ap Ais eee SU ENE ie Bt gece a mane as 4 CT bleteeral dae ¢ eS At x Ry nee aitieat * eee ty tae J a Ptit sane oot vene? PPE Tale ye teat Sates Se taal + , ie hut — Sag aaa ath ess cent i} prt! ts Hides MTEL Ee or kee 4: + i eemeriae a Bee ? ate) ‘6 cyan» fe aaantentenet ii | 7 dee ert ay B re ries ina ma seyret ienittecidpt irae ary Masts sited acca pahiaaaceocetoeating COPYRIGHT DEPOSIT : = n i A - ; a : ’ . \ P a ' i i a ' be i i * : ; # > , i - Sep : —! : € , : = j \ . S ras : 7 ‘ : ‘ » . Fel < s f . te Sela % ne ae Ap “ J ©, Adams, Hditor, Saving Pea-vine Hay by method Advocated in this Book, Newton County, Ga. | Tilling the Soil ae ea Pile cure Successful Southern ‘Tillers A Compendium of Agricultural Science and Practice on Field, Orchard, and Garden Crops, Spraying, Soils, the Feeding and Diseases of Farm Animals, Dairy Farming and Poultry in the Southern States. Pease es. bs Ys Bea JAMES CLYDE ADAMS, S. B. Illustrated. The Austell Publishing Co., Atlanta, Ga. | LIBRARY of CONGRESS {wo Qoples Meteirce JUN 6 1908 Quegiias enue Sogn (208 OLABE Wor Mur og 66G © adv 8 Entered According to Act of Congress with the Librarian of Congress, by J. C. Adams, 1908 All Rights Reserved THE AUSTELL PUBLISHING CO., ATLLNTA, Ga. PREFACE We have no apologies to offer for bringing out this book. Having been raised on the farm; lived in several of the Southern States, and traveled in all of them, we believe that we are in a position to know the wants and needs of the farmers. The South is the Garden Spot of America. If men will only develop her resources, they need not fear what the rest of the world may do. Primarily the South is an agricultural section. Other industries are important and necessary, but they should not, neither can they take the place of agriculture. The world must have the grains and cereals, cotton and wool, silk and tea, fruits and vegetables, horses and mules. The South can produce these articles cheaper than any other section. But to produce them a revolution must take place in her methods of Cultivation. Agriculture, the oldest of the arts, has not kept pace with the other arts and industries. There are many reasons ae Agriculture is so far behind. The principal reason why there has not been more progress in Our own section is ignorance. The farmers have been uneducated. They have relied on brawn instead of brain. Up to this time there has never been issued, as we know of, a strictly Southern agricultural book. The country is not crowded with books on this line as on others. Some agricultural books have been sold in the South, but they were written by Northern men, published by Northern houses, and have not been adapted ta our needs. These books are all right for the sections they were written for, but they will not do here. The sale of these books, no doubt accounts for the idea so prevalent that books will not help the farmer. We are not so _ foolish as to believe that you can take a book, and just by reading it make an excellent crop of corn, wheat or cotton, but we do believe, and our experience backs us up in the belief, that there are many valuable suggestions in books that will be of incalculable benefit to the farmer. What is true of farming is true of other professions. The physician, whom you call into your home cannot rely on his medical books altogether, but he must use common sense and judgment. Just so with the farmer. He cannot farm by book methods alone, but by using the suggestions as given in bocks that are suited to his country, with good common sense, he can have better success than without the book. It has been our aim to have the book practical. We have selected practical men to write and revise the different departments with the idea of giving to the farmer a work that he can read and understand. Every department of the book has been edited and revised by men who live in the South, and who know our conditions and needs. We are under obligations to many men throughout the South who have given us encouragement in our efforts to bring out this book. The work could not be as great a success as it is without their aid. Especially are we under obligations to each of the editors and to those who furnish us many of the illus- trations. J. C. ADAMS. To the men of the South who have borne the heat and burden of many days and summers without receiving their just reward, this book is DEDICATED With a prayer that it may aid the Southern Farmer in receiving the just recompense for his efforts. PUBLISHERS PREFACE It may be of interest to the readers of this book to know something of the methods used in produc- ing it. The Editor of the book, Mr. Adams, was born and reared upon a Southern farm. He knows from experience what it is to labor on the farm. He has traveled in every Southern State among the farmers. He is a graduate of Emory College. While in college he made a special study of the sciences. All of this qualified ‘him for the work of gathering together the material for a Great Southern Farm Book. He secured back files, and subscribed to the leading Southern farm papers. He also secured books covering every topic possible, even securing some books from across the Atlantic Ocean. From this matter he compiled, what he thought, an excellent farm book. (With the exception of the Horse Department, Flo- ral Department, And The Use of:Improved Farm Machinery, which were written by their respective au- thors as they now stand.) However, in order to produce the very best book possible, he secured for each department an editor especially gifted in his particular line. to revise the department, thereby bring- ing out the very best book possible. Many people do not get the full value of a book because they do not know what it contains. Read your book; know what it contains; make it your companion. When you cannot find what you want, con- sult the Index in the back of the book. The Index was made to use. Publisher. HOARD OF EDITORS FARM DEPARTMENT— Edited and Revised by F. J. Merriam, Baier of Southern Ruralist, Atlanta, Ga. GARDEN DEPARTMENT— Edited and Revised by F. J. Merriam, Editor of Southern Ruralist, Atlanta, Ga. FRUIT DEPARTMENT— Revised by P. J. Berckmans, Augusta, Ga. FLORAL DEPARTMENT— Edited by H. G. Hastings, Florist and Seedman. Member of Southern Florists’ Association, At- lanta, Ga. FERTILIZER DEPARTMENT— Edited and Revised by Prof. W. F. Massey, for- merly Prof. of Horticulture and Botany, N. C. College of Agriculture & Mechanical Arts. For- merly Editor of Practical Farmer, Phila. Mem- ber of American Association and the National Geographical Society of Washington, Lecturer at Farmers Institutes, in various States, and contributor to the leading farm papers. INSECT DEPARTMENT— Edited and Revised by R. I. Smith, formerly State Entomologist for Georgia, formerly As- sistant Entomologist Maryland Agricultural College. Entomologist for the North Carolina Experiment Station, Raleigh, North Carolina. IRRIGATION DEPARTMENT— Edited by J. C. Adams, S. B., Mesena, Ga. ENEMIES TO THE FARM— Edited by J. C. Adams, S. B., Mesena, Ga. USE OF THE IMPROVED FARM MACHIN- ERY—Edited by G. F. Hunnicutt, A. B., Editor of the Southern Cultivator, Atlanta, Ga. BEE DEPARTMENT— Edited by J. C. Adams, S. B., Mesena, Ga. HORSE DEPARTMENT— Edited by C. A. Cary, B. SC., D. V. M. Prof. of Physiology and Veterinary Science at the Ala- bama Polytechnic Institute: Veterinary of the Alabama Experiment Station, Director of Far- mers Institutes & State Veterinarian of Ala- bama, Auburn, Alabama. Also by Dr. J. C. Curryer, Asst. Supt. Mankato, Minn., Foun- der of the Minnesota Horseman. HOG DEPARTMENT.— Edited and Revised by Gen. Thos. T. Munford, Head of Diversification Farm No. 3. Union- town, Ala. Also by, J. P. Conmer, V. M. D. Alabama Experiment Station, Uniontown, Ala. SHEEP DEPARTMENT— Edited and Revised by Ga. William Lea, Marietta, COW DEPARTMENT— Edited and Revised by C. L. Willoughby, B. Acri., Secretary Georgia Dairy and Live Stock Association; Dairyman and Animal Husband- man, Georgia Experiment Station, Experiment, Ga. POULTRY DEPARTMENT— Edited and Revised by H. F. Reils, Editor South- ern Fancier, Secretary Atlanta Poultry Asso- ciation, Atlanta, Ga., and J. A. P. Wolf, Mem- ber National White Wyandotte Club, Member North Carolina Poultry Association; Member Piedmont Poultry Association; Director Poul- try Department, Forsyth County Fair, Winston, N. C. and Central Carolina Fair, Greensboro ING Ge etre sal lESNis Ge iere of CONTENTS. BOOK I. FARM DEPARTMENT. FARMING, THE SOIL, SEED NECESSARY .......10 PARTS OF THE FLOWER.—Perfect flower, Imperfect tlower, How they are fertilized ... Teter panel! ALFALFA OR LUCERN.—Number of eaenes per year, Suitable soil, Bacteria necessary, How to inoculate jJand, Alfalfa as a soll improver ~ 11-18 BARLEY.—Suitable soil, Se ae of eat Its value asia, stock food: . 2). . . 13-14 BEGGAR WEED.—Used as a fords e plants When to cut . 14 BROOM CORN.—Its use, Suitable soil, How to cultivate . 14 CASTOR BEAN.—Suitable soil, Method of cultivation. .15 CHUFAS.—Used for ae aes Method of cultiva- GLOTS «. (euteeleenioe 5 15 CRIMSON CLOVER. —Feed crop anal soil Poncratoct 625 ald CORN.—Suitable soil, Preparation of land, Harrowing necessary, Selecting seed corn, The best fertilizer, Variety to be used, When to plant, How to cultivate, Methods ef harvesting corn...... hn Of oo oo toda COTTON.—Long staple, Where grown, Short staple, Land suitable for cotton, Seopa hance of land, How LOMCHItIV alee sere che 6 - 21-23 COW PEAS.—Their value as a lan renewer, ivaine as a forage plant, How to cultivate, When to cut for hay, How to cure hay during wet weather... . 23-2 GRASSES.—Bermuda grass, Carpet grass, Crab grass, Johnson grass, Kentucky blue grass, Meadow fescue O10 O06 0 See - 20 Suitable for South On eo Meltey ence oe LESPEDEZA —Leguminous plant, OnLys cous of te Sethe, ic) 5! gute 132 PANSIES, ... sedittcas . 133 1SIDADLOINUWNSEES Regio 6 o.6 o CCM COMEOEE 50 00° G 133 PHLOX, DRUMMONS TGs. = wae ce mge oo) Cate 33 RICIUMS (or Castor Bean) ...... 5 134 IOWANS Oo Glarale o 0 00 Gao) 0.0) OO oc. Sp Aeenlot! SALVIA SPLENDEUS (Scarlet Sage)... .. 2... sd3 aya IRIDIAR 6 4 6 5 8 Gd ob ceo O.d 5 . 134 aD AN MVAULIDIU WISE. G Giathao 1 Glo) ol oo om: Lees : 13: MAOIPIDARSPeiiG ic ded o none ONO ad a9G 3: Agee Sere 135 ST ON ROU: Se uae Swoko: oO WO ew Beoeumo dyana blo raga Pe) Ge ChE 138 VERBENA ... Meee aie Ba ee bee 12 VAUNONUUNS 0g a6 o 6 5 © 136 ARISLOTOCHIA (or Dutchman’s Pipe).......... 13 BALLOON VINE. .... Ae nL eutnsmasrtetaee Geil Maa ae 136 CLIMBERS FOR PORCHES EmGl IMRMIOVCUSE G5 5 6 avoec 136 BAVIESAUM ANP: PIGHY wats syiehsre e) Coltee ctoeien (et ls, as, Shas tars 13 CYPRESS, \ViINEem ere tenteremeciey onutss shitstrestns ves Neh Ri oy el 13 JAPANESE) MORNING GLORY. 3 288 8. se oe ee 137 COBBA SCANDEUS. .....%..... Aa erator eae 137 JAPANESE HOP (Humulus Japanicus) . ....... 13 JSUDp VASO A TOME WAIINIDIDA YS Gino 8) 6 0 Oto Ge Go eo 6 ao 138 JNOLO/ PAS ASTD) BON ADNKES “596 Gla obo o-6 6 56616 oO 5 1388 BEOWHRS HROM@BUIMBSH tse. «alos cai sens a ceo 139 OUTDOOR CUMDTUIRHIS sucecucs ce) cls sete ts bee's eer te . 189 THE NARCISSUS FAMILY..... Saye he ko oO LOROn . 140 CROCUS: site eewete cy Teer ous eras fs. thet otis wh ep ae 140 BULBS—POT AND WATER CULTURE ..:....: - 141 BULBS FOR SPRING PLANTING....% 5 .....-. 142 ‘TWHIRL OSDIR oo GG Node Onno kn Omeciics achat Meco 142 (CHLAM DROIT GG: GeoeguoOuome acu Go aC Lotte Nos MONE ood 142 CAAT UM Siemeatic cellent cracics tte) PeiNemn e AIMtcnte Sto foes 143 (CIAUNINDA'S) ‘alr dS PAVIIGTIAY oe. sate, eres) se) os) whe se es ae 143 PHM SROSES Io... Rt MONE De OL AEC Ge Gus Or cn oma 143 BOOK V. FERTILIZER DEPARTMENT. THE USE OF FERTILIZERS.—Restoration of our soils, Nitrogen, Potash, Soils of good mechanical make-up, Deep breaking and thorough pulverization of the soil necessary, Water in soils, Getting nitrogen from the air, Potash and phosphoric acid necessary for a legume plant, What different plants require, Impor- tance of a well balanced fertilizer, How plants get food trom the air.... - 150-159 THE SPECIAL VALUE OF BARN-YARD MANURE— OT EAN LCR AL CC repay emer tere it.pctttae fetes. sy, site} fo 2. fs 159 COTTON SEED AS A FERTILIZER. ..... Re ee ieee ALGO LIME AS A PERTILIZER..... coetty NOIRE incr ey moe er ane! Ke) TPAUNUD) bE TAGS ITE Bete biel loi clish, fe, fe cones, fe apne ted 161 ETS ETE CA'S MAGS HUBS ZsHe ECan, sirestep o's) sf te: ishi's) cue) woe) = a 161 FERTILIZER FORMULAS.—How to make them, What WS GENE, os ooo Gob. 5 SP OND COMO DAcHud =OMGimralc 162 CHEMICAL ANALYSIS OF THE SOIL.—Of little value to the farmer..... . 163 HOW A FARMER MAY ANALYZE HIS ‘SOIL. ayy, ac- CUAL COSTS SeemeMewe eeu) robe eses) wens > eye . 164 FORMULAS FOR DIFFERENT CROPS. eigenen fom las, Cotton formulas, Wheat formulas, Corn formu- las, Watermelon and sweet potato formulas, Fruit tree formulas, Fertilizers for truck farming... . . 166-173 ELOE: VUAD Ry eRe DABYRSs) re) 6) see uel 3) 0 173 COMPOSTING... : 2... CRE Te inive btevnisiveiie) warts) \e7 Je . 173 BOOK VI. INSECT DEPARTMENT. SCALE INSECTS AFFECTING THE PEACH.—The San Jose Scale, Putnam’s Scale insect, Cherry Scale, West Indian Peach Scale Peach Lecanium, Plum Pulvi- TIER Se omc et rteen Ac 176-186 BORING INSECTS ATTACKING THH PEACH.—The Peachtree Borer, The Fruit-tree Bark-Beetle, The Peach Twig Borer, The Curculio... . 186-197 PLANT LICE INJURIOUS TO THE PEACH.—The New Plum Aphis, The Black peach Aphis, Root Knot, or INEMatoden Galle arcd sum tic mcntcme oust 2 LO=L99 CATERPILLARS.—The American Tent ts aie Other Caterpillars. .... ; 199 APPLE INSECTS.—Woolly Aphis, pale: Drees Boren Round Headed Borer, Flat Head Borer, The Cod- ling Moth, Lhe American Tent Caterpillar, Apple Curculio, Canker Worms, Seventeen Year Locust, or @icaday Aree 200-205 THE MEXICAN COTTON BOLL WEEVIL. . 205-211 INSECTS FREQUENTLY MISTAKEN FOR ‘COTTON BOLL WEEVIL.—The cow-pea-pod weevil, The Acorn and Chestnut weevils, The Blood Weed Weev- 3s, Other short beetles, Click Beetles, The Cotton Sharpshooter, The Cotton Boll Worm..... . 211-213 MME Dd} (COMM LON) TXOIVIF AWLONRINIS 6 Sigiguig go oo om 60 o oo nals) DHE COTLON CALM RETMGAR ar scieuciicelrereicien el tn caiensst2 LO INSECTS INJURIOUS TO CORN AND TRUCK CROPS The Corn Stalk Borer, Corn Root Worm, The Squash Vine Borer, Cutworms Squash Bug, The Cucumber Beetle, Colorado Potato Beetle, Flea Beetles, Cab- bage Worms, Plant Lice..... . 217-224 INSECTS INJURIOUS TO TOBACCO. icons The Tobacco Stalk Worm, The Spined Tobacco Bug, Bud Worms, Yhe Tobacco Leatf-Miner, The Bee Worm or Tobacco-Worm..... 2 224-226 INSECTS INJURIOUS TO STORED. ‘GRAIN. “the Grain weevils, The Grain Moths, Flour and Meal Moths, The Flour Beetles, The Meal Worms,. 2:26-232 ORANGE INSECTS.—The White Fly, The San Jose Seale, The Cottony Cushion Seale, The Red Orange Scale. . . - . 282-234 HOUSEHOLD PESTS.—Bedbugs, Fleas, The Carpet Bee- OOO. IPO Onis 0) Or CC ACO OGD tle or “Buffalo” Moth, The Clothes Moth, Spiders, Heyoudts GONE INU Ss Go ono o 610 0 0 Op 6 a0 oR EsiT PRACTICAL RECIPES.—The Screw Worm .. .... 237 SPRAYING, INSECTICIDES, AND FUNGICIDES... . 239 DIRECTIONS FOR PREPARING INSECTICIDES.—Lime Sulphur-Salt Wash, Kerosene Emulsion, Paris Green, Paris Green Mixture, Arsenate of Lead, Hellebore, Pyrethum, Tobacco, Whale Oil Soap, Potash Lye 240-241 FUNGICIDES.—Bordeaux Mixture, Copper Sulphate So- lution, Liver of Sulphur, Ammoniacal Copper Carbo- nate Solution, Formalin or Formaldehyde, Corrosive Sublimate, Garbon Bi-Sulphide.... . 241-243 BOOK VII. IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE. TRRIGATION.—The importance of irrigation, Amount of water necessary tor plants, Rainfall in the Southern States, Irrigation in Georgia, Relation of soil to irri- gation, Water supply, Irrigation in Texas, Irrigating the orchard, Irrigation of celery, Irrigation of onions. Irrigation of rice. . 256-262 DRAINAGE.—The purpose of drainage, Depth of drains. Distance between drains, Kind of drains, The fal] for drains, Size of tiles to use, Terracing. - 263-267 xil BOOK VIII. ENEMIES TO THE FARM. MICEFAND TUAW S:—-Remedies: .) 56 «sy wcle wie) 6) (eo) 272 FUAB IB IES taemrereurcnontsimten 1s lem erect cr 1suNien lol tou comin date oieee de 272 MOLES.—Are they Aecrencuve E ee aha: Bayaletashnenuie JOHNSON GRASS. ©... « . Bale TaD IMMONOPN KORWNSISH 6 5 Ged a oO Oeolo 5 => Ooo o oO . 273 BOOK IX. IMPROVED MACHINERY AND TOOLS. THE IMPORTANCE AND USE OF FARM TOOLS.—The importance, Must clear land of stumps and rocks . 276 TOOLS TO BE USED IN THE PREPARATION OF LAND IN CULTIVATION OF CROPS.—The. plow, Harrow, Weeder, Light harrows, Cultivators. . 277-279 TOOLS TO BE USED IN SAVING AND UTILIZING THE FARM PRODUCTS. ...... 2 209 CARH NOHSRARM: POOLS Sie. sec ls leiie) (ele itel el fee) le 279 BOCK X. BEE CULTURE. MONEY IN BEE CULTURE...... 284 BEGINNII’G WITH BEES....... . 285 HIVES.—Cheaper to buy hives than to try to reel eam Size. hola ae ORS 286 SWARMING OF BEES.—How oe tell saRen they will swarm, Hiving the bees..... ea ste 287 FEEDING OF BEES.—It is a poor releitee. . . 288 STING AND HOW TO AVOID BEING STUNG... 288-289 IBID DAN KOUM DSS shored lonteo perc ch Seas a enelgg a chlo o OS oda . 290 BOOK XI. THE HORSE. INTRODUCTION. ...... bad oud Odeo Gvod oO 293 EXTERIOR ANATOMY, OR THE OUTER FORM OF THE HORSE. Aen weno Nepacitcme: nono. . 295-307 SHOEING THE HEALTHY FOOT OF THE HORSE. 307-309 THH AGE OF THE HORSE DETERMINED BY THE ETSY Eon op tal von tou cost euais texte eoed aie Siena aioe e . 309-316 LAMENESS AND THE DISE ASES ASSOCIATED WITH IT—Thrush, Canker, Corns, Lamitis or Founder, Quittor, Cracks in the wall of the Hoof, Horny tu- mor of the Wall, Side Bones, Navicular Disease, Ring Bone, Splints, Bone Spavin......- . 317-329 DISEASES OF THE TENDONS AND LIGAMENTS, (ohh AEE eer CRECLIe RIOILCe Er Oe cho Oct snte . 329-331 DROPSICAL CONDITIONS OF THE SYNOVIAL SACS. 331 . INFLAMMATION OF AN ARTICULATION... .....- 332 DEES PRODUCING LAMENESS AT THE SHOUL- seen IDID SA Soh Gakic GROOMED CoM Fd OrO60 0.0 26 PARALYSIS OF NERVES OF SHOULDER. PARALYSIS OF THE RADIAL NERVE, DISEASE OF THE LARGE BLOOD VESSELS AT THE pelslOUMHID OI 5 Gy 6 Go oo 6 oo 0 0 oD INFLAMMATION OF THE MUSCLE THAT WORKS. OVER THE POINT OF THE SHOULDER. DEEP-SEATED ABSCESSES NEAR THE POINT OF ELEY SIEPOW SIDER cope tone ol ios) spel alias DISEASE OF THE HIP REGION...... PARALYSIS OF NERVES.... HIP JOINT DISEASH...... DISEASE OF THE BLOOD VESSELS. | Boo oO cm DISEASES OF THE 'STIFLE.—Dislocation of the Pa- tella or knee cap, Outward dislocation of the Patella SIEKOID; IIOMILATS Bs o oi oe a DISEASES OF DIGESTIVE ORGANS. SGhere iatiees: tion and Colic in Horses, Chronie Indigestion, Spas- modic Colic, Flatulent or Wind Colic, Worms or Ani- mal Parasites that Live in the Stomach, or Intes- tines, Bots or Grubs in the Stomach of the Horse, Diarrhoea, Intlammation of the Bowels.... DISEASES OF THE RESPIRATORY ORGANS.—Distem- per or Strangles, Bronchitis, Pneumonia or Lung Fe- ver, Pleurisy, The ‘‘Bellowsed” Horse, or Heaves, Spasm of the Diaphragm. .... DISEASES OF THE URINARY ORGANS.—Inflamma- tion of the Kidneys, Irritable Condition of the Blad- GOL? excel ove tel obs Boe Spite: INFECTIOUS AND ‘CONTAGIOUS DISEASES.—Glan- ders, Influenza, Rabbies in the Horse, Cerebro-Spi- nal, Meningitis Potechial Fever, Anthrax, Tetanus, Big Head in Horses and Mules..... CONDITIONS AND DISEASES OF COMMON EST OCCURRING IN BREEDING PSR) EN DA we ewcricd cL KREeO Sol Gein tos idico al p . 368-3 DISEASES OF THE EYE.—Diseases of the Byelids, Wounds of the Eyelids, Inflammation of the Eyelids, Enthropium, Folding inward of the Lid, Ectropium Rolling outward of the Lid, Ptosis, Falling of the Up- per Lid, Diseases of the Haw or membrana Nicti- tans, Diseases of the tear apparatus, Diseases of the Tissues suhhounding the Eye and in the Orbital Cavity, Diseases of the Conjunctiva, Diseases of the Cornea, Keratitis or Corneitis, Infectious Conjunc- tivitis and Keratitis, or Infectious Inflammation of the Conjunctiva and Cornea, New Growths on the Cornea, Diseases of the Iris, Closure of the pupil, Cataract, Amaurosis, Glaucoma, Hydropthalmus, Dis- location of the Eye Ball-Exopthalmus, Animal para- sites or the Eye, Strabismus, Squinting or Crosseye, Some of the causes of Indistinct Vision and Shying, Periodic Opthalmia, Moonblindness, Methods of Ex- amining ‘the’ Hyes: 30.2) 5 els ss a0, Us Pemete 374- CONTROLLING THE HORSE.—Education of the Horse in the Stall, The Halter Puller, Kicking and Pawing in the Stall, Educating the Horse to Back, Controll- ing the Actions of the Horse by his Tail, Manner of tying the Halter Strap to the Tail, Novel but Prac- tical Method of Hitching Horses, Controlling the Hind Feet in: Shoeing, Position of the Horse in Shoeing Important, Beecher on the Horse, Horses’ Teeth, How Long have Horses Worn Shoes, Man’s INTER- ANIMALS.— 3 . 343- . 857- eo 2 co eo 09 to Co Ww DS or ol ol Co 336 337 . 33 . . 340 . 842, 340mm . 842 349 - 350-35 356 307 365 373 -402 Great Helper, Feeding Horses, Adirondack Murray on Shoeing, Teaching Teams to Pull, Horses need Light, Means and Methods of Controlling our Horses, Some of the Laws Governing our Horses, Handling by the Head, Stallion or Safety Bridle, Applying the Safety Bridle, Method of Using the Safety Bridle, A Good Cheap Riding Bridle, Handling Umbrella, Power of Man over the Horse, First Lesson in Har- ness Satisfactory, Persuasive Contro] of the Horse, The Wilfully Vicious Kicker, The Switcher and Rein Catcher, The Balky Horse. : . 402-428 BOOK XII. DES HOG: JGNFTEL RO NDORCA MOAR Es Waptor nol iancmoeono. we Suan Geinia saute 433 SHELTERS.—Expensive shelters not necessary. ... . 43 FEEDING.—Grasses, Meal, Milk. ....... Seis ttost ere PROTECTION OF BROOD SOWS...:... . 435 TEUOVAIDON). PUSUT IENDRODS 6 Gedia G Gro eo) G . 48 SALT AND ASHBS.......... Ne cuhatltcy OU ee a musirea SRC ARaOD HOG RATSING PROEITABLE. ....... . 435 THE BREEDS.—The Berkshire, Poland Giinss Danone Jersey, The Chester-Whites, Victorias, Yorkshire bb 435-436 HOG FEEDS ‘THAT ‘FATTEN iy aga corn and MCA hae swate ee Mees ceuisl wepese loss, Jones comet ei s/s 3 estes tou PPE B ie > GLU AGISOELIIN Ge eG Sones tee. cette ten joie Dee LOS KHEPING MEAT THROUGH THE SUMMER. oro 438 IPTCK LING: MBAT ooh... sen anaes eay ee WHY HE FAILED WITH HOGS. ee Se OLE Stipes. (Cum OL HOG) PHTLOSOPRENY: &) ve: . 439 DISEASES OF HOGS.—Swine eas or nae cholera: Pneumonia or inflammation of the lungs, Apoplexy, Staggers or congestion of the brain, Measles, Paraly- sis of hogs, Rheumatism, Thumps, Eczema, Kidney WOrMS: tar Sous: Wis te wae 240-444 BOOK XIII. SHEEP AND GOATS. WHAT IT TAKES TO SUCCEED WITH SHEEP... . 447 BREEDS OF SHEEP.—The Hampshire-Downs, The ‘South-Downs, Shropshire....... o © . . 447-448 HOWE O:VAUISEYISEIBHIPS os shee ss 4 ce eos 0448 THE BREEDING AGE OF ‘SHEEP ete Tels Ce PME ee aia eemaa: 4) WATER FOR SHEP. .......- Mirae Mie P ae ol Retr At ........ . Eee’ is. SED LEXOLUILMAT AC IVIMIF RV MNUIRD G5 od ol Good o Boro oe & 52TH J GINGS 5... es ee = De DISEASES OF POULTRY.—Cholera, Cold or roup, Scaly a _ THE AMERICAN STANDARD OF PERFECTION. a5 aR legs, Chicken pox or sore head, Limberneck, Gapes, “ BREEDS OF FOWLS.—White Georgian Games, Game Pneumonia, Lice, Mites, Indigestion, Stiff joints, Powlerys ail entsevecce skeet eh ice oe) arene DANKO RY NISPINGS Golgihig oo O.G. boas ei woe “Bantams, Cochins,Langshans, Wyandottes, Brahmas, Plymouth’ Rocks, Leghorns, Minorcas, Orpingtons, Mamburgs, Cornish and White Indian Games . 549-552 ; . . 554 RAISING BRONZE TURKEYS... . a eesonABeE HINTS Bis eee atmos oho GON. STURIKGHY IS! 8 Bij es) ats oa, tor taht ee ween nies SUCK RAISING FOR PROFIT..... wast ee eB S DION IDL ISVTIDTOIDVINKCS G Gig ola c1o: ofl Dub ane: We - “THE BEST HATCHING SEASON... .. . 5dG TERE eIUEUAMP NIEIS/Ds) ey eucteel eh cle te ueleeale eh “PREPARATORY TREATMENT OF SHOW BIRDS. . 557 HOW SOON AND HOW LONG EGGS AR# 1 . ROOSBERVTAUK. .2.2.:. Ee eer i, in eae KEEPING POULTRY IN HEALTH. . POULRRY POINTERS... 2. w . ae ce 6 ee DO 5ED STICK TO ONE BREED...... 2 2 ee ‘ SELLING COTTON AT NEWNAN, GA. Book PP FARM DEPARTMENT. Pe pO D, Dey e a are F. J. MERRIAM, EDITOR SOUTHERN RURALIST, ATLANTA, GEORGIA. ALPAILBA Ad SUIMAaREIRS Te Use Improved Farm Machinery. 5 AGRICULTURE AS A SCIENCE. Science is what man knows about God's laws. There are no accidents in the physical universe. Everything This is true in every department of nature. There are laws governing the growth of plants, and these laws are in- variable. Some of them most of us are unacquainted with, but these laws exist just the same. The earth or soil was created and adapted to germinate seed when certain conditions are fulfilled and if these conditions are not fulfilled there will be no germination of seed. There are a class of farmers who do not believe that ag- riculture is a science; they believe that all that is nec- essary to make a successful farmer is manual labor; but if these people would stop to think for a mo- ment they would see the fallacy of, their position. There are three principal conditions necessary for the germination of seed; the presence of heat, moisture and air. moves according to some law. Unless these conditions are present the seed Let us look at the matter a little. If you plant seeds in cold soil, they will not germinate. Every farmer and garderner knows that if he plants seeds in the Spring when the ground is cold, they will will not germinate. be slow to germinate and may not come up at all. Of course some seeds require more heat to cause them to sprout than others, and some few will sprout in cold weather, but these are exceptions. Again, if you will take seeds and plant them in a soil that has been thoroughly dried out by heating, and do not let it become moist, they will not come up. Seed also re- quire air. If you place some seed on a wet piece of blotting paper, in a bottle, leaving the stopper of the bottle out; and in another bottle place some in the same way, but place the stopper in, you will note the effect of air upon germination. In the one that is stopped up there is some air and the experiment not be entirely complete; but the comparison is ficient to show that air is necessary for seed to minate. ture, there are certain laws which govern the growth of plants and these laws must be complied with. If farmers understood the laws governing the feed- ing of plants, they would avoid many mistakes in buying their fertilizers. The successful farmer will study the needs of his plants. A simple corn plant is will suf- ger- And so it is in all departments of agricul- very much like the human body in many respects. Just as there are laws governing the human body, so- there are laws governing the simplest plant that grows. The plant breathes, takes in food and wa- ter, and reproduces itself very much lixe human be- ings. There are male plants and female plants just as there are male beings and female beings. You must know the laws governing these plants in order to be successful in the highest sense of the word. And may we not suggest just here that the farmer who raises the greatest number of bales of cotton or the greatest number of bushels of corn is not neces- sarily the most successful farmer. To be a successful farmer, you must be able to enjoy your work, anJ above all things see the beauty of nature.. You must also be able to show the largest margin of profit. The question has often been asked, How can the farm boys be kept on the farm? We believe that question will be answered when farmers are able to show to their children some of the beauties of tne farm life, some of the attractions, and some of the sweet, pure thoughts that the study of nature inspir- es. There is no more fascinating study anywhere than the laws governing the growth of plants, and yet how many children are ignorant of all of these laws. They are taught to study everything that will lead them away from the farm towards the city and factory. The farm need not fear results. If the beau- ties of God’s laws, as expressed in the laws govern- ing the growth of plants, are taught to the child, as well as some of the attractions of machinery and electricity, and the counting room, the farm will not suffer. Our farmers should also be able to show their boys that there is money to be made on the farm and that it offers an opportunity for intelligent efforts equal if not superior to any other calling. The aim of this department is to show to the people some few of these simple laws, and to suggest to them the advis- ability of studying these principles. Most of the ed- ucation in the rural schools is away from the farm, instead of towards it. People have gone mad in their pursuit of higher education, while what we really is wider education. We need to know need more 4 TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. about the laws governing nature. It is well enough to know something concerning the writings of Cae- sar, Cicero, Ovid, Xenophon, and many other ancient writers; but it is far more important to know some- thing concerning the laws that govern the plants which are growing around us every day. There are two great divisions of matter; dead mat- ter, and living matter. We might define dead mat- ter as that which cannot.move or change its form. For instance, you see a grain of sand. You may look at it every day for a year, or two years for that mat- ter, and it will be just the same as before. You may change it, but it in itself can not change or move. Living matter is that which can move or change its form. Fig. 1 shows some yeast plants as they appear under a microscope: There are the little plants that are in ordinary loaf bread, or light bread, which causes it to rise. These plants are so small that you can not see them with the ordinary eye. But they are in the bread, and if it was not for them, you could have no light bread. Each one of these little plants is made up of a little closed sac, contain- ing a thick liquid jelly, and we call this jelly matter, protoplasm. Now if we look at this yeast plant un- we, Ay & KEN Fig. 1—yYeast plants, magnified. der the microscope, we find that it changes. Little swellings grow upon it, like knots on a potato, and these swellings finally fall off. The part that falls off is another yeast plant. In other words, this little plant that you can not see with the unaided eye has grown into two plants. But in order for it to do so, certain laws and conditions had to be complied with. In other words, for this plant to grow into two plants it had to have food, air, moisture or water, and heat. Unless it had had plenty of each of these, it would have never grown into two plants. A horse will not live without corn or some other kind of food, and neither will a plant live without food. That is, it is necessary to use barnyard manure and commercial fertilizers under plants. In other words, when you put guano, or fertilizers under corn, wheat or cotton, you are simply feeding that corn, wheat or cotton, just the same as you would be when you feed the horse, hay or oats. Many of the plants that are rais- ed on the farm are fed to animals in order that the animal may live. We, as human beings, are high ani- mals; in fact, the highest class of beings, and take a great many different things to supply out needs and make us comfortable. To make the plant comforta- ble so that it will thrive it is just as necessary to supply its needs as it is our own. Soil is the home of plants in which they live and from which they take their food. But what is soil? Soil is the top of the earth, or that part which has become fine and in which plants will grow. Soil has no fixed depth or fertility.. In other words, soil is the rocks that have rotted or been decomposed by the elements and varies very greatly in different places. In one place it is sandy, and in another we have a clay soil. The soil and subsoil are very much alike. That part of the soil that is somewhat loose and dark colored we call top soil; and that which is not so loose and lighter in color, the subsoil; but there is no fixed definite line between soil and sub- soil. The subsoil begins where the soil leaves off, no matter where that may be. As is explained in the fertilizer department, plants require three principal foods; nitrogen, phosphoric acid, and potash. These three elements are in all soils to a greater or less extent. But in order that this plant food be of any service it must be in a state in which it can be dissolved in water; for unless this is the case the plants can not use it, as they take up all their food in a liquid form. There are large amounts of potash in some solids that can not be dissolved in water, also nitrogen and phosphoric acid which are in indissoluble forms. These minerals that can not be dissolved in water are of no service what- ever to the plants. They will in time come to the point where they will be soluble in water, but until that time, they are of no service whatever. Thorough tillage and the adding of vegetable matter to the soil will hasten and help make them available, as will al- so the growing of different crops, some of which have the faculty of appropriating the crude forms of plant food. When such crops die on the land and are turn- ed under they return this plant food in a more avail- Keep an accurate account with each field, and see what it pays. 5 able form which other crops utilize. The soil on hill- sides is not so fertile as a rule as the more level por- tion of the earth’s surface, for the loose parts of the earth have been to some extent washed away. In low places we find exactly the opposite to be true, the loose earth has accumulated here and the soil is deeper and more fertile. It is frequently true that the soil in bottoms is several feet deep, while the soil on a hill is less than six inches. The soil or top soil is made from the subsoil, and will be just as deep as you plow. For instance, if you plow six inches deep, the soil will be six inches. Under this six inches, there may be just as good soil, but it is of little use to the farmer in growing crops for it is hard and the roots of the plants can not penetrate it. When you plow only four or six inches deep, year after year, the tramping of the horse in the bottom of the fur- row finally forms a hard pan or clay land, and the land will not drain well. It then becomes necessary to use a subsoil plow to break this hard pan and when this is done the land will be much more productive. As a rule, it is better to deepen the soil gradually by - plowing an inch or so deeper every year as you are able to add the necessary vegetable matter to keep it in good mechanical condition. If you plow too deeply all at once, the succeeding crop is likely to be smaller than the one before it. Now there are many different kinds of soil. We often hear of sandy soils, but still never ask our- selves in what sandy soil consists. A sandy soil is one in which sand predominates. It contains about 7o per cent. sand. Clay soils have about 70 per cent. clay. In between these two soils, we have what is called loams. There are two kinds of loams; sandy loams, and clay loams. A sandy loam is one contain- ing 60 per cent. sand, and a clay loam is one contain- ing 60 per cent. clay. But what is the difference be- tween sand and clay? Sand is the name that is given coarse grains or particles, while clay is the name given to fine grains or particles. Soils are composed of minerals, such as aluminum, quartz, iron, feldspar, potash, lime, phosphoric acid, magnesia, soda and many others. Humus is also a prominent element in soils. Humus is decayed vegetable or carbonaceous matter, and is not a mineral. Many soils are sandy on top, and have a stiff clay below. These soils can be easily improved, but if the soil has no clay under- neath or if the subsoil is pipe clay, it is very difficult to improve it. These facts should be borne in mind when buying a piece of land. We have already suggested that the soil furnishes the plant with food; but it also serves another pur- pose, it supports the plant, holding it up against the wind. For this purpose the soil must furnish a good root bed, for it is by the roots that the plants are held in the correct position, and in many cases the roots penetrate deep down in the ground. So you can readily see that the soil must be porous in order to fully accomplish its mission. This is another very strong argument in favor of deep breaking of your land. We have had a great deal to say about deep plowing, breaking the land 9 to 12 inches deep; but you must remember that this applies only to clay land and land having a clay subsoil. On the sandy poorer soils near the coast the best results will be obtained by shallow plowing. Another very important function of the soil is to hold the water for the plant. The soil not only takes in water, but it must dissolve and hold in solution the food that is consumed by the plant. When we consider that nearly three-fourths of all vegetation is water, we at once realize the importance of the water question, and the necessity of putting it in ideal condition. In this connection it might be well to consider what constitutes an ideal condition of the soil. In the first place; it should be deep, so it will act as a reservoir for holding water. At the same time it must be well drained, so that surplus water will pass off. The soil receives its water at irregular intervals, and it must be able to hold the water in order to supply the need of the crops. We have al- readly learned that plants must have air, therefore the soil should be porous, for the air can only get to the roots of the plants through the pores in the soil. The rootlets of plants will not grow in clods, and the plant food contained in clods is useless. Therefore,. all clods should be crushed and the soil made fine, so that the plant roots will have access to every por- tion. Unless the land is well drained the surplus wa- ter will exclude the air and nitrification or the con- version of decaying vegetable matter into available plant food will stop, and the plant will turn yellow and cease to grow. Consequently the land should be well drained. Lastly, it should be well filled with de- caying vegetable matter, for this not only supplies: plant food, but helps to make the soil warm and 6 TILLING THE SOIL FOR porous, making a comfortable home for the plant. In decomposing, vegetable matter generates a great deal of carbonic acid gas and this gas acts on the phosphoric acid and potash which before was locked up and unavailable. A piece of new land when freshly cleaned of stumps and roots, especially hammock and hard wood lands, is an ideal condition and the farmer should try to bring his soil into a similar state, and keep it so, soil setting free > THE SOIL AND WATER. All have seen a kerosene lamp burning, and many -of us have asked the question why it is that the oil rises in the wick as fast as it is burned out? We are tempted to believe at first, that it is something special in the wick that attracts the oil upwards. And still we have no answer for that question. If we try an ordinary piece of blotting paper we find that ink rises in it just as oil does in the lamp wicks. sut will a liquid rise in other materials, as well as lamp wicks, and blotting paper? Have these two substances any special property that causes a liquid to rise in them? If we take ordinary soil or earth and fill a bottle with it, we will find that this earth makes an excellent wick, and that oil rises as rapidly through the pores or little holes in the earth as it ‘does in the lamp wick. As to why this liquid rises through the pores we cannot tell, it is what is known But what has this to do with Simply this; the water in the soil rises through the pores of the soil as the oil in the lamp as capillary attraction. agriculture? wick rises through the pores of the lamp wick and supplies the plant. If this law of capillary attrac- tion were not true, there practically, for as soon as the root used up the water right around it, it would be unable to secure more water, and the plant would die of thirst. weather the moisture will rise from the subsoil into would be no vegetation During dry the surface soil and supply water to the plant if the land is in the right condition. If the soil is left rough and lumpy, especially if these lumps are at the bottom of the furrow, or if a great deal of trash is turned under in the spring without being worked up, they will tend to break the capillary attraction and pre- vent the soil water from rising. Then, if the surface is kept broken to prevent evaporation the soil will remain moist. PROFIT AND PLEASUR HOW PLANTS FEED. We have explained that water in the ground has minerals in it, and when the plant takes in this water it takes in the mineral matter also, but here are other foods that must be taken in as well. We cannot see the air, and it would seem strange that a part of the plant comes from the air, but it is true, nevertheless. The air contains a gas called carbonic acid, mixed with it. This gas is made of two substances, carbon and oxygen. We have all seen carbon in the form of charcoal and ordinary soot in the chimney, it also composes a large part of the woody substance of plants. The other element in carbonic acid is not so familiar to the ordinary man, and it is oxygen. Where we have charcoal the carbon combines with the oxy- gen from the air and goes off in smoke as carbonic acid gas. When wood or plants decay, this is a slow burning and is called oxidation, as the carbon com- bines with oxygen and goes off in the air. Plants breathe through their leaves and in so doing they absorb the carbonic acid once more and it is recon- verted into wood fibre. This carbonic acid enters the leaves of the plant through small openings, and after it goes in the leaves it enters the cells, and comes in contact with a substance called chlorophyll. lf the sun is shining a part of the carbonic acid and water which is in the cells is decomposed (by decomposed we mean separated into the different parts that. make it up.) Some of this carbon unites with other sub- stances and forms an altogether different substance. This new substance is called starch. Now most of us are familiar with starch. Starch is made in the green part of plants. It is mostly in the leaves of the plants. This starch, together with the minerals that are taken in by the roots, serves as food for the protoplasm of the plant, being converted into fibre and in some plants, such as sugar cane, into the sweet juice which we make into syrup and sugar. HOW PLANTS GROW. By looking at the illustration Fig. 2 you will see an ordinary plant of Indian Corn. You will observe two small tiny shoots growing from this plant. One of these shoots grows upward avid the other downward. This is always true. It is according to law that the one grows up, while the other grows down. The one Try to Improve your Land. Ui that grows upward is called the stem, while the one whose tendency is downward is the root. As noted, you can always depend upon the root tending down- ward, no matter in what position you turn the seed. If you reverse the seed, and turn the root so that it will point upward and the stem downward, the root and stem will change, the root still growing down- Fig. 2.