 (Charleston to Rio Janeiro) — Jordan and Evermann, Bull. U. S. Nat. Mus. 47 (1): 3 84, 1896 (South Carolina to Rio de Janeiro) Lower jaw 2. 8-3. 2 in head. Posterior nostril notably large, its rim well developed, placed on edge of gape under anterior margin of eye. Dorsal origin varying from a point over pectoral end to a point more forward about equalling snout. Teeth moderate, arch of pre¬ maxillary row often curving sharply at symphysis resulting in a V shaped row, sometimes having gross effect of two nearly parallel, approximated rows at anterior end of upper jaw, sometimes one tooth not aligned in the row, placed on area bounded by arch ; in medium sized specimens, 320-420 mm, in two rows in jaws, inner teeth slightly smaller than outer ; in such specimens palatal teeth in two moderately or well separated rows anteriorly, con¬ verging posteriorly and becoming a single irregular row for a short distance at its posterior end, the palatal teeth moderately decreasing in size posteriorly and extending to a point about opposite angle of mouth : with growth, maxillary, palatal and mandibular teeth in¬ creasing in number, the bands of teeth in 4 irregular somewhat incomplete rows at about 600 mm ; in 2 specimens 211-238 mm teeth in jaws in 2 rows as previously stated for the medium sized specimens, but outer row of mandibular teeth incomplete posteriorly. Yellow¬ ish or brownish, darker above, lighter below, dorsal and anal edged with black for ihe.r greater part or only posteriorly, no distinctive markings. Measurements of 18 specimens 319-609 mm and 2 specimens 211-238 mm: body 36-38 (33-34), tail 62-64 (66-67), trunk 25-27 (22-24), antedorsal 13.0-15.5 (13), head 10.0-12.0 (10.5-11.5), upper jaw 3. 7-4.5 (4.2), lower jaw 3. 3-4. 2 (3. 5-3. 7), snout 1.9-2. 4 (1.8-1. 9), eye 1.0-1. 4 (1. 2-1.4), depth 4.0-5. 1 (3. 6-4. 2), pectoral 3.6-5. 1 (4.2-4.5). Upper jaw in head 2. 5-2. 8 (2. 5-2.7). Specimens examined from the following localities: Charleston, South Carolina; Cape Canaveral, Key West, Gulf Port, Apalachicola, Cape San Bias, and Pensacola, Florida; Bayou La Batre, Alabama; Mississippi Sound; Bayou St. Denis and Grand Isle, Louisiana; Freeport, Port Aransas and Padre Island, Texas; Puerto Rico; Rio de Janeiro. Only one depth record, 13 fathoms, is available for the lots examined. Most other specimens were apparently taken in shallow water. The largest specimen is 609 mm, taken in Bayou St. Denis. This species is easily distinguishable from the other three species of its genus here treated by its notably longer tail, the shorter trunk, the presence of 2-4 rows of palatal teeth, the position of the posterior nostril and the absence of white spots. In the size of the mouth and the strength of the jaws, this species is somewhat intermediate between the two major groups of genera, not counting V erma, dist¬ inguished in the key. In the relative length of the tail it diverges notably from both groups. In the position and structure of the posterior nostril it nearly agrees with the second group. On a constructive revision of the family it might be found desirable to place gomesii in a genus distinct from that of the three other species here placed in Ophichthus. BASCAN1CHTHYS Jordan and Davis Bascanicbthys Jordan and Davis, Rep. U. S. Comm. F’ish. 1888: 621, 1891 (genotype Caecula bascanium Jordan by original designation) Very slender, depth 1.1 -2. 6; subterete to moderately compressed, or subtriangular in cross-section. Tail a little shorter than body. Eye small, 1. 8-3.6 in short snout. Mouth and jaws small; lower jaw 4. 3-6. 7 in head; angle of mouth behind eye, a ver¬ tical through middle of eye about bisecting lower jaw, varying a little both ways; premaxillary teeth a little exposed with the mouth closed. Snout short, 5-9-7. 9 times in head; subconical; well projecting beyond lower jaw. Upper lip not differentiated; 1951, No. 3 September 30 Eels of the Gulf Coast 479 lower lip separated by a slight groove at angle of mouth. Posterior nostril notably large, placed on rim of gape under anterior half of eye, its outer half with a broad, flaring, raised margin, inner half without raised margin; anterior nostril a broad, bulging, low tubule, placed at edge of gape directly in front of lower jaw. Tongue virtually adnate, its rim slightly projecting. Gill opening placed on lower half of side, transversely rounded, of moderate extent, subequalling space between the two fellows. Dorsal origin on head, a short distance behind a vertical through angle of mouth; dorsal and anal low or moderate. Pectoral very small; in medium sized speci¬ mens subtriangular and its length about equalling eye diameter, becoming rather broad and slightly longer in large fish. Teeth pointed, only moderately differing in size in different areas; no canines; teeth in lower jaw extending over its whole length; teeth in upper jaw beginning before eye and ending a short distance from angle of mouth; jaw teeth typically in one row, often an incomplete second row in upper jaw varying from one to a few teeth in the larger specimens, infrequently a second row in small part in anterior portion of lower jaw; palatal teeth in two rows anter¬ iorly tapering to one row or one tooth on midline posteriorly, ending more or less before a vertical through angle of mouth; premaxillary teeth usually 3, disposed as the apices of an imaginary triangle, varying 2-4; premaxillary and anterior palatal teeth subequal and moderately larger than all others. The preceding description of the dentition is based on the specimens examined of teres and scuticaris, with the exception of one large specimen of scuticaris in which the teeth, especially the premaxillary teeth, are in greatly increased numbers as de¬ scribed under its species. Ground color brownish or yellowish, variable, light to dark; upper half darker than lower; a longitudinal, nearly median row of whitish spots, along nearly entire length of fish, curving upward in front of gill opening, the spots sharply marked or faint, often absent, each spot directly over a pore; dorsal and anal usually lighter colored than body. Both species have the same variable color pattern. BASCANICHTHYS TERES (Goode and Bean) Sphagebranchus teres Goode and Bean, Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus. 5: 436, 18 82 (West Florida) Caecula bascanium Jordan, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia 36: 43, 188 5 (Egmont Key, Florida) Bascanichthys bascanium Jordan and Davis, Rep. U. S. Comm. Fish 1888: 621, 1891 (based on type) — Jordan and Evermann, Bull. U. S. Nat. Mus. 47 (1): 379, 1896 (based on type) The number of teeth not showing a definite change with growth in 8 specimens 351-798 n?rn. exaiRined : teeth in upper jaw in one row, except a second row in small part con¬ sisting of 1-2 teeth in 3 specimens 419-525 mm ; in all specimens one row in lower jaw, on palate 2 rows anteriorly tapering to one row posteriorly, 2-3 premaxillary teeth. Measurement of 5 specimens 486-798 mm : body 53-55, trunk 47-50, tail 45-47, antedorsal 2. 1-3.1, eye 0.3-0. 5 and 1.8-2. 6 times in snout. In 8 specimens 351-798 mm : head 4. 1-6. 5, depth 1.7-2. 6, upper jaw 1. 1-1.8, lower jaw 0.9-1. 2, snout 0. 6-1.0. Depth 2.2-3. 1 times in head ; upper jaw in depth 1.2-1. 8, lower jaw in depth 1.6-2. 2, snout in depth 2. 1-3.1. Snout 5. 9-7. 9, and lower jaw 4.6-6. 7 times in head. Specimen examined from Corpus Christi, Texas; Mississippi coast; Lemon Bay, Florida; also the type specimens from "West Florida.” The largest specimen is from Corpus Christi. LECTOTYPE. — U. S. N. M. 31457. The type jar contains 3 specimens, one of them stouter than the other two and its depth falls near the center of the range of varia¬ tion of teres\ the others approach the distribution of scuticaris. As the two species ap¬ proach closely in their distinguishing characters, it seems best to designate a lectotype, and the deeper specimen, 525 mm long, is so designated. The differences between this species and B. scuticaris are discussed under the ac¬ count of the latter. SYNONYMY. — The type of bascanium was not examined. (The type specimen ap¬ pears to have been lost; see Storey 1939, p. 75.) That name is placed in synonymy on the basis of the original description. Jordan states that bascanium differs from scuticaris and teres "by the shorter head and better developed pectoral fin.” The head in the type of bascanium was 4.5 per cent of the total length, which falls within the range of variation of teres , The size of the pectoral increases in large specimens of both teres and scuticaris, and the size of the type of bascanium, 31 inches, is near the 480 The Texas Journal of Science 1951, No. 3 September 30 maximum attained by either species, which accounts for the "better developed pec¬ toral.” The depth of the type specimen, 2.5 times in head, is near the center of the range of variation of teres and outside that of scuticaris. BASCAN1CHTHYS SCUTICARIS (Goode and Bean) Sphagebranchus scuticaris Goode and Bean, Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus. 2: 343, 18 80 (Cedar Key, Florida) Bascanichthys scuticaris Jordan and Davis, Rep. U. S. Comm. Fish. 1888: 621, 1891 (Pensacola, Punta Rassa and Egmont Key, Florida)™ Jordan and Evermann, Bull. U. S. Nat. Mus. 47(1): 378, pi. 63, fig. 165, 1896 (West coast of Florida) The number of teeth increasing with growth. In upper jaw teeth in a single row in 2 specimens 260-370 mm; in 11 specimens 464-623 mm in a single row or partly in 2 rows depending on the individual, in one row in the largest of these, in 2 rows in small part in smallest. In lower jaw in one row in all the above 13 specimens, except in 2 rows in small part anteriorly in one specimen 568 mm. In same 13 specimens, palatal teeth in 2 rows anteriorly tapering to a single row or to one tooth on midline posteriorly, and premaxillary teeth usually 3, varying 2-4. l'n the largest specimen (755 mm, the type), in upper jaw in 2 rows and partly in 3 rows, in lower jaw in 2 rows in large part on palate in 3 irregular rows anteriorly tapering to 1 tooth on midline ; premaxillary teeth in greatly increased numbers, 10 altogether, irregularly arranged. Measurement of 6 specimens 531-755 mm : body 53-55, trunk 48-50, tail 45-47, antedorsal 2. 0-3. 5, eye 0.3-0. 5 and 2. 0-3. 6 times in snout. In 13 specimens 260-755 mm; Head 4. 8-6. 5, depth 1.1-1. 6, upper jaw 1.3-1. 9, lower jaw 0.9-1. 5, snout 0. 7-1.1. Depth in head 3. 4-5. 4 times, upper jaw in depth 0. 7-1.0, lower jaw in depth 0.9-1. 6, snout in depth 1. 1-2.0. Snout 5. 9-6. 9 and lower jaw 4. 3-5. 7 times in head. Specimens examined from Aransas Bay, Texas; Pensacola, Cedar Keys (the type, 23636) and Lemon Bay, Florida; off Cape Hatteras, North Carolina. The latter specimen taken by the Pelican at 11 fathoms; no depth record available for the others. The largest specimen is the type, 755 mm. This species differs from B. teres chiefly in proportional measurements, the most conspicuous of which is the body depth, scuticaris being more slender. Most specimens are distinguishable on sight by this difference when compared size for size. Others, at a glance, appear to be intermediate in body depth. But determination of the pro¬ portional depth measurements of all available specimens shows no intergradation between the two species although they closely approach in this character. Further¬ more, scuticaris, while having a more slender body, averages a longer head, upper and lower jaw, and snout. Therefore, the ratios of these four measurements as compared with the depth measurement, are given under both species, in the same order, for the purpose of comparison. This should help to place specimens which are near the borderline with respect to depth measurement. CALLECHELYS Kaup Callechelys Kaup, Cat. Apod. Fish. Brit. Mus., p. 28, 18 56 (genotype Calle- chclys guicbenoti Kaup by monotypy) This genus, judged by the one species studied, C. muraena, is nearest to Let bar- chus. Both genera about agree in the position, direction and shape of the gill open ing, the short row of teeth in the upper jaw, the rather high dorsal fin, the short tail and the absence of pectorals. Callechelys differs in having an anal fin. The generic characters are included below in the description of the single Gulf species examined. Another species previously described from the Gulf from a single specimen which was not examined is discussed below. CALLECHELYS MURAENA Jordan and Evermann Callechelys muraena Jordan and Evermann, Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus. 9: 466, 18 86 (Snapper Banks between Pensacola and Tampa Bay) — -Jordan and Davis, Rep. U. S. Comm. Fish. 1888: 620, pi. 87, 1891 (based on type) — Jordan and Evermann, Bull. U. S. Nat. Mus. 47: 378, pi. 63, fig. 164, 1896 (based on type) Compressed, moderately slender. Tail shorter than trunk. Eye small, 1. 8-2.0 times in short snout. Mouth and jaws small ; lower jaw 4. 2-4. 3 times in head ; angle of mouth at a considerable distance behind eye, a vertical through posterior margin of eye nearer tip of lower jaw than angle of mouth ; premaxillary teeth exposed with the mouth closed. Snout short, 7. 0-8. 5 times in head, its dorsal aspect rounded, notably overhanging the short lower jaw. Lips slightly differentiated near angle of mouth. Posterior nostril notably large, placed 1951, No. 3 September 30 Eels of the Gulf Coast 481 on rim of gape under anterior margin of eye, its anterior rim well developed and flaring, its posterior rim moderately so ; anterior nostril ending in a rather well developed tubule, placed on lateral profile, somewhat nearer end of snout than posterior nostril. Tongue adnate. Gill opening placed low, its entire outline visible on ventral as well as on lateral aspect, placed horizontally in large part, curving downward in front, the space between the two fellows smaller than opening. Dorsal and anal fins rather well developed, dorsal begin¬ ning on head not far behind angle of mouth ; no pectoral fin. Teet'h medium, moderately differing in size ; in one row in jaws ; row in upper jaw short, beginning at posterior nostril and ending at some distance before angle of mouth, the teeth small ; row in lower jaw beginning at symphysis and ending at angle of mouth, the teeth rather large anteriorly decreasing in size posteriorly ; palatal teeth in two rows anteriorly one row posteriorly, anterior teeth comparatively large, 3 in each row, teeth in posterior row 3-4, smaller ; premaxillary teeth 3, the anterior one on midline, the other two side by side, behind and close to anterior tooth, the teeth about as large as the anterior palatal teeth. Ground color yellowish, rather thickly spotted or clouded with rather small, diffuse, brown spots. Measurements of 2 specimens 329-584 mm: body 60-61, trunk 52, tail 39-40, antedorsal 2. 8-3. 2, head 8. 1-8.4, upper jaw 2. 3-2. 6, lower jaw 1. 9-2.0, snout 1.0-1. 2, eye 0.5-0. 6, depth 2. 4-3.0 Two small specimens, 84-167 mm, have the upper jaw and palatal teeth some¬ what more numerous and the rows a little longer. Proportional measurements also differ moderately from the larger specimens, as follows: Body 55-5 6, trunk 47-49, tail 44-4 5. Specimens examined all from the west coast of Florida: Snapper banks between Pensacola and Tampa Bay (37996, the type 329 mm). Pensacola Harbor (44651, 584 mm). Clearwater Harbor (39652, 167 mm). Marco ( 152252, 84 mm). This species is readily distinguished from other Gulf ophichthids, except C. perryae, by the combination of its generic and specific characters. Its relationship is discussed above under the genus. Storey (1939, p- 71) describes a new species, Callechelys perryae , based on a specimen, 734 mm, taken off Sanibel Island, Florida. Converting the author’s given figures to percentages of the total length to make them comparable with the method of description used in this paper, the proportional measurements of her type specimen are: trunk 61, tail 33, antedorsal 2.5, head 6.7, snout 0.9 and eye 0.3. This specimen then has a notably longer trunk and shorter tail than the 4 smaller specimens in¬ cluded in the above account. LETHARCHUS Goode and Bean Letharchus Goode and Bean, Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus. 5: 436, 1882 (genotype Letharchus velifer Goode and Bean by monotypy) This genus is readily distinguished from the other ophichthid genera in the Gulf by the presence of a well developed dorsal fin in combination with the absence of anal and pectoral fins. Other notable characters are the absence of premaxillary teeth and the relatively short tail. The non-tubular anterior nostrils constitute a good distinguishing character. The generic characters are included below under the descrip¬ tion of the single species known from the Gulf. This genus is structurally nearest Callechelys as discussed under that genus. LETHARCHUS VELIFER Goode and Bean Letharchus velifer Goode and Bean, Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus. 5:437, 1882 (West Florida) — -Jordan and Davis, Rep. U. S. Comm. Fish. 18 88: 616, 1891 (Pensacola)- — Jordan and Evermann, Bull. U. S. Nat. Mus. 47: 375, pi. 61, fig. 160, 1896 (Snapper Banks off Pensacola and Tampa) Compressed, depth medium. Tail shorter than trunk, moderately tapering for a short distance posteriorly. Eye very small, 1.7-2. 2 in the very short snout. Mouth and jaws small ; lower jaw 5. 3-6. 6 in head ; angle of mouth behind eye, a vertical through posterior margin of eye nearer end of lower jaw than angle of mouth. Snout very short, 9.4-10.9 in head, notably produced beyond lower jaw, its dorsal aspect rounded. Lips differentiated poster¬ iorly by a moderate groove extending forward to under eye. Posterior nostril large, placed on ventral aspect of lip under anterior part of eye, anteriorly with a wide, flaring, soft margin, posteriorly with hardly any raised margin ; anterior nostril without a raised rim, its margin irregularly scalloped, placed on ventral aspect of snout, near lateral profile agd at a moderate distance from its tip. Tongue adnate. Gill opening low, its entire outline en¬ tering ventral aspect, nearly lengthwise in position, the two fellows diverging only slightly backward, the space between them at their anterior end much narrower than the opening. Dcrsal fin present, rather high (for an ophichthid), beginning on head at a short distance behind angle of mouth. Anal and pectoral fins absent. Teeth medium, moderately differing in size, no canines ; teeth usually in one row in jaws ; row in upper jaw short, beginning- near posterior nostril and ending at some distance before angle of mouth ; row in lower jaw about reaching angle of mouth or nearly so ; extent of palatal teeth moderate, ending at a short distance behind eye, in two rows anteriorly, usually in one row posteriorly ; 482 The Texas Journal of Science 1951, No. 3 September 30 sometimes teeth in upper jaw in two rows or palatal teeth 2-rowed all the way ; anterior palatal teeth somewhat larger than others premaxillary teeth absent. Almost uniformly brown of variable shades of intensity, except lower part of head somewhat lighter, without distinctive color marks ; dorsal fin in contrast light colored with a dark margin. Measurements of 5 specimens 311-454 mm: body 59-62, trunk 51-54, tail 39-41, antedorsal 2.7-310, head 7. 6-8.0, upper jaw 1. 7-2.0, lower jaw 1. 2-1.5, snout 0.7-0. 9, eye 0.3-0. 5, depth 2.2-3. 0. Specimens examined: West Florida (31-458, the types) and Gulf of Mexico (43571), without any more definite locality. Pensacola, Florida, (44868). Pensacola Harbor (44650, 44659, 44661). Off Deadmans Bay, Florida, 10 fathoms, 60 mm (131944). Total number of specimens 26, 48-488 mm. The striking distinguishing characters of this species, as compared with other Gulf eels are stated under the genus heading. CRYPTOPTERYGIUM, new genus Genotype. — Crypto pterygium holochroma, new species. This genus is apparently near Callechelys, differing chiefly in that the dorsal and anal fins are hidden under the skin. Other generic characters are included below in the description of the genotype. CRYPTOPTERYGIUM HOLOCHROMA, new species The single specimen on which this species is based came to me dissected in small part. Possibly it was also mutilated in part while being captured. As a consequence, the presence or absence of pectoral fins, the precise shape of the gill opening and the structure of the tongue are not definitely deter¬ minable. Also, a small part from the ventral aspect has been cut away and FIGURE 15. — Cryptopterygium holochroma; from the holotype; U. S. N. M. 154994; 801 mm; off Cape Fear, North Carolina. 1951, No. 3 September 30 Eels of the Gulf Coast 483 the precise position of the anus is unknown. Therefore, the determined rela¬ tive length of the body and tail, and also that of the head and trunk, on account of the injury to the gill opening, might be somewhat off. However, I am confident that any such error is slight. Otherwise, the specimen is in good condition and its essential characters and relationship readily determin¬ able. Its striking color pattern should result in the identification of the species when rediscovered, without difficulty. Slender, moderately compressed. Tail about one half as long- as body, well tapering. Eye very small, 2.9 times m snout. Mouth and jaws small ; lower jaw 5.2 in head ; angle of mouth at a considerable distance behind eye, a vertical through posterior margin of eye nearer tip of lower jaw than angle of mouth ; premaxillary teeth exposed with the mouth closed. Snout moderate, 6.9 in head, well projecting beyond lower jaw. Lips not differen- entiated. Posterior nostril large, placed on edge of gape under anterior part of eye, with a raised, thin, flaring rim, well developed anteriorly, moderate posteriorly ; anterior nostril in a tubule placed on ventral aspect of snout, a short distance behind its end, at the lateral profile. (Gill opening placed low, oblique, of moderate size, a little larger than space be¬ tween the two fellows; gill openings partly destroyed and given description tentative.) Dorsal and anal rays rather well developed but hidden under the skin, the fins visible ex¬ ternally as a slight mid-dorsal and ventral ridge. Teeth slender, pointed ; no canines ; teeth in upper jaw small in a very short row (4 on one side 6 on the other), beginning near posterior nostril and ending far from angle of mouth ; teeth in lower jaw considerably larger, in one row extending nearly entire length of jaw ; palatal teeth still larger, in two rows somewhat diverging backward, 3 in each row and one on midline behind and between the two rows ; premaxillary teeth two, side by side, about as large as palatal teeth ; upper jaw, palatal and premaxillary teeth widely spaced. Ground color whitish, with a yellowish tinge in places ; thickly covered all over, includ¬ ing ventral aspect, with black spots ; a row of large spots saddled on back, roughly quad¬ rangular but their boundaries irregular, unequal in size, spaced irregularly, sometimes two coalescent, in general growing smaller posteriorly; a similar row of spots on ventral aspect of tail ; a very irregular row of smaller, rounded spots below the large spots on trunk ; still smaller spots, of variable size, rather thickly and irregularly scattered all over, includ¬ ing the ventral aspect and the spaces between the larger spots described ; spots on head distinctly smaller than those on body and tail. Measurements of type specimen : total 801 mm, body 67, trunk 61, tail 33, antedorsal 2.1, head 5.7, upper jaw 1.7, lower jaw 1.1, snout 0.8, eye 0.3, depth 1.7. HOLOTYPE.— U. S. N.M. 154994; Pelican Station 183-9; lat. 33° 30’ N, long. 78° 13’ 30” W ; off Cape Fear, North Carolina ; 12 fathoms ; trawl. This species is easily recognized by its having the dorsal and anal fins covered by skin and visible externally as a slight ridge, and by its profusely, all over, spotted color pattern, including the ventral aspect. GORDIICHTHYS Jordan and Davis Gordiichthys Jordan and Davis, Rep. U. S. Comm. Fish. 1888: 644, 1891 (genotype Gordiichthys irretitus Jordan and Davis by original desig¬ nation) The genotype of Gordiichthys was based on a single mutilated specimen (see below), and the genus placed in the family Muraenesocidae. I now examined another specimen in a better state of preservation which is an ophichthid and is described hereafter as Gordiichthys springeri. This latter specimen has the same pattern of den¬ tition as G. irretitus, although it differs in detail. The two species also nearly agree in the shape of the head, the extreme slenderness, the extent of development of the dorsal fin, and the relative length of the body and tail. Therefore, I conclude that the two species are near in relationship and belong to the same genus, perhaps to two closely related genera. From this it further follows that Gordiichthys is more properly placed in the Ophichthidae. GORDIICHTHYS IRRETITUS Jordan and Davis Gordiichthys irretitus Jordan and Davis, Rep. U. S. Comm. Fish. 18 88: 644, 1891 ("from the spewings of snappers ... on the Snapper Banks at Pensacola’5) This species is known only from the type, a specimen in an advanced state of digestion taken from the stomach of a fish. The type consists of two separate parts which appear to belong to the same specimen; but even this is not altogether certain. The lower part of the trunk, and an undeter¬ mined posterior part of the fish, probably a short part, are altogether miss¬ ing. The skin is gone and the structure and position of the nostrils and gill 484 The Texas Journal of Science 1951, No. 3 September 30 opening are indeterminable, and the presence or absence of a pectoral fin is not definitely determinable. Assuming that the two parts belong to the same fish and that only a small posterior part is missing, the following very roughly approximate measurements have been determined. Total length 75 5 mm. Body 64, tail 36, antedorsal 2.7, depth 0.9. Mouth small ; snout tapering, well overhanging the lower jaw, premaxillary teeth ex¬ posed. Teeth variably stout more or less recurved, short or of moderate length, compara¬ tively few in number, in one row in jaws and on palate ; teeth in upper jaw 9 on right side 6 on left, moderate as compared with the largest teeth, decreasing in size posteriorly, the row beginning under eye and ending at some distance from angle of mouth ; anterior 3 or 4 (differ on the two sides) in lower jaw large and very stout, gradually decreasing in size posteriorly (a small tooth at symphysis in front of anteriormost and largest tooth on left side only), these followed by 5 or 6 abruptly smaller teeth but also gradually decreasing in size posteriorly, the row extending nearly from symphysis to angle of mouth ; anterior 4 palatal teeth large and very stout (the second tooth short but also stout in specimen ex¬ amined), followed by 6 abruptly smaller teeth, the row extending to opposite angle of mouth ; premaxillary teeth 3 closely approximated, 2 side by side and one in front bridging the space between them, somewhat stouter and larger than any of the other teeth. This species is compared with G. springeri under the account of the latter. While the single known type specimen is in a bad state of preservation, the characters of the species are so well marked, as compared with other known Gulf eels, that there should be no difficulty in identifying specimens when the species is rediscovered. GORD11CHTHYS SPRINGERI , new species Very elongate, depth 1.3 per cent, compressed anteriorly, rounded posteriorly. Tail shorter than trunk. Eye small, 2.1 times in short snout. Mouth and jaws small ; lower jaw 5.1 in head ; angle of mouth at some distance behind eye, a vertical though posterior margin of eye somewhat nearer tip of lower jaw than angle of mouth ; premaxillary teeth exposed with the mouth closed. Snout short, 7.7 in head, notably extending beyond short lower jaw. Lips probably not differentiated (not well preserved). Posterior nostril on ventral aspect of lip, under anterior part of eye. (Anterior nostril largely destroyed, probably in a short tubule at a short distance from end of snout.) Tongue free. Gill openings placed low, nearly horizontal posteriorly, curving downward anteriorly, the space between the two fellows FIGURE 16. — Gordiichthys springeri; from the holotype; U. S. N. M. 121604; 372 mm; off Salerno, Florida. 1951, No. 3 September 30 ' Eels of the Gulf Coast 485 narrow, less than diameter of small eye. Dorsal origin at a short distance behind a vertical through angle of mouth; dorsal and anal rays rather well developed (the skin binding and covering the rays largely missing). Pectorals absent. Teeth small and medium, depending on their position, recurved ; upper jaw with a short row of 5 small teeth, beginning under posterior part of eye and ending at some distance before, angle of mouth; lower jaw with one row of teeth (10 on right side, 5 on left, some apparently missing on that side), extend¬ ing from its anterior end to within a moderate distance of angle of mouth, the first tooth small, the second notably larger, decreasing in size posteriorly ; palate -with a group of 5 teeth, 4 larger than lower jaw teeth, roughly arranged in 2 closely proximate rows, the fifth tooth smaller on median line, between and at front of two rows, no other teeth on palate ; premaxillary teeth 3, about as large' as palatal teeth, closely approximated, 2 side by side and one in front and between them (latter tooth mising in specimen examined, but scar left by it faintly evident). Ground color a light yellowish; with large brown spots, subeqral to length of snout, varying moderately both ways, the spots irregularly arranged, very roughly in two very irregular rows. The color pattern is preserved in about the posterior half of the fish. Anteriorly the skin is largely digested ; but some small patches of skin which are still partly preserved show traces of the brown spots. Measurements of type specimen : body 65, trunk 58, tail 35, antedorsal 2.2, head 6.4, upper jaw 1.8, lower, jaw 1.3, snout 0.8, eye 0.4, depth 1.3. HOLOTYPE. — U. S. N. M. 121604. From stomach of Carcharhinus milberti taken off Salerno, Florida; in 18 fathoms; July 1-3, 1943; Stewart Springer; 372 mm. This species is evidently nearest Gordiichthys irretitus. The two species seem to nearly agree in some important proportional measurements and in the size of the mouth, jaws, snout and eye. The general character of the dentition is similar in both species. However, because of the state of preservation of the two available specimens, especially the bad state of preservation of irretitus, no detailed comparison can now be made between the two species, except to note a well marked difference in the den¬ tition on the palate. In irretitus the palatal teeth are in a single rather long row, the anterior four large, followed by 6 smaller teeth. In springeri the palatal teeth are 4 large ones (and a fifth smaller tooth) in 2 irregular rows and without any smaller teeth behind. This difference might prove to be of generic value when specimens in a good state of preservation are compared. The large teeth in irretitus are also notably stouter than in springeri. The species is named after Mr. Springer who obtained the type specimen from the stomach of a shark. LITERATURE CITED Baughman, J. L. — 1950 — Random notes on Texas fishes. Texas Jour. Sci. 2 : 127-128. Sleeker, Pieter — 1864 — Atlas Ichthyologique Des Indes Orientales Neerdlandaises, t. 4. Amsterdam. Bohlke, James E. — 1949 — Eels of the genus Dysomma, with additions to the synonymy and variation in Dysomma anguillare Barnard. Proc. California Zool. Club 1(7): 33-39. Facciola, Luigi — 1887 — Intorno a due lepadogastrini ed tin nuova Nettastoma del mare di __ Sicilia. Naturalista Slciliano. 6:163-167. Grassi, B. and S, Calandruecio — 1896 — Sullo sviluppo dei Murenoidi. Atti della Reale Acad¬ emia del Lincei, Rome (ser. 5) 5 (1) : 348-349. Gunther, Albert — 1870 — Catalogue of the fishes in the British Museum. Vol. 8. London. Jordan, David Starr and Bradley Moore Davis — 1891 — A preliminary review of the apodal fishes or eels inhabiting the waters of America and Europe. Rep. II. S. Comm. Fish. 1888:581-677. Lin, Stra-Yen — 19-33 — A new genus and three new species of marine fish from Hainan Island. Llngnan Sci. Jour. 2(1): 93-96. Myers, George S. and Margaret H. Storey — -1939 — Hesperomyrus fryi, a new genus and species of echelid eels from California. Stanford Ichthy. Bull. 1(4) : 156-159. Norman, J. R. — 1922 — A new eel from Tobago. Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., Ser. 9, 10:296-297. Norman, J. R. — 1925 — A new Eel of the Genus Congromuraena from Tobago, with notes on C. balearica and C. opisthophthalmus. Ann. Mag. of Nat. Hist., Ser. 9, 15 : 313-314. Parr, Albert Bide1 — 1930 — Teleostean shore and shallow-water fishes from the Bahamas and Turks Island. Bull. Bingham Oceanog. Coll. 3(4). Regan, C. Tate1 — 1912 — The osteology and classification of the teleostean fishes of the order Apodes. Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., Ser. S, 10 : 377-387. Reid, Earl D. — 1934 — Two new eongrid eels and a new flatfish. Smithsonian Misc. Coll. 91(15). Richardson, John — 1844 — Ichthyology of the Voyage of H. M. S. Erebus and Terror. 1844-48. London. Storey, Margaret Hamilton — 1939 — Contribution toward a revision of the ophichthyid eels. I. The genera Calleehelys and Bascanichthys, with descriptions of new species and notes on Myrichthys. Stanford Ichthy. Bulk 1(3) : 61-88. Trewavas, Ethelwyn — 1932 — A contribution to the classification of the fishes of the order Apodes, based on the osteology of some rare eels. Proc. Zool. Soc. London. 1932: 639-659. Wade, Charles B. — 1846 — Two new genera and five new species of apodal fishes from the eastern Pacific. Allan Hancock Pac. Exp. 9(7) : 181-213. Wood-Mason, J. and Alfred Alcock — 1891 — On the results of deep-sea dredging during the - season 1890-91. Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., Ser. 6, 8 : 119-138. CORRECTION In the account of Prionotus punctatus in this Journal, vol. 2 no. 4, p. 513, 1950, five- specimens are correctly listed from Uruguay. However, in discussing some special features of. these specimens the word “Paraguay9’ has been erroneously substituted for “Uruguay” in 4 places on the same page. 486 The Texas Journal of Science 1951, No. 3 September 30 1951, No. 3 September 30 A New Pelecypod 487 DESCRIPTION OF A NEW PELECYPOD OF THE GENUS ANADARA FROM THE GULF OF MEXICO LEO GEORGE HERTLEIN California Academy of Sciences A series of nine specimens of an arcid bivalve referable to the genus Anadara were recently sent to me by Mr. J. L. Baughman, of the Game, Fish and Oyster Commission, Rockport, Texas, These specimens, the largest of which measures 45 mm. in length and the smallest one 2 5.2 mm., were taken southeast of Port Aransas, Texas, in 40 fathoms. This pelecypod is said to occur abundantly in that area below the 40-fathom line. Comparison of shells of this species with those from east American waters as well as a search of the literature has failed to reveal any which are identical. The species is here described as new and is illustrated. It is named for Mr. j. L. Baughman who presented the specimens to the California Academy of Sciences. The photographs used for illustrations were made by Frank L. Rogers. class PELECYPODA order PRIONODESMACEA FAMILY ARC1DAE genus Anadara Gray Anadara baughmani Hertlein, new species Plate A, Figures 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 Shell of medium size, fairly thick, subrhomboidal, elongated, quite convex, posterior end slightly higher, obliquely rounded, anterior end with a faint depression just below and parallel to the hinge margin, the anterior dorsal margin sloping slightly outward and downward then merging into the broadly rounded ventral margin; umbos high, inflated, with a slight medial depression at the beaks; sculpture consisting of 26 rather high, squarish ribs some of which are faintly medially grooved toward the central portion of the ventral margin and as they approach the ventral margin all tend to become subobsolete; the ribs are lower on the posterior slope; the interspaces are wider than the ribs over most of the shell but on the anterior 4 - PLATE A FIGS. 1-6 — ■ Anadara baughmani Hertlein, new species. Holotype, from off Port Aransas, Texas, in 40 fathoms. Length, 45 mm.; height, 25.4 mm.; convexity (both valves together), 28 mm. Fig. 1. View of exterior of right valve. Fig. 2. View of anterior end. Fig. 3. View of interior of specimen shown in Fig. 1. Fig. 4. Umbonal view. Fig. 5. View of exterior of left valve. Fig. 6. View of interior of specimen shown in Fig. 5. FIG. 7 — Anadara baughmani Hertlein, new species. Paratype, from the same locality as the holotype. Length, 44 mm.; height, approximately, 28 mm.; convexity ( both valves together ) , 34.4 mm. Umbonal view. The valves of this specimen are much more convex and have a wider cardinal area than the holotype. 488 The Texas Journal of Science 1951, No. 3 September 30 portion they are about as wide as the ribs; concentric sculpture consisting of fine lines of growth which form fine beading on the tops of the ribs, also there are irregular concentric grooves representing growth stages cardi¬ nal area moderately wide, slightly wider anterior to the umbo, bearing 5 or 6 chevron-shaped ligamental grooves, the upper portion of the cardinal area beneath and anterior to the beaks is sculptured only with longitudinal lines of growth; hinge with rather fine teeth, 32 in the anterior series, 3 8 in the posterior series; ventral margin of valves with crenellations corresponding to the external ribs. Dimensions: length, 45 mm.; height, 2 5.4 mm.; con¬ vexity (both valves together), 28 mm. Holotype, No. 9539 and Paratypes Nos. 9540, 9541, 9542, 9543, Calif. Acad. Sci. Dept. Paleo. Type Coll., from off Port Aransas, Texas, in 40 fathoms; J. L. Baughman, collector. A paratype has been deposited in the Department of Paleontology at Stanford University and another in the San Diego Society of Natural History. Eight paratypes, also from southeast of Port Aransas, Texas, in 40 to 50 fathoms, were taken (September 16, 1951) since the original lot. These have been assigned Nos. 73 6A-H in the museum of the marine laboratory of the Game, Fish and Oyster Commission. The original nine specimens of this new species do not vary greatly in their general characters. The only notable difference is in one specimen (Plate A, Fig. 7) in which the cardinal area is exceptionally wide with corres¬ ponding convexity of the valves, and the irregular constrictions of the valves at various stages of growth are accentuated. The length of this shell is slightly less than that of the type specimen but the convexity (both valves together) is 34.4 mm. rather than 28 mm., and the width from the upper portion of the cardinal margin of one valve to the other is approxi¬ mately 9 mm. in comparison to approximately 5.5 mm. on the type and the ligamental grooves are more numerous. Study of the series of specimens suggests that the differences may be considered individual variation probably due to habitat. The species here described as new appears to have its greatest affinities with Miocene forms of the Atlantic slope and West Indies rather than with any known living species. The shell of Anadara baughmani n. sp. resembles that of the species described as Barbatia ( Dilnvarca ) dasia Woodring ( 192 5) from the upper Miocene of Bowden, Jamaica, but differs in the much more rounded and more obliquely sloping posterior dorsal margin in comparison to the straighter more nearly vertical slope of the Bowden species. The shell of the new species differs from that of Area ( Anadara ) pro- pearesta Mansfield (1932) described from the Choctawhatchee, upper Mio¬ cene of Florida, in that the posterior dorsal margin is less obliquely sloping the anterior end is shorter in proportion to the length, in the fewer teeth and in that the cardinal area appears wider than on the Floridan species, The shape of Area dariensis Brown & Pilsbry (1911) described from the Miocene Gatun formation, Isthmus of Panama, is somewhat similar to that of the new species. The fossil form differs decidedly in the more num¬ erous ribs (31) many of which are deeply grooved medially and in tfu straight obliquely truncated posterior dorsal margin. The general appearance of the species here described as new is some¬ what similar to that of Area ( Scapharca ) concinna Sowerby (1844) a trop¬ ical west American species, but differs in the less numerous ribs, greater con¬ vexity, equal valves and thicker shell. 1951, No. 3 September 30 A New Pelecypod 489 LITERATURE CITED Brown, Amos Peaslee, and H. A. Pilsbry. — 1911 — Fauna of the Gatun formation, Isthmus of Panama. Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila. 63 : 336-373. Page 362, pi. 22, fig. 10, July 27, 1911. “Gatun formation. Isthmus of Panama.” (Miocene). Mansfield, Wendell Clay. — 1932 — Miocene pelecypods of the Choctawhatchee formation of Florida. Fla. Geol. Surv. Bull. 8 : 1-240, 3 figs., 34 pis., Oct. 8, 1932. Page 52, pi. 5, figs. 2, 4, 6. “Upper Miocene: Cancellaria zone — station 11732, borrow pit near Jackson Bluff, Leon County, type locality (seven valves).” Florida. Sowerby, George Br,ettingham, 2nd.— 1844 — Conchologica Iconica .... continued by G. B. Sowerby, in Reeve “Conchologica Iconica.” 20 vols., London. See Area eoncinna Sowerby, Conch. Icon. Vol. 2, Area, sp. 34, pi. 6, fig. 34, Februrary, 1844. “Hab. Gulf of Nicoiya, Central America (found in coarse sand at the depth of twelve fathoms) ; Cuming.” — Maury, Paleontogr. Americana, Vol. 1 (4), 1922, p. 187(25), pi. 29(1), fig. 10 (as Area (Scapharca ) eoncinna). Panama. Woodring, Wendell Phillips. — 1925 — Miocene mollusks from Bowden, Jamaica ; pelecypods and scaphopods. Carnegie Inst. Wash. Pub. 366 : 1-222, 28 pis., May, 1925. Barbatia (Diluvarca)dasia Woodring, page 46, pi. 5, fig. 4. Bowden, Jamaica. Upper Miocene. 