—Plantlet of Indian corn. ward, and the stem upward. This law cannot be changed. You will notice on the main roots there are smaller roots, and upon these smaller roots there are still smaller roots. These smallest roots are called root hairs, and they take up the water and plant food that the plant uses. All water that is used by plants comes through these very tiny root hairs. these are so small that you cannot see them with the naked eye. Some oi The stem, that part which grows above the ground, bears the leaves, flowers, fruit, and seed. In many plants it supports the leaves: above the ground, but in some plants it is weak, and has to grow upon some other support, like the grape vine. It is necessary that the leaves be exposed to the light, and this the plant does. The leaves do not grow out from the stem at haphazard places, but they come at regular intervals. The more we study plants, and their habits the more we are convinced that there-is a definite law controlling plants, and that this law is never violated. Light can pass through the leaves, as you will see if you place a finger behind the leaf. In the leaves is the chlorophyll that causes it to appear green. These leaves are very necessary, for we have already learn- ed that it is in the leaves that the starch is manufac- tured. If the insects eat the leaves or if they are picked off or broken off they cannot prepare food for the plant; which means that the plant must starve. To take away the food of the plant by destroying the leaves, is just about the same as taking away the food of a man. We cannot work without food, and just so the plant cannot work without food, for the roots cannot grow and absorb as much water and other elements from the soil in consequence. HOW TO KEEP THE LAND FERTILE. Suppose we dissolve a spoonful of salt in a glass of water, and then take out a spoonful of this water. Of course we take a part of the salt in solution. There is not as much salt left in the glass as there But suppose we keep on taking out this Let us look at the salt ¢ was before. water, spoonful after spoonful. water for a minute. Have we removed any Look as hard as you may, and you cannot see a sin- gle grain of salt. But suppose we taste it. We find that it has salt in it, so when we take out all the water we have also taken out all of the salt. Just so it is with farming. The water absorbs, or dissolves the mineral matter, such as nitrogen, phosphoric acid, and potash, and the plant takes in this water through the root hairs and if it keeps on taking up this min- eral matter after a while there will be none left un- less it is replaced by some other means. But some . farmers believe that they ought to be able to take away from the land every year, and never replace anything. After a while the land has nothing to give, and as a result we have what is called poor land. A man is called poor when he has not enough to prop- erly feed his family, and the land is called poor when it has not enough plant food in it to properly feed the plants growing upon it. We have already shown the fact that plants need food, and we have told yor what the principal foods are that plants require. An- other way that soil is worn out or becomes poor in the South is by washing. Where land is not proper- ly drained or terraced the rains cause water to flow over it, and this takes the plant food out of it. Wash- ing has ruined many farms throughout the South. It would not be so bad if it was necessary, but it is not Whenever land is washed away it is on inattention. necessary. account of some one’s carelessness, or Many farmers have land that does not wash, nor do they use-terraces. They prevent the washing in their method of cultivation. They take for their motto “Plow deep and on a level, And in peace and plenty revel.” 8 TILLING THE SOIL FOR Plow deep enough to break the hard-pan. By do- ing this the water will soak in, and there will not be so much to run off. This not only prevents the land from washing, but it also stores the water for use in a drouth: But the thing under consideration is the washing of land. Unless the hard-pan is broken so that the water can soak in, it must run off. Each square yard of land will hold all the water that falls upon it, provided none gets on it from any other- source. But for the water to remain where it falls and not run here and there, the land must be broken deep. And you will note tnat the little rhyme says Many farmers make the mistake of not plowing level. You cannot It will be necessary for you something concerning level plowing. do this by guess work. to take a spirit level and lay off guide rows to plow by. Those guide rows should be for every three feet of perpendicular fall. They should be run on an ex- act level, so that there will be as near no fall as pos- sible. The thing you want to do is to keep the wa- ter just where it falls. If your furrows run down hill, the water will follow, and your land will wash. If the farmer will break the hard-pan and plow his land on a level, he will not have to use great high banks called levels. After you keep your land from washing, and losing valuable plant food, the next thing to be done is to replace the plant food that is removed by the plants. This can be done with barnyard manure, wood ashes and commercial fertilizers. Land, atter a time, unless the soil is exceedingly deep, will become unproduc- tive unless you fertilize it.’ The best way to fertilize land, is by the use of stable or barnyard manure. And as is suggested in the Fertilizer Department, this is a point where a great many farmers lose out. They fail to take care of the manure, and must buy commercial fertilizers to take their place. In using commercial fertilizers you fail to secure one element that is needed, which is supplied in manure, and that is humus, or decayed vegetable matter. Land will not produce without this vegetable matter. The wise farmer will not permit the land to be burned off, as is so often practiced. You may lay it down as a safe rule never to allow anything to be burned on the farm that will rot, and if anything will burn it will rot, therefore do not burn anything. Cornstalks are a little trouble to plow under, but they are worth a great deal more plowed under than they are burned. The vegetable matter cannot be classed as a plant PROFIT AND PLEASURE, food, but it is none the less important. The grass may be rank and hard to plow under, but it is better to go to extra hard labor and plow it under than it is to burn it off. The land needs all the humus that it can get. If the wagons and stock have nothing else they can do, it will pay to haul leaves and pine straw on the land tohelp supply vegetable matter, for when- ever the vegetable matter in the soil becomes ex- hausted the land becomes dead and unproductive. Such a soil may contain a large amount of plant food, but in the absence of vegetable matter this plant food reverts into insoluble forms which the plants cannot take up, so that very often a soil will appear to be worn out when in reality it is not, and all that is necessary is a new supply of vegetable matter to make it again productive. Wood ashes, if they have not become wet, contain potash, and some phosphoric acid, but no nitrogen; and are quite valuable as soil improvers. By taking advantage of these small mat- ters, we can do much to improve our land. ROTATION OF CROPS. With most crops and on most soils the rotation of crops is desirable. Rotation refers to the order in which crops are made to follow each other in differ- ent years, so that in order to rotate crops you must have more than one crop. Where rotation is not practiced the same crop is planted year after year on the same land, certain elements in the soil are used up and the land becomes unproductive unless large amounts of fertilizers are used. insect enemies. It also encourages If potatoes are made to follow pota- toes year after year the ground soon becomes infest- ed with a disease so that only scabby potatoes will be reproduced, the potato bugs will also become more and more abundant each year. If clover is made to follow clover year after year the land soon becomes “clover sick” and fails to produce good crops, and the same is sometimes true of cowpeas. Land that con- tinually grows grain soon becomes foul with weeds. You must also remember that some plants are shal- low feeders, and where these are continually planted on land they leave a great deal of unused food below, which cannot be used until you introduce a deeper feeding crop. Deep rooted crops such as alfalfa and cow peas will pump up potash and phosphoric acid from the sub- soil for the benefit of other surface rooted crops to a F a Break your Land Deeply in the Fall if Possible. 9 follow. The change of crops also adds more vegetable matter and helps to keep the land from washing and blowing away, as is the case where continuous clean culture is practiced with a crop like cotton. With a proper rotation in connection with improved methods of tillage the soil will steadily improve year after year. We cannot lay down a system of rotation which will apply throughout the South, for so many crops can be planted, that you could not secure a system that would suit every one. The Louisiana Station recommends the following system of Rota- tion. Corn, the first year; oats followed by cow peas the second year, and cotton the third year. Some one has recommended the following principles should guide you in your system of rotation: which “ I. Have at least one leguminous crop in the rota- tion. 2. Have at least one cultivated crop. 3. Ro- tate shallow rooting crops with deep rooting crops. 4. In the South and on leachy soils plan to have a growing crop on the land all the time. 5. Avoid bare summer following. 6. Do not rotate small ce- reals with small cereals. 7. Plan the rotation so as to have the same amount of forage each year. 8. Keep stock on the farm. g. Unless it be thoroughly rotted, apply the barnyard manure thus made, to the rank growing crop in the rotation like corn.” Try rotating your crops for a few years, and see how your land will improve, and how much money you will make by so doing. THE PREPARATION OF LAND. Some one has said that thorough preparation is half the cultivation. This is certainly true. You may put it down that the man who expects to break his land, and get it in shape after the crop is planted, will not raise much of a crop. If your land is prepared as it should be it will make a pretty fair crop regardless of seasons. If possible in preparing your land, break it up with a two-horse plow. Now, we realize that there are many farmers who have but one horse or mule, but it should be an easy matter to exchange work with your neighbor who is in the same condi- tion you are, and prepare your land. If you have more than two horses or mules, so much the better. The more you use the better will be your prepara- tion. Many farmers in the South find it to their ad- _ vantage to use four and five horses to a plow in _ breaking their land. This Plowing is ‘the most im- “8 mf) Pe rd portant part of preparation and it should be done thoroughly so that every inch of the ground is brok- en, and not run over leaving ridges unbroken to be covered up. Try to use a plow which will pulverize the soil as much as possible while breaking it. Af- ter plowing harrow well with straight tooth harrow, and drag with planks or log drag. Where an extra fine seed bed is desired follow with dise or cutaway and drag again. This will put land in fine condition for almost any crop. Remember that the better the land is prepared the better will be the production from that land. Last, but not least, never plow land too wet. It should be dry enough to crumble and not be sticky when cracked in the hand, before your plow is started. LARGE OR SMALL SEEDS. Every perfect seed contains a plantlet. This plant- let is very small. The rest of the seed is filled with food for the plant until the root and stem become sufficiently developed to furnish food for it. It nat- urally follows that the larger the seed, the more food for the plantlet it contains; and as a general rule it is much better to plant the larger seed. In this con- nection, the size of the seed determines to a large ex- tent how deep they should be covered. It has been stated that seed should be planted to a depth corre- sponding to twice the diameter of the seed, and while this will hold good with some seed, it can not be ob- served in all cases. The smaller the seed the more shallow it should be planted, and seed which force themselves up,—the seed forming the first leaves such as beans,—should be planted more shallow than those which send up a shoot, such as corn. Small seed like clover cannot push up through as much dirt, and overcome as much resistance as larger seed, and should always be planted very shallow. As a rule it is advisable to plant seed more shallow early in the spring than it is later in the season, when the weather is warmer and the land contains less moisture. Gar- deners who grow radishes and lettuce find by sifting the seed and planting only the larges ones. that their crops mature much more evenly, than when they plant the seed without sifting them; also that the crops mature a great deal earlier. It is sometimes possible to"grow an extra crop in the win n th way. The success of any crop depends so largely up Importai at ey r on the seed that it is a “ee 10 TILLING THE SOIL FOR very best procurable. Many farmers pass their grain through a fanning mill, to take out the smaller and shrunken grains. It is also best to reject the small grains of corn on the end of the cob. More atten- tion should be given generally to the selection and saving of seed on the farm, as the labor and thought so directed will pay better than in almost any other way. FIRMING THE SOIL ABOUT SEED NECESSARY. If you will take some ordinary moist soil (not wet) and place it in a jar, and plant some bean seed in it loosely, and in another jar plant some more beans, packing the soil well over the seed, and then set both jars away you will find that the seeds from the one in which the dirt is packed will come up quicker than in the other jar. in a warm room, You can try this for yourself, but what causes the difference? In the first place, the seed absorb water faster from the soil when it is pressed closely about them, and seed cannot germinate until it takes up all the water it can hold, and therefore it will germinate when the soil is packed close about it. cessful gardener once wrote: quicker A very suc- “As an experiment, I sowed twelve rows of sweet corn and twelve rows of beets, treading in (that is, walked over the rows, placing the heel of one foot at the toe of the other, so that all parts of the row would become packed) after sowing, every alternate row of each. In both cases those trodden in came up in four days, while those unfirmed remained twelve days hefore starting, and would not then have germinated had not rain followed.” It is quite important, especially in dry weather, to use a roller over the land just after grain is planted, and the practice of tramping in garden seed in dry weather is an excellent one. Grain sow- ing machines and corn planters often have a little iron roller attached to them to press the soil over the seed, which helps greatly in obtaining a start. In planting tice not to over them, very small seed it is frequently the prac- cover them at all, but to place a board and to walk on this board in order to bring the seed in very close contact with the soil. The pressing of the soil also brings the moisture to i el and signe measure pipyemiere evaporati wi ‘a-seed first” sean to ger nate it)must sec q™ PROFIT AND PLEASURE. to go down in the earth and secure this water. It will, therefore, be observed how necessary it is that proper conditions be secured in order to obtain the best results. PARTS OF THE FLOWER. We enjoy looking at flowers, for they are beautiful. But forgetting their beauty, let us look at them a mo- ment from the standpoint of usefulness. If we had no flowers we would have no fruit, neither would we Fig. 3.—Sections of Cherry Blossom showing parts of a Flower. have many varieties of grain and vegetables; for the flowers are necessary to their production. The flow- er is made up of the sepals, petals, stamens and pis- tils. The sepals taken together constitute the calyx, the petals taken together constitute the corolla. Fig. 3. by reference to this illustration you will see the ° different parts of the flowers. This is a section of a cherry blossom. At the base we find a green part marked C in the figure which we call the calyx. As noted above the calyx is made up of sepals. The calyx is not always green, but is in most cases. The part cor. in the illustration shows the corolla, and as stated the corolla is made up of the petals. The petals, as a rile are the part that gives the beauty to the flower. Inside of the ccrolla will be found some long slender organs, which are arked S., and these are called stamens. Now the stamen is one of the most important parts of the flower. Very often is it the case that they are unnoticed but that only shows how often we fail to observe the important things of life. The stamen produces pollen, which is the male part of the flower. Inside of the stamens is the pis- til, which is the female part of the flower. These en pollen euanas which are on the stamens must e carrie he bottom of the pistil. _ Bie This “pr pollen from the stamen to the ov ~ et pallinenion, Insects and bees aid Don’t wait until the First of January to begin preparing your Land. II in the carrying of this pollen grain from the stamen to the ovule. If these pollen are not carried from the stamen to the pistil there will be no seed pro- duced. This is as true in corn as it is with the flow- ers of the yard. If the pollen which is in the tassel of corn is not blown to the ear below, there will be no corn produced. The pollen does not have to come Fig. 4—Strawberry Blossoms, A is perfect flower, B imper- fect flower. from the same flower, but a flower of the same kind. But all flowers are not perfect, that is, that have not all these parts. By reference to the illustration, Fig. 4, you will see an example of a perfect flower, (by perfect flower we mean one that has both pistils and stamen,) and also an imperfect flower. You will notice that the Fig. A. contains both stamens (S) and pistils (P). flower. This is what is called a _ perfect By noticing flower B you will note that it is imperfect, or it only has pistils. Now the flower A will produce fruit of itself, but tbe flower B. cannot produce fruit unless the pollen come from some other perfect flower of a similar kind. It is quite important to know if a flower is perfect, for there are varieties of strawberries with imperfect flowers. true with ordinary Indian corn, melons, cucumbers, and pumpkins. It is also squashes, If the pollen of one flower is carried to the ovules of another flower we have what is called cross-fert_l- ization, and if the resulting seed be planted a new variety is the result. This is the reason pop corn and Indian corn mix when planted anywhere near each other. By crossing certain plants with others of like kind, and carefully collecting the seed that are produced, new and improved varieties are obtain- ed. And yet some people claim that there are no laws governing agriculture. FIELD CROPS. ALFALFA OR LUCERNE. Alfalfa is one of the best forage crops for the South. It is only recently that it has come to be grown to any great extent, but people are realizing more and more its. value. It is a plant similar to clover, has a single tap root which runs down from 8 to 12 feet, and sometimes as far as 40 feet. It is a leguminous plant and is well adapted to the South. As much as four cuttings of a ton each can be made in a season, which.,,,skes at quite a valuable forage plant. It has a distinctive advantage over clover, es- “pecially to dairymen; as it can be cut at least one month earlier in the spring, and this is an important feature. Another advantage of alfalfa is that as soon as cut it springs into gr¢ h immediately, while it takes clov-r some time to & nmence growing again. After the first cutting, another crop will be produced in six to eight weeks. Clover as a rule will die out after two or three years, whil alfalfa will last from ‘eight to ten years, and sqmetimnes longer. It is now being grown more or less in every Southern State. Some soils that were not considered fertile have been made to produce alfalfa very bountifully. In the States of Kentucky, Tennessee, Mississippi, Arkansas, Alabama and Georgia there is a wide stretch of soils derived from the Mississippi or subcarboniferous for- mations, that are not considered fertile. The charac- teristics of these soils is the presence of angular cher- ty gravel, and at some places an underclay which is stiff and chocolate in color. At other places this un- derclay is whitish or yellowish in color and so porous that it will not retain well the fertilizer placed upon it. Both of these soils produce alfalfa abundantly, and are quite valuable to use in that way. soils were once considered worthless because they would not produce the cereals as did the rich lime- stone lands around them. These Alfalfa will do best planted in a rich sandy loam with a good subsoil. Like most leguminous crops it needs lime and thrives best where lime is abundant in the soil. It is quite important that the land have a good subsoil, and that it be well drained. Alfalfa itT2 TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. Fig. 5.—Alfalfa or Lucerne, showing the roots of the plant will not live more than a year in cold heavy clays and wet lands. One reason why more farmers have not succeeded with alfalfa is because that they did not thoroughly prepare their land for it. It should be sown on land where a hoed crop was grown the year before, which was well manured. It can either be planted in the fall or spring. If you plant in the fall, it should be sown in September, and if you plant in the spring, March or April perhaps is the best time to sow. See to it that your land is free from weeds, and then break your land very deep, fertilize well and work down fine before planting. Sow from 20 to 25 If you use drill from 15 to 20 pounds of seeds to the acre is sufficient. If you are sowing for a hay meadow, and most farmers will, sow the larger amount of seed. If you desire to raise it from the seed, the smaller amount it better. pounds seed per acre. Some lands do not produce alfalfa because there is no bacteria in the soil. As stated above, alfalfa is a leguminous crop, and it is necessary to have the bac- teria in the soil in order to make a success with it. These bacteria have the power of gathering the nitro- gen from the air, and making it available so the roots can take it up. Every farmer who is a close observer has noticed the little modules or tubercles on the roots of alfalfa or pea vines. These tubercles are nests of bacteria. The Government has taken this matter in hand, and farmers can, by applying to the Agricultural Department at Washington, D. C., ob- tain these bacteria germs. There are three packages that go together. No. 2 contains dry cotton with bacteria, and Nos. 1. and 3 contain food for the bacteria. The following directions for the use of these different packages are given: “Put one gallon of water, preferably rain water, in a clean tub or bucket and add No. 1 of the enclosed package of salts. Stir occasionally until all is dis- packages of solved. Carefully open pac! rop the enclosed cotton into the solu Ove 1e tub with a paper to protect fro t. ‘Set aside in a warm place for 24 hours. Do not heat solution or you will kill the bacteria—it should never be warm- er than blood heat. After hours ad qe con- tents of package No. 3. Within 20 hours more the solution will have a cloudy appearance and is ready to use. “To inoculate seeds, take just enough of the solu- tion to thoroughly moisten them. Stir tl ghly so that all the seeds are touched by the solution. Spread Dont Let your Land Wash Away. 13 out the seeds in a shady place until they are perfect- ly dry and plant just as you would untreated seed. If bad weather should prevent planting at once, the inoculated seed, if thoroughly dried, may be kept with- out deterioration for several weeks. The dry cultures as sent from the laboratory will keep for several months. Do not prepare the liquid culture more than two or three days previous to the time when the seed are to be treated, as the solution once made up must usually be used at the end of 48 hours. “To inoculate soil, take enough dry earth so that the solution will merely moisten it. Mix thoroughly so that all the particles of soil are moistened. Thor- oughly mix this earth with four or five times as much, say half a wagon-load. Spread this inoculated soil thinly and evenly over the prepared ground, exactly as if spreading fertilizer. The inoculated soil should be harrowed in immediately. Either of the above methods may be used, as may be most convenient.” This bacteria is now put up in a commercial form and sold by most seedsmen. The effect of inoculation is very great. The ex- periments made by the Department at Washington, D. C., shows an increase from three to twenty fold. Many old worn-out fields are worn-out simply be- cause their supply of nitrogen and organic matter has been exhausted. The principle of inoculation which will enable them to grow leguminous plants and restore the nitrogen, will work wonders in the South. Perhaps better results can be had in the South to sow in drills from sixteen inches to two feet apart, and keep it worked out the first year, as the crab grass will interfere considerably before it gets started. Alfalfa as a soil improver is very valuable. The following will give you some idea of its value as a fertilizer: “The value of alfalfa harvested from one-half acre of land for five years was about $50.00 more than the cost of producing it. “The value of potatoes and grain from an adjoin- ing half acre for five years was about $44.00 more than the cost of producing at local prices. “When the alfalfa land was plowed and planted to wheat it produced $8.00 to $12.00 more value in wheat per acre than the land which had grown po- tatoes and grain before. “When alfalfa land was plowed and planted to oats it produced $16.00 worth of grain more than land which had grown potatoes and grain before. “When alfalfa land was plowed and planted to po- tatoes it gave $16.00 worth more of potatoes per acre than was obtained from land which had grown pota- toes and grain before. “By growing alfalfa the above increase of yields and values were produced with absolutely no cost for fertilizing the ground.” Alfalfa is cut for hay just as the first flowers are coming into bloom. At this time it is more tender and contains the most digestible protein. It should be cut in the forenoon and allowed to cure until the leaves are well wilted. Then raked into windrows, and allowed to cure. It can be then removed to the stack or barn. Alfalfa should be handled just as lit- tle as possible, as the leaves, which are the most val- uable part of the plant, crumble off. It can be cut from three to four times. However, it should not be cut too late in the season, as it hurts it more than cutting early. If you do not make a good crop the first year do not be discouraged, it frequently takes from one to two and frequently three years to get it started, but when you once get it started you should have no more trouble with it. You will find it ad- vantageous to cut the first crop a little early, when there are just a few blooms to be seen. Alfalfa will not stand heavy pasturing, and cattle and sheep are liable to bloat if pastured on young alfalfa, or when allowed to eat it while the dew is on it; but horses and hogs never have any trouble with it. BARLEY. Barley is grown in the United States for two pur- poses: feeding and malting. It will grow all right in the Southern States, but for some cause has never received a great deal of attention here. It will grow on rather light dry soil, containing a good deal of lime and in a soil resting on a naturally drained subsoil. Heavier yields of grain and straw are produced on fertile clays, and clay loams. The malting barley used by the brewers brings the better price. The land for barley should be plowed fairly deep and well pulverized. Land that produced some hoed 14 TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. crop which was well manured will be a good place In the South where it is grown mostly for pasturing and feeding, it should be sown in Sep- tember and on fertile soils as late as the last of Oc- tober. If barley is grown for feeding purposes it is best to fertilize it with stable manure or a fertilizer that contains plenty of nitrogen and phosphoric acid. A top dressing of nitrate of soda in the spring will be very beneficial. If it is grown for the purpose of malting potash should be used quite largely as a fer- tilizer. to grow it. It should be harvested when the grain is ripe, but do not wait until it is too ripe. The value of barley used for malting purposes is dependent upon the col- or of the grain. Barley as a stock food is excellent. It has about the same food value as corn or wheat, and has a greater food value than oats or bran. It is not so good for fattening purposes as some other grains, but for growing animals it stands at the head of all grains. Barley hay does not have such a high feeding value, but it is excellent for cutting and feeding green to cattle. Fig. 6—Beggar Weed. BEGGAR WEED. The Beggar Weed is a leguminous plant, grows from three to eight feet high. and It is used for a forage plant, and soil renovator. The United States Department of Agriculture says, in comparing it with alfalfa, velvet beans, soy beans and cow peas: “It is perhaps the best of these for the lighter, sandy soils, including the hammock and pine lands of Florida, and the sandy pine lands along the Gulf Coast.” From five to six pounds of clean seed are sown per acre, but if sown for hay it will perhaps be better to sow say, from eight to ten pounds of clean seed. It should be sown when the ground is warm and moist. If it is sown early, two may be had. It should be cut for hay, when the first flowers appear. Its yield is from three to five tons of hay per acre and the hay is said to be nearly as good as red clover. It can be sown in the corn at the last plowing and furnish a good pasture the rest of the season. cuttings BROOM CORN. Broom corn is a variety of sorghum. It is grown for the fine stems composing its head, which are used in manufacturing brooms and such articles. Broom corn can be grown on any soil which will produce corn or sorghum. It resists drouth much better than corn, although frequent rains in the early stages of its growth induce a vigorous plant. Weeds greatly interfere with the cultivation of young broom corn, and care should be observed to plant where the land has been kept clean the year Sandy or but they previous. gravelly soils produce good broom corn, must be thoroughly drained. It should be planted about the same time as other corn. Some plant it in drills, and others prefer to plant it in hills. It will require about three quarts of seed per acre, provided the seed are of good qual- ity. In planting do not be in too great a hurry, for it will do all right if planted about the same time that cotton is planted. In no case should planting occur until the soil is warm. Success broom corn like most other plants, is dependent largely up- on the thorough preparation of the land. If the ground is well plowed two or three times before the corn is planted, say at intervals of ten to fifteen days, it will prove quite valuable to the growth of the crop. It should be planted in rows about three or four feet The more fertile the land the thicker it may be planted. About four plants to the foot is the right distance, or thickness. If you intend to hoe it out, you can plant it in hills about twelve or fifteen inches with wide. Good Farmers Make Money. 15 apart, and leave from five to six stalks in the hill. The seed should be covered about one inch deep. You should use about the same fertilizer that you would use for ordinary corn. Harvesting is done in August, September, and October, at the season when there is little rain, as rain is very detrimental to the selling qualities of the crop. Rain causes the bush to turn red, and it loses its bright green color af- ter being cut. When the seed is in the dough stage Fig. 7—Dwarf Broom Corn. is the proper time for harvesting. It is best to cure it under a shed, but care must be observed that it be not placed in too thick layers, as it will spoil. It is a good plan to cut in the morning and allow it to cure all day, and put under shed in the afternoon. The seed are then thrashed from the bush, and after the bush is cured so that it breaks easily, it is baled for the market. A good yield of broom corn is from 600 to 700 pounds per acre, and it brings from $70.00 to $80.00 per ton when baled. CASTOR BEAN. The castor bean is grown to some extent in the Southern States as a field ciop, and from it castor oil is made. A fertile, well drained loam soil is best Suited to the crop. However, any soil that will pro- duce corn or wheat will produce castor beans. The ground should be thoroughly broken, and harrowed. Rows laid off from four to five feet wide each way is about the proper distance. It is a good idea. to leave a wide place every sixth row to allow a wagon to be driven along when gathering the beans. Six or eight beans should be placed in a hill, and when danger from the cut worm has past, they should be thinned out, leaving one plant in a hill. The proper time for planting is from the first to the middle of April. To aid the seeds in germinating, hot water, a little below the boiling point, should be poured over them, and allow them to soak in this for twenty-four hours. Cultivate level, just about as you would corn. The beans are produced in pods of various lengths. If they are allowed to become too ripe, they burst open, and the beans are wasted. As soon as the pods begin to turn brown, they should be cut off, and placed on a floor or sheet with boards placed around them to prevent their wasting off the sheet or pop- ping open. They begin ripening in July and contin- ue until frost. After they begin ripening it will be necessary to go over the field at least twice a week. If this is not done your beans will be wasted on the ground. The beans should not be allowed to get wet, as this causes them to lose some of their value. CHUFAS. Chufas are raised in the South for the purpose of fattening hogs. A crop of one-third of an acre at the Arkansas Station supported three hogs averaging 122 pounds in weight for 46 days. They gained 66 pounds 4 Fig. 8.—Chufa. each, or a total of 198 pounds. The nuts are more effective for fattening purposes than corn. Chufas grow on light sandy soils, and produces starchy roots 16 TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. or bulbs about the size of peanut kernels. A great number of these roots or bulbs are attached to the plant, and are near the top of the soil. The crop is excellent for hogs, as they do their own harvesting. Chufas will grow on thin land where plants: will not. many other They should be planted in April in rows, and cultivated about as peanuts giving them light, shallow cultivation. The crop re-seeds are, itself, as the nut can stand the winter without harm to itself. However, it is not such a pest as some of the other nut crops. CRIMSON CLOVER. Crimson clover is an annual leguminous plant and grows from one to two feet high. It makes a very fine orchard crop, as it does not draw on the land as much as many other crops. It is also used as a soil It is said to be as good as It is an annual and consequently not good for permanent meadows and pastures. It should be planted in August or September. Some renovator, and hay crop. red clover. recom- mend planting when you lay by your cotton, but it will not do as well then, for the hot sun of July and August is liable to kill it. It can be sown in cotton or corn, and will make good hay the next spring. About 12 to 15 pounds per acre should be planted. It should be covered very lightly with harrow, say It is hard to cover it too shallow, but it is a very easy matter to get too much dirt on it, unless your land is very rich. The inoculated seed should be planted, as this will insure you a crop. As soon as it comes into bloom is the proper time to harvest it, as after the seed begin to ripen the long tough hairs on the head are dangerous to stock. As a hay plant it is good, and as a soiling plant, it stands at the head of the list. It is very helpful in improv- ing land. one-half an inch. CORN. There is more corn grown in the United States However, this crop in the Too many farmers be- than any other grain. South has been neglected. lieve in raising cotton and buying Corn is used throughout the South as a feed more than any other grain. Corn will grow on more different va- rieties of soils and different conditions than any oth- reach corn. er crop, and the Southern farmer will never the greatest success until he devotes more time to “clover. this crop. A great many farmers select the very best land that they have for their cotton, and the land that will not produce cotton they plant in corn. -They buy most of their fertilizers for the cotton, and if they happen to have any more than they think they will need, they place that on the corn. If the corn and cotton both need plowing, the cotton gets the work, while the corn is allowed to suffer. When fall comes and the cotton is placed on the market, the merchant informs the farmer that he has not made enough to pay off the debts he has made in buying corn and meat. If you do not raise enough corn and meat to do you, you have no right to complain at hard times, for you alone are responsible. Corn needs a deep, rich, well drained soil, whether it be heavy clay or light loam, to do its best. And this point should always be borne in mind when pre- paring your land. Ii the land is well filled with veg- etable matter, it will stand drouths better, and this is One reason why stable manure gives such good re- sults. Bottom lands are excellently well suited for corn, as they contain more moisture, and, therefore, produce better crops. A good supply of moisture is very necessary and deep, thorough preparation helps greatly along this line. As stated above, corn needs land well filled with decayed vegetable matter. This vegetable matter can be supplied by applying ma- nure, or by sowing cow peas, velvet beans, and sow- ing other crops of like nature, and turning the vines under. In the North the best crops of corn are grown on a clover sod. The roots of the clover fur- nish the humus and other plant food needed by corn. In the South we must substitute other crops for the The time the land should be broken, is an cpen question. If the land has a great deal of tough sod on it, it is better to plow it under in the fall; but it not, it is perhaps as well to wait until it becomes dry enough in the spring. It is not a good practice to leave the bare soil exposed to the washing and leaching of the winter rains; and if plowed in the fall it should be thrown into ridges running the furrow on a level to prevent washing. Asa rule the heavier the land the deéper it should be plowed. As to whether the land should be plowed flat or in beds is an open question. If the land is sufficiently rolling to allow the surface water to run off without washing, it may be plowed flat in the fall; but as a rule most land will dry out quicker in the spring and leach less land when thrown into ridges. Formerly all corn No Home is as Happy as the True Farmer’s Home: & 17 Wig. %—Corn field situated in Nacoochee White ‘County, Georgia. Valley, This farm is owned by, Dr. L. G. Hardman, Commerce, Georgia. was plowed in 4 or 5 foot beds, by throwing four to six furrows together; but this practice is being aban- doned. Even on river and bottom lands, where the lands have to be surface drained the beds are made eight feet in width, allowing two rows to each bed. It requires more work to bed than it does to plow flat, and it has no advantage over flat plowine except to drain land liable to overflow. Where land is broken in the fall it can usually he fitted for corn in the spring by giving several good harrowings with a disc or cutaway harrow, working the land to a depth of six inches and then draz level before laying off the rows. Where this is impossi- ble the land should be re-plowed with small plows. This should be done as early in the spring as possi- ble, and several harrowings given with smoothing or drag harrow before planting. No question is of more importance in raising corn than that of selecting the seed corn. Many farmers insist on having pure bred stock on their farm, but are careless about the breed of corn they use. The laws which govern the breeding of animals apply with equal force to the breeding of plants. Pure bred or improved varieties of corn means the same, as pure bred animals, that is, strains and var’eties have been kept pure and selected for a number of years, and are noted for large production and high quality along certain lines. To show you the importance of using good seed corn, one farmer stated that he made an increase in yield of 25 bushels per acre by using pure seed If you feel enough interest in this subject, go bred corn over that made by using ordinary corn. to some reliable seedsman and get the very best from him and then take care of it yourself by selecting your seed every year in the field. It is quite important that you buy your seed from men who are known to be perfectly reliable, as there are fakers among seedsmen as well as other lines of business. If you do not feel enough interest in it to buy seed, then breed up your own corn. Go through your field before the crop is harvested and select the best ears from the best stalks. As a rule the largest yield of grain is from corn producing two ears to the stalk. Prof. M. F. Miller in a circular issued by the Missouri Experiment Station gives the following methods of breeding up corn: “It will be well in any system of corn improve- ment or corn-breeding to begin with a good variety, preferably one that is well bred. It may be that a narticular variety which has been grown in the com- munity has given good results and has been kept fair- ly pure, or it may be necessary to buy improved seed from some man living at a greater or.less distance; but whatever the source, the seed should be good. There is nothing to be gained in beginning with very poor corn, as several years may be saved by begin- ning w:th a strain that has received some care in the matter of selection, providing it is fairly well adapted to the community. If there are any marked peculiari- ties of soil or climate, however, such as hardpan or drouth, the best yielding variety of the community should be used.” The simplest method of corn-breeding is to set aside each year a plot of ground of two or three acres on which to grow seed corn for the next year. The idea in this is to allow only good individuals to cross with good individuals; consequently, only the very choicest ears should be used for this purpose. The plot should be located preferably in a spot removed from the other corn, or it may be located in one cor- ner or along one side of the main field. Corn pollen will often blow a lone distance, so that the plot should be located as far from corn of another va-iety TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. together. From this mixture take enough to plant a plot of the desired size. The corn may be planted in the same manner as the rest of the field, but it care. When 18 as possible. It should never be nearer than 200 yds. li the plot is placed in a part of the field with the same variety, the east side should be selected, as pre- vailing winds are generally from the west or south- should receive good cultivation and west, and there will be less danger of outside cross- coming into tassel it may be well to go through every ing. The only disadvantage in crossing with corn of day for a week and cut out with a knife all barren the same variety is that pollen from an undesirable — stalks, in order that their pollen may not fertilize the stalk in the general field may blow into the plot and ears on other stalks. This is not absolutely neces- It has been found that barren fertilize some of the silks of the seed ears. The soil sary, but is desirable. stalks vary in number with the season rather than on which this seed plot should be the average of that with the variety, and it is nature’s tendency to breed used for corn on the farm. them out, since they produce no ears. Nevertheless, better results wouid undoubtedly be secured if they were removed. Allow the corn to become thoroughly ripe on the EES ['s@eet eS... SSS: stalk and then go through and select from desirable ISer: ef stalks sufficient perfect ears for planting the next sea- a eS GZ = , G : 2eee Sy : son’s crop. See that the ears are thoroughly dried = Z = : : : : : == Se before frost, following directions already given for tS eer preserving seed corn. = ae —Kex P= eae Each succeeding year’s planting will be exactly sim- q e 2" : C. : = zi i Ss i Seca ilar to the first, always keeping the corn pure and ‘= i Ss: : : : : ; Swe Se2 tending by this careful selection and the crossing of iz 5) ' . C c S eS E So good with good to build up a variety of high yield ze ale g g I ) go} sSaez 28a and high quality. Some such method as this should ow = ; ow Sa be practiced by every corn-grower. eS = Pp My yi s oS SEs. tS = Stable manure is without doubt the best fertilizer TSS Sa for corn. Its value, however, depends very much up- {Ss S ae : z ; SS Se on how it is taken care of, and if left out in an open iwsSez Se lot for the rain to leach away it will not be worth SS: : y ‘Ss BS half as much as if kept packed down under a shed or SS ses left in a stable until you are ready to haul to the = eOoSSse : ; F SS CE BEKs field. Where you have an abundance of manure it iss ESeee : 7 Ss —_> = is doubtless best to broadcast it, but where there is ; Ss = tages in growng peanuts. In the first place, it grows on soils that will not produce other crops, and it has no insect enemies. Nearly all crops have ene- mies in the insect world, but the peanut seems to be an exception. The vines of the peanut make excel: lent-hay. Pull up the vines in the afternoon, and ak low them to sun until the next afternoon, and you have a hay that you will be proud of. Peanuts should be planted about the same time cotton is. They are frequently planted with corn, planting the corn in seven foot, rows with a row of peanuts in between. When planting peanuts by them- selves have the rows from two to three feet apart, with the hills from one to two feet apart in the row. They should be cultivated shallow, and not ridged. Recent experiments prove it is not necessary to shell the nuts before planting, as breaking the pods only, produces as satisfactory results, as where the former plan was practiced. If the crop is grown for hogs, they can do their own harvesting, by turning into field just after the first frost. If grown for hay and the market they should be harvested just before the first frost. A plow is run un- der them, cutting the tap root, and loosening up the ground. The vines can be thrown in wind-rows, and after a day can be stacked in piles seven to eight feet The picked allowed to dry, when they should be sacked. When some of the nuts are cured and fed with the hay the feeding value is greatly increased. high. nuts are then off, and POTATOES. When one speaks of potatoes, in the South, he is usually supposed to be speaking of what is known as sweet potatoes; but the most generally accepted mean- ing, taking the United States as a whole, is the Irish potato. So our first subject will be the Irish Potato. Next to the cereals, potatoes are probably the most important food crop grown for man, The annual po- tato crop in the United States, is 200,000,000 bushels, and there are some counties in Europe whose crops exceed even that amount; so you can readily see that the growing of potatoes is no small business. The average yield for the whole country is a little under 100 bushels per acre, and 200 bushels per acre is con- sidered a fair yield, while a great deal of land will produce 300 bushels per acre. An ideal soil for pota- toes is one which is so light it offers no great resis- tance to the enlargement of tubers, so supplied with organic matter as to be rather moist without being 30 TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. wet, and so rich as to furnish an unfailing supply of the necessary plant food. A rich sandy loam well supplied with vegetable matter and one naturally well drained is preferred. Very heavy clays should not be used if the farm contains a lighter soil. If sufficient vegetable matter be applied to sandy soils, good po- tatoes can be produced, and of better quality than where grown on a heavy soil. Potatoes should not be planted in the same field more than one year, or at the most, two years in succession. Potatoes thrive best on land which has been made rich by a liberal appli- cation of stable manure on some previous crop, or by turning under a clover sod or heavy peavine stubble. It is not advisable to apply stable manure directly to the potato crop, as it has a tendency to produce scab. For this reason a complete high-grade commercial fer- The pieces should be covered lightly about two inches deep, using a cultivator or double foot stock, after which apply the fertilizer in a broad band ten or twelve inches wide, and cover the whole with two good furrows, which leaves a ridge over the row. As a general rule, growers distribute the fertilizer in the row and mix it well with the soil before dropping the potatoes, but better results have been obtained from the method outlined above, as the fertilizer is placed right where the new potatoes form above the seed piece. : It will require about four barrels of potatoes to plant an acre, the amount varying according to varie- ty, size of potato, and distance, From a recent bulletin we take the following gen- eral cosiderations on amount and size of seed pieces: Fig. 22.—Loading potatoes tilizer should be used directly on the crop, and the fer- tilizer should contain a relatively large per cent. of potash. For fertilizer for potatoes see Fertilizer De- partment. The land should be thoroughly prepared, and laid off in rows about three feet apart, running them out deeply so the potatoes when dropped will be four to six inches below the general surface of the field when level. The potatoes should be cut to two good eyes and the pieces dropped from 8 to 15 inches apart according to variety, early sorts being planted closer than later varieties. on cars, Atlanta, Texas. A number of investigators have noted that large seed pieces (either large cuttings or entire potatoes) afford an earlier crop than very small cuttings, a mat- ter of much interest to growers of early potatoes. However, some growers have reported that uncut potatoes germinate more slowly than large cuttings. Most of those who raise potatoes for the early mar- ket use large cuttings rather than whole potatoes. In this connection it may be said that the seed end half gives an earlier crop than the other half. This suggests the expediency of cutting a potato length- wise when halves or quarters are to be planted, thus securing on each piece one or more of the eyes which A Legume Crop is one that Takes the Nitrogen from the Air. Shi germinate first. Another advantage of cutting length- wise is that it insures a more even distribution of the eyes on the several pieces. Of course this system is not practicable when very small cuttings are to be made from long, slender potatoes, since the large amount of exposed surface would render the long pieces susceptible to injury both from moisture and dryness. If it is desired to cut the potato into small pieces the operator should begin at the stem end, and the pieces should be cut in compact shape, and of as nearly equal size as is practicable without leaving any piece entirely devoid of eyes. There are special implements for cutting potatoes, and their use is re- ported as enabling a man to cut four or five times as many bushels of seed per day as by hand. The char- acter of the work is said to be satisfactory. No definite rule can be given as to the best size of seed piece, for this depends somewhat on the dis- tance between the hills and on the character of the soil and season. Another important factor in deter- mining the proper amount of seed is variety, Some varieties are able to produce a crop almost as large from small cuttings as from large pieces. Thus, in several experiments, the variety Clark No. 1 has given indications of this capacity to produce well ev- en with light seeding. Soon after planting the field should be harrowed with a smoothing harrow, and just before the pota- toes begin to come up; then just as the young plants begin to appear above the ground, harrow again or cultivate with horse weeder. ‘Che harrow destroys young weeds, and prevents the formation of acrust. After that they should be cultivated shallow with cultivator and weeder, Mulching with straw, leaves, hay, etc., often increases the yield, but is only practical in small gardens, and not in planting for commercial purposes. The crop shouldbe dug when the vines die. Of course for early market it is not necessary to wait until the vines die, but as long as any portion of the vine is green the potatoes will con- tinue to grow. In gardens early po.atoes are some- times secured by removing carefully some of the larger tubers, then replacing the dirt, allowing the small potatoes to continue growing, In harvesting potatoes if one has a large area in cultivation a potato digger is almost a necessity. In storing potatoes they should be exposed to the light as little as possible, and they should also be kept cool. If they are allowed to become warm, they are liable to sprout or decay, which will injure their sale, as well as their reproducing value. The early crop of Irish potatoes cannot be kept easily, owing to the fact that they ripen and are dug in hot weather. Usually the sooner they can be sold the better. There is no difficulty in keeping late po- tatoes. The following summary of a bulletin issued by the U. S. Department of Agriculture on this subject puts the matter in a terse form: “(1) A rich, sandy loam, well drained and well supplied with vegetable matter is the best soil for the potato. Stiffer land may be improved as a potato soil by green manuring and drainage, and lighter soil can often be made sufficiently rich by the addi- tion of green manures and fertilizers, (2) Potatoes should not, as a rule be grown con- tinuously on the same land, but should be alternated with other crops. Barnyard manure may be freely used, but should, as a rule, be applied to previous crops in the rotation. (3) If commercial fertilizers are used, a mixture containing nitrogen in form of nitrate of soda, phos- phoric acid as superphosphate, and potash as sul- phate, and in which potash predominates, is recom- mended. (4) Preparation of the land should be deep and thorough. (5) Planting without ridges generally affords the larger yields, but a stiff soil and the desire for an ex- tra crop sometimes necessitates planting on ridges. (6) The best time for planting depends on the climate of each locality. The planting should be so timed as to bring the period when the tubers are rap- idly forming at the date when the average rainfall is ample. 5 (7) On mellow, well-drained soil deep planting (3 to 5 inches) is best, especially when the season happens to be dry. For the early crop, or on stiff soil with a tendency to bake, the depth of plantine may be decreased. (8) The use of the harrow before the plants are -all up and frequent’ shallow cultivation afterwards, until the vines shade the land, is advisable. (9) Seed potatoes grown in New England in sev- eral tests proved superior to Maryland seed both in New England and in Maryland. However, the data seems insufficient to determine the relative value of seed potatoes from different climates. 32 iILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. (1c) Cutting the seed pieces a few days before ’ pianting appears to exercise no injurious influence, provided, of course, that the cuttings are carefully stored in the interim, (11) The yield from planting the seed or bud end is generally greater than from the stem or butt end of the tuber. The eyes on the seed end are the first to germinate, ‘and hence are’ especially important when an early crop is desired. (@e before planting hastens growth, but if continued until Exposing unsprouted tubers in a warm place sprouts form (which are rubbed off) the yield may be considerably reduced. (13) tant to cut the tuber into compact pieces of nearly Experiments indicate that it is more impor- uniform size than to so shape the pieces as to have a definite number of eyes on each set. No piece should be entirely devoid of eyes, and the majority of the seed pieces are large enough to support at least two eyes, and better three or more. (14) At distances of 1 by 3 feet, and with seed tu- bers averaging 4 ounces, an acre requires of quarters, about 15 bushels. (15) in the size of seed piece from the single eye to the both The total vield increases with every increase whole potatoes. This increase occurs in the large and in the small potatoes, but chiefly in the lat- fer. (16) The gross yield of salable potatoes (large and medium) also increases with the size of the seed piece from one eye to the whole potato, (17) The net yield of salable potatoes (found by subtracting the amount of seed potatoes and the yield of small potatoes from the total yield) increases with every increase in the size of seed piece from one eye to the whole potato. The half potato affords a larger net salable crop than the whole potato, on acount of the excessive amount of seed required in planting entire ‘tubers. Taking the average of many ex- periments, it was found that for every 100 bushels of net salable crop grown from single eye pieces there were 114 bushels from two-eye pieces, 131 bushels from quarters, and 139 bushels from halves, but only 129 bushels from planting whole potatoes. (18) These results favor the use of halves instead of wholes as seed pieces if seed potatoes and crop are assumed to be of equal value per bushel, but when seed potatoes command a very high price quarters may be used to advantage. SWEET POTATOES. Perhaps the Sweet Potato is of greater importance in the South than Irish potato. The climate here is better suited for sweet potatoes than in the North and sweet potatoes thrive better here than Irish po- tatoes. A temperature below 45 degrees is injurious ta sweet potatoes, and frost is immediately fatal to them. For profitable culture, sweet potatoes require four months of warm weather, without frost, and without cold winds. The sweet potato will thrive on any well drained land, but heavy peaty soils do not make as good potatoes, so far as quality is con- cerned as lighter soils. The best soil is a light, but The fertilizer, (See Fertili- zer Department) should be thoroughly mixed with The land should be plowed early in the spring, and replowed several times, so as to have it in the best possible con- not leachy sandy loam. the soil, otherwise it will injure the crop. dition when you are ready to set your slips or vines. It is not necessary to break the land as deeply as for Trish potatoes, but it is important to keep the land you intend to plant in sweet potatoes cultivated so as to retain the moisture, and keep down the grass until you are ready to plant, you will have trouble in getting your vine to live, unless the otherwise weather is very favorable. The rows should be from three to four feet apart, depending, of course, upon the fertility of the soil. If the soil is very fertile, three feet, but if rather thin, three and a half or four feet. Most every one knows how to bed potatoes for plants. There has been a tendency in some sections to bed small potatoes, but we are satisfied that better results will be obtained in the long run, by selecting a medium well-shaped potato for this purpose. When there is a good season in the ground set the plants, allowing them to stand from eighteen inches to two feet apart in the drill, The plant should be planted a little deeper than it was in the seedbed. Potatoes and grass are bitter enemies. sary to cultivate potatoes often and to keep the grass down until the vines take possession of the fields. If they have been well cultivated up to this time, there will be no more trouble. Every one knows when the sweet potato vines come in contact with the ground they form roots. It has been a question as to wheth- er this rooting injured or helped in the formation of It is neces-— Peas Are a Legume Crop. 33 potatoes. It was for a long time thought to be inju- rious to the formation of potatoes, but this has been proven untrue. It has been found by experiment that such rooting in no way affects the format:on of pota- toes. potato begins when it is transplanted, and ends when it begins to send out a vigorous growth of vines. It is only during this period that damaze from insects amounts to much, except in the case of the sweet po- tato weevil or beetle, which is proving quite destruct- ive in some parts of Louisiana and Texas. Potatoes should be dug in dry weather as soon as they are ma- ture. When a potato is broken, and the milk oozes out and turns green, it may be considered as a safe sign that the potato is not mature. When it remains white, and very little appears, the potato is ripe. When digging, great care should be exercised to handle the potatoes carefully, and bruising them. To do this, it is better to throw the potatoes into heap-rows, instead of throwing them into piles, as generally practiced. Then go along this row with baskets or boxes, select the perfect potatoes, hauling them to the bank or house in these baskets. This saves one handling and prevents bruising, The cut and bruised potatoes should be fed to stock, and the small ones banked by themselves. If they are to be shipped they should be shipped in barrels, as they are easily bruised. One of the most important ques- tions connected with sweet potato growing, is that of storing and keeping them throught the winter, as potatoes will bring twice as much in April as they avoid will if sold before Christmas. The old plan of banking potatoes is about as good as the average grower can do. Cellars are as a rule damp, and for that reason unsatisfactory. The banks should have a foundation of sand, over which should be placed a good thick layer of pine straw. Then thirty or forty bushels of potatoes can be put in, and a good thick layer of pine straw placed over them. A flue made of, six inch boards, should be perforated with auger holes, and placed in the center of the bank so that the potatoes can be well ventilated. This flue should be stopped up during cold weather. On top of the pine straw should be placed a layer of corn-stalks which will keep the weight of the dirt off. And a thin layer of dirt should be put on the stalks, and just before a freeze, this dirt should be made much thick- er. However, if you are going into the business for The most critical period in the life of the sweet — the money, it wiil be better to make preparations for taking care of your crop by building a potato house. It is of the utmost importance that your potatoes be stored in such a way as to keep them. The following plan has been used for a long time, which we take from bulletin No. 25, Georgia Experiment Station: A close shed with an alley running through; dou- ble doors at both ends of the a‘leyway, so vehicles may pass through. On either side of the alleyway a bin eight feet interior width and as long as the alley- way or shed; the bin four feet high and constructed of double walls of inch and a quarter plank, the walls fifteen inches wide between the boards, the intersti- This is the perma- bulk, tial space filled with dry sand. nent structure. The potatoes are banked in cross divisions, however, being run for the purpose of preventing the possibility of rot in one portion of the bin extending to the entire mass. Dry pinestraw is placed on the bottom of the bin, which is on a level with the natural surface of the ground—no excava- The potatoes are piled carefully by hand in the plank side tion. bin, straw keeping them from touching the sides. They are piled nearly as high as_ the walls of the bin und are heaped in the center say two feet above the sides. A horizontal cleat is tacked on the sides of the bin just below the top of the side walls on the inside to afford a resting place for a series of roof-boards which are made of 1x12 plank cut with a bevel at each end and about four feet, eight inches long. One beveled end of each board rests on the horizontal cleat of the side walls, the other bevels make a mitred joint in the center of the bin, touching each other and forming solid and substantial, though removable, rafters—or rather rafters and roof in one. After the potatoes are piled up in the bins, straw is placed several inches thick on top, and the rafters put in place as stated. The bin is then left until cold weather sets potatoes meanwhile going through their “sweat.” On permanently cold weath- er -setting in, several inches of dry sand are placed on top of the roof, thus making the bin air tight, though access can be easily had at any time to the interior by scraping away a portion of the sand and removing a couple of the boards. The sand once hauled and the roof-boards once cut, only the straw remains to be annually renewed, thus reducing the yearly cost almost to the interest, only, on the plant. in—the -A large quantity of potatoes can thus be safely and economically stored with reasonable assurance of im- munity from rot. 34 The by-products of the potato are quite important. The vines and culls are worth a great deal to the far- mer as stock food, and it is by saving these by-prod- ucts that the farmer saves money. RICE. Rice constitutes the chief food of over half the peo- ple. of the world. It is grown more in China, Japan, and any other country. The United ‘States produces only about one-half of what she con- ‘sumes, the rest being imported. India than There is no reason why the United States should not produce all she uses, and have some to spare. If she does this, then There are sections lof the South that do not yield enough to pay taxes on the land, which could be made to pay good money From fifteen hundred to three thousand five hundred pounds of rice can be raised per acre, and this will sell anywhere from $25.00 to $150.00. Mr. J. C. Fletcher, of Katy, Texas, writing of his experience in growing rice, has this to say: the South must do the raising. by growing rice. “One man can prepare enough land during the winter season to raise his corn, oats and vegetables for his own use and have them laid by before pump- ing season begins. Some use wells, others use tanks or small canals. I use a well. “My well is one hundred and sixty feet deep. I pump from the second strata of water. I use a pit thirty-five feet deep to put my pumps in. That (35 ft.) being my lift. I use a five-inch pump with an eight-inch discharge. My boiler and engine are thir- ty-five horse power. of pure sparkling water per minute. through a flume and empties into the first levee. The the These levees are thrown up as It throws one thousand gallons This water runs ground is surveyed into levees so as to water high and low places. high as can be conveniently done all around the field so as to hold all the water. Cross levees are thrown up so as to hold permanently 4 inches of water all over the rice field. Small pipes are run through the cross levees at the spot set, just so the water will When the water gets above the four inches in the first levee it will run through the pipe into the next levee and so on until the whole field is flooded. When I begin to pump I need two One to run the engine during the day, the oth- I look after the levees and haul oil. run into the next levee. men. er at night. “T use ‘Beaumont’ oil. I use about six barrels every twenty-four hours at a cost of fifty-two cents per bar- grow on fertile uplands without irrigation. TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. rel. I hire two men for two months at twenty-five dollars per month each and board. Average fifteen sacks per acre, three dollars and twenty-five cents per sack makes forty-eight dollars and seventy-five cents per acre or four thousand eight hundred and seventy-five dollars from one hundred acres. Ex- penses, one thousand dollars. Net for use of land and machinery and four mules, three thousand eight hundred and seventy-five dollars. Can you do so well with cotton and corn?” Rice as a rule grows on Jand which is low and ley- el and easily irrigated; but there are varieties which The crop ‘grown upon upland, however, is not nearly so cer- — _erally failed on peaty soils. | rice. tain, and the quality of the rice greatly inferior to that grown on lowlands. The best soil for rice is a medium loam, containing about 50 per cent. clay. The rich soils of Texas, Louisiana and Arkansas are re- Rice has gen- Among the best lands of Southeastern Louisiana, are the so-called buckshot-clay lands, which are so stiff that they can hardly be plowed up unless first flooded to soften them. growing, for they are not able to retain water. markably well suited to rice culture. rice In selecting land to be planted in rice, one must keep in view the fact that rice needs water. We do not mean to say that a man cannot grow rice without artificial irrigation, nor do we dispute the fact that a man can make a crop without hoeing. To make a crop with- out artificial irrigation is about like making a crop without hoeing. In Louisiana, Arkansas and Texas, there are vast prairie lands that produce excellent There is no expensive ditching or leveling to be done to prepare the land for rice. plowing for rice, because it appears to thrive best in compact But this is not sufficient evidence against the Some planters recommend shallow earth, deep plowing of your land. We believe that much better results can be had by deep preparation. Deep plowing just before planting frequently brings too much alkali to the surface on alkali lands in the West. deeper than the previous plowing just before the har- The alkali will then be washed out before the spring plowing. After plowing the land thoroughly, it should be gone over with the harrow, after which it should be rolled with a heavy roller. vest. In planting rice, care should be observed in select- Gravelly or sandy soils are not adapted, to rice” The remedy for this is to plow just a little | A Legume Crop Stores the Nitrogen in the Ground. 35 ing seed, for you should be sure that your rice does not contain any red rice, or any grass or weed seeds. Rice can be sown between the middle of March, and the middle of May, but it is a safe rule to have your rice in the ground by the 2oth of April, The amount sown varies with the method to be used in sowing. Anywhere from one to three bushels per acre is the proper amount. Rice should be planted with a drill. for this distributes the seed more evenly, and the quantity used will be exact. The seed will be planted at a uniform depth, and the dirt packed over them with the drill roller. The land should be rolled be- fore planting, for if it is not, the feet of the animals drawing the drill will push some of the rice down four than the other. Rice broadcast does not germinate and grow with any uniformity. In some cases the variation of the ger- mination in the same field has been as much as eight days. or five inches lower sown There are three different methods of treating rice just after planting. Some let in just enough water to thoroughly saturate the ground immediately after sowing and harrowing, and then draw off all the sur- face water. Others sow and trust to the amount of moisture in the land to germinate the seed. This is rather uncertain, and rarely produces good results. Then some sprout the rice before planting, by plac- ing bags of rice in water. This plan is sure to be a failure if the land is dry when the rice is sown. If you plant in dry soil without saturation, rolling the land after seeding, and harrowing have been found beneficial. But of these methods it is believed the first gives best results. As has been stated above, rice should not be gone over with stock of any kind after it is planted. Tf that be true, then we would insist that no roller or harrow go over the land. As for trusting to there being sufficient moisture in the ground to germinate the rice, that plan is too uncertain. mend the use of the first system. So we recom- Flooding is one of the most important features of rice culture. Rice can be grown without any irriga- tion, and it can be grown with continuous irrigation. so you can readily see the wide scope between the two. We cannot lay down invariable rules for gov- erning the flooding of rice. Usually flooding is not practiced until the rice is six or eight inches high, ex- cept where water is used to sprout the seed. The depth of water that should be maintained from the first flooding until it is drawn off, depends upon the following conditions: If the growing crop thorough- ly shades the land, just enough water should be used to thoroughly saturate the land. It is better to keep from three to six inches of water on the land all the time, and then you will be on the safe side of the question. To prevent stagnation it should be as near continuously flowing in and out all the time, as pos- sible. It has been found that when the stand of rice is thin, the water should be deeper. In South Caro- lina the practice is as follows: “Under the usual method the water is let on as soon as the seed is covered, and remains on four to six days, till the grain is well sprouted. It is then withdrawn. As soon as the blade is up a few inches, the water is sometimes put on for a few days and again withdrawn. called the “sprout water.” After the rice has two leaves the so-called ‘stretch water, or ‘long-point flow,’ is put At first it is allowed to be deep enough to coved The first water is locally on. the rice completely—generally from 10 to 12 inches— then it is gradually drawn down to about 6 inches, where it is held twenty to thirty days. It is then withdrawn and the field allowed to dry. When the field is sufficiently dry the rice is hoed thoroughly, all grass and ‘volunteer’ rice being carefully removed. After hoeing it remains without irrigation until joint- ing commences, when it is slightly hoed, cdre being used to prevent injury to the plants, and the water is then turned on again. During the time water is held on the rice it is changed at least every week to avoid its becoming stagnant. When this occurs rice is lia- ble to be troubled with the water weevil. This ‘lay- by flow,’ or final irrigation, continues until about eight days before the harvest, when the water is drawn off for the field to dry.” In Arkansas where the rice fields have recently been developed, the field is never dry from the time it is flooded, when the rice is six or eight inches high until is is ready to harvest, when it is drained, and cut. This practice produces as good rice as that of South Carolina, and is done with perhaps less ex- pense. To flood land it is necessary to have levees, and they should be constructed as follows: “Tn coast-marsh and river-bottom culture a canal is excavated on the outer rim of the tract selected, 36 TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. completely inclosing it. The excavated dirt is thrown upon the outer bank to form a levee. The canal must be of sufficient capacity for irrigation and drainage. The levee must be sufficient not only to inclose the flooding waters, but to protect the fields from the en- croachment of the river at all seasons. When prac- ticable the rice lands are flooded from the river, and find drainage by a canal or subsidary stream that en- ters the river at a lower level. The embankment must be sufficient to protect the rice against either freshets or salt water. Freshets are injurious to growing rice, not only because of the volume of water, but by reason of the temperature. A great body of water descending rapidly from the mountains to the sea is several degrees colder than water under the ordinary flow. Any large amount of this cold water admitted to the field not only retards the growth but is a posi- tive injury to the crop. In periods of continued drought the salt water of the sea frequently ascends the river a considerable distance. Slightly brackish water is not injurious to rice, but salt water is de- structive. “The tract of land selected and inclosed is then cut up by smaller canals into fields or subfields of suita- ble size, a small levee being thrown up on the borders of each. The entire tract is usually level, but if there should be any inequality care must be taken that the surface of each subfield be level. The main canal is to to 30 feet wide, about 4 feet deep, and connects with the river by flood gates. Through these canal boats of considerable tonnage have ready access to the entire circuit of the tract, while smaller boats can pass along the subcanals to the several fields. The subcanals are usually from 6 to to feet in width and should be nearly as deep as the main canal. During the flooding period the ditches and canals become more or less filled by the mud which flows into them with the water. As soon after harvest as possible the ditch banks should be cleared of all grasses, weeds or brush, and the ditches cleaned. The levees should ‘be examined to see if they are in re- pair.” The irrigating plant is a very important question to some people. If you.have a stream you can use for irrigating you are fortunate, and of course this stream solves the problem. You can use artesian wells for the purpose of irrigating, using of course a tank or large receptacle to hold the water. Very frequently by digging a canal, a stream of water can be so turned as to be used for flooding purposes. Wells are also used, and the water pumped into a_ reservoir. Of course circumstances will govern in this matter. A good engine, boiler and pumping outfit can be placed in service at a very reasonable price, depending upon the size of the body of land to be ed. A plant recently visited, capable of irrigating two hundred acres, cost about three thousand dollars in all, but the first crop of rice turned in from $75.00 to $100.00 per acre. ; Red rice, which is a wild variety of rice containing red grains, causes rice growers no little annoyance. irrigat- The presence of a few red grains in milled rice low- ers its grade and reduces its price. If it once gets a foothold in a field it increases rapidly from year to year until finally the product becomes unsalable. The red rice and the common white rice are .two separate and distinct strains. The seed of one will not produce the other. Being stronger, hardier, and more persistent than the cultivated white rice, the former becomes a dangerous weed in the rice field. Its first start comes from the sowing of seed con- taining red grains. The fields are reseeded from year to year mainly in this way: After the crop is harvest- ed the stalks which have been cut off frequently send out suckers from the lower joints which mature seed. As these seeds possess remarkable resistance to pre- mature germination, spring finds the sown with red rice. ground well Remedies.—Two things must be accomplished to keep the fields clear of red rice: First, seed planted must be free of red rice, and the utmost caution must be exercised to: secure this; second, red seed must be prevented from maturing in the field if accidentally planted. To this end it is exceedingly important to prevent a second crop of red seed from maturing after the general harvest, which is almost certain to occur if the field is left fallow till the following winter. The land should be well drained at the time of the harvest, and within a few weeks thereafter the stubble should be plowed under. In October the land should be thor- oughly cultivated with a disk harrow and sown to oats for winter pasture. If the harvest be early, the stubble may be plowed under immediately and_ the field planted to vetches or crimson clover for pasture. In pasturage care should be exercised not to allow any stock on these fields in wet weather. It is quite customary to burn the stubble. This may destroy Take Advantage of the Nitrogen that is in the Air. 37 a few seeds and prevent sprouts from maturing seed, but it destroys fertilizers and leaves the land bare. Fall plowing and planting to forage crops is far more advantageous. Plowing in the early spring and thor- ough cultivation just before planting is helpful in re- ducing the red rice, but not sufficient for complete eradication. While some of the methods mentioned for eradi- cating weeds and red rice are helpful, none of them have proved completely successful except summer fallowing with cowpeas or planting in corn. This plan increases the fertility of the soil, so that more rice is produced in a series of years than by uninter- rupted cropping with rice. On new land seed absolutely free from red _ rice should be used; then, with care, the land may be kept free from it. In case land is already filled with it, if sufficiently well drained, cultivate to corn or cotton a few years; if not sufficiently well drained, summer fallow; if this can not be done, pasture to sheep or hogs. Every rice planter should use great care, in selecting a new piece of ground upon which to raise seed, to choose a plot without possible taint of red. The seed should be examined so closely as to prevent the sowing of any red seed. When the rice is in the dough stage, it is allowed to drain, as there is sufficient water in the ground to finish the maturity. In eight or ten days it should be sufficiently dry for you to begin harvesting. It is ready to cut. when the straw begins to turn yellow. Harvesting machinery is used to harvest it with where any amount is planted, but where a small amount is planted it is harvested withasickle. After being cut it is handled very much like wheat or oats. It is allowed to cure, and then it is thrashed from the straw. Af- ter the rice comes from the thrasher, it is known as paddy rice, or dough rice. "Paddy rice consists of the grain proper, and around it a close fitting cuticle, which is enclosed in a somewhat hard stiff husk. The rice is carried through a mill, and this husk is re- moved. This milling process is as follows, as given in a recent Bulletin issued by one of the Stations: “The improved processes of milling rice are quite complicated. The paddy is first screened to remove trash and foreign particles. The hulls, or chaff, are removed by rapidly revolving ‘milling stones’ set about two-thirds of the length of a rice grain apart. The product goes over horizontal screens and blow- ers, which separate the light chaff and the whole and broken kernels. The grain is now of a mixed yellow and white color. To remove the outer skin the grain is put in huge mortars holding from 4 to 6 bushels each and pounded with pestles weighing 350 to 400 pounds. Strange to say, the heavy weight of the pes- tles breaks very little grain. “When sufficiently. decorticated, the contents of the mortars, consisting now of flour, fine chaff, and clean rice of a dull, filmy, creamy color, are re- moved to the flour screens, where the flour is sifted out; and thence to the fine-chaff fan, where the fine chaff is blown out. On account of the heat generat- ed by the heavy frictional process through which it has just passed, the rice next goes to the cooling bins. It remains here for eight or nine hours, and then passes to the brush screens, whence the smallest rice and what little flour is left pass down on one side and the larger rice down the other. ; “Polishing.—The grain is now clean and ready for the last process—polishing. This is necessary to give the rice its pearly luster, and it makes all the differ- ence imaginable in its appearance. The polishing is effected by friction against the rice of pieces of moose hide or sheepskin, tanned and worked to a wonderful degree of softness, loosely tacked around a revolving double cylinder of wood and wire gauze. From the polishers the rice goes to the separating screens, ~om- posed of different sizes of gauze, where it is divided into its appropriate grades. It is then barreled and is ready for market. “Hulling machines.—In mills more recently erected the foregoing process has been modified by — substi- tuting the ‘huller’ for the mortar and pounder. The huller is a short, cast-iron, horizontal tube with inte- rior ribs and a funnel at one end to admit the rice. Within this tube revolves a shaft with ribs. These ribs are so adjusted that the revolution of the shaft creates the friction necessary to remove the cuticle. The rice passes out of the huller at the end opposite the funnel. It resembles externally a large sausage machine. It requires six hullers for each set of burs. The automatic sacker and weigher is used instead of barreling, sacks being preferred for shipping the cleaned rice. : “With the above modification of the milling pro- cesses considerable reduction has been made in the cost of the mill. Mills of a daily capacity of 60,000 38 TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. pounds of cleaned rice can now be constructed at a total cost of $10,000 to $15,000. “A portable mill—A portable mill has also been de- vised for plantation use, costing $250, aside from the power to run it, and capable of cleaning 8,100 pounds of paddy rice per day. Such small machines do not give the finish required by the general market, but turn out excellent rice for local use.” BY-PRODUCTS OF RICE. From a recent Bulletin issued by one of the Ex- periment Stations, we take the following on the by- products of rice: “Rice bran contains 12.1 per cent. protein, 8.8 per cent. fat, and 59.4 per cent. fiber and carbohydrates; rice hulls, 3.6 per cent. protein, 0.7 per cent. fat, 35.7 per cent. fiber, and 38.6 per cent. other carbohydrates ; and rice polish, 11.7 per cent. protein, 7.3 per cent. fat, and 64.3 per cent. fiber and carbohydrates. Ac- cording to an estimate made by Dr. Stubbs, director of the Louisiana Experiment Station, rice polish is worth $21.55 per ton; rice bran, $20.80; rice straw, - $9.13, and rice hulls, $8.34. These values are based on the assumption that the nutritive elements in rice are digestible in the same degree .as those contained in the by-products of wheat and other -cereals. “Straw.—Rice straw is worth preserving. As a fodder for stock its value is about equal to good Southern prairie hay. Rice straw contains 4.72 per cent. crude protein, 32.21 per cent. carbohydrates, and 1.87 per cent. fats. The sweetness and excellent fla- vor of well-preserved rice straw adds very materially to its practical feeding value, because stock will con- sume large quantities of it. Digestion Experiments have not been made with the straw or any of the by- products of rice milling. “Rice hulls.—The hulls removed from the rice in the first process of milling possess a low degree of feeding value, and being also deficient in flavor and digestibility they are of little value as food for stock; they are more valuable asa fertilizer. They not only restore to the land part of the elements of fertility re- moved by the crop, but increase the porosity of the soil. They also make an excellent mulch for garden and orchard. “Hull ashes.—In passing through rice-milling dis- tricts large quantities of hull ashes will be noticed. These are very little used by farmers and gardeners, under the general impression that they are of no value. One hundred pounds of hull ashes contain 0.82 pound of phosphoric acid and 0.93 pound of potash. There are many other better sources of potash and_phos- phoric acid. The amount contained in the hull ashes would not pay the cost of scattering them over the fields. “The planter who burns his straw and sells his rice in the paddy loses 63.92 per cent. of the total mineral matter of the crop. If the rice straw and the hulls be returned to the soil as manure, 86.36 per cent. of the mineral matter of the crop will be restored, and the loss would be only 13.64 per cent. The present meth- od of burning rice hulls cannot be too severely con- demned, but doubtless will be continued as long as rice is sold in the paddy. Hulling is a process re- quiring very simple and inexpensive machinery. It can be done profitably upon the farm, and is done in most of the great rice-producing countries. In addi- tion to their fertilizing value, the removal of the hull on the farm saves the expense for sacks and freight charge for extra bulk and weight, the hulls forming about 20 per cent, of the weight of the paddy. It al- so enables the farmer as well as the miller to deter- mine with greater exactness the quality of the grain, thereby removing that element of uncertainty which always operates to the detriment of the farmer. It should be mentioned, however, that the hard husk of the rice tends to prevent attacks of weevil on the grain, and that rice with all or a portion of the husks on keeps better in storage or long shipment. / “Rice polish.