490 The Texas Journal of Science 1951, No. 3 September 30 NOTES RECORDS FROM EAST TEXAS OF THREE SPECIES OF FISH, SEMOTILUS ATRO- MACULATUS, NOTROP1S CORNUTA, AND MICROPERCA PROELEARIS. Of the many collections made in East Texas during the past two years several contain specimens that merit published record. Three of these species — Semotilus atromaculatus atromaculatus (Mitchill), Notropis cor nut a hole pis Hubbs and Brown, and Micro per ca proeiearis Hay— -are not included in Baughman’s Random Notes on Texas Fishes (Tex. Jour. Sci., 2, 1950: 117-138, 242-263). Semotilus atromaculatus atromaculatus has been collected in: (1) Venado Bayou, A/2 miles west of San Augustine, San Augustine County, in the Neches River System; (2) Harris Creek, 7 /2 miles east of Tyler, Smith County, in the Sabine River System; (3) creek, 1 mile east of Gilmer, Upshur County, in the Lake Caddo drainage; and (4) Haggerty Creek, 7 miles east of Marshall, Harrison County, in the Lake Caddo drain¬ age. These four records indicate that this species is fairly widely distributed in the northeastern corner of Texas. Notropis cornuta isolepis has been collected in Texas only in the Lake Caddo drainage, as follows: (1) Haggerty Creek, 7 miles east of Marshall, Harrison County; (2) Lawrence Creek, 6 miles northwest of Marshall, Harri¬ son County; (3) Eagle Creek, 4^2 miles west of Harleton, Henderson County; and (4) creek, 1 mile west of Harleton, Harrison County. These four records indicate that this species is common in the Lake Caddo area of Texas. Since Lake Caddo drains into the Red River, from which this subspecies was described, this range extension is not surprising. M icroperca proeiearis , or a closely related species, has been collected more frequently in Texas than either of the two previous species. The records are: (1) Peach Creek, 14 miles east of Conroe, Montgomery County, in the San Jacinto River System; (2) creek, 6 miles east of Livingston, Polk County, in the Trinity River System; (3) creek, 1 mile west of Saratoga, Hardin County, in the Neches River System; (4) Lake Caddo, 5 miles northeast of Karnack, Harrison County (3 times); (5) Haggerty Creek, 3 miles north¬ west of Karnack, Harrison County, in the Lake Caddo drainage (2 times); and (6) Rice’s Creek, 4 miles west of Maud, Bowie County, in the Sulphur River drainage (Red River). The specimens from the Red River system seem to differ slightly from those found in the Neches, Trinity, and San Jacinto River systems. — clark hubbs, department of zoology, univer¬ sity OF TEXAS. OBSERVATIONS ON THE BREEDING OF DIONDA EPISCOPA SERENA IN THE NUECES RIVER, TEXAS. On April 15, 19 51, while George G. Henderson, Jr., John D. Riggs, and the author were collecting fishes in the East Fork of the Nueces River at Barksdale in Edwards County, Texas, Dionda e pisco pa serena Girard was ob¬ served to be unusually colorful. The most pronounced coloration change that had taken place was the addition of considerable bright yellow-orange. This color was present on the proximal two-thirds of all fins and formed a streak, especially bright anteriorly, from the tip of the snout to the anterior base 1951, No. 3 September 30 Notes 491 of the anal fin. The yellow-orange color was superimposed on the normal color pattern, with no other major changes noted. Two breeding schools of Dionda were observed. The first was at the head of an artificial seep-spring inflow, about 50 feet long, located below the low-water bridge on State Highway 5 5. The water temperature here was 18° C, one degree cooler than in the main stream. The area was densely packed with breeding fish. When the collecting party approached, the majority of the fish departed for deeper water. Some, however, remained lodged in the gravel at the spring source. A few of these were found to have died. When the area was examined closely, a few eggs were discovered in the gravel. While looking for the eggs, the party discovered several breeding individuals, which had become buried in the spring as far as one foot from the water edge and more than one inch underground. These fish were in underground water and became very active when exposed. Shortly after the examination of the spawning area, the fish were again observed spawning at the same spot. The second spawning locality, with a water temperature of 17° C, was at a natural seep spring at the side of the river about a hundred feet down stream from the first. In this locality the spring was in the stream course at a depth of about one inch. When first examined the fish were breeding in an area about three feet square. The school was so thick that many fish were out of the water. As in the first locality the fish left the spring when it was approached. The area was re-examined five times at intervals of approxi¬ mately five minutes and the fish were found to be breeding each time, although in smaller numbers than at the first examination. Each time the fish milled around, as though greatly agitated. The spawning was apparently taking place in the inch of water overlying the spring. The heavy, but non¬ adhesive eggs became lodged in the gravel of the spring. Three hauls with a six-foot common-sense mesh seine were made around the second locality. Due to the shallow water and gravel bottom, a large majority of the specimens escaped capture. Enough fish, however, were ob¬ tained in the breeding area to show what species were most prevalent. As might be expected Dionda episcopa serena Girard, comprising about 75% of the specimens, was dominant, while it ranked sixth in the main stream. The next most common species was Gambusia af finis Baird and Girard, which ranked seventh in the main stream. The abundance of Gambusia in shallow water is to be expected. The third most common species is Poecilichthys lepidus (Baird and Girard), which was almost as abundant as the Gambusia. It also ranked third in the main stream. The abundance of this species in the still water might be explained by its choice of gravel bottom with spring water flowing over it. Notropis lutrensis (Baird and Girard) and Herichthys cyanoguttatus cyanoguttatus Baird and Girard were collected in small num- ers around the breeding locality. These species ranked fifth and eleventh re¬ spectively in the main stream. A single specimen of Lepomis megalotis aquil- ensis (Baird and Girard) was taken. This species ranked fourth in the main stream. The stomachs of the fishes collected around the breeding locality were checked for Dionda eggs with negative results. Several other species from the main stream were not collected around the breeding locality. They were, in order of abundance: Notropis amabilis (Girard) (first in abund¬ ance), Notropis venusta (Girard) (second), and rarely Campostoma anom- alum pullum (Agassiz), Micropterus salmoides (Lacepede) , Astyanax fasci- atus mexicanus (de Filippi) , Notropis lutrensis Notropis venusta hybrids, 492 The Texas Journal of Science 1951, No. 8 September 30 Ame turns natal is (LeSueur), and Ictalurus punctatus (Rafinesque) . The absence of Notropis venusta and N. ambalis in the breeding area was to be expected since they are not frequently found in shallow water. The remain¬ ing five species and the hybrids were taken so rarely in the main stream that their absence in the breeding area can be explained without any consideration of the somewhat atypical ecology of the locality. — -clark hubbs, depart¬ ment OF ZOOLOGY, UNIVERSITY OF TEXAS. 1951, No. 3 September 30 Book Reviews 493 BOOK REVIEWS THE WOODBINE AND ADJACENT STRATA OF THE WACO AREA OF CENTRAL TEXAS; A SYMPOSIUM FOR THE 1951 FIELD TRIP, SPONSORED BY THE EAST TEXAS GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY. Edited by Frank E. Lozo with the assistance of Bob F. Perkins. Southern Methodist University Press, Dallas, Texas. 161 PP- Price $6.25 (paper cover), $7.50 (cloth cover). Occasionally there is published a symposium which is not only a must in the library of a geologist but also one which is of considerable interest to those who are not geologists, especially geographers and historians. This is such a volume in that its main theme is the Woodbine formation, a geologic formation which is of great economic importance to Texas, the United States, and the world. As stated in the publication, the Woodbine has pro¬ duced oil, up to January 1, 1951, in the amount of 5.27 percent of the total world production, 8.44 percent of the total United States production, and 2 5.16 percent of the total oil produced in Texas. The East Texas Geological Society of Tyler, Texas, the editors, authors, and Southern Methodist University, are to be congratulated for the assem¬ blage of nine excellent papers in one volume. These papers are: The Grand Prairies of Texas, Frank Bryan History of Discovery and Development of Woodbine Oil Fields in East Texas, C. I. Alexander Comparative Status of the Woodbine in Oil Production, G. J. Loetterle The South Bosque Field, McLennan County, Texas, J. C. Price Geology of Belton Reservoir Area, Leon River, Bell County, Texas, Jack Colligan Geology of Whitney Reservoir Area, Brazos River, Bosque-Hill Counties, Texas, Arthur M. Hull Stratigraphic Notes on the Maness (Comanchee Cretaceous) Shale, Frank E. Lozo Woodbine Sandstone Dikes of Northern McLennan County, Texas, John Napier Monroe Stratigraphy of the Woodbine and Eagle Ford, Waco Area, Texas, W. S. Alkins and Frank E. Lozo The Woodbine and Adjacent Strata of the Waco Area of Central Texas The papers are all well written and greatly clarified by good diagrams and photographs, all of which have been enhanced by excellent reproduc¬ tion and printing on a good quality of paper. The volume presents new material and data heretofore unavailable to the geological profession and also assembles in one publication previous ideas about the stratigraphy and cor¬ relation of the Woodbine and related formations. — John t. rouse. THE CLIMATE NEAR THE GROUND. Rudolf Geiger. Translated by Milroy N. Stewart. Harvard University Press, 1950. This book presents an almost-untouched field of meteorology to the American scientist. It consists mainly of a collection and analysis of exist¬ ing data in the field of micro-climate as developed in Germany. The au¬ thor points out that many of the conclusions made regarding habitat and environment are in error because of the bases on which meteorological ob¬ servations are taken. It is customary, he says, to take weather data at 1.5 or 2 meters above the ground in order to eliminate some major anomalies which occur closer to the surface. Geiger points out that it is precisely this 2 -meter layer in 494 The Texas Journal of Science 1951, No. 3 September 30 which practically all animal and vegetable life exists. Consequently it has been possible to explain by the methods of microclimatology. Consequently, a study of this layer (microclimatology or micro-meteorology) is essential in explaining many growth and living patterns. In human life, there are many subconscious decisions made to avoid unfavorable microclimatic factors. For example: building houses on hilltops to secure cool evening breezes, walking on the shady side of streets, swim¬ ming in cool pools on hot days. Similarly, many animals and plants seek locations and changes in environment in order to subsist. This book is of great value to anyone working in biological and eco¬ logical fields. It may well serve as an inspiration for others to accumulate and publish like data on North America. — Charles e. balleisen. HINDEASTRAEA DISCOIDEA WHITE FROM THE EAGLE FORD SHALE, DALLAS COUNTY, TEXAS. Bob F. Perkins. Fondren Science Series Number 2. 11 pages, 2 figures, 3 plates, April 17, 1951. Southern Methodist University Press, Dallas, Texas. $1.00. AN ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY OF NORTH AMERICAN UPPER CRETACEOUS CORALS, 1785-1950. Bob F. Perkins. Fondren Science Series Number 3, 45 pages, 1 plate, April 30, 1951. Southern Methodist University Press. Dallas, Texas. $1.50. These two papers are somewhat complementary. In the first the writer gives a systematic description of Hindeastraea discoidea White and discusses the taxonomy of the genus. The description of the species includes measure¬ ments of 17 specimens. The two collecting localities are shown by map, figure 1. Figure 2 is a columnar section showing the stratigraphic position from which the specimens were secured. The author speculates regarding conditions of sedimentation in the upper Eagleford. A bibliography of 9 references is cited. The one criticism is that no detailed sedimentary analysis of the material of the collecting horizons is given. Such analyses are highly desirable because of the increasing importance of paleoecology. The second paper is in two parts. The first a bibliography of North American upper Cretaceous corals from 1785-1950 in which 52 papers are cited, pages 7-15, inclusive. The papers are annotated. The second part, pages 16-45, inclusive, is a catalogue of genera and species. Sixty- two genera are recorded and 117 species either specifically identified or unde¬ termined are listed. In addition reference is made to 13 indeterminate species. Geological formation and collection locality for each species record is cited. The plate shows the distribution of North American upper Cretaceous corals, with reference to the distribution of Late Cretaceous land masses and sea¬ ways. The new Fondren Science Series is being well established with these valuable additions to geological literature.— -marcus a. hanna. 1951, No. 3 September 30 The Texas Journal of Science DIRECTIONS FOR THE PREPARATION OF MANUSCRIPTS 1. Manuscripts should be submitted to the editor, Texas journal of science, box 867, rockport, Texas. Manuscripts may be subject to minor editorial alterations in order to conform to the general style of the Journal. All manuscripts must be typewritten and double spaced with wide margins. The fact that a footnote is usually printed in small type, closely spaced, does not make it any less likely to need correction than any other portion of the manuscript, and the practice of some authors to single space such interpolations makes it exceedingly diffi¬ cult to make the necessary editorial corrections. This also applies to bibliographies. 2. Each manuscript should be accompanied by an abstract, not more than two hundred and fifty words in length. If the paper can be improved or condensed the editor may return it for such changes. 3. The following form should be adhered to in typing any paper: — Title Name of Author Affiliation of Author Body of Paper Literature Cited 4. References or bibliographies should be arranged alphabetically at the end of the article, without numerical designation. References in the text should be by author’s name and date of publication. The use of extensive footnotes should be avoided wherever possible. These are troublesome to the editor, and a nuisance to the printer, as they have to be properly spaced in the composing, which takes increased time and raises costs. 5. A typical bibliographical entry should be as follows: — Doe, John, and W. C. Rowe — 1943 — How to prepare a bibliography. Tex. J. Sci. 6(2): 1-13, 3 figs., 2 pis. - 1943a — How not to prepare a bibliography. Tex. J. Sci. 3(1): 1-26, 2 figs., 3 pis., 2 maps. - -1947 — Mistakes often made in preparing a bibliography. Tex. J. Sci. 1(1): 7-15, 2 pis. The above is a standard form that makes it immeasurably easier for the editor to handle. Please be accurate about the volume, part and page numbers. A poor bibliography is worse than none at all. 6. Cuts and other figures will be accepted up to the limit of the Academy publishing budget. All illustrations should be in black and white for zinc cuts where possible. Half-tones require special paper The Texas Journal of Science 1951, No. 3 September 30 and, if too expensive, may be charged to the author. Drawings and illus¬ trations should be carefully prepared for reproduction. Legends should be precise and included with the drawings and illustration. 7. Tables should be limited to necessary comparisons and, if pos¬ sible, should be clearly typed or hand lettered ready for photography. 8. Arrangements have been made with the publisher to furnish proofs to the editor so that two copies may be sent to the author for proof reading before publication. However, it is very necessary to return this corrected proof and manuscript promptly or the paper will have to be omitted from that issue of the quarterly and another substituted on which the author has been more prompt. Moreover, remember that extensive changes in the subject matter of the paper after the type has been set are expensive, and time consuming. If such changes must be made the expense will, of necessity, fall on the author. 9. The following schedule of prices will apply to reprints, subject to change. All orders must be sent directly to the publisher on sheets enclosed with the galley proof. The editor assumes no responsibility for reprints and all arrangements are strictly between the author and the publisher. Checks must accompany reprint orders. This of course does not apply to institutional orders, but only to those Academy members ordering personal copies. This keeps bookkeeping at a mini¬ mum and also keeps the publisher in a good humor. It is felt that this is the most desirable way to handle the matter, despite the fact that formerly it was the custom for the editor to obtain the reprints from the publisher and to collect from the individual member. 100 Copies On Ordinary M. F. Book Paper Pages Pages Pages 1 Page 2 Pages 3 to 4 5 to 8 9 to 12 4.63 5.78 7.95 10.78 15.40 Each Additional 4 Pages or part thereof 2.84 Each Additional 100 Copies 1.58 2.12 3.02 3.98 4.89 Each Additional 4 Pages or part thereof .91 10. Above all, be sure name of author, title of paper and author's affiliations are on the Ms itself, also on all cuts. Pages 12 to 16 15.40 5.81 The Editorial Board 1951, No. 3 September 30 The Texas Journal of Science Professional Directory J. BRIAN EBY Consulting Geologist 1404 Esperson Bldg. Ph. CH-4776 Houston, Tex. JOHN S. IVY Geologist 1124 Niels Esperson Bldg. Houston, Texas LEONARD J. NEUMAN Registered Professional Engineer 1 Geological and Geophysical Surveys Petroleum Engineering Reports Houston, Texas Geophysics Office Engineering Office 943 Mellie Esperson Bldg. Ph. Preston 2705 Ph. FA-7086 PETTY GEOPHYSICAL ENGINEERING COMPANY Seismic Gravity Magnetic Surveys 317 Sixth St. San Antonio, Texas LEO HORVITZ Geochemical Prospecting Horvitz Research Laboratories Houston, Texas Ph. KE-5545 3217 Milam Street COCKBURN OIL CORPORATION 1740 Commerce Building HOUSTON 2, TEXAS MICHEL T. HALBOUTY Consulting Geologist and Petroleum Engineer Shell Building Houston 2, Texas Phone PR-6376 E. E. ROSAIRE Prospecting for Petroleum DALLAS, TEXAS COASTAL OIL FINDING COMPANY Gravity Meter Surveys Esperson Building Houston 2, Texas H. KLAUS Geologist KLAUS EXPLORATION COMPANY Lubbock, Texas WILLIAM H. SPICE, JR. Consulting Geologist 2101-03 Alamo National Building SAN ANTONIO 5, TEXAS Consulting Geologists Appraisals Reservoir Engineers DeGOLYER and MacNAUGHTON Continental Building DALLAS, TEXAS HERSHAL C. FERGUSON Consulting Geologist and Paleontologist Esperson Building HOUSTON, TEXAS 825 3^ Gravier Street New Orleans, La. E. DARRELL WILLIAMS Consulting Geophysicist 3114 Prescott Street 1 Houston 5, Texas The Texas Journal of Science 1951, No. 3 September 30 Humble rest rooms are extra dean; Humble service is something extra, too! First for extra quality Texas’ Own GASOLINE First in the field of extra quality gasoline, Humble Esso Extra still sets the pace! Check these extra values : extra quick starting; extra anti-knock performance; controlled volatility that delivers extra power, a patented solvent oil that keeps engines extra clean. You’ll get improved performance and extra pleasure from your car with Esso Extra. Stop at the Humble sign in your neighborhood and fill up with Texas’ own Esso Extra, the gasoline that gives you something extra for your money 1951, No. 3 September 30 The Texas Journal of Science Quality TIRES and BATTERIES AT YOUR GULF DEALERS’ HOUSTON, TEXAS icaici: iooos ^ > - W I NES,; L I QU E U.R S A N I) C II A MT A G N E S | Front; the World’s L Markets! ^ FOR SALE AT WITTE MUSEUM Brackenridge Park, San Antonio 9 “Wild Flowers of San Antonio and Vicinity” — Schulz “Texas Cacti” — Schulz & Runyon . . . $3.00 “Snakes of Bexar County” — J. Walker Davenport . $2.00 (Limited edition) Annotated Catalogue Amphibians and Reptiles — Bexar County, Texas — John K. Strecker (Collector's Item) . $1.25 The Texas Journal of Science 1951, No. 3 September 30 A MUST for Visitors When visiting sunny Treasure Isle, for business or for pleasure, your stay is not complete until you’ve had an opportunity to dine in the beautiful Turf Grill. Don’t miss seeing one of the South’s finest eating rooms. & TURF GRILL 2216 Market • Galveston, Texas 1951, No. 3 September 30 The Texas Journal of Science SEISMIC EXPLORATIONS, INC 1007 South Shepherd Drive Houston, Texas Established — 1932 »■»%« >i< »*-» ♦y* .*•» >*■» GEOCHEMICAL SURVEYS S 3806 Cedar Springs Rd. Dallas 4, Texas & 11 52Vi North Second St. Abilene, Texas AMERICAN BRAHMAN BREEDERS ASSOCIATION 2711 S. MAIN EMBLEMATIC OF THE BEST IN MODERN AMERICAN BEEF BRAHMANS • HOUSTON 2, TEXAS QuiNBY L7i':rnt ’ ' MkIIII llllllil “A name worth remembering” [ You can benefit from our many years experience in the personnel \ field. j Executive, Office, Sales and Technical | Personnel Member National Employment Board, Si Chamber of Commerce and Employment j mugmk jragH Counselors t 409 Bankers Mortgage Bldg. [ Houston 2, Texas jj The Texas Journal of Science 1951, No. 3 September 30 c4lway,3 Ckoode an Affiliated National Hotel! 29 Fine Hotels in 21 Cities AFFILIATED NATIONAL HOTELS ALABAMA Hotel Hotel Admiral Semmes . Thomas Jefferson . . Mobile ..Birmingham DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA Hotel Washington . ...Washington INDIANA Hotel Claypool . ...Indianapolis LOUISIANA Jung Hotel Hotel . DeSoto . .New Orleans New Orleans NEBRASKA Hotel Paxton .. . . . . Omaha NEW MEXICO Hotel Clovis . . SOUTH CAROLINA Hotel Wade Hampton . . Columbia TEXAS Hotel Stephen F. Austin.. Hotel Edson . Hotel Brown wood . Hotel Baker . Hotel Travis _ . Austin . Dallas . Dallas Hotel Cortez . . El Paso Hotel Buccaneer . . Galveston Hotel Galvez . . Galveston Hotel Jean LaFitte ... . Galveston Coronado Courts . . Galveston Miramar Court . . Galveston Hotel Cavalier . . Galveston Hotel Plaza . . . Laredo Hotel Lubbock . . Lubbock Hotel Falls . . Marlin Hotel Cactus . Hotel Menger . _ ..San Antonio Angeles Courts . ...San Antonio VIRGINIA Hotel Mountain Lake Mountain Lake Hotel Monticello . Norfolk Schlumberger Well Surveying Corporation Electrical Well Logging Gun Perforating Houston, Texas ROBERT H. RAY CO. Gravity Meter Survey and Interpretation FOREIGN - DOMESTIC 2500 Bolsover Rd. Houston 5, Texas 1961, No. I September The Texas Journal of Science TAYLOR EXPLORATION COMPANY SEISMIC SURVEYS CONSULTING 2118 Welch Houston, Texas 1951, No. 3 September 30 The Texas Journal of Science W. H. CURTIN & COMPANY Domestic — Export LABORATORY APPARATUS AND CHEMICALS for Industrial, Educational, Clinical and Public Service Laboratories HOUSTON, TEXAS U. S. A. NEW ORLEANS, LA. As courtesy to the Academy, in doing business with our advertisers, please make mention of the fact that you saw thir adverisement in The Texas JOURNAL OF Science. CONSERVATION COUNCIL AND COCOUNCILLORS President: John G. Sinclair, Medical Branch, University of Texas Secretary: L. S. Paine, Dept. Economics, A. and M. College, College Station Human health, hygiene and public health: C. D. Leake, Medical Branch, University of Texas, Galveston Human genetics, heredity, eugenic and dysgenic practices. C. P. Oliver, Department Zoology, University of Texas, Austin Cocouncillor: Spurgeon Smith, Biology Department, SWTC, San Marcos Human mind. Preservation of mental and emotional qualities : Robert Sutherland, Hogg Foundation, University of Texas, Austin Social institutions and economics. Custom, law, prejudice, etc* : L. S. Paine, Department of Economics, A. and M. College, College Station Cocouncillors : Mrs. Louise Johnson, Extension Service, A. & M. College, College Station Miss Francis Moon. Department Public Welfare, Houston Lyle Saunders, Race Relations Research, University of Texas, Austin A. B. Melton, Denton Roy Donahue, economics, A. and M. College, College Station Young scientific talent: C. M. Pomerat, Tissue Culture Laboratory, Medical Branch, University of Texas Cocouncillors : Collegiate grade, Charles La Motte, Biology, A. and M. High school grade, Gretta Oppe, Ball High School, Galveston Conservation education and publicity. Public relations. J. B. Rutland, State Department of Education, Austin Cocouncillors : Health. Mrs. M. Hayes, Dallas Health Museum. Dallas Health. D. B. Taylor, Department of Education, Austin Forest and range. D. A. Anderson, Forest Service, A. and M. Soil. David O. Davis, Box 1898, Fort Worth Wild Life. Everett Dawson, Game, Fish and Oyster Commission, Austin State Parks, Norfleet Bone. Texas State Parks, Austin UNESCO. Ethics and Philosophy. J. G. Sinclair, Medical Branch, Galveston Population problems. Net reproductive rate and controls. J. G. Sinclair, Department of Anatomy, Medical Branch, University of Texas, Galveston Food quality and responsible factors. L. W. Blau, Humble Oil and Refining Co., Houston Soil and water conservation especially in relation to crops. Paul Walser, Soil Conservation Service, Temple, Texas Councillor M. A. Hartman, Fort Worth Animals adapted to Texas agriculture. Jack Miller, College Station Plants adapted to Texas agriculture. Simon E. Wolff, Ft. Worth Marine resources J. L. Baughman, Biologist, Game, Fish and Oyster Commission, Rockport Wild life preservation. State Parks and refuges. B. -B. Harris, Biology Department, N.T.S.T.C., Denton. Cocouncillors : Ernest G. Marsh, Wildlife, Game, Fish and Oyster Commission, Austin Norfleet G. Bone, State Parks Board, Austin Forest and range. Forests as lumber. Vernon A. Young. Forest and Range, A. and M. College, College Station Chemurgy. Forest and crops as industrial materials, etc. Victor Schoffelmayer, Southwest Research Foundation, San Antonio Underground water and rivers. Paul Weaver, Gulf Oil Corporation, Houston Oil and gas. William Murray, State Railroad Commission, Austin Sulphur.........:.... . . . . . Ceramic materials. Industrial and decorative. F. K. Pence, Ceramic Engineering, U. of Texas, Austin Metals Kenneth Campbell, Sheffield Steel Co., Houston Paleontological collections. Glen L. Evans, Paleontology, Univ. of Texas, Austin Archeological collections. T. N. Campbell, Department of Anthropology, University of Texas, Austin PURPOSE: To encourage and coordinate research in Texas by bringing scientific workers together and by publishing the results of their investigations ; to advise individuals and the government on scientific matters ; to assemble and maintain library and museum facilities. ORGANIZATION: The activities of the Academy embrace all scientific fields. In the Senior Academy, there are five Sections : Physical, Biological, Social, and Geological Sciences, and Conservation. Regionally, the Senior Academy is divided into ihree branches: East Texas, South Texas and West Texas. The Collegiate Academy promotes the organization of science clubs in colleges and universities. The Junior Academy encourages scientific activities in secondary schools. MEMBERSHIP : “Any person engaged in scientific work, or interested in the promotion of science” is eligible to membership. PUBLICATIONS: The Proceedings and Transactions of the Academy are incorporated to THE TEXAS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE, published quarterly. Other publications are memorials, monographs, surveys and news letters. MEETINGS: State-wide annual meetings are held in the fall, and regional meetings in the spring of each year. DUES : Annual members, $5 per year. Life members, at least $50.00 Jn one payment. Sustaining Members, $10 per year. Patrons, at least $500.00 in one payment. Life members and patrons are exempt from dues, receive all publications, and participate as active members. SUBSCRIPTION RATES: Members $3 per year. Single copies $1.25 each. V ; . •' O . "2 3 3 si tuo lter Siloes Drum Filter 1 Vasts Acid Slimes Neutralization Diao Filter Vasts Acid Cementation Reduced Liquor Silver-Copper Cements Ra roasting in Kilns Market Concentration Steel ter Crystallization Calcination FIGURE 3— FLOWSHEET Pur¬ ification of Bolivian Ores. Hydrochloric Acid Iron Oxide Calcines Returned to Leaching 1951, No. 4 December 30 The Longhorn Tin Smelter Courtesy Longhorn Tin Smelter FIGURE 4 — ROASTING KILNS. With feed hoppers at right and feed hoppers for ball boilers at left. Impure Bolivian ores are roasted to remove part of the impurities and tc make others more soluble in the subsequent acid leach. ROASTING Roasting is heating at a relatively low temperature so that sintering or smelting of the material does not take place. Its purpose is to remove part of the impurities (especially sulphur) and to convert others into a form which is more easily soluble in the subsequent acid leach. Salt is added to assist in some of the reactions. The furnaces are rotary kilns of which the plant has ten. They are brick lined (50 feet long) cylinders which have a diameter of 4 feet and rotate at a slight angle from the horizontal. The ore is fed at one end and gradually moves downwards. From the other end the kilns are heated with natural gas. The material is transported to the kiln feed hoppers and from the roasting to the leaching department in ore buckets by overhead cranes. LEACHING The roasted materials are leached with strong hydrochloric acid at a temperature of about 220°F. Most of the metallic impurities like iron, lead, copper, silver, etc. go into solution whereas the tin oxide is hardly attacked. 502 The Texas Journal of Science 1951, No, 4 December 30 Courtesy Longhorn Tin Smelter FIGURE 5 — BALL BOILERS. In which roasted impure Bolivian concentrates are leached with hydrochloric acid. Leaching is done in twelve ball boilers which are rotating hollow spheres (diameter 12 feet) constructed of steel plate with a rubber lining to prevent corrosion of the steel and a acid brick lining to protect the rubber from the abrasive ore. The trunnions are hollow and serve to admit and remove acid and steam for heating. The ore is charged through a circular opening, closed by a cover. After leaching, the waste acid is removed; it is not clear but contains a lot of ore slimes. The leached residue is washed by substitut¬ ing the cover by a screen, turning the ball boiler until the screen is under¬ neath and pumping water through the material. The washed residue goes back to the roasting kilns for elimination of the last traces of removable impurities. Waste acid and slimes are separated in thickeners and drum vacuum filters. Thickeners are circular settling tanks. The clear liquor flows over the rim whereas the slimes collect at the bottom. A further removal of waste acid takes place on drum filters, which are hollow cylinders lined with filter cloth rotating around a horizontal axis. The inside is under vacuum. The material is picked up from a container underneath and gradually loses the waste acid in the section above the liquid level. The filter cake is repulped with lime water for neutralization and then again filtered on a disc filter. 1951, No. 4 December 30 The Longhorn Tin Smelter 503 This consists of cloth lined discs working in the same way as the drum in the first filter. The product finally goes back to the kilns for roasting. The cleared waste acid consists of a solution of various chlorides, mainly iron and also some free acid. Its disposal has been a problem for many years. Running it into Galveston Bay had to be stopped because of alleged inter¬ ference with marine life. As a preliminary measure all waste acid was then stored in ponds (see Fig. 1). This could not go on indefinitely because the material is a hazard, especially during hurricanes. Therefore a process was worked out to reconvert the iron chlorides into fresh acid which can be reused and an iron oxide byproduct. A plant to accomplish this has been built and is, at the moment, in the starting-up stage. In short the process is as follows. The waste acid is first brought into contact with scrap iron which precipitates most of the impurities like antimony, arsenic, copper, sil¬ ver, etc., in metallic form. This is done to prevent them from contaminating the product acid, and at the same time they become an asset because the product has considerable value due to its silver and copper content. After this the liquor consists mainly of a solution of ferrous chloride. This is con¬ centrated and crystallized. Crystals containing the ferrous chloride in hy¬ drated form are dried and then roasted. The ferrous chloride reacts with water vapor from the crystal water and oxygen from the air forming hydro¬ chloric acid, which is caught in absorption towers, and an iron oxide calcine. In the leaching and acid recovery departments all equipment has to be resistant to the very corrosive acid and chloride solutions. Steel has to be protected by rubber lining or acid resistant paint whereas plastics are also used extensively. smelting The purpose of smelting is twofold: 1. Separation of the tin from the oxygen with which it is combined (the reducing agent is coal which takes over the oxygen and forms carbon dioxide) . 2. Smelting together of the remaining substances of the ore like silica, iron oxide, and alumina, in order to form a liquid slag from which the tin droplets can settle out (limestone is added to promote fluidity) . Impurities like lead, antimony, etc. are also reduced and go into the raw tin. The same applies to part of the iron. The further the reduction of tin is carried through, the more iron is reduced. If one would convert prac¬ tically all the tin in one step, such a large amount of iron would go into the metal that it could not be handled anymore in the refinery. It is for that reason that smelting is performed in two steps. In the first step (ore smelt¬ ing) raw tin with a low iron content is made and a certain amount of tin is left in a partly reduced conditioh in the slag. The rich slag, assaying about 2 5 per cent tin, is resmelted in the second step (slag smelting) producing an alloy of tin and iron called hardhead and a discard slag containing about 1,5% tin. The hardhead is returned to the ore smelting step where the iron reacts with fresh tin oxide under formation of iron oxide, which goes into the slag, and the tin joins the raw metal. The reactions are actually even more complicated because the reduction from tin dioxide (SnC>2) to tin goes via tin monoxide (SnO). This tin monoxide is very volatile at the prevailing furnace temperature. The conse- The Texas Journal of Science 1951, No. 4 December 30 5 04 quence is that part of the tin leaves the furnace with the gas which, there¬ fore, has to undergo an extensive treatment for recovery of the valuable metal The various materials which make up the furnace charges, like ore, leached residues, slag and other intermediate products, coal and limestone, are fed at preset rates from a row of bins onto a belt conveyor. After passing a paddle mixer the charge drops into buckets which are emptied into the _ FLOISHEET SMELTING AND REFINHC _ Alluvial Ore a Bolivian Residues and Slimes Dust Ore Re verberatory Furnaces Raw Tin Rich Slag Discard Slag - I Dump Refinery Iron Removal Slag Reverberatoiy Furnases^ Hardhead Dust Dross l Metal I High Impurity Metal Low Impurity Metal Refinery Duqp ! Alloy Dross Refined Alloy I Casting FIGURE 6— FLOWSHEET. Smelting and Refining, Longhorn Tin Smelter. Copan 1951, No. 4 December 30 The Longhorn Tin Smelter 505 Courtesy Longhorn Tin Smelter FIGURE 7— REVERBERATORY FURNACES (center) In which the tin is reduced to metal and the balance of the concentrates forms a slag. Regenerators are at the left, "tin floats” and slag granulating launders at right. In foreground, dross liquating furnace. furnace hoppers by overhead cranes. Smelting is done batchwise in ten rever¬ beratory furnaces which are in essence covered rectangular containers (forty feet long and twelve feet wide) made of firebrick. They are heated from either end with natural gas. The heat of the flame is not only given off directly to the charge but also to the roof which, in turn, transmits heat to the charge by radiation (reverberation). Temperatures in the furnace finally reach about 2700 °F which is necessary to obtain a fluid slag. The direction of the flow through the furnace is reversed every hour. The burned gas passes a regenerator, a structure filled with a checkerwork of brick, to which it gives off part of its heat. The combustion air enters through another regen¬ erator which has been heated by the furnace gas in the preceding cycle. The air is therefore hot when it enters the furnace which increases the flame temperature, hence the amount of heat transferred to the charge in a certain time, thus increasing the capacity of the furnace. After a charge is ready, tin and slag are removed through separate tap holes. The tin is collected in "floats”, rectangular brick lined containers, whereas the slag is granulated by dropping it when still hot and fluid through a stream of water. The sud¬ den cooling causes the slag to break up into small particles which can be con¬ veniently rehandled. The gas goes through flues to an electrostatic precipi- 506 The Texas Journal of Science 1961, No. 4 December 30 tator. This consists of a set of tubes with a wire in the center connected to high voltage rectifiers. The dust particles, when passing through the tubes, obtain electric charges and are attracted to the (grounded) tubes to which they give off their charge. The collected dust drops into hoppers and is pneumatically transported to the charge bins of the furnaces. refining and casting Raw tin carried by crane from the furnaces is poured into kettles (cast iron, half spherical containers, heated by gas with a capacity of about 50 tons of metal). Molten tin can be handled like water. It can be pumped with centrifugal pumps and refining processes, like filtering and precipita¬ tion reactions, are possible which are similar to what chemical plants do with watery solutions. By cooling to a temperature slightly above the melting point of tin, iron crystallizes out as a tin-iron compound. Most of this can be removed by skimming off the top layer. The skimmed off material (dross) is returned to the ore reverberatory. Small crystals are eliminated by pump¬ ing the tin through a porous tile filter. Part of the dross contains such a large amount of metallic tin that it is worthwhile to put it first into a liquating furnace in which the excess tin is sweated out. Metal from alluvial concentrates and part of the Bolivian residues is already low enough in impurities after this treatment and can go on to cast¬ ing. Metal from other Bolivian residues and slimes still contains too much antimony, copper, and arsenic. These are removed by addition of aluminum which forms insoluble compounds with these elements. The only difference with a precipitation reaction in a watery solution is that the crystals obtained do not sink to the bottom but go to the top where they can be skimmed off. After the removal of the excess aluminum with caustic soda, this metal is also ready for casting. A typical analysis runs as follows: Sn . . 99.87% Fe . . .003% Sb . . 031 Ag . . 004 As . . 020 Cd . . nil Pb . . 042 Ni & Co . . .002 Bi . . 005 S . . 002 Cu . . 022 Zn . . trace The aluminum dross containing a lot of entrained tin in addition to the mentioned impurities is resmelted with slag which serves to take up the aluminum. The resultant metal after again being refined to remove arsenic and iron is marketed under the name of Copan. It is an alloy of about 80-90 per cent tin, 10-15 per cent antimony, and 2-5 per cent copper. It is a very good raw material for the manufacture of babbits (bearing metal) which have aproximately the same composition. Tin is cast in bars or pigs weighing about 83 pounds. The molds moving on a horizontal endless belt pass a rotating pouring spout which device insures that each mold receives the same amount of metal. A slight dross layer is skimmed off by hand. Covers attached to another endless belt are placed on top whereas water sprays cool the bottom and sides of the mold. The purpose of this arrangement is to freeze the top part last thus preventing the forma¬ tion of shrinkage cavities. If these occur and are accidently filled with water during transportation or storing, explosions might occur when the bars are melted by the consumer. The cover also carries the trademark. The bars are 1951, No. 4 December 30 The Longhorn Tin Smelter 507 Courtesy Longhorn Tin Smelter FIGURE 8 — CASTING MACHINE. Tin is poured at the right into molds moving to the left on a conveyor belt. The second conveyor at the top carries the covers. At the left, stackers and trailers with finished tin bars each weighing 83 pounds. discharged onto a conveyor from which they are picked up by a hydraulically operated stacker which puts them on trailers for transportation to the ware¬ house. All handling there is by lift trucks. The trademark is Longhorn Three Star (two star and one star have been used for lower grade products which are no longer made). MISCELLANEOUS DATA Natural gas (about 1,000 BTW per cu. ft.) is piped into the plant at a pressure of 200 lbs. per f. sq. in., which is reduced to 10 lbs. for use in the furnaces. Its consumption is 110,000,000 cu. ft. per month. Power is suplied from the outside to a substation which has six 500 KVA trans¬ formers. Monthly consumption is 1,000,000 KWH. Water is partly obtained from wells on the property and partly from the Galves’ton Water Company which brings water into the district from the Brazos River. The laboratory makes 12,000 determinations of tin and impurities in concentrates, inter¬ mediate products, and metal per month. About half of these are specto- graphic. The plant employs around 8 50 people. The capital investment in equipment is approximately $12,000,000. LAND CAPABILITY CLASSES SUITABLE FOR CULTIVATION m CULT tVAT lOfj - RASTURg , HAY, WQ3&.ANS AND WlPUEgl r ; assumes good ms, mtimamm practices owuy n : MODERATE CONS£ R VArtQK Tf? ACT iCES 8EC-£CSARY HQ RESTRSCTiCGS !N USE MODS ft ATE SSSTR CTiO.VS >N USC SEVERE RESTRICTIONS W USE BEST SUITED EOS YpslDUEE AND RECREATiON HEX ; jRTENSiVE CONSERVATION PRACTICES NECESSARY I¥ 1f>£8£NNiAL VESETATiON- INEftEaUSRT CULT ! VAT tCKM Courtesy, U. S. Soil Conservation Service. LAND USE PAUL WALSER * State Coordinator Soil Conservation Service Temple, Texas The term land use is meaningless unless it is qualified. I shall have to define good land use and bad land use. Let us examine the use of land by aboriginal people who had not yet domesticated any animals nor discovered the secret of seeds. These people took their food where they found it and lived under a situation that was ideal from the standpoint of the land. The aborigine stayed in one place, or roamed around according to his success in finding food. He undoubtedly remained near one source of water or another. Water was probably no great problem for this man because of the ideal natural situation I mentioned before. I doubt if primitive man ventured far into desert areas. We can assume that he stayed in humid territory or at least no more than sub-humid. * Presented at the second Semi-Annual Seminar of Marine Sciences of the Texas Game, Fish and Oyster Commission Marine Laboratory, Rockport, Texas, April 6-9, 1950. 