—This is the fine flour resulting from the polishing process. It isa valuable stock food, be- ing rich in albuminoids as well as carbohydrates.” RYE. Rye is grown in this country for green forage and milling purposes. The grain is also used for malting, and the straw in the manufacture of paper. The yield of grain for the United States is about fifteen bush- els per acre. It will grow on poorer soils than any other cereal, and as a soiling crop in the South is excel- lent, giving several cuttings during the winter and spring. For bread, a rather dry, sandy soil of medium fertility is best, but a fair crop can be produced on soil too poor to produce wheat or corn, and with less Pay Cash If Possible. 39 care. It will not do well on wet soil. The ground should be prepared in the same way as for wheat, and if it is intended to be cut green, should be well manur- ed with stable manure a little earlier in the fall. As it is likely to be affected with the fly, the best time to sow is in September and October, If the soil is not fertile, you should plant your rye early, so as to give it plenty of time to get a good foothold before freezing weather. The seed should be put in about two inches deep, sowing about one bushel per acre. If you are growing the rye for forage and have good land, you will want to use more seed than otherwise, and in this case two bushels would not be too much. Be sure to secure Southern grown seed, as Northern seed will not suc- ceed well in the South. Rye is ready to cut when the straw changes color and the kernels pass into the hard dough stage. The grain is harvested in the same manner as wheat. threshing out the grain, which will not injure the Special machines are in use for straw. These machines are valuable where the straw is used for packing or for making into paper; but of course such machines cannot be used unless one goes into the business very extensively. SORGHUM. Sorghum resembles Indian corn in habit of growth, but it produces its grain upon the head instead of forming ears. It is used both as a forage plant and for the pro- duction of syrup. It will grow wherever Indian corn will grow, but will withstand drought better and yield more forage on poor land. The cultivation of sorghum has assumed quite large proportions in the South. It should not be planted until after the ground gets thoroughy warm, as it is very sensitive to cold. As suggested, sorghum is worth more as a forage plant, than it is for the syrup. For forage it should be sown broadcast, at the rate of about one and a half or two bushels per acre. Many farmers sow sorghum and cow peas together, but the crop is more difficult to cure and we do not recommend it. If you use cow peas with the sorghum you should use from one-half bushel to three pecks of each. One great difficulty in growing sorghum _ broadcast Conse- quently the ground should be thoroughly prepared before the seed are sown. Sorghum should be cut is weeds. when the heads are about ripe. It is important that it be well cured, for it will not keep unless it is. It yields anywhere from one to three tons of dry forage per acre. In many places, and where you have fav- orable seasons several cuttings may be had. As a syrup plant it is planted in rows four feet apart, the seed, as a rule, being drilled in. Fig. 23.—Seeded Ribbon Cane. A species of Sorghum grown in Texas. Cultivate shallow the same as corn. When grown for sprout, it should be well manured with stable ma- nure, tankage or cottonseed meal. “Press Bulletin 14, of the Nebraska Experiment Sta- tion, is on “The Limit in the Use of Sor- The publicity given to the injurious effects of sorghum through the investigations carried on by this station to ascertain the cause has moved people not heretofore acquainted with this occasionally ex- hibited peculiarity of the plant, to become suspicious of it. While no further positive information has been obtained on the subject, there yet remains a word or two that may be profitably spoken. Danger ghum.’ “The records of this station do not show any cases of sudden death from sorghum occurring in the east- ern portion of Nebraska, with the exception of a few which occurred on second growth sorghum. There is also reason to believe that plants producing this dis- astrous effect have not made a healthy growth, and are yellow and wilted, a condition easily detected by 40 TILLING THE the farmer. It would, therefore, seem reasonable to conclude that no danger is to be encountered in pas- | turing sorghum of healthy growth in Eastern Ne- braska. “Again it would appear that no danger is incurred if the sorghum is fed after cutting and allowing to lie for some time. A sample of sorghum was recently received by the station with a letter accompanying it, stating the plants were parts of a very few partially eaten by a cow which was killed by them in two min- The sample was fed to a cow on the station farm without injuring her in the least. This, togeth- er with the fact that no poison has been detected in samples sent to the station for analysis, would indi- cate that any toxic substances which the plants might have contained have become dissipated after cutting. The length of time required for this is not known, but it is certainly accomplished in a few days. “As sorghum is undoubtedly the best annual mid- summer forage crop for this region, it is important that its limitations should be well defined. The use of healthy sorghum for pasturage with the ordinary precautions in Eastern Nebraska, and of sorghum utes. hay, may be considered safe.” SUGAR CANE. Sugar cane is a tropical plant, and grows more or less in all of the Gulf States. It is planted more ex- tensively in Louisiana. In this country it is propa- gated altogether by cuttings, as it does not produce seed in the United States, and it was only recently discovered that the seed would reproduce sugar-cane at all. ¥ Sugar-cane flourishes on rich alluvial bottom lands, but it may be grown on any fertile soil in a warm climate where water is abundant and the land well drained, and worked. The sugar soils of Louisiana range from loamy soils to almost pure clays. It is im- portant to have the land well drained, and some ex- periment stations recommended using drains one hun- dred feet apart deep enough to hold the ground wa- ter at least three feet below the surface. The growing of sugar-cane is deserving of more at- tention from the farmers of the South. While the in- dustry is large in Louisiana, it is not grown so exten- sively in other portions of the South as it should be. Dr. W. C. Stubbs of the Louisiana Experiment Sta- tion while on a visit to Georgia, had the following to SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. say about the possibilities of Georgia in the produc- tion of sugar-cane: “A previous visit to this State during the season of and a critical examination of your fields of cane and your methods of manufacture, and a subsequent examination of many samp!es of cane in our laboratory, convinced me of the fitness of your syrup-making, soil and climate to this industry. The superior sacch- arine richness of your canes and your abundant and° cheap labor, your large supply of cheap fuel, the low prices of your land, and the ease with which it can be cultivated and drained, all suggested to me the possibility of th:s section making suzar and syrup in competition with the world. The larse sugar content of your canes should attract readily the attention of manufacturers of sugar and central factories would surely come as soon as the farmers would guarantee the necessary cane. A central] factory would not only increase the present value of a ton of cane by saving .therefrom nearly double the juice which is now ob- tained by your small mills, but would furnish a market for many of your other products which are today un- salable, The community would find a central factory a veritable increment to the volume of business trans- acted. Railroads would not only profit by the trans- portation of cane to the factory and the sugar market, but by the increased transportation of all kinds of wares needed by the factory and its clientelle, and the increased travel which a constantly growing pop- ulation would indulge in. environment de- clares for central factories, and if the local farmers guarantee an ample supply of cane, few business communities can afford to be with- out them. In the absence of central factories, con- tinue to make syrup. Remember three cardinal prin- ciples in the growing of cane and the manufacture of sugar or syrup. “tT, The sugar is made only in the field; therefore aim to make each acre as productive as your soil, cli- mate and your own intelligence can effect it. “2. After making the sugar in the field, it is al- most a criminal waste to leave it in the bagasse or in the scums. Therefore mills should be adjusted to get the largest percentage of extraction possible, and ar- rangements should be made by which the scum should be greatly reduced in quantity. “2. After getting all the juice poss’ble and decreas- ing the losses from scums, the operations of concen- tration and the preparation for market should be ef- fected in the most approved styles, remembering that Every Dont Depend on the Other Man Keeping Your Books. 41 attractiveness to-day is demanded in every article, which meet with a ready sale. “A good acre of cane in Georgia should yield at least 20 tons of cane. A ton of Georgia cane should give 1,400 to 1,500 pounds of juice containing at least 15 per cent. of total solids, and should yield an evap- oration of 25 to 30 gallons of syrup. Thus an acre of Georgia cane should yield at least 500 to 600 gallons of syrup of standard density and weight, if properly handled. With a larger density of the juice which experience has shown actually exists, and an increase in tonnage, 800 or even 1,000 gallons per acre might easily be obtained.” What is true of Georgia is true of other Southern States. They are depending entirely too much on one crop. Diversified farming is the salvation of the South, and much of the diversification can commence in planting sugar-cane. More than twice as much sugar is now produced in the United States from su- gar beets than from sugar-cane. For sugar-cane, as for most other crops, the land should be thoroughly prepared by deep plowing and harrowing. When farmers realize the real value of deep plowing, they will stop scratching the surface of the land. After the land has been deeply broken and harrowed it should be thrown in beds from five to sey- en feet wide. Sometimes only one line of continuous cane is laid. This will not always insure a stand, and it is far better to use two layers than one. When two canes are laid side by side it will require four tons to plant an acre, using seven foot rows. In Louisiana it is planted in the winter, which results in an earlier growth; but in Georgia and Florida it is thought best to bank the seed and plant in the early spring. The cane should be covered with the good furrows. In many sections, the tops or mature joints are used for planting. In Louisiana and many other sections in the extreme southern part of the South, cane is al- lowed to grow from the stubble, and makes quite ex- cellent cane. That is, when they cut the cane to _ make into syrup or sugar, by using a turning plow the roots from which the cane has just been cut are cov- ered with dirt and the next year produces as good cane as before. “The yield per acre on good land not fertilized was _ twelve tons cane and the maximum yield on the same land with 2,000 pounds of guano per acre, was thirty-nine tons, thus giving a gain of twenty-seven tons cane per acre as the result of 2,000 pounds of gu- ano; the twenty-seven tons cane at $3.50 per ton is worth $94.50,.and the 2,000 pounds guano cost $21, this shows a net gain of $73.50 per acre as the result of this fertilizer. “On my crop last year I used 1,200 pounds of gu- ano per acre at two applications of the following for- mula. Twelve hundred pounds 16 per cent. acid phosphate, 400 pounds, 8 per cent., cottonseed meal, 200 pounds nitrate of soda, 200 pounds muriate of pot- ash.” Nitrogen and phosphoric acid are used as fertili- zers in most cane growing sections. The nitrogen is supplied by cotton seed meal, and turning in a heavy crop of cow peas every third year. Phosphoric acid is supplied by using dissolved bone, Thomas slag, or acid phosphate. Many successful cane growers also use large green titus of tankage which supplies both and phosphoric acid. The cane should have shallow cultivation. nitrogen As to the manufacture of syrup, perhaps we cannot do better than give a concrete case. Explaining how he manufactures his syrup, Mr W. E. Roddenberry, of Cairo, Ga., has the following to.say: “My manufacturing plant consists of one 45 horse- power steam boiler, two 15 horse-power engines, two 2,600 No. 3 roller mills, large rolls 18 inches in diam- eter, two galvanized iron cooking vats, with copper coils for steam heat, and the necessary pumps, pip- ing and tanks, also wagon scales, cane derrick, cane car, bagasse carrier, etc. The total cost of this outfit approximates $2,500, including the building. The two mills are not geared together so as to get the best extraction by running same cane through both mills, as is done in modern mills, but are set up on the ground side by side, both mills being run at the same time and fed lightly in order to be able to key them tighter than if fed full. I have frequent break- down in the mills, as they are too frail to do the work I try to make them do. “T secured an extraction of juice estimated at about 64 per cent. of the weight of the cane with these mills. One fifteen horse-power engine is sufficient to drive both mills, and I have the second engine simply as a reserve in case of accident to engine in use. “The cane is tied in bundles with ropes laid across the wagon beds in the field, about 1,000 pounds in each bundle, two bundles to the load; after weighing each load on wagon scale, the cane is lifted from the wagon by a hand derrick and placed on small car which is shoved to an inclined platform in front of the milis and dumped from the car, which works on piv- ot, on to the inclined platform, the bundles of cane sliding down the incline to the mills so that one hand can easily feed each mill. The Bagasse is carried by elevators from each mill to a platform from which it is carted in dump carts direct to the field and scattered on the land as fast as ground to be plowed under la- ter. “The juice is filtered through a small box of black moss as it comes from the mills to remove the coarse fibre, and is then elevated by a steam jet to.a larger 42 TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. used for defecating or skimming and after the juice is thoroughly skimmed in same it is allowed to flow into second vat where it is evaporated into syrup, and another charge of juice let into first vat, and this pro- cess goes on in this way continually. At the outlet from the first vat into the second vat, I use a bag fil- ter, made of thin sea island sheeting, this bag is about six feet long and two feet wide, it must be this large to allow the juice to run through rapidly; this filter or strainer removes a considerable portion of sediment that cannot be skimmed off, because it will not rise to Fig. 24—Sugar-cane field of W. EB. Roddenberry, Cairo, Ga. moss filter, this filter being a 50-gallon barrel packed full of black, cleaned moss, this filter barrel is placed in the top of the building so that the juice will flow from the same into the juice tank which is made of two galvanized iron and is large enough to hold charges of juice. The two cooking vats are placed side by side and at such elevation as will permit juice to flow by grav- ity from juice tank into first cooking vat and from this vat into the second cooking vat. The first vat is the top. The solid matter thus removed is largely the same class of matter that is removed by use of set- tling tanks in up-to-date cane mills. The skimming process is kept up constantly in the second or finish- ing vat, until the juice is reduced to syrup of a densi- ty registering 34 degrees Beaurne; then the syrup is drawn out into syrup tank from which the syrup is canned or barreled. If canned, it is done while the syrup is very hot and hermetically sealed at once. The syrup is strained through heavy flannel bag, as it flows from finishing vat into syrup tank, and it is sur- e Look cut for your Own Interests. prising to see how much of the black solid matter we get from the syrup with this flannel strainer, when it is considered that the juice has been filtered through three feet of moss, then skimmed thoroughly in the first vat, and strained as it goes into second vat and then skimmed continuously while evaporating. Just here I will mention that I have found it advisable to allow the heavy scum commonly called the blanket, to rise slowly and thoroughly in the skimming vat be- fore breaking or removing the same, being very care- ful not to let any of it boil in, and to wait a minute or two after shutting off the steam before removing it in order to allow the scum to harden somewhat, and it is decidedly better to remove the blanket by raking it off with a paddle than to skim it off with the or- dinary skimmer, commonly used by our farmers. In order to facilitate the removing of the blanket, I have my skimming vat constructed with a flange on one side twelve inches wide, and inclined at an angle of about 45 degress and under the lip of this flange, I have a gutter into which the scum is raked and from which it flows into the skimming barrels. “T have 4 barrels for skimming, the bottom of each . being tapped with iron pipe, which is connected with same steam jet with which I elevate the juice from the mill. I fill the skimming barrels in rotation, and by the time I begin filling the last barrel, the skimmings in the first barrel have become clarified by slight fer- mentation, so that practically all the scum has risen to the top and left the clear juice in the bottom of the barrel, I then pump this clarified juice by means of the steam jet from the first barrel into the moss filter, from whence it flows to the juice tank. I then keep up this regular rotation of filling and emptying these skimming barrels, and by this method I am able to use about two-thirds of the skimmings. This clarified juice from the skimmings is slightly acid when it goes into the juice vat and this aids somewhat the clarification of the juice in the skimming vat. “T use no lime or sulphur in clarification and have succeeded in making as bright a syrup by the above method as some of my neighbors make by the use of sulphur and lime. I will state, however, that these parties do not use settling tanks, which may account for the fact that they do not make any better grade of syrup with sulphur and lime than I make without it. This is one of the problems among many others that we are looking to the department of agriculture to settle for us. “As to the quality of the syrup thus made, I will The Other Fellow will do the Same. 43 say that I have here samples of the product for your inspection. I do not claim that this syrup is better than that made by some others in my sect on who are equally careful and painstaking and who employ practically the same methods, and in justice to the smaller cane growers of my section who are still using the old-fashioned mill and iron open kettle, I desire to say that in some instances they succeed in making an excellent grade of syrup, but the great disadvan- tage in this method is the lack of uniformity in the grade of the syrup. “My cooking vats are elevated sufficiently to allow the condensed steam from copper coils in the vats to flow into a tank, which: is elevated slightly above my steam boiler, and from this tank it is pumped while hot into the steam boiler. Th's is an important factor in cutting down expenses for fuel. “My plant described above is a fair representation of a dozen or more such plants located around Cairo and represent our largest and best outfits with the exception of one at Ingleside plantation, operated by Messrs. Wight, where they have a three-roller mill weighing 8,000 pounds, and where they use ‘sulphur and lime for clarifying; also except one now being lo- cated about 18 miles from Cairo, in Decatur county, with a capacity of 200 tons of cane per day. This plant is a second-hand outfit from Louisiana, and it is proposed to make sugar on same as well as syrup. “The capacity of my plant is 35 tons of cane in 24 hours, and by buying cane from my neighbors, I am able to run day and night. “T will now go back to the proposition that with a modern and first-class outfit my profit would have been increased about 50 per cent. “By a modern outfit I mean a six-roller mill with a crusher or a nine-roller mill with a capacity of at least 200 tons of cane in 24 hours, Such a mill should give an extraction of 78 per cent. by the aid of satu- ration between the rolls. This mill should be equipped with chain carrier and feeder, and best cooking out- fit, including sulphur and liming process, settling tanks and filter process so as to utilize practically all the skimming. Such a mill would make possible the use of bagasse for fuel, and would save about two- thirds the fuel, and would also greatly reduce the ex- pense of manufacturing. “With a mill of this description of large enough capacity, I could have waited to begin grinding until my cane was matured. Tis would have saved a con- 44 _» .TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. siderable waste, as will be seen from the following da- ta. “T began grinding cane October 20, and finished December 18. During the first half of this grinding season I secured an average of 19 1-2 gallons of syrup from a ton of cane, and during the latter half I se- sured 23 1-2 gallons per ton. Thus you see I could have gained four gallons of syrup on every ton ground during the first half of the season by waiting until the cane was matured to begin grinding. This would have given me 1,752 gallons increase in the syrup out- put. is $473. This increase in syrup at 27 cents per gallon As stated above, my mills gave an average on 2 smaller scale than the gentleman just quoted from, less expensive machinery must be used. He must be contented with a one or two horse mill, or a mill run by a smaller engine. The evaporator is more successful than the kettle for making syrup, for you can make a better grade of syrup, and make it much faster, than the old style kettle process. The Japanese sugar-cane has been grown quite ex- tensively in Florida with excellent results. It has one advantage over the other cane, and that is, it can stand drought better than any other cane, is not sen- sitive, and for that reason can be grown in places Fig. 25.—Russian Sunflowers. extraction of 64 per cent. With a mill that would give an extraction of 78 per cent. the increase would have been 4,136 gallons of syrup at 27 cents—$1,116.72 “The approximate cost of manufacturing on my outfit is $1 per barrel of 30 gallons, whereas on a first- class plant the cost would be reduced to about 50 cents per barrel. This would have been a saving on my crop of $315. These three items aggregate $1,- 904.72, which is slightly more than 50 per cent. of my entire profit on this cane crop. This gain does not include the saving by using practically all the skim- mings. With an up-to-date cane mill, the net profit per acre on my cane crop in 1902 would have been approximately $128 instead of $84. Of course for the man who goes into the business where the regular sugar-cane cannot. When it is once planted it will last for six or eight years, while the other canes only last for three or four years, al- though the stalks become smaller each year. In plant- ing the Japanése variety the rows should be placed perhaps a foot wider than the other varieties. It is said that it produces more syrup than any other cane, but will not make good sugar. It is worthy of inves- tigation by anyone desiring to raise cane. SUNFLOWER. The sunflower is a native annual growing from three to fifteen feet high. The seed are used for feed- ing birds and for poultry, and are quite valuable as a Plant the Very Best Seed. medicine for horses and cattle. If you desire to raise them very extensively, prepare the land about the same as you would for Indian corn, and cultivate in the same way. Many terraces and other ridges that are allowed to grow up in weeds could be profit- ably used to raise sunflowers on. They will be found quite valuable for chickens, and can be used all right around the house. j TOBACCO. Tobacco is a rank growing plant which reaches the height of from two to ten feet. The plant is a native of America and was first made known to the civilized world by Columbus. It requires a very 45 er in leaf, and less sweet. There is another striking feature about tobacco, and that is, the readiness with which varieties mix. You may take two varieties, one a long, narrow leaf, and the other a broad, short leaf, and plant them on the same farm, and you will produce a modification of the crop, al- though you use your utmost pains to prevent them from mixing. Thus you can see how easy it is for one to improve tobacco, and how easy it is to allow his own variety to run down. You can create a new variety or improve the old one by crossing with a plant that has the qualifications you desire. There are a great many new varieties of tobacco brought out, but when traced up, they are found to modifications of old varieties. preceding be only Fig. 26—Seed beds. Plants ready to set. Connecticut Ex- periment Station. short period for its growth, and is very sensitive to frost. It is grown extensively in North Carolina, Kentucky, and Virginia. The treatment here of the tobacco subject, is not intended to instruct those who have already learned to grow tobacco, but is intend- ed only to aid those who are not familiar with it. Hlowever, the crop is of so much importance that we will go into details. g No plant is so modified by climate, soil, and meth- od of cultivation. The inodorous product of the seed- leaf districts of our Northern States, when trans- planted South in a few generations becomes as sweet as native Southern tobacco. North it becomes larg- The German Kali Works has issued a phamplet on the cultivation of tobacco, and we take the follow- ing, upon the classification of tobacco: “The location, soil and climate in which the tobac- co crop is grown, and the widely differing properties of these crops lead to very marked differences in cul- tivation. In the trade there are many sub-divisions for each class, or type, of tobacco handled, but for our purposes here we will treat of four classes as fol- lows; (1) Cigar Leaf, (2) Export Tobacco, (3) Bright Leaf and Manufacturing and (4) Perique. (1.) Cigar leaf—Tobacco for cigar manufacture includes three different types of leaf, viz. the Con- 46 necticut seed leaf, the Cuban, and the Sumatra varie- ties. Moreover, there are different grades, resulting either from crossing or from local conditions of soil, climate, planting or methods of fertilizer employed. Cigar Tobaccos are grown for two distinct purpos- es, namely: for flavor or aroma, and for texture of the leaf which properties adapt it for use as cigar wrappers. For aroma, the Vuelta Abajo may be ac- cepted as typical, while for wrapper purposes, Con- necticut seed leaf and Sumatra tobaccos are typical. (2.) Export Tobaccos.—These tobaccos include several different types, each meeting various de- mands of the trade. Usually they are of rank growth, heavy, coarse grained and strong flavored. They are used for manufacturing smoking products required in foreign countries. Their value lies in their strength, as they are chiefly used in mixtures, either with inferior tobaccos, or with other vegetable adulterants. (3.) Bright Leaf and Manufacturing Tobacco.— Bright Leaf is produced largely in the Carolinas, Virginia, and Eastern Tennessee, and is valuable for its flavor and aroma; its bright yellow color adds to its popularity. It is used almost entirely for pipe and cigarette tobaccos, and for wrapping for plug White Southern counties of Ohio and in the north central tobacco. Burley Tobacco is grown in the counties of Kentucky, and is used for plug tobacco. It is very mild, has a good flavor, and is an excellent absorbant, and for these reasons, it is popular with manufacturers. (4.) heavy types of tobaccos. Perique.—This tobacco belongs to the coarse, Its distinctive properties are the result rather of the method of curing than of the quality of leaf. the moist alluvial bottom lands of St. James River, and one or two other Parishes in Louisiana, but its Pe- culiarities of flavor and form of marketing, however, It is grown exclusively upon commercial importance is comparatively small. make it necessary to consider this class under a spec- ial heading. All classes or types of tobacco, belong to a single species, Nicotiana tabacum, closely related to wild and cultivated plants, among which are: the petunia, Irish potato, egg-plant, and “Jimson weed.” Tobacco plants of all varieties have much the same habits of growth and characteristics. They grow from three to nine feet in height, possess wide- TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. spread, lanceolate leaves attached spirally and alter- nately to the stalk, at distances of about two inches. The flowers form large clusters with pink-tipped white corollas, which, when grown in masses, pre- sent so attractive an appearance, that the plant is fre- quently grown for purely ornamental purposes.” The soil upon which tobacco is grown should be selected in accordance with the object of the special 27.—Tobacco unfertilized. Experiment Farm, Southern Pines, N. C. . % Ge at las ee ea Fig. 28.—Tobacco, fertilized with potash, phosphoric acid an? nitrogen (complete fertilizer)—Experiment Farm, Southern Pines, N. C. kind of tobacco grown. The heavy shipping tobacco is grown upon soils that contain a large proportion of clay, or a soil that retains the moisture. On lighter sandier soils, a thinner, more delicate leaf is produc- ‘ed. In order to make a selection of the soil, you will have to study the effects of soil upon tobacco, as this Time Spent in Selecting Seed is Well Spent. 47 information cannot be given in a brief work of this kind. Perhaps the greatest question connected with the growing of tobacco is the fertilizer question, Tobac- co requires a great amount of plant food, and cannot get a sufficient supply from the natural ground. While tobacco requires a great deal of plant food, still it does not exhaust the soil, The point is this, the tobacco returns to the land the plant food it takes from it, and leaves it about in the same condition it was before. Of course it exhausts the soil to a cer- tain extent, but only to a very small degree. There was a very prevalent idea a few years ago that tobac- co exhausted the soil more than other crops, but this is not true. There is one thing true in the cultiva- tion of tobacco, as with any plant requiring clean cultivation, vast quantities of surface soil is washed away by the rains, and in this the soil is exhausted more than by the crop itself. The remedy for this is rotation of crops. The question of fertilizing printed matter can be of help, actual experience, and cannot be substituted for ex- perience. The effect of one fertilizer upon one kind of land will be different from the effect produced by the same fertilizer upon a different soil; and in fertilizing tobacco it is quite important to avoid applying to the soil any substance that is liable to injure any deésir- able quality of the tobacco. While the use of chlo- rides will sometimes produce a superior quality of tobacco, still growers will do well to avoid the use of chlorides, as experience shows that it is liable to injure the burning quality of the tobacco. Chlorides exist -as common salt, chloride of potash, or muriate of potash. Low grade sulphates of potash, such as kainit, carnallite, krugit, etc., contain a large quanti- tv of common salt, and should not be used as a fer- tilizer for tobacco, and use potash in the form of sul- phate. must be studied, and but it cannot supplant Manure is one of the best fertilizers for tobacco known, as it contains all the elements that the plant needs, and this is an advantage no other fertilizer has. It, however, is not best to use alone, as it de- composes very slowly, and tobacco needs a fertili- zer that will act quickly. The best results will be obtained by using a commercial fertilizer with stable manure. Land for tobacco should contain plenty of humus or decaying vegetable matter. This humus absorbs moisture and heat, and its decay makes available plant food in the soil, and for this, manure should be used as part of the fertilizer. Tobacco requires a great deal of nitrogen, as has been shown by experiments and experience in the fields. It is not a leguminous plant and must de- pend upon the soil for its nitrogen, and it is impor- tant that the nitrogen in the soil be in an available form, or the plant cannot use it. Nitrogen is obtained from a number of different products and chemicals. Cottonseed meal is one of the most popular sources of nitrogen. It acts very rapidly, and furnishes nitrogen form, For tobacco you use a good dressing of ma- nure, a thousand pounds of meal should be applied in easily available to the acre in addition, putting on at least two weeks before setting the plants. Linseed or flaxseed meal is often used as a ferti- lizer for tobacco. It is not quite so rich in plant food as cottonseed meal, but the difference is very slight, Cottonseed: meal, however, being a Southern product, is cheaper and more generally used at the South. Tobacco requires more potash than any other ele- ment, and the necessity of supplying potash is obvi- ous to anyone. Tobacco is a potash feeder, and it is quite important to note that your land contains a sufficient amount of this element. Every farmer can test his land by planting tobacco on land without applying any potash, and planting tobacco on anoth- er spot using potash. The difference in the growth of the plant will demonstrate to you whether or not potash is needed. ing different amounts of potash, on different plats of Also by using fertilizers contain- ground planted in tobacco will soon show how much is needed for best results. No.1— : Composed of ) Containing 2000 Ibs. cotton-seed meal, Nitrogen, 130 Ibs. 1000 Ibs. cotton hull ash, + Potash, 230 Ibs. 500 Ibs. lime, Phosphoric acid, 500 Ibs. plaster, 126 Ibs. “The essential elements are derived from the meal and ash; the plaster and lime only being supplied to affect the soil mechanically and to assist the burning qualities of the tobacco, Linseed meal is used in- stead of cottonseed when it can be bought to better advantage. This formula has also been modified by omitting the lime and plaster, adding more ash or 48 TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. meal, and sometimes by adding small quantities of superphosphate, or tankage. It is also used in the following combinations: No. 2— Composed of Containing 1000 lbs. cotton-seed meal 1250 lbs. castor pomace, Nitrogen, 128 lbs. 500 Ibs. 500 lbs. cotton hull ash, double sulphate of potash, | Phosphoric acid, 45 lbs. 500 Ibs. lime, Potash, 288 Ibs. 500 lbs. plaster, No. 3— Composed of Containing 1000 lbs. cotton-seed meal 600 lbs. dry fish scrap, | Nitrogen, 116 Ibs. 500 lbs. 96 per cent. sulphate potash, Phosphoric acid, 500 Ibs. lime, 60 Ibs. 500 lbs. plaster, | Potash, 267 Ibs. No. 4— Composed of Containing 1000 lbs. castor pomace, Nitrogen, 113 Ibs. ] | | 500 Ibs. dry fish scrap, Phosphoric acid, 100 lbs. sulphate of ammonia, 60 Ibs. 500 Ibs. 96 per cent. sulphate potash | Potash, 267 Ibs. No. 5. On old tobacco fields that are in good heart, a favorite formula at present is 2000 lbs. cot- tonseed meal and 1000 lbs. cottonhull ash. No. 6. One well-known tobacco grower says: “My formula for a homemade tobacco fertilizer is 2000 lbs. cottonseed meal, rooo Ibs. double sulphate of potash, 1000 Ibs. plaster, 1000 Ibs. lime, and it is the best and cheapest fertilizer for tobacco I have ev- en tried? No. 7. Another applies 10 cords of manure per acre, from 1000 to 2000 Ibs. cottonseed meal, and 400 to 500 Ibs. Peruvian guano. No. 8. A formula used by several successful growers is for one acre of land that has a good sup- ply of manure or vegetable matter in the soil: Composed of Containing 300 Ibs. lime, or about 1 cask, Nitrogen, 166 Ibs. 400 lbs. sulphate of potash, Phosphoric acid, 500 lbs. pure bone meal, 140 Ibs. 2000 Ibs. cotton-seed meal, Potash, 234 lbs. Another favorite formula is Containing Nitrogen, 97 lbs. Phosphoric acid, 150 Ibs. Potash, 400 lbs. No; 9: Composed of 1500 lbs. cotton-seed meal, 1500 lbs. cotton hull ash, 500 lbs. lime, 500 Ibs. plaster, Fig. £9.—Tcbacco unfertilized. De Funiak Springs, Fla. On farm of C. K. McQuarrie, as Se ete Se We si: Fig. 30—Tobacco fertilized. On farm of C. K. McQuarrie, De Funiak Springs, Fla. No. 10. A homemade tobacco fertilizer that gave good satisfaction is Composed cf Containing 1000 Ibs. cotton hull ash, Phosphorie acid, 164 Ibs. ] 2000 lbs. cotton-seed meal, Nitrogen, 152 lbs. 1000 Ibs. lime, | Potash, 360 Ibs. No. 11. Another, used with excellent results at — the rate of two tons per acre: Composed of Containing 1000 Ibs. cotton-seed meal, 500 lbs. cotton hull ash, 50 lbs. lime, Nitrogen, 76 lbs. Phosphoric acid, 82 lbs. Potash, 160 lbs. | 'No.13. Don’t Neglect to Keep Your Farm and House Up. 49 New T25) 9" This mixture will contain: available phosphoric] Gorton-seed meal so)... 6: goo pounds acid, 7.2 per cent.; potash, 7.7 per cent.; nitrogen, 3.1) IN URES Ooi Saar peiei sale 100 pounds per cent. (equal to ammonia, 3.8 per cent.). Sulphur of potash, high-grade .. 250 pounds Acid phosphate, 14 per cent.. 750 pounds No. 17. Posen noumcds Cotton-seed meal . te ebeee tees 1,140 pounds : ; } ; : : Sulphate of potash, high grade....115 pounds This mixture will contain: available phosphoric Acid. «Phosphate: ecu). eos e205 745 ‘pounds acid, 6.3 per cent.; potash, 6.9 per cent.; nitrogen, 3.7 per cent. (equal to ammonia, 4.5 per cent.). 2,000 pounds This mixture will contain: available phosphoric iPedi blood, high mrad ee Poorpouads acid, 6.6 per cent.; potash, 3-7 per cent.; nitrogen, 3.8 ¢ : per cent, (equal to ammonia 4.6 per cent.). Nitrate of soda ..... settee ees 125 pounds Botes Pomdeeclnte tenee tiene aah noundeecemnines ae ot eee Pee e uae a Lay mixtures should be used to the acre. Peacide phosphate 4. .).4./i5. 2... 065 pounds 2,000 pounds This. mixture will contain: available ‘phosphoric acid, 7.4 per cent.; potash, 7.7 per cent.; nitrogen, 4.3 per cent. (equal to ammonia, .2 per cent.). ‘No. 14. ISN UISE AD) Mt) ots leer atts wee ovens ole 2s 725 pounds iNfimate Of SOda .2..6 04d... 2. roo pounds Sulphate of potash, high grade.. 300 pounds Aci’ phosphate, 52.56. 025s. 875 pounds | 2,000 pounds This mixture will contain: available phosphoric ac- id, 7.2 per cent.; potash, 7.5 per cent.; nitrogen, 3.8 Fig. 31—Cuban tobacco on new ground. Florida Experi- per cent. (equal to ammonia, 4.6 per cent.). ~ ment Station. No. 15. It will of course be necessary to use the proper gece bl OOdalya te cast tos Aactcts dc ace 500 pounds amount of phosphoric acid and nitrogen in the ferti- INirate Ofe soda. al! 6 clcacsaes 100 pounds lizer on the different plats. Under the head of pot- Sulphate of potash, high grade.. 400 pounds ash in the Fertilizer Department, we give some atten- Pied phosphate: ho. s..c.anets es: 1000 pounds tion to its source and forms used. Lime has been found quite valuable on tobacco lands. As a plant food, it has little value in itself, but its mechanical _ This mixture will contain: available phosphoric effect on the soil is excellent, and it has the power of acid, 7 per cent.; potash, 10 per cent.; nitrogen, 4.1 making available plant food in the soil. A great 2,000 pounds per cent. (equal to ammonia, 5 per cent.). many different materials can be used. in fertilizing tobacco. We give here seventeen formulas, and these No. 16. \ are based upon the supposition that you have used a Cotton-seed meal ..........-.. 700 pounds great supply of stable manure. A mixed nitrogen Nitrate Of SsOda toc. occcdccncee. 100 pounds supply gives better results than a single material, for Sulphate of potash, high grade.. 300 pounds if the action of one is hindered, or too rapid, the oth- Acid phosphate ..... Pei aa goo pounds er corrects this defect. 2,000 pounds _ In raising tobacco, no step is of more importance 50 TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. than proper care and work in the selection and prep- aration of the seed bed. If this matter is neglected failure is almost certain. The spot selected should have a southern or south-eastern exposure, so as to get the advantage of the sun as much as possible in the early spring. The bed should not be nearer than thirty or forty feet from any tree, as they sap the moisture. If you have a place where there are woods to the North or West, so much the better, as they Fig. 32.—Tobacco on new grotund. Plants. Shading transplanted Florida Experiment Station. will protect the séed-bed from the cold wind. As a rule, soil that is fresh is much better to use for a seed-bed, for there are not so many weed seed pres- ent. However, if you have not the virgin soil, select a good rich spot, black loam, and prepare your bed. Wood and brush are then piled on the bed and burned for about an hour to destroy all weed seed and insect eggs, also to supply potash for the young plants that will germinate, One tablespoonful of seed should be put on every one hundred square yard of seed bed, proper care being observed in the selection of these seed. This should produce enough plants to set six or seven acres. It requires from ten days to two weeks for the seed to germinate. The seed bed should be protected by having a good cloth placed over it on a frame, as this protects it against sudden changes in the weather, until the seed germinates. Six or seven weeks after the plants appear they will be ready for transplanting. In the meantime they should be wa- tered each week. After they are up the cover or cloth can be removed. The land for tobacco should be thoroughly prepared just as you would a garden. The rows are laid off three feet apart as a rule, though sometimes three anc a half feet are allowed. The fertilizer is placed in the furrow, mixed with the soil, and planted on, The) plants are set about three feet apart in the row. The) distance varying in some instances; the further apart) the larger and coarser the leaves. Cuban tobacco ir Florida is given fourteen inches apart in the drill, wit! the rows three feet wide, When removing the plants) the bed should be thoroughly wet first, and the plant: taken up from the bed one at a time. The plants arc) set out in a similar manner to sweet potatoes. A hole is made in the ground with a peg or dibble, of the proper size and depth, and the plant placed in posi4 tion, a little water poured in, and the dirt placed about} it firmly. Machines have been made that transplant] tobacco very successfully. It is said that the work| done by the machine is superior to that done by the} hand, As soon as the tobacco takes root it should be hoed and see that the cultivation of the crop be shallow. Topping tobacco is the breaking off of the bud at the top of the stalk. This should be done when the button is well put out; and causes the leaves to grow) much larger and ripen up more evenly. Priming con- sists in the removal of the four or five bottom leaves | Not all tobacco growers prime their tobacco, for they} claim that the leaves should be left on as a protec} tion to those above. When it is practiced it is topped Soon after topping, sprouts put out, and these shoulc be removed every ten days. Tobacco is harvested by cutting down the entire stalk, or by gathering the leaves separately. The former method is perhaps the better. Tobacco is| ready to gather when the leaves turn a greenish yel| low color, or when they are brittle, and crack when) bent together. After the plant is cut, if you cut the entire plant, which is advisable, it is left in the field to dry for an hour, when it is carried to the barns) and placed on a stick. This is done either by split- ting the stem, or by hanging the stem on a nail driv- en through the stick. The sticks used are laths about four or five feet long, and the plants are placed on these about six inches apart. If you desire to cure by the leaf method, the leaves} are brought in in baskets, and four or five tied to- gether and hung over a stick. This involves more work than the other method. Worming tobacco.—Worming tobacco should be- gin immediately after transplanting. The cut worm Use All Labor-Saving Machinery Possible. 5 i takes his appearance at once, and you will have to look after him. A hole the size of a pin head now will develop to one the size of a dollar by the time the tobacco is matured. Mix with one gallon of corn meal one tablespoon of Paris green and sprinkle on the plants. This mixture is also good for the bud worm. The horned worm appears in May, the second and worst brood appearing in July, by which time Flor- ida tobacco should be safely housed. The best pre- ventive of the big horned worm, is to plant James- town or “Jimpson” weed around the borders of the Cigar tobacco barns should be near the field, 32 feet wide, 16 feet high, at least, and as long as neces- sary. A barn 32x50, and 16 feet high will house five acres. Tobacco left long on bottom tier poles will mould in Florida. The first cutting may often be stripped and boxed to make room for the next—say in thirty-five or forty days. Peeled poles, four or five inches thick, make good tier poles. Posts should be 4x6, set in four rows, making a driveway in the middle, with’rows of 12-foot poles on each side. The two middle rows of posts should be 20 feet high, to give pitch to the roof, and eaves and gables should project 12 or 15 inches. The poles should be four Fig. 33—Setting and watering tobacco by machine. necticut Experiment Station. field, and put into the blossoms a few drops of cobalt dissolved in honey and water or sugar and water. The moth which lays the eggs is very fond of James- town blossom, and the cobalt kills him. Each moth killed, prevents 500 worms. If these worms get into the field, a good flock of turkeys will search them out most industriously. The common wasp, the mud- dauber, yellow jacket, hornet, etc., all destroy these worms, as do toads, lizards and green crickets, but the last also occasionally takes a chew of tobacco. A single red wasp is said to be worth 15 cents a day in a tobacco field. As to curing tobacco, this can only be learned from experience. We give some general details, but this is all we can do. feet apart and laths 4 feet 2 inches long. Posts should be eight feet apart, with window between. Windows should be three feet wide and ten feet long, hung at top with strap hinges, to push out for ventilation at night, closing in day time. When leaf stems are cured, cigar tobacco is ready to strip and box, even though all green has not disappeared from the leaf. The dampness com- ing in at the open windows at night, will put the leaves “in case” to handle without breaking every morning. Separate into four grades, placing each in separate boxes: First, wrappers (perfect leaves) : second, binders (partially perfect leaves) ; third, fil- ler, (ragged and imperfect leaves); fourth, trashy pieces, which if sold at all, should not be included TILLING THE SOIL FOR Fig. 34—Preparing tobacco for curing. Experiment Farm, North Carolina State Horticultural Society, Southern Pines, «N.C. with the crop. If in doubt to which grade to give a leaf, put it in the lower one. Bind in “hands” or bundles of twenty or thirty leaves of even lengths, and .kkeep under a cover till noon or after, then place straight and compact in boxes, lapping the tips and leaving space of an inch between butts and end of box, to allow escape of heat from the sweating pro- cess, which will begin at once. covered with cheap oilcloth, Till box is full, keep When full, press top down by standing on it, or with small lever. When leaves are primed off in the field, much of the grad- ing can be done as they are strung on a cord, string- ing each grade to itself. Do not allow tobacco to hang too long on poles or its life will evaporate, and never sprinkle or dip it to bring it in case for handling. Trust to air dampness to put in cellar. Early strip- Fig. 35.—Tobacco ready for curing. Experiment Farm, North Carolina State Horticultural Society, Southern Pines, N. C. PROFIT AND PLEASURE. ping and boxing preserve fineness of texture and of flavor, and prevent waste. Boxes should be 2 feet wide, 2 feet deep, and 3 feet long, for smaller kinds, and 6 inches longer each way for Sumatra and Old Florida. It pays to sell soon after boxing, even at a smaller price rather than hold tobacco too long, as a general rule. oti east Fig. 36.—Typical Connecticut tobacco baru, VELVET BEANS, has in Florida for years as an ornamental porches, arbors, etc., and its value as a and forage plant has only recently been discovered. Experiments in Louisiana. Alabama, and Florida, show that for the southern half of these States, the velvet bean is as valuable as the cowpeas. As cited above, experience in the growth of the vel- vet bean is limited, but from the experiments made, we learn that it is best to have the rows four or five feet apart, and place two beans ina hill, two feet apart in the row. Light sandy soils are best. for this crop, but it can be grown on almost any kind of land. Clean cultivation should be practiced until the vines interfere. It should be cut between the time the plant is in full bloom, and the time the pods are well formed. It is quite a difficult matter to harvest the crop for hay, but it is used principally as a winter pasture for cattle and hogs, as the cattle relish the vines bet- ter after they have been killed by frost. A mowing machine with the blades in between the wheels has been used. Also a hand sickle or grass hook is used. The velvet bean is a leguminous plant, which been grown covering for manuring | Don’t Try to Farm Without a Good Harrow. 53 From two to three tons of hay are produced on the acre. The hay should be allowed to lie on the ground for two days, when it can be carried to the barn, or served in a similar manner to that suggested for cow peas. Fig. VETCH. There are several varieties of vetches grown in this country, one of the most important of which is Hairy Vetch. Vetches are all leguminous plants, but Fig. 38—Hairy Vetch grown, on (a) uninoculated and (b) inoculated soil. (U. 8S. Dept. Agr.) 37.—Field of Velvet Beans. on account of the high price of the seed they are not so popular as they would be otherwise. Hairy Vetch produces numerous slender branches from 3 to 6 feet in length. In character and growth it is somewhat similar to the English. The leaves and (ola. Expt. Sta. Bul. 60.) pranches are covered with a coat of fine hairs, hence the name. The pods burst open when ripe, and re- seed the field when not pastured too closely. If grown for forage it should be planted with rye or oats. It should be planted the latter part of August, or the first of September. If you drill the seed, one bushel per acre should be used, but if you broadcast the seed, a bushel and a half per acre should be sown. If you use oats or rye or wheat use one bush- el of these seed with the vetch seed. It does best on sandy soils, but will grow well on almost any good soil after the soil becomes inoculated, and it is said to be better than cowpeas or clover as a renovating crop. This crops Southern farmers can_ use. is one of the best winter renovating If your land has never grown the vetches it may be necessary to in- bacteria. It grows all winter in the South, and for that reason is quite val- uable to sow on a Bermuda sod for pasture. The common or English vetch is preferred by some, who claim that it makes the best hay and is relished more by stock. oculate with the proper 54 TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. WHEAT. Wheat stands second in acreage, and third in yield, of cereals in the United States. It is used principal- ly as a food for human beings, but occasionally it is fed to stock. It makes excellent forage when cut in the dough. It is. quite that Southern farmers devote more time and attention to the grow- ing of wheat. Roller mills are established in many places throughout the South, and it is no trouble for the farmer to produce first-class flour right at home. It is much cheaper to raise wheat and make your bread than it is to raise cotton and buy flour. important own One toes, and such things is, that you can rotate your crops. Crop rotation is impossible where only one or two crops grow. By planting land in wheat, you are able to use a leguminous plant afterwards, which builds up the land. It may be of interest to discuss the growing of wheat and the fertility of the soil in this connection. The University of Minnesota made experiments upon this subject, and they issued a bul- letin, in which the following conclusions are given. The Bulletin is No. 7o: After careful experiments extending over a series of years, the results of which are given in this bulle- tin, the following conclusions were reached: First—When wheat has grown continuously upon the same soil for eight years, there was a loss of 1,700 pounds per acre of nitrogen, about 300 pounds being utilized as plant food and 1,400 pounds lost by the decay of the animal and vegetable matter of the soil and the liberation of the nitrogen as gaseous and sol- uble compounds. During the eight years of contin- uous wheat cultivation there was a loss of over 21 per cent. of the total nitrogen of the soil, equivalent to an annual loss of 175 pounds per acre in addition to that used as plant food. Second—When wheat was grown in rotation with clover and oats, five crops of wheat being removed in eight years, larger yields per acre were secured and the total loss of nitrogen from the soil was re- duced to 800 pounds or about 450 pounds in excess of that utilized as plant food. When corn was grown with clover and oats in a rotation and farm manure was used, the total loss of nitrogen from the soil for great advantage in raising wheat, corn, pota- ° eight years was less than 100 pounds in excess of that removed as plant food. Third—When the oats and barley were grown con- tinuously the losses of nitrogen from the soil were nearly as large as when wheat was grown continu- ously. Fourth—When corn was grown continuously the loss of nitrogen from the soil was less than half as large as when wheat was grown continuously. When corn is introduced into a rotation of crops, the losses of nitrogen are less than if wheat were grown. Fifth—When wheat was grown continuously there was an annual loss of over 2,000 pounds per acre of humus due to the fermentation and decay of the ani- mal and vegetable matter of the soil. When wheat was grown in a rotation with clover and oats, no ma- terial loss of humus from the soil occurred. Sixth—The loss of humus changed the physical properties of the soil, causing it to be less retentive of moisture, lighter in color, and heavier in weight per cubic foot. During times of drought the soil from the continuous wheat cultivated plot contained less water than the soil from the plot which pro- duced wheat in rotation with clover. Humus con- serves the moisture of the soil, while the rotation of crops, the use of farm manures and the growing of clover, conserve the humus of the soil. Seventh—When bare summer fallowing is prac- ticed, a heavier loss of nitrogen occurs than when wheat is grown continuously. Summer fallowing fa- vors the decay of the humus and the loss of the ni- trogen. While larger crops of wheat are produced after a year of fallow, this increase is followed by a heavy loss of the total nitrogen of the soil. Summer fallowing exhausts the soil of its nitrogen. Eighth—When the nitrogen and humus of the soil were conserved by the rotation of crops, and the pro- duction of clover, an increase of 20 bushels per acre of corn and 5.6 bushels of wheat were secured. Ninth—Wheat is not an exhaustive crop when it is grown in a rotation, but when grown continuous- ly the fertility of the soil is impaired. It is not the lrop itself that reduces fertility, but it is the lack of systematic methods of farming which cause the de- + of fertility. Old wheat soils readily recuperate when some humus form of materials are returned o the soil. By the rotation of crops, the use of farm anures, and the cultivation of clover, the heavy llosses of nitrogen and humus from the soil can be |checked and larger yields and a better quality se- jeured. To get the very best results wheat should be planted on fertile soil. Rich clays and heavy loams are the best wwhen they are thoroughly drained. Calcarous soils are also considered good wheat lands. Land for wheat ‘should be well broken and thoroughly worked down with harrows and rollers until you have a firm, fine lseed-bed. When we consider the fact that most, if ‘not all the cultivation is done before planting, it be- ‘comes more necessary than ever to thoroughly prepare your land. It may possibly take longer, but time that is spent in preparing land for crops is never lost, The ‘object of every farmer should be to produce the most wheat possible on a given tract of land and thorough preparation is absolutely necessary in order to get the best results. If you are going to raise wheat, and if you are a farmer in the highest sense of the word, you will, take pains when preparing your land to make it do its best. It has not been found advisable to sub- soil land for wheat. It is necessary to have the soil firm underneath, and subsoiling makes this more dif- ficult. For fertilizers for wheat see Chapter on Fertili- zers in another part of this book. Have a Good Pasture for Your Stock when they are Not at Work. 55 Wheat should be planted in the South from the middle of October to the middle of November, or as soon as possible after the first white frost. The ob- ject in planting at this time, is to give the plants a chance to get started before the cold weather sets in. Spring wheat should be sown as early in the spring as the soil and weather will permit, but this is sel- dom, if ever, practiced in the South. Wheat should be drilled in rather than broadcasted, as the drill puts it in more evenly. It may be, however, sown by hand broadcast, and worked in with a disc harrow or cultivator. From one to two bushels of seed should be sown per acre, according to the size of the grain and the time of sowing. A _ bushel of small grains will contain two or three times as many ker- nels, as a bushel of grain containing large grains. As a rule, about a bushel and a half is the proper amount to plant. spring does not pay, as experiments Onsthat question prove that the yield is smaller when harrowed than otherwise. Harrowing winter wheat in the Wheat should be harvested when the grain is ful- ly in the dough stage. It can, at this time be com- pressed between the finger and the thumb and is still not milky. By the-time the grain is fully ripe, the cutting should be complete. If you defer harvesting, much of the grain is lost by shattering, also the feed- ing value of the straw is less when you wait too late. Reapers, binders, and headers are used to gather the grain in most places. The cradle is used little, and should be used much less than it is at present. It does not pay unless you have a very rough piece of land or very little wheat is planted. SIX HEADS CABBAGE GROWN BY NEW NOAKES, NUECESTOWN, TEXAS (Near Corpus Christi). (Courtesy of H. G. Hastings & Co.) Boor ll (;SARDEN DEPARTMENT Se bDIGhDYUBY 1” F. J. MERRIAM, EDITOR SOUTHERN RURALIST, ATLANTA, GEORGIA. 58 TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. MARKET GARDENING. There is no question of more interest to the South than market gardening. The Southern cities are coming to the front, cotton factories are being built, and many industries established. All these indus- tries require vegetables for the employees. These vegetables must be furnished by some one, and the Southern farmer is the one to furnish them. Up un- til a few years ago, little attention was paid to gar- dening in the South, but developments have been made, and now around every city, and most of the towns will be found many men who make their liv- About $100,000,000 is in- vested in truck farming in the United States, the products of which will reach a valuation of $75,000- ooo which is produced upon 534,440 acres of land. For- merly each vegetable had its season, and any attempt ing by selling vegetables. to secure that vegetable out of its regular season, which only lasted for a few weeks, would prove fu- tile. Now, every vegetable can be secured at any time That there is money to be made in truck farming there is no doubt. The South must, to a large ex- tent, supply the early vegetables for all the United States. Market gardening’ is just in its infancy. It is an industry that requires a great deal of study and brain work; but it is a business that will yield good returns. It requires more money to grow vegetables than it does to grow field crops; still, the returns am- ply pay for the greater expenditure. Alluvial soils with gravel or porous clay subsoil, are best for vegetables. But this, like many other things connected with agriculture, cannot be placed under definite laws, for here, also, circumstances al- ter cases. It frequently happens that nearly pure clays and apparently inert sands have been made to yield satisfactorily for the time and attention devoted to them. A lighter soil means an early crop, while a clay soil means a later crop. Asa rule, it is the early crop that pays best, though there are many ex- ceptions. Success in market gardening depends more on the proper location than anything else. No matter how good the land may be, how fine the vegetables pro- duced, unless the garden be located where produce can be easily shipped or sold in a good local market it is almost worthless. So you must locate where you will be accessible to the market, if you wish to suc- ceed. If you have to haul your produce a long way over rough country roads before reaching a shipping point, the quality of your goods will be materially affected. Moreover, the question of the necessary supply of labor must be considered by the wise man before he embarks in the business of growing veg- etables and small fruits. This question is of great importance, for it will be useless to try and grow vegetables without plenty of labor. The question of fertilizers is of great importance to the truck grower, and it is safe to say that stable or barnyard manure is the best for gardening pur- poses, However, in some localities it is impossible to obtain it in sufficient quantities, and for this reas- on it cannot be used. Wood ashes are also quite val- uable for fertilizing purposes when they can be pro- cured. For commercial fertilizers we give a list of formulas under the Fertilizer Department. In selecting a place for your garden try and get land that is warm and naturally well drained. If it is not naturally well drained, you had best tile drain it to begin with, as it is impossible to grow large land ; with, crops of early vegetables on poorly drained and while tile draining is expensive to start your increase will soon pay the difference. Drainage is very important, as it enables the air to en- ter the soil, also keeps the soil warmer. The chem- istry of garden plants is discussed under the Fertili- zer Department. We also refer you to the Agricul- ture Department, proper, for treatment in the devel- opment and growth of seeds. HOW TO PREPARE A SEED BED. The ordinary size of a convenient hotbed may be ten feet by six or seven feet wide, or it may be only of the dimensions of a common window sash, three feet by four, more or less. The shape has nothing to do with the definition, which may be to the effect that a hotbed is a box covered with glass, the whole placed upon a bed of soil resting on a bed of ferment- ing stable manure, the heat from which rising in the form ot vapor warms and moistens the soil within the box, while at the same time, the sun’s rays pass- ing through the glass are retained to warm and viv- ify the surface. The location of the hotbed has much to do with its success or failure. It should only be placed on A Good Garden Pays. 59 Jand always tree from flooding, preferably on a de- clivity, with good subsoil drainage, sheltered from cold winds, and facing south or southeast. As an example of a hotbed: frame, we will describe it as a box for one, two, or four sashes, each seven feet long by three and one-quarter feet wide. This dimension of sashes is given because it is easy to handle. The width named will allow for four lengths of 8xi1o glass placed lengthwise. Whatever the dimensions of the sashes, all should be alike so as to be inter- changeable. The frame may be permanent, of brick or stone; or temporary, of boards; it may be regular- ly built by a carpenter, with strong corner-pieces, or a gardener can do all the work himself and attain Fig. 1—The Early Hotbeds. just 2s practical results. Doing the work himself, ke mav proceed as follows: The length and breadth of the frame having been decided upon, excavate a space 2 ft. wider and 2 ft. longer than the indicated dimensions and 18 in. deep. After the excavation is completed, drive down at four corners post of prop- er lengths, four by four inches square, to which nail the sideboards; the posts on the back of the frame being twelve to fifteen inches above the surface lev- el, and those in front of the frame 6 or 8 inches; nailing the boards only to those portions of the posts which are above the earth level; the boxes, as it were, standing on stilts; it being desirable to use as little lumber as possible. The excavation is for the purpose of keeping the material and contents of the bed as much removed as possible from frigid air currents, and thus economize manure. Into the excavations of eighteen or twenty inches of depth, throw one foot in thickness of cornstalks, leaves, halfrotten, straw and coarse manure; these principally for preventing dampness and to facili- tate drainage. On top of this coarse strata spread a layer of three to four inches of good horse-stable manure, just beginning to ferment. Avoid pig or cow manure, as they do not heat. The manure for hotbeds must be well manipulated, that the fermen- tation may be prolonged, and this is best done by shaking out the manure loosely with forks, and. if exceedingly rich, mixing it with some poorer mater- ial. Otherwise the fermentation will be too fierce and of too short duration. Indeed, to secure thor- ough mixing, it is well to turn the manure intended for hotbeds at least three times at intervals of two days, and when transferring the manure from the pile to the bed it should be done quickly that the manure be as little exposed to the chilling influence of the air as possible. Tramp the manure down and spread it from end to end and side to side; when done, repeat with a layer of three or four inches, and when this is spread and well tramped down add a third layer of the shortest and best unfermented manure, as this will subsequently be a feeding ground for plants. The various layers of manure make twelve to fourteen inches in total depth. If the tramping, spreadine, and quality of material be not evenly distributed in the bed it will be irregular, and the subsequent growth of the plants the same. For early beds use the ma- nure liberally. Very late hotbeds can be made with- out any, as the sun in the late sprinz will give suf- ficient heat. Manure for Hotbed.—As fresh horse-stable ma- nure when used alone is very heating and soon cools; it is best to mix with it leaves or half-rotten straw, : as seed will be burned over manure of too high tem- perature. Of course, it is impossible to indicate fixed dates for sowing over a country so broad as this, and with such a variety of climatic conditions. COLD FRAMES. Many farmers and gardeners do not know how to make a cold frame. This is a very simple matter in the South. Select a protected spot and stake off where you wish your bed to be, a strip six feet wide 60 TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. and as long as necessary. Plow this up and fertilize heavily with rich old compost. The soil should con- tain a large proportion of sand, and if it is naturally stiff it will be best to add some sand ‘to it and work After the bed is ready, put up a twelve inch board in front, having the two lines of boards about six feet apart or just far enough for a six foot sash to lay across nicely. piece of 1x4 every ten feet to hold the two lines of plank at an equal distance, and steady at the top. Then bank up earth around the outside against the boards, and your bed is ready for the sash. In the latitude of Atlanta it is best to use the regular 3x6 foot glass sash, but farther South frames covered with cloth can be substituted. it with the manure. Put in a cross See that plenty of ventilation is given the plants in the beds during bright days and that they are not kept too warm, especially cabbage plants. Where the beds are allowed to get very warm the plants be- come very tender and are much more likely to get killed if there comes a big freeze. SOWING SEEDS. Every one familiar with farming knows it is quite important that land should be well prepared before any seed are placed in it. He who hopes to be suc- cessful raising vegetables without thorough prepara- ton of the land, is a fit subject for the insane asy- lum. But many people do practice the plan of try- ing to garden without preparing the land. They think the tiny seed should be able to adapt itself to the same conditions under which the larger field seed germinate and grow. Many men, on the other hand, know that the land should be prepared, but they do ithe only way they can learn is by reading, observation, not know how this preparation should be done. and experience. And let us digress long enough to say that if any one fails to learn by experience, he stands in his own light. You cannot be truly suc- cessful unless you are a close enough observer to learn by experience. If you continue to make the same mistakes year after year, you cannot hope for success. No definite law can be laid down for the prepara- tion of land. The main thing is to try to have the conditions right for the germination of the seed, and this is to have your seed-bed fine and firm to the bot- tom of the furrow. Much disappointment results in planting seed at the wrong time, covering too deep- ly, or not covering deeply enough; or from planting a variety or a vegetable that is unsuited to your con- ditions, climate, soil, etc. It is, of course, necessary that you plant the proper amount of seed per acre, but many farmers and gardeners make the mistake of planting too few seed, You must get a good start, for it is much easier to thin out than to replace. The real difference in planting a great many seed and in planting a few is in the cost of the seed, and you can readily see this is such a small matter that a farmer cannot afford not to have enough seed to-insure a stand at the start. In a country so large as the South, it is hard to lay down a definite rule for the cultivation of the garden. It is a good idea to watch the successful truck farm- er in your neighborhood, and follow largely in his steps, until you have acquired experience. Above all things, the land should be well prepared, and made fine and mellow. Small seeds will not come up and grow’ well in tough, cloddy ground. There- fore, see that the land is in the very best condition to receive the seeds. As to when each different kind of seed should be planted; this depends largely on locality, and the kind of plant you wish to grow. It may be laid down as a general rule—though there are exceptions to it—that it does not pay to put the seed in the ground too early, that is, before the soil gets warm. Many of the seed will rot in cold, damp soil and those that do not rot will not germinate until the soil becomes warm. THE GERMINATION OF SEED. The process of germination covers that period of time from the moment the dry seed are placed in the ground until the appearance of the plant. Very few garden seed will commence germinating at a temper- ature lower than 50 degrees, many requiring the soil to be much warmer than that. On the other ‘hand, too much heat dries up the grains, and prevents ger- mination. Experiments indicate that most varieties of seed will germinate rapidly in a temperature of from 70 to 90 degrees. Spinach, on the contrary, will germinate best in cool weather, and will hardly come up at all in hot weather. It is quite important that the seed have a sufficient amount of moisture. Some seeds require more moisture than others. Some will only germinate in water, while others require You Cannot Have a Good Garden Without Work. : 61 very little. Garden seed germinate best when the soil is moist but not wet. Too much moisture causes the seed to decay. The time required for seed to germinate varies very widely. Some seed, such as peas, beans, corn, and a few others, will germinate in three days; while cabbage, turnips, and radishes us- ually require a little longer. It is not always true that seeds which germinate will produce vegitation, for it is frequently the case that the sprout cannot push its way through the soil on account of being covered too deeply, or because of the ground baking on top of it. duce as rapid a growth as possible, for by so doing you can overcome the dangers arising from floods, grubs, insects, etc., which so often injure your plants. And the quickly grown vegetable is always the most salable. In growing vegetables you want to pro- Seed frequentiy lose their vitality. This is partic- ularly true in the Southern States where the air is moist and the weather warm. year, lose their vitality. Many seed, after one This is especially true of onions and salsify. There are methods of testing seed. Placing seed between two layers of damp or wet blotting paper will determine whether they are sound or not, in a very few days. While we are speaking upon this subject, it will not be out of place to stress the importance of using pure seed. Many sore disappointments are brought about on account of the seed not being pure. See to it that you pur- chase your seed from a reliable seed house, and that they are fresh. Such a firm cannot afford to put out old or impure stock. _ Many seed are first planted in beds and afterwards the plants are transplanted to their permanent place. \Vhis is done for several reasons: In the first place, | the space where the crop will ultimately stand may | be occupied by some immature crop. Then too, jsmall plants, such as celery, would be overcome by weeds, or eaten down by insects. It is much easier to look after a small seedbed than it is the whole garden. It is also done in order to get earlier varie- ities of a fruit or vegetable. For instance, by planting tomato seed in a hotbed the plants will have a good start before it would be possible to plant them in the open field. Transplanting, as a rule, should be done in damp weather. Many farmers and _ gardeners make the mistake of pulling up the plants from the ded, thus stripping them of their rootlets. This should never be done, Plants should be removed with a trowel or similar tool. Most plants should be transplanted deeper than.they ordinarily stood in the seed bed. The root and rootlets should not be al- lowed to point upwards, but should be spread out- ward and downward, as isthe natural tendency of the plant. The soil should be pressed down firmly around the stern so that the roots will come into firm contact with the earth. In small gardens it is a good practice to mulch after transplanting the plants. This is simply coy- ering the soil around fresh set plants, vines or shrubs with three or four inches of litter, straw, hay, leaves, manure or weeds, to prevent an excessive evapora- tion of moisture from the soil. Mulching has some advantage in that the crop that is mulched will re- main comparatively free from weeds except when one will occasionally push its way through; but these can be easily pulled up. Moreover, it keeps the ground in a good mellow condition. tried mulching it would be If you have never a good idea to exper- iment with it. ROTATION OF GARDEN CROPS. Just as it is important for the farmer to rotate his field crops, so it is with garden crops. There are many reasons for this. In the first place, to keep planting the same land in the same crop year after year soon exhausts certain elements of plant food, and unless very large quantities of manure are used the land fails to give the very best returns. Then, too, there are certain fungus diseases that will live over the winter in the soil, and should your land be infested with these it will mean great loss to plant the land again in the same crop. In a proper rota- tion there are certain crops which do better if they follow certain other crops. Peas may be followed by. kale- or. turnips,- Irish potatoes by late cabbage - or ruta baga turnips, but tomatoes or ege-plant should never follow potatoes. Beans may be followed by turnips, winter radishes, lettuce or collards, This list only suggests to you something of what is in- tended. It is a good idea to try to rotate crops as dissimilar in character as possible. Rotation is a great help in keeping vegetable crops away from in- sect pests, which are apt to become very disastrous where the same erop is grown in the same place a number of years in succession. 62 TILLING THE SOIL FOR PACKING AND SHIPPING VEGETABLES. One of the problems of gardening is marketing the vegetables after they are grown. And right on this point is where many farmers and gardeners lose money. It makes little difference if fine, large vege- tables are grown, unless they can be put on a good market, in good shape. The price obtained for produce shipped North by Southern gardeners depends large- ly upon condition of produce when it reaches its des- tination, and the amount of such produce on the mar- ket at that time. It is useless to ship produce from the South to the North at a time when it will decay before it reaches the market. It is also a losing proposition to ship vegetables to the North when the market is supplied nearer home. For example, tomatoes ship- ped to Philadelphia from the South in March or April bring anywhere from $3.00 to $5.00 per crate, but in June they will bring very little, for they will come in competition with the crop from Maryland or Delaware; and besides, the weather is so warm. in June that the tomatoes shipped then are liable to spoil before they reach the market. Many garden- ers also lose money by shipping tomatoes too green. During the shipping season the field should be gone over every other day at first; and later, every day, and the fruit gathered just as soon as they. start to turn. They should be carefully selected, wrapped, and placed in good crates. also Vegetables generate heat and moisture, which in- crease as the temperature If this heat and moisture is removed rapidly the fruit will keep much longer and much better. In other words, the crates for vegetables should be of such a size as to permit free ventilation. rises. Barrels are poor things to ship vegetables in, with the exception of potatoes, as small packages carry much better. When you have secured the proper crate or package the next thing is to see that the fruit or vegetable is properly assort- ed before it is packed. A few spoiled or poor speci- mens of fruit or vegetable will injure the sale of your whole lot. The packing should be done in the shade, and it is much better to pack where they can be cooled by passing breezes. When packed in the hot sun they will not keep near so well. You see to it that the outside appearance of your package is neat and attractive. Some shippers are of the opinion that the transportation company will pay especial atten- tion to their shipments, and are therefore careless in PROFIT AND PLEASURE. regard to shipping them. Remember that you will be treated as any other shipper, and unless you go to the trouble of correctly packing, marking and ship- ping your vegetables you cannot expect good returns. The earliest crops command the best prices. But do not sacrifice quality in order to get your produce on the market first. THE FARMER’S GARDEN. How can a farmer living on a farm and always busy, so manage his garden as to secure the largest amount of fresh vegetables at the smallest expendi- ture of time and labor. “Now,” Review, “I am in no sense a market gardener, nor do says a writer in the I raise vegetables for any other purposes than to se- cure for my family a succession of vegetables the year around; but anything I may say in this article is the result of fifteen years’ experience with a farm garden. In selecting your garden have it as conven- iently situated as possible; if not rich or well drained it should be made so. One-quarter of an acre is not too much, and if small fruits are to be included in it, it should be larger. I do approve of though, in the vegetable garden. While they are a great luxury and should be on every farm, it is better to keep them out of the garden. The shape of the garden should be oblong, All herbs, beds of asparagus, rhubarb, beds for cabbage and early plants should be placed on the same side together, leaving nothing to interfere with the thor- not such giving long rows. ough cultivation of the vegetables. .The old way of having a small garden for the “women folks and chil- dren” to work in the spring, and which went to weeds in the summer, is mostly a thing of the past. The garden of the progressive farmer is as up-to- date as himself. He gives the same careful cultiva- tion to his garden that he does to his corn or wheat, realizing its advantages the fact that it is a part of the farm; demanding and receiv- ing its full share of work, and no longer left neglect- ed. and recognising Of the very greatest importance is your choice of seeds. Send early for the catalogues of the leading seedsmen. They are lovely to look at, and much useful information can be gleaned from them. If you are just starting a garden for yourself they will be a great help to you and their description of the different varieties grown which will enable you to de- Select the Best Land for Your Garden. 63 cide which is most suitable for you. It is best to or- der early and get plenty of seeds, so if a late frost or a hard rain injures your stand you can plant over at once. Prepare your ground thoroughly. Vegetables delight ina rich, well prepared soil. In laying off your rows keep them perfectly straight, as the cultivation is much easier. Make your rows 2 1-2 or 3 feet apart; I prefer 3 feet. A wheel hoe is a good thing, but I can take a mule and cultivate a garden quicker and better than any other way. My garden 1s treated like my crops; first plowing it deep, then I cultivate often and shallow. If dry weather comes on I culti- vate more and keep a dust mulch to save the mois- ture. Just as fast as early vegetables come off, I re- place them with others. My aim is to have no emp- ty rows for weeds. I plant radishes every Friday, to have plenty, and beans every two weeks, After May, I plant all vacant rows in cow peas; in August sow turnips, winter lettuce, and radishes; in Septem- ber set out winter cabbage; in October all my gar- den is broadcast to mustard, kale, and spinach, which gives an abundance of green for winter, and serves as a covering for the land. tensive farming. This requires plenty of fertilizer and high cultivation; but it pays. In short, I practice in- I save no seeds; I leave that to those who make a business of it and understand it, My business is to raise vegetables, not seeds. All chicken manure is put on the garden, Scattering it between the rows as fast as made. I find it good for onions and cabbage, especially. That vegetables and fruit are healthy, is certain. I have a large family, but in fifteen years our drug and doctor’s bills together will not average $5.00 per year. Give a farmer’s wife a good garden, milk and butter, and eggs, with a plump chicken, and she will prepare a dinner that is fit to be set, not before a king, but before an American farmer, who surely de- serves the best in the land, for does he not feed the world? Prepare your garden, plant your seed, culti- vate it well and enjoy the fruits thereof.” VEGETABLE NOTES. If you let your strawberry patch you are going to have trouble. get in the grass Try a small patch of Chinese Winter Rose Radish. They are fine for home use and the local market. We have made our best fall lettuce in open ground by sowing the seed the latter part of August. Flori- da Header and Big Boston are excellent varieties for this purpose. When you set out those celery plants do not forget to make the land rich. Fill up the furrows with good, old compost; then try irrigation. Celery is 84 per cent. water. If the land you wish to plant in vegetables in very grassy when plowed, run over it several times with a Planet Jr., or Iron Age Cultivator, with three inch scooter attached, This will tear up the grass_ so it will die. Then run a straight tooth harrow over the field and drag out as much as possible. Repeat the operation, and you will soon have your land in shape. It is often a difficult matter to get seed to come up in hot weather, even when they are perfectly sound, unless the conditions are just right. If the weather should happen to be dry when you wish to plant, try tramping in the seed with your feet. We have often been able to bring up seed in this manner when other- We like rain wise they would not have come up at all. best to have land prepared ahead, get a good on it, and then rake or harrow off the rows and plant. We almost always secure a stand when we do this. We have also found it necessary to shade lettuce at this season in order to get it to germinate well. Don’t wait until the last minute to prepare those hotbed sashes, but begin to overhaul them now. A good coat of paint will add to their usefulness. For the early crop, we find that the early varieties of cabbage like the Early Jersey Wakefield, pay us best. find a glutted market and show a much smaller mar- gin of profit. The second, or mid-section varieties, usually October is an excellent time to plant spinach. The weather is cool and the seed germinate well. Seven Top turnip for spring salad may also be planted in open ground. We find it a good plan not to spread manure on land intended for early vegetables until after the land has been plowed in the spring. Where the manure is spread during the winter it prevents the land dry- ing out, keeps it wet until late in the spring, and de- lays planting. When sowing seed of almost any description very early in the spring we find it best to plant very shal- low. In fact, itis hardly necessary to cover seed like turnips at all when they are sown on freshly prepared land. The rain will usually cover them as much as is necessary and they will sprout and come up much 64 TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. quicker, and you will obtain a better stand than if they were covered deeper. If you use cottonseed meal as a fertilizer, be sure to apply it at least ten days before you plant, and see that it is well stirred into the soil and does not come in contact with the seed; otherwise you are very like- ly to lose your stand. We have seen it kill turnip seed and even snap beans. It does not seem to affect beets, however. Try an application of quick-lime on the land you intend to plant in turnips. It will help to prevent scab and make nice, smooth roots. When applying lime to land for any purpose do not let it air slack, for in doing this it loses much of its strength. It is much better to haul the lump lime direct to the field, scoop out a hollow place in the ground at different places where the lime will be needed, put in several barrels of lime, throw on a lit- tle water and cover the whole pile with earth. In this position the lime will crumble to a fine powder so it can be spread without losing any of its strength, and you will find it much more effective. Use about 40 bushels per acre. We have found that a good application of lime to land which we intended to plant in tomatoes prevent- ed their dying from blight. An application of lime to some soils has been found to more than double the size of lettuce. It will also prevent lettuce from damping off in cold frames. Lime will make clay land more friable, and sand less loose. It will sweeten sour land and where land is poorly drained, is a great help toward making it productive. Do not let it come into direct contact, however, with either guano or manure. ARTICHOKES. No farmer who is raising hogs should omit a good supply of Jerusalem artichokes for the hogs to feed on during the late winter or early spring months. They can be grown with half the labor needed for sweet potatoes, will yield from three to five times as much, and, bushel for bushel, are worth nearly or They through the winter without injury by freezing, and quite as much. can remain in the ground are so available for fresh feed at a season when pota- toes, peanuts and other similar hog feeds have been exhausted. They are not particular about the soil on which they grow, though a rich, sandy loam is best, and a dry, heavy, and barren clay the poorest. A good sweet potato soil is a good soil for artichokes The land needs no special preparation, but we prefer it plowed broadcast soas to plant ona level. Seed can be purchased from most seed dealers, and about as much per acre is needed as is needed for Irish pota- toes. The tubers are about as large as potatoes, and When to be planted early, on rich soil, which is in good condition, very small pieces may be used. can be cut in the same manner. Lay off in-rows four feet apart, drop’ the seed about eighteen inches apart in the rows and cover with a plow. No fertilizer will be needed on good ground. cultivation The only necessary is what will be needed to keep the ground clean from weeds and to prevent the surface from becoming hard and baked. Usually one thorough harrowing about the time the plants come up, and two later cultivations are suffi- cient, and by the first of July the plants should be so large as to shade the ground and prevent any further growth of weeds. As the tubers are not formed un- til late in the season, and are clustered very close to the bottom of the stalk, we like to make the last cul- tivation with’a turning plow, and then throw the dirt toward the rows. Harvesting may be safely delayed until January, and then only enough for planting need be gathered. Plow up a few rows, gather up the tubers, and bury or store them away like potatoes; then let the hogs have the rest. If more convenient a small part of the field may be fenced off from the lot where the hogs run, and the tubers allowed to remain where they grew, until needed for planting. ; A few who have grown this crop claim that their hogs did not relish the roots, and would not eat them freely. We have never heard such complaint from anyone after the first of January, though we are sat-_ | | the winter. lowing year. Do Not Fail to Fertilize Your Garden Spot Well. isfied that there is often good ground for it early in The roots do not form until in the fall, September and October, and so do not become well matured until two or three months later. We have never heard of a hog which was not hungry for artichokes at any time from January to March. Some farmers have objected to the crop on account of the supposed difficulty in getting rid of the plants when in a field wanted for other uses. It is true that artichokes will persist for many years, if not disturbed | during the summer, but a single good plowing or hoe- | ing out between June and September will kill every plant. time during the summer, after the old tubers have be- come exhausted and before the new ones are formed. This work can be successfully done at any On the other hand, some growers regard this persis- tent character as an advantage, as hogs usually leave enough tubers in the ground to make a crop the fol- We have never liked that way of do- ing, as the second season the plants are so irregular that it is impossible to cultivate them, and we have always found it more profitable, even when using the same field, to plow broadcast and _ replant every spring, The yield, of course, depends on the soil; but on land of fair quality it is seldom less than three hun- dred bushels per acre, while on very good land dou- ble that amount may reasonably be expected. Try a few this spring. grows year after year from the same roots. ASPARAGUS. Asparagus is one of the finest vegetables of the spring, and is grown quite largely for the market. It As it is ordinarily grown in the garden it is a troublesome crop, but if it is planted in rows so as to be cultivated with a horse, it can be as easily grown as any other crop. Asparagus thrives best in a rich sandy low soil, and is a crop that cannot receive too much ma- nure, There are two methods of making an aspara- gus bed. One plan is to get the roots from a seeds- man, and set out your bed, and the other plan it to plant the seed and grow the plants at home yourself. If you desire to raise your own plants, the seed should be sown in drills about eighteen inches apart early in the spring. One ounce will sow fifty feet of 65 drill, and these seed should be covered one inch deep. Before sowing the seed the land should be thorough- ly prepared by plowing and harrowing or spading, us- ing a liberal quantity of some complete commercial fertilizer, as the weed seed in the manure make it difficult to clean out the young plants. The seed germinate very slowly, so it will be well to plant rad- ish seed with it, then break the ground and mark the row, so that you can cultivate and keep the weeds down. The radish will also get some benefit from the Fig. 3.