508 1951, No. 4 December 30 Land Use 509 The land over which this early man moved was covered with trees, shrubs, vines, or grasses. The water cycle was complete. Raindrops or snow falling to earth first struck the tree tops and the tops of other plants. The drops and snow flakes then fell softly from there and sifted and trickled through the brush or grass to come to rest momentarily in the leaf litter and other mulch that lay on the surface of the soil. This water filtered slowly through the mulch and was absorbed by the humified layer of soil immediately beneath. With more and more precipitation the top layer of soil became saturated and water infiltrated into deeper layers of soil, following root channels, worm holes and other openings, and finally entered the cracks and pores of bed rock deep in the ground. When this infiltering water reached an impervious layer, water accumulated there, the water level rose, and lateral pressures moved the water to points where it emerged again from the earth. These were the springs that fed the streams that flowed through the land of our aborigine. There were many times, of course, when there was so much rain that all of it could not be taken into the earth. This extra water flowed toward the streams, slipping cleanly and quietly into the streamflow. Streams were thus able to flow uniformly throughout the year regardless of season. Birds and beasts of all sorts, as well as our aboriginal man had no problem about water and little more about food. Fish abounded in the streams. The fish were seldom disturbed even with occasional floods. These floods rose and receded slowly and in any event were rarely caused by muddy water except after some rare catastrophic geologic change. These floods invariably were dissipated into swamps and marshes and so. through¬ out the year there was little or no disturbance where fresh water met the sea. Oysters, clams, lobsters, shrimp, and other fish that love this part- salt-part-fresh water, thrived in teeming millions. This was the land on which primitive man lived. There was a natural balance between water and land. Soil was being constantly formed and improved. When soil movement took place it was merely a step in the natural production of new soil. Vegetation of all sorts grew thickly over the soil. Microscopic life in the soil was at its best. Springs, lakes and streams were maintained at uniform levels. The balance of soil, water and organic life provided food for fish, fowl, beast, and man. Was this good or was it bad land use? There was no destructive soil erosion eating land faster than soil could be formed. There were no roaring, raging floods occurring season after season, year after year. Dry seasons came and went, but vegetation retained its vigor on the basis of abundant moisture stored in the soil. Aboriginal man certainly did not practice bad land use. His life activities left no more mark on the land than did that of any other of the wild creatures living there. Was this then good land use? By my definition it was neither good nor bad land use. Primitive man did not use the land. Trees grew old, died and rotted. Fruit ripened and was never eaten. Thousands of things were there for man to use but he did not know it! He was destined to remain a savage until he did start using the land. And, so long as he remained a savage-— so long was he to remain few in number-— just another wild creature without significance among many wild creatures. 510 The Texas Journal of Science 1951, No. 4 December 30 WHAT CAN HAPPEN when land is not properly used is shown in this picture, which was taken near Decatur, Texas. C. C. Rich purchased the farm in 1885. Approxi¬ mately 80% of the land had been cleared for cultivation four years prior (1881). The remaining 20% was cleared by Mr. Rich about five years later. Cotton and corn were the principal crops grown on the farm with moderate to high yields produced each year, depending principally upon rainfall. During this first period of 15 to 18 years, yields of 400 to 500 pounds of lint cotton and 60 bushels of corn per acre were common. About 1900, one small gully formed but could be crossed with til¬ lage implements until about 1905, at which time other lateral gullies began to form, and by 1915 sheet and gully erosion had destroyed the field for cropping purposes. Since that date the gullies have increased in width and depth and are now 2’ to 15’ deep. Sheet erosion has removed practically all the topsoil, which in a virgin condi¬ tion is about seven inches in depth. From the time this farm was cleared until about 1915, it supported one farm family. Today, no buildings or improvements are lo¬ cated thereon. Two-thirds of the area (upper slopes) was abandoned in 1951. The remaining one-third (lower slopes) was abandoned in 1921. Now let us examine land use as practiced by civilized man. Our aborigine took his first step toward civilization when he discovered he could plant seeds in the soil and grow his own food where he did not have to travel far to get it. He did not progress, however, until he found that he could grow more food on a given area if he tilled the soil around his seedling crop. Meantime he had also cut down his need for hunting by domesticating animals that would give him meat and hides at home. The fourth big step leading to civilization came when some smart member of the primitive group observed that certain rocks, when burnt by fire, * produced a substance that fire would no longer burn and was hard, difficult 1951, No. 4 December 30 Land Use 511 to break and if ground or hammered would hold a point or an edge for a long time. Man then had a good axe with which to clear land and, with metal on the plow point, tillage of the soil became a fine art. With the consequent great increases in production from the soil men found it convenient to divide their labor. Some, relieved from food-getting, became craftsmen, others became merchants to distribute the wares of the craftsmen. Still others found time to indulge their curiosity or imagination about many things-— and art and science were born. With all this came also increased population. More and more land was needed for grazing flocks and herds— -more and more land had to be plowed. Populations grew so large that the land would not produce enough here and there over the world. Great migrations took place and made history. The last great migration was the one that finally brought the United States into existence. Wherever people migrated they took their own arts and crafts with them and then absorbed the arts and crafts of the people who were already on the land. This generally led to improvements of old tools and machines, and invention of new ones. But the pattern of land use remained the same — ever increasing numbers of cattle, sheep and goats-— ever widening areas of cleared and cultivated land. The settlers of America found the land in exactly the condition I have described as ideal for the land. The activities of the American Indian had made little change in the natural soil-water-plant-animal balance. The settlers found a land of abundance— -and more of it than these people could ever have dreamed. The settlers brought with them the accumulated knowledge of the ages plus a landhunger that was soon to prove of revolutionary proportions, capable of conceiving a new form of govern¬ ment heretofore unrecorded in history. The pattern of agriculture was the same as ever. The inherent richness of the American soil poured forth bountiful crops. Population grew faster here than usual because the natural increase was constantly supplemented by immigration from other lands. There was so much land — enough for all who might come, it seemed. Within a period of two hundred years, much of it within the last seventy-five years, the face of an entire continent was changed. Where vast forests once grew there are great areas of farms. Most of what once were thousands of square miles of unbroken grass land are now cultivated fields. Meantime great cities were piled up near streams where once an Indian cupped his hands to drink while a deer watched from hiding in the brush at the water's edge. Other great cities also stand now where formerly both In¬ dian and deer moved quickly on-— unaware of the gigantic store of water lying there deep below the ground into which the white man was later to sink his wells. The pattern of agriculture was the same. It was the same as that fol¬ lowed by the peoples in Ancient Mesopotamia, Egypt, North Africa, Italy. There was only one difference. In America the people took advantage not only of the combined learning and inventiveness of all the varied races who made up the population but they also found enormous stores of metal and other natural resources. These the Americans processed into tools and ma¬ chinery with power and efficiency beyond the wildest imagination of the ancient peoples. The American people accomplished in a few years what 512 The Texas Journal of Science 1951, No. 4 December 30 it took generations to do in olden times. But the agricultural pattern was the same — the widespread removal of vegetation and intense tillage prac¬ tices carried on without regard to topography or climate. Was this good land use? If it was good then surely we should not have been compelled to dig the ancient cities of Persia, Egypt, Carthage, and Rome from under the accumulated dust of ages where these cities had long remained forgotten by men! Let us assume for the moment that bare soil cannot be eroded by wind or rain. Let us then look at a large area of land upon which there is no vegetation of any sort. What happens to the water cycle? Raindrops fall to earth. (Remember — we assume no soil erosion). Just as soon as the rain¬ drops strike the earth they seek a lower level. Some of the drops would soak into the ground but as quickly as several drops get together the water flow begins. These little waters meet others. The flow gets larger. It isn’t long before the flow is strong enough for most of the water to leap across any openings that may be in the soil. Little waters become bigger waters. The water rushes to the stream, to the river, and, in a tumbling flood, flows to the sea — returning to the ocean one hundred days, or one hundred years too soon! (We still are not admitting that soil erosion is possible.) What happens to the streams followed by the birds and beasts, and providing life for fish? The water from each rain is gone so fast that only the springs keep up stream flow. The underground reservoirs that feed the springs are not recharged and the springs soon cease to run. The rivers become dry washes except when they are filled with swift flowing floods. So much water comes down the river — when it does come — that it meets the sea with enough force to drive the salt water far from shore holding it there long enough to disrupt and kill the animal life that likes neither all fresh nor all salt water. When the flood has at last poured itself out there is no longer any fresh water pressure at the mouth of the river and the salt water returns — to flow as far upstream as the level will permit. This finishes the story. There is no chance for fish life the entire length of the river. Nor for any other life. Now let us add soil erosion to this picture. Raindrops kick the bare soil around, plugging the soil pores and literally putting a raincoat over the soil. After the first few moments of rainfall little or no water is ab¬ sorbed in the soil. Particles of soil loosened by raindrops are rolled or floated away in the runoff. As friction is increased soil is cut away in chunks. Water that normally would have been absorbed into the ground is collected in gullies and is immediately dumped into the streams. Mud and sand fill the stream bed reducing its capacity. A small rain, under these circumstances, can cause a flood. When the flood finally recedes it drops its load of sediment. This is no longer soil. It is merely the "bones” of former soil. The rest has gone to make the sea more salty. After the rain stops the wind takes over. It, too, tears the soil apart carrying the lighter richer particles far and wide, dropping the "bones” be¬ hind. A succession of such destructive processes can bring about cataclysmic results. We suspect that some of the deserts of the modern world were brought about in just this fashion. How else can we explain the existence 1951, No. 4 December 30 Land Use 513 Courtesy, U. S. Soil Conservation Service SUCH EROSION can be controlled and produce conditions like these being inspected by Dr. Hugh Bennett, Chief, U. S.. Soil Conservation Service. Here, on Jones Creek in Iowa, proper land use measures have effected noticeable reduction in runoff, a very decided step towards conservation of the land. of long abandoned cities in the heart of these modern deserts when we are sure that the ancient people who once lived there had neither knowledge nor facilities for rapid transportation, nor for the canning or refrigeration of food? Any process which ultimately destroys the soil-water-plant-animal bal¬ ance on the land is bad land-use. That is not just my definition. It is bad land-use as defined by Nature herself. She has laid out her deadly definition of bad land-use for all of us to see. The fact that we have so long been blind is our fault, not Nature’s! We now have a definition of bad land-use and no land-use at all Good-land-use must lie somewhere between these two. We do not want the virgin conditions of the land of the aborigines if for no other reason than that our modern way of life is founded on the proposition that food is gathered by a few leaving the rest free to produce the many other things that make civilized life so much better than savage life. But, since we want to continue our present mode of life, we must some¬ how preserve the productivity of the soil needed by our food gatherers and, at the same time maintain the water supplies required by the producers of other goods who live in our towns and cities. We have gone a long way 514 The Texas Journal of Science 1951, No. 4 December 30 down in our short occupation of this American land. What we once as¬ sumed to be inexhaustible has now been reduced to between one-third and two-thirds of its former abundance. We must make a compromise— on the one hand meeting the laws of Nature, on the other providing for the needs of our civilized life. Such a compromise is not only possible, it is also practical and profit¬ able. The truth of this statement is daily becoming more and more evident as farmers and ranchers in Texas and the United States push their soil conservation district programs forward. This compromise is good land use. It means looking closely at the differences in topography, soils, and climate. It also means deciding what the land needs to improve the soil and protect it against erosion. These two studies are actually an inventory of the land that, once taken, shows the productive capability of the land. Land falls into two major classes: (1 that which can be cultivated and (2) that which should not be cultivated. Land that can be cultivated is land that will not be seriously eroded so long as certain precautions are taken. The kinds of land that should not be cultivated are: land that is already seriously eroded; land that will erode if cultivated even under the most intensive preventive measures; or land that is too rough, or wet to be cultivated. This is the first step in the compromise that means good land use — namely, deciding what the land is capable of producing without danger to the land. The next step in good land use is to follow a plan that takes into con¬ sideration not only the needs and capabilities of one piece of land but the relation of that piece of land to the needs and capabilities of other adjoining pieces of land. This plan, in addition, must meet the needs and recognize the capabilities of the people who operate the land for which the plan is made. Such a plan is not to be made haphazardly by rote or rule-of-thumb. Making such a plan involves technical skill in agronomy, engineering, for¬ estry, biology, hydrology and other related fields. In soil conservation dis¬ tricts technicians of the Soil Conservation Service assigned to assist farmers and ranchers in the districts are trained in these scientific fields. The farmer or rancher and his neighbors go over their land with the technician and plan the conservation treatment and use of the land. This is the beginning of group action — which also is part of the definition of good land use. The next step in reaching the compromise between Nature and civiliza¬ tion is the application of the soil and water conservation measures to the land. Farmers and ranchers do this by working in groups on their common problems. Here too they must receive advice as needed from trained tech¬ nicians. Measures are not established singly but according to the support one measure gives another. Following natural principles, vegetation is used to the utmost even on the cultivated fields. Soil is left bare as little as pos¬ sible. Green cover and mulches protect the soil surfaces between row crop seasons. Crops are rotated to avoid over-workig the land. Cultivation is on the level around the hill instead of up and down the slope. Wind-and-water- erosion-resisting crops are grown in strips between cultivated rows. Organic matter is turned back to the soil. Where lime and mineral fertilizers have been depleted these are added. Where practical and feasible, water-logged soils are drained and dry soils are irrigated. Steep and erodible land is planted 1951, No. 4 December 30 Land Use 515 to grass or trees. Gullies are stabilized, and erosion is controlled in water¬ ways— -with vegetation. Farm ponds are built and farm roads and fences are laid out as nearly as practical on the contour. In addition to these measures odd areas of land are protected against erosion with plants that provide food and cover for wildlife. These areas include fence rows, and rough, isolated, and irregularly shaped areas, stream banks, pond edges, and field edges adjoining woodland. As I said before, farmers and ranchers work in groups — neighbor help¬ ing neighbor in controlling their common erosion problems. Not only is there coordination of effort within groups, but there is coordination from one group to another. This is the way the soil conservation district program works. The effectiveness of this soil conservation district program lies in the fact that it is possible not only to control erosion from field to field, but from farm to farm, and so on — over an entire watershed. Such cooperation on the part of landowners and operators effects the compromise between the requirements of Nature and the needs of modern man. Only by the ap¬ plication of these coordinated soil and water conservation measures across the entire face of our nation can we hope to maintain our modern civili¬ zation on a permanent basis because — -it is the only way by which the soil- water-plant-animal relationship may be restored to a normal balance. When we have achieved this, we shall have good land use. 516 The Texas Journal of Science 195l, No. 4 December 30 A STUDY OF SECULARIZATION, DEPRESSED FOLK POPULATIONS, SUICIDE, AND CRIME IN THE UNITED STATES AND IN FORT WORTH AS A MORE INTIMATE LOCAL SITUATION * DR. AUSTIN L. PORTERFIELD Department of Sociology Texas Christian University This study attempts ( 1 ) to establish indices of secularization, suicide, and crime by states in the nation and (2) to show how these phenomena are related to comparable periods and places. Of necessity it faces first, however, the problems of definition and procedure, beginning with the concept of secularization. TiaUEE 1: SOCIO-ECONOMIC STATUS AND SUICIDES IN FOBT WORTH PER 1000 POPULATION OVER 24 TEARS OLD IN 1940 ON r-l A ON H ^5 t-iHHHHOICVItUCM Index of Socio-Economic Status * This study was made possible by a grant made the author through the Texas Christian University Research Committee operating with funds provided jointly by the Carnegie Foundation and the University. In fact two grants have been drawn upon— one made in 1947 and one in 1950. 1951. No. 4 December 30 Secularization . . . Suicide, and Crime 5 17 THE meaning of secularization Secularization is the process by which a "sacred” gives way to a "secular” society. This process, as Howard Becker describes it, includes: first, a lessening of the intensity of kinship bonds among a people; second, a loos¬ ening of friendship and neighborhood ties and the breakdown of primary and neighborhood groups; third, a reduction in the indigenous origins of regional and community populations on the one hand or a depletion of the local folk through migration on the other, accompanied, fourth, by much institutional dislocation; and fifth, a breakdown in the prevailing mores- — morals, religious sanctions, class, caste, and prestige patterns- — associated with the appearance of strange ideas, strange peop^, and strange machines. The new community made up of fragments of other populations, of "hu¬ manity uprooted,” is already secularized. indices of secularization Howard Becker and others have elaborated the concept of seculariza¬ tion in their writings. Robert Redfield and R. M. Maclver contrast the urban and the folk society in terms comparable to the secular and the sacred. These are ideal polar types. As Ogburn and Nimkoff suggest, "actually there are not just two polar types, highly integrated folk societies and loose¬ ly integrated urban societies, but a series of communities varying in degree FIGURE 2: S0CIQ-ECGI0M1C STATUS ASW SUICIDES IH PCET VOBTH P® 1000 TOTAL P0PULATI0H 31 2 o - - «H o H i 2k0 220 200 ISO l60 l40 120 100 80 6o 4o 20 1 —r~ — r“ l T“ ■ 1 f ~r~ ~~ r- % - * - - • - - - - • 4 # - - % • • • ft • - - • • • • » - - % • - « • • • • - • • • • - * • _ 1 _ _ 1 _ _ i i ♦ i i i i I — L_ 8 5 88j?u>§o8i? Index of Socio-Economic Statue 518 The Texas Journal of Science 1951, Mo. 4 December 30 of integration which are distributed along a continuum between these ex¬ tremes/' Nobody, however, has gone far enough in the development of indices by which "a series of communities varying in degree of integration” can be "distributed along a continuum.” This is the challenge which brings about this study. FOUNDATIONS OF THE INDEX Techniques of measurement, to be valid, must be hypothetically rele¬ vant to what is being hypothetically measured. Thus, significant aspects of the process of secularization and of societies that have become more or less secularized should form the foundation of any sacred-secular index based on the idea of a continuum between two poles. It cannot be assumed, bow¬ er, that any index can be established which will unerringly locate a series of populations inhabiting specific areas at the exact points or in the exact order in which they belong along such a line. It is assumed that measures of urbanization, industrialization, non-membership in churches, and non¬ nativity (as here defined) by states in our nation would be indicative, with¬ out such exactness, of the extent to which their respective populations feel the impacts of a secular society or culture, as analyzed by Becker and briefly outlined above. The index of non-nativity, for example, is established by adding the number of people living in the state (in 1940) not born in it to the number born in it but not living in it on the same date and finding IIOUBX 3* nrasffld AHT’ SUI0IE®g a ICHI WORSES FCR SMOTED HUES Index of Dependency 193&*T94? 1951, No. 4 December 30 Secularization . . . Suicide, and Crime 519 what percentage this total is of the prevailing population. Then this per¬ centage of non-nativity for each state is compared with the corresponding percentage for all the states combined. Non-nativity (so defined) stands at 45 per cent for the nation as a whole. This measure is taken as the founda¬ tion of the index score 100, and the scores for the individual states revolve around the national ratio as percentages of it in the familiar manner. The percentage of non-nativity for Nevada is 111.3; for North Carolina 25.7. Thus the former is seen to be 247 of the rate for the nation as a whole; and the latter, 57 per cent. Then these percentages are simply read as index scores for the respective states. This index is full of significant implications. To leave a state for an¬ other lessens the kinship bonds, loosens friendships and neighborhood ties, reduces indigenous populations, and contributes to institutional dislocations back home, while adding to the population of the new state a stranger. In the meantime, another stranger may be entering the state which has lost an indigene, a kinsman, a neighbor, a friend. Added to this process are the processes of urbanization and industriali¬ zation for which indices (in Porterfield and Talbert’s book, crime, suicide, and social well-being) have previously been supplied. Since these pro¬ cesses may go on within a state, shifting citizens within instead of across state boundaries, it is not surprising that indices of urbanization and indus¬ trialization, though positively correlated as series, are not so related to the non-nativity series in the 48 states. But since both contribute to the anony- FIGURE 4: HOUSING AND SUICIDES IN HOKTiORIH A 8558 .8 8558 H H H H H Index of Housing o 8 8 5 CM CM CM 520 The Texas Journal of Science 1951, No. 4 December 30 mity and impersonality of secular society, the three series can logically be combined by states, together with a fourth important series, which is highly correlated with non-nativity. This fourth series is made up of index scores for non-church membership by states as indicative of a type of institutional dislocation closely related to the breakdown of the mores. This index, like the others, is built around 100 as representative of the ratio of non-member- ship in churches (in 1936) * for the nation as a whole. It is then assumed that the mean of the index scores of these four con¬ ditions in each state is a rough measure of its degree of secularization. Nevada, for example, has index scores for non-nativity, urbanization, indus¬ trialization, and non-church membership of 247, 70, 95, and 195 respec¬ tively. The mean of these four scores is 151. The corresponding scores for Mississippi are 75, 3 5, 28, and 100 respectively, with a mean score of 60. Thus 151 and 60 are taken as indicating the relative percentages of seculari¬ zation in the two states which stand at the top and the bottom of the series. INDICES OF SECULARIZATION AND SUICIDE Indices of secularization by states thus established are given in Table 1. The Northwestern and Northeastern states are at the top of the list, and the Southern and Southwestern at the bottom, with some notable exceptions. FIGURE 5i mmSE MD SUICIDES IIT FORT WORTH FOR SELECTED TEARS •H i U m g 1 Ml k * This year was chosen of necessity, since the last dependable data are found in the Census of Religious Bodies: 1936. 1951, No. 4 December 30 SECULARIZATION . . . SUICIDE, AND CRIME 521 TABLE 1 INDICES OF SECULARIZATION BY STATES BASED ON THE ARITHMETIC MEAN OF INDEX SCORES FOR URBANIZATION, INDUSTRIALIZATION, NON-NATIVITY, AND NON-MEMBERSHIP IN CHURCHES: 100 IS THE SCORE FOR THE NATION. State Index of sec- Urban- Industrial¬ Non¬ Non¬ ularization ization ization nativity members Nevada . . . . . 151 70 95 247 192 Washington . . . . . . . . 1 44 94 108 169 204 California . .... 143 126 126 144 175 Delaware . . . . . 139 93 230 132 102 Oregon . . . . . 137 86 94 183 185 Wyoming . . . . . 127 66 51 229 161 Colorado . . . . . 124 93 76 192 135 New Jersey . . . . . . . . 122 144 164 105 76 Michigan . . . . . 121 118 143 91 130 Maryland . . . . ro 105 169 101 106 Illinois . . . . . 119 130 138 103 104 Rhode Island . . . . . . 116 162 137 95 71 Montana . . . . . 115 67 53 184 156 New Hampshire . . . 114 102 103 158 94 Connecticut .... . . . . 113 120 160 98 72 New York . . . . . 112 147 150 67 83 Massachusetts . . . . . . . 112 158 135 70 75 Ohio . . . . . Ill 118 136 88 95 Arizona . . . . . 110 62 65 182 130 Florida . . . . . 110 98 55 147 139 Idaho . . . . . 109 60 46 195 135 Oklahoma . . . . . 109 67 45 166 151 Missouri . . . . . 104 92 82 128 115 Kansas . . . . . 104 74 51 162 130 Indiana . . . . . 102 98 97 108 106 United States . . . . . . . 100 100 100 100 100 Pennsylvania .... .... 98 118 121 64 78 Minnesota . . . . . 93 88 64 102 96 Vermont . . . . . 92 61 83 122 100 Tennessee . . . . . 92 62 59 92 154 Nebraska . . . . . 91 69 47 141 108 Wisconsin . . . . . 89 95 91 79 90 West Virginia . . . . . . 88 50 68 88 147 Maine . . . . . 87 72 80 75 120 Utah . . . . . 85 98 74 99 67 New Mexico ... . . . . 85 60 41 145 92 Iowa . . . . . 83 70 56 121 85 South Dakota . . . . . . . 81 44 25 155 100 Georgia . . . . . 80 61 54 79 90 Texas . . . . . 80 80 53 74 112 Kentucky . .... 74 53 40 84 118 North Dakota . . . . . . . 72 36 18 141 92 Arkansas . . . . . 71 39 28 126 90 Alabama . .... 69 53 47 76 100 Louisiana . .... 67 73 51 66 78 North Carolina . . .... 66 48 60 57 100 South Carolina . . .... 66 44 53 72 96 Mississippi . .... 60 35 28 75 100 522 The Texas Journal of Science 1951. No. 4 December SO Indices of suicides by states, previously established (in crime, suicide and social well-being in your state and city) are compared with in¬ dices of secularization in Table 2. The two series are significantly, even remarkably, correlated. The Pearsonian coefficient is +80. The closest posi¬ tive relationship of a single sub-factor with suicide is that of non-nativity. It is represented by a coefficient of +66. Non-nativity seems to be more important than urbanization in the causation of suicide. Perhaps "non¬ nativity” is an index of unrest and escapism in general, of which suicide is also an index. Perhaps non-membership in churches is influenced by non¬ nativity which, in turn, is caused by unrest and attempts to eccape from it in an atmosphere of insecurity- — fear and fallibility. THE SECULAR SOCIETY, THE FOLK SOCIETY, SUICIDE, AND HOMICIDE It is an understatement to say that these aspects of a secular society are not positively related to homicide and other serious forms of crime. In Table 2, the index of secularization is presented in reverse as a folk-society index by states and compared with indices of suicides and homicide in col¬ umns standing side by side with the secular index. The results are surpris¬ ing. The index scores for secularization and homicide are on opposite sides of 100 in 33 states and, of course, on the same side of 100 in an equal num¬ ber of cases when compared with the folk-index scores. The populations of only six states more "secular55 than the average may live up to the popular (and frequent sociological) expectation that the secular society holds the JTOTBS 6s 1AKD USE MD SUICIDES I1T POET IfOHOT Index ©f Transition ®r Land Uaa 1951, No. 4 December 30 Secularization . . . Suicide, and Crime 523 TABLE 2 INDICES OF SECULARIZATION, SUICIDE, AND HOMICIDE BY STATES FOR THE years 1930, 193 5, 1940, and 1945 with the mean rates of these CAUSES OF DEATH FOR THE NATION AS A WHOLE REPRESENTED BY THE 4 INDEX SCORE OF 100. State Secular Index Nevada . . . 151 Washinton . 1 44 California . . . 143 Delaware . 139 Oregon . 137 Wyoming . 127 Colorado . . 124 New Jersey . 122 Michigan . 121 Maryland . 120 Illinois . . . 119 Rhode Island . 116 Montana . 115 New Hampshire . 114 Connecticut . 113 New York . 112 Massachusetts . 112 Ohio . Ill Arizona . 110 Florida . 110 Idaho . 109 Oklahoma . 109 Missouri . . 104 Kansas . 104 Indiana . 102 United States . 100 Pennsylvania . 98 Minnesota . 93 Vermont . 92 Tennessee . 92 Nebraska . 91 Wisconsin . 89 West Virginia . 88 Maine . 87 Virginia . 86 Utah . 85 New Mexico . 85 Iowa . 83 South Dakota . 81 Georgia . 80 Texas . . 80 Kentucky . 74 North Dakota . 72 Arkansas . . 71 Alabama . 69 Louisiana . 67 North Carolina . 66 South Carolina . 66 Mississippi . . . . . 60 Suicide Folk Homicide Index Index Index 234 66 139 145 69 56 156 70 77 93 72 91 135 73 47 151 79 103 134 81 82 101 82 50 98 83 61 105 83 99 104 84 91 74 86 20 146 87 95 101 88 14 111 88 28 111 89 52 88 89 22 108 90 87 118 91 145 100 91 300 111 92 49 69 92 131 111 96 112 99 96 .53 108 98 64 100 100 100 94 102 51 97 108 33 114 109 20 70 109 249 121 110 32 115 112 25 80 114 148 115 115 21 95 116 167 93 118 59 95 118 137 119 120 128 85 123 30 71 125 291 80 125 159 80 135 255 98 139 30 65 141 196 59 145 271 65 149 108 81 152 342 52 152 200 43 167 295 524 The Texas Journal of Science 1951, No. 4 December 30 life of the other man cheaper than the average. Its people, however, seem to hold their own lives less dear than in the folk society, since the suicide and secular scores are on the same side of 100 in 3 6 instances; but the suicide and folk scores are on the opposite side of 100 in the same number of in¬ stances. This is in line with the hypothesis that suicide and homicide are op¬ posite types of response to a sense of frustration. FACTORS CONDUCIVE TO CRIME IN AMERICAN FOLK SOCIETIES The more "primitive” folk societies about which Redfield and others write should be less given to both suicide and crime than many present day groups. Our data do not suggest that the less secularized populations are "more given to crime” just because they are less secular. It is depressed folk societies in local conflict which become involved in crime rather than the more urbanized, industrialized, non-native groups with fewer members in churches. It is the societies marked by rurality, depressed populations as indigenous or locality groups trampling on one another’s toes. It is the people with a status consciousness which may be ethnically slanted. It is the people whose convictions, rationalizations, and sense of infallibility set them at war with one another, though rooted in the same landscape. In such a so¬ ciety there may be a greater tendency to strike the other down when he gets in your way and to find the act justified by the existing situation and the mores; or at least understandable as anger displacement. In the secular society, the isolated and baffled suicide may not get close enough to others to hit anybody but himself; at least anybody against whom he feels resent¬ ments. The data which suggest this characterization of depressed folk groups as related to crime may be found in Table 3, which gives the concept a nu¬ merical definition as a composite of four sub-factors; depressed classes, rurality, locality, and color. The index of depressed classes is simply the index of "social well-being” (as based on 28 sub-factors in crime, suicide, and social well-being) reversed. The index of rurality reverses the index of urbanization. "Locality” is indicated by the number of churches (as nucle¬ ated institutions which are nailed to the landscape) per 100,000 population by states as compared with the number in the nation as a whole; and the index of color compares the percentage of non-whites in each state with the percentage in the entire nation. No one need be surprised that the incidence of congregations is in¬ cluded in the index of depressed folk among status-conscious groups in con¬ flict. Limited space precludes the presentation of the arrays of the sub¬ factors in the depressed folk index here; but a comparison of the indices of depressed classes and of congregations per 100,000 population shows the scores for both to be on the same side of 100 in 3 8 states and on opposite sides only 9 times. The coefficient of correlation is +.8 5. The apparent reason for this correlation is that the presence of depressed and color groups (who are also depressed) in the population requires more congregations per 100,000 population to serve folk fragments than where class and race divisions are not so sharp. The comparison of indices of depressed folk and homicide for the period studied presents a positive coefficient of +.92; of depressed folk and serious crimes during 1937-39, +.94; of depressed folk and suicide, -~J3. The series on which these correlations are based are found in Table 3. 1951, No. 4 December 30 Secularization . . . Suicide, and Crime 525 TABLE 3 indices of suicide and crime compared with indices of depressed-folk PATTERNS BASED ON DEPRESSED CLASSES, RURALITY, LOCALITY, AND COLOR AS ASPECTS OF THE POPULATIONS OF THE 48 STATES: 100 IS THE SCORE FOR THE ENTIRE NATION. State Depressed-Folk Crime index Homicide Crime index: Suicide index 1937-1939 index selected years index Mississippi . . . . . 280 142 295 158 43 South Carolina . . 260 206 200 170 52 Alabama . . 224 216 271 201 59 Georgia . . 223 276 291 216 71 Arkansas . . 212 188 196 165 65 North Carolina . . 194 336 342 275 81 Louisiana . . 187 142 108 125 63 Virginia . . 174 250 167 213 95 Florida ....... . 159 230 300 196 100 Tennessee . . 158 285 249 210 70 North Dakota . . 157 66 30 62 98 South Dakota . . . 145 49 30 52 85 Kentucky . . 131 255 222 215 80 New Mexico . . . . 131 160 137 134 95 Texas . . 131 175 159 163 80 Oklahoma . 130 140 131 130 69 West Virginia . . 129 141 148 95 90 Arizona . . 127 190 145 168 118 Maryland . . 109 117 99 121 105 Delaware . . . . . . 109 104 91 110 93 Idaho . . 102 97 49 95 111 Kansas . . 101 85 53 * 83 102 Montana . . 99 77 95 91 146 Nebraska . . 98 46 32 64 121 Wyoming . . 98 70 103 86 151 Vermont . . 97 30 20 35 114 Missouri . . 96 88 112 102 111 Nevada . . 94 108 139 147 234 Indiana . . 92 103 64 106 118 Iowa . . 91 57 28 55 119 Maine . . 87 49 21 52 115 Minnesota . . . . . . 82 60 33 53 97 Colorado . . 80 84 82 110 134 Oregon . . 77 117 47 121 135 Utah . . 77 110 59 105 93 Pennsylvania . . . . 77 66 51 62 94 Ohio . . 76 100 87 95 109 Wisconsin. . . 74 27 25 36 115 Washington . . . . 74 101 56 110 145 New Hampshire . 72 25 14 26 101 Michigan . . 71 85 61 101 98 Illinois . . 70 97 91 97 104 New Jersey . . . . 63 72 50 68 101 California . . 60 111 77 108 156 Connecticut . . . . 58 54 28 56 110 New York . . . . . 56 54 52 56 111 Rhode Island . . . 51 32 20 45 74 Massachusetts . . . 49 46 22 56 88 52 6 The Texas Journal of Science 1951, No. 4 December 30 CLASS, SUICIDE, DEPRESSED FOLK, AND JUVENILE JAIL COMMITMENTS WITHIN A SINGLE CITY AS COMPARED WITH THE NATIONAL PICTURE Porterfield and Talbert’s studies of 10 5 American cities, 86 of which were compared as southern-Non-Southern pairs of equal population elimi¬ nate the factor of rurality as far as possible in comparing indices of suicide table 4 INDEX OF SOCIO-ECONOMIC STATUS IN FORT WORTH BY CENSUS TRACTS, BASED ON THE AVERAGES OF INDICES FOR HEALTH, HOUSING, DEPENDENCY, AND TRANSITION OR HETEROGENEITY OF LAND USE FOR SELECTED YEARS. Census Status Rank : Deficiency: Index of Index of Index Index of Tract high to low low to high health re- housing of depend¬ land use index* index** versed reversed ency T and H# 42 200 50 48 64 9 79 22 185 54 43 72 21 79 26 169 59 48 83 19 85 43 154 65 68 76 21 94 27 154 65 70 78 21 89 21 147 68 86 79 26 82 15 143 70 72 86 26 97 14 141 71 93 85 25 82 46 139 72 57 103 44 82 1 135 75 93 85 36 85 44 130 77 106 79 37 85 48 125 80 74 107 40 100 37 125 80 87 98 48 86 25 123 81 59 133 43 87 35 120 83 80 94 58 100 28 119 84 86 82 93 96 41 119 84 86 88 70 92 8 116 86 88 93 68 94 38 114 88 68 106 83 93 47 112 89 87 99 50 122 4 108 93 84 106 92 91 39 100 100 135 104 70 89 45 100 100 128 100 76 95 All 100 100 100 100 100 100 30 94 106 137 95 80 110 40 93 107 93 104 78 154 5 88 113 137 130 96 86 33 88 114 93 120 143 140 12 88 114 132 105 85 132 29 84 119 86 92 149 149 34 81 124 104 118 143 130 19 76 132 120 103 123 182 2 74 135 118 130 112 179 3 74 135 147 141 153 100 16 72 139 133 130 169 123 31 66 152 110 105 186 208 20 64 157 145 152 117 215 32 56 177 135 128 230 213 9 54 180 156 119 279 167 10 50 200 161 133 219 233 17 46 219 217 128 374 256 18 33 300 370 118 353 357 * Index of deficiency reversed. ** Index is mean of indices in last four columns. ± T and H : Transition and heterogeneity. 1951, No. 4 December 30 Secularization . . . Suicide, and Crime 527 and homicide; but it seems advisable to study the social structure of a single American city in order to make some internal comparisons in a much more limited universe. For this purpose we have carried on studies in Ft. Worth in 41 census tracts or areas on which we could get comparable data for various periods."' In the process we have developed, by methods the descrip- table 5 INDICES OF SUICIDES (43 8 cases: 1930-1949) BY census tracts in fort WORTH BASED ON RATES PER 1,000 POPULATION, ALL AGES, AND RATES PER 1,000 POPULATION OVER 24 YEARS OF AGE IN 1940, COMPARED WITH INDICES OF SOCIO-ECONOMIC STATUS (OR DEPRESSED CLASSES AS A REVERSE SERIES). Census Status rank : Depressed Suicide Suicide index: tract high to low classes : index : over 24 years index low to high all ages old, 1940 index 42 200 50 122 115 22 185 54 228 215 26 169 59 29 12 43 154 65 56 50 27 154 65 154 145 21 147 68 81 15 143 70 129 116 14 141 71 111 108 46 139 72 206 241 1 133 75 54 54 44 130 77 88 82 48 125 80 105 107 37 125 80 54 57 25 123 81 15 16 35 120 83 112 115 28 119 84 140 134 41 119 84 100 80 8 116 86 82 93 38 114 88 108 120 47 112 89 97 102 4 108 93 88 111 39 100 100 65 65 45 100 100 89 94 All 100 100 100 100 30 94 106 152 139 40 93 107 52 50 5 88 114 70 80 33 . 88 114 33 34 12 88 114 106 108 29 84 119 110 105 34 81 124 76 71 19 76 132 124 118 2 74 135 122 118 3 74 135 66 78 16 72 139 79 92 31 66 152 135 134 20 64 157 107 129 32 56 177 82 91 9 54 180 123 133 10 50 200 134 142 17 46 219 61 63 18 33 300 188 149 * Faculty members have had the help of Leonard Cain and Roy G. Moore. 528 The Texas Journal of Science 1951, No. 4 December 30 tion of which is precluded by space limitations, indices of relief based on rates of clearance through the social service exchange from 193 6 through 1946; indices of housing based on rents, overcrowding, and houses in need of major repair; indices of health based on deaths from tuberculosis, pneu¬ monia, and prematurity; and indices of residential desirability or of hetero¬ geneity and of transition in land use based on the city zoning map (1947) ; and, finally, a composite index which we call an index of socio-economic status based on the mean of these four index scores for each census tract (See Table 4). Then we have prepared indices of suicide by census tracts based on the rates of suicides occurring per 1,000 population (in 1940) over a twenty year period extending from 1930 to 1949, inclusive (see Table 5). There is no positive relationship between indices of suicide and socio¬ economic status, suicide and housing, suicide and relief, or suicide and health by census tracts in Fort Worth, as can be observed in Table 5. When comparisons are made, however, which involve a combination of the factors of class status with the factor of fragmentized folk-groups in depressed areas as indicated by the number of churches per 1,000 popula¬ tion in three groups of census tracts which have 0-4, 5-9, and 10 or more churches per census tract respectively, there is an interesting and significant difference in the results. Table 6 not only presents this comparison but makes another with the rates for juvenile commitments known to have been made to the city jail in 1945. It becomes clear that in those areas where congregation rates, de¬ pendency rates, indices of depressed classes in general are high, suicide rates are relatively low and delinquency jail commitments are high; but where congregation and dependency rates are low, suicide rates are relatively high and delinquency rates low. The local study apparently confirms the conclusions suggested by the study of the entire national scene"' *. It also helps to show where troubles take their people irrespective of class, how¬ ever different may be the nature or the sources of the trouble. table 6 DISTRIBUTION OF 438 SUICIDES (1930-1949) AND OF JUVENILE JAIL COM¬ MITMENTS (1945) PER 1,000 POPULATION BY CENSUS TRACTS IN FORT WORTH WITH 0-4, 5-9, AND 10 OR MORE CHURCHES WITH TELEPONES (1948) COMPARED WITH RELIEF RATES (1936-1946) AND INDICES OF DEPRESSED CLASSES IN 40 CENSUS TRACT AREAS IN THREE GROUPS Number of census tracts in Church Mean index Mean Rates Rates and population of each group. rate per depressed annual juven¬ of Number Popu¬ No. Total 1,000 classes relief ile sui¬ tracts lation churches no. people rates cases cides * churches per 1,000 population 15 58.596 0-4 47 .800 68 21.8 2.368 2.675 13 58,365 5-9 78 1.336 101 37.3 3.821 2.484 12 55,324 10- 162 2.928 150 67.2 6.652 2.440 All 172,385 0-26 287 1.665 100 41.2 4.235 2.535 * Number is rate for entire period per 1,000 population. ** The author is reading all the newspaper accounts of all the suicides that have occurred in Fort Worth during the years 1930-1949. He finds nothing in those accounts to suggest that upper class people do not commit suicide in the same measure if not to a greater de¬ gree than others. Our statistics show that Census tract 22, with the second highest index of socio-economic status in the city has the highest crude suicide rate of all ; and it has the second highest rate per 1,000 people over 24 years old in 1940. 