—Position of Asparagus Roots at Planting. land. The ground should be kept free from weeds at all times, and by the next spring the plants should be large enough to transplant to their permanent bed. Sometimes they are allowed to stand for another year, but this is not the general practice. ' The ground selected for the permanent asparagus bed should be well fertilized. By well fertilized we mean at least ten tons of manure per acre broadcast, or 1000 lbs. of high grade fertilizer. The rows in the asparagus bed should be four feet apart, and the plants should be set three or four feet apart in the rows. The plants should be set with their crowns about six inches apart under the ground. If they are planted at a less depth than this, the roots push up the surface and interfere with the cultivation. It will not do to cover them six inches at once, as the young shoots would not be able to push up through six inches of soil, They should be frequently cultivated with the cultivator and hoe. In the fall the tops should be cut off close to the ground and a liberal application of well-rotted manure worked in on the surface. No at- tention’ should be paid to the plants, but the whole surface can be plowed or harrowed to a depth of three inches. In the spring, as soon as the land can be worked, give one shallow cultivation in order that the soil may warm up quickly. When the crop has been harvested, or about the last of June, the whole bed should have another thorough cultivation to a depth of three inches, without regard to rows. These 66 TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. cultivations should make unnecessary the hand weed- ing which so often makes asparagus growing a diffi- cult task. Asparagus is best when it is white, crisp, and ten- der, and to secure it so the hills must be mounded up somewhat to bleach the sprouts. er, the sprouts are taken when from four to six inch- es long, and cut an inch or two beneath the surface with an asparagus knife. All should be cut when of the proper size, for if any are permitted to grow on, they interfere with subsequent cutting and stop the growth of new sprouts. The time between cuttings is laregly dependent on the weather: Once in two Fig. 4.—Florida Asparagus. kills subsequent cuttings. days is the average time. Frost shoots above ground, but does not injure There are a number of good varieties, among the best Moore’s, and Pal- of which are Conover’s Colossal, metto. Diseases of For the enemies to Asparagus see Plants, and the Insect Department. BEANS. There are many varieties of beans, such as com- mon field and garden, or kidney beans, Lima beans, Scarlet Runner beans, and horse or broad beans. The most extensively planted varieties for market pur- poses are Extra Early Red Valentine, Stringless Green Pod, Round Pod Refugee, Kidney Wax, Rust Proof Wax, and White Wax; also Henderson’s Bush Lima. Beans thrive best on a well4drained clay loam, or sandy loam soil, with good clay subsoil. The land should be well prepared by plowing and_har- Ordinarily, howev-- application of rotted barn- yard manure in the row. The bean is a leguminous plant, and therefore can draw nitrogen from the air; at the same time this will not take the place of ammo- nia in the fertilizer. Wood ashes are an excellent fer- tilizer for beans, used as a top dressing in addition to rowing, using a liberal the manure. Beans are very sensitive to frost, and therefore are easily killed, and the seed should not be planted too early. This is especially true of the Lima bean, which should never be planted until the soil is warm, or the seed will rot in the ground. Beans may be either When planted in drills, the rows should be from two to three feet wide, and if a foot to planted in hills or drills. planted in hills, the hills should be from a foot and a half apart, using from three to six beans to a hill. This not only helps to furnish plant food and They should be cultivated often and shal- low. keep down the weeds, but it preserves the soil mois- ture. The cultivation of the White Navy bean is similar to the above, except that it does not require as rich land nor as much fertilizer. If the crop is large the plants are pulled up when the pods are ripe, and this is sometimes done by running a plow along the side Fig. 5—White Mexican or Prolific Tree Bean. of the row, cutting the vines off just under the sur- face of the ground. The vines are then thrown to- gether in small piles, where they are left for a day or so. The vines should not be allowed to get wet, ' as this discolors the beans and lowers their market Do Not Neglect to value. When the vines are dry the beans are thresh- ed out by using either a machine made for the busi- ness, or they are threshed out with a flail. They are then run through a fan, then cleaned; after which they are assorted. The garden bean requires a much richer soil than the field bean. They will also stand very ‘heavy fertil- izing. When the running sort are planted, some rec- ommend the placing of the poles in the ground four feet apart each way, and then ‘about them. We do not believe, however, that this plan has any advantage over the plan of planting the beans first, and after they begin running then to place poles or sticks where they are needed. If you do not care to use poles, you may use two wires, placing one about six inches above the ground, Ball twine may then be used for the and the other ‘about six feet. vines to run on. For enemies to beans see Diseases of Garden Plants inthis chapter, also the Insect Department. : BEETS. Fig. Beet. 6.—Eclipse Turnip and the table beet. Sugar beets are not grown in the South, and hence we will only notice the table beet. Good table beets can be produced on most any friable soil, provided it is well-drained and made rich with plenty of old compost. If commercial fertilizer is \used, apply broadcast about 2000 lbs. of a complete vegetable fertilizer per acre. If possible, the land ‘should be plowed deeply in the fall and again in the planting the beans — | There are two varieties of beets, the sugar beet | Work Your Garden. 67 spring, making a fine seedbed by repeated harrow- ings. Beets as a rule are hardy, and may be sown just as early as the land can be cultivated after dan- The rows are planted After they ger of many freezings is past. from a foot to two and a half feet apart, come up, they should be thinned to about four inches apart. Thin when about two inches high, or as soon as they can be handled easily. Plant about an inch deep and see that the seed go in thick enough to in- sure a good stand. There should be at least three to the inch. As soon as the beets are as large as a hen’s ege you may begin pulling and bunching them for market, putting from five to eight in a bunch. They sell readily early in the season and are one of the most profitable of all vegetable crops to the market gardener. Early Egyptian, Eclipse, and Blood Tur- nip, are the most popular varieties. CABBAGE. ~* The cabbage is largely grown all over the whole country, and market gardeners have found that it is one of the most profitable crops they can grow. Cab- bage can be shipped much better than collards, and sell for better prices. The early crop is usually the most profitable, but of recent years gardeners have been making good money from the late crop as well. Cabbage one that retains the moisture. celight in a rich, well-drained soil, but You cannot make the land too rich and many gardeners apply as much as 100 two-horse loads of stable manure or 3,000 Ibs, of guano per acre. Land for cabbage should be broken deeply, thoroughly pulverized, and the manure and land near the sur- fertilizer worked into the whole _face. EARLY CABBAGE. The early Jersey Wakefield is still the leading sort for this purpose, although there are a number of newer varieties which the originators claim to be su- perior. If they are earlier, however, they usually sac- rifice size, and if they are larger they sacrifice earli- ness; but the Wakefield comes nearer filling the bill than any we have tried. You can set the plants eigh- teen inches apart in rows two feet wide, which will give you about 12,000 plants per acre, and they will make cabbage that will weigh anywhere from two pounds to ten pounds each. Now, if you produce a crop of 12,000 cabbage aver- 68 TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLSASURE: aging five pounds each, that means 60,000 lbs. of cab- bage altogether. But you cannot figure on such a large yield, as there will be some missing places, and the cabbage are not likely to average five lbs. each. With proper preparation, cultivation, and fertilizing, however, you can count on half this amount, or about 30,000 Ibs, Now, 30,000 pounds of cabbage will remove from an acre of ground 114 lbs. of nitrogen, 33 lbs. of phosphoric acid and 129 lbs. potash. To supply this amount of plant food it would require a ton of ferti- lizer that would analyze 7 per cent nitrogen, about 2 per cent. phosphoric acid, and over 14 per cent. pot- This crop of cabbage would also require 26,100 I give you these figures to show what ash. lbs. of water. Fig. 7.—Succession Cabbage. a crop of 30,000 Ibs. of cabbage would require, and, of course, the cabbage cannot be produced unless the fertility is in the land to begin with. [ am preparing to plant an acre in cabbage this spring myself, and 1 shall apply to that acre about forty tons of stable manure and at least a ton of high grade commercial fertilizer. And this on land that is already quite rich. A fertilizer for cabbage should analyze about 6 per cent. ammonia, 5 per cent. phos- phoric acid, and 7 per cent, potash. If I were short on manure I should not hesitate to use one and a half For to grow a big crop of cabbage it is necessary to put or even two tons of such fertilizer per acre. down two or three times as much plant food in the fertilizer as we expect the crop to consume. We have to do this in order to force rapid growth and large size, for the bulk of the cabbage crop is water any- way, and we want to sell as much water in the shape of cabbage as possible. To obtain the best results we must have our ma- nure and fertilizer worked into the first four or five inches of top soil, so it will all be where the plants can get at it. It is, therefore, best to break your land deeply, in the first place, and then apply and work in the “ertilizer broadcast on the surface. A little gu- ano can also be applied in the drill to advantage; but we must be very careful to see that it is all thorough- ly stirred into the soil and that our land is well worked — down and is fine and mellow. We do not want to see any lumps or clods, and we must be careful not to work the land when too wet, as this will lock up plant food and is very likely to cause failure. Another very important point is to have good, strong plants, of an even size. It is impossible to make a good crop of cabbage with poor plants. You must have strong, healthy plants, as near a size as possible; then the whole field will head up evenly. If you must use some smal] plants, select them out — and get them by ourselves. It will pay better, how- ever, to throw the little plants away and procure enough strong large plants to set your whole field. When a man puts in an investment of $75 or $100 per acre for manure and fertilizer, he cannot afford to take chances with poor plants. If you purchase your plants from a grower, better have him send you a sample so you will know what you are getting, and better pay a dollar per thousand extra if necessary, to get selected plants. When you set your plants wet the roots, and see that the soil is pressed firmly against the stem and root with the foot. The plant should be so firmly set that when taking hold of a leaf, it will break be- fore pulling up the plant. As soon as the plants begin to take hold give them a good hoeing and then see that they are either hoed or cultivated with a horse cultivator at least once a week, until they become too large to work. When the plants start to head a little nitrate of soda sprinkled around them and hoed in will prove a great help. If you can irrigate your patch you make suc- cess doubly sure, and when this is impossibe try to select a piece of bottom land or some that will not be likely to suffer from drouth. My cabbage will be planted on a piece of well-drained bottom land that I can irrigate. Vegetables Pay More Than Cotton. 69 While I have not gone very exhaustively into de- tails in this article, I have tried to make clear the main points which must be observed to produce a big crop of cabbage; and after all, that is the only kind of crop that it really pays to grow. So do not for- get to pile on the manure and fertilizer, prepare your land thoroughly, use only good, strong plants, and give them rapid cultivation. Whenever we fail to observe any of these principal points our cabbage crop has not been what it should. For early cabbages, the seed bed should be planted in November or December for plants to set out in March. A small shallow box, placed in the kitchen window will answer; but here they need not be started until January. The seed should be fourth of an inch deep. The plants should» be har- dened to out-of-door conditions by gradually expos- ing them to such conditions, so that when set in the field they would not be killed by a sharp frost. The rows should be about two and a half feet apart and the plants set eighteen inches to two feet in the rows. They will have to be planted in a éold frame. covered about one- In growing late cabbage the great difficulty is to get a stand. in the rows in the field where you wish to grow the cabbage. ly prepare the land and then as good rain rake off the bed and place four or five seed in a hill every ten feet apart. They can be covered with the foot, pressing the dirt upon them with the ball of the foot. As soon as the plants appear, go over the field and dust them with air-slacked lime or ashes, so as to keep off the flea beetle, a little pest that is likely to destroy your plants before you know of their presence. You should be careful that a crust does not form around the plants, as they frequently die from want of moisture. To keep the crust from forming around them, you just keep the harrow and rake going. In fact, they should be pushed by thor- ough cultivation from then on. When cabbage are grown for the market, it is gen- erally advisable to dispose of as much of the crop as possible as soon as they head and not try to store them and wait. Cabbage should not be stored while wet, or handled while frozen. They keep well if stored in a cool, damp cellar, if stored in bins about four feet wide. They also keep well when the heads are buried in sand. They can be stored out of doors by digging long, narrow trenches, placing them in, As a rule it is better to plant the seed In planting by this method you thorough- soon as you have a and covering with straw and dirt deep enough to pre- vent serious freezing: When stored pull them up by the roots and turn them up-side down, leaving on all their leaves. There are a great many diseases of cabbages, and also enemies in the form of insects, all of which are treated in this book, For diseases, see Diseases of Garden Plants, and see Insect Depart- ment. Among the best varieties are the Early Jersey Wakefield, Long Island Wakefield, All-head Early, Early Summer, Sure Head, and Late Flat Dutch. for insects, CELERY. Celery is a hardy plant grown in almost all parts of the country for the leaf stalf. The celery industry Fig. 10.—Savannah Market Celery. for it is a muck, or sandy loam, but the sandy loam would have to be heavily fertilized, as celery is a rank feeder. A reclaimed swamp that is well-drained tilth is a fine place for celery, but the celery grown on swampy lands is not so good land. It is a frequent custom to plant muck land in a crop of potatoes or onions, and follow it the same season with a crop of celery. It is sometimes the cus- tom to set the celery plants out before the potato crop is dug, omitting every third row of potatoes. of Florida is enormous. The best land and in good as that grown on up- Celery seed are perhaps the smallest seed used by gardeners, and the plants are very small themselves when quite young. It is often the case that a small 70 TILLING .THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. clod of dirt resting upon seed or plants will retard and sometimes prevent growth. For this reason it is incumbent upon the grower to thoroughly prepare his land, especially the seed bed, which must be as fine as an ash bank. The seed should be sown thickly on top of the ground in rows ten or twelve inches apart. Tread the seed into the soil with the feet, but do not cover them. The planting should be done while the soil is fresh as soon as the land is prepared, then spr:nkle lightly with a watering pot with a fine sprin- kler, and cover with wet sacks. Sprinkle the sacks every day until the seed sprout, when the sacks may be removed and a partial sade given until the little plants get started. tivate between the rows twice a week, As soon as the plants appear, cul- weeds or no weeds, and when two inches 11h thin out to about one inch apart in the row. Transplant to permanent field when six inches high, setting in rows 4 feet apart, and placing plants 6 to 8 inches in row. sometimes sown broadcast, but this is (al a Seed are usually done in flats in the greenhouse. When should be mixed with sand, using one part seed and When the inches high they are transplanted to rows about two the seed are sown in this manner they five parts sand. plants are about three or three inches apart in other flats or beds. This plan of sowins broadcast in the bed is used for early celery, and the other The plan is used for late celery. work of transplanting should be given special atten- tion. The time celery should be transplanted depends largely upon local conditions. In the central South this is done in August, the crop following some early In Florida. it is done late in the fall. When setting have ready a pail of mud, that is, earth vegetable crop. and water stirred together, mixed to the consistency of cream. Dip the roots in this, usinz, of course, only larve, strong plants. The plants should be dropped in the freshly opened row, anywhere from six to eizht is suffi- inches apart. Double rows, where the soil ciently fertile to permit it, are better than single rows. Tle double rows are six inches apart, and the sets of rows are four feet apart. In this manner you get rear!y twice the czmount on an acre of land. -Irigaticn is quite important Surface irrigation at one station doubled the yield of in growing celery. the crop, and increased its market value eight times. Sub-irrigation has proven very effective in many places. It is needless to state that land for celery should be made very rich, and repeated top dressings of Nitrate of Soda will prove very beneficial in pro- Golden Self-Bleaching and White Plume are the principal varieties used. moting quick growth. COLLARDS. The collard is extensively grown throughout the South, but not so much as a few years ago. It grows about two feet high, but does not make a hard head. The The leaves are tender*and are used for greens. Fig. 9.—Collards. collards should be planted in the same manner as cab- bage. CUCUMBER. Cucumbers are sensitive to frost, and require for Any corn will also produce their best growth’a rich, sandy, warm loam. land that will produce good good cucumbers, if they are properly manured in the hill. - Some seed until the weather is warm, but one must run some risk in order advocate not planting to secure earlness. The following method will give you earlier cucumbers than the plan of waiting until the weather is warm before planting the seed: Take plant or strawberry boxes without bottoms, place them in cold frames or hotbed, and fill them with good garden soil, and well rotted manure. Plant your seed in them, and protect by placing sash, or some other glass over them. The seed can be planted in the ear- ly part of. February, or about six weeks before it would be safe to set the plants in open ground. After the seed are up and the weather is warm, the sash can Tf the be taken off in the day, and replaced at night. jweather be extremely cold, hay or straw could be ||placed over them, and the sash on top of the hay. | When setting in the field set a little lower than they jwere in the boxes, cut away the box, water well, and \set firmly. By this method you can ship cucumbers before anyone else, and have good profits, in that they are the first. | i} | Fig. 10.—Japanese Climbing Cucumber. | | Land for cucumbers should be prepared about the | | same as you would for corn. The rows should be run | i : : a good shovelful of well rotted manure worked into the soil, and the hill made up at the check. Keep cultivated and keep free from weeds at all times. | For table market picked when they are grown but still green; and for out deeply from four to six feet apart each way, and and use cucumbers should be jpickline purposes, according to size of pickle wanted. fan large and over-grown cucumbers should be kept [picked off and not allowed to ripen seed, for with the \ripening of the seed the vine will stop bearing and be- gin to die. | For enemies to cucumbers see Diseases of Garden /Plants in this chapter, also the Insect Department. White Spire, Long Green and Evergreen are the /most popular varieties. Do Not Let the Insects Get Your Garden. 71 CARROTS. Corrots are grown almost the same as turnips. They should be planted very early in the spring on well-prepared and fertilized land in rows about eigh- teen inches apart. They are largely grown around New Orleans for shipping to Northern markets and here the crop is planted in the fall. Carrots are very valuable as a stock food as market. Sow seed in shallow drills in early spring when the trees are leafing out. Make several sowings about a month apart so as to give a succession crop. When well as a vegetable for plants are well started, thin out to four inches apart in the row. Sow in rich or well manured soil worked deep. This is a deep-rooted crop and the soil should be prepared deep enough, so the roots can penetrate Cultivate frequently, your ground free from weeds and grass. drills 16 to without difficulty. keeping Best make 18 inches apart to allow easy working. In Florida sow seed in September, October and No- vember. Oxheart is a good early variety; but Chan- tenay and Danvers Intermediate are probably most largely grown. Fig. 11.—Oxheart Carrot. EGGPLANT. The eggplant is only grown in the South for com- mercial purposes, and its cultivation is similar to that of tomatoes. The plants will have to be started under glass, and should be vigorous and at least six or eight inches They as the soil is warm high when they are transplanted to the field. should be transplanted as soon and all danger from frost is past. If you only want a few plants, it would be better to buy them than to try to raise them. 10 or 12 plants should be a plenty to supply the average family. It is best to plant the NI bo Fig. 12.—Improved Large Purple Thornless Eggplant. seed in small boxes or pots, say three inch pots, as these can be easily transplanted, and the plant will not suffer on account of transplanting. The main thing is to use only vigorous, healthy plants, and keep them growing after they get started. It is far better to throw away poor plants than it is to bother with The plants should be placed three feet apart For enemies to the them. in rows which are four feet apart. eggplant sec Diseases of Garden Plants in this chap- ter. Borecole. Fig. 13.—Early Green Curled Kale or TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. Kale belongs to the cabbage family. It does not head up, but has a thick crown of leaves. It is used as a vegetable for greens in the early spring or late fall. Kale requires the same soil as cabbage, also similar cultivation, The leaves are cut and sold loose on the market by the bushel in the early spring when they are often quite profitable. The German kale or St berian is very hardy and will grow all winter without protection in the South, LETTUCE. Lettuce is becoming one of the most profitable veg- etables grown by the market gardener at the South. The seed are usually planted in the open field in the early fall and then plants transplanted to cold frames protected by cloth or glass sash, and sometimes heat- ed by steam or hot water. Then they are forced and Fig. 14.—California Cream Butter. head up about Christmas for the fall trade. Seed are also sown in the frame in the spring, the plants to be transplanted to open ground in March. Lettuce grows best in a clay loam soil made rich with well rot- ted manure. It is usualy planted in rows about one foot apart, with the plants six inches apart. If you desire first-class lettuce, the crop must be grown rap- idly. A quick growth is sometimes secured by an ap- plication of 200 to 300 pounds of nitrate of soda broadcast and raked in. Apply after a rain, but when the plants are dry. Constant cultivation is also nec- Thorough Preparation is Half the Battle. oie}: essary to success. The crop should mature from six to eight weeks after it is transplanted... For enemies to lettuce, see Diseases of Plants, also the insect department. The Iceberg is an excellent summer lettuce, but is very slow to run to head, but Big Boston and Cali- fornia Cream Butter are varieties usually grown for market. MUSHROOMS Few people realize the value of mushrooms as -a food. Most of us allow these plants -to spring up, bear fruit, and we never take advantage of that fruit. There is an idea that most mushrooms are poisonous. Some of them cannot be eaten on ac- count of being too woody, but the greater number of common, soft, fleshy mushrooms are edible and many are among the most delicious and nutritious foods that the vegetable kingdom affords. We take from a Bulletin recently issued by one of the experiment stations, the following: “Only the so-called ‘cultivated mushroom, Agaricus Campestris, is grown for mar- ket. The culture is very easy and almost any one can succeed at it. This mushroom thrives best at a steady temperature of about 55 deg. F. to 65 deg. F. The temperature must not fall below 50 deg. F. nor rise above 70 deg. F. delicious “Tn France and England, this mushroom is exten- sively grown for market in sheds, stables, cellars, dis- used quarries, mines and caves. It is also grown dur- ing the fall months out of doors in garden-beds, kept covered from direct sunlight. Mushrooms do not re- quire sunlight as green plants do, but ordinary dif- fused light will do them no harm though direct sun- light is injurious. In eastern and central North Car- olina the temperature of the air during the months of September, October, and November is well suited for growing this mushroom out of doors. The plant may also be grown in ordinary pits roofed over or under cold frames or disused hot-beds—the sashes being kept covered with straw to exclude the light. “In preparing mushroom beds, whether for indoor or outdoor beds, horse or mule droppings must be obtained, though one-fourth the manure may be from cows. The fresh manure should be mixed with one- third its bulk of clean garden or pasture loam soil. The mixture is then firmly beaten down with a spade and allowed to stand under cover for a week unless in the meantime it ferments too violently, in which case the pile-must be turned over and made afresh, - adding a little fresh soil to the pile. In making the beds, firm the mixture of soil and manure by tread- ing on it with the feet or beating with a brick, Make the bed when firm about 8 inches thick. Let the bed stand for a few days, then insert a thermometer into a hole made in the bed, and when temperature falls to about go deg. I. it is ready for spawning. The spawn of the cultivated mushroom is sold in bricks by all the larger seedsmen. Another variety is sold in flakes, but the brick spawn seems to be better. The bricks weigh about one pound and cost from 12 to 15 cents each, or about $7.50 per 100 pounds. Each br.ck is broken into a dozen or eighteen pieces. Make holes in the bed about to inches apart each way and insert the pieces of brick-spawn so that they will be covered two inches deep. Beat the covering as firm as rest of bed. Let the spawned bed stand for 6 to 8 days and then cover the whole with two inches of clean garden soil. This soil covering must not be put on until at least six days after spawning. The beds, if out of doors, must be covered with rain-proof cloth, such as the ordinary oiled plant-bed cloth. Over this if the air is very warm, mats of straw may be placed to keep the bed cool. The beds must be watered if the soil shows any tendency to crust on top. Use water heated to 100 deg. F. Cold water must not be used. Give just enough water to moisten the top two inches of soil and no more. The fruits or “mushrooms” to push through the soil in from 5 to 7 weeks, according to the temperature. The plants are salable in all stages of growth, but are most valued when just out of the “button” stage—when the cap can be distinguished from the stem. The mushrooms tend to come up in clusters. In gathering it is best to twist the stem off its hold on the underground spawn. If necessary the stent may be cut off. The crop should be gathered every day. If any mushrooms are allowed to attain full size, yield of bed will be diminished. The bed should continue to bear from four to six weeks. The average yield is about 3-4 pound per square foot of bed surface. After the first crop is gathered .the bed should be copiously watered with warm water, to each gallon of which has been added one ounce of nitrate of soda. In lack of nitrate, use a strong decoction of hen manure for same purpose. -A second crop can be obtained, often superior to the first. will begin The market price for mushrooms varies greatly. It sometimes reaches $1.25 per pound, but as a rule the 74 TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. price is from 25 cents to 50 cents per pound for young, e fresh stock of uniform size. At present mushrooms are consumed chiefly by the wealthy and only first- class goods are salable at any price. The lower grade of mushrooms must be consumed at home or utilized in manufacture of catsups or sauces. The ro-pound “Georgia” grape basket is a suitable The basket should Pack solidly package for shipping mushrooms. be lined with clean white paper. and keep as cool as possible until sold. Some mushrooms are poisonous, notably the Ama- nita genus. If you are inexperienced in the mush- room business, you will do well to avoid eating the following kinds of mushrooms: 1. All mushrooms which are worm-eaten, or in the least degree decayed. 2. All mushrooms which are woody or corky. 3. All mushrooms which are bitter, sour or peppery to the taste. 4. All mushrooms which have a fetid or strong dis- agreeable odor 5. All mushrooms which have a sheath surrounding a bulbous or swollen base. 6. All mushrooms having a milky juice, unless the milk is reddish. 7. All bright-colored mushrooms having a sticky, warty or scaly cap with thickish gills. 8. All tube mushrooms whose flesh changes cotor when broken, or whose tubes have reddish mouths. A good way to test the edibility of mushrooms is to break off a piece of the cap about the size of a grain of corn and chew it, rejecting the chewed mat- If the mushroom seems to this the taste, the chances are ter after a few minutes. agree with any species described in edible, ereatly in favor of its being wholesome. paper as and is pleasant to There is no reliable short test for determining the edibility of mushrooms. MUSKMELON. The muskmelon is a sensitive, annual, trailing vine, frost. loupe is quite often applied to muskmelons, but should y which is very sensitive to The term canta- only be applied to one group, which is characterized by a hard, scaly and sometimes deep-furrowed rind. Cantaloupes are grown very largely in the South for They sandy shipment and has proven most _ profitable. thrive best when grown on a medium, light, loam. The land should be well prepared, by plowing the fall before and frequent harrowing during the winter and spring. Where it is desired to get in an extra early crop, some growers start the plants under glass, as suggested for cucumbers, and transplant It is often dif- hem as soon as the weather permits. yes = Bras ie ae : BLE ZN I ST ADS DAR LISLE: Fig. 15—Eden, the Great Shipping Melon. ficult to get the vines to live, and it is best to plant the seed These can be removed to the field, when the weather is cloudy in bottomless boxes or in cans. or late some aiternoon, and the plants transferred to the ground without disturbing the roots. The advan- tage of this practice is questioned by some, who claim that the melons are no earlier than they are when ss Fig. 16—The Ponce de Leon Cantaloupe. the grower waits until the weather is warm enough to plant the seed in the field direct. At the Arkansas Experiment Station, however, it is said that by start- The Garden is a Good Recreation Spot for the Business Man. 75 ing the melons under glass, the crop came off from 10 to 20 days earlier. When the melons are planted out of doors, the rows for cantaloups should be six feet apart, and the hills three feet in the row. It is the custom to plant from ten to fifteen seed in a hill. Muskmelons and canta- loupes should be fertilized with well-rotted barnyard manure, or 500 pounds of commercial fertilizers, as recommended in the Fertilizer Department of this book. As soon as the plants are up and past the seed leaf they can be thinned out, say to the three largest in the hill, and later thinned to the two Cultivation should be shallow. strongest plants. After the runners are about two feet long, it is a good plan to sow broadcast thinly, with some kind of field peas, and sweep out with long sweeps about five times to the middle, or a cultivator with three sweeps on run- ning three times The vines should then be placed in as nearly a natural position as possible, which should finish the cultivation. The melons-at present in favor for shipping are mostly of small or medium size and high quality. A good shipping melon should possess the following points: 1, productiveness; 2, firmness; 3, high quality; 4, uniformity; 5, attractive appear- ance; 6, keeping quality. Firmness results primarily from a firm rind, and secondly, from firmness and thickness of flesh, or smallness of cavity. As to quality, reputation for quality will sell the melons from a given region, at good prices, when otherwise they would prove a drag on the market. Among melons grown here, the following are con- sidered best for shipment. in the order of preference: First Choice—Golden Netted Gem, Rocky Ford, New Jersey Improved. Button Strain of Extra Early Jenny Lind, Early Netted Gem. Second Choice—Matchless, Burpee’s Melrose, Jer- sey Belle, Baltimore Market, Jenny Lind, Cosmopol- itan, Champion Market, Wood's Perfection, Osage Long Island Beauty, Large Baltimore. The varieties are named Varieties for Home Market—Early Hackensack, Emerald Gem, Paul Rose, Kinsman, Queen, Montreal Green Nutmeg, Bay View. For enemies to muskmelons see Diseases of Garden Plants, also the Insect Department. MUSTARD. Mustard is grown for greens mostly in the South, but 1s grown some for seed. It requires a warm, rich It is sown. either If broadcast, soil, preferably a sandy loam. broadcast or planted in drills. eight quarts of seed per acre are required. It requires about the same cultivation and fertilizers as turnips. OKRA OR GUMBO. Okra is a Southern plant, and is grown without 76 TILLING THe SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. much difficulty, and thrives in all garden soils. It is planted about the same time as snap beans, and the cultivation is about the same as cotton. The rows are usually three or four feet apart, and the plants should be from one to two feet apart in the row. The seed should one inch deep and planted when there is a good season in the ground, as The green be covered about the seed are hard and slow to germinate. pods are used for cooking as long as they snap easily. ONIONS. Onions are coming to be one of the best paying vegetable crops in the South. Up until a few years ago little attention was paid to them except for local consumption, but now many growers are making splendid profits raising and shipping them, especially in the extreme South grown for early shipment in April arid May. where the Bermuda onion is There are three methods of growing onions which we will describe: First, with sets, second, by sowing in the fall and transplanting early in the spring, and ae Fig. 20.—White Multiplier Onion Sets. third, by sowing the seed in the open ground in the spring as soon as the weather will permit. Onions for sets are grown principally for bunching, and sold green to supply our spring market : they are not suitable for ripe dry onions, as they will not keep, al- the Pear] variety through the summer for home use. Sets can be grown in the South as well as in tke North, and are much preferred. The seed should be sown on very thin soil, too poor to produce weeds, and sown very thickly in the row, so as to produce very small bulbs; they ought not to be much larger than a pea. From seed sown in March or April, the sets will be ready to pull in July when though we have kept they can be laid by to plant in the fall for the young spring crop of bunch or green onions. It would be well to apply a dressing of chemical fertilizers to the - soil devoted to growing sets, applying at the rate of 400 lbs. per acre, and this should be applied some- time before sowing the seed; this gives the fertilizers a chance to be assimilated with the soil. Fig. 21—Bermuda Onions just arrived from La Fourche, La. Another good method that is practiced by some, is to sow the seed in shallow boxes in the hot-house then transfer them to the cold frames later, then transplant to open ground in the spring as soon as the weather will permit. There is some work attached to this method, and the work should be well done, but no more than planting the sets, and is less costly if you have to buy your sets. By following this meth- od you can produce onions that will grow to large size, and ripen suitable to supply home markets or ship to more distant sections. Another method is to grow the seed in February or early in March in open ground where you expect to mature the crop, but this method requires high cul- ture and well prepared soil, and in fact either method requires this, but the latter method must not want for any cond ‘tions that ’are required to force an early A clay loam ora mucky soilis suitable for onions; in preparing the soil, it should be plowed deep and fine, so as to leave no lumps, finishing with a heavy roller to firm the soil, as onions form bulbs on the surface, only the roots penetrate the soil. This rule applies whether you follow either method. growth, and grow the crop to maturity. The best soil for onions is a_ rich, well-drained loam. Heavy clays, hillsides and stony lands should not be planted in onions. Muck lands that have been in cultivation for three or four years produce excel- lent crops of onions. The land that onions are plant- Complain of Hard Times. Some Folks Leave the Garden to the Children, and Wey ed on should have been in some heavily manured, hoed crop the preceding year. It is a mistake to plant onions on weedy land, or on land that is run down. Land for onions cannot be made too rich. The more manure you place under your onions the better crop you will make. If you are in the onion business, remember that fertilizers pay. Use anywhere from 40 to 50 two-horse wagon loads of stable manure, and from 500 to 1500 Ibs. of commercial fertilizer, as di- rected in the Fertilizer Department of this book. Then during the growing season, the most successful growers apply from 250 to 500 lbs. of nitrate of soda, applied broadcast in three or four applications. Re- member that fertilizer applied to onions is not lost, ig. 22.—Three Globe Onions. for you do not have to rotate. onions, but can grow them from year to year on the same land. Onions are planted in rows from 12 to 14 inches and about 4 inches in the row in garden culture, whether you plant sets or sow the seed and thin to a stand. On an extensive scale it might be well to wi- den the rows to admit of horse culture, but with the improved implements for hand work, this crop with high fertilizing, will pay for close planting and hand culture. Some growers lay off their land slightly 7 ridged, but we prefer a level, but are careful to firm the soil before planting. Cultivation should begin as soon as the young plants are seen. The soil should be loosened on both sides, and thrown slightly away from the plants. Throughout the season, the crop should be hoed whenever weeds appear, or the ground becomes hard. Of course shallow cultivation should be given. After the bulbs begin to form cultivation should not be so frequent. As soon as the onion is mature, the stalks become weak just above the bulb and the top falls over to the ground. When this occurs the crop is ready for harvesting, even though some of the tops are green. They can then be pulled, but should not be allowed to dry in the sun, as it is liable to scald them. As a rule, the onion crop in the South ripens at a time when rains are frequent, consequently they should be cured under a shed. Here they should be spread out in slat trays on shelves so that the air can circulate through them freely, and in this position they will keep until they can be marketed. When ready to market trim off the tops and roots and pack in crates, assorting them to a uniform size. The dark red and yellow va- rieties are often shipped in sacks. A dry loft is a good place to keep them. Within the last few years what is known as “The New Onion Culture,’ has come into practice. The seed are sown in cold frames in November-or Decem- ber under glass in rich soil and the plants transplant- ed to open ground in February or March, when they are about the size of a good quill. While the cost is a little more for transplanting them, yet it is claimed that the saving in work afterwards, thinning, etc., the gain in growing larger crops, more onions of a mar- ketable size, more than pays for the extra cost of transplanting. For enemies to onions, see Diseases of Plants, also the Insect Department. PUMPKIN. The pumpkin is grown for both man and beast, and is quite a paying crop, especially when grown with some other crop. It is quite a splendid crop to grow in corn fields. As a food for dairy cows, it is said to be equal to ensilage. If the land is very fertile and the vine grows very rapidly, the pumpkins cannot be co 7 planted closer than ten or twelve feet apart. Six or eight seed should be planted in a hill, and two of the best plants allowed to grow. The crop is grown with comparatively little work, and brings in good returns when marketed, as the demand for them is increasing. grown with corn they do not need extra fer- the corn. They the soil gets When tilizers or work other than given should be planted in April, or when warm. RADISH. The radish is a quick growing, early season garden It grows best in cool weather and must contin- it will not be tender. The crop is quite frequently grown in hotbeds or cold frames in the early spring. The seed having been sown in January or February, five or six weeks after planting the crop should be ready for use. The rows should be from a half to a foot wide, and the seed should be covered about a half inch deep. One ounce of seed should plant a hundred feet of row. They crop. ue until it is mature or TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. should not be grown in the summer time, as they will be stringy and tough, which renders them unfit for can be planted from the first use. Winter radishes Fig. 24—Rosy Gem Radish. to the last of September. The Rosy.Gem, or White Tipped Scarlet Ball is a popular variety, also the Half Long Deep Scarlet, also French Breakfast are popular. Fig. 25.—Improved American Rutabaga. RUTABAGAS. The rutabaga is also known as the Swedish turnip. Have a Good Fence Around the Garden to Keep the Chickens Out. 79 The root is a large fleshy bulb and is produced the first year, while the seed are not produced until the second year. Rutabagas do best on rich, well pre- pared loam soils. The crop is grown both for man and stock. Every farmer would find it to his interest to devote an acre or two to the rutabaga crop. The rows should be two feet apart, and should be planted from June to August, and harvested before freezing weather. It requires about two and a half pounds of seed per acre. The crop should be cultivated much the same as white turnips, but more care should be given to early thinning. The plants should be left no near- er than ten inches apart in the drill, The American grown seed give best results. Fig. 26.—Salsify. SAGE. Sage is a perennial garden shrub which is used for seasoning sausages, meats, and for other culinary purposes. The plants are generally started in a hot- bed, then set in rows eighteen or twenty inches apart, plants being 8 or Io inches apart in the row. The plants should be kept free from weeds. When in bloom it is ready to cut. The roots should be protect- ed during the winter with straw mulch. SALSIFY, OR VEGETABLE OYSTER. Salsify, or vegetable oyster, is a hardy viennial plant. The root is similar to the radish. It requires a deep, cool soil and the entire in. The seed should be planted in drills from one to two feet apart, and the plants thinned out to four or The seed should be season to mature five inches apart in the row. sown very early in the spring and covered an inch deep. / One ounce of seed should plant a row 7o feet long. The roots may be dug in the late fall, or they may be allowed to remain in the ground all winter, digging as required. The roots when cooked have the flavor of oysters. SQUASH. Squashes require a warm, fertile, sandy soil. They are grown in hills about four feet apart each way for the summer or bunch varieties, and for the trailing varieties eight feet apart each way. The plant is quite + sensitive to frost and therefore should not be planted out of doors until the danger from frost is past. From eight to ten seed should be planted in each hill, and after the danger from bugs is past, these may be thinned down to three plants. The seed should be covered one inch deep. The hill should be well ma- 80 TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. nured with a good shovel full of well rotted manure or compost. Summer squashes should be eaten before the skin hardens, and winter squashes may also be eaten in this state, but if you desire to store winter squashes they should not be pulled until the skin hardens. Af- ter they are pulled, which should be before the first frost, they should be allowed to stand in the sun for a few days, covering them up at night with vines and other litter to protect them from the frost. Care must be taken that the skin be not bruised in handling them, or they will be likely to decay. SWEET CORN. Sweet corn is grown mostly for a vegetable and al- so for canning before It is claimed ‘that sweet corn does not do as well in the South unless the seed are secured from the North each year. This, however, is a mistake, and if we could procure Southern grown seed, or save our own seed the kernels are hard. we would be much more successful. Sweet corn is erown and cultivated like field corn, except that it requires more intensive cultivation and richer soil for the best results. It should be planted in warm soil that has been well prepared and heavily fertilized by the use of stable manure. It will not stand as much cold as field corn. However, you can take some risk, as early corn brings the best price. Be sure to use plenty of seed, for if the ground is cold part of the seed will be likely to rot. It should be planted at the earliest possible moment after danger from frost is past and continuous plantings made every ten days thereafter to afford a succession until late in the fall. The rows should be about three feet wide and the stalks allowed to stand from one to two feet apart in Cultivate until corn is in the the drills. shallow roasting ear. SWEET POTATO. For directions for growing both sweet and Irish potatoes see Field Crops, under head of Potatoes. TEA. Experiments made at Pinehurst, S. C., on a planta- tion of 50 acres planted in tea indicate that tea cul- ture can be made a profitable industry in the South. Indeed if this be true, and there is no reason why it should not come to pass, there is nothing in the world that can keep the South down. As it is, all the tea used in the United States is imported, and for the South to come forward and furnish our tea as she is doing in furnishing our cotton, sugar and rice, there is nothing that can keep her from being the richest part of the world. Tea requires a moist climate, and the temperature should seldom go below 25 deg. Fah. It is propagated from seed sown in the nursery, and when about a foot high transplanted. The seedlings are set from four to five feet apart each way. It is al- lowed to then grow about four feet high. Tea comes into full bearing when it is about six years old. The tea of commerce is the immature leaves of the tea plant which have been dried. The leaves are first withered in the sun by artificial heat, and then rolled to give them a twisted shape, then fermented to bring out the peculiar tea flavor, and then fired by spread- ing in thin layers and allowed to dry in the sun or by artificial heat. For more complete information on this subject we refer you to Report of Agriculture No. 61 issued by the U. S. Department of Agriculture. These bulletins are distributed free. TOMATOES. Tomatoes are used more in canning than any oth- er vegetable. They can be grown in almost any part of the United States. Asa rule plants are grown from 28.—Matchless Tomato. Fig. seed started in a hotbed or flats in the greenhouse. They may also be started in the kitchen window. Growers should select their seed each year from per- | all the time. Seed that are Cheap in Price are as a Rule Cheap in Quality. fect fruit whenever this is possible, as much finer to- matoes can be grown from such seed than from those usually purchased. Tomato plants should be started early. Most experiment stations agree that plants should be transplanted twice. Rich soils especially prepared should be used in the flats or hotbed. Scrapings from the horse lot, piled up and rotted and then run through a common screen are excellent. Pack this soil in the flats, wet thoroughly, then sprin- kle your seed over evenly, and sift on enough fine soil to cover and place on the benches. They should begin to come up in from three to five days. The young plants should be given plenty of light and air Fig. 300.—Dwarf Tomatoes Grown Southern Ruralist Farm, Atlanta, Ga. on and kept well watered. plants, and it is essential that they be kept growing You want to secure strong Within a month or six weeks after the plants come up, they are ready for transplanting. They should be set four or five inches each way in the cold frames, or they can be placed in tin cans, ber- ty boxes and the like. The soil in the beds should be rich. Continue to give them plenty of air and sun- shine and stir around them once a week with a hand weeder. The plants should be twelve or fifteen inch- | es high before they are transplanted to the field, but be sure that all danger of frost is past before they are temoved to the open ground. In this last transplant- ing cut out a square of earth and remove with the plant so as not to disturb the roots of the plants. Wet the bed thoroughly before beginning this opera- 81 tion and remove to the field in a spring wagon. A tich sandy loam which has been heavily manured the previous year for some vegetable crop is the best place for tomatoes. Then apply from 500 to 1000 lbs. of a high-grade fertilizer per acre inthe drill. Set the plants three feet apart in rows which should be five feet wide according to the fertility of the land. A light mulch of straw or hay is sometimes used under the plants to keep the fruit off the ground. Some kind of support will have to be used to hold up the vines, for they will not be able to support themselves. Tomatoes are easily injured by placing them on the market great care should be ob- served that only sound tomatoes are gathered, and that these are not bruised by rough handling. If ap- plications of 50 Ibs. nitrate of soda per acre is given when the fruit first begins to set it will add much to the size, quality and earliness of the crop. Cultiva- tion should begin almost immediately after setting the plants and continue as long as possible without injury to the plants. handling, so in Chalk’s Early Jewel, Dwarf Champion, Living- ston’s Beauty, Matchless, Imperial, etc., are good varieties. For enemies to tomatoes see Diseases of Plants in this chapter; also the Insect Department. TURNIP. The turnip is grown in the United States principal- ly as a table vegetable, and is used very little as a stock food. The seed may be sown either very ear- ly in the spring and an early crop secured, or in Au- gust and September and a winter crop produced. The Fig. 31.—Early White Flat Dutch. Early Purple Red Top. 82 TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. plant is not sensitive to frost, and grows best in cool, moist weather. They may be sown broadcast or they may be drilled in rows about a foot and a half or two feet apart. The plants are thinned from 4 to 8 inches in the row according to the variety sown. The White Egg, White Flat Dutch, Purple Top Globe, and Snow White are excellent varieties. WATERMELON. The watermelon is grown very largely in the South, not only for home consumption but for shipment. It is a native of Africa and many fortunes have been made and lost growing this delicious melon. Water- melons should have a well-drained, sandy loam. They do well after cowpeas or velvet beans and should nev- er be planted on the same land more than once in five years, but should be rotated with other crops. An old straw field is an excellent place for melons, and if you desire them extra early select a southern slope. Prepare the land well by deep plowing, and if the land is rough this should be done in the fall. Then in the spring lay off your rows ten feet apart and bed out to a center furrow. If the land is very poor it is a good idea to broadcast with barnyard manure be- fore bedding out. Now lay off rows at right angles across these beds every eight or ten feet and put ina good shovel full of well rotted compost in the checks. Add to this a handful of high grade fertilizer, mix this with your manure and soil, and mix thoroughly with a hoe. When danger from frost is past plant eight or ten seed in a hill, an inch deep, firming the soil After the plants are up and have started to grow, thin to 3 plants in a hill and later, over the seed. after danger from insects is past, thin to one or two of the strongest. In cultivation, work the soil back towards the row, and after the first plowing cultivate very shallow, keeping it up until the vines begin to set fruit, after which cease. At the last plowing it is a good idea to plant a row or so of cow peas in the middle to help shade the melons. cultivation should ig, 32.—A Tempting Slice. Funcus Diseases oF GARDEN PLANGE ASPARAGUS RUST. This disease appears on the seedling and on neg- After a little, slits are formed in the bark from which the rust pro- lected plants about the first of June. It has been the practice to cut and burn the | affected parts. While this practice will get rid of the | disease the plants are often injured. You are apt to see rust proof varieties advertised. These varieties’ while they are not subject to rust, still are sometimes trudes. | affected. One of the best remedies is to spray with ‘\Bordeaux mixture. The plants may be sprayed with a power spray where asparagus is raised over large Jjareas. i ANTHRACNOSE. Anthracnose appears on the bean pods in the form | of dark colored pits, and spreads rapidly from pod to pod. The disease passes the winter in the bean, and jwhen it is planted the next spring, the plant soon gives evidence of the disease and shrivels up and dies, br fails to develop. The disease also affects cucum- bers, pumpkins, and muskmelons. It may be check- lai by spraying with Bordeaux mixture when the dis- | MI base first appears. If it secures a hold the diseased portion should be removed and burned. It is a good idea to soak beans in hot water at a temperature of i deg. Fah. for 5 minutes before planting, or at 130 | | leg. Fah. for 15 minutes before planting, which will Most Flower Seed Are Small, and Have to Be Dealt with as Such. soil from your own yard. Woods earth, which is largely decayed vegetable matter, or the surface soil is more fertile and looser than the subsoil and easier for the roots to penetrate, and for these r:asons it is advisable to use either one or the other. Never use fresh manure beneath the surface in a rose bed. It makes the soil “thirsty” and easily affected by drouth. If fresh manure is used at all use it as a surface mulch, putting it on several inches thick up around the plants after they have Gites ine winter rains will carry much of the fertilizing value been of the manure down to the roots, and by spring the manure will usually be decomposed enough so that it can be spaded or worked into the soil aid be benefi- cial instead of injurious. Hy 5 Me Fig. 81—Shape und Form of Cochet Roses. Have your soil worked down fine, free from lumps and trash of all kinds, so that it will pack easily and closely around the roots. — TRANSPLANTING. As stated previously, the earlier in the season this 11 . 145 is done after ‘heavy frosts have come and rendered the plant dormant, the better growth they will make the following ‘spring. : The plants, as they come from the grower, usually have most of the top left on. Before transplanting, Rose.—Helen Gould. Fig. 32.—Everblooming about one-half of this should be trimmed off. It is hard for many to cut the plants back, but it practi- cally insures their living and making a good growth the following season. We do not favor pruning the roots except in cases where they become bruised or broken in handling. Where this has occurred cut off the injured or bruised parts with a sharp knife. Plants should be set so that the crown of the roots will come just below the surface after the ‘soil has been pressed down until it is firm. Roots should be placed as near the position they formerly grew in as possible and the soil pressed closely and _ firmly around the roots, preferably by hand. Then fill in the hole until even or slightly above the surround- ing surface and then firm all the soil aroundg the plant by tamping. Do not transplant in clay soils when the soil is wet enough to be sticky or muddy. The firming of the soil necessery to get it close enough to the roots would be injurious when the soil 146 TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. is too wet. In the sandy soils in Florida and along the Gulf, it is advisable to plant when the soil is wet, directly after rains, but in any of the stiff clay soil sections drier conditions must be had. When- ever roses have been planted it is advisable to pour on one bucket of water to each plant. No matter how carefully the soil has been pressed down, the water will carry the particles of earth more closely against the roots than can be done any other way. After watering scatter a little dry earth over the wet soil. This dry earth mulch will prevent the baking and crusting of the wet soil beneath. CULTIVATION. If roses are to be kept in good condition, they must be cultivated frequently; the surface of the soil kept from baking or getting hard and crusted, and the bed kept free from weeds and grass. This is best done by frequent rakings, deep enough to break any crust that may be formed by heavy rains. Keep the surface of the soil loose. It promotes growth and prevents drying out of the moisture below. The use of stable manure is good during the winter months as a mulch on the surface. For fertilizing with commercial fertilizers there is nothing better than ground bone or bone meal, as it is usually call- ed. This is not a quick acting fertilizer, but it furnishes acontinuous supply of plant food during the season. If a quick acting fertilizer is wanted, any good vege- table fertilizer will produce the results. We prefer, for clay soils, one containing about 8 per cent. phos- phoric acid, 4 per cent. nitrogen and 4 per cent. pot- ash. This is a complete plant food and should be sprinkled lightly around the plants on the surface and raked in. This should be done every two or three months during the growing season. - TRIMMING AND PRUNING. If the bloom is kept cut off closely and long stems cut with the bloom the plants will be kept in good condition for almost continuous blooming. Early in spring it is advisable to cut out any dead wood that may be on the plants or any wood that looks old and hide-bound. The object of close trimming and pruning is to encourage the growth of the new wood and new shoots from the roots. Old wood does not produce good bloom. In cutting bloom cut in bud. It takes too much of the strength of the plant to carry the flower to full maturity. If you want to keep plants in good condition give them personal attention. Don’t leave it to servants, or if you have them do the actual work, stand over them and see that it is done right. It is not safe to trust the majority of them without directly supervis- ing the work. ‘NATERING. All sections have dry times and drouths when it is advisable to water the plants. Many people do more harm than good by giving a light surface wet- ting daily. Once or twice a week is better. An inch or so of the dry surface should be drawn away from the plant leaving a basin-like depression into which should be poured from a half to a bucketful of wa- ter. After this has soaked in cover the wet spot with the loose earth previously drawn away. This prevents baking and crusting of the soil. In cities where water works are in use the whole surface of © the rose bed should be thoroughly saturated once a week, the watering being done late in the afternoon. The following morning rake the bed thoroughly to _ prevent crusting and running together of the soil in the hot sunshine usually present during times of drouth. If these few simple instructions are followed there will be little or no difficulty experienced in growing roses to perfection; in fact, you will be surprised to see ‘how little effort will produce splendid results in rose growing. It is not advisable in a book of this character to give a list of varieties that should be planted always, for there are new introductions every year and_a list of this kind is always changing, new and better va- rieties superseding the old. The writer’s stand-bys in the rose garden at this time, among the ever- bloomers is as follows. All these have been grown three to four years or more and have given us en- tire satisfaction: In white varieties, Bride, Kaiserin Augusta Victo- tia, Snowflake or Marie Lambert, White Mamon Cochet; in pink Duchess de Brabant or Countess Le Barthe, Bon Silene, Catherine Mermet, Bridesmaid, Pink Mamon Cochet, Pink La France; in yellow, Mlle. Franciska Kruger, Perle des Jardins, Eloile de Lyon, Safrano, Marie Van Houtte, Souy. De Pierre Notting; in red; Meteor, Papa Gautier, varieties, Den’t Fail to Make Arrangements for the Flower Yard in the Spring. 147 Triomphe de Pernet Pere, Helen Gould or Baldwin, Andre Schwartz and Gruss an Teplitz. All of the above are Teas or Hybrid Tea varieties and are “everblooming.” In Hybrid Perpetuals the “Paul Neyron,” an immense, free blooming rose is desira- ble. In climbers the yellow Marechal Neil is the best, followed by: Chromatella or Cloth of Gold, Jas. Sprunt (cherry red), Lamarque (white with lemon scentre), Reine Marie Henrietta (bright red), Solfa- terre (deep sulphur yellow) and Mrs. Robt. Peary (pure white). The Crimson Rambler is a good porch or pillar rose, covered with a mass of crimson flowers early in spring only. The other Rambler roses have little value in the South. At least a dozen roses ought to be a fixture with every home. There should be more if you can afford to buy them. They are fairly per- manent, for with fair treatment they last for years, getting larger and better every season. You can’t have too many of them and when times are prosper- ous the small amount necessary to buy the necessary plants and seed can be taken without any one feeling it. The time to begin beautifying our home - sur- roundings is now. Fig. 33.—The Giant Rose—Paul Neyron. COW PEAS. ON LEFT, UNFERTILIZED ON RIGHT: FERTILIZED EXPERIMENT FARM, SOUTHERN PINES, N. C. 148 DOO Ws FERTILIZER DEPARTMENT. EDITED AND REVISED BY PROF. W. F. MASSEY, Formerly Professor of Horticulture and Botany N. C. College of Agri- culture and Mechanical Arts; former Editor of “Practical Farmer,” Phila. Member of American Association for the Advancement of Science, of the American Breeders’ Association and the National Geographical Society of Washington, Lec- turer at Farmers’ Institutes in various States, and Contributor to the leading farm papers, SALISBURY, MD. 149 150 TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. INTRODUCTION. The use of commercial fertilizers has become a ne- cessity in modern agriculture with the depletion of the natural store of plant food in the soil. This is es- pecially the case in the South, where the careless cul- tivation of cotton year after year on the same land has so reduced the fertility of the soil that the application of fertilizer has been deemed essential for every crop grown. But there is a wise and a wasteful way in which fertilizers are used. The prosperity of: any coun- upon the productivity of the which produces the largest crops in excess of its home need will always take the lead of one which merely supplies its home consump- tion. try depends largely soil, and that country What is especially needed in the South is the in- creased production per acre rather than a continua- tion of the practice of going over a large area for the crop that should be grown on one-tenth the area. Long and exhaustive tillage will reduce the produc- tivity of any soil and the problem before the South- ern farmers to-day is how most economically to in- crease the yield of the staple crops per acre. The old practice of planting cotton after cotton continuously with the aid of a little dribble of fertilizer in the fur- rows must give place to a wiser system and a more liberal use of the fertilizers in the proper place. The fact is that no soil originally fertile and of a good me- chanical composition ever is entirely worn out. Na- ture all over the South has restored old fields by a growth of broomsedge and _ old field pines, so that when cleared of pines the land is found to be fertile again through a pumping up of plant food from the subsoil by the long tap-roots of the pine trees and the restoration to the surface of the organic matter that the careless cultivation has deprived the soil of. The soil was not worn out, but simply made unproductive through the shallow scratching of the surface with the one-mule plow, while right below was an unex- hausted subsoil from which the pine tree brought fer- tility again to the surface. We can learn hence from the old field pines les- sons tegarding the restoration of our soils. Of course we cannot afford to wait for nature to do this work for us through the agency of the broomsedge and the pine. The farmer must learn that his soil is a great store of plant food entirely inexhaustible if properly treated, and the proper use of fertilizers is one of the most efficient aids in its improvement, while the improper use of these plant foods has been the means of reducing its productiveness till it is common to say that the soil is worn out when it still has an abundant supply of plant food if properly aided in bringing it out. If one simply draws on the land without restoring any plant food that may have been taken out by the crops, or not using any means for getting at its reserve store of plant food the availa- ble store of plant food will become exhausted, at least that which is available by the methods employed. A man having a deposit in bank can draw checks on it so long as he keeps his deposit good, but if he draws without renewing his deposit he will soon reach the It is the same bank time when his drafts are dishonored. way with the soil. The soil is the farmer’s and if he wisely treats it he can continue to draw in- creasing drafts without exhaustion of the deposit. All crops grown take from the soil in different amounts the various materials that are needed for their perfection. In some soils, especially such as are de- rived from the decomposition of potassic rocks like our granite, some of these materials seem to be in in- exhaustible quantity and it is said that these soils do not need applications of mineral matters except phos- phorus, While it is true that in such soils potash does exist in very large amounts, it is in the form of an insoluble silicate or sand which becomes soluple very slowly through action of the carbonic acid that is brought to it in the rain water, and it is often wiser to use an application of potash in the fertilizer then to depend on that in the soil. The plant foods that are most commonly deficient in our old cultivated soils are phosphorus, nitrogen and potassium. These are pure elements, and we cannot use a pure element asa fertilizer. Nitrogen is a gas that is mixed in the air, and we must get it in combination with some- thing else before we can get it in the soil in such a shape that the plants can get it. Just how this can be done we will explain later. Phosphorus in a pure state burns up as soon as exposed to the air, and Study to See What Your Land Requires. hence we cannot use pure phosphorus. But we can get it in combination. with lime in the form of phos- phoric acid in our phosphoric rocks, and it is phos- phoric acid that we use as a fertilizer. Potash, as | have said, exists inall clay soils, and is found in hard wood ashes in very available shape. The most readi- ly available source for potash, which is the oxide of the metal potassium is in the potash salts that are im- ported from the salt mines in Germany. These are all readily dissolved in the soil. Nearly all of our soils are the result oi the decomposition or breaking down of the rocks and the transportation by water of the pulverized material and spreading them over the old rocks to form our soils of to-day. In some instances the soil is not formed from the rocks that lie below it. In Northern sections of the country cient glaciers moved over the surface for untold ages, the soilis made up of materials transported by the ice from distant regions. And in the South here and there there are so-called limestone soils which lie on where the an- top of the old limestone that was formed under water of lakes, and on top of this rock an accumulation of vegetable decay has taken place, and a deep and fer- tile soil has taken the place of the ancient lake. This soil has not any connection with the rock below in its composition and is apt to be more deficient in lime than a soil made up of the rock decomposition, and it has been found that lime has a very great and beneficial action on such soils. Lime is one of the es- sential matters for plant growth, but in most soils there ‘is an abundance of lime for all purposes of plant food. And yet it ‘has been found that lime, even on such soils has a special value in sweetening the soil and in rendering plant food that is in an unavailable state available to the plants. Lime renders a heavy clay soil lighter by gathering the fine particles togeth- er in small lumps, and in a similar manner it makes a very sandy soil closer by gathering the sand together after the manner of mortar. Lime also acts on. the vegetable matter in the soil.and releases the ammonia so that the minute plant forms called bacteria can _ carry on their work and bring the ammonia into the _ form of a nitrate, which is the only form in which the ‘plants use nitrogen. We have said that soils of a good mechanical make- up do not become worn out. But to get at and keep up their productivity we must thoroughly plow and | pulverize them. A mass of phosphate rock may lie | for ages on the soil and have little if any effect on its | productiveness. But if we pulverize that rock to a I5I fine powder and mix it with the soil the action of the carbonic acid of the rain water, whichis the greatest decomposer of nature, has an opportunity to act on each small particle and it is dissolved so that plants can useitand get the phosphoric acid it contains. In manner a hard lump of clayey soil will not give up its plant food till pulverized by the implements of cul- tivation so the water and air can act upon it and make its plant food available. Plants take food from the soil by the very fine hairs on the extremity of their roots just back of the root cap that forces its way through the soil. If you will takeafew garden beans and place them ina saucer ona few thickness- es of blotting paper made wet with water, and then cover the saucer with a pane of glass and put it ina warm place, the beans will soon sprout and throw out white rootlets on the paper. By. examining these roots you can see that the extreme tip is bare and pointed and is called the ,root cap. This root cap is continually renewed so that as the outer part is worn in pushing through the soil it is contin-. ually renewed from behind. Just back of this root cap you will see that a portion of the rootlet is cov- As the root pushes forward through the soil new ‘hairs are continually formed just back of the root cap, and the old ones die off. These root hairs are the only part of the root engaged in taking food from the soil, and as they are all-of microscopic size it is evident that all the food used by the plants must be completely dis- solved, since the root hairs cannot take in any solid substance. It is also easy to see that on the perfec- tion of these root hairs the ability of the plant to get foods depends. Hence if we tear off the tips of the roots with the absorbing root ‘hairs by running a plow through our corn, we are depriving the corn of the power to get the food it needs till it makes new fibres and new hairs, for the corn and the cotton plant send their roots far and wide through the spaces be- tween the rows. ered with a velvety coat of very fine hairs. Deep breaking and thorough pulverization of the soil are essential to the dissolving of the plant food in the soil, but shallow and frequent cultivation after- wards is needed for the perfection of the crop. One piece of land may have just as much plant food in it as another right alongside of it, and yet through im- perfect preparation and improper cultivation it may be far less productive than the other piece that is well plowed and properly cultivated. No matter how much 152 plant food a soil may contain, if it is not made availa- ble it will not be a productive soil. COMPOSITION OF SOILS. Soils vary chiefly in their mechanical composition, and different terms are used to. describe them. When sand predominates the soil is called sandy. When more clay is mixed with it it becomes a sandy loam, and when still more clay, a clay loam, and when there is a small proportion of sand to clay it becomes a heavy clay soil. In sections where the limestone comes to the surface and its decomposition affects the soil, the soil will contain a great deal of lime in the form of carbonate of lime. The mineral matters other than clay and sand consist of various compounds of lime, potash, phosphorus and other things with sulphuric acid, phosphoric acid, carbonic acid and nitric acid, with oxides of iron and potassium and chloride of so- dium or common salt. ah Se eda Hae Z SNS Fig. 1.—Unfertilized. (Eight weeks old.) Fertilized. Water exists in soils in two forms. First, that which in any soil adheres to each particle of the soil in the form of a film of moisture, and also in the form of permanent water. The need for drainage is to get the permanent water table in the soil lower down from the surface so as to admit the air and the film water, for standing water shuts out the air and renders the soil cold, andtohave plants thrive their roots must have the oxygen of the air, moisture in the form of films and a proper degree of heat suited to the plant growth, since some plants need less ‘heat than others. A’ garden pea will germinate and grow TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. when the soil is buta few degrees above the freezing point, while Indian corn under the same conditions will rot. Aside from the clay, sand and mineral matters the soil must contain a portion of decayed organic matter, that is, matter that has once formed the or- gans of plants and animals. This decayed organic matter when reduced to a black mass is called hu- mus, and it is of great importance in the cultivation of the soil and in the supplying of moisture to the plants. A soil that abounds in this humus is made darker in color, and ‘hence absorbs and retains heat better, and is therefore a warmer soil. It has been found, too, that humus retains moisture longer than any other matter in the soil, and that a soil abound- ing in humus dries out more slowly than one which is destitute of it. A soil newly cleared from the for- est has a large percentage of humus, and we all know that such a soil stands a drouth better than an old soil that has become depleted of humus. It does not wash into gullies like the old soil either, and not ’till Fig. 2.—Unfertilized. (Twelve weeks old.) Fertilized, long cultivation and a failure to keep up the supply of humus has caused the soil to run together does the washing begin. This decayed organic matter al- so contains the plant food that the plants that made it took from the soil, and hence a new soil is always a more fertile soil. The humus also forms certain humic acids which act on other matters in the soil and render them available to crops. We see then the great importance of keeping up by systematic ro- tation of crops the organic matter that makes this valuable humus, and thus retaining the character that made the new ground more productive. The retention of film moisture in the soil by this humus is one of its most valuable characteristics. In a soil abounding in humus we can use the commer- cial fertilizers in much larger quantities than in a soil that dries out quickly, simply because the fertilizer |will be dissolved, while in the old dry soil a similar |amount of fertilizer applied would really damage the crop in dry weather, burning the roots instead of be- jing dissolved. The uniform supply of moisture then during the long dry spells we are apt to have in the 'South is one of the greatest arguments in favor of a | systematic rotation of crops that will keep up the supply of humus in the soil. Having lightly touched ty the various forms of plant food we will now take }up each of the most important which are apt to be | deficient in our old cultivated soils. I | NITROGEN. | As we have said, nitrogen is in its elemental form /a gas, and in order that plants may get it in the soil jit is necessary that it be put into combination with other matters. The air is four-fifths nitrogen in its | gaseous form. It is mixed in the air, but not com- | bined with oxygen so that we can breathe it, for we could not breathe pure oxygen, as that would cause every thing to burn up at once. Nitrogen then is to dilute the air for animal and plant life. Green plants “use nitrogen only when it has been brought into com- bination in the soil with lime, potash or sodium, through first being brought into the form of nitric | acid, which at once seeks one of these bases to form _a neutral salt. All the decayed organic matter in the soil contains nitrogen in the form of organic matter. Certain minute and invisible forms of plant life (to the naked eye) attack all vegetable matter buried in the soil and cause it to decay. These release the am- -monia that the plants contained. Then another form of these myriads of microscopic plants called bacte- tia, which swarm in a soil having an abundance of humus live on the ammonia and they change the am- monia into a nitrite. Then a third form lives on the nitrite and its work results in the formation of nitric acid, and this acid at once combines with lime, potash or other mineral base that may be present in the soil, and the result is a nitrate which is at once available to plants. The immediate effect of nitrogen in the form of nitrate of soda when used as a fertilizer, is due to the fact that it is already in this nitrate form and can be used at once, and must be used at once Deep Plowing is Necessary to Keep Land in a Fertile State. 