1951, No. 4 December 30 Secularization . . . Suicide, and Crime 529 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION The data herein presented indicate that indices of secularization as fitted to Becker’s analysis and based on indices of non-nativity (as herein defined), urbanization, industrialization, and non-church membership vary greatly by states in the nation. The most secularized areas are in the Northwest and the Northeastern sections of the nation. The least secularized states are in the South and the Southwest. It is in the latter areas, however, where indices of depressed folk groups are highest. Accompanying high indices of secularization are high scores for suicide but not high crime scores. Accompanying high indices of depressed folk groups are high indices of crime but relatively low suicide scores. The secu¬ lar society is marked by the anonymity, isolation, fallibility, fear, and insti¬ tutional dislocation that are conducive to suicide. The fragmentized folk so¬ ciety is marked by the local face to face contacts of depressed and frus¬ trated groups with more or less "infallible” sanctions to support them in their conflict. Classes high and low have their troubles both as groups and persons; but the response they make to their troubles depends upon complex psychological and cultural definitions of the total situation. 530 The Texas Journal of Science 1951, No. 4 December 30 THE DISTRIBUTION OF DISCOLORED SEA WATER HELEN LANDAU HAYES AND THOMAS S. AUSTIN U. S. Navy Hydrographic Office Washington, D. C. INTRODUCTION Discolored water is recognized as patches, streaks or very large areas of more or less opaque brown, yellow, red and other tints on the water, or under the surface. These areas frequently resemble shoals. The purpose of this paper and accompanying chart is to demonstrate the geographical fac¬ tors in the distribution of discolored water. We hope that this will be a sig¬ nificant contribution both to the mariners’ problem of the clarification and correction of erroneous notations of shoal water on existing charts, and to the solution of the far reaching problem of the red tide. Since about 18 80 the Hydrographic Office has been receiving discolora¬ tion records from many sources, chief among which is the Merchant Marine. Reports in American and foreign scientific publications and nautical journals have likewise been used, the hydrographic bulletin. Hydrographic Of¬ fice Pilot charts, and the marine observer of the British Meteorological Office, have been most helpful. This collection of observations forms the basis for the accompanying chart and probably comprises the most complete record of the distribution of discolored water. HISTORY The phenomenon of the discolored water has undoubtedly been observed by voyagers and inhabitants of coastal areas since before the beginning of the written record. One of the earliest reports is found in the Bible, (seventh chapter of Exodus, the twentieth and the twenty-first verses:) “And all of the waters that were in the river (The Nile) were turned to blood and the fish that was in the river died ; and the river stank, and the Egyptians could not drink of the water of the river.” Such reports may be found, also in the Iliad and the works of Tacitus and in the logs of a number of navigators of the 16th century and on. A few early records may be found with detailed description of the discoloration and of the organisms which cause it. For example, in 1594, Sir Richard Hawkins, entering a cove in the Straits of Magellan, observed a bright red discoloration of the water. He stated, "they sounded a cove some sixteen leagues from the mouth of the straits, which after we called Crabby Cove. It brooked its name well for two causes; the one for that all the water was full of a small kind of red crabbes; the other, for the crabbed moun¬ tains which overtopped it; a third, we might add, for the crabbed enter¬ tainment it gave us.” Again, specifically mentioning discolored water, Simon D’Cordex in 1598, reported "having passed the Rio de la Plata, the sea ap¬ peared as red as blood, the water was full of little red worms which when taken out jumped from the hand like fleas. Some were of the opinion that with seasons of the year the whales shook these worms from their bodies but of this they have no certainty.” The available records prior to 1800 attrib¬ ute the discoloration in the sea to various factors such as sea dust, submarine earthquakes, submarine sulphur springs, spawn of fish, etc. In 1729, during the voyage of the ship St. George Capt. William Dampier described an en¬ counter with discolored water off the coast of Peru as follows: 1951, No. 4 December 30 Distribution of Discolored Sea Water 531 “The 19th instance, our men all being at dinner and our ship about ten leagues off shore, going with a fine fresh gale of wind at East, we were suddenly sur¬ prised with the change of the colour of the water, which looked as red as blood to as great a distance as we could see, which might be about seven or eight leagues. At first we were mighty surprised ; but recollecting ourselves, we sounded, but had no ground at one hundred and seventy fathoms. We then drew some water up in buckets, and poured some in a glass. It still continued to look very red, till about a quarter of an hour after it had been in the glass ; when all of the red substance floated on the top, and the water underneath was a clear as usual. The red stuff which floated on top was of a slimy sub¬ stance, with little knobs, and we all concluded it could be nothing but the spawn of fish.” During the 19th century with the increase in shipping and the publi¬ cation of the results of scientific expeditions and private investigations, con¬ siderable interest was aroused in the distribution of and the explanation for discolored water. Sailing directions requested that areas of discolored water be carefully surveyed and sounded to eliminate the possibility of their being recorded on the charts as shoal areas, and statements were published in nau¬ tical journals to the effect that some of the areas then reported as shoals were thought to be discolored water. In recent years outbreaks of discolored water appearing off the Florida and California coasts have been watched and studied with increasing in¬ terest. Comparison of data from the many known affected localities provides clues for the study of these areas which may, in turn, contribute to the discovery of the direct cause or the possibility of prediction of the phe¬ nomenon. NOTE: In the interest of the first mentioned problem, the U. S. Navy Hydrographic Office has issued a request to mariners to take soundings in discolored water to insure correct diagnoses before reporting. It has also requested reports on observations of discolored water as a check on present shoal notations. CAUSES OF DISCOLORATION The causes of the normal color of the sea are physical. The charac¬ teristic indigo of the open ocean can be explained by the scattering of the light as it reflects from the water. In the reflected light the reds and yellows are absorbed, leaving the greens, blues, and violets, which in combination give indigo. Coastal waters are normally greener, often with shades of brown or yellow. These colors can be traced to the pigments in the neritic plants and animals, the color of the bottom where the water is shallow, and to the runoff and erosion products from the shore. Water masses of different origins also, are often recognizable by local color differences at their con¬ vergence. The discolorations under discussion are however, largely biological in origin. They are caused by groups in the plankton ranging in size from microscopic bacteria and diatoms to the macroscopic jellyfish and Crustacea, which carry pigments (most frequently red) in their bodies. These colored forms are universally distributed, although differing in species composition, from the Polar waters to the tropics. Although they occur in almost all waters in large numbers, their color does not become apparent until they exceed their normal abundance. Allen (1942) gives an idea of the numbers necessary to cause color; "Even an experienced observer may sail through an expanse of water showing a dingy chocolate or other inconspicuous color and think nothing of it, although the microscopic organisms causing the color may be present in numbers of one-half million to a full million per liter of sea water near the surface. Yet the difference between that color and one of distinct redness may rest only on the presence of another million 532 The Texas Journal of Science 1951, No. 4 December 30 or two- — .” The combination of factors which constitute optimum condi¬ tions for these organisms and cause them to reproduce at so abnormal a rate is quite complex and is incompletely understood. Since the zooplankton feed on the phytoplankton, it is the production of the latter which is the basis of the problem. Their production is depend¬ ent on abundant food in the form of nutrient salts (particularly nitrates, phosphates and dissolved organic matter) and radiant energy from the sun to enable the plants to utilize these nutrients. These conditions are found more often in coastal waters than far offshore. Here, the zone of decom¬ position (on the bottom) lies close to the productive zone (the surface), supplying the nutrients in abundance. Where the water is deep and the shore steep-to, upwelling may occur, with the same advantageous effect. Variations in environmental factors constitute another control over the pro¬ duction of plankton. An excellent example is to be found in the polar waters. During the long period of darkness, the production of the diatoms is limited by the lack of sunlight necessary to the process of photosynthesis. During this period the nitrates, phosphates, and silicates utilized during the summer months, are returned to the sea by the decomposition of the organic matter. These nutrients are fairly evenly distributed throughout the surface waters by turbulence. In the spring, with the return of sunlight, this rela¬ tive increase in nitrates and phosphates permits diatom "blooms” and the subsequent greenish discoloration of the surface waters. This control of the growth of phytoplankton by the nutrient salts, nitrogen and phosphate and other elements, is expressed in Liebig’s law of the minimum which states that growth is limited by the factor that is present in minimimal quantity. Oxygen is never a limiting factor here because it is constantly renewed by wave action and the continual exchange of water. It is along the coasts therefore, that sudden unpredictable changes in the physical-chemical en¬ vironment take place, so frequently inducing prolific reproduction of the various discoloring organisms. The open ocean, on the other hand, is a fairly stable homogenous medium. Its supply of plankton is scanty, due in part to the persistent thermal stratification which prevents renewal of nutrients from the bot¬ tom to the euphotic zone. Even here however, discoloration can occur, as normal local environments are often drastically affected by meteorological conditions. When the necessary combination of factors reaches the optimum for some colored species or group of species, they increase in such tremendous numbers that they "bloom” and cause discolored water. Related to this optimum is the fact that the natural destructive controls, such as predators, competitors, etc. are often destroyed or subsequently decreased in effective¬ ness, being outnumbered by their enemies. This upheaval continues until the balance is re-established, either because the lack of supplies for the enlarged population results in the organization of a competitive regime, or their own metabolic toxins cut them down, or a change in the hydrological conditions occurs. A change in wind or tide is sometimes sufficiently effective to dispel the red water. A rise in the number of predators brought about by the in¬ crease in their food supply may also occur. These may kill off the original population and themselves become the dominant factor. Torrey (1902) reports that during an occurrence of red water on the California coast, the dinoflagellate, Noctiluca appeared in great numbers and devoured Gonyaulax 1951, No. 4 December 30 Distribution of Discolored Sea Water 533 with avidity. Also Whitelegge (1891), reporting on the discoloration of the waters of Port Jackson, states that Gymnodinium spirale appeared at the cli¬ max of the Glenodinium production and devoured the latter until the gastric cavities of the Gymnodinium were so gorged that they were almost unrecog¬ nizable, being forced out of shape by the contents of their stomachs. The dinoflagellates, a common component of plankton, is the group most frequently noted as a cause of the red color. Whitelegge (1891a and b) reporting discoloration at Port Jackson, New South Wales, identified the causative form at that time, as the dinoflagellate genus, Glenodinium. (Ko- foid in 1911 called it Gonyaulax) . Okauaa (1916) reporting on red water in Yokohama harbor in 1919-21, blames Cochlodinium catenatum. Noctiluca is also common here and is probably one of the guilty organisms. Discolora¬ tion accompanying the "Sennir,” "Kananir,” or "Kedunir,” local names for the phenomenon of red water on the Malabar and South Kanara coast, is due to a Euglenid and/or Noctiluca. Noctiluca is also considered respon¬ sible in South Africa (Gilchrist 1914). Manila Bay has frequent occurrences of discolored water due to Peridinium. Species of Gonyaulax are common forms off the North American west coast and have been considered among the probable culprits in recent Florida outbreaks. Off the coast of the Kanagawa Prefecture on Honshu, the "Akashio” (red tide) occurred four times between 1907 and 1911, two years in June, due to Polykrikos and two in August due to Gonyaulax. The alga T richodesmium erythraeum is also red, and is so regularly abundant in the Red Sea and in the Vermilion Sea (Gulf of California), that these waters have been named for the color. Purple sulfur bacteria ( Beggiatoa , etc.) have been considered as the cause of a distinct red color along the Holstein coast and elsewhere. Anaerobic conditions and the presence of hydrogen sulfide, with a large quantity of decomposing organic material are favorable media for their development and these conditions are not uncommon in "red water” areas. ZoBell (1946) states that the purple bacteria grow throughout the entire temperature range of the sea. Blooming of any microscopic organism forming a scum will give some color to the water. This is usually dark green or brown. Those with pig¬ ments in their bodies however, are the ones that account for the reds, yel¬ lows, blacks, oranges, etc. Among the most common color producers are, the flagellates, Gonyaulax polyedra, G. polygramma, G. catenella, Pyrocystis sp., Noctiluca sp., Gymnodinium flavum, G. brevis, Peridinium sanguineum, P. depressum, P. crassipes, Am phidinium fusiforme, A. operculatum, Proro- centrum micans, Pouchetia rosea, Ceratium tripos, C. furca, C. fusus, Gleno¬ dinium rubrum, Mesodinium rubrum, Cochlodinium catenatum, Polykrikos sp.; various copepods, notably the arctic forms, Metridia longa, M. lucens, and Oncaea coni f era; Euglenids; Euphausids; Munida larvae and several algae and diatoms. It may be noted that many of these forms are also luminous, and occurring in abundance, cause "phosphorescent” seas. While most organisms have characteristic colors, differences in color of certain forms has been noted by Abbott (1944) and Martin (1929). They found normally yellow or green forms under certain conditions, ap¬ pearing brown, brown forms changing to red, etc. These changes are charged to a variety of factors including the angle and intensity of transmitted or reflected light, and physiological changes in the cells because of tempera¬ ture changes or age. 534 The Texas Journal of Science 1951, No. 4 December 30 DISTRIBUTION The phenomenon of discolored water is almost cosmopolitan in distri¬ bution, although individual species causing discoloration may have a rela¬ tively localized rnge. There are reports of it from the antarctic seas, the temperate seas, the tropical seas and the arctic. Although records included on the accompanying chart are mainly those submitted by the merchant marine, and are therefore restricted to commercial ship lanes, other data obtained by scientific expeditions and coastwise vessels corroborate the theory that discolored water is primarily a coastal phenomenon. The areas best known for discoloration are areas of upwelling. Here, at seasons when the current regime is proper for the phenomenon, the cold deep waters are brought up to the surface, carrying with them nitrogen and phosphates from decomposition products. This suddenly abundant supply of nutrients is often a "trigger mechanism” for the plankton bloom. Up- welling is common off the coasts of Peru and Chile, the coast of Latin America, Mexico and California, the Florida keys, the Malabar and South Kanara coasts in southwest India at certain seasons, the Madras coast in southeast India, Walvis Bay and elsewhere in southwest Africa, the Arabian coast between Aden and Perim, the east Japan coast and the East Australian coast. In many of these areas, the discoloration is an annual occurrence and may be seasonal. As in upwelling, a general change of water mass may also occur by a change in current direction. This may also be seasonal, as it is in cases of El Nino and Aquaje , off the Peruvian coast. Before discussing these currents, it would be well to describe briefly the normal currents and temperature distribution off the west coast of Peru from Pisco north to the Gulf of Guayaquil. The Peru current, also known as the Humboldt current, which moves from south to north, is a northerly branch of the Pacific Antarctic Drift and is particularly noted for its sustained low temperatures (mean annual temperature close to the shore line of central Peru is 10 to 11° C. lower than the theoretical value for that latitude). This low temperature extends from a point somewhere south of 45° S. to Punta Arina, 4° 40’ S, and is caused by the upwelling of the deeper waters. Among the northern coast of Peru, the current normally swings to the west and converges with the Equatorial Counter Current running East. The line of convergence marked by a "tide rip,” runs along irregularly from Punta Aguja to the Galapagos Islands. The Counter Equatorial Current, which normally turns north¬ ward along the coasts of Ecuador, Colombia and Central America, season¬ ally swings to the south during January-March, bringing a counter cur¬ rent of warm water down the coast of Peru, displacing the ordinarily cold water of the Peru Coastal Current. This influx of warm water may reach as far south as Salaverry, 8° 13’ S, and even occasionally Pisco. The drastic temperature reversal causes widespread mortality of littoral invertebrates, fish and even guano birds. The disturbance to the planktonic life common¬ ly results in extensive discoloration. A similar current change occurring father south during the months of April through June is called Aquaje . High temperatures appear off the coast of Peru between the latitudes 9° and 12° S, caused by the movement 1951, No. 4 December 30 Distribution of Discolored Sea Water 535 inshore of the outlying oceanic waters of high temperature and relatively high salinity. As is true of El Nino , the surface waters are usually colored blood red. Polar waters are often discolored in spring because of the abundance of winter-accumulated nutrients. These are regular occurrences whose causes are clearly marked. Dis¬ coloration however, can occur locally and unexpectedly even in mid-ocean. Here the causes are obscure. Some meteorological quirk or unusual tem¬ perature change may bring it about. In coastal waters, even the addition of trace elements brought down with river runoffs has been considered a possible cause. Thus it would seem that regularity of environmental cycles brings about a regularity in occurrences of discolored water, and where there is a variable ecological regime, discoloration occurs only sporadically. IMPORTANCE The interest in discolored water is not limited to the mariner. Inhabi¬ tants of shore communities where discolored water recurs, find the phenom¬ enon very disturbing. In many of the outbreaks, notably the one in Florida in 1947, the great numbers of organisms dying and decomposing in the water produced an ugly, evil-smelling scum, and with the rapidly depleted oxygen supply killing fishes by the millions and driving them ashore, the stench becomes unbearable. The decay and anaerobic conditions frequently also contribute to the production of hydrogen sulfide gas, the substance with the "rotten egg smell” which has blackened the paint on houses near the beach and the brightwork on ships passing through it. Because this aspect is so conspicuous, the Peruvian outbreaks are called "El Pintor”, "The Callao Painter.” Besides these odors, an irritating vapor was noted in the *47 outbreak which affected the mucus membrane of the nose and throat, causing extreme discomfort even to people living several miles from the beach. Certain of the discoloring organisms have been found to be definitely poisonous, and it is believed the mortality among the invertebrates and fish is caused by the toxins as well as by the oxygen depletion. Although the exact nature of the poison is not yet known, it is known to be suffi¬ ciently potent to be fatal even to humans who may eat oysters, clams, mussels, etc., which have the organisms in their stomachs. These conditions and the red water may last only a few hours, wash¬ ing away with the tide, or may persist for days and weeks until dispersed by the wind, which mixes the water and causes the products of the de¬ composition to sink to the bottom, or to be diluted until they are no longer critical. The losses to the shell fisheries industries are tremendous for, although some fish caught by the tide can swim out of the area, the sessile animals can protect themselves only by closing their shells. If the outbreak lasts more than a few hours they are annihilated. Even among the birds which are dependent on marine forms for food, the mortality is extensive. The Guano industry in Peru is imperiled regularly by El Nino and the Aquaje. Not all discoloring organisms are poisonous, of course, and discolored water is not always destructive. Some outbreaks in fact, would pass un¬ noticed if they did not occur in a locality under the attention of hydrolo¬ gists. DISCOLORED WATER The Texas Journal of Science 1951, No. 4 December 30 S3 6 1951, No. 4 December 30 Distribution of Discolored Sea Water 537 BIBLIOGRAPHY Abbot, C. E. — 1944 — Concerning the ecology of Euglena sanguinea. Turtox News. 12 . Aiyar, R. G. — 1936 — Mortality of fish on the Madras coast in June 1935. Curr. Sci. Bangalore. 4 : 483-489. Allen, W. E. — 1921a — Fisheries of the Pacific, ocean pasturage and ocean fisheries. Proc. First Pan-Pac. Sci. C'onf. 1 : 213-220. - 1921b — Preliminary statistical studies of marine phytoplankton of the San Diego Region, California. Proc. First Pan-Pac. Sci. Conf. 1 : 537-554. - 1921c — Problems of floral dominance in the open sea. Ecology 2:26-31. - — 1925 — Statistical studies of surface catches of marine diatoms and dinoflagellates made by the yacht Ohio in tropical waters in 1924. Trans. Amer. M'icrosc. Soc. 44 : 24-30. - - — 1928 — Quantitative studies on inshore marine diatoms and dinoflagellates collected in southern California in 1924. Bull. Scripps Inst. Oceanogr. Tech, ser, 1 : 347-356. - 1929 — Ten years of statistical studies of marine phytoplankton at the Scripps Insti¬ tution of Oceanography. Science 70:416-419. - 1933- — “Red Water” in La Jolla Bay in 1933. Science 78 : 12-13. - 1935 — “Yellow Water” in La Jolla Bay in 1935. Science 82 : 325-326. - - — 1936 — Surface plankton diatoms in the North Pacific Ocean in 1934. Madrono 3 : 1-3. - - — 1937 — A large catch of Noctiluca. Science 86:197-198. — - 1938 — “Red Water” along the west coast of the United States in 1938. Science 88 : 55-56. - 1941 — Twenty years’ statistical studies of marine plankton dinoflagellates of southern California. Contr. Scripps Inst. Oceanogr., n.s., 151. - 1945 — Occurrences and abundances of marine plankton diatoms offshore in southern California. Trans. Amer. Micros. Soc. 64 : 21-24. - 1946 — “Red Water” in La Jolla Bay in 1945. Trans. Amer. Micros. Soc. 65 : 149-153. - 1946 — Significances of “Red Water” in the sea. Contr. Scripps Inst. Oceanogr., n.s., 287. Anonymous — 1934 — Chemicals repulse ravages of Red Tide. Scientific American. Atkins, W. R. G. — 1923 — The phosphate content of fresh and salt waters in its relationship to the growth of algal plankton. Journ. Mar. Biol. Ass. 13 : 119-150. Baker, C. L. — 1933 — Formation of Indo-Pacific Coral Reefs and Atolls. Pan-Amer. Geol. 60 : 15-24. Barnes, H. T. — 1932 — The physiological effect of Tribydrol in water. Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci. 18(1) : 136-137. Baughman, J. L. — 1947 — The Florida Red Tide. Tex. Game and Fish 15(12) : 6, 20-21. Beebe, W. — 1926 — A note on the Humboldt Current and the Sargasso Sea. Science 63: 91-92. - 1926 — The arcturus adventure. New York. 425 p., 77 illus., maps. Bohnecke, G. E. Hentschel, and H. Watlenberg — 1930 — Uber die hydrographischen, chemi- schen und biologischen Verhaltr.isse an der Meeresoberflache zwischen Island nnd Gronland. Ann. Hydr. Mar. Met. 58 : 233-250. Bonnot, P. and J. B. Phillips — 1938 — Red water, its cause and occurrences. Calif. Fish and Game 24(1). Boschma. H. — 1926 — On the food of coral reefs. Proc. Acad. Sci. Amsterdam 29 : 993-997. Bowen. I. S. and F. A. Jenkins — 1946 — Transparency of ocean water. Journ. Opt. Soc. Amer. 36 : 617-623. Brongersma-Sanders, M. — 1945 — The annual fish mortality near Walvis Bay (South West Africa!, and its significance for paleontology. Summary of a lecture delivered to the Zool. Soc. on January 23, 1943. Arch. Neerland. Zool. 7 : 291-294. - 1947 — On the desirability of a research on certain phenomena in the region of up- welling water along the coast of southwest Africa. Proc. Acad. Sci. Amsterdam 50: 659-665. —— — 1948 — The importance of up willing water to vertebrate paleontology and oil geologv. Verhandelingen der KoninkJijke Nederlandsche Akad. Van Wetenschappen, Afd. Natuurkunde. Amsterdam Tweedie Sectie, D1 45(4) :1-112. Bruns. F. — 1931 — Beitrage zur Kenntniss der Vegetation des peruanischen Kustengebeites. Mitt. Inst, allgen. Bot. Hamburg' 8 : 1-85. Buchanan, J. Y. — 1910 — Color of the sea. Nature. 84 : 87-89. Bullen, G. E. — 1908 — Plankton studies in relation to the western mackerel fishery. Journ. Mar. Biol. Ass., n.s., 8 : 269-303. Burtt, J. L.— 1852 — On fish destroyed by siilphuretted hydrogren in the Bay of Callac. Amer. Journ. Sci., ser. 2, 13 : 433-434. Cabasso, V. and H. Roussel — 1942 — E'ssai de’ explication du nhenomene dit “Des eaux rouges” du lac de Tunis. Arch. Inst. Pasteur Tunis 31(3/4) : 203-211. Cadenat. J. — -1946 — Une peche miraculeuse d’anchois a Goree. Bull. Inf. Corr. Inst. Francais Afr. noire. 32 : 28. Carfllo, D. C- N. — 1892 — Estudios sobre las corrientes oceanicas y especialmente de la cor- riente Humboldt. Bol. Soc. Geogr. Lima. 2:72-110. Carpenter, A. and D. Wilson-Barker — 1915 — Nature notes for ocean voyagers, being personal observations upon life in “the vastv deep” etc. London. 181 p. Carter. H. J.— 1 858 — Note on the red colouring matter of the sea around the shores of the Island of Bombav. Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., s. 3, 1 : 258-262. Cheever. H. T. — 1850 — The whaleman’s adventure in the southern ocean. Ed. by the Rev. W. Scoresby. London. Chidambaram, R. and M. K. Anny — 1944 — Note on the swarming of the planktonic algae, Trichodesmium erytbraeum in the Pamban area and its effert on the fauna. Curr. Sci. Bangalore 13(101 : 263. Clarke. G- L.. and D. D. Bonnet — 1939 — The influence of temperature on the survival, growth and respiration of Calanus finmarchicus. Biol. Bull. 76(3) : 371-383. Classen, Th. — 1930 — Periodisches Fischsterben in Walvis Bay, South West Africa. Palaeo- biologica 3 : 1-13. Clemens, W. A. — 1935 — “Red Water blooms” in British Columbia waters. Nature 135 : 473. Clowes, A, J, — 1938 — Phosphate and silicate in the southern ocean. Discovery Repts, 19 : 1-120. 538 The Texas Journal of Science 1951, No. 4 December 30 Coker, R. E. — 1910 — The fisheries and guano industry of Peru. Bull. U. S. Bur. Fish 28(1) (1908) : 333-365. - 1918 — Ocean temperatures off the coast of Peru. Geogr. Rev. 5 : 127-135. - 1920 — Habits and economic relations of the Guano birds of Peru. Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus. 56: 449-511. Collingwood, C. — 1868 — Observations on the microscopic alga which causes the discoloration of the sea in various parts of the world. Quart Journ. Microsc. Sci., n.s., 8 : 85-92. Colnett, J. — 1798 — A voyage to the South Atlantic and around Cape Horn into the Pacific Ocean. Printed for the author by W. Bennett. London. 179 p., pis., charts. Cook, J. — 1777 — A voyage towards the South Pole and round the world performed in his Majesty’s ships the Resolution and Adventure in the years 1772-1775. London. 378 p. Copenhagen, W. J. — 1934 — Occurrence of sulfides in certain areas of the sea bottom on the South African Coast. Fisheries and Mar. Biol. Surv. Union South Africa. Rept. 6: 11 p. Covell, W. P. and W. F. Whedon — 1937 — Effects of the paralytic shell-fish poison on nerve cells. Arch. Pathology 24(4) : 412-418. Crossland, C. — 1928 — Notes on the ecology of the reef -builders of Tahiti. Proc. Zool. Soc. London. 1928: 717-735. Cupp, E. E. — 1943 — Marine plankton diatoms of the west coast of North America. Bull. Scripps Inst. Oceanogr. 5 : 1-238. Dakin, W. J. and A. Colefax — 1933 — The marine plankton of the coastal waters of New South Wales. Pt. 1. Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S. Whales 58 : 186-222. Dampier, W. — 1927 — A new voyage around the world ... 3 vols. London (James Knapton). 1703-1709. The Argonaut Press, London, 1927. 376 p. illus. maps. Dareste, C. — 1855 — Memoire sur les animalcules et autres corps organises qui donnent a la mer une coleur rouge. Ann. Sci. Nat. Zool.. ser. 4, 3 : 179-239. Davis, C. C. — 1948 — Gymnodinium brevis sp. nov., a cause of discolored water and animal mortality in the Gulf of Mexico. Bot. Gaz. 109: 358-360. Deacon, G. E. R. — 1937 — The hydrology of the southern ocean. Discovery Rents. 15 : 1-124. Denison, W. — 1862 — On the death of fishes during the monsoon off the coast of India. Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. London 18:453. Dreverman, F. — 1931 — Einjahrlich wiederholtes Massensterben von Fischen und seine Bedeutung Natur u. Museum 61 : 468-474. Ehrenberg, C. G. — 1830 — Neue beobachtungen uber blutartige Erscheinungen in Aegypten, Arabien und Sibirien nebst eine Ubersicht und Kritik. Poggendorf’s Ann. Phys. Chem. 18 : 477-515. - 1860 — Meeresleuchten im Gulf von Neapol. Petermanns Geogr. Mitteil. Pn. 192-193. Ellis, D. — 1932 — Sulfur bacteria, a monograph. Longmans Green and Co. New York. 261 p. Fish, C. J. — 1926 — Seasonal distribution of the plankton of the Woods Hole Region. Bull. U. S. Bur. Fish. 41(19251:91-179. Fitch, C. P., L. M. Bishop, W. L. Boyd, R. A. Gortner. C. F. Rogers, and J. E. Tilden — 1934 — Waterbloom as a cause of poisoning in domestic animals. Cornell Veterinarian 24: 30-39. Fitz-Roy, R. — 1839 — Narrative of the surveying voyages of His Majesty’s ships Adventure and Beagle, between the years 1826 and 1836. London. 505 p. Appendix. Forbes. C. — 1858 — On a quantity of crabs thrown up on the beach in Payta Bay. Qunrt. Journ. Geol. See. London 14:294. Forti, A. — 1933 — 11 fenomeno del “lago di sangue” uello stagno di Pergusa in Sicilia alia meta di Settembre 1932. Nuovo gior. Botan. Hal. 40: 76-78. Francis, G. — 1878 — Poisonous Australian lake. Nature 18:11-12. Gilchrist, J. D. F. — 1914 — An enquiry into the fluctuations in fish supply on the South African coast. Mar. Biol. Rep. Cape of Good Hope Rent. 2: 8-35. Galtsoff. P. S. — 1949— The mystery of the red tide. Scientific Monthly 68(21 : 109-117. Gillam, W. G. — 1925 — The effect on live stock of water contaminated with fresh water algae. Journ. Am. Vet. Med. Ass., n.s., 20:780-784. Glazier. W. C. W. — 1882 — On the destruction of fish by polluted waters in the Gulf of Mexico. Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus. (18811 4:126-127. Glennan, A. H, -1887 — Fish killed by poisoned water. Bull. U. S. Fish. Comm. 6(1886) : 10-11. Goor, A. C. L. Van — -1920 — Biidrage tot de kennis der blauwwieren voorkomende in het zoetwaterplankton van Nederland. Verh. Rapp. Rijksinst. Visscherijonderz. (The Hague) 1 : 1-51. Gran, H. H. — 1927 — The production of plankton in the coastal waters of Bergen, March- April 1922. Rep. Norweg. Fish, and Mar. Invest. 3(8) : 1-74. Gravier, C. — 1908 — Sur quelques traits de la biologie des recifs coralliens. Bull. Soc. Phil. Paris, ser. 9, 10 : 144-162. Gunter, Gordon, F. G. W. Smith and R. H. Williams — 1947 — Mass mortality of marine ani¬ mals on the lower west coast of Florida, November 1946 -January 1947. Science 105(2723) : 243-267. Gunther, E. R. — 1936a — A report on the oceanographical investigations in the Peru Coastal Current. Discovery Rents. 12:107-276. , - 1936b — Variations in behavior of the Peru Coastal Current, with an historical dis¬ cussion. Journ. R. Geogr. Soc. 88 : 37-65. Haltermann, H. — 1898 — Uber gelbe Wasserbluthe des Meeres (Trichodesmium) . Ann. Hydr. Mar. Met. 26 : 302-311. Hardy, A. C. — 1936 — Plankton ecology and the hypothesis of animal exclusion. Proc. Linn. Soc. London Sess. 148 : 64-70. - - —and E. R. Gunther — 1935 — The plankton of the South Georgia whaling grounds and adjacent waters, 1926-1927. Discovery Repts. 11 : 1-456. Hart, T. J. — 1934a — “Red Water Bloom” in South African seas. Nature 134 : 459-460. - — - 1934b— On the phytoplankton of the southwest Atlantic and the Bellinghausen Sea, 1929-1931. Discovery Repts. 8 : 1-268. - 1942— Phytoplankton periodicity in Antarctic surface waters. Discovery Repts. 21: 261-356. Harvey, H. W.— 1934 — On the rate of diatom growth. Journ. Mar. Biol. Ass., n,s., 19 : 253-275. 1951, No. 4 December 30 Distribution of Discolored Sea Water 53 9 Hayren, E. — 1940 — Tre fall av vegetationsfargning sommaren 1939. Mem. Soc. Fauna and Flora Fennica 16:2-3. Hendey, N. I.— 1937 — The plankton diatoms of the southern sea. Discovery Repts. 16: 151-364. Hentschel, E. — 1928 — Die Grundzuge der Planktonverteilung im Sudatlantischen Ozean. Internat. Revue Hydrobiol. Hydrogr. 21 :1-16. - and H. Wattenberg — 1930 — Plankton und Phosphat in der Oberflachenschicht des Sudatlantischen Ozeans. Ann. Hydr. mar. Met. 58 : 273-277. Herdman, E. C. — 1921-1924 — Notes on dinoflagellates and other organisms causing discoloura¬ tion of the sand at Port Erin, parts 1-4. Proc. Trans. Liverpool Biol. Soc. 35 : 59-63 ; 36: 15-30 ; 38: 58-67, 75-84. Herdman, W. — 1911 — Dinoflagellates and diatoms on the beach. Nature 86: 554. - 1912-1913 — Microscopic (minute) life of the (sea-) beach. Trans. Liverpool Biol. Soc. 26 : 46-57 ; 27 : 60-68. title varies. Hesse, R. — 1924 — Tiergeographie auf okologischer Grundlage. Jena. 613 pp. Hirasaka, R. — 1922 — On a case of discolored sea water. Annot. Zool. Japan. 10: 161-164. Hornell, J. — 1917 — A new protozoan cause of widespread mortality among marine fishes. Madras Fish. Bull 11 : 53-66. Ingersoll, E. — 1882 — On the fish mortality in the Gulf of Mexico. Proc.. U. S. Nat. Mus. 4(1881) : 74-80. Jefferson, J. P. — 1878 — On the mortality in the Gulf of Mexico in 1878. Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus. 1 : 363-364. - J. Y. Porter, and Th. Moore — 1878 — On the destruction of fish in the vicinity of the Tortugas during the months September and October. Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus. 1 : 244-245. Jenkins, F. A. and I. S. Bowen — 1947 — Dust makes the ocean blue. Sci. News Letter 51 : 140. Jespersen, J. — 1923 — On the quantity of macroplankton in the Mediterranean and the At¬ lantic. Rept. on the Danish Ocean. Exps. 1908-1910 to the M'ed and Adj. Seas. Misc. papers. 3(7) : Jones, T. R. — 1882 — Notes on the sudden destruction of marine animals. Geol. Mag. London, n.s., 9 : 533-540. Jouan, H. — 1875 — Melanges zoologiques. Mortalite sur les poissons a la cote de Malabar. Mem. Soc. Sc. Nat. Cherbourg 19 : 232-245. Juengst, H. — 1937 — Fishsterben im Kurischen Haff. Geol. der Meere und Binnengewasser 1 : 352-354. Kaiser, E. — 1930 — Das fischsterben in der W alef ischbucht. Palaeobiologica 3: 14-20. K»ufmann. P. — 1897 — Sur le pretendu du Nil Vert. Revue d’ Egypte Kairo 4: 113. Ketchum, B. H. and J. Keen — 1948 — Unusual phosphorous concentrations in the Florida red tide sea water. Jour. Mar. Res. 7(1) : 17-21. Koch, H. J. — 1939 — La cause des empoisonnements paralytiques provoques par les moules. Comptes Rend. Ass. franc, av. sc. 63 : 654-657. Kofoid. C. A. — 1911 — Dinoflagellata of the San Diego Region. The genus Gonyaulax. Univ. Cal. Publ. Zool. 8 : 187-269. - - 1911 — The genus Gonyaulax with notes on its skeletal morphology. Univ. Cal. Pub. Zool. 8 : 187-286. — - and O. Swezey — 1921- — The free-living unarmored Dinoflagellata. Mem. Univ. Calif. 5: 1-528. Koppen, W. — 1932 — Feuchtluftwusten, Aufquellwasser und Lebensmenge. Ann. Hydro, mar. Met. 60 : 468-469. - - 1934 — Klima der Halbinsel Santa Elena (Ekuador) und neues Auftreten des Nino- Stromes. Ann. Hydr. mar. Met. 62:277-278. Kristensen, I. — 1943 — Mededeeling over massale vischsterfte. Het Aquarium (Utrecht) 14 : 18. Klunzinger. C. B. — 1901 — Uber die physikalischen, chemischen und biologischen ursachen der farbe unserer gewasser. Jhfte. Ver. natk. 57 : 321-346. Lavalle y Garcia, J. A. de — 1914 — -El guano y la agricultura nacional. Lima. Ill pp. - 1917a — La contra corriente ecuatorial como cause determinante del fenomeno marino eonooido con el nombre de “Aguale.” Bol. Soc. Geogr. Tima 33:313-330. - - 1 917b — Informe perliminar sobre la causa de la mortalidad de las aves occurrida en el mes de marze del presente ano. Mom. Comp. Admin. Guano. Lima 8a: 61-88. - 1924 — Communication on : Emigration and rnortalitv of guano birds in the months of .April. May and June, 1923. Mem. Comp. Admin Guano, Lima 15a: 94-107. Lees, G. M. — 1937 — “Black Sea” conditions in the Arabian Sea. Bull. Am. Ass. Petr. Geol. 21 : 1579-1582. Liebert. F. and W. M. Deems — 1920 — Onderzoek naar de oorzaak van een vischsterfte in den Polder Workumer-Nieuwland nabij Workum. Verb. Rapp. Rijksinst. Visscheri- jonderz. (The Hague) 1 : 81-93. Lindemann, E. — 1924 — Ded Bau der Hulle dei Heterocapsa und Kryptoperidinium foliaceum (Stein). Bot. Archiv. 5:114-120. - 1926 — Massenst°rben von Fischen infolge einer Hochproduktion von Panzergeisslingen (Peridineen). K. Mitt. Mitgh Ver. Wasservers. Abwasserbes. (Berlin) 2:113-119. Lohmann. H. von — 1903 — Neue untersuchungen uber den reichtum des meeres an plankton und ubar die hraucbharkeit vo^ebfnrlonen von fangmethoden. Wissenschaftliche meeresuntersuehungen. n.f. abt. Kiel 7 : 1-86. Lund. E. -T. — 1935 — Some facts relating to the occurrences of dead and dying fish on the Texas coast during June, July and August, 1935. Ann. Rept. Tex. Game, Fish, Ovster Comm. 1934-35. pp. 47-50. McClendon. .T. F. — 1918 — On changes in the sea and their relation to organisms. Pap. Dept. Mar. Biol. Carn. Instn. 12 : 213-258. Marshall and Orr — 1930 — Sedimentation on Lew Isles Reef. Grt. Bar. Reef Exp. 1 : 93-133. 1929-1930. Martin. G- W. and T. C. Nelson — 1929— Swarming of dinoflagellates in Delaware Bay, New Jersev. Bot. Gaz. 88(2) : 218-224. Matthews, L. H.— 1932 — Lobster-krill, anomuran Crustacea that are the food of whales, Discovery Repts, 5 ; 4§7-484, 4 plates. 540 The Texas Journal of Science 1951, No. 4 December 30 Maury, M. F. — 1858 — E planations and sailing directions to accompany the wind and cur¬ rent charts. 8th ed. Washington, D. C. Wm. A. Harris, Printer. Mayor, A. G. — 1918 — Toxic effects due to high temperature. Pap. Dept. Mar. Biol. Carn. Inst. 12 : 175-178. Meade, A. D. — 1898 — Peridinium and the “red water” of Narragansett Bay. Science 8: 707-709. Mears, E. G. — 1943 — Boundaries of the Humboldt Current. Journ. Wash. Acad. Sci. 33(5): - - — 1943 — The Callao Painter. Scientific Monthly (October) 57:331-336. - — 1944- — Research in Pacific Ocean Geography. Journ. of Geogr. 43(2). Menon, K. S. — 1932 — A preliminary account of the Madras plankton. Rec. Indian Mus. (1931) 33:489-516. Meyer, K. F., H. Somer, and P. Schoenholz — 1928 — Mussel poisoning. Journ. Prev. Med. 2 : 365 et seq. Michael, E. L. — 1921— Effect of upwelling water upon the organic fertility of the sea in Jhe region of southern California. Spec. Pub. Bernice P. Bishop Mus. 7(2) : 555-595. Miyajima, M. — 1934 — La question de l’eau rouge un peril pour les huitres perlieres. Bull. Soc. Centr. Agriculture Peche 41 : 97-110. Moberg, E. G. — 1928 — The interrelation between diatoms, their chemical environment and upwelling water in the sea off the coast of southern California. Proc. Nat. Ac. Sci. Wash. 14 : 511-518. Mobius, K. — 1880 — Beitrage zur meeresfauna der insel Mauritius und der Seychellen. Berlin. Montagne, C. — 1844 — Sur le phenomene de la coloration des eaux de la mer rouge. Ann. Sci. Nat., ser. 3, Bot. 2 : 332-362. Moore, M. A. — 1882 — Fish mortality in the Gulf of Mexico. Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus. 4(1881) : 125-126. Murphy. R. C. — 1923 — The oceanography of the Peruvian littoral with reference to the abundance and distribution of marine life. Geogr. Rev. 13 : 64-85. — - 1926 — Oceanic and climatic nhenomena along the west coast of South America during 1925. Geogr. Rev. 16(1) : 26-54. - — 1936 — Oceanic birds of South America. 2 vols. New York. 640 pp. - — 1937 — Notes on the findings of the “William Scoresby” in the Peru Coastal Current. Geogr. Rev. 27(1). Murray. J. and J. Hjort — 1912 — The depths of the ocean. MacMillan and Co., Ltd. London. Neeb, G. A. — 1943 — The composition and distribution of the samples. Snellius Exp. Geol. Res. 3. Bottom sample, sec. 2. 5 : 47-268. Nelson. N. P. B. — 1903 — Observations upon some algae which cause “water bloom.” Minn. Bot. Studies, ser. 3. 1 : 51-56. Niemann, D. — 1914 — Eigenartige farbung des meerwassers. Ann. Hydrogr. und mar. Met. 42. Nightingale, H. W. — 1936 — Red water organisms. Argus Press, Seattle. 24 pp. Nichikawa, T. — 1901 — Gonyaulax and the discolored water in the Bay of Agu. Ann. Zool. Japan. 4 : 31-34. Otterstrom. C. V. and E. Steemann Nielsen — 1940 — Two cases of extensive mortality caused by the flagellate Prymnesium paryum. Carter, Rept. Danish Biol. Sta. 44(1939) : 1-24. Packard, A. S. — 1871 — An account of a recent trip to Key West and the Tortugas, Florida. Bull. Essex Inst. 2(1870): 44. Paul, J. H. — 1932 — The last crui«e of the Carnegie. Baltimore. 131 pp. Paulsen, O. — 1934 — Red “water bloom” in Iceland Seas. Nature 134:974. Peters. N. 1934 — Die Bevolkerung des Sudatlantischen Ozeans mit Ceratien. Wiss. Erg. Deutschen Atl. Exp. “Meteor.” 1925-1927, 2(1) : 1-69. Phifer, L. D. — 1933 — Seasonal distribution and occurrence of planktonic diatoms at Friday Harbor. Washington. Univ. Wash. Pub. Oceanogr. 1 : 39-81. Porter, E. M. — 1886 — Investigation of supposed poisonous vegetation in the waters of some of the lakes of Minnesota. Fourth Bienn. Rept. Board Reg. Univ. Minn. Suppl. 1 : 95-96. Porter, J. Y. — 1882 — On the destruction of fish by poisonous water in the Gulf of Mexico. Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus. 4(1881) : 121-123. Powers. E. B. — 1937 — Factors involved in the sudden mortality of fish. Trans. Amer. Fish. Soc. 67: 271-281. Powers, P. — 1932 — Cyclotrichium meunieri sp. nov. (Protozoa, Ciliata) ; cause of red water in the Gulf of Maine. Biol. Bull. 63 : 74-80. Prinzmetal, M„ H. Sommer and C. D. Leake — 1932 — The pharmacological action of mussel poisoning. Journ. Pharm. Exp. Therap. 46 : 63-73. Purdy, J. — 1840 — Memoir descriptive and explanatory to accompany the charts of the At¬ lantic Ocean. Rahm, G. — 1937 — Zoologische Probleme an der Sudamerikanischen Westkuste, besonders uber das Massensterben im Pazific. C. R. 12e Congr. Int. Zool. Lisboa 1935. 2 : 1237-1247. Raimondi. D. A. — 1891 — Fenomeno ilamado El Pintor. Bol. Soc. Geogr. Lima 1 : 58-67. - 1897 — Geografia fisica. Bol. Soc. Geogr. Lima 7 : 241-310. Rathbun, R. — 1893-1895 — Mortality of oysters in Galveston Bay. Rept. U. S. Comm. Fish. 19: 23-26. Rayleigh, Right Hon. Lord — 1910 — Colours of the sea and sky. Nature 83 : 48-50. Riley, G. A. — 1937 — The significance of the Mississippi River drainage for biological con- tions in the northern Gulf of Mexico. Journ. Mar. Res. 1 : 60-74. Savage, R. E. and A. C. Hardy — 1935 — Phytoplankton and the herring. Part 1, 1921-1932. Fish Invest. London. Min. Agric. Fish., ser. 2, 14(2, 1934) : 1-73. - and R. S. Wimpenny — 1936 — Phytoplankton and the herring. Part 2, 1933-1934. Fish Invest. London, Min. Agric. Fish., ser. 2, 15(1, 1936) : 1-88. Schmitt, C. — 1947 — Der Blutsee. Univers 1,(12) : 293-294. Schnakenbeck, W. — 1930 — Ueber die Ursacben der grossen Fischterben an der sudwest- afrikanischen Kuste. Fischerbote 22 : 408-410. Schott, G. — 1931 — Der Peru-Strom und seine nordliche Nachbargebiete in normaler Und anormaler Ausbildung. Ann. Hydrogr. mar. Met. Berlin 49 : 161-169, 200-213, 240-252. 1951, No. 4 December 30 Distribution of Discolored Sea Water 541 — — — 1932 — The Humboldt current in relation to land and sea conditions on the Peruvian coast. Geography (Manchester) 17 : 87-98. Schweigger, E. — 1942 — Las irregularidades de la corriente de Humboldt en los anos 1925 a 1941; una tentativa de su exploracion. Bol. Compania Admin. Guano Lima 18(1): 27-42. - 1945a — La “Legitima” corriente del Nino. Bol. Comp. Adm. Guano Lima 21 : 255-296. t - 1945b — La “Corriente del Nino” y las temperaturas estivales de la corriente peruana. Revista Ciencias Lima 47(451) : 63-86. Seydel, E. — 1913 — Fischsterben durch Wasserblute. Mitt. Fischerei-Ver. Prov. Brandenburg, n.s., 5:87-91. Sheppard, G. — 1931 — Plankton changes on the coast of Ecuador. Nature 127 : 629-630. Sherwood, G. H. and V. H. Edwards — 1901 — Red tide in Narragansett Bay, R. I. Bull. U. S. Fish Comm. 21 : 30. Sjostedt, L. G. — 1924 — Tva nya saltvattensflagellater fran Oresundsomradet, etc. Act. Univ. Lund. N. F. avd. 2, 20(5) : 20 pp. Smith, H. M. — 1908 — Peridinium. Phillipp. Journ. Science 3:187-188. Smith, F. G. W. et al. — 1947 — Red tide and fish mortality on the Florida West Coast. Spec. Service Bull. Univ. Miami Mar. Lab. 5 pp. Sommer, H. and F. N. Clark — 1946 — Effect of red water on marine life in Santa Monica Bay, California. Calif. Fish and Game 32 : 100-101. - and K. F. Meyer — 1937 — Paralytic shell-fish poisoning. Arch. Pathology 24(5) : 560-598. — - et al. — 1937 — Relation of paralytic shell-fish poison to certain plankton organisms of the genus Gonyaulax. Arch. Pathology 24 : 537-559. Spangler, A. M. — 1893(94) — The decrease of food-fishes in American waters and some of the causes. Bull. U. S. Bur. Fish. 13 : 21-35. Steers, J. A. — 1929 — The Queensland coast and the Great Barrier Reefs. Geogr. Journ. 74: 232-257, 341-370. Stiglich, G. — 1918 — Derroterc de la costa del Peru. Lima. 205 pp. illus. charts. - 1925 — El fenomeno maritimo del Aguaje. Rev. Mar. Peru 10(1) : 25-40. Storey, M. — 1937 — The relation between normal range and mortality of fishes due to cold at Sanibel Island, Florida. Ecology (Brooklyn) 18:10-26. - and E. W. Gudger — 1936 — Mortality of fishes due to cold at Sanibel Island, Florida 1886-1936. Ecology (Brooklyn) 17 : 640-648. Streets, T. H. — 1878 — The discolored water of the Gulf of California. Amer. Nat. 12 : 85-92. Strodtmann, S. — 1898 — Ueber die vermeinte Schadlichkeit der Wasserblute. Forschungsber. Biol. Stat. Plon. 6:206-212. Sverdrup, H. U.— 1930 — Some oceanographic results of the Carnegie’s work in the Pacific. The Peruvian Current. Trans. Am. Geophys. Un. 11 meet. Pp. 257-264. - M. W. Johnson and R. H. Fleming — 1946 — The Oceans, their physics, chemistry and general biology. New York. 2 ed. 1087 pp. Taylor, H. F. — 1917 — Mortality of fishes on the west coast of Florida. Rept. U. S. Comm. Fisheries. 1917, App. 3 : 1-24. Thompson, E. F. — 1939 — Chemical and physical investigations. The general hydrology of the Red Sea. Sci. Rept. John Murray Exp. 1933-1934, 2(3) : 83-103. Torrey, H. B. — 1902 — An unusual occurrence of Dinoflagellata on the California coast. Am. Nat. 36 : 187-192. Uda, M. — 1934 — Hydrographical studies based on simultaneous oceanographical surveys made in the Japan Sea and its adjacent waters during May and June 1932. Rec. Oceanogr. Works Japan 6 : 19-107. U. S. Hydrographic Office — 1920 — Mexico and Central America pilot (West coast) from the U. S. to Columbia including the Gulfs of California and Panama. P. 79. 6 ed. 419 p. Veenhuyzen, J. C. — 1879 — Communication on: Trichodesmium erythraeum. Natuurk. Tijdschr. Ned. Indie 38 : 150-151. Walker, S. T. — 1884— Fish mortality in the Gulf of Mexico. Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus. 6(1883) : 105-109. Webb, J. G. — 1887 — The mortality of fish in the Gulf of Mexico. Bull. U. S. Fish Comm. 6(1886) : 11-13. Weigelt, J. — 1930 — Vcm Sterben der Wirbeltiere. Festschr. J. Walther, Leopoldina 6:281-340. Whitelegge, T.— 1891a — On the organism discoloring the waters of Port Jackson. Rec. Austral. Mus. Sydney 1 : 144-147. - 1891b — On the recent discolouration of the waters of Port Jackson. Rec. Austral. Mus. Sydney 1 : 179-192. Wilhelm, G. O. — 1930 — Las mortandades de jibias (Omastrephes gigas) en la Bahia de Tal- cahuano. Bol Soc. Biol. Concepcion (Chile) 3:23-38. - 1932 — Das Massensterben von Tintenfischen in der Bucht von Talcahuano. Atti 11 Congr. Int. Zool. Padova 1930, 1 : 334-339. Willcox, J. — 1887 — Fish killed by cold along the Gulf of Mexico and coast of Florida. Bull. U. S. Fish Comm. (1886) 6 : 123. Woloszynska, J. and W. Conrad — 1939 — Pyrodinium phoneus n. sp. agent de la toxicite des moules du canal maritime de Bruges a Zeebrugge. Bull. Mus. Hist. nat. Belgique 15(45] ; 5 pp. Woodbury, L. A. — 1941 — A sudden mortality of fishes accompanying a supersaturation of oxygen in Lake Waubesa, Wisconsin. Trans. Amer. Fish. Soc. 71 : 112-117. Woodcock, A. H. — 1927a — Air-borne drops of sea water over a beach. Woods Hole, Mass. Ms. - — 1947b — “Red Tide” study. Woods Hole, Mass. Ms. - — 1948 — Note concerning human respiratory irritation associated with high concentra¬ tions of plankton and mass mortality of marine organisms. Jour. M'ar. Res 7(1) : 56-62. Zelizko, J. V. — 1934 — Neue Belege ueber dfe Ursachen des Massentodes rezenten Wirbeltiere. Paleont. Zeitr. 16 (%) : 91-94. ZoBell, C. E. — 1946 — Marine Microbiology. Chronica Botanica Co. Waltham, Mass. 240 pp. Zorell, F. — 1928 — Der “El Nino” Strom in Jahre 1925. Ann. Hydr. mar. Met. 56: 166-175. 542 The Texas Journal of Science 1951, No. 4 December 30 A REVIEW OF CERTAIN ASPECTS OF CETACEAN PHYSIOLOGY LELA MAE JEFFREY Scripps Institution of Oceanography, La Jolla, Calif, and Southwest Research Institute, San Antonio, Texas Cetacea comprise an order of the class Mammalia and include whales, dolphins and porpoises. All have a streamlined body with finlike forelimbs and tail, but no external hind limbs. Some are especially adapted for pro¬ longed submergence. They are distinguished by the fact that they are the only mammals which are entirely independent of land. The order Cetacea is subdivided in accordance with anatomy and phylogeny into suborders Mysticeti and Odontoceti. The Mysticeti include baleen whales which do not possess teeth but instead long plates of frayed baleen which they use to strain out their food from sea water. The0 Odontoceti are toothed whales which are further subdivided into those with teeth in the lower jaw only, the sperm whales, and those with teeth in both jaws, dolphins, porpoises and beaked whales. Some of the physiological capacities of cetaceans are sufficiently re¬ markable to have attracted the attention of even casual observers. Biologists and physiologists are interested in cetaceans for the additional reason that the group presents challenging problems in physiological adjustments which smaller animals do not present. The group is important in a comparative sense also to those interested in evolutionary processes, for it is generally recognized that they are mammals which left land for the sea. Structural features suggest that whales evolved from early mammalian carnivores that first lived on land and later took to the sea. Whalebone whales are believed to have descended from some kind of primitive toothed whale (Drinker, 1949). Primitive whales first appeared in the middle Eocene (40 million years ago) . In addition, cetaceans give physiologists a natural experiment ac¬ centuating certain physiological processes common to all mammals, the most obvious example being the diving capacities of some. ANATOMICAL ADAPTATIONS Cetaceans are adapted anatomically for a complete marine existence in many ways (see Hyman, 1942). They have a very streamlined form. Fins, hind limbs, and hair on the major parts of the body are lacking. The fore¬ limbs are converted to flippers with no external trace of digits. The relatively large head* which tends toward the shape of a bird’s head, ^passes directly into the trunk. Other features tending to make the cetaceans more stream¬ lined are (1) inguinal teats (2) abdominal genitalia (3) disappearance of external ear. Cetaceans move very rapidly, several times as fast as man. Their streamlineness and aquatic existence are factors in this ability, but the prin¬ cipal reason is the extremely powerful tail, greatly expanded and ending in horizontal flukes. 1961, No. 4 December 30 Review of Cetacean Physiology 543 Courtesy, Dr. Raymond M. Gilmore A bull sperm whale, 51 feet long. A finback being hauled out. This whale was around 65 feet in length. 544 The Texas Journal of Science 1951, No. 4 December 30 The so called nostrils open far back on top of the head and can be closed by a valve. This enables them to inhale air without exposing a large portion of the body to the atmosphere. Sinclair (1950) reports the olfactory nerve of the porpoise has almost completely degenerated, probably because the olfactory organs cannot be used under water. However, the porpoise and probably the whale have a highly specialized ear. According to Sinclair (1950), the auditory nerve of the porpoise is relatively quite long and leads to a bone that is not part of the skull but ventral to it. The ossicles are fused and the middle ear cavity is obliterated. According to Sinclair, this is a unique sonar device, the mechanism of which no one has completely worked out. Porpoises are com¬ monly noted for their sensitivity to sound. The brain of cetaceans is highly convoluted (Hyman, 1942), but a complete analysis of the brain (porpoise in this instance) shows that the areas of the brain which are highly developed in man are simplified in the porpoise, but the temporal lobe, especially the center of acoustic reception, is more highly specialized in the porpoise than in man (Sinclair, 1950). The cerebellum is apparently as complex as that of lower primates. The great sperm whale has a rather unique anatomical adaptation in a box-like head which is caused by the presence of a large oil cavity holding as many as 20 barrels of oil (Hyman, 1942). The cavity is above the skull and is formed by a transverse crest behind the nares plus the concave surface of the premaxillae and maxillae. FOOD RELATIONS Whalebone or baleen whales swim with partially open mouth through thick masses of food which consists usually of small crustaceans such as Euphausia or Calanus or any other small animal, such as herring,, which live in great concentrations near the surface in certain areas, at certain seasons. At intervals, the whale closes its mouth and with its tongue forces the water out at the sides of the baleen, acting as a retaining sieve for the food. Large baleen whales eat several barrels of such food in a day, and some of them grow to be the largest of all animals. Examples of the baleen whales are the humpback, blue, finback, gray, right, sei, and little piked whales. The feeding grounds of these whales are in the high latitudes in spring and sum¬ mer where upwelling water with high nutrient concentrations causes a large diatom population which brings in turn swarms of tiny crustaceans to the surface to feed on the plants (Kellogg, 1940). Migration routes of baleen whales depend on the seasonal location of the feeding grounds. The toothed whales include not the largest but some of the most ac¬ tive, predaceous species of the order Cetacea- — killer whale, white whale, porpoise, dolphin and the narwhal. Some of the larger toothed whales such as the sperm and killer have throats big enough to swallow giant squid, seals, sharks and man. However, a man probably would not live to tell the experience because he would probably be crushed in two before being swallowed, and if not, he could not possibly survive the strong gastric juices. Baleen whales have throats only a few inches in diameter. Dolphins and porpoises have many teeth in their jaws, and capture and eat animals such as fish, eel and squid. Each genus or species generally has its own particular type of fish or mollusk to feed on (Kellogg, 1940). 1951, No. 4 December 30 Review of Cetacean Physiology 545 A humpback, about 40 feet long. Courtesy, Dr. Raymond M. Gilmore A finback whale emerging from a dive. 546 The Texas Journal of Science 1951, No. 4 December 30 RESPIRATION Contrary to a once popular idea, water does not enter the laryngeal region of cetaceans as they rush open mouth to food, because the nasal passages do not open into the throat as in land mammals but are connected directly with the windpipe (Kellogg, 1940). Nor for the same reason can water enter the mouth when the whale is feeding and be spouted out the blowholes on top of the head as once believed. Actually spouting is pro¬ duced by air being forcibly discharged from the lungs under pressure and supersaturated at body temperature with moisture whereupon is produces a "spout” (Kellogg, 1940). In their respiratory processes cetaceans appear to differ essentially from land mammals in that they are less sensitive to a wide range of CO2 con¬ centration than man, or perhaps their respiratory center depends entirely upon lack of oxygen for stimulation. At any rate, Irving ( 1938) found considerable quantities of CO2 dissolved in the blood and body fluids of cetaceans. Laurie ( 1933 ) found large volumes of CO2 in urine and allantoic fluid and a slight supersaturation of nitrogen. The same phenomenon was noted for the duck by Orr and Watson (1913), for seals by Irving, et al (1913), and for beavers and muskrats by Irving (193 8b). Their breathing was not much increased by inhaling 10% CO2. Laurie ( 1933) estimated the basal metabolic rate in blue and fin whales to be 2.5 calories/kg/day. The rate for man is about 32.9 calories/kg/day. He also noted that the weight of the blue whale lung is 1.2% the weight of its soft parts; whereas for man it is 2.4%, and on the basis of those figures he concluded that the vital capacity of a whale may be approximately one- half that of man in proportion to total weight, which was unexpected. One of the most fascinating facts about the cetacean group is that some of its members dive to considerable depths and remain submerged for periods of time remarkable for mammals apparently without suffering from the bends, which is a result of bubble formation in the blood system caused by a sudden release of too high a concentration of nitrogen and other gases into the blood capillaries. Without an oxygen supply man cannot stay sub¬ merged longer than 2-5 minutes (Teruoka, 1932). There are somewhat varying reports on the length of time certain cetaceans can remain sub¬ merged, and in many cases the validity of some reports on this subject is questionable. Andrews (1916) reported a blue whale stayed down 50 min¬ utes. Scammon (1874) reported the sperm whale stayed down 75 minutes, the bowhead 80 minutes, and the bottlenose whale 2 hours. The blue whale in normal feeding descends 100 to 300 feet and stays down 10 to 20 min¬ utes. The bottlenose whale feeds on the bottom on octopuses. Gray (1927) reported that large Greenland whales descended 700 to 800 fathoms and remained for nearly an hour when harpooned. Whether this observation of wounded whales gives any reliable indication of their normal diving habits is questionable. Scholander (1940) attached recording manometers to har¬ poon lines and found that fin whales descended from 2 84 to 1164 feet with¬ out dying from the bends. The whale that made the deepest dive came to the surface and towed the boat for some time before it was killed. Laurie (1933 ) reported a sperm whale off the coast of Peru caught in a broken cable at 3,000 feet. The questions involved are how do cetaceans escape the bends, and what mechanisms do they possess to store enough oxygen for their metabolic needs while submerged. 1951, No. 4 December 30 Review of Cetacean Physiology 547 There have been a number of theories to explain the cetaceans’ ap¬ parent avoidance of the bends. Campbell (1934) postulated that a whale avoids the bends by filling its lungs with sea water upon submergence. That idea, of course, has never been confirmed. A rather elaborate theory with apparently much laboratory work behind it is that of Laurie (1933). He stated that he found that the nitrogen capacity of whale blood is more than twice that of human blood, and the nitrogen which whale blood takes up from air at atmospheric pressure cannot be extracted by evacuation if sufficient oxygen is present. He purported to show that nitrogen fixation was accomplished by bacteria ("X-organisms”) in the blood, and he believed that this fixation might serve to protect whales from the bends. However, Krogh (1934) thought Laurie’s proposed mechanism could not act fast enough. He pointed out also that nitrogen fixation requires one volume of oxygen to one volume of fixed nitrogen. Scholander (1940) found no evi¬ dence of symbiotic nitrogen fixing organisms in whale blood. Irving (1939) thought after reviewing the literature up to that time that a whale swims slowly down and up, and this activity favors the elimination of nitrogen during ascent at the same rate as the solution occurred during the dive. However, he had no explicit data indicating that whales dive and ascend slowly. Gray (1934) postulated that a whale may short-circuit pulmonary circulation during submergence, by-passing the lungs and thus avoiding any absorption of nitrogen under presure. Damant (1934) computed that at a depth of 100 meters (11 atmospheres pressure) whale’s alveoli are contracted so as to present but 1 / 1 1 of their surface volume at atmospheric pressure. The bronchioles have thick walls and sphincter muscles which contract the absorption area and thus obstruct most of the diffusion of nitrogen into the blood and also favor discharge when the animal surfaces. Drinker (1949) brought out the pertinent and crucial point that the diving whale’s lungs contain only the nitrogen of the air breathed at the surface. There is no continuous supply of nitrogen under pressure to mul¬ tiply the amount of gas dissolved in its blood and tissues, as in the case of diving men with oxygen tanks. Scholander (1940) and Drinker (1949) generally agree that the best explanation of the apparent absence of the bends in whales is that the air sacs of the lungs are continuously compressed as the animal goes down and their walls are thickened, making the absorption of nitrogen taken at the surface increasingly difficult. Slowed circulation during diving and the shunting of circulation through the brain also lessens absorption. The circu¬ lation increases as the whale ascends and lungs return to normal size, all of which causes nitrogen to be eliminated just rapidly enough so that bubbles will not form in the capillaries. Scholander (1940) showed that diving mammals are not completely immune to the bends, for he lowered a seal 984 feet in 3 minutes and drew it up in 9 minutes. It died promptly from the bends. The means by which whales can store enough oxygen for their metab¬ olic needs while submerged have been rather completely enumerated by investigators, Irving (1939), Ommaney (1933 ), Krogh (1934), Scholander (1940), and Drinker (1949). According to Drinker (1949), a 150 pound man has about 23 00 cc of oxygen available, and this lasts about 4 minutes at very moderate work. Krogh (1934) estimates that an 89 foot blue whale has available 2,800,000 cc, and swimming under water at 3 knots, it con- 548 The Texas Journal of Science 1951, No. 4 December 30 sumes 53,000 cc of oxygen per minute. So, it stores enough oxygen for a 50 minute dive without overexertion. Irving (1939) reported that although diving animals in general have a slightly larger volume of blood per unit weight with a slightly greater oxygen capacity per corpuscle than their terrestrial counterparts, this cannot begin to account for the tenfold greater diving capacity of the blue whale over man. Irving (1939) and Scholander (1940) both noted a reduction of oxygen supply to muscle tissues but a good supply going through the sensitive brain tissue. Whale muscles are particularly high in myoglobin, a tissue hemoglobin, which allows the tissue to respire without free molecular oxygen from an outside source. According to Scholander (1940), the muscles of the whale are capable of holding the total oxygen store because of the high myoglobin content. Although storage of oxygen in the lungs, blood, respiratory pigments of whales are propor¬ tionately higher than in man, there is still another storage mechanism. Ommaney ( 1933) and Drinker (1949) both emphasize the significance of the presence of networks of small arteries and large veins embedded in fat at the base of the brain, in the chest and in the region corresponding to the groin. These networks named retia mirabilia cause oxygen to be dissolved and stored in the surrounding fat to be taken out when needed. So apparently it can be concluded that the diving whale has sufficient oxygen for its metabolic activities while diving because (1) storage of oxygen in lungs, blood, in muscle myoglobin and fat is proportionately high, (2) circulation is shunted so that to muscles it is minimum and to heart and brain sufficient. WATER BALANCE There is abundant indication that cetaceans do not drink water, de¬ spite the fact that they live in the ocean all their lives. Irving ( 193 5 ) re¬ ported that seals were never observed to drink water, even if it were avail¬ able in abundance. Smith (1936) found only traces of Mg and SO* in the intestinal residue of seals, and correspondingly low amounts in the urine, in¬ dicating minimal sea water ingestion. Geiling and Robbins (in Fetcher 1939) analyzed stomach contents and feces of white whales and found them "dry.” Cetaceans have blood only a little more concentrated than that of terrestrial mammals, and their urine is apparently somewhat more concen¬ trated than sea water. (Table I). TABLE I. FREEZING POINT LOWERING OF THE BLOOD AND URINE OF MAN AND VARIOUS CETACEANS (DATA FROM PROSSER, ET AL, 1950, P. 62), Man Dolphin (T ur stops tursio ) Balaeoptera sibbaldi Balaenoptera borealis Delphinus phocaena Pollack Whale (B. borealis ) A of blood .58°C .83 1.26 .74 A of urine 2.6 2.46 1.83-2.49 Krogh (1939) from Irving, Fisher and McIntosh’s (1935) data on water balance of seals made corrected calculations to apply to whales feed¬ ing either on vertebrates, with a comparatively low concentration of salts in body tissues, or on invertebrates with a much higher salt concentration in 1951, No. 4 December 30 Review of Cetacean Physiology 549 their tissues. He reached the same conclusions for both kinds of whales as Irving, Fisher and McIntosh ( 193 5 ) did for seals: i.e., whales take in no more water than is contained in the food. Krogh stated that only insignifi¬ cant quantities of sea water are swallowed even in baleen whales because the enormous tongue can act as a press to squeeze out the water. Closure of the throat may also be of great significance. Further reference to Krogh’s calculations will be made in the section on excretion. Cetaceans do not need as much water as land mammals, for the fol¬ lowing reasons. Cetaceans obtain any cooling necessary primarily through convection to the surrounding water without losing large amounts by evap¬ oration, as land mammals must. They have no need of sweat glands and have none. Prosser states that the relative amount of water lost from the lungs of cetaceans is probably not appreciable, because owing to increased pressure under water, the animals may be able to extract more of the oxygen and thus may not need to saturate so much air (Prosser, et al, 1950). An¬ other mechanism whereby cetaceans conserve water is the secreting of con¬ centrated milk. Krogh (1939) states whale milk to be only 40-70% water. Zenokovich (1938) found the water content of several species of whales to vary from 40-5 5% and the fat content to be 3 8-5 5%. Krogh thought this low water content should be considered from the viewpoint of water conservation of the mother. However, Zenovich emphasized the fact that young whales are born without blubber and have to live solely on milk for six months, so that the large amount of fat in the milk is essential. He observed that the species which migrated earliest have the highest fat con¬ centrations of the milk. The comparatively low water content and high fat content could serve a dual purpose, both water conservation and nu¬ trition. EXCRETION No striking differences in the excretory products of cetaceans and land mammals have been found. The principal nitrogenous product is urea, as in other mammals. Table II is an analysis of the filtered urine of whales by Schmidt-Nielson and Johansen (1920). Krogh (1939) believed that a whale kidney, regardless of the food supply, could easily excrete the urea and salts from the water obtained in the food. However, Fetcher and Fetcher (1942) do not agree with Krogh on this point. It is their opinion that cetaceans feeding on marine inverte¬ brates may have some other mechanism for excreting salt other than the kidney, although they apparently think the kidney is the most important organ of excretion. They suspended male and female dolphins in air, fed them solutions of .5 M NaCl and made analyses of urine, saliva and feces. There were insignificant amounts of salt in saliva, and the feces were iso¬ tonic with the blood. Within a few hours 53% of the salt and 84% of the water was excreted through the kidney. The blood chloride changed very little, so they assumed a shift of tissue water. It was their opinion that (1) Perhaps sea water in invertebrates can be "filtered” in the buccal region and taken into the blood stream relatively salt free. However, the saliva showed insignificant amounts of salt excretion. (2) Perhaps the dolphins with which they were working could not live exclusively on invertebrates. More work should be done before any final conclusion is made on the func¬ tioning of the organs of excretion of cetaceans that feed on invertebrates. 550 The Texas Journal of Science 1951, No. 4 December 30 TABLE II. ANALYSIS OF FILTERED URINE OF WHALES. ( SCHMIDT- NIELSON AND JOHANSEN (1920). Constituents Grams per lite\ Total N 12.5 - 20.6 NHq .47 - 9.1 Urea 15.2 - 24.6 Uric Acid .08 - .19 Hippuric Acid .2 - .4 Protein .6 - 2.1 Creatinine .5 - 1.2 Sulfate 1.2 - 1.5 S-esters .009- .022 p9 oK .58 - 2.87 Cl 9.3 - 13.4 Ca O .10 - .31 MgO .10 - .24 Na.,0 7.26 - 10.23 K„ O 2.75 - 3.30 TEMPERATURE CONTROL The body temperature of whales is in the range of 3 6-37° C. Man has essentially the same body temperature, 3 6.3-37.25° C. (Prosser et al, 1950). This relatively high internal temperature is maintained in cetaceans by sev¬ eral mechanisms, some of which are slightly different in degree from those in land mammals. The source of primary heat in any homoiotherm (warm blooded ani¬ mal) is metabolic chemical reactions, although the high body temperature of birds and mammals is not so much a result of faster oxidations as it is a result of better insulation from the environment (Heilbrunn, 1943). Cetaceans possess a heavy insulation of blubber, the thickness of which may be related to the temperature of the water the species inhabits. There is another important factor in heat retention in cetaceans. It is a general rule that, as the surface of a homoiotherm organism increases in proportion to its mass the total loss of heat increases, and so to maintain its body temperature the organism compensates by using more oxygen and thus producing more heat. In large cetaceans the ratio of the surface to the volume is relatively small in comparison to man, in large whales only 1 / 1 0 as large. A whale has about the same body temperature as man, whose testes are contained in a scrotum for protection against high temperatures, but the whale and seal, along with the rhinoceros and the elephant, have intra¬ abdominal testes ( Wislocki, 1933 ). This may have been a slow evolution with time, with physiological adaptation of the sperm. The intra-abdominal testes preserves the highly streamlined form also. HORMONES AND VITAMINS A surprisingly large amount of histological and biochemical work has been done on thyroid, pituitary, pancreas and liver of cetaceans, but no significant differences in the functions of the glands in cetaceans and land mammals have been reported. Graff in and Geiling (1942) weighed, photographed, and made his¬ tological studies of the thyroid gland of the little white whale, the sperm 1951, No. 4 December 30 Review of Cetacean Physiology 55 whale and the blue whale. The thyroid gland of the sperm whale weighed 1000-1400 grams, and that of a 77 foot blue whale weighed 3200-3700 grams. The histological structure of whale thyroid showed no significant differences from that in nonaquatic animals. Geiling, Tarr and Tarr ( 193 5); Riddle and Bates (193 5); Valso (1934, 1938); Geiling (1940); Jensen, Geiling and Tolksdorf (1939); and Oldham, Last and Geiling (1940) all made studies of the functions of various parts of the pituitary gland of cetaceans. All their work led to the conclusion that the same principles are found in cetacean pituitary as are found in cow, hog, and armadillo pituitary. The purified extracts exhibited parallel functions to those from land animals when injected into rats. Yamagawa and Nishimura (1926) found that the adrenal gland of a whale weighed 30 times as much as that of an ox, but the whale had a smaller percentage of adrenaline than the ox. This might have been ex¬ pected since, according to Laurie ( 1933 ), the basal metabolism of a whale is much lower than that of land mammals. Yamagawa and Nakamura (1926) studied the pancreas insulin of the whale, but the insulin found was of low potency. At the time this was thought to be caused by autolysis of the hormone between the time of capture and dissection. Jacobsen (1942) in his review concluded that whale endocrines are quantitatively and qualitatively equal to corresponding glands of cattle. It was his strong belief that the blue whale represents an enormous potential source of numerous important pharmaceuticals. Several studies have been made on the vitamin content of organs of whales. Vitamins A and to a negligible extent, D have been found in the liver of several cetaceans. Oseki (1934) reported the liver of the sei whale to contain Vitamin A, no B, some E and a protein content of very high nutritive value. Embree and Schantz (1943) demonstrated in whale liver oil considerable quantities of "provitamin A” which can be transformed easily to Vitamin A. CONCLUSION There are many more interesting relations and facts about the physi¬ ology of cetaceans, but the better known ones were mentioned in this brief paper. Certain anatomical features and physiological processes are empha¬ sized or highly evolved in Cetacea, and some are almost negligible, but it appears that in general the differences in cetaceans as compared with land mammals, are quantitative and not qualitative. acknowledgments The author gratefully acknowledges the criticisms, suggestions, and corrections offered by Dr. Carl Hubbs especially, Dr. D. L. Fox, Dr. M. W. Johnson, all of Scripps Institution of Oceanography of La Jolla, California. The author is indebted to Scripps Institution of Oceanography for the use of its library and to the Southwest Research Institute under whose auspices the work was revised and put into publishable form. SUMMARY 1. Cetaceans are adapted for a complete aquatic existence. 2. Whalebone whales feed on tiny crustaceans and small fish, whereas toothed whales feed on squid and fish and various pelagic mollusks. 552 The Texas Journal of Science 1951, No. 4 December 30 3. Whales apparently are not sensitive to high concentrations of C02 in the body fluids as land mammals are. 4. The absence of decompression sickness in whales may be tentatively explained by the fact that they do not dissolve nitrogen under pressure in the blood, which would give trouble on ascent. 5. The ability of whales to stay submerged approximately ten times as long as man may be tentatively ascribed to these facts: (1) Oxygen is stored in lungs, blood, muscle myoglobin, and retla mirabilia. (2) Circulation is shunted so that it is minimum to the muscles and sufficient to heart and brain. 6. Cetaceans apparently get all their water from their food. Reasons why are cited. 7. The products of whale excretion are not significantly different from those of land mammals. 8. The body temperature of whales, 3 6-37° C, is easily maintained by (1) metabolic chemical reactions, (primary source), (2) insulation by a relatively thick layer of blubber, (3) possession of a small ratio of surface area to mass as compared with land mammals. 9. Whale endocrines are apparently almost quantitatively and qualita¬ tively equal to corresponding glands of cattle. 10. Vitamin and provitamin A are found in considerable quantities in whale liver. Vitamins D and E are in smaller quantities. LITERATURE CITED Andrews, R. C. — 1916 — Whale hunting with gun and camera. New York. Campbell, J. A. — 1934 — Whales and caisson disease. Nature London 134:629. Damant, G. C. C. — 1934 — Physiology of deep diving in the whale. Nature London 133 : 834. Drinker, C. K. — 1949 — The physiology of whales. Scientific American 181 (1) : 52-55. Embree, N. D. and E. M. Schantz — 1943 — Kitol, a new provitamin A. J. Amer. Chem. Soc. 65: 913. Fetcher, E. S. Jr. — 1939 — The water balance in marine mammals. Quart. Rev. Biol. 14: 451-459. — — — and G. W. Fetcher — 1942 — Osmotic regulation in dolphins. J. Cell. & Comp. Physiol. 19 : 123-130. Geiling, E. M. K. — 1940 — The comparative anatomy and pharmacology of the pituitary gland of unusual experimental animals. Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol. 40 : 727-737. - - Tarr, L. N. and A. de L. Tarr — 1935 — The hyprophysis cerebri of the finback (Balaen- optera physalus) and sperm whale (Physeter megalocephalus). Bull. Johns Hopkins Hosp. 57 : 123-135. Graffin, A. L. and E. M. K. Geiling — 1942 — Observations on the structure of the thyroid gland in whales. Anat. Rec. 83 : 367-377. Gray, R. W. — 1934 — Whales and caisson disease. Nature London 134 : 853. Heilbrunn, L. V. — 1943 — An outline of general physiology. Saunders. Philadelphia and London. Irving, L. — 1935 — The protection of whales from danger of caisson disease. Science 81 : 560. - — - 1938a — The insensitivity of diving animals to COa. Amer. J. Physiol. 124 : 729-734. - 1938b — Control of respiration in diving animals. Amer. J. Physiol. 123:107. - 1939 — Respiration in diving mammals. Physiol. Rev. 19 : 112-134. - Fisher, K. C. and F. C. McIntosh — 1935 — The water balance of a marine mammal, the seal. J. Cell. & Comp. Physiol. 6 : 387-391. Jacobsen, Alf P. — 1942 — Endocrinological studies in the blue whale (Balaenoptera musculus L.) Hvalradets Skrifter Norske Videnskaps. Adak. Oslo. No. 24. 84 pp. Jensen, H. ; Geiling, E. M. K. and S. Tojksdorf — -1939 — Gonadotropic activity of anterior pitui¬ tary in the Finback whale. Proc. Soc. Experim. Biol. Med. 42 : 470-472. Kellog, R. — 1940 — Whales, giants of the sea. National Geographic 77 : 35-90. Krogh, A. — 1934 — Physiology of the blue whale. Nature London 133 : 635-637. - 1939 — Osmotic regulations in aquatic mammals. Cambridge Univ. Press. 242 pp. 1951, No. 4 December 30 Review of Cetacean Physiology 553 Laurie, A. H. — 1933 — Some aspects of respiration in the blue and fin whales. Discovery Report 7 : 363-407. Oldham, P. K. ; Last, J. H. and E. M. K. Geiling — 1940 — Distribution of melanophore dis¬ persing hormone in the anterior lobe of cetaceans and armadillo. Proc. Soc. Experim. Biol, and Med. 43 : 407-410. Ommanney, F. D. — 1933 — The vascular networks (retina mirabilia) of the fin whale (Balaen- optera physalus) Discovery Report 7 :465-474. Orr, J. B. and A. Watson — 1913 — Study of the respiratory mechanism in the duck. J. Physiol. 46: 337. Oseki, T. — 1934 — Nutritive value of whale liver. Bull. Inst. Phys. Chem. Research (Tokyo) 13: 1160-5. Prosser, C. L., ed. ; Bishop, D. W. : Brown, Frank, A. Jr.; Jahn, T. L. ; and V. J. Wulff — 1950 — Comparative animal physiology. W. B. Saunders. Philadelphia, London. Riddle, A. and L. Bates — 1933 — An assay of sperm whale anterior pituitary powder. Johns Hopkins Hosp. 57 : 139. Scam m on, C. M. — 1874 — Marine mammals of the northwest coast of North America. San Francisco. Schmidt-Nielsen, S. and A. Johansen — 1931 — Composition of the urine of whales. Kgl. Norske Videnskab. Selskab. Forh. 4 : 121-123. Scholander, P. F. — 1940 — Experimental investigations on the respiratory function in diving mammals and birds. Norske Vidensk. Akad. Oslo. Hvalradets Skrift. Sci. Results Mar. Biol. Res. 22 : 1-131. Sinclair, J. G. — 1950 — Some adaptive features of the porpoise head. Texas Jour. Sci. 2(1) : 139. Smith, H. W. — 1936 — Composition of the urine of the seal. J. Cell. & Comp. Physiol. 7 : 465-474. Suzuki, M.- — 1933 — The stomach contents of the sperm whale. Japan. J. Med. Sci. II, Biochem. 2 : 7-9. Teruoka, G. — 1932 — Die Ama Tind ihre Arbeit. Arbeitsphysiol. 5 : 239. Valso, J. — 1935 — The hormone content of the pituitary gland of Balaenoptera sibbaldi. III. Growth hormone. Klin. Wochschr. 14:1183-4. Valso, J.— 1938 — Biochemical studies of whaling problems. I. 1. The hyprophysis of the blue whale (Balaenoptera musculus, L.) Macroscopical and microscopical anatomy and hor¬ mone content. Hvalradets Skrifter Norske Videnskaps. Akad. Oslo. No. 16:5-30. Wislocki, G. B. — 1933 — Relation of testes tc body temperature. Quart. Rev. Biol. 8 : 385-396. Yamagawa, M. and N. Nakamura — 1926 — Chemical study on the marine mammals. III. The pancreas of the whale. Insulin. J. Imp. Fish. Inst. (Tokyo) 22 : 26-8. - - — and S. Nishimura— 1926 — Chemical study on the marine mammals. I. The adrenal of the whale. Adrenaline. J. Imp. Fish. Inst. (Tokyo) 22 : 22-23. Zenkovich, B. A. — 1938— Milk of large sized cetaceans. Compt. Rend. Acad. Sci. U.S.S.R. 20 : 203-205. The Texas Journal of Science 1951, No. 4 December 30 154 CLIMATIC LIMITS AFFECTING DISTRIBUTION OF MESQUITE (Prosopis juliflora) IN TEXAS EDWIN R. BOGUSCH Texas College of Arts and Industries Kingsville, Texas Studies on the past and present distribution of mesquite, Prosopis juliflora and its varieties, indicate that its limits of spread are effectively set by climatic factors. The name of the species here used is that as defined by Benson (1941). Standley (1922) proposed Prosopis chilensis but later (1926) returned the species to P. juliflora . Others (Cockerell, 1945) agree with that change. From an ecological viewpoint Bray (1904, 1906) made one of the early significant studies on the natural distribution of the mesquite. He records the evidence of spread over areas which now lie deep within its present range. Both Bray (1904) and Bailey (1905) left for us excellent maps of the approximate range of the mesquite in Texas at the beginning of the present century. These two maps, while not identical, differ in minor respects only and provide us with an excellent base upon which to build comparative studies showing today’s distribution. The work reported here is the result of field studies made upon the northern and western limits chiefly, with some attention devoted also to the eastern margins. It has not been considered feasible at this time to engage in a county by county survey of this eastern border. From Professor B. C. Tharp (personal communication) we learn that the mesquite has now spread eastward to Angelina County, nearly reaching Louisiana at this point. Published evidence summarized in another paper (Bogusch, 1950) gives support to Cockerell’s (1945) contention that the mesquite is one of the alien members of our flora, having come in from the eastern flank of the Andes in Argentina. Bray (1906) also indicated that the major portion of the vegetation of the Lower Sonoran Woodland of the Rio Grande Plain came from the Mexican Plateau floral province. This vegetation has been thoroughly described by Engler (1879). The mesquite is a part of this flora. Ecologically the mesquite may be properly classified as a leaf xerophyte. The compound leaves, consisting of many small leaflets, regulate transpira¬ tion losses and control the water economy by dropping leaflets until a water balance has been established. This is especially evident along the southern part of its Texas range. The plant, furthermore, has roots which sometimes penetrate up to fifty feet deep and regularly tap water supplies at half that distance. This root penetration is partly due to the mesquite’s ability to accomplish root develop¬ ment under extremely low soil oxygen levels (Weaver and Clements, 1929). Mesquite, wherever It occurs, can be looked upon as an indicator of subirrigation and a relatively shallow water table. Since mesquite cannot survive prolonged flooding, the water table must lie from a few feet below the surface to not greatly below fifty feet in depth. 1951, No. 4 December 30 Climatic Limits Affecting Mesquite 555 Geographically, the mesquite forms its densest stand across Texas be¬ tween the limits set by the 18 -inch isohyet at the west and the 2 8 -inch isohyet at the east (Fig. 1). This coincides with the belt of chernozem soils. Since soils are in themselves partly the product of climate, this coincidence assumes some significance. The northern limit of the mesquite seems to be strongly influenced by the frequency of microthermal years. Some differences exist today with reference to the distribution of the mesquite when compared with the obser¬ vations of half a century ago. Professor R. J. Russell (personal communica¬ tion) reports that the farthest northern limit for the mesquite observed by him was just four miles north of the Canadian River. Bray (1904) indicated at the time of his studies that there was a partial invasion of the mesquite into areas which now are termed microthermal areas by Russell (1945). Bailey (1905) in his studies located the northern boundary for the mesquite at a point south of the line where Russell indicates that the frequency of occurrence of January mean temperatures which lie wholly below 32° F exceeds half of the total number of years during any series under considera¬ tion. FIGURE 1 556 The Texas Journal of Science 1951, No. 4 December 30 On the basis of topographic interpretation, the northern observed limits of the mesquite in Texas coincide with the eastern escarpment of the Staked Plains. The mesquite skirts the edges of the plains, invades marginally, and persists in the sheltered canyons and draws, where permanent or transient streams provide subirrigation. Everywhere in this locality the mesquite is shrubby rather than tree-like. The area of maximum density of the mesquite has seemed relatively stable in those climatic areas where less than one-half of the years are micro- thermal. The boundary is not sharp, varying with the frequency of micro- thermal years. Even under a high frequency of cold years, in areas where the mesquite has once invaded, the shrub may persist even when severely damaged by frost. The author has witnessed the effects of severe freezes in the vicinity of Lubbock which during the winter of 1949 killed much of the plant parts above ground. During the severe freeze occurring in the winter of 1950, similar damage was observed as far south as Kingsville. Killing in the latter case was far from uniform. In many such observed instances of winter killing of the parts above ground, new growth developed from underground buds when near optimum conditions returned. Where the mesquite is subject to frequent winter killing, it behaves often like a woody perennial herb. If a series of milder winters fails to injure the growth, the shrub assumes again its usual habit and grows to considerable size. Although the mesquite occurs over much of the state, the maximum abundance lies as a broad belt from the Rio Grande to the Red River. An exception is the almost mesquite-free section which coincides with the Bal- conian Biotic Province, as defined by Blair (1949). Evidence from half a century ago (Bailey, 1905) would indicate that this belt comprises the plant’s optimum climatic range as well as being a migration focus, especially for its eastward spread in recent years. Actually, the eastern and western limits are difficult to define on the basis of precipitation alone. With some changes in the taxonomic variety and a diminished density of stand, the mesquite extends westward across the state and continues to the Pacific coast. In New Mexico and Arizona the mesquite often constitutes the principal woody vegetation in the subirrigated valleys (Shantz and Zon, 1924). This presence of Prosopis has been reported by different authors as having been of long duration, antedating even the cattle drives which have been often held responsible for its westward as well as its northward march. The eastward invasion is largely a result of changes brought about in the natural plant cover through the impact of man’s activities; and this is, in part, different from causes which effected the dense growth on the deltaic soils of the Rio Grande embayment. A very active recent spread from the brush areas into the destroyed grassland climax has occurred in the Texas Tamaulipan Biotic Province. Since the beginning of the study of the brush invasion, cattle have received considerable credit as agents effecting distribution. Bray (1906), Tharp (1926, 1944), and others have shown these agencies to have had considerable effect, both in initiating conditions for a secondary sere by close-grazing and hoof damage to ground cover, and then by planting the undigested seeds with the manure. 1951, No. 4 December 30 Climatic Limits Affecting Mesquite 557 A second part of man’s influence, not always clearly recognized, has been the rapid depletion of other timber by saw mills, land clearing, and similar activities, followed by opening the soil through cultivation. Mesquite seeds germinate best only where full light reaches the expanding cotyledons. This has been frequently observed by the writer in grassland areas where it has been possible to compare this growth after germination of mesquite seedlings on bare ground. No significant figures can be presented at this time to support these observations because the field conditions studied do not meet the requirements of a controlled experiment. However, it seems safe to say that strong shading is inimical to survival. Following the technique of Went and Westergaard (1949) we have verified the soundness of instructions of the Forest Service (1948) to germi¬ nate the seeds at a night temperature not much below 68° F and at a day temperature not above 86° F. It is our observation that under natural con¬ ditions, germination follows only when a combination of optimum factors exists. First, diurnal temperature fluctuation must lie principally within the above limits. Second, moisture duration in the upper soil layers must persist for a minimum of three to five days after germination. The hypocotyl of the seedling makes phenomenal growth in the initial stages, reaching a length of 7 to 10 cm. before the cotyledons are fully expanded. Root contact with the zone of persistent soil moisture is thereby established, and root growth keeps pace with the receding moisture level. Because of these requirements of moisture persistence, it is doubtful whether the mesquite can readily invade true nuclear desert areas. According to Russell (1945) the Texas desert is considerably less than nuclear, since some years of less than desert intensity occur. However, microclimates pro¬ duced through animal activity often provide, even in sub-desert years, condi¬ tions suitable for the establishing of the mesquite. Went and Westergaard (1949) showed that seeds of many plants were stimulated to develop more favorably and to germinate better after passing through the digestive tract of certain animals. Our field experiences and repeated observations lead us to believe that possibly the mesquite is similarly affected. In the microclimate provided by manure, even during cold weather, the temperature remains near the optimum because of bacterial activity. This is a phenomenon which the writer has repeatedly observed in the field. Especially has the stimulus given to germination of ingested seeds which were subsequently excreted with the manure been a common observation upon the cattle ranches in southern and central Texas, and the writer holds the belief that this is one of the most effective mechanisms whereby the mesquite has been introduced into soils when the superficial soil moisture was too low for competing plants to get started. Moisture conditions in the manure are high and some of this moisture is transferred to the soil directly beneath the manure. Thus the elongating hypocotyl can pass into the soil and establish itself a root system which makes contact with a source of water. Martin (1949) reports that mesquite seeds of the variety velutina re¬ main viable for at least 44 years. Thus, seeds left in the soil may survive even after enduring a long drought cycle and be ready to take advantage of a favorable season to become established. 558 The Texas Journal of Science 1951, No. 4 December 30 Although Weaver and Clements (1929) report the ability of mesquite roots to penetrate soils with an abnormally low oxygen content, the plant cannot long endure flooding. Illustrations of this are rather abundant where retention dams impound the stream flow and flood the mesquite thickets. In Kleberg County the dead mesquite trunks are still standing after eleven years of flooding, although the trees were killed during the first few months after the overflow took place. Roots thus deprived of oxygen die and there¬ fore exclude the mesquite from areas where soils may suffer continuous inundation because of prolonged rainfall. Therefore, although the tolerance of the mesquite toward water ranges through a wide series of conditions, a combination of high soil water and low soil oxygen seems to provide the effective barrier against continued spread eastward into increasingly humid regions into which the mesquite might otherwise be expected to enter. SUMMARY 1. The limits governing the spread of mesquite are determined by a combination of several climatic factors. 2. In Texas the densest mesquite occurs generally in the chernozem soils, lying in a broad belt between the 18- and 2 8 -inch isohyets. 3. The northern limit is apparently determined by the frequency of microthermal years. Microthermal years have been defined as those in which the January mean temperature lies below 32° F. 4. Westward the related varieties of mesquite extend beyond the limits of the state. 5. The eastward spread of mesquite is largely due to changes in natural vegetation brought about though the activities of man. 6. Cattle are important in the spread of mesquite largely by their pro¬ ducing microclimates more favorable for establishment of the plant. 7. The extent of soil saturation by water determines to a large extent limits beyond which the mesquite cannot spread. LITERATURE CITED Bailey, Vernon — 1905 — Biological survey of Texas. North Amer. Fauna 25 : 1-222, illus. Benson, L. — 1941 — The mesquites and screw-beans of the United States. Amer. Jour. Bot. 28(9) : 748-754. Blair, W. Frank — 1949 — The biotic provinces of Texas. Texas Jour. Sci. 2(1): 93-117. Bogusch, E. R. — 1950 — A bibliography on mesquite. Texas Jour. Sci. 2(4) : 528-538. Bray, William L. — 1904 — -Forest resources of Texas. U. S. Bur. Forest. Bull. 47. - 1906 — Distribution and adaptation of the vegetation of Texas. Bull. Univ. of Texas 82, Sci. Ser. No. 10. Cockerell, T. D. . — 1945 — The Colorado desert of California, its origin and biota. Trans. Kansas Acad. Sci. 48(1) : 1-39. Engler, Adolf — -1879 — Versuch einer Entwicklungsgeschichte der Pflanzewelt. Leipzig. Forest Service — 1948 — Woody plant seed manual. U. S. Dept. Agric. Misc. Publ. 658. Martin, S. Clark — 1948 — Mesquite seeds remain viable after 44 years. Ecology 29(3) : 393.' Russell, Richard J. — 1945 — Climates of Texas. Anals Assoc. Amer. Geogr. 35: 37-52. Shantz, H. L., and Raphael Zon — 1924 — Atlas of American Agriculture. Washington, D. C. Standley, P. C. — 1922 — 1926 — Trees and shrubs of Mexico. Contr. U. S. Nat. Herb. 23 :351- 353, 1657-1658. Tharp, B. C. — 1926— Structure of Texas vegetation east of the 98th meridian. Univ. Tex. Bull. 2606. — - 1944 — The mesa region of Texas : an ecological study. Proc. Trans. Texas Acad. Sci. 27 : 81-91. Weaver, John E., and F. E. Clements — 1929— Plant Ecology. McGraw-Hill. New ork. Went, F. W., and M. Westergaard — 1949 — Ecology of desert plants. Ecology 30: 26-38. 1951, No. 4 December 30 Hops in Northeastern Mexico 559 ATTEMPT TO GROW HOPS IN NORTHEASTERN MEXICO J. N. STERN University of Nuevo Leon Monterrey, N. L. — Mexico INTRODUCTION Hops ( Humulus lupulus Linn, and maybe Humulus americanus Nutt) are grown commercially for use in the brewing industry. They impart to the beer a special flavor due principally to an essential oil and at the same time act as antiseptic substances, permitting an easier pasteurization and improving the keeping properties of the finished product. Hop ( Humulus lupulus Linn) is an herbaceous perennial twining dioic plant of European origin. The stem twists in a spiral direction from left to right. It is still a matter of discussion whether some cultivated varieties such as the "Clusters” belong to the species Humulus americanus . Many botanists deny it, regarding the differences between the "Cluster” group and other cultivated hops as too small for separating the former in another species. Hops can produce fertile seeds, but are commonly propagated by cut¬ tings which are sections of underground stems. The parts of the plant used in the brewing industry for their active substance are the female flowers, which enlarge greatly during the develop¬ ment of the ovary, forming the so-called "cones.” The substances extracted from hop include bitter acids, resins, essential oil and tannin. The bitter acids and resins improve the tests and the colloidal stability of the beer. The bitter acids are humulon or alpha-bitter acid (C21 H30 O5) and lupulon or beta bitter acid (C26 H38 O4). Both trace their origin to Quinone. By oxida¬ tion and polymerization, the acids are converted into soft resins soluble in hexane and ether. Humulon possesses a stronger antiseptic action and a more bitter taste than lupulon. Hop contains a third resin, the gamma, which belongs to the hard group and is of little or no value. Tannin and its oxidation product phlobaphene react with proteins of the wort which are precipitated during the boiling, improving the stability of the end product. Before the second world war, most of the hops used in the Mexican brewing industry were imported from Europe (Germany and Czecho¬ slovakia) , and when the hostilities started the product became scarce. More¬ over, the importation of hops from the United States was not always able to meet the demand of a market in uninterrupted expansion, and this situa¬ tion made it impossible for the Mexican brewers to increase the produc¬ tion of beer to the limits of its potential consumption. In an attempt to make the Mexican brewing industry independent of foreign hops, a group of business men of northeastern Mexico started a series of experiments in order to determine if this plant could be grown suc¬ cessfully in this part of the Mexican Republic. The first step was to estab¬ lish an experimental field with an area of 62.23 Hectares (155.58 acres) in the vicinity of the highway Mexico-Laredo, about 150 miles from the American border and at an altitude of approximately 1600 feet above sea 560 The Texas Journal of Science 1951, No. 4 December 30 level. In addition, cuttings were divided among a group of farmers, who received the necessary technical advice. The variety used in the experi¬ ments was mostly "Early Clusters ” of North American origin. The experiment ended in a failure, and this paper is specially dedicated to analyze and to study the causes which are responsible for the small yield and little brewing value of hops which were obtained in this trial. In order to avoid data which lack exactitude, such as those submitted by individual farmers, this study will deal only with the results obtained in the experi¬ mental field. SOILS Selection of soil to grow hops depends on many factors, climate being one of the most important. The soil of a commercial plantation must be deep, because the roots of the plant penetrate it for many feet. Heavy and wet soils are not suitable for the purpose. Sandy loams with a good drained subsoil are excellent. Hops require considerable amounts of nitrogen, phos¬ phorus and potassium and deplete the soil of these elements, which must be replaced by fertilizers. There are not sufficient data in the literature about the requirements of microelements, but probably hops do not differ much from other plants in this regard. Table I presents a few soil analyses from some North American hop plantations (parts I and II) compared with the analyses of 15 plots of the experimental field (part III). As it can be seen, the soils of the experimental field do not have any deficiency in potassium, phosphorous and nitrogen. The author made some additional analyses, determining available elements which, in some samples, in spite of the abundance of the total elements, presented a notable deficit. This shortage was immediately corrected by application of mineral elements and a cover crop of leguminous plants. The physical and mechanical analyses gave satisfactory results. The soil was also deep enough. Two negative factors still remain: (1) The excess of calcium which not only produces strong alkalinity, but also makes microelements insoluble, and diminishes the utilization of phosphorous due to an unbalanced condi¬ tion between calcium and magnesium and (2) The low concentration of boron, a deficiency, which was not corrected. CLIMATE Hops can be grown in a wide range of climatic conditions, provided they exclude the extremely low and the extremely high temperatures. Very cold winters may destroy a great number of plants and, likewise, continued cold and damp weather in the spring are harmful to the crop. The plant is produced most successfully In a temperate climate with a summer average of 18.5° C (65° F) and a narrow range of daily temperature. In normal conditions, hops have a long rest period (about 6 months). In the United States, with exception of the Yakima Valley, hops, are grown in districts with heavy rainfall and high relative humidity. In the Yakima Valley the climate is dry, and summer temperatures are high. Still, the winter is long, and the plant has the same rest period as. in other parts. 1951, No. 4 December 30 Hops in Northeastern Mexico 561 CO O O a ^ i* NfNrn^ 00 r-H hNND d h r-S o h ON (N 00 Nf rfN VO lh- odd^d^r-Ii-H’ eo V) O ti « CS CQ a DC a * «os 4) .5 c -G c ^ u GS 3 ! et ^ O Jh £! (Jo c173 "g >■ ° Si 2 0-S3-S g o<3s^ss a eg h o so oo sooqco'Oooooqoooohoo'Ooooooo r'c-'NO'hhCOhhh'hhhhh ASOSOHSOSCOO-t-NOOO Asto (NSONNOSOSOSOAAOOOOh'CNIH AOmrooCfO''tmmcoroNfn(N rn h\o o (N ^ p qq S hp. a mst I'C rG xr oo so 00 so oo oj T‘ 2i Ntf" On fN(N(N(N(N| CN CN CN 1 CN ^ CN CN ON r^-(NOmoc\ioor-TN0000 oooooosrooosorsioihooo (N|HH|xHiOAr(M"0 h 0- O NT ANXt'stl(N'^ATN a X w (NfONt ASO^OO (Nrost ASONCOONOrHCNrONT Plot 15 5830 1740 400 562 The Texas Journal of Science 1951, No. 4 December 30 The climate of the district which harbors the experimental field is re¬ corded in the meteorological maps according to the classification of W. Koppen as type BWh corresponding to a dry subtropical climate. The classi¬ fication of C. W. Thornwaite lists it among the type EB’d or dry meso- thermic climate with deficient rainfall, and the system of Glenn T. Tre- wartha uses for it the symbols BWh, representing the climates of tropical and subtropical deserts. The meteorological maps use the mentioned classifications for a large zone in Northeastern Mexico and neglect the climatic deviations, which can be observed in many districts of this part of the Mexican Republic. It is understood that for the purpose of introductions of new crops the local deviations are more important than the mean climate of a given zone. In the specific case of the experimental field it is of great importance to con¬ sider a factor which some meteorologists call "oceanity” because practically all the rainfall and the relative humidity of the air depend on the winds from the north which carry the necessary humidity from the Gulf of Mexico. As it can be observed in Table 3, annual variations of rainfall are extremely wide and this phenomenon affects equally the water table and the temperatures. It is true that a lack of rainfall can be corrected as it was by proper irrigation in the case of the experimental field, but the extremely high temperatures which were observed in the winter months (Table 4) make rather illusory or exclude the rest period of a plant. It can be said without risk that the climate of the chosen district is not suitable for growing hops or any other plant which normally needs a long rest period during the winter. table 2 RAINFALL IN MM. (1 INCH =25.4 MM.) METEOROLOGICAL STATION ABOUT 2 MILES (3.2 KM. FROM THE EXPERIMENTAL FIELD). Jan. Feb. March Apr. May June July Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. Mean monthly rainfall, 21.7 23.1 15.5 28.7 42.0 84.6 72.9 62.6 204.6 109.6 25.5 23.7 15 years TABLE 3 RAINFALL IN MM. (1 INCH =25.4 MM.) METEOROLOGICAL STATION ABOUT 2 MILES (3.2 KM. FROM THE EXPERIMENTAL FIELD). 1933 1939 1944 1945 1946 410.9 1,311-3 Annual rainfall Minimum Maximum 1930-1949 1930-1949 930.8 644.0 759.3 Mean annual rainfall 1930-1949 700.5 1951, No. 4 December 30 Hops in Northeastern Mexico NO On CO CM °o CM CM q CM CM G NO q rCN q cCN r-t o NO cO r^ vo q G rj q o rCN MT NO 00 o d rb ON tb rH G T— * »— < 1 1 CM CM T— 1 1 < H G G _>* VO -] S e C\ MT l/N o A cCN ON o CN CM ON oo o < ,— i i — i t— i CM rH u ji g O o C/3 o q ON IO. WO q q On VO rH q o 0 i-Q MT q rCN NO 00 CM ON 00 On 00 CO vb cm h4 0 Q c On I T— H 1-1 (4 w 0 w E £ no s^f o IT\ o o q rq q rH o h- CM MT H b 3 ON cb NO CM mt 00 rb vb NO rb d W < G cO -CN rCN cCN Mf CCN cO CO cO cO cO cO § H G £ ‘8 >» e W § cS — < a -a VO C\ o ib CM q l/N i r\ 00 O d VO On VO 00 q rb q vb tq CM q. rq rb oi Q < 2 g § G G CM rCN CM rO MT cCN cO cO cO cO cO cO cS w -g s 0 p< O VI MT ON CM m q cO iq cO NO rH ON rH ^r H x _o q ON "T NO cb vb 00 NO cm ON On no £ w < (N rO CO. COi CCN cCN cO CO cO CM CM CM W w U E C fi H W w E G 2 ca y NO Mf ON ON q Mf q CM VO cO MT »-H MT NO (4 0 G sg ON cb NO CM MT 00 On ON rb cO ON NO O e4 h r"< CM CM CM CM CM CM CM CM r-H rH Q g t/j >. W s §3 QJ G 1945 MF VO CO r-* T— 1 oi q cCN CM NO q 00 q 00 CM 00 NO q q o ON vb D cm s § r— 1 H CM CM CM CM CM CM CM CM r-H rH H rO a » S3 JJ G Mf MT1 ON Mf Ml5 00 00 00 o ccn q MT »cn CO rb i— i 00 rq rb VO MT q r-H q q rb rb w § PP S § CM CM (N CM CM CM CM CM r-H r-H H CM a H , , rb o r-i wO VO 00 00 ON rb Ml5 o rb a • ^ H s § VO t— -4 CM CM CM CM CM CM CM CM CM CM E3 w s e » C/5 §3 l-i £ 00 NO CM q q CM q MT cO NO CM a ^ G >> NO ON cCN VO rb rb rb vb CM CM CM CM CM CM CM CM r-H rH r— H a G t CJ G G t— February March April May • s EJ > > •— August September October November December G G ClJ G cS 1 564 The Texas Journal of Science 1951, No. 4 December 30 CULTIVATION It is considered unnecessary to give details of cultivation practices used in the experiment. If they are mentioned it is only to say that this work was entrusted to skilled specialists who made several trips to the United States in order to become familiar with the most subtle details of cultivating hops. It still remains to be seen if cultivation practices of a temperate climate can be transferred without change to a zone where the biological cycle of the plant is quite different. At least in one case the use of vegetable manure in January and February proved to be harmful because the temperature of the soil was unduly raised. PESTS AND DISEASES Hops, like all other plants, are subject to many diseases and pests, but under normal conditions they can be controlled with not too great effort. In the experimental field the infection was strong enough to induce Dr. G. H. Godfrey, plant pathologist of the Texas Experimental Station in Wes¬ laco, to express the opinion that diseases and pests could be the primary cause of the failure. (The loss in some plots was about 50 per cent). The author, who during three years made the identification of the parasites and pathogens, agrees that the lamentable state of the plantation due to diseases is in great part responsible for the diminution of the yield, but believes that in a more suitable climate most of the diseases would never progress. It is interesting to note that most of the cuttings received from the United States carried many plant pathogens, which in a temperate climate would probably be suppressed by a vigorous plant. The most important pests were Diabrotica duodecimpunctata, grubs (larvae of Coleoptera) and root knot nematode Heterodera marioni. A bac¬ terial disease-Crown Gall ( Agrobacterium tumefaciens) was very serious and probably for first time in the history of this disease a mortality of 30% can be reported. Fungus diseases were in first line root rots. Table # 5 and 6 list the most important pests and diseases. The former dedicated to the findings in the field and the latter listing the pathogens in and on the cut¬ tings. Cotton root rot was not found in the field but one of the individual farmers sent a sample of hops infected with Vhymatotrichum omnivorum. YIELDS AND BREWINR VALUE The yields in the different plots were small. Likewise the hops were poor in bitter acids and soft resins and were of a limited brewing value. table 5 PESTS AND DISEASES OF HOPS IN THE EXPERIMENTAL FIELD Pests Bacterial diseases Fungus diseases 1. Diabrotica Crown Gall 1. Pythium sp. o (D. duodecimpunctata) (Agrobacterium 2. Rhizoctonia o 2. Grub (Larvae of Coleoptera) 3. The root-knot nematode (Heterodera marioni) tumefaciens) . solani. 3. Fusarium sp. 4. Verticillium sp. 5. Rosellinia Mostly rotting fi (Graphium and § Dermatophora stages). Remarks Very high per¬ centage of crown gall and root rots. 1951, No. 4 December 30 Hops in Northeastern Mexico 565 Table 7 permits comparison of the yield of the experimental held with similar yields in North America. Even the best plot shows a yield 3 times less than the worst North American crop; 311 pounds per acre against 800. The mean yield of 1946 (1945 is not worth mentioning) was only 112 pounds per acre. Compare Table 7. The amount of resins and the brewing value of hops from the experi¬ mental held are compared with the yield of two North American and one Canadian hop in Table 8. Brewing value a + £ 4 table 6 INFESTATION IN CUTTINGS RECEIVED FROM THE UNITED STATES. PATHOGENIC ORGANISMS - Bacteria Fungi Nematodes Remarks Bacillus subtilis # Fusarium sp. Tylenchidae Many fusaria Micrococcus sp. * Verticillium sp. in tropical Proteus sp. * Pythium sp. Diplodia sp. * Phytophthora sp. * Rhizopus sp. Aspergillus sp. Cercospora sp. A fungus belong¬ ing to the Basidiomycetes. and sub-tropi¬ cal conditions are pathogenic for plants. The Tylenchidae were not identified. TABLE 7 YIELD PER PLANT AND AREA IN THE EXPERIMENTAL FIELD. CROPS OF 1945 AND 1946 COMPARED WITH THE AVERAGE NORTH AMERICAN PRODUCTION. Kilograms per hectare. State of Washington State of California State of Oregon State of New York Plot ff 1 Plot ff 2 Plot ff 3 Plot jf 4 plot a 5 plot a 6 Plot jf 7 Plot if 8 plot a 9 Plot it 10 Plot a ii Plot it 12 plot a 13 plot a i4 Plot if 15 Mean Grams per plant. 1945 1946 5 62 3 33 5 46 3 39 4 16 42 140 80 79 12 43 5 20 3.3 21 18 110 30 91 8 92 7 22 2.8 4 1945 1344-2240 1568-2464 1112-1792 896- 1680 1946 14.00 155.0 8.21 81.24 12.79 116.71 9.83 9739 11.31 45.24 105.19 342.12 200.19 197.52 30.14 108.40 12.80 51.20 9.62 54.59 45.04 270.00 75.21 228.40 21.73 229.12 12.96 40.58 7.22 10.55 37.77 125.69 Pounds per acre. 1200-2000 1400 - 2200 1000-1600 800-1500 1945 1946 12.50 138.39 7.33 72.53 11.42 105.20 8.77 86.95 10.09 40.39 93.84 311.71 178.74 176.35 26.91 96.78 11.43 45.71 8.59 48.7 4 40.21 241.07 67.15 203.92 19.40 204.57 11.57 36.23 6.44 9.42 33.72 112.14 The Texas Journal of Science 1951, No. 4 December 30 5 66 -TABLE 8 a , /?, AND y RESINS AND THE "BREWING VALUE” OF HOPS OF THE EXPERI¬ MENTAL FIELD. COMPARED WITH TWO AMERICAN AND ONE CANADIAN HOP. (PERCENTAGE ON BASIS OF DRY MATTER) . Brewing Value Year of analysis Resin Resin Resin and remarks. Experimental Field Plot # 2 Crop 1945 a 3.25% P 7.61% 7 1.25% 5.15 1945 Experimental Field Plot jf 2 Crop 1946 2.34% 8.26% 1.45% 4.41 1946 Experimental Field Plot # 6 Crop 1946 Fancy 2.96% 7.34% 2.16% 4.79 1946 1949 California (Cluster type) Crop 1948 California 6.22% 12.38% 1.8% 9.32 Probable loss in storage 8% of total resins. Crop 1949 Canada 6.13% 13.42% 2.06% 9.48 1949 Probable loss in Crop 1948 6.13% 13.30% 0.85% 9.46 storage 8% of total resins. CONCLUSIONS 1. The attempt to grow hops in Northeastern Mexico ended in failure. 2. The causes of this failure are: a. The climate, which eliminates the normal winter rest period of the plant. b. Pests and diseases, which increase in the case of weak plants. c. Some imperfections of the soil. (Too much calcium, not enough boron) . 3. If hops are to be introduced in Mexico, it must be in a different climatic zone. SUMMARY The causes of failure to grow hops in Northeastern Mexico are analyzed, concluding that climate is the primary factor responsible for lack of success. Comparisons are made between North American yields and the crop in the experimental field, where only 112 pounds per acre against 800 (the smallest North American yield) were obtained; the brewing value was also low. (About 50% compared with foreign hops.) 1951, No. 4 December 30 Hops in Northeastern Mexico 567 acknowledgment The author is indebted to the industrial group, who started the experiment and provided him with all the necessary documentation, in order to present this paper. He expresses also his kindest gratefulness to his wife, Ph.C. Anita Stern, for her great help in performing the soil analyses. LITERATURE CITED Anonymous — 1947 — Hop production of the Pacific Coast. Bureau of Field Crops. Calif. Dep. of Agric. (Transcription). Castro de, Honorato — 1945 — Delimitacion de regiones climatologicas. Bol. Instituto de Inves- tigaciones Cientificas 6:217-224. Monterrey, N. L. Mexico. Contreras Arias, Alfonso — 1937 — Clasificacion de los climas. Agr. T. 1 1 : 16-18. - 1937 — Clasificacion de los climas. Agr. 1 2 : 6-13. - — 1938 — La clasificacion de los climas. Agr. T. 1 4 : 34-42. — - 1938 — La clasificacion de los climas. Agr. T. 1 6 : 8-12. - 1939 — La clasificacion de los climas. Agr. T. 2. 14 : 17-24. Fore, R. E., and I. D. Sather — 1941 — -La tecnica del cult.ivo (Traduccion al espanol). Hoerner, G. R. and Frank Rabak — 1941 — Production of hops. Farmers Bui. 1842 U. S. Dept, of Agr. 1842 : 1-40. Stern, Jeannot — 1950 — Apuntes de Fitopatologia. Trabajo inedito. 568 The Texas Journal of Science 1951, No. 4 December 30 TRANSMISSION OF ELASTIC PULSES IN RODS * ** D. S. HUGHES AND J. H. STANBROUGH * * Department of Physics University of Texas Abstract : The transmission of elastic pulses through solid rods has been investigated. A single input pulse gives rise to a series of pulses from which it has been found possible to compute both the dilatational and rotational velocities in the material. From these velocities the elastic moduli of isotropic materials may be computed. The mode of transformation of the input pulse has been studied and provides a thorough check on the computational pro¬ cedure. Two materials, pyrex glass and brass have been studied. The moduli have been measured as functions of pressure and temperature up to 50,000 psi and 200° C. INTRODUCTION The velocity of elastic waves in solid media is determined by the elastic parameters of the media and thus from a measurement of the velocities the values of the elastic constants may be deduced. Isotropic solids are charac¬ terized by having two independent elastic constants. These may be given as the bulk modulus and rigidity modulus, or Young’s modulus and Poisson’s ratio, or by any other two independent constants. Corresponding to the two elastic parameters it is frequently said that a solid admits two independent elastic waves, the dilatational and rotational waves. In the first the vibration is parallel to direction of propagation and in the second the vibration is perpendicular to the direction of propagation. These waves are thus sometimes referred to as the longitudinal and transverse waves. This however is true only as long as the medium is effectively infinite in extent. When a free boundary is introduced a third type of wave becomes possible, the so-called Rayleigh or surface wave. In general as more bound¬ aries are introduced the possible behavior becomes more complex, with addi¬ tional wave types of different velocities. The velocity of the dilatational wave is * -a 2/3 u 1/2 where k is the bulk modulus, fx is the rigidity modulus, and p is the density. The velocity of the rotational wave is JL /> 1/2 Thus the velocity of the dilatational wave is greater than that of the rotational wave and in general the fastest possible signal through a solid * This work was supported by the Office of Naval Research under contract N6onr-266, Task Order VIII, and by research grants from the Shell Oil Company and the Humble Oil and Refining Company. ** Presented at the 1950 Annual Meeting, Dallas, Texas. 1951, No. 4 December 30 Transmission of Elastic Pulses in Rods 569 medium travels with the velocity Vi>. In any particular case the fastest detectable signal may not travel with this velocity. Pulses of comparatively low frequency through long thin rods may be found to travel with the velocity where E is Young’s modulus. This velocity is frequently measured by finding the resonance frequency of a rod. As usually carried out in the laboratory the length of the rod is many times the diameter and frequencies in the sonic range are used. Under these conditions the velocity Va will be obtained. If the length of the rod is only a few diameters a laboratory specimen will for practical purposes be rather short and the resonance frequencies very high. The resonance conditions become very complex and the above simple view is not applicable. The velocity of waves through a rod may also be determined by meas¬ uring the time of transmission of a pulse through the rod. For practical laboratory samples this time is very short, of the order of 10-20 /zsec. for rods a few inches long; however, utilizing techniques and apparatus devel¬ oped for radar use these times can not only be measured but under good conditions an accuracy of 0.02 /xsec. can be achieved.1 experimental procedure A block diagram of the apparatus is shown in Fig. 1. The sample may be either placed in open air or in a chamber and subjected to hydrostatic pressure and elevated temperature. At the present time a hydrostatic pressure of 90,000 psi can be generated and a temperature of 300° C. The trigger pulse from the A.J.R. scope is delayed about 5 /xsec. and then triggers the pulse generator. The pulse is amplified and impressed on FIGURE 1- — Block Diagram of Apparatus. ^•Hughes, D. S., Pondrom, W. L., Mims. R. L., “Transmission of Elastic Pulses in Metal Rods,” Physical Review, 75, 10, pp. 1552-1556, May 15, 1949. 570 The Texas Journal of Science 1951, No. 4 December 30 * ^V-V* 'ff* VVW * f i * 1t^ — » w FIGURE 2 — Arrivals in Steel Rods 1 inch in Diameter of Various Lengths. the driving crystal, which is an x-cut 5 me. quartz crystal. The pulse used has a rise time of about 0.1 /xsec. and an amplitude of 800 volts. The decay is exponential with a time constant of about 5.0 [xsec . The transmitted pulse is received by an x-cut 5 me. quartz crystal amplified and impressed on the A.J.R. scope. In making measurements the crystals are laced on the sample, the trigger generator set to a frequency of about 5 50 ps, and the received wave displayed on the oscilloscope screen. The arrival times of the various waves are then read off on the scope. RESULTS The appearance of the received wave on the oscilloscope screen is shown in the photographs of Fig. 2. The top and bottom traces are time markers at 10 /msec, intervals. The other traces show the arrivals through rods 2, 4, 6, 8, and 10 inches in length. One trace shows the wave received with the crystals in contact. The first arrival can be very accurately timed. It is found to travel with the dilatational velocity of steel. The later arrivals it will be noted follow the first at equal intervals independent of rod length. Fig. 3 shows the arrivals through steel rods 6” long of different diameters. The diameters are IV2 inches for the lowest trace 1 inch, % inch, V2 inch and V4 inch. It will be noted that the time of the first arrival is not affected by change in diameter. It grows weaker with reduction in diameter and for the smaller rods it is hardly detectable. Numerically the interval between first and second arrival is linear with rod diameter. 1951, No. 4 December 30 Transmission of Elastic Pulses in Rods 571 illl , : - f* \ s ■> < \ FIGURE 3 — Arrivals in 6-inch Steel Rods of Various Diameters. Computation of the velocity of the first arrival shows it to be a dilatational wave with the velocity r , ~\//2 ly k + 2/3M 0 " [ The arrivals following the first have times given by t - + n AT VD where AT is proportional to the rod diameter and independent of length, and n is an integer. For long rods very high values of n may be observed. Thus trace 6 of Fig. 3, shows arrivals corresponding to n = 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6. The first arrival corresponds to n = O. A FIGURE 4— Geometrical Wave Paths, 572 The Texas Journal of Science 1951, No. 4 December 30 These data suggest that the arrivals for n =^= O have in some way trans- versed the diameter of the rod one, two, etc., times. If we consider a plane dilatational pulse traveling along the axis of the rod the boundary condi¬ tions at the wall can not be satisfied by this pulse alone. A rotational wave arrives at the critical angle and crosses the rod. At incidence on the oppo¬ site boundary it gives rise to a dilatational wave traveling along the axis and a reflected rotational wave again at the critical angle. Thus in time we have paths such as that shown in Fig. 4, where sin & The time along such a path is t/2 The time is independent of the position of the line AB, or all refracted transformed waves arrive in phase. The refraction transformation can occur any number of times leading to the expression for arrival times fmns mT + "At where m - /, 3, 5, - - - n - O, /, 2, - - - 0 — 2Dn tan $ ~ mL AT D(V*~ <>'/z VR From a large number of arrivals T and AT may be determined and hence Vd and Vr. From the equations !/2 the bulk modulus and rigidity modulus may be computed and hence Young’s modulus and Poisson’s ratio. With metals some 12 to 15 arrivals may be read and the values of T and AT determined by least squares. Under these conditions an accuracy of 0.1 per cent may be obtained for the elastic moduli. An alternative view of the transformation at the boundaries based on wave fronts presents a better qualitative picture. Referring to Fig. 5, the dilatational pulse AB gives rise to rotational wave fronts AC and DB at the critical angle. As the pulse travels along, the segments AC and BC become longer and finally reach the opposite boundary of the rod. On contacting the boundary dilatational fronts DE and CF arise and spread into the rod as well as rotational fronts DG and CH, as can be seen in Fig. 6. 1951, No. 4 December 30 Transmission of Elastic Pulses in Rods 573 This process is repeated, if the rod is sufficiently long, so that finally the picture becomes that shown in Fig. 7. The lines AB, CD, EF, etc., repre¬ sent dilatational pulse fronts. AD and CB are traces of conical rotational pulse fronts, etc. Thus at the end of the rod a series of dilatational pulses will be detected with a constant time interval. The whole train may be re¬ flected and travel the length of the rod any number of times. All the energy of the driving pulse was originally in AB. From this picture it is evident that as the pulse travels down the rod the front AB loses energy to CD' which in turn loses to EF. It is evident also that this loss will be more rapid the smaller the diameter of the rod. A 574 The Texas Journal of Science 1951, No. 4 December 30 FIGURE 8 — Arrivals in Long Steel Rods. These effects are shown in Figs. 2 and 3 but are more evident in Fig. 8. The upper trace shows arrival through a 6 inch rod, below this, in suc¬ cession, arrivals through 1 ft, 2 ft, and 4 ft rods. The oscilloscope timing has been arranged so that the first arrivals are similarly located on successive traces. The rapid weakening of the first arrival and the transfer of energy to later fronts is plainly evident. It is also evident that the original pulses are becoming broader and more complex, that is oscillations are being added; the wave traces are becoming longer and the equivalent frequency lower. Mr. W. L. Pondrom has investigated this problem mathematically and concludes that ultimately this process of transformation and delay together with the interference of the successive wave trains will lead to a wave traveling effectively with the velocity that is, the energy will be transferred along the rod at this velocity. With increasing pressure the velocity becomes higher and usually the arrivals sharper. This is shown in Fig. 9, which presents the arrivals through a sample of quartz monzonite for various pressures and temperatures. The time zero is off the figure but the displacement is the same for each trace. The velocities Vd and Vr are simply computed from the times T and AT with the length and diameter of the sample. From these data and the density the elastic constants may be computed. For most materials the velocities increase with increasing pressure and decrease with increasing temperatures. Glasses, however, frequently exhibit the inverse behavior. Fig. 10 shows the observed VD and Vr in pyrex as a function of pressure and temperature. 1951, No. 4 December 30 Transmission of Elastic Pulses in Rods 575 y * - - '/ * - *\V* - - - —I V 576 The Texas Journal of Science 1951, No. 4 December 30 Table I shows computed elastic constants for pyrex at various tempera¬ tures and pressures and Table II lists the same data for brass. The absolute accuracy does not justify four significant figures in the results, however the relative accuracy is much higher than the absolute and the data as given shows the variation in the elastic constants with pressure and temperature. table I Material: Pyrex (#105) p = 2.285 gm/cm3 Pressure Vd Vr IbsxlOOO m/sec m/sec cr [x x 1011 dynes/ cm2 Ex 1011 dynes/ cm2 kxlOi1 dynes/ cm2 Temperature 25° C P 5592 3389 .210 2.623 6.346 3.643 10°.0 5571 3393 .205 2.630 6.339 3.583 20.0 5558 3371 .209 2.597 6.279 3.596 30.0 5527 3364 .206 2.587 6.240 3.537 40.0 5506 3360 .204 2.580 6.210 3.493 Temperature 102° C P 5633 3429 .206 2.687 6.478 3.666 10°0 5621 3385 .215 2.618 6.362 3.723 20.0 5599 3377 .214 2.606 6.329 3.692 30.0 5574 3368 .213 2.592 6.287 3.630 40.0 5555 3360 .211 2.580 6.249 3.606 Temperature 200° C 10.0 5633 3399 .214 2.639 6.405 3.728 20.0 5611 3428 .203 2.685 6.457 3.617 30.0 5605 3338 .225 2.545 6.234 3.77 6 40.0 5580 3318 .227 2.516 6.172 3.761 50.0 5558 3311 .225 2.504 6.135 3.781 TABLE ii Material Brass (#108) p = 8.464 gm/cm3 Pressure Vd Vr IbsxlOOO m/sec m/sec — it i; TltltTTr W- mi: ffipiif 1 Ji Wm 1 951, No. 4 December 30 Foraminifera of Glen Rose Formation 583 584 The Texas Journal of Science 1951, No. 4 December SO sands by Cuyler (1939, p. 643) and Barnes (1940, p. 52). The reclassifi¬ cation of the Glen Rose limestone and the Hensell sand as members of the Shingle Hills formation by Barnes (1948, p. 8) emphasizes the close relation¬ ship between the two members. The Glen Rose is overlain disconforably (Scott, 1930, p. 51) by the Walnut formation (Fredericksburg group). The base of the Walnut is generally recognized by the presence of a coquina of Exogyra texana Roemer and Gryphaea sp. This zone has a wide geographic distribution in north and central Texas. Northward, the upper Glen Rose limestones interfinger with the Paluxy sands, which according to Hill (1901, p. 170), represent the shoreward facies of the formation. Hence, the central Texas limestones of the Glen Rose are to be regarded as neritic (Lozo, 1944, p. 519). Central North Southern Texas Texas Oklahoma Walnut formation of the Fredericksburg group — - „ - - — - Disconformity _ (Paluxy ) Glen Rose _ ( ) (Glen Rose ) Antlers Travis Peak _ Travis Peak) FIGURE 5 — Correlation chart of the formations in the Trinity group between central Texas and southern Oklahoma. The Glen Rose formation of central Texas was first recognized as Lower Albian (Lower Cretaceous) by Scott (1926, p. 15) and later by Spath (1941, p. 310) on the basis of the ammonite fauna. The Glen Rose is correlated regionally to the north with the Antlers sand of Oklahoma by Lozo (1944, p. 519; and to the east with the upper Glen Rose in the subsurface of Arkansas and Louisiana by Shearer (193 8, p. 725), and by Grage and Warren (1939, p. 289), and by Scott (1939, p. 977) on the basis of lithology, lateral gradation, and ammonite fauna. To the west, these central Texas strata are traceable on the basis of lithology and ammonite fauna into the Glen Rose formation of the Big Bend area of west Texas (compare Graves, 1949), and the Glen Rose beds of the Little Hatchet Mountains of New Mexico (Lasky, 193 8, p. 53 5 ); they are cor¬ related with the Mural limestone of the Bisbee group in Arizona by Darton (1928) and by Stoyanow (1949, p. 40). To the south and southwest in Mexico, the Glen Rose has been recognized on the basis of the ammonite fauna by Imlay (1944, p. 1094) in northern Coahuila, eastern Chihuahua, northern Sonora, and correlated with the upper part of the lower Cuchillo formation of the Sierra de Santa Ana, with the lower part of the El Abra limestone of Tamaulipas and northern Veracruz, with part of the El Coban formation in El Salvador, Honduras, and Guatemala. PALEONTOLOGY The distribution of the foraminiferal species in the Glen Rose is shown in detail on the chart (Fig. 6.). The foraminiferal fauna consists of 13 families, 34 genera, and 43 species. Of these, 9 species are new and 18 species represent new stratigraphic or geographic occurrences. 1951, No. 4 December 30 Foraminifera of Glen Rose Formation 585 The foraminiferal fauna is dominated by orbitolinids and lituolids, which range throughout the section. Agglutinated forms, such as Lituola, Arnmob acuities, and Haplo phragmoides, are abundant. Although the calcare¬ ous forms outnumber the agglutinated ones in the number of species, they are represented by only a few specimens. All the washed samples examined were silty, with a variety of frag¬ mental remains of echinoids, mollusks, holothurians, crustaceans, foramini- fers, and ostracodes. F’ive genera of Ostracoda ( Paracypris , Bairdia, Cythe- ropteron, Cythereis, and Cytheridea) were encountered in the samples. These genera are considered to be brackish water forms and are most abundant in the shaly facies. Orbit olina concava texana (Roemer) is recognized in and restricted to beds of Lower Albian age wherever found in its world-wide distribution. Biostratigraphy — The foraminiferal assemblages, according to their order of stratigraphic occurrence, divide the Glen Rose into 14 faunizones (modeled after Moore’s stratigraphic nomenclature, 1948). Fig. 6. Three foraminiferal epiboles are recognized. These are, from the lowest to highest: Orbitolina concava texana (Roemer), Coskinolina adkinsi Bar¬ ker, and Lituola subgoodlandensis (Vanderpool) . Eight foraminiferal teil- zones were found. Five of these occur only in the Glen Rose while three extend upward into the overlying Fredericksburg group. The diagram (Fig. 7.) summarizes the zonation of the Glen Rose and shows the ecologic relationship between the fauna and the lithology. Repre¬ sented are the occurrences of pelecypods, echinoids, and corals together with some of the diagonostic foraminifera. The ammonite zonation of the Trinity group proposed by Scott (1939, p. 980) is also included as far as it concerns the Glen Rose formation. It provides a ready comparison of the central Texas Glen Rose section with rocks of similar age elsewhere. PALEOECOLOGY Temperature — -The Glen Rose formation was deposited in relatively warm waters as evidenced by the presence of corals (Wells, 1932, pp. 23 5- 2 56) and certain specific foraminifera throughout the formation. Compari¬ son with the bathymetric foraminifera fauna associations proposed by Norton (1930, pp. 3 3 1-388), places the Glen Rose sea within Norton’s bathymetric zones A and B with a temperature range from 18.9°-31.4° C. This temperature zone is classed as subtropical by Vaughan (1940, pp. 43 3-468). Norton’s conclusions on foraminiferal family distribution that apply to the Glen Rose fauna indicate other factors besides temperature that are possibly more important. Some of these and their inter-relationships are discussed in the following paragraphs. Depth — Since temperature is a dominant factor influencing the vertical distribution of foraminiferal species, the depth range assigned the Glen Rose sea is based on the fossil foraminiferal assemblages. Norton’s zone A (1930, op. cit.) is from 21° C. to 32° C. and the depth ranges from the strand line to five fathoms. Norton’s zone B, next lower, has nearly the same tem¬ perature limits but the depth range is from five to 60 fathoms. Norton found the Miliolidae show a definite decrease in this zone while the Lageni- dae, Buliminidae, and Textulariidae are common. This same relationship was found to exist in Glen Rose sediments. Lohman (1949, p. 1966), in the examination of Recent forms from the Gulf of Mexico, found this also to be 5 86 The Texas Journal of Science 1951, No. 4 December 30 FIGURE 7. — Paleontological zonation of the Glen Rose formation of Central Texas. true of the Lituolidae, Nonionidae, and Kotalidae. The comparisons of the occurrences of these critical families permits an interpretation of the average depth of the Glen Rose sea in central Texas to have been from one to 60 fathoms. This estimate is perhaps too conservative due to the evidence such as cross-bedded sand lenses* ripple-marks* coal seams* dinosaur tracks, oyster beds, coral reefs, rudistids, salt, gypsum, celestite, and red beds, which point to much shallower conditions. 1951, No. 4 December 30 Foraminifera of Glen Rose Formation 587 Density — The density distribution in sea water according to Sverdup et al. (1942, pp. 137-146) depends upon the temperature and salinity. In the lower latitudes of the subtropics the surface water is such that it cannot sink to any appreciable depth. Consequently, the vertical distribution of densities reflects the lateral mixing of the surface waters. However, in shallow seas, the vertical circulation of water masses of varying densities imposes a wide tolerance of temperature and salinity conditions upon the benthonic foraminifera of these areas. This seems to be true of the shallow Glen Rose seas. Salinity- — In all seas, according to Wiist (193 6, pp. 347-3 59), the salinity varies with latitude and reaches its maximum in subtropical waters north and south of the Equator between 20° and 3 0° Latitude. The fauna presented in this report was deposited in a sea within these critical latitudes and reflects fluctuating depth and salinity conditions. There are certain strata which contain a typically brackish, shallow water fauna composed of ostracodes, pelecypods, gastropods, etc. Lozo (1944, p. 5 66) believes the miliolids represent a brackish environment while the presence of Orbitolina and Conorbina indicate the more normal salinity of marine conditions. These genera, in the Glen Rose, are always associated with echinoids. pH and CO 2 — Sea water is normally alkaline. High pH values occur when the photosynthetic activity of plants has reduced the C02 content of the sea water. At subsurface levels the pH will vary directly with the reduction of the C02 content by biological activity. According to Sverdrup et al. (1942, p. 208), areas of high temperature and active photosynthesis will be where precipitation of CaCOs will most likely occur. In warm, clear, subtropical seas, micro-organisms can produce conditions that result in the incidental precipitation of carbonates under shallow water conditions. These are the approximate conditions that may be interpreted as responsible for the chalky Orbitolina biostromes of the lower Glen Rose formation. Bottom material — -The nature of the bottom material is most important to benthonic genera. Calcareous and argillaceous muds appear to have been most preferred by the benthonic foraminifera of the Glen Rose. The result¬ ing marls and shaly-lime members usually contain agglutinated forms which are rare in the siltier facies of the formation. The silts usually contain calcareous-shelled ostracodes which are well preserved. This occurence tends to rule out the possibility that solution removed the calcareous foraminiferal tests from this material. Many of the specimens taken from samples of the deeper water limestones show poor preservation due to dolomitization or to partial or complete replacement by calcite. This alteration of the lime¬ stone rock suggests action of connate or meteoric waters. CONCLUSIONS 1. The Glen Rose foraminiferal fauna consists of 13 families, 34 genera an 43 species. 2. This fauna is interpreted to be divided into 14 faunizones, 3 epiboles, 8 teilzones, and 12 biostratigraphic zones. 3. The assemblages contain an abundance of agglutinated arenaceous foraminifera. 4. Comparative evidence suggests Glen Rose deposition took place on a broad shelf in an environment of warm, shallow, subtropical seas. The Texas Journal of Science 1951, No. 4 December 30 588 5. The Glen Rose fauna corresponds to the Fredericksburg and Washita faunas of north Texas and correlates with the Antlers formation of southern Oklahoma. SYSTEMATIC DESCRIPTIONS order FORAMINIFERA family AMMOD1SCINAE Subfamily Ammodiscinae Genus Lituotuba Rhumbler, 1895 Lituotuba Sp. Plate 1, fig. 1 Test free, with prococulum and a long tabular undivided second chamber, early portion coiled, later portion evolute; wall aggultinated with much cement giving a smooth finish; aperture simple, round, and terminal. Frequency: Rare. Represented by only one specimen. Size: length 2.1 mm., diameter .7 mm. Occurrence: Sample 3, locality S48E, faunizone Kgr 12. Paleoecology : indicative of normal marine conditions. family L1TUOL1DAE Subfamily Haplophragmiinae Genus Haplophragmoides Cushman, 1910 Haplophragmoides globosa Lozo Plate 1, fig. 2-3 Haplophragmoides globosa Lozo, 1944, Am. Midland Nat. 31 (3) : 543 , pi. 2, figs. 8a-c. — Loeblich and Tappan, 1949, Jour. Paleontology 23(3) :249, pi. 46, figs. 3a-b. Frequency: common. Size: diameter .6 mm., thickness .35 mm. Occurrence: fraunizones Kgr 6 through Kgr 14. Very .common in Fredericks¬ burg group of north Texas. Paleoecology: indicative of shallow water environment. Haplophragmoides trinitensis Lozo Plate 1, figs. 4a-b Haplophragmoides trinitensis Lozo, 1944, Am. Midland Naturalist 31(3) : 544, pi. 1, figs. 8a-b. Frequency: Common. Size: diameter .7 mm., thickness .2 mm. Occurrence: All localities. Faunizones Kgr 3 through Kgr 14. Paleoecology: indicative of shallow water environment. Remarks : this species is found only in the Glen Rose of both north and central Texas and may be interpreted as a guide fossil for the Glen Rose. Genus Cribrostomoides Cushman, 1910 Cribroslomoides frizzelli n. sp. Plate 1, figs. 5a-b Test free, planispiral, fat, completely involute with seven chambers in the last whorl; wall arenaceous and well cemented; aperture is a single elongate slit at base of apertural face which is divided by tooth-like processes giving appearance of a linear series of rounded openings. Frequency: rare. Size: diameter .5 mm., thickness .4 mm. Occurrence: Sample 11, locality S48F, Travis County, Texas. Faunizone Kgr 14. Paleoecology: indicative of shallow water. Remarks: This same species has been noted in the overlying Walnut formation by D. L. Frizzell (personal communication), although it has never been described. Genus Ammobaculites Cushman, 1910 Ammobaculites goodlandensis Cushman and Alexander Plate 1, figs. 23-25 Ammobaculites goodlandensis Cushman and Alexander, 1930, Contr. Cushman Lab. Foram. Res., 6(1) :8, pi. 2, figs. 7-8. — Tappan, 1943, Jour. Paleontology 17(5) :481, pi 77, figs. 9a-b. —Lozo, 1944, Am. Midland Nat. 31(3) :537, 1951, No. 4 December 30 Foraminifera of Glen Rose Formation 589 pi. 4, fig. 4. — Loeblich and Tappan, 1949, Jour. Paleontology 23(3) :250, pi. 46, figs. I4a-b. Frequency: Rare. Size: length 1.3 mm., diameter .75 mm., thickness .3 mm. Occurrence: samples 12-13, locality S48B; samples 1-4, locality S48C; samp¬ les 1-12, locality S48D; samples 1-7, locality S48E; samples 1-13, locality S48F. Faunizones Kgr 5 through Kgr 14. Paleoecology : very shallow water. Ammobaculites subcretaceus Cushman and Alexander Plate 1, figs. 7-9 Ammobaculites subcretacea Cushman and Alexander, 1930, Contr. Cushman Lab. Foram. Res., 6(1) :6; pi. 2, figs. 9-10. — Albritton, 1937, Jour. Paleontology 11(1) :20, pi. 4, figs. 3-4. A. subscretaceus Cushman and Alexander, Lozo, 1944, Am. Midland Nat., 31 (3) :538, pi. 4, figs. 2-3. — Loeblich and Tappan, 1949, Jour. Paleontology, 23(3) :251, pi. 46, figs. 9-13. Frequency: Common in upper Glen Rose. Common in Fredericksburg group of north Texas. Size: average diameter .3 mm., thickness .15 mm., length .5 • — .7 mm. Occurrence: sample 12, locality S48D; samples 1-7, locality S48E; samples 1-13, locality S48F. Faunizones Kgr 11-14. Paleoecology: very shallow water. Ammobaculites laevigata Lozo Plate 1, figs. 10-14 Ammobaculites laevigata Lozo, 1944, Am. Midland Nat., 31 (3) : 5 3 8, pi. 2, figs. 2-3. Frequency: common in uppermost Glen Rose. Size: diameter .63 — .68 mm., thickness .2 mm., length .85 — 1.10 mm. Occurrence: samples 1-4, locality S48C; samples 1-12, locality S48D; samples 1-7, locality S48E; samples 1-13, locality S48F. Common in Fredericksburg formations of north Texas. Faunizones Kgr 6-14. Paleoecology: very shallow water. Genus Flabellammina Cushman, 1928 Flabellammina alexanderi Cushman Plate 1, figs. 15-18 Flabellammina alexanderi Cushman, 1928, Contr. Cushman Lab. Foram. Res., 4(1): 1, pi. 1, figs. 3-4. — Alexander, 1928, Jour. Paleontology, 2(1) :43, text figs. 1, 2. — Plummer, 1931, Univ. Texas Bull. 3101, p. 126. — Alexander and Smith, 1932, Jour. Paleontology, 6(4) :300, pi. 45, figs. 1-5, 15. — Lozo, 1944, Am. Midland Nat., 31(3) : 54 1 , pi. 4, figs. 15-16. — Loeblich and Tap- pan, 1949, Jour Paleontology, 23(3) :252, pi. 47, fig. 16. Frequency: Common. Size: length .81 — 1.38 mm., breadth .51 — .85 mm. Occurrence: samples 1-4, locality S48C; samples 1-12, locality S48D; samples 1-7, locality S48E; samples 1-13, locality S48F. Faunizones Kgr 6 through Kgr 14. Paleoecology: very shallow water. Remarks: according to Lozo (1944, p. 541), the lanceolate forms are meg- alospheric and the spatulate forms are microspheric. Genus Frankeina Cushman and Alexander, 1929 Frankeina goodlandensis Cushman and Alexander Plate 1, fig. 6 Frankeina goodlandensis Cushman and Alexander, 1929, Contr. Cushman Lab. Foram. Res., 5(3) :62, pi. 10, figs. 1-2. — Alexander and Smith, 1932, Jour. Paleontology, 6(4):307, pi. 47, fig. 8. — Lozo, 1944, Am. Midland Nat., 31(3) :542, pi. 3, fig. 8. Frequency: Rare. Represented by one specimen. Size: length .55 mm., diameter .15 mm., width equitant portion .25 mm. Occurrence: sample 1, locality S48C. Faunizone Kgr 6. Paleoecology: indicative of normal marine conditions. Remarks: this species has previously been considered a guide fossil to the Goodland formation of north Texas. 590 The Texas Journal of Science 1951, No. 4 December 30 Subfamily Lituolinae Genus Choffatella Schlumberger, 1904 Chojfatella stenzeli n. sp. Plate 1, figs. 27-30 Test free, flattened, planispiral, composed of many narrow, arched chambers; whorls embracing but not completely involute, general thickening of umbonal area; wall finely agglutinated and smoothly finished, labyrinthic; aperture a linear series of pores on the narrow septal face. Frequency : Present. Size: diameter .5 — .6 mm., width .35 — .5 mm., thickness .2 mm. Occurrence: samples 10-13, locality S48B; samples 1-4, locality S48C; samples 1-12, locality S48D; samples 1-2, locality S48E. Faunizones Kgr 5 through Kgr 11. Paleoecology : very shallow water. Remarks: this genus is common in the Lower Cretaceous of Europe. Genus Lituola Lamarck, 1804 Lituola subgoodlandensis (Vanderpool) Plate 1, figs. 19-21 Reophax subgoodlandensis Vanderpool, 1933, Jour Paleontology, 7(4):407, pi. 49, figs. 4-6. Lituola inflata Lozo, 1944, Am. Midland Nat., 31(3) : 547, pi. 1, figs. la-b. Not Lituola ( Haplophragmium ) inflata Reuss, Wright, 1875, Rept. Proc. Bel¬ fast Nat. Field Club, n.s., v. 1, App. 3, p. 82. Lituola subgoodlandensis (Vanderpool), Loebich and Tappan, 1949, Jour. Paleon¬ tology, 23(3) :253, pi. 48, figs. 1-7. * Frequency: Abundant. Size: length up to 7.2 mm. Occurrence: All localities. Also present in Fredericksburg group of north Texas. Faunizones Kgr 2-14. Paleoecology: shallow water. Found in all facies of Glen Rose. Lituola cf. earner at a Lozo Plate 1, fig. 22 Lituola camerata Lozo, 1944, Am. Midland Nat., 31(3) :544, pi. 1, figs. 4-5. Frequency: Common in uppermost strata. Size: length 2.65 mm., diameter 2.0 mm. Occurrence: samples 4-13, locality S48F. Is also very common in the Good- land marls of north Texas. Faunizone Kgr 13. Paleocology : shallow water. Remarks: is found associated with Ammobaculites goodlandensis Cushman and Alexander. Genus Buccicrenata Loeblich and Tappan, 1949 Buccicrenata subgoodlandensis (Vanderpool) Plate 1, fig. 26 Ammobaculites subgoodlandensis Vanderpool, 1933, Jour. Paleontology, 7 (4) :407 pi. 49, figs. 1-3. — Lozo, 1944, Am. Midland Nat., 31(3) : 540, pi. 1, figs. 2-3, pi. 4, fig. 1; text figs. 15a-g. Buccicrenata subgoodlandensis (Vanderpool), Loeblich and Tappan, 1949, Jour. Paleontology, 23(3) :253, pi. 47, figs. 5- 1 5b. Frequency : Common. Size: length varies from 1 to 2.5 mm., breadth up to 1.75 mm., thickness .80 mm. Occurrence: all localities. Abundant in Walnut formation of Fredericksburg group in north Texas. Faunizones Kgr 2-14. Paleoecology: shallow water. Found in all facies of Glen Rose. Remarks: this genus differs from Lituola in possessing a crenulate aperture instead of a cribrate one (Loeblich and Tappan, 1949, p. 252.) family TEXTULARIIDAE Subfamily Spiroplectammininae Genus Spiroplectammina Cushman, 1927 Spiroplectammina alexanderi Lalicker Plate 2, figs. 1-2 1951, No. 4 December 80 Foraminifera of Glen Rose Formation 591 Spiroplectammina alexanderi Lalicker, 1935, Contr. Cushman Lab. Foram. Res., 11 ( 1 ) : 1 , pi. 1, figs. la-c. — Lozo, 1944, Am. Midland Nat., 31 ( 3 ) : 5 48, pi. 4, fig. 6. — Loeblich and Tappan, 1949, Jour. Paleontology, 23 ( 3) :2 54, pi. 47, figs. 19a-b. Frequency: common in lower Glen Rose strata. Size: length .45 — .55 mm., width .3 mm., thickness .2 mm. Occurrence: samples 4-13, locality S48B; samples 1-2, locality S48C. This species is abundant in Goodland formation of north Texas. Lozo (1944, p. 549) proposed species be considered a guide fossil for the Goodland beds in north Texas. Faunizones Kgr 3-6. Paleoecology : found at all depths. Common in all facies of lower Glen Rose. Spiroplectammina sp. Plate 2, figs. 3-4 Test free, early portion planispiral, later portion biserial, chambers have a deflated, sunken appearance; wall coarsely arenaceous and well cemented; aperture appears to be an arched slit at base of last chamber. Frequency: rare. Size: length varies from .45 — .65 mm., diameter of coiled portion .4 mm., thickness .15 mm. Occurrence: samples 4-6, locality S48F. Faunizone Kgr 13. Paleoecology: found at all depths. Occurs in upper marls of Glen Rose. Remarks: this species very similar to S. scotti Cushman and Alexander, com¬ mon in Washita beds. Unfortunately, poor preservation makes positive iden¬ tification difficult. Subfamily Textulariinae Genus Textularia Def ranee, 1924 Textularia rioensis Carsey Plate 2, figs. 5-6 Textularia sp. Carpenter, 1925, Univ. Texas Bull. 2544, pi. 17, Fig. 15. Textularia rioensis Carsey, 1926, Univ. Texas Bull. 2612, p. 24, pi. 7, fig. 12. Textularia conica d’Orbigny, Carsey, 1926, (Not d’Orbigny), Univ. Texas Bull. 2612, p. 23, pi. 7, fig. 1. Textularia rioensis Carsey, Plummer, 1931, Univ. Texas Bull. 3101, p. 128, pi. 8, • fig. 6. — Tappan, 1940, Jour. Paleontology, 14(2) :98, pi. 14, figs. la-2b. — Tappan, 1943, Jour. Paleontology, 17(5)485, pi. 78, figs. la-4. — Lozo, 1944, Am. Midland Nat., 31(3) : 5 5 1 , pi. 3, figs. 7, 9a-b. — Loeblich and Tappan, 1949, Jour. Paleontology, 23(3) :254, pi. 48, fig. 11. Frequency: present. Size: length .45 — .65 mm., breadth .4 — .6 mm. Occurrence: samples 4-13, locality S48B; samples 1-4, locality S48C; samples 1-11, locality S48D. Faunizones Kgr 3-10. Paleoecology : shallow water. family VERNEU1L1NIDAE Genus V erneuilina d’Orbigny, 1840 V erneuilina sp. Plate 2, fig. 7 Test free, triserial, transverse section triangular with rounded angles; chambers slightly inflated, three per whorl, increasing in size toward the apertural end; distinct sutures; wall coarsely agglutinated with much cement giving a smooth finish; aper¬ ture terminal, slit at base of apertural face. Frequency: rare. Size: length .8 mm., with .3 mm. Occurrence: samples 4-5, locality S48F. Faunizone Kgr 13. Paleoecology: shallow water. Remarks: this species differs from V erneuilinoides schizea (Cushman and Alexander) in that it is coarsely arenaceous and does not have a lobulate periphery. 592 The Texas Journal of Science 1951, No. 4 December 30 Genus Tritaxi a Reuss, I860 Tritaxi a glenrosensis n. sp. Plate 2, figs. 8-11 Test free, triserial, transverse section triangular with acute angles, corners slightly rounded; chambers distinct, three per whorl, rapidly expanding in size toward apertural end; sutures distinct and slightly depressed; wall finely agglutinated, well cemented giving a smooth finish; aperture a broad arch at inner margin of the terminal chamber. Frequency: common in lower Glen Rose strata. Size: length from .5 — .7 mm. breadth from .4 • — .5 mm. Occurrence: all localities. Faunizones Kgr 3 through Kgr 14. Paleoecology : indicative of normal marine conditions. This form is found in all facies of the Glen Rose. Remarks: the triserial stage separates this form from T. plummerae Cushman, found in the Washita group, which develops further to a uniserial stage. Genus V erneuilinoides Loeblich and Tappan, 1949 V erneuilinoides schnizea (Cushman and Alexander) Plate 2, figs. 12-13 V erneuilina schizea Cushman and Alexander, 1930, Contr. Cushman Lab. Foram Res., 6(1) :9, pi. 2, figs. 13-14. — Cushman, 1933, Cushman Lab. Foram. Res., Spec. Publ. 5, pi. 7, figs. 21a-b. — Cushman, 1937, Cushman Lab. For¬ am. Res., Spec. Publ. 7:8, pi. 1, figs 5-6. — Lozo, 1944, Am. Midland Nat., V 31(3) :550, pi. 3, fig. 6. V erneuilinoides schizea (Cushman and Alexander), Loeblich and Tappan, 1949, Jour. Paleontology, 23(3) :255, pi. 48, figs. 9-10. Frequency: rare. Size: length from .35 — .45 mm., breadth .17 mm. Occurrence: samples 1-2, locality S48C. Faunizone Kgr 6. Common in Fred¬ ericksburg formations of north Texas. Paleoecology: shallow water. Present in Glen Rose marls only. family VALVULINIDAE Subfamily Eggerellinae Genus Cuneolina d’Orbigny, 1839 Cuneolina trinitensis n. sp. Plate 2, figs. 14-15 Test free, flaring, compressed, with zig-zag line between chambers on the narrow edge of the test, early stage generally conical with five labyrinthic chambers per whorl, becoming quickly reduced to biserial form; wall is agglutinated with much cement; aperture in adult is an elongate slit at the base of the inner margin of the terminal chamber. Frequency: common in lower half of Glen Rose. Size: length from .45 — 55 mm., with .35 — .45 mm., thickness .2 mm. Occurrence: samples 4-13, locality S48B; samples 1-2, locality S48C. Fauni¬ zones Kgr 3 through Kgr 6. Paleoecology: warm, shallow water. Remarks: similar forms have been reported from the Sunnyland horizon (Lower Cretaceous) of Florida by C. J. Reynolds (personal communica¬ tion). This species occurs only in the lower half of the Glen Rose in central Texas and may be interpreted as a guide fossil. Genus Coskinolina Stache, 1875 Coskinolina adkinsi Barker Plate 2, figs. 16-18 Coskinolina adkinsi Barker, 1944, Jour. Paleontology, 18(2) :206, pi. 35, figs. 1-4. —Lozo, 1944, Am. Midland Nat., 31(3) :550, pi. 5, figs. 3-6. Frequency: abundant. Size: height .35 mm., diameter varies from .3 — .35 mm. Occurrence: samples 10-13, locality S48B; samples 1-4, locality S48C; samp¬ les 1-12, locality S48D; samples 1-7, locality S48E; samples 1-13, locality S48F. Faunizones Kgr 5 through Kgr 14. Paleoecology: shallow water. 1951, No. 4 December 30 Foraminifera of Glen Rose Formation 593 Remarks: this species has been reported from Fredericksburg group of central Texas by Barker (1944, p. 207.) Subfamily Ataxophragmiinae Genus Dictyoconus Blanckenhorn, 1900 Dictyoconus walnut ensis (Carsey) Plate 2, figs. 26-27 Orbitolina walnutensis Carsey, 1926, Univ. Texas Bull. 2612, p. 23, pi. 7, figs, lla-b; pi. 8, fig. 3. — Adkins, 1928, Univ. Texas Bull. 2838, p. 62. — Vaughan, 1932, Nat. Acad. Sci. Wash. Proc., 18 ( 10) :609-6l0. Dictyoconus aegyptiensis walnutensis, Silvestri, 1932, Accad. Nuovi Lincei Mem., ser. 2, 16:377-381, pi. 1, figs. 10-12; pi. 2, figs. 3-5. — Silvestri, 1932, Paleon- togr. Ital. n.s., 32:159. D. walnutensis (Carsey), Davies, 1939, Roy. Soc. Edinburgh Trans., 59(29) :775-776, pi. 1, figs. 4, 6. Probably not Orbitolina walnutensis, Lynch, 1933, Jour. Paleontology, 7(1) : 110-1 11. Dictyoconus walnutensis (Carsey), Barker, 1944, Jour. Paleontology, 18 (2) :205-206, pi. 35, figs. 5-9. — Lozo, 19 44, Am. Midland Nat., 31(3) :571, pi. 5, figs. 7-11,. Frequency: common. Size: height 1.25 mm., diameter 1.6 mm. Occurrence: samples 1-4, locality S48C; samples 1-12, locality S48D; samples 1-7, locality S48E; samples 1-13, locality S48F. Faunizone Kgr 6-14. Paleoecology : very shallow water. Present in most upper Glen Rose marls. family M ILIOLIDAE Genus Quinqueloculina d’Orbigny, 1826 Quinqueloculina triangulata n. sp. Plate 2, figs. 22-24 Test free, small, ovoid with pointed ends, coiling in five planes, each cham¬ ber a half coil in length, transverse section triangular in shape; chambers narrow with little or no inflation; sutures distinct and slightly depressed; wall calcareous, imperfor¬ ate, with smooth finish; aperture rounded, at end of last chamber, no tooth visible. Frequency: present. Size: length varies from .45 — .7 mm., width varies from .25 — .45 mm., thickness .2 — .3 mm. Occurrence: samples 4-13, locality S48B; samples 1-2, locality S48C. Fauni- zones Kgr 3 through Kgr 6. Paleoecology: probably shallow. Present in shales and marls. Quinqueloculina sp. Plate 2, figs. 19-21 Test free, small, well rounded, inflated chambers with typical quinqueloculine coiling, four chambers visible on one side, three on the other; sutures distinct and depressed; wall calcareous, imperforate; aperture at end of last chamber, no tooth visible. Frequency : present. Size: length .35 — .48 mm., breadth .28 — .35 mm., thickness .25 — .35 mm. Occurence: samples 7-12, locality S48D; samples 1-7, locality S48E; samples 1-13, locality S48F. Faunizones 9 to 14. Paleoecology: very shallow, possibly brackish water. Remarks: this species differs from Q. triangulata n. sp. in being well rounded with inflated chambers. This species is similar to Q. minima Tappan des¬ cribed from the Duck Creek formation (Washita group) of north Texas, but poor preservation makes positive identification difficult family OPHTHALMIDIIDAE Subfamily Ophthalmidiinae Genus Ophthalmidium Zwingli and Kubler, 187G OphtJoalmidium minima Tappan Plate 2, fig. 25 Opthalmidium minima Tappan, 1943, Jour. Paleontology, 17(5) :49 1 , pi. 78, figs. 36-37b. Frequency: rare. Size: length .5 mm., thickness .05 mm., breadth .35 mm. 594 The Texas Journal of Science 1951, No. 4 December 30 Occurence: sample 1, locality S48C. Faunizone 6. Paleoecology : probably very shallow. Remarks: this species was first described from the Washita group of north Texas. It is represented by only one specimen from the Glen Rose formation. family ORB1TOLIN1DAE Genus Orbitolina d’Orbigny, 1850 Orbit olina concava texana (Roemer) Plate 2, figs. 28-30 Orbitulites texanus Roemer, 1849, Texas, Bonn, p. 392. — Roemer, 1852, Kreide- bildungen von Texas, etc., p. 86, pi. 10, figs. 7a-d. Orbitulites lenticularis , Karsten, 1856, Amtlicher Ber., 32 Vers. Deutsche Nat. Aerste, Wein, p. 114, pi. 6, 6a-e. Orbitulina venezuelana Karsten, 1886, "Geol. Colomb. bolivar.” etc., p. 62, pi. 6, figs. 6a-e. Patellina texana Hill, 1893, Biol. Soc. Wash. Proc., vol. 8, p. 20, pi. 1, figs. 2 (after Roemer), 2a-d. p Orbitulina lenticularis 0 concava Lamarck) Gerhardt, 1897, Neues Johrb., Bd. XI, p. 194. K Orbitolina whitneyi Carsey, 1926, Texas Univ. Bull. 2612, p. 22, pi. 6, fig. 9. Orbitolina texana, Carsey, 1926, idem, p. 22, pi. 6, figs. 6a-c. — Hodson, 1926, Bulls. Am. Paleontology, vol. 12, no. 47, p:: 5 , pi. 1, fig. 2. Orbitolina texana asaguana Hodson, 1926, idem. p. 5, pi. 1, figs. 6, 8. Orbitolina texana monagasana Hodson, 1926, idem. p. 5, pi. 1, figs. 7, 9. Orbitolina thompsoni Hodson, 1926, idem, p. 5, pi. 1, figs. 1, 5- Orbitolina texana, Silvestri, 1932, Paleont. Italia, n.s. vol. 32, p. 174. Orbitolina whitneyi, Silvestri, 1932, idem. vol. 32, p. 174. Orbitolina concava texana, Silvestri, 1932, Mem. Accad. Nuovi Lincei, ser. 2, vol. 16, pp. 372-376, pi. 1, figs. 1-9; pi. 2, figs. 1-2. Orbitolina texana, Vaughan, 1932, Nat. Acad. Sci. Wash. Proc., vol. 18, no. 10, pp. 609-610. — Muir, 1936, Geology of the Tampico Region, Mexico, pp. 20, 21, 40, 96, 222, pi. 2, fig. D. Orbitolina concavai\iexana,'rile Metoncholaimus ebertbi Filip jev, 1918. Locality: Contadera and Taboguilla, Panama. Other localities: Black Sea. Oncholaimus dujardini de Man, 1878. Localities: San Diego Bay, Calif.; La Jolla, Calif. Other localities: Arctic, Norway, Red Sea, Mediterranean, Adriatic. Oncholaimus tobagoense Allgen, 1947. Locality: Tobago, Br. W. Indies. Oncholaimus trichospiculum Allgen, 1947. Locality: San Diego Bay, Calif. Oncholaimus viridis Bastian, 1865. Locality: La Jolla, Calif. Other localities: Coasts of England, Notway, Sweden, Denmark, Mediterranean, Aukland and Campbell Islands. Oncholaimellus carlbergi Allgen, 1947. Locality: Contadora, Panama. Pelagonema obtusicaudatum Filin jev, 1918. Locality: San Diego, Calif. Other localities: Arctic, Coasts of Norway, Sweden, North Sea, Mediterranean, and Black Sea. Pontonema californicum Allgen, 1947. Locality: La Jolla, Calif. Pontonema jollaense Allgen, 1947. Locality: La Jolla, Calif. Viscosia langrunensis de Maan, 1890. Localities: Contadora and Taboguilla, Panama; San Diego Bay, Calif.; Tobago, Br. W. Indies; La Jolla, Calif.; San Pedro, Calif. Other localities: Northern Coast of Europe, Mediterranean Sea. Viscosia langrunensis de Man, 1890. Localities: Contadora, Panama; San Diego Bay, Calif.; La Jolla, Calif.; San Pedro, Calif. Other localities: Coasts of Sweden, Denmark, Mediterranean. Viscosia paralangrunensis Allgen, 1947. Locality: San Pedro, Calif. Viscosia parapedroensis Allgen, 1947. Locality: La Jolla, Calif. Viscosia pedroensis Allgen, 1947. Locality: San Pedro, Calif. Viscosia pseudo segmentata Allgen, 1947. Locality: La Jolla, Calif. Viscosia taboguillensis Allgen, 1947. Locality: Taboguilla, Panama. Subfamily Eurystomininae (Filipjev, 1934) Bolbella pacifica Ditlevsen, 1930. Locality: La Jolla, Calif. Other localities: New Zealand. Bolbella tobagoense Allgen, 1947. Locality: Tobago, Br. W. Indies. Eurystomatina californicum Allgen, 1947. Locality: San Diego Bay, Calif. Eurystomatina ornatum (Eberth, 1863). Localities: La Jolla, Calif.; San Pedro, Calif. Other localities: Mediterranean, Atlantic Coast of Europe and West Africa. Eurystomatina perlasi Allgen, 1947. Locality: Perlas Isl., Panama. Eurystomatina propinquum Allgen, 1947. Locality: San Diego Bay, Calif. Eurystomatina spissidentatum Allgen, 1947. Localities: Contadora, Panama; La Jolla, Calif. 1951, No. 4 December 30 North American Marine Nematodes 667 Eurystomatina terricola de Man var. ophthalmophorum Steiner, 1921. Locality: La Jolla, Calif. Other localities: Port Arthur, East Asia. Subfamily Enchelidiinae (Micoletzky, 1924) Catalaimus max-weberi de Man, 1922. Locality: San Diego Bay, Calif. Other localities: Coast of Holland. Enchelidium brevicaudatum Allgen, 1947. Locality: La Jolla, Calif. Enchelidium macrolatmum Allgen, 1947. Locality: Contadora, Panama. Enchelidium sabulicola Filipjev, 1918. Locality: La Jolla, Calif. Other localities: Coast of Norway and Black Sea. Enchelidium tenuicolle Eberth, 1863. Localities: Contadora, Panama; San Diego Bay, Calif.; Tobago, Br. W. Indies; La Jolla, Calif.; San Pedro, Calif. Other localities: All coasts of Europe, East and West Coast of Africa, Australia, New Zealand. SUPERFAMILY AXONOLAIM1DEA Chitwood, 1937 family Axonolaimidae Stekhoven & de Coninck, 193 3 Subfamily Axonolaiminae Micoletzky, 1924 Axonolaimus diegoensis Allgen, 1947. Locality: San Diego Bay, Calif. Axonolaimus tenuicollis Allgen, 1947. Locality: San Diego Bay, Calif.; San Pedro, Calif. Odontophora pacifica Allgen, 1947. Locality: San Diego Bay, Calif. Subfamily Diploepeltinae Rauther, 1930. Subfamily Campylaiminae Chitwood, 1937. Diplopeltis calif ornicus Allgen, 1947. Locality: La Jolla, Calif.; San Pedro, Calif. Subfamily Cylindrolaiminae Micoletzky, 1922. Araeolaimus cobbi Steiner, 1916. Locality: San Pedro, Calif. Other localities: Coast of Northern Europe, Suez, Campbell Isl. Araeolaimus elegans de Man, 1888. Localities: La Jolla, Calif.; San Pedro, Calif, Other localities: Arctic Ocean, Atlantic Coast of Northern Europe, Campbell Isl., Auckland Isl. family Comesomatidae Parasabatieria mortenseni Ditlevsen, 1921. Locality: San Diego Bay, Calif. Other localities: Auckland Isl. Sabatieria pacifica Allgen, 1947. Locality: La Jolla, Calif. SUPERFAMILY MONHYSTEROIDEA Stekhoven & de Coninck, 1933 Subfamily Diplopeltinae Rauther, 1930. Monhystera tobagoensis Allgen, 1947. Locality: Tobago, Br. W. Indies. Theristus arcospiculum Allgen, 1947. Locality: Contadora, Panama. Theristus tenuispiculum Ditlevsen, 1919. (Syn. Leptogastella pellucida Cobb, 1920 vide Allgen). Locality: San Diego Bay, Calif.; San Pedro, Calif. Other localities: Coasts of Norway, Sweden, Denmark and Belgium. Family Linhomoeidae Filipjev, 1929. Subfamily Linhomoeinae Filipjev, 1922. 668 The Texas Journal of Science 1951, No. 4 December 8 > Eleutherolaimus leptosoma (de Man, 1893) Filipjev, 1922. Locality: San Pedro, Calif. Other localities: North Sea, coasts of Norway and Sweden. Eleutherolaimus obtusicaudatus Allgen, 1947. Locality: La Jolla, Calif. Eleutherolaimus stenosoma (de Man, 1907) Filipjev, 1922. Localities: San Diego Bay, Calif.; San Pedro, Calif. Other localities: Coasts of Holland, Norway, Sweden, Belgium. Eulinhomoeus elongatus (Bastian, 1865) de Man, 1907. Localities: La Jolla, Calif.; San Pedro, Calif. Other localities: Arctic Ocean, North Sea, England and Campbell Isl. Subfamily Sphaerolaiminae Filipjev, 1929 Sphaerolaimus stenosoma (de Man, 1907) Locality: San Diego Bay, Calif. superfamily CHROMADOROIDEA Stekhoven & de Coninck, 193 3 family Chromadoridae Filipjev, 1917 Chromadora conicaudata Allgen, 1947. Locality: La Jolla, Calif. Chromadora neoheterophya Allgen, 1947. Locality: Contadora, Panama; La Jolla, Calif. Chromadora nudicapitata Bastian, 1865. Localities: San Diego Bay, Calif.; La Jolla, Calif.; San Pedro, Calif. Other localities: Atlantic Coast of Europe and Mediterranean. Chromadora pacifica Allgen, 1947. Locality: Contadora, Panama. Chromadora paramacrolaimoides Allgen, 1947. Localities: Contadora, Panama; Tobago, Br. W. Indies. Chromadora para mucrodonta Allgen, 1927. Localities: Contadora, Panama; La Jolla, Calif.; San Pedro, Calif. Other localities: Tasmania. Chromadora perlasi Allgen, 1947. Locality: Perlas Isl., Panama. Chromadora parobtusa Allgen, 1947. Locality: San Pedro, Calif. Chromadorella filiformis (Bastian, 1865) Filipjev, 1918. Locality: San Pedro, Calif. Other localities: Atlantic Coast of Europe, Mediterranean, Black Sea, West Coast of Africa and Sumatra. Chromadora paramucrodonta Allgen, 1927. Locality: Perlas Isl., Bay of Panama. Euchromadora amokurae Ditlevsen, 1921. Locality: San Pedro, Calif. Other localities: Southern hemisphere: Patagonia, New Zealand, Auckland Isl., Campbell Isl. and Antarctic. Euchromadora elegans Allgen, 1947. Locality: La Jolla, Calif. Euchromadora loricata Steiner, 1916. Locality: La Jolla, Calif. Other localities: Arctic Ocean, Coast of Sweden and Tasmania. Euchromadora vulgaris (Bastian, 1865) de Man, 1886. Localities: Contadora and Taboguilla, Panama; Tobago, Br. W. Indies; La Jolla, Calif. Other localities: Coasts of Northern Europe. Hypodontolaimus zosterae Allgen, 1929. Locality: San Diego Bay, Calif.; La Jolla, Calif. Other localities: Atlantic Coasts of Norway, Sweden and Mediterranean. Spilophora antillensis Allgen, 1947. Locality: Tobago, Br. W. Indies. Spilophora mortenseni Allgen, 1947. Locality: Tobago, Br. W. Indies. 1951, No. 4 December 30 North American Marine Nematodes 669 Spilophora pusilla Allgen, 1947. Locality: Contadora, Panama. Spilophorella paradoxa (de Man, 1888) Filipjev, 1918. Localities: Contadora and Taboguilla, Panama; San Diego Bay, Calif.; Tobago, Br. W. Indies; La Jolla, Calif.; San Pedro, Calif. Other localities : All coasts of Europe, Atlantic Coast of North America. family M icrolaimidae de Coninck & Stekhoven, 193 3 Microlaimus honestus de Man, 1922. Locality: San Pedro, Calif. Other localities: Coasts of Norway, Sweden, Holland and Belgium. Microlaimus macrolaimus Allgen, 1947. Locality: La Jolla, Calif. family Cyatholaimidac de Coninck & Stekhoven, 193 3 Subfamily Cyatholaiminae Micoletzky, 1922 Cyatholaimus jollaensis Allgen, 1947. Locality: La Jolla, Calif. Cyatholaimus panamaensis Allgen, 1947. Locality: Taboguilla, Panama. Longicyatholaimus longicaudatus (de Man, 1878) Micoletzky, 1924. Locality: Contadora, Panama. Other localities: Coasts of Norway, France, Mediterranean. Paracanthonchus coecus (Bastian, 1865) Micoletzky, 1924. Localities: San Diego Bay, Calif.; San Pedro, Calif. Other localities: All coasts of Europe, Sumatra and East Africa. Paracanthonchus mortenseni Allgen, 1947. Locality: San Diego, Calif.; La Jolla, Calif. Paracanthonchus macrodon (Ditlevsen, 1919) Micoletzky, 1924. Locality: La Jolla, Calif. Other localities: Coasts of Norway, Sweden and Belgium, New Foundland. Paracanthonchus paramacrodon Allgen, 1947. Locality: La Jolla, Calif. Paracanthonchus spectabilis Allgen, 1931. Locality: La Jolla, Calif. Other localities: Coasts of Norway and Belgium. Paracanthonchus sunesoni (Allgen, 1942) Allgen, 1947. Locality: Tobago, Br. W. Indies. Other localities: Mediterranean. Seuratiella calif ornica Allgen, 1947. Localities: San Diego Bay, Calif.; La Jolla, Calif. Seuratiella duplex Allgen, 1947. Locality: La Jolla, Calif. Seuratiella gracilis Ditlevsen, 1919. Localities: Contadora, Panama; San Pedro, Calif. Other localities: Coasts of Norway, Sweden and Denmark. Seuratiella pedroensis Allgen, 1947. Locality: San Pedro, Calif. Subfamily Choanolaiminae Filipjev, 1934. Halichoanolaimus filicauda Filipjev, 1918. Locality: Contadora, Panama. Other localities: Coasts of Norway, Denmark, Black Sea and Mediterranean. Halichoanolaimus robustus (Bastian, 1865) de Man, 1888. Locality. Other localities: Coasts of Northern Europe and Black Sea. Hypodontolaimus obtusicaudatus Allgen, 1947. Locality: San Pedro, Calif. 670 The Texas Journal of Science 1951, No. 4 December 33 superfamily DESMODOROIDEA Steiner, 1927 family Desmodoridae Micoletzky, 1924 Subfamily Desmodorinae Micoletzky, 1924 Desmodora brachycapitata Allgen, 1947. Locality: Contadora, Panama. Desmodora brachypharynx Allgen, 1947. Locality: Contadora, Panama. Desmodora calif ornica Allgen, 1947. Locality: La Jolla, Calif. Desmodora cephalophora Allgen, 1947. Locality: La Jolla, Calif. Desmodora dubia Allgen, 1947. Locality: Tobago, Br. W. Indies. Desmodora paramicrochaeta Allgen, 1947. Locality: La Jolla, Calif. Subfamily Monoposthiinae Filipjev, 1934 Monoposthia costata (Bastian, 1865) de Man, 1889. Locality: La Jolla, Calif. Other localities: Northern Coast of Europe, Black Sea and West Africa. family Draconematidae Steiner, 1930 Draconema cephalatum Cobb, 1913. Locality: La Jolla, Calif. Other localities: Arctic Ocean, Northern Coast of Europe, Mediterranean, Black Sea, Jamaica, Campbell lsl., and Antarctic. LITERATURE CITED Allgen, C. A. — 1929 — Siidschwedische Marine Nematoden. Goteborgs Kungl. Vetenskaps — ooch v itternets-bamhalles Mandl. S. B. 1(2) : 1-40. - 1930 — Freilebende marine Nematoden von der Staten inseln (Feuerland Archipel). II. Zool. Anz. 90 (%) : 27-38. - iaoZ — Weitere rseitrage zur Kenntnis der marinen Nematoden Fauna der Campbell inseln. Nyt. Mag. Naturvidensk : 97-198. - 1934 — Freilebende marine Nematoden aus Halland’s Vadero und der nahegelegen ivuste Scnonens (Suuschweden). folia Zool. & Mydrobiol. 6(1): 74-75, f. 13. - 1934 — Die Arten und die bystematische Stelmng der Pnanodermatinae, einer Unter- lamuie uer Enoplioae. Capita Zool. Deel lv, Af. 4, 36 pp. - ia3o — UeDer einige ireilebende marine Nematoden aus den Sammlung des Hamburger Zooiogiscnen Museum, f olia zool. & Mydrobiol. Riga 8(1): 25-33. Allgen, C. A. — 1947a — Papers from Dr. Tn. iviortenson's racitic Expedition 1914-1916. DXXXlV. On some ireeiiving marine nematodes from Tobago (Br. w.i.). 110 : 45-63. - 1941b — Idem. LXAV. West American marine nematodes, ibid. 110 : bo-219. nastian, it. C. — 1860 — Monograph on the Anguillulidae, or free nematoids, marine, land, and fresh water. Tr. Linn. Soc. London 25:73-18o. buelschu, O. — 1874 — Die iredebenuen isematouen, msbesondere die des Kieler ha fens. Abh. Senck, Naturf. GeseJlsch. Frankfurt 9 : 1-56. Chitwood, li. G.--1935 — A new nematode, Camacolaimus prytherchi, n. sp. (Camacolaimidae). Proc. Melm. Soc. Wash 2(1): 49-50. - 1935 — Nematodes parasitic in, and associated with, Crustacea, and descriptions of some new species and a new variety. Proc. Melm. Soc. Wash. 2(2) : 93-96. - 1936 — Some marine nematodes from North Carolina. Proc. Melm. Soc. Wash. 3(1) : 1-16. - 1936 — Some marine nematodes of the superfamily Enoploidea. Trans. Amer. Micro. Soc.55 (2) : 208-213. - — 1937 — A new genus and ten new species of marine nematodes from North Carolina. Froc. Helm. Soc. Wash. 4(2) : 53-59. - — and M. B. Chitwood — 1938 — Notes on the “culture” of aquatic nematodes. J. Wash. Acad. Sci. 28(10) : 455-460. - 1950 — An introduction to nematology. Sec. I. Anatomy. Revised. 213 pp. Clapargde, J. — 1863 — Beobachtungen iiber Anatomic und Entwichlungskeschichte wirbelloser an der Kiiste von Normandie angestellt. 120 pp., 18 pis. Leipzig. Cobb, N. A. — 1894 — Tricoma and other new nematode genera. Proc. Linn. Soc. N. S. W. 8(s. 2) : 389-421. - 1912 — Further notes on Tricoma. J. Wash. Acad. Sci. 2 (20) : 480-484. — — — 1913 — New nematodes genera found inhabiting fresh water and non-brackish soils. J. Wash. Acad. Sci. 3(16) : 432-444. 1951, No. 4 December 30 North American Marine Nematodes 671 - 1914 — North American free-living fresh-water nematodes. Trans. Amer. Micro. Soc. 33 : 69-134. - 1915 — Selachinema, a new nematode genus with remarkable mandibles. Contrib. Sci. Nemat. 4: 113-116. - 1917 — Notes on nemas. Ccntrib. Sci. Nemat. 5 : 117-128. - 1920 — One hundred new names. Contrib. Sci. Nemat. 9 : 217-343. - - 1922 — Greeffiella (Trichoderma Greeff, 1869 not Trichoderma Steph., 1835). J. Wash. Acad. Sci. 12(13) : 229-303. - 1928 — Nemic spermatogenesis. J. Wash. Acad. Sci. 18(2) : 37-50. - 1929 — A new species of the nemic genus Syringolaimus. J. Wash. Acad. Sci. 18(9) : 249-253. - 1929 — The ambulatory tubes and other features of the nema Draconema cephalatum. J. Wash. Acad. Sci. 19(12) : 255-260. - 1930 — The demanian vessels in nemas of the genus Oncholaimus; with notes on four new oncholaims. J. Wash. Acad. Sci. 2ft : 225-241. - 1932 — Metoncholaimus pristiurus (zur Strassen). A nema suitable for use in labora¬ tory courses in zoology. J. Wash. Acad. Sci. 22 : 344-354. - 1933 — New nemic genera and snecies. with taxonomic notes. J. Parasitol 2ft : 81-94. - 1935 — A key to the genera of free-living nemas. Proc. Helm. Soc. Wash. 2(1) : 1-40. Cobb, N. A. and G. Steiner — 1934 — An annotation on the genus Pontonema Leidy, 1855. J. Wash. Acad. Sci. 24(1) : 56-61. Coninck. L. de — 1930 — Over de Oekologische verspreiding van vrijlevende Nematoden in Belgie. Bot. Jaarboek. 22 : 129-170. - 1936 — Metaraeolaimoides oxvstoma n.g., n. sp. (Nematoda) en zijne afleiding van Araeolaimoides de Man. 1893 door Allometrie. Biol. Jaarboek, Derde Jaarg. : 182-204. - and J. H. Stekhoven — 1933 — The free-living marine nemas of the Belgian Coast II. Mem. Mus. Roy. d’Hist. Nat. de Belg. 58:1-163. Ditleveen, H. — 1919 — Marine free-living nematodes from Danish water. Vidensk. Medd. Dansk. Foren. 70 : 148-214. - 1923 — Sur quelnues nematodes libres (Cotes de Bretagne et Rockall). Bull. Soc. Zool. France 48 : 178-203. E’rerth, C. .T. — 1863 — Untersuchungen iiber Nematoden. Leipzig. 77 pp., 9 pis. Filipjev. I. N. — 1918 — Marine nematodes of Sevastopol. Trav. Lab. Zool. Sta. Biol. Sebastopol, l’Acad. Sci. Russie. 2(4) : 1-350. - — 1926 — Freilebende marine Nematoden aus der Umgebung von Sebastopol. Arch. Naturg. 91(19251 Abt. A(41: 94-180. - 1922 — Encore snr les nematodes libres de la Mer Noire. Acta Inst. Agron. Stauropoli- tani 1(16) : 83-184. Gerlach. S. A. — 1950 — Die Nematoden-Gattung Mierolaimus. Zool. Jahrb. Abt. Syst. 79(1-2) : 188-208. Greeff. R. — T869 — Untersuchungen iiber einige merkwiirdige Formen des Arthropoden und Wurm-Tvpus. Arch. Nature. 35J 1(1): 71-121. Kreis, H. A. — 1927 — Ueber die Bedeutung der geogranhischen Verbreitung der freileb°nden marinen und Sussenwassernematoden. Verhandl. Schweiz. Naturf. Gesellsch. Basel. TI Teil: 196-197. - 1929 — Freileber.den marine Nematoden von der Nordwest-Kueste Frankreichs (Trebeur- : C'O+es dn Nordl. Manila Zool. 2i7l : 1-97. • - — 1934 — Oncholaiminae Filipjev, 1916. Eine Monographische Studie. Capita Zool. Deel 4, Af. 5. 270 op. Leidy. J. -1855 — Contributions to a knowledge of the marine invertebrate fauna of the coasts of Rhode Island and New Jersey. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phil. Proc. 3 : 135-152. Man, .1. G. de — 1876 — Contribution a la connaissance des nematoides marins du Golfe de Naoles. Tijdschr. Nedprl. Dierk. Vereen. 3 : 88-118. - 1886 — Anatomische Untersuchungen iiber freilebende Nordsee-Nematoden. Leipzig, 82 on.. 13 pis. - 1888 — Sur ouelques nematodes libres de la Mer du Nord, nouveaux ou peu connus. Mem. Soc. Zool. France. 1 : 1-51. - 1889 — Esneces et genres nouveaux de Nematodes libres de la Mer du Nord et de la Manche. Mem. Soc. Zool. France 2:1-10. - - 1889 — Troisiem° note sur les nematodes libres de la Mer du Nord et de la Manche. Mem. Soc. Zool. France 2:182-216. - - 1890 — Quatrieme note sur les nematodes libres de la Mar du Nord et de la Manche. Mem. Soc. Zool. France 3: 169-195. - 1892 — Ueber eine neue in Gallen einer Meersalge lebende Art der Gattung Tvlenchiis Bastian. Festschrift Rud. Leuckart, Leipzig, pp. 121-125. - 1893 — Cinouieme note sur les nematodes libres de la Mer du Nord. Mgm. Soc. Zool. France 6:81-124. - 1907 — Sur quelques especes nouvelles ou peu connus de nematodes libres habitant les cotes de la Z?lande. Mem. Soc. Zool. France 2ft : 33-90. — - 1922 — Neue freilebende Nematoden aus der Zuidersee. Tijdschr. Nederl. Dierk. Vereen., 2 s.. 18: 124-134. - - 1922 — Ueber einige marine Nematoden von der Kiiste von Walcheren, nue fur unsere Fauna, unter welchen der sehr merkwiirdige Catalaimus maxweberi n. sp. Dierk. Konink. Zool. Genoot. Nat. Art. Mag. Amsterdam 22 : 117-124. Marion, A. F. — 1870 — Rgcherches zoologiques et anatomioues sur des nematoides non para¬ sites marins. Mem. Couronn| par l’lnsfitut. (Prix Bordin 1869). Paris, pp. 1-100, and 1-16, pis. 16-20. Ann. Sci. Nat. 5s. Micoletzky, H. — 1922 — Neue frielebende Nematoden aus Suez. Sitzungsb. Akad. Wiss. Wien. Abt. 1. 131(4-51 : 78-103. o. A1 1 - 1924 — Weitere Beitrage zur Kenntnis frielebender Nematoden aus Suez. Sitz. Akad. Wiss. Wien. Abt. 1. 132(7-81:225-262. - 1924 — Letzter Bericht iiber freilebende Nematoden aus Suez. Ibid. 133(4-6) : 137-179. 672 The Texas Journal of Science 1951, No. 4 December 3 ) — — —1930 — Freilebende marine Nematoden von den Sunda-Inseln. I. Enoplidae. Vidensk. Medd. Dansk. Naturh. Foren. 87 : 233-339. Panceri, P. — 1876— Osservazioni intorno a nuori forme di vermi nematodi marini. Atti Accad. Sc. fis. e mat. Napoli. 7. (Not verified). Pearse, A. S., Huram. H. J. and G. W. — 1942 — Ecology of sand beaches at Beaufort, North Carolina. Ecoh Monogr. 12 : 135-140. Schepotieff, A. — 1907 — Zur Systematik der Nematoideen. Zool. Anz. 31 : 132-161. - - 1908 — Trichoderma oxycaudatum Greeff, Zool. Jahrb. Abt. Sept. 26 : 385-392. - 1908 — Die Chaetosomatiden. Zool Jahrb. 26:401-414. - 1908 — Die Desmoscoleciden. Ztschr. Wiss. Zool. 90 : 181-204. Schneider, G. — 1906 — Beitrag zur Kenntnis der in Uferschlamm des Finnischen Meerbusens freilebenden Nematoden. Acta Soc. Fauna et Flora Fennica 27(7) : 1-40. - - 1916 — Synopsis fritt lefrande Nematoderna. Ibid. 44(5) : 1-83. - 1926 — Zweiter Beitrag zur Kenntnis der Brackwasser-Nematoden Finlands. Ibid. 56(7) : 1-47. — - 1926 — Dritter Beitrag zur Kenntnis der Brackwasser-Nematoden Finlands. Ibid. 56(10) : 1-24. Schneider^ W. — 1939 — Nematoden. Die Tierwelt Deutschlands. Toil 36. 260 pp. Schulz, E. — 1935 — Nematoden aus dem Kiistengrundwasser. Schriften Naturw. Yer. Schleswig- Holstein 20(2) : 435-467. Stammer, H. J. — 1935 — Desmoscolex aquaedulcis n. sp., der ersten susswasser-bewohnende Desmoscoleciden aus slowenischen Hohle (Nemat.) Zool. Anz. 15 (11-12) : 311-318. Steiner, G. — 1916 — Freilebende Nematoden aus der Barentsee. Zool. Jahrb. Abt. Syst. 39(5-6) : 511-676. - 1916 — Neue und wenig bekannte Nematoden von der Westkiiste Africas. Zool. Anz. 47(11-12) : 322-350. - 1921 — Beitrage zur Kenntnis mariner Nematoden. Zool. Jahrb. Abt. Syst. 44(1-2) :l-68. - 1930-31 — Die Nematoden. 1. (Epsilonematidae). Deutschen Siidpolar-Expedition 1901- 1903 20: 169-216, 307-433. Steiner, G. and F. Albin — 1933 — On the morphology of Deontostoma calif ornicum n. sp., ( Leptosomatinae, Nematodes). J. Wash. Sci. 23:25-30. Stekhoven, S. — 1935 — Nematoda errantia. Die Tierwelt der Nord-u. Ostsee. Teil. Vb., 173 pp. - and W. Adam — 1931 — The free-living marine nemas of the Belgian Coast. Mem. Mus. Roy. d’Hist. Nat. de Belg. 49 : 1-58. Southern, R. — 1914 — Nemathelmia, Kinornyncha, and Chaetognatha, Clare Island Survey. Proc. Irish Acad. 31 : 1-80. Thorne, G. — 1941 — Some nematodes of the family Tylenchidae which do not possess a valvular median esophageal bulb. Great Basin Naturalist 2(2) : 37-85. - - 1949 — On the classification of the Tylenchida, new order. (Nematoda; Phasmidia). Proc. Helm. Soc. Wash. 16(2) : 37-73. — ; - and H. H. Swanger — 1936-'— A monograph of the nematode genera Dorylaimus Dujardin, Aporcelaimus n.g., Dorylaimoides n.g., and Pungentus n.g. Capita Zool. 6(4) : 1-156. Walton, A. C. — 1927 — A revisioji of the nematodes of the Leidy collections. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila. Proc. 79 : 49-163. 1951, No. 4 December 30 Dr. C. M. Pomerat 673 DR. C. M. POMERAT A DISTINGUISHED SCIENTIST Dr. C. M. Pomerat, Past-President of the Academy, has recently been given the A. Harris and Company award for outstanding research in the field of pure science — The following newspaper stories (all from the Hous¬ ton Chronicle) are here given in their entirety, because of their interest to members of the Academy, many of whom undoubtedly did not see them. 674 The Texas Journal of Science 1951, No. 4 December 30 $1000 AWARD FOR DOCTOR Houston, Oct. 14 — Dr. C. M. Pomerat will receive the A. Harris & Co. Texas Award for outstanding work in the field of medicine at a dinner to be held in Dallas on October 26, Arthur L. Kramer, Jr., president of the department store, announced Saturday. The award, which carries with it a $1000 grant, was established last year, Kramer said, "because arts and sciences need to be encouraged by businesses which have prospered under the democratic system. That is why we have taken the initiative in making such an award. "The award is not limited in any way to any particular art or science, nor will it be given for any one work of art, but will constitute a recogni¬ tion and award for a life or works which have contributed appreciably to the advancement of the best we know in American life.” The first award was presented to Katherine Anne Porter and J. Frank Dobie for their work in the field of literature. The award was made at the annual dinner of the Texas Institute of Letters. A committee of outstanding medical authorities in Texas chose Doctor Pomerat this year for his work in cell growth, particularly the growing of human brain cells in test tubes and their study through motion picture technique. In creating the award, Kramer said that it is the purpose of A. Harris & Co. "to generate among Texans the same enthusiasm for creative minds that has always been symbolic of a progressive community. "The contribution of Texans to American civilization has been so great that this award simply gives deserved recognition to those men and women who thus serve their state and country.” HUMAN BRAIN CELLS GROWN IN TEST TUBE EXPERIMENTS Don Hinga Houston, Oct. 14 — -For the first time in medical history human brain cells are being grown in test tubes in the tissue culture laboratory at the Texas University school of medicine. And Dr. C. M. Pomerat, professor of cytology, and internationally known authority on the science of cells, who is doing the work, believes that the procedure may open up a vast new avenue of approach to ills that plague the brain, the greatest enigma in medicine. "At least,” says the doctor, a chubby, balding man of 46 who finds humor even in his test tubes, "it gives us a brand new handle to pry open the door to the brain and let us try our bag of tricks seeking cures to mental ailments.’ Doctor Pomerat’s research leads him to believe that man now stands on the threshold of learning something new about the chemistry and behavior of brain cells. For the first time, he has a medium for studying the brain in action. "If we knew more about what makes the brain tick, how it goes off the track,” he says, "we can approach it from a new angle and seek means to rectify abnormal actions. We believe this new, dynamic approach may lead us to possible cures for schizophrenia, paranoia, brain tumors and other ills.” 1951, No. 4 December 30 Dr. C. M. Pomerat 675 Heretofore, most studies of the brain have been made from tissue and cells that were dead. Doctor Pomerat and his staff take slivers of brain tissue from tumors that have just been excised from prefrontal lobotomy opera¬ tions and rush them to his laboratory. They are placed alive in his test tubes and nourished with various liquid foods. And through the perfusion chamber he has developed, and using highly magnifying lens that bring the cells up as much as 100,000 times, a motion picture camera and a time lapse apparatus, he projects them on a screen and studies their actions. The tiny fragments of brain, so small that they are almost invisible to the naked eye, are placed on slides with a hollow, round center, in clots made of a combination of rooster plasma and chicken embryo. These two factors have been found to have highly nutritive value. Then they are placed in the perfusion chamber, a glass tray with a tube running up one side, and two tiny, threadlike tubes, one that runs from the larger tube on one side into the center of the chamber, where the cell to be studied is located, and the other carrying off the fluids. Through one of these tiny tubes, they are fed a nourishing fluid com¬ posed of 50 per cent human body fluid (serum or ascitic fluid), 45 per cent salt solution and 5 per cent chicken embryo extract. The cells are then placed in the time-lapse camera and photographed at an average rate of eight times a minute. When these are speeded up, they make the movie, just as Walt Disney makes animated movies from a series of progressive drawings. While the cells are being nourished in the perfusion chamber, they are fed various compounds. It may be cobra venom, alcohol, anti-epilepsy drugs, or anything that may have effect on a brain cell. "Thus, when the series of pictures are run off in the movie projector,” he says, "we can tell from the living cell what the application of these com¬ pounds does to the cell. It is a dynamic approach to what may be cures in the future.” For instance, curare, the deadly poison South American Indians use to tip their arrows with, is one of the world’s most potent drugs. A new anti¬ curare compound has been developed recently. "Curare, while we can make good use of it,” the doctor explains, "pro¬ duces a violent shock on the human system. It may stop breathing. By bathing a cell with this new anticurare compound we can see just how much is needed to restore breathing. We are just beginning to see just how much curare affects nerves. We can see at what doses restoration occurs and exactly what takes place.” Doctor Pomerat says that theoretically human cells are immortal. Some have been kept alive for as long as 20 years. His laboratory has a vast col¬ lection of all kinds of tissues. So far tissue from the brains of 121 patients have gone into his studies. The marginal tissues of tumors of the brain are normal. By taking tissue from the diseased and the normal parts0 and studying the case histories, Doctor Pomerat believes a long stride can be taken along the road to "intensely exciting things.” One of these "exciting things” was the discovery that several kinds of brain cells have a rhythmic, pulsating action. The brain is made up of around 16,000,000,000 cells and the microscope and movie film show that there is 676 The Texas Journal of Science 1951, No. 4 December 30 a constant "jingle jangle action” going on. He found there is a contraction every four or five minutes in certain species of cells. "There are two exciting interpretations of this discovery,” Doctor Pom- erat explains. One is that this constant, pulsating activity may force fluids through the brain with a massaging effect. In other words, millions of tiny pumps are working in the brain. "The other is that this action may be the basic factor in sending off electrical impulses or brain waves that can be picked up with an electro- encephelograph. These waves may be coming from pulsating cells rather than neurones.” The movie screen gives a startling, inside-your-skull view of what is going on. To illustrate what he is discovering, Doctor Pomerat ran off a film showing this pulsating action under normal conditions. Almost like a highly magnified picture of a snowflake, with its myriad patterns, the cell came on the screen with a regular "breathing action.” Tiny tendrils reached out from one cell to another, hooked up, and began pulling at each other. "Scavenger” cells moved about the screen, cleaning up "debris,” as the doctor called it. The pulling action of the unbelievably tiny tendrils seemed to have tre¬ mendous power. On and on, the cells continued to pulsate at a rate of eight times to the minute. Then, through the perfusion chamber, a solution of a compound was introduced. You have sat in a movie and seen aerial shots of a forest fire at night. The cells seemed to explode into mushrooms of flame. Tendrils shot out in all directions. Yet the rhythmic action continued. Several kinds of pulsating actions have been discovered, the earliest in a brain tumor in England in 193 5. The scientist who discovered this action died before he could continue research. Doctor Pomerat bought the original film in its crude state and has it in his laboratory. "We, however, are the fortunate first to show activity in normal brain tissue. I think that this is the most significant discovery of my research career. The possibilities are tremendous.” With ordinary smear technique the cells would die. With this combi¬ nation of tissue culture, time-lapse cinephotography, cells are made to live outside the body and through the moving picture, coupled with the micro¬ scope, the cells, magnified as high as 80,000 to 100,000 times, can be studied clearly. "Thus we have a clear picture of the effect on a cell of drugs of all kinds,” he says. "We are now not limited to use of animals with similar cellular structure. We can see into the cell without discomforture to the patient, for his cells can be made to live in glass dishes.” Most mental diseases are almost completely obscure. The brain is almost an uncharted sea. For instance, medical men know that electric shock has a beneficial effect on some mental conditions. "The theory is,” the doctor goes on, "that this shock disarranges the pattern of the brain and that when the brain cells regroup after the shock there is a new pattern that does not have the disturbing shape that made the patient a mental case. 1951, No. 4 December 30 Dr. C. M. Pomerat 677 "I say that is the theory. But we do not know positively. We do not know what causes schizophrenia. We do not know what effect curare, cobra venom, anti-epilepsy and other drugs have. In some cases they seem to be beneficial but we do not know why. “We know that we have dreams and nightmares but we do not know why. Memory preserves impressions. Why? Hypnotism works on some per¬ sons, but why? Morphine deadens pain but we do not know precisely why. "There is always that eternal question— WHY? “This new technique is just another attempt to get new answers more quickly.55 While his most exciting discoveries have been made on the brain, Doctor Pomerat’s tissue culture laboratory is growing cells of all kinds. It’s a sort of Ponce de Leon search for eternal life, with the “spring55 in a small glass vial. His laboratory has a capacity to run 7000 of what he calls “hanging drop cultures.55 There are 800 in roller tubes in a drum that revolves slowly to give a back-and-forth washing effect with nourishing solutions, which feed the cells eight times an hour and are changed twice a week. Doctor Pomerat is convinced that with this new technique scientists will have a better chance to see what turns a normal cell into a malignant, cancerous one. “We hope to be able to see what induces cancer by using certain hor¬ mones and tell how the mechanism is affected by these hormones. The cells that are seen in cancerous conditions can be studied in all phases. “We can wash the stomach and lungs and from the liquid extract the diseased cells and put them to work on the movie screen. “It is not beyond the bounds of reason that we can grow the whole lining of a lung and then make critical tests regarding the possibility that smoke and street gases may induce cancer. “We’ll just blow a little smoke through the perfusion chamber on to a lung lining cell and see what happens.55 There is a theory among doctors that smoking induces cancer. Well, now we can see.” In precancerous lesions, cells can be fed with sex hormones and watched to see whether they turn malignant. A live piece of stomach can be grown long after death and better studied in treatment of ulcers and other stomach ills. In allergies, a smear of nasal mucosa goes into the perfusion chamber, is fed with rag weed or other highly pollinated plants, and the reaction watched. Through the study of burned skin in the chamber, the laboratory may come up with a treatment for atomic bums, vital in these days, of new weapons and world tensions. Doctor Pomerat has devoted his life to pure research. It is a constant battle for funds to carry on projects that may solve ills of the human race. For instance, in his laboratory, they use minute knives to cut up tissue fragments under a microscope. They cost a lot of money. The doctor im¬ provised by shattering razor blades and soldering the fragments into the eyes of needles. “I bought needles by the gross,” he says. “After several trips to the notions counter, the elderly saleswomen became intensely curious, They wanted to know what I was doing with so many needles,” 678 The Texas Journal of Science 1951, No. 4 December 30 With this bubbling sense of humor that is so in contrast with his pains¬ taking laboratory work, he told them: "I have a large family and make all their clothes.” In his consecrated life, he has never married — "have’nt had time.” After dinner, it’s normal to find him alone in his lab far into the night. The "Dr.” in front of his name is not medical but doctor of philosophy. He took his bachelor of arts degree at Clark University in his native Massa¬ chusetts and master of arts and doctor of philosophy at Harvard. He was a traveling fellow of the Rockefeller Foundation with a back¬ ground of study and lecture in Cambridge and Oxford, London, South America, Lisbon, Milan and France. A former president of the Texas Academy of Science, he holds mem¬ bership in 10 scientific societies. His research and lecturing also has carried him to Hudson Bay, Canada, the West Indies, British Guiana, Venezuela and some 20 trips to Mexico for study, lectures and his hobby of painting, which grew out of a test tube, too. That’s a tremendous amount of work to pack into 46 years, but he is convinced that his brain-cell work is the greatest of his career. "We are working in the realm of pure science,” he says in his precise, professorial English. "It is unfortunate that we cannot say at this time what the practical applications may be. "But, standing on the threshold, the vista is limitless and the possibilities infinite.” DALLAS WILL HONOR TEXAS DOCTOR WITH DAY, AWARD Dallas, Oct. 2 5 — (AP) — Mayor J. B. Adoue, Jr., has designated Friday as "Dr. Pomerat Day” in Dallas. The honoree, Dr. Charles M. Pomerat, professor at the University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, arrived here Thursday to receive the A. Harris & Co award for outstanding research in the field of pure science. The award — consisting of a plaque and $1000 cash- — will be presented to the 46-year-old professor of cytology at a banquet here Friday night. Dr. Pomerat was selected for the award for his research work in study of human cells and growth of cancerous cells. 1951, No. 4 December 30 Book Reviews 679 BOOK REVIEWS DE RE METAL LICA. Georgius Agricola. Translated by Herbert Clarke Hoover and Lou Henry Hoover. 1950. Dover Publications, Inc. New York, xxxii, 640, 289 ills. $10. Here is one of the most treasured scientific classics of all time! A book that has been more often referred to in literature on mining and metallurgy than any other. A book for which collectors and libraries have paid up to $150 per copy in the out-of-print market. First published in 1 5 56, this was the only authoritative text on the production of metals for almost 200 years. Translated in 1912 by Herbert Clark Hoover and his wife, Lou Henry Hoover, this great work was printed in a limited edition which was quickly bought up. De Re Metallica was the first book on mining to be based on field re¬ search and observation — what we today would call the "scientific approach.” It was the first to offer detailed technical drawings to demonstrate the vari¬ ous techniques used in the field, and the first to provide a realistic history of mining from antiquity to the middle of the 16th century. The book contains material on alluvial mining, alchemy, silver refining, smelting, surveying, timbering, nitric acid making and hundreds of other interesting phases of metallurgy. It describes hew mines were drained, ore was crushed, shafts were constructed. It covers the legal aspects of mining — -the use of boundary stones, forfeitures of titles, the specific safety re¬ quirements of tunnel-building in the 1 5 00’s. Because of the broadscope of De Re Metallica, mining engineers, metal¬ lurgists, book collectors, artists and illustrators, historians and mediaevalists will all find something of interest and importance in this volume. There are three appendices by former President Hoover, three indexes, a bibliographical and historical introduction, Agricola’s original preface, a facsimile of the 1 5 56 title page, four facsimile pages from the original Latin text. A PAGEANT OF THE SEA : The Macpherson Collection of Maritime Prints and Drawings in the National Maritime Museum, Greenwich. M. S. Robinson. 1950. Staples Press. 45s. Mr. Robinson’s noble album of prints and drawings of line-of-battle ships, frigates, Indiamen, clippers and early steamships; of sea battles, ad¬ mirals and captains, ports and anchorages and old charts, some in color, will draw attention to what is owed to that amateur sailor — -he fell ill, late in life, while navigating his own small craft in the Southern Ocean with but one companion — the late A. G. H. Macpherson. He was a breezy man, but a learned and fastidious collector. It is proper to call his collection a pageant of the sea. It was lucky chance that secured it for the nation. Mcpherson spent more than he could afford in searching for and buying rarities that predated the camera wherever they were likely to be found, until it grew apparent to him that they would have to be dispersed. It happened that Queen Mary saw the collection, and Macpherson was bidden to Buckingham Palace. The King recognized its unique value, and Macpherson was encouraged to hold on till help was found. Sir Geoffrey Callender aided in finding it, and the col¬ lection was secured in 1928, through the liberality of Sir James Caird. It vs now at Greenwich. 680 The Texas Journal of Science 1951, No. 4 December SO Each print and drawing in this book is a glimpse into some maritime adventure, from Noah building his ark to a picture of the Captain, that early ironclad with turret guns mounted on a hull that was expected to carry the canvas of a three-decker; so retentive is nautical convention that we see — while remembering that she capsized with all hands while on her trials in the Bay of Biscay, 1870 — that this ironclad also carried a bow¬ sprit and jibboom complete with dolphin-striker. The coloured frontispiece of the volume is a curious effort, dated 1802, to picture the disastrous battle of La Rochelle, 1372. For this is not simply a pageant in which only those sea fights favorable to us are shown, though, of course, the First of June, 1794, St. Vincent, Camperdown, the Nile, Copenhagen and Trafalgar — and others — are all present. There is also a Dutch picture of the Royal Prince, ashore on the Galloper, hauling down her flag, 1666; and again one of the execution of Admiral Byng. Hardly a page but causes the reflection: what conjuncture of events brought about that scene? For not every one will recall at once why the Investigator was in a critical position on the coast of Baring Island, 18 51; nor why the boats went into action in Fatshan Creek, 1857. The volume, however, has for its guide Mr. M. S. Robinson, whose copious text, in historical survey, gives relevance and understanding to the whole. And since the National Maritime Museum, where the Macpherson Collection is kept, is one of our great show-pieces, and this is the year of festival when it is supposed many visitors will be here, anxious to learn what we have to say for ourselves, let it be suggested that the gracious palace at Greenwich, with its maritime treasures, should be indicated to them, and access made easier than at present it is. JOHN RAY. A BIBLIOGRAPHY. Geoffrey Keynes. 1951. Faber and Faber. London. 50s. During the nine years that have elapsed since Canon Raven’s John ray, naturalist, first appeared, interest in Ray’s life and works has been greatly quickened, and collectors have paid increasing attention to his books. Now Mr. Geoffrey Keynes comes forward with a definitive bibliography, and in so doing pays graceful and deserved tribute not only to Canon Raven for the stimulus of his book and for the detailed information contained in it about Ray’s various works but also to Mr. Hugh Macdonald, who, having, unknown to Mr. Keynes, also started on a similar bibliography, retired in Mr. Keyne’s favor, and with characteristic generosity placed his own notes at the other’s disposal. Mr. Keynes modestly does not record in the present bibliography his own preliminary handlist of John ray’s works which he had privately printed in a few copies for Canon Raven in 1944, although it must undoubtedly have served as a useful basis for the larger work and contributed to its greater accuracy: it should, however, have its place in the Ray canon. Mr. Keynes has listed Ray’s works under 23 main headings, with 108 separate editions and variants, and in his now familiar bio-bibliographical manner has prefaced each purely bibliographical description with a fascinat¬ ing account of the growth, publication and consequent reception of each book, so that we never forget the author himself and are impressed, as Mr. Keynes has been, with his loyalty to friends, his modesty and his integrity. Ray’s versatility has the advantage of attracting collectors of diverse in¬ terests, and as only a few of his books can be called really rare, represen- 1951, No. 4 December 30 Book Reviews 681 tative collections can still be assembled. Although there are no great biblio¬ graphical problems to be unravelled, Mr. Keynes has succeeded in differ¬ entiating a number of editions and variants for the first t.me, and is always illuminating. In a short review only a few points can be recorded. Of the CATALOGUS PLANTARUM CIRCA CANTABRIGIAM, 1660, 18 Copies with the Cambridge imprint have been recorded, as against only four with the London one. Of books that Ray himself lists as having used for his collec¬ tion of English proverbs, it is noteworthy that the children’s diction¬ ary, "a book well known formerly in schools” (Ray’s own phrase), appears from the S.T.C. and wing not to have survived in a single copy, while Ray’s own dictionariolum trillingue is represented by an average of only two copies for each of its 12 editions. Ray complains that the bookseller concerned in his collection of English words was "so stingy and sordid as not to allow me copies for my friends.” Of this same curious hotchpotch Skeat, its later editor, pointed out its interest as a source of technical terms used in Ray’s day, while Mr. Keynes draws attention to Ray’s role as an unregarded pioneer in the re¬ form of English spelling. Willughby’s ornithologia, in which Ray’s major share is now acknowledged, is adjudged "one of the fairest monuments that mark the progress of scientific history,” and the historia plantarum "Ray’s greatest work.” Mr. Keynes, who writes of the latter, "In June, 168 5, Robinson was evidently urging on Ray the publication of Proposals for the new work, but Ray cautiously resisted this,” does not seem aware that such a proposal was actually published in the form of a broadside in 1685, for the Guildhall Library possessed a copy which was unfortunately destroyed in the recent war. the wisdom of god was Ray’s most popular work; it reached a thirteenth edition by 1762, was reprinted six more times, and was plagiarized by Paley. The amusing story is told of the sumptuous production by the Royal Society of the de historia piscium, and of how it strained the resources of the society so much that several of its officers re¬ ceived their salaries in the form of 50 or more copies of a volume that had proved unsaleable. In his preface to miscellaneous discourses Ray excuses his haste in "huddling up and tumbling out Books” by saying: "Posthumous Pieces generally prove inferiour to those put out by the authors in their lives.” Mr. Keynes has not sought to locate copies of Ray’s books outside the libraries of the British Isles, but a glance at the uncorrected proofs of the still unpublished third volume of wing bears out the general inference of rarity already indicated, and also reveals the very respectable holdings of the Bibliotheque Nationale, thus testifying to Ray’s reputation on the Conti¬ nent. But an inquiry abroad might have located copies coloured by hand said to exist of the Paris reprint of the synopsis avium. The Bibliography has been well printed at the Oxford Press, and, although its greenish grey paper will not appeal to all, it is handsomely produced, and has reproduc¬ tions of the more important title-pages and variants, and three collotypes, two of portraits of Ray — an attractive pastel by William Faithborne, and a painting attributed to Mary Beale — and one of a page annotated by Ray of his printed catalogus plantarum angliae. 6 82 The Texas Journal of Science 1951, No. 4 December 30 A Message to Members . . . OUR advertisers are our special friends, for by their patronage they open to us increased oppor¬ tunities for continued growth of The Texas Journal of Science . . . WE are indeed gratified and pleased with the remarkable progress which has been made by the Journal from its modest beginning a few years ago to its present place as one of the outstanding publications of its kind in America. Our advertisers have played no small part in making this progress possible . . . As a member of the Academy we ask that you promote the interests of our advertisers wherever possible. ON OUR PART, by seeking to offer fair prices; by the excellence of the Journal and its purpose; we are endeavoring to serve well those advertisers we now have — and to attract others to our pages . . . THE TEXAS ACADEMY OF SCIENCE . . . 1951, No. 4 December 30 The Texas Journal of Science DIRECTIONS FOR THE PREPARATION OF MANUSCRIPTS 1. Manuscripts should be submitted to the Editor, Texas Journal of Science, Box 867, Rockport, Texas. Manuscripts may be subject to minor editorial alterations in order to conform to the general style of the Journal. All manuscripts must be typewritten and double spaced with wide margins. The fact that a footnote is usually printed in small type, closely spaced, does not make it any less likely to need correction than any other portion of the manuscript, and the practice of some authors to single space such interpolations makes it exceedingly difficult to make necessary editorial corrections. This also applies to bibliographies. 2. Each manuscript should be accompanied by an abstract, not more than two hundred and fifty words in length. If the editorial board finds it advisable, the abstract may be published instead of the paper. If the paper can be improved or condensed the editor may return it for such changes. 3. The following form should be adhered to in typing any paper: — Title Name of Author Affiliation of Author Body of Paper Literature Cited 4. References or bibliographies should be arranged alphabetically at the end of the article, without numerical designation. References in the text should be by author’s name and date of publication. The use of extensive footnotes should be avoided wherever possible. These are troublesome to the editor, and a nuisance to the printer, as they have to be properly spaced in the composing, which takes increased time and raises costs. 5. A typical bibliographical entry should be as follows: — Doe, John, and W. C. Rowe — 1943 — How to prepare a bibliography. Tex. J. Sci. 6(2): 1-13, 3 figs., 2 pis. - 1943a — How not to prepare a bibliography. Tex. J. Sci. 3(1): 1-26, 2 figs., 3 pis., 2 maps. - 1947 — Mistakes often made in preparing a bibliography. Tex. J. Sci. 1(1): 7-15, 2 pis. The above is a standard form that makes it immeasurably easier for the editor to handle. Please be accurate about the volume, part and page numbers. A poor bibliography is worse than none at all. 6. Cuts and other figures will be accepted up to the limit of the Academy publishing budget. All illustrations should be in black and white for zinc cuts where possible. Half-tones require special paper and, if too expensive, may be charged to the author. Drawings and illus¬ trations should be carefully prepared for reproduction. Legends should be precise and included with the drawings and illustration. The Texas Journal of Science 1951, No. 4 December 31) 7. Tables should be limited to necessary comparisons and, if possible, should be clearly typed or hand lettered ready for photography. 8. Arrangements have been made with the publisher to furnish proofs to the editor so that two copies may be sent to the author for proof reading before publication. However, it is very necessary to return this corrected proof and manuscript promptly or the paper will have to be omitted from that issue of the quarterly and another substituted on which the author has been mo' e prompt. Moreover, remember that extensive changes in the subject matter of the paper after the type has been set are expensive, and time consuming. If such changes must be made the expense will, of necessity fall on the author. 9. The following schedule of prices will apply to reprints, subject to change. All orders must be sent directly to the publisher on sheets enclosed with the galley proof. The editor assumes no responsibility for reprints and all arrangements are strictly between the author and the publisher. Checks must accompany reprint orders. This of course does not apply to institutional orders, but only to those Academy mem¬ bers ordering personal copies. This keeps bookkeeping at a minimum and also keeps the publisher in a good humor. It is felt that this is the most desirable way to handle the matter, despite the fact that formerly it was the custom for the editor to obtain the reprints from the publisher and to collect from the individual member. 100 Copies On Ordinary M. F. Book Paper Pages Pages Pages Pages 1 Page 2 Pages 3 to 4 5 to 8 9 to 12 12 to 16 4.63 5.78 7.95 10.78 15.40 15.40 Each Additional 4 Pages or part thereof 2.84 Each Additional 100 Copies 1.58 2.12 3.02 3.98 4.89 5.81 Each Additional 4 Fages or part thereof .91 10. Above all, be sure name of author, title of paper and author’s affiliations are on the Ms itself, also on all cuts. The Editorial Board 1951, No. 4 December 30 The Texas Journal of Science Professional Directory J. BRIAN EBY Consulting Geologist 1404 Esperson Bldg. Ph. CH-4776 Houston, Tex. JOHN S. IVY Geologist 1124 Niels Esperson Bldg. Houston, Texas LEONARD J. NEUMAN Registered Professional Engineer Geological and Geophysical Surveys Petroleum Engineering Reports Houston, Texas Geophysics Office Engineering Office 943 Mellie Esperson Bldg. Ph. Preston 2705 Ph. FA-7086 PETTY GEOPHYSICAL ENGINEERING COMPANY Seismic Gravity Magnetic Surveys 317 Sixth St. San Antonio, Texas LEO HORVITZ Geochemical Prospecting Horvitz Research Laboratories Houston, Texas Ph. KE-5545 3217 Milam Street COCKBURN OIL CORPORATION 1740 Commerce Building HOUSTON 2, TEXAS MICHEL T. HALBOUTY Consulting Geologist and Petroleum Engineer Shell Building Houston 2, Texas Phone PR-6376 E. E. ROSAIRE Prospecting for Petroleum DALLAS, TEXAS COASTAL OIL FINDING COMPANY Gravity Meter Surveys Esperson Building Houston 2, Texas H. KLAUS Geologist KLAUS EXPLORATION COMPANY Lubbock, Texas WILLIAM H. SPICE, JR. Consulting Geologist 2101-03 Alamo National Building SAN ANTONIO 5, TEXAS Consulting Geologists Appraisals Reservoir Engineers DeGOLYER and MacNAUGHTON Continental Building DALLAS, TEXAS HERSHAL C. FERGUSON Consulting Geologist and Paleontologist Esperson Building HOUSTON, TEXAS 8251^ Gravier Street New Orleans, La. E. DARRELL WILLIAMS Consulting Geophysicist 3114 Prescott Street Houston 5, Texas j The Texas Journal of Science 1951, No. 4 December 80 Professional Directory Continued D’ARCY M. CASHIN Geologist Engineer Specialist Gulf Coast Salt Domes Examinations, Reports, Appraisals Estimates of Reserves 2018 Nat’l. Standard Bldg. Houston 2, Texas ZINGERY BLUE PRINT CO. ! (“Greater Distance - Greater Discount”) Phone Preston 7691 435 Esperson Building Houston 2, Texas LOCKWOOD & ANDREWS Consulting Engineers Houston SAMPLE AND CHILDERS C. H. Sample A. F. Childers, Jr. Consulting Geologists 901 Southern Standard Bldg. Houston 2, Texas DALE SHEPHERD, C. L. U. and Associates Estate Analysis - Pension Planning- Insurance Programming - Business Insur. General Agents Connecticut Mutual Life Insurance Co. 1802-3-4-5 Esperson Bldg. Houston S. RUSSELL (PAT) CASEY, JR. Petroleum Management Company Electric Building Phone CH-1622 Houston, Texas AMERICAN A BRAHMAN M BREEDERS ASSOCIATION 2711 S. MAIN • EMBLEMATIC OF THE BEST IN MODERN MERICAN BEEF BRAHMANS HOUSTON 2, TEXAS SEISMIC EXPLORATIONS, INC 1007 South Shepherd Drive Houston, Texas Established — 1932 1951, No. 4 December 30 The Texas Journal of Science Quality TIRES and BATTERIES AT YOUR GULF DEALERS’ HOUSTON, TEXAS ? RAKE FOODS WINES, LIQUEURS AND CHAMPAGNES From the World’s Markets! fjt * GEOCHEMICAL SURVEYS 3806 Cedar Springs Rd. Dallas 4, Texas & 11 5214 North Second St. Abilene, Texas The Texas Journal of Science 1951, No. 4 December 30 CHANGE TO ESS 0 EXTRA Wi«n you next change the oil in the crankcase of your car, try Humble Esso Extra. The extra qualities of this fine motor oil make it first choice for people who are particular about the care of their cars. It is a Heavy Duty, detergent oil with an unusually high viscosity index. You’ll find it at the Humble sign not far from your home or office. HUMBLE OIL & REFINING CO 1951, No. 4 December 30 The Texas Journal of Science A MUST for Visitors When visiting sunny Treasure Isle, for business or for pleasure, your stay is not complete until you've had an opportunity to dine in the beautiful Turf Grill. Don't miss seeing one of the South's finest eating rooms.