153 or it will be washed from the soil. Plants use nitro- gen in varying percentages” according to the crop The value of nitrogen in plants is due to its If there is an ex- grown. effect in promoting rapid growth. cess of nitrogen in the soil over the due amount of phosphorus and potash needed, there will be a rank growth but small fruitage, for the mineral elements are essential to the ripening of fruit and the perfec- tion of grain and seed. GETTING NITROGEN FROM THE AIR. It has long been known to farmers that clover, cow peas and other members of the family known as leg- umes or pod-bearers did in some way increase the fer- tility of the soil. But just how they did it was long a matter of conjecture. More recent study of these Fig. 3—Tubercles on Clover Roots. plants ‘by scientists ‘has demonstrated the way in which they do this. On the roots of these legume plants were found certain little knots or nodules. It was found that when these nodules were on the roots that the plants did acquire nitrogen more than they could get from the soil, and that when there were no nodules the plants did not acquire any surplus nitro- gen. It was evident then that in some way these nodules were the means for the acquisition of nitro- 154 gen by the plants. Further study in the microscopic laboratory revealed the fact that these nodules were formed by certain of these soil bacteria that lived as parasites on the roots of the legumes. These minute plants were of the nature of nitric ferments and they oxidize the nitrogen of the air that penetrates the soil and nitric acid is the result. This at once seeks a base such as lime or potash in the soil and the plants take up the nitrate formed just as they take the ni- trate formed by the other nitrifying bacteria that live on organic decay. We, therefore, can easily see the importance of the legumes, especially our cow peas, to the farmer, for they not only get for him free from the air the nitrogen that cosss so much in fertilizer, but furnish the organic decay for the other soil bac- teria to go to work on and render available to other crops the following season. It also shows that these legume crops do not need an application of nitrogen in a fertilizer, since they can get all they need and more from the air. In fact, it is worse than useless to apply a nitrogenous fertilizer to them, since when this is done they will use the fertilizer and will not get from the air What they would get if compelled to do so. None of our cereal crops nor cotton belong to this family of plants and hence the importance of put- ting some of the legumes into our rotation to avoid the purchase of nitrogen for tiie sale crops. Much thas been said of late about inoculating the soil for the various bacteria that live on the roots of legumes, and artificial cultures have been sent out dried in cot- ton. It has been found, however, that these artificial cultures do not readily grow in the soil. The De- partment of Agriculture at \ashington is now mak- ing and sending out these cultures in sealed glass tubes with directions for use, and these will probably be more effective than the dried bacteria. But it is useless to try to inoculate a sour soil, for the bacte- ria nor the legumes will thrive on such a soil ’till sweetened by an application of lime. Nor is it of any use to inoculate a soil that is already rich in nitrogen, for in such a soil the legumes will use the soil nitro- gen and will not make nodules on their roots. By far the best way to inoculate a soil for alfalfa or other legumes is to get soil from a field where the plants have already been successful and have made nodules. Scatter 200 pounds per acre of such a soil over the field and the results will usually be better than with the artificial cultures. It is useless to inoculate a soil in which phosphoric acid and potash are wanting, for these are very necessary to any plant, but especially TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. to the legumes, which, while they get nitrogen from the air mrst be abundantly supplied with the mineral matters, since they are greedy consumers of these. The cereal crops are not nitrogen collectors and in this respect differ from the legumes. An experiment made at the Georgia Station showed that wheat, bar- ley, beans and luzerne (alfalfa) were planted on the same field without an application of nitrogen, with nitrogen at rate of 18 pounds per acre and with 31.5 pounds and 45 pounds with the following results, phosphoric acid and potash being furnished in all cases in like quantities. No Nitrogen 181lbs.N. 31.5]lbs.N. 45 1bs. NL Barley 100 161 220 272 Wheat 188 212 270 316 Beans 935 938 961 883 Luzerne 976 983 1000 994 Showing that when the legumes, beans and alfalfa, received heavy applications of nitrogen they did not acquire an extra amount as they did when no nitro- i gen was applied. While it is believed that there is little specific dif- ference in the various bacteria that live on the roots of legumes, some of them have become so altered in their habits that they prefer certain plants to others and the bacteria that inoculate one form of legume will usually fail to affect another species. Hence itis important to have the forms that live on the special plant to be grown. But it must be remembered that — these bacteria themselves have no nitrogen and do © not add nitrogen directly to the soil, and are hence not to be considered in the form of fertilizers, but as plants which through their ability to oxidize the free nitrogen of the air enable the legumes to get it in a form in which they can use it. 1 PHOSPHORUS. The element phosphorus is one of the most vitally important elements in plant life. While, as we have said, phosphorus cannot be used as a pure element, we can get it in the form of phosphoric acid associat- ed with lime, forming a phosphate of lime. In its natural form in the rocks it is in a form not soluble in water. But when finely pulverized and mixed with the soil it does finally become, through the ac- tion of the carbonic acid in the rain water, available to plants. Soils will hold on to phosphoric acid ’till called for by plants, and it does not leach away from a —_— e soil like the nitrates do. But as all our cereal lops use it in large amounts in the ripening of the ‘ain, it has been found that our old cultivated soils je more deficient in phosphates than in any other rm of plant food except nitrogen. We get phosphoric acid from animal bones and om the phosphatic rocks. Some manufacturers try make the farmer believe that the phosphoric acid bm animal bones is a better article than that from je rock. But this is a mistake. Phosphoric acid is 1e and the same thing,’ no matter from what source, \d the only thing to consider is its availability. In lw bone meal it is insoluble, but owing to the speedy ‘cay of the bone meal in the soil it becomes availa- le more quickly than that in. the pulverized rock or i Fig. 4—yYield from 1-10 acre. No Fertilizer. | From farm of T. J. Adams, Edgefield, S. C. jpats” as it is called. The phosphatic rock found South Carolina, Florida and Tennessee furnishes the Papest source of phosphoric acid on the market. , tender the phosphoric acid immediately available © pulverized rock is dissolved in sulphuric acid, king what is known on the market as acid phos- ate. For immediate effect on the crops this is con- Jered best. But it has been found that long con- ued use of acid phosphate brings about an acid jdition in the soil that is detrimental to the growth '\clover and other legumes. Not that the acid does I's directly, for a well made phosphate has no free d, and manufacturers avoid an excess of acid, as ae the article sticky and hard to drill. But it ound that when the acid phosphate is applied the i take up the phosphoric acid and set free the —— eee ————— A Great Deal of Plant Food Washes Off the Land. 155 sulphuric acid, which at once unites with the lime carbonate in the soil and forms plaster or the sul- phate of lime, which does not sweeten the soil as. the carbonate does, and this robbing of the soil of lime brings about acid conditions and a need for fresh ap- plications of lime. Practical men are rapidly coming to the conclusion that for the permanent benefit of the land it is better to use the pulverized rock in lib- eral amounts. Experiments made at the Maryland Station show that the pulverized rock gave better and more permanent results than the acid phosphate. The average super phosphate or acid phosphate con- tains about 14 per cent. of phosphoric acid, but some rock makes an article as high as 16 per cent. It has been found too that on a soil deficient in phosphoric Fig. 5.—Yield from 1-10 acre, trom Fertilizer containing 8 per cent. Phosphoric Acid, 8 per cent. Nitrogen, 6 per cent. Potash. Fom farm of IT. J. Adams, Edgefield, S. C. acid and potash an application of either alone will have little result, and that for the best results both are needed. The office of potash in the plant seems to be to encourage and promote the formation of starch, while phosphorus is engaged in the transfer of the starch to the points where it is needed. POTASH. Starch is formed in plants through the assimila- tion of carbon from the carbon dioxide in the air by the green matter in the leaves. But it has been found that this process is checked and little starch is formed if potash is deficient, and no growth what- ever is made if it is entirely absent. Hence, though 156 ) po.ash contains no starch, it is essential to the for- mation of starch and to plant life, and starch is the primary form in which all the structure of plants is made up, the starch being transformed into various other substances to make up the tissues of the plant. Starch is also a storage form of food for the future use of the plant. It is stored by phosphoric acid in the tubers of the potato, and there keeps unchanged till the potato sprouts. As soon as sprouting takes place there is a ferment formed that changes the starch into a sort of sugar that the plant can use as food. Starch as starch is not digestible by plants or We have in our saliva the same ferment that changes the starch in food to glucose and ena- bles us to digest it. Now as starch is so tmportant a matter in the plant economy it is important to un- derstand the means for making and using it in the perfection of the crop. If the soil is rich in nitrogen but deficient in phosphoric acid and potash, potatoes will make rank tops and very small and few tubers. Grain will grow rank and have weak straw that will fall and lodge. Hence we see the importance of hav- ing a due percentage of phosphoric acid and potash in the soil, and if they are def,cient to apply them in the fertilizer. An excess of nitrogen nwkes the cot- ton plant long limbed and “weedy” and a small fruit- age in proportion to growth. But when this rank growth is supplemented with a due percentage of phosphoric acid and potash, the rank growth is no disadvantage and the plants will fruit heavily. Potash is the oxide of the metal potassium. 7+ is one of the component parts of all vegetable matter, and in burning wood we find in the ashes a large per- centage of potash associated with a still larger per- centage of lime and a small percentage of phosphoric Hence ashes, particularly those from hard The ashes of made animals. acid. woods, are a valuable source of potash. corn cobs are still more valuable, and those from cotton-seed hulls are the most valuable of all. Potash exists more plentifully in clay soils than any other of the important elements of plant food. But it is in the form of an insoluble silicate, which is slowly made available to plants by the carbonic acid in rain water. Applications of lime will release pot- ash more rapidly, and in some cases it may be found clitaper to get at it in this way than to apply potash in vhe fertilizer. But as a rule, even on soils that have an abundance of potash in the insoluble form it will pay to use some potash in the fertilizer, especial- ly for those crops like potatoes, legumes and tobacco TILLiNG THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. need large percentages of available potash in the soil. The most readily available source for potash is the potash salts imported from Germany under the names of kainit, sylvanite, etc. But since in the crude salts there is but a small percentage of potash in propor- tion to the sabt associated with it, the German com- panies have concentrated the potash in the form, of muriate and sulphate in which there is 50 per cent. of actual potash, while in kainit there is but 12 per cent. Hence the more concentrated article is usually the cheaper since the farmer has to freight but one- fourth as much to get what potash he needs. It has been found, however, that kainit, by reason of the large amount of common salt it contains, has a spe- cial value on some soils in the South in preventing rust in cotton, and it is, therefore, largely used in cot- ton fertilizers. Bottom soils and rec aimed swamp lands usually need no application of nicrogen, but are apt to be very deficient in potash. Light sandy soils are also defscient in potash, and even on the heavy clay loams it will usually pay for some crops to use a liberal application of potash. Potash and phosphoric acid are essential to the success of the legume crops, and the deficiency of these in the soil is the common cause of the failure of peas, clover and other legumes. If well supplied with phosphoric acid and potash the legumes will get all the nitrogen they need from the air, and will leave the soil richer in nitrogen for the following crop. Prof. Wagner, one of the best authorities on pease says: “On the strength of what is known up to to-day on that subject, I can lay down the following general principles: | “TI consider it as suited to the purpose to fertilize with potash (kati) not only all plants intended to be used on the farm as food for animals, but also all ce reals, which furnish straw, in quantities not merely sufficient for the production of a maximum crop, but) with enough to induce the plants to take up an ex: cess of potash (kali). Animal food rich in potash (kali) gives manure rich in potash (kali) and the’ potash (kali) of the manure is for some piants most advantageous. For potatoes and sugar beets, give the potash (Kali) | in form of stable manure, and apply potash (kali) to the crop preceding or else fertilize with muriate of potash in the fall. | On loamy soils potatoes stand dicect potash (kali), fertilization better than on sandy soils. | f | I f | | | Among the cereals oats require the least, barley the prgest quantity of potash (kali.) | To tobacco apply the potash (kali) only in form of julphate. 1. All leguminous plants such as peas, beans, lu- ‘ins, clover, seradella, lentils, esparsette should be endered nitrogen-hungry, so that they may draw to ‘he utmost extent upon the nitrogen supply of the |tmosphere, and this is effected by potash (kali) Jhosphate fertilization. | 2. For the nitrogen consumers the requisite amount i nitrogen should be secured from the cheapest pos- ible source, the atmosphere. Extensive cultivation i leguminous plants, fertilized by potash (kali) phos- effects hates, and their use as nitrogen-fertilizers his. 3. As far as nitrogen, procured without cost from pe air does not suffice, the nitrogen-consumers should le supplied with the requisite amount of nitrogen, ufhicient for the production of a maximum crop. | 4. Whatever nitrogen has ‘been secured from the ir by green cattle food, and passes on into their ma- jure, should be preserved from losses. This is af- ected by spreading potash (kali) salts, containing hagnesia, either in the stable or the dunghill. 5. Whatever nitrogen has been secured by the soil » way of stubbles, roots, etc., of leguminous plants, ‘hould also be protected from loss, which is done by lanting after fruits, or leguminosae, for fertilization ‘lone, properly fertilized with potash (kali) phos- jhates. 1 6. All nitrogen furnished to the crop by the soil, ly the stable manure, or by commercial fertilizers, jpould be induced to produce the highest effect, which kat is affected by liberal fertilization with potash ~ a kali) phosphates. 7. Wherever lime is deficient, the soil should be fi pplied with it, so that the potash (kali) salts may jevelop their whole efficacy.” It ‘has been found that certain forms of potash are ‘etter suited to certain crops than other forms. To- acco grown by the use'of the muriate of potash chloride) is of inferior quality, and only the highest rade of the sulphate should be used on tobacco. cish potatoes too are dryer and more starchy when de sulphate is used. But in the growing of the early otato crop inthe South forthe Northern market, the Jjuriate is commonly used, since this crop is not ex- ected to be particularly dry and mealy. Crops in hich sugar is an important ingredient, are better i | | Plants Need Food the Same That Animals Do. 157 from the use of the sulphate, such as strawberries, sweet potatoes and other things of like nature. Ev- ery farmer should carefully save and apply all the wood ashes of the farm, for they are not only a val- uable source of potash, but, as we have said, contain a very large percentage of lime, which will act in re- leasing potash in a clay soil. For the plant food they contain hard wood ashes are worth from $8 to $10 per ton if they have been kept dry. What we have said in regard to the various forms of plant food in fertilizers shows the importance of having a well balanced fertilizer in the soil. It is es- sential that the crops shall be supplied with nitrogen, phosphoric acid and potash in due proportions for the best success. A fertilizer containing these is called a complete fertilizer and the proportions of each in the fertilizer will depend on the nature of the soil and its needs and also on the character of, the crop grown. But we have found that in all,general farming with grain or cotton, where a proper rotation of crops is used and the legumes are brought in frequently, the farmer never needs to buy an ounce of nitrogen, | for he can get all that he needs through the growth of, ‘the legumes, and by applying the mineral elements, pot- ash and phosphoric acid, liberally to the legumes, peas or clover, he can not only get his nitrogen withont cost, but can make a profit in the feeding of stock on the legume hay. Since nitrogen is the most. costly part of a fertilizer, it is evident that by adopting this practice the farmer can use the cheaper forms more liberally, and when they are applied to the crops that feed the soil in nitrogen and feed the stock at the same time he is making the best possible use of this fertilizer outlay. Neglecting this rotation and the growing of legumes he is compelled to use a com- plete fertilizer and to buy the costly nitrogen that he could get without money and without price. Few farmers realize that by far the larger part of every plant does not come from the soil at all, but from the air. Take a large green stalk of corn and cut it up and weigh it. Then dry it thoroughly, driv- ing off all the water by heat as a chemist would in his dry bath. Weigh it again, and you will find that it has lost a great deal. It has‘ lost water. Now burn this dried plant ’till every particle is changed to a white ash, and you can ‘hold what is left of the corn stalk in your hand. These ashes represent what the plant got from the soil, except the nitrogen you have driven off and the water, and these came originally 158 from the air. You say that you have destroyed the stalk. No, you have simply resolved it into its original elements. The lime, potash and phosphoric acid are in the ashes, and the structure of the plant, the car- bon di oxide and water have gone back to the air from which they came. HOW PLANTS GET FOOD FROM THE AIR. Sprout a potato in a dark cellar after weighing it, it will make long white sprouts, but will gain noth- ing, for the sprouting is only the transfer of matter already formed in the potato. But sprout it in the sunshine and you will see that the sprout turns green and the potato gains weight. This green color in vegetation is one of the most important matters in plant growth. The leaf of every plant has especially on the under side myriads of little openings invisible to the naked eye. These openings have the power to open and close like a pair of lips and are the mouths or breathing pores of the plant. When the sun shines, and at no other time, these mouths open. The air can then enter into the interior loosely arranged cells of the leaf. There is always in the air a minute percentage of carbon di oxide or carbonic acid gas. This is composed of two parts oxygen and one part carbon. The green matter of the leaf has the won- derful power to break up this combination and the plant takes the carbon and throws 6ff the oxygen and thus purifies the air and gets at the same time the carbon it needs. Then with this carbon and the wa- ter that comes from the soil, the plant makes starch and all the compounds known as Carbohydrates, which are used by the living matter of the plant to build up its structure. Nitrogen is an essential ele- ment of the living matter itself, and this it gets from ‘tthe soil except in the case of the legumes when by the aid of the bacteria on the roots they get it from the air. Plants get from the soil through the fine root hairs we have mentioned the mineral elements or ash elements as they are called, dissolved in the soil water, and these are taken to the leaves and thére all the material for growth is formed and transport- ed to where it is needed to make new growth. Tops and roots and stem are all formed of materials elab- orated in the leaves, and whatever the leaves are that will every other part of the plant be. The roots of plants have a power to select what they want from the :o1] and in the proportion they want it if it is TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. available. The oak tree and the pine will grow ir the forest with their roots interlacing in the soil, bu manufacture oak material and the pine pine material, The so-called sap that rushes up in spring through the so-called sap that rushes up in spring through the trees is not sap but merely soil water with plant fooy dissolved in it. Growth comes entirely from th leaves in every direction. As all plant food in th soil must be dissolved before plants can use it, the im Starch Granule o Chlorophyll —— : CE : vy = o— . a= fesse - le es aire 35S ~ Or : SZEE Fig. 6—Ulustrating the formation of starch, portance of a due supply of film moisture is evident Plants get all their carbon from the air and neve from the soil. They never use ammonia or any othe form of nitrogen ’till it has been transformed into | nitrate through the action of the soil bacteria. Whil all the higher forms of plant life get carbon solel: from the air, the bacteria that carry on the work 0 changing ammonia into a nitrate have the power t get carbon in another way. It is found that in a soi abounding in organic matter containing nitrogen tha an application of lime carbonate promoted the activ ity of the bacteria, and it was finally discovered tha they have the power to get their carbon from the lim carbonate, which the higher plants can not do. Th following table will be of interest and value. Don’t Depend Upon the Other Man’s Idea. Potash Phosphoric (Kali) Acid Nitrogen. | K.0 P.O, N. Wheat 0. 0/00 OP 0) ou cn 58 45 111 Rye . « co > eco) 2L6 GUSnamEe 76 44 87 > Barley 6 Oh ano sio” Oko. one 62 35 78 [Oats 5. 26-6 .e ote en 96 3 89 ROTINMPMME IES cris y's se 174 69 146 PRICOMMNE Pc ee ne 45 24 39 MSOTEHUS . 2 ss 5) co ae uel 68 129 | BILITY CES GG ae Cune sence 17 40 63 fPea (pisum sativum) .... . 69 3 153 fHorsepea (Vicia faba)... . 169 64 254 Soja bean (Soja hispida) Nectar 87 62 297 iLupine, green, for fodder... 63 46 219 Pe ine yellow (Lupinus | RGD)’ oo angene seem 80 37 155 Potatoes 25 6.0 Cane (CnC uae 192 55 119 Sugar beet, beet-root.... . . 200 44 95 eaitlestumnips .:..... .. 426 74 187 | TERROLS.. suchas tel enCe 190 65 166 Wiesduwahayiegs. 5... ss 201 53 166 |Dorn, fodder, green. ...... 236 66 122 ‘Slover, (trifolium pratense) .. 29 18 37 (lover, green (trifolium pratense). ..'. « shovin woe ABE: 46 171 \|bucerne (medicago sativa) . . 181 65 289 ‘Dlover (trifollum repens) . . 58 29 89 Red Clover (trifolium t incarnatum). .... a8 57 17 95 Besparseticrs Vac... cs -: . : 103 36 239 BREUCCMA NEC. Gye ss 196 57 128 \Vetch (Vicia sativa)... ... 113 35 149 ape mea a. es 124 79 154 Rogie 5 5 hua 6 \e eee 92 30 87 ‘Hemp (cannabivs sativa) 54 34 LiM@Qi. 5 5.6 0 DRO Ovo SMD OND 35 32 110 “MIGRS 1. oo Oo 6 ee 127 54 200 Une» Olan 148 32 127 pugar cane.. Stocco 107 37 518 fea (Sorghum saccha- | i 561 90 446 White cabbage........ 514 125 213 | auliflower Scho ots eee 265 76 202 jettuce (lactuca dativa) STH eS 72 alte 41 Pacimbers b0'S SS alee eae eee 193 94 142 | Ge. 3 Cece en Ae 96 49 96 THE SPECIAL VALUE OF BARN-YARD MANURE. While the commercial fertilizers furnish the essen- al elements of plant food in a more readily availa- le form than barnyard manure and in larger amounts Jer ton, we have found that barnyard manure has a uality that commercial fertilizers lack. The manure arries with ita large amount of organic matter. This || \ 159 organic matter tends to increase the humus in the soil, and to render it more retentive of moisture, and hence better able to withstand drouths. It also serves to make the soil more mellow and more easily worked, and from its slower availability it lasts long- er in the soil than fertilizers. But if, as we have suggested, the mineral fertiliz- ers are used for the encouragement of the growth of the legume crops, getting nitrogen from the air and furnishing the organic matter in the soil and for the feeding of stock and the making of more barnyard manure, we can through their use accumulate humus in the soil more cheaply and rapidly than by depend- ing on barnyard manure alone. This does not mean that we should neglect the manure, but does mean that we should have more of it through the growing and feeding of the forage raised by growing the leg- ume crops. The organic matter and the nitrogen left in the roots of peas is gotton there more cheaply than by hauling and spreading it, but the crop itself should always be utilized and the resulting manure carefully saved, for no matter what the money crop of the farm may be, the keeping and feeding well of live stock lies at the very foundation of all successful ag- riculture. The following table taken from Bulletin No. 22, Special Georgia Experiment Station: CONTAIN POUNDS. 1,000 POUNDS OF Phosphoric Lime Pot- Nitro Acid. ash. gen. Crab grass (green). . 0.75 1.00 0.04 4.00 Crab grass (dry) .. 2.50 4.00 1.50 15.00 Ordinary weeds (aver- age approximate) 1.00 3.00 0.75 10.00 Oat straw... . 2.00 4.00 12.40 6.20 Wheat straw... 2.00 3.00 5.10 5.90 Corn stalks... 3.00 5.00 6.00 3.20 Cornycobsi aye . 0.60 1.00 0.60 5.00 Cotton stalks, bolls ‘a 1CAV.ES! actu sree 3.00 16.00 15.00 14.00 Cotton hulls... 2.80 3.00 7.80 7.50 Oak leaves (dry) .. 2.60 20.00 1.70 10.00 PinewSstrawiceeee 5 0.70 2.00 0.30 6.00 Pine wood (aawidukt) 0.07 1.20 0.08 5.00 Oak wood (sawdust) 0.50 2.00 1.40 10.00 Cotton seed... 10.00 2.00 12.00 30.00 Cotton seed meal... 25.00 6.00 17.50 67.50 Peavines (green) ... 1.00 3.00 3.10 2.70 Peavines (dry) ... 5.20 15.00 14.50 19.50 Clover (green) ... 1.00 4.00 4.90 4.30 Clover (dry) .:.. 3.80 17.00 22.00 20.70 Cowpea roots (green) 1.50 4.00 4.50 4.10 Clover roots (green). . 1.25 4.00 5.00 5.20 Muck as it exists in swamps is black humus result- . 160 ing from vegetable decay. In the condition as dug from the swamp it is sour and comparatively useless. But if piled in layers over winter with lime or ashes the resulting compost is a valuable material for ap- plying to the land. The dried muck will also make a valuable absorbent in the barnyard, but raw, wet muck should never be hauled directly on the land, be- cause of its acidity which is ‘harmful rather than bene- ficial. But when sweetened with lime or ashes and frosted over winter it is a very different article. The value of stable manure is great, both as a me- chanical manure, and as containing plant food. It consists of the excrement and urine of stock and cat- tle mixed with straw, leaves, cotton hulls, saw dust, etc. Animal matter, such as the excrements, decom- pose more rapidly than vegetable matter, and when mixed with vegetable matter causes it to decompose faster than it would do otherwise. It is hard to get at the amount of plant food in stable manures, for it is so different. The following. table represents per- haps an average, which is taken from Bulletin No. 22, Special, Georgia Experiment Station: CONTAIN POUNDS 1,000 POUNDS OF | Phosphoric ' Acid Potash | Nitrogen Stable manure (Eresh) ition se oo. 3.50 4.50 5.00 Stable manure (rotted) ... 5.00 5.00 5.00 On the basis charged for commercial fertilizers-it is estimated that the average value of manure annu- ally produced by each horse or mule to be $27.00; by each head of cattle, $19.00; by each hog, $12.00. It is hardly probable that near as good results are ob- tained in practice, and too sad to say it, many farm- ers lose the whole amount, because they do not take care of it. The urine is the most valuable part of the excrements of animals as it is especially rich in potash and nitrogen. It should be put upon the land as early as possible, and not allowed to stand in the rain and sunshine. stalls often and place the manure on the land imme- diately. If this can not be done, have a shed, and place it under there and take care of it. It should not be exposed to the sun or rain any more than pos- sible. However, it does not lose anything when It is a good plan to clean out the. TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. spread upon the fields. Before putting it upon th fields, the fields should be plowed immediately be fore, as the freshly plowed soil will absorb the es caping ammonia. Lime and stable manure shoul never be mixed; as the lime sets the ammonia free an it goes off into the air. COTTON SEED. Unless farmers are able to get a very high price fe their cotton-seed it will not pay them to sell ther and buy fertilizers. It is risky because they are li ble to get cheated; for when you use cotton-seed, yo, know what you are using, but when you use a con. mercial fertilizer you do not always know what yo are using. If you get 1,500 pounds meal for a ton ¢ cotton-seed, you may exchange, but if not, put yor, seed under your crop. There is about 750 pounds « meal in a ton of cotton-seed. The oil in the seed . of no value as a fertilizer. The hulls have a litt plant food value, and are quite valuable as a mechaj ical manure. LIME. The action of lime on land is not clearly unde stood by chemists, but it is known that a modera amount of lime on land has a beneficial effect. Lin is of special value where there is a great deal of ve etable matter, as such land is inclined to be too ac’ and lime corrects the acid condition. The quanti) of lime applied depends, of course, upon the char ter of the soil. Too much lime is a detriment to t) land. As a general rule from 40 to 50 bushels fF} acre after being slacked is about the right amou) Where the land contains a great deal of vegetal matter, such as muck land, and lands where a AY amount of vegetable matter has been turned over, where lands are not properly drained, and inclined } be sour, as much as from 100 to 200 bushels per ay may be applied. In England many years ago, wh« land was not properly drained a great deal of li}} was used, but since the land has been drained, vé little lime is used. It is not necessary to apply li; every year; once in every three or four years is s ficient. The effect of lime is different on differnt crops. It has proven to be of much help to can; loupes, where it seemed to be a positive hurt to \ termelons on the same land. It will. be of help? wheat, but its effect will not be noticeable on rye. 2 using lime it should be slacked in such a way that the air will not get to it any more than _ possible. Some farmers scoop out a hole in the field, and place four or five bushels in there and cover it with dirt. The dirt slacks the lime if it is moist. If the dirt is not moist enough, water is placed on the lime just before it is covered up. LAND PLASTER. | Land plaster is a combination of 33 per cent. lime, |46 per cent. sulphuric acid, and 21 per cent. water. | The action of land plaster is not well understood. It | appears to have an indirect action on the plants, and | by some is highly recommended. It is of special val- | ue on peas, vetches and other leguminous plants. Some ) authorities claim that it pays on all crops, but exper- \iments made at some of the stations do not prove | q Fig. 7—Cotton Field. No Fertilizer. Yield 740 lbs. Seed We Cotton per acre. Phillip Lee, Gift, N. C. | this assertion to be correct. We see very little rea- ‘son for the Southern farmer to buy land_ plaster, )when he can get all he needs of this element with his acid phosphate. When it is understood that acid phosphate is one- /half sulphur of lime, or land plaster, and that it costs )practically nothing when one is purchasing phosphor- ‘c acid any way, the talk about the use of land plaster will, we think, subside. | The effect of this land plaster in a fertilizer com- posed largely of acid phosphate by making potash available in the soil accounts in a measure for the act that such a fertilizer will give better results on Plant Cow Peas in Your Corn. I6L red clay land, which contains a large amount of po- tential potash, than it will on sandy land which con- tains a comparatively small amount of this element. The sandy soii requires more potash in the fertilizer to give the same results. This shows again very clearly the necessity that the farmer study his soil so that he may be in a position to apply his fertilizers intelligently. Land plaster may seem to sterilize a soil, by help- ing to exhaust its supply of potash. An application of this element in the shape of kainit, muriate, or sul- phate of potash would correct the trouble. FISH AS A FERTILIZER. On the coast where fish are plentiful, that is, what is called, “trash” fish, they have been found to be very beneficial as fertilizers. Many fish are caught Fig. 8.—Cotton Field. ‘Treated with Fertilizer, containing 8 per cent. Phosphoric Acid, 3 per cent. Nitrogen, 6 per cent. Potash. Yield 1120 lbs. Seed Cotton per acre: Phillip Lee, Gift, N. C. that have no value in the markets, and these are used to make fertilizers. Dig out a hole say eight or ten feet square and two or three feet deep, place in a lay- er of fish about eight inches thick, and cover over with a layer of sand or dirt, and pack tightly, then place another layer of fish and sand as before, and keep on until you are about three feet above the ground, and then put on a very heavy layer of sand, and be sure that it is tight all around. Leave it there for six months, and then dig out whatever is needed. This fertilizer is of great value on truck farms, and is said to do the crops more good than a fertilizer that 12 162 would cost $40.00 per ton, especially for beans. The fish that have no sale in the market, if properly used as above directed. are said to be worth as much as those that are sold. FERTILIZER FORMULAS. It is a very difficult thing for a great many farmers to work An 8-2-2 fertilizer is used more for cotton perhaps than any other. But many farmers do not know what “8-2-2” means. It means that the fertilizer of that formula has 8 per cent. phosphoric acid, 2 per cent. potash and 2 per cent. nitrogen. But some do not know what we mean when we say that the fertilizer contains 8 per cent. phosphoric acid. When we say that a fertilizer analyzes 8 per cent, phosphoric acid, 2 per cent. pot- ash, and 2 per cent. nitrogen, we mean that one hun- dred pounds of this fertilizer has in it 8 pounds phos- phoric acid, 2 pounds potash and 2 pounds nitrogen. In 100 pounds of fertilizer that analyzes 8-2-2 there are only twelve pounds of plant food in it. That leaves 88 pounds of matter and the question comes, What is this 88 pounds? It is what is known as a “filler.” A ‘filler’ is any substance that is put into a fertilizer, or exists there naturally, which is not a plant food. There are two kinds of fillers, natural and artificial. A natural filler is one that is placed there by nature. For instance, in cotton-seed meal, it is not all nitrogen, indeed only a small part of it is nitrogen. There is some phosphoric acid, and some potash, and other matters in a small quantity. The artificial filler is one placed there by man, for the purpose of reducing the total percentage of plant food contained in the fertilizer. The material used for ar- tificial fillers are numerous, such as sand, powdered cinders, slate, marl, gypsum. These fillers have no value as plant food, and are only valuable as fillers. But why are they used, asks some man. To show the use of artificial fillers, suppose a fertilizer factory gets an order for a fertilizer that will analyze 8-2-2. He does not happen to have on ‘hand _ cotton-seed meal, kainit, and South Carolina phosphate, but in- stead he only has the highest price goods on the market, such as Florida phosphate, which contains 20 per cent. available phosphoric acid; nitrate of soda which contains 16 per cent. nitrogen; dried blood which contains 14 per cent. nitrogen; sulphate of ammonia with 20 per cent. nitrogen; muriate of pot- ash which contains 50 per cent. potash. Now, with ek out fertilizer formulas. TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. these materials on hand he must make a fertiliz that will have 12 pounds of plant food to the hw dred, or 240 pounds to the ton. He figures out th with the material on hand he gets this formula: 825 pounds of 20 per cent. acid phosphate will give 1 pounds acid. 215 pounds of 14 per cent. dried blood will give 30 poun Nitrogen. 75 pounds of 16 per gent. nitrate soda will give 12 poun Nitrogen. 7 85 pounds of ‘59 per cent. muriate of potash will give | pounds Potash. If a man wanted an 8-2-2 fertilizer he would wai 8 pounds of available phosphoric acid in every hu dred pounds of the fertilizer, which would mean thi he wants 160 pounds in phosphoric acid in a ton, TI analysis given above makes it 165 pounds of pho phoric acid, and this is thrown in to be sure that will meet the test. He wants two pounds of nitr gen in each hundred, or 40 pounds of nitrogen in ton of the fertilizer. He wants 2 pounds of potas in a hundred pounds of fertilizer, or 40 pounds in ton of fertilizer. The dried blood and nitrate of soi will make 42 pounds of nitrogen as shown above, at the muriate of potash will give 42 pounds of potas But when we add up, we find that we have only us) 1,200 pounds of acid phosphate, dried blood, nitra of soda, and muriate of potash, all together. Now this 1,200 pounds of fertilizer he has the 160 poun) of phosphoric acid that the formula called for ai the 40 pounds of nitrogen and the 4o pounds of pt ash that the formula called for, but in all he has b' 1,200 pounds of fertilizer. In fact, he has given yot little more than is called for. But he can not sell tl 1,200 pounds of fertilizer to you for the same pri that he could ifit only analyzed 8-2-2, for it will 2) alyze more than that, and these chemicals that we) used cost him more than they would had they be’ such that it would had 2,000 pounds-been required’ produce an 8-2-2 fertilizer. In other words, the che | icals are stronger, and, therefore, more costly. fact, the farmers require a ton of fertilizer that w| analyze 8-2-2, and instead of taking this 1,200 pour of fertilizer and using it over the same ground, © uses the ton over, he thas the factory to haul in f! pounds of slate, cinders, and other worthless tr, and mixes with this 1,200 pounds of fertilizer. W! the fertilizer is analyzed after the cinders are mix, with it, it analyzes available phosphoric acid 8:25 |) q | | | | . 2 al ing 16 per cent. You Should Study the Fertilizer Question. cent., nitrogen 2:10 per cent. and potash 2.12 per cent. The man who has lost is the farmer, for the factory is going to have him pay for hauling those cin- ders, and mixing them in, and they must pay the railroad freight, so the farmer has lost. Now would it not have been better for you to have bought 1,200 pounds that would analyze 13:75 per cent. available phosphoric acid, 3.50 per cent. nitrogen, and 3:54 per cent. potash. The only difference between the two is that in getting a ton that analyzes 8-2-2 and 1,200 pounds of 13.75, 3.50 and 3.54 is that you save the expense of mining, pulverizing and freighting, mixing the artificial filler, such as cin- ders, and this, remember, is 800 pounds, and then the freight on the 800 pounds of filler from the factory to your railroad station, and then the hauling it out to your home, and handling it. It would have been much better to have bought 1,200 pounds, and mixed inthe 800 pounds when you got home, say, mix com- post, or if nothing better, sand. The analysis of the percentages of plant food contained in fertilizer in- gredients is figured on the ton basis, ‘hence a 16 per cent. acid phosphate means 16 pounds of phosphoric acid to the 100 pounds, or 320 pounds to the ton. Kainit runs 12 1-2 per cent. actual potash and will give you 50 pounds potash in 400 pounds of the ma- terial. Muriate of potash contains 50 per cent. potash. Nitrate of soda contains 20 per cent. of ammonia or 20 pounds of ammonia in each ‘hundred pounds. Cotton-seed meal contains 8 per cent. of ammonia and in 500 pounds of meal you have 40 pounds of ammo- nia. Now if you want a mixture to contain 2 per cent. of ammonia in mixing a ton, use 500 pounds cotton-seed meal, which will give you 4o pounds of ammonia or 2 per cent. in 2,000 pounds. If you want 8 per cent. of phosphoric acid, then use in the mixture 1,000 pounds of acid phosphate analyz- To get 2 per cent. potash in a ton use 320 pounds of kainit or 80 pounds of muriate of potash. The analysis of fertilizers is so important, and gives so many farmers trouble, that we will give another example. Suppose for some reason that you want a fertilizer that will analyze 4 per cent. nitrogen, 6 per cent. potash, and 7 per cent. phosphoric acid. This means that every hundred pounds of fertilizer you prepare will contain 4 lbs. nitrogen, 6 lbs. potash and -7 pounds phosphoric acid. In the 200 pounds of fer- tilizer you would need double that amount, or 8 163 pounds nitrogen, 12 pounds of potash and 14 pounds of phosphoric: acid, 100 pounds 14 per cent. acid phos- phate would furnish you the necessary available phos- phoric acid, and 24 pounds of muriate of potash will supply the 12 pounds of actual potash. This leaves 76 lbs. to complete your 200 pounds in which you must have the 8 pounds of nitrogen, and as cotton- seed meal only contains about 7 pounds to the hun- dred, you would not be able to get this nitrogen from the meal alone; but must use either high-grade blood Or nitrate of soda, at least in part; as the blood con- tains about 16 per cent. of nitrogen, or 16 pounds to the hundred, 50 pounds of it would furnish you the 4 per cent. nitrogen you need to make your fertilizer complete. You could then add 26 pounds of dirt to complete 200 pounds. If you use cotton-seed meal, the 76 pounds will only contain about 5 pounds of nitrogen; so that your fertilizer will only analyze 2 I-2 per cent. of this element. Nitrate of soda con- tains about the same per cent. of nitrogen as blood, and can be substituted for blood, but would not be as lasting. If you must use meal, acid phosphate and kainit, you would not be able to make a fertilizer analyzing as nigh as you desire; as these materials do not carry the sufficient amount of the necessary elements. duce the analysis pro rata and use more of the fertil- In using these it will be necessary to re- izer per acre. You can figure out per cent. very easy when you understand that kainit carries 12 pounds or 12 per cent. of potash to the hundred; cotton-seed meal 8 pounds or 8 per cent. of ammonia equal to about 7 per cent nitrogen, and acid phosphate 14 per cent. carries 14 pounds to the hundred of phosphoric acid. In making a fertilizer we take the requisite amount of the different materials carrying the plant food we wish our fertilizer to contain, always remembering that the number of pounds of each kind of plant food put in must be divided by the total number of pounds of fertilizer mixed up to give you the analysis of the whole. CHEMICAL ANALYSIS OF THE SOIL. It was at one time thought to be of great value to a farmer for a chemist to make an analysis of the soil, and see in what the soil is deficient. It has been demonstrated that this idea is not of so much prac- tical importance when it is tested. For instance, it was found by chemical analysis that a certain soil 164 contained about one-tenth of one per cent. phosphor- ic acid, or calculating to a depth of nine inches about 3,000 pounds of phosphoric acid per acre, and yet the crop on that land was suffering for phosphoric acid. The truth of the matter is, that the phosphor- ic acid that was on the soil was not available for the plant roots. So a chemical analysis may show that the soil contains a sufficient quantity of a plant food, when actual test by experience proves that the land is in need of that very plant food. Fora plant food to be of any service to the plant it must be soluble in wa- ter. You may experiment with your land and deter- mine in what manner just what the land needs. The following plan has been suggested, and will prove of much benefit to the farmer if they will try it: Fig. 9.—Cotton Field. No Fertilizer. Cotton per acre. J. Yield 581 lbs. Seed M. Jones, Bournham, Miss. METHOD BY WHICH THE FARMER MAY ANALYZE HIS OWN SOIL. First, select a piece of ground as level as possible, so that rain may not wash the fertilizer from one plot into an adjoining plot. Secondly, for the purpose of the experiment, mark off ten plots, each just one- tenth of an acre in area. If convenient make the plots long and narrow, say one hundred and thirty- six feet long by thirty-two feet wide; these dimen- sions would enable you to have eight long rows, four feet apart, in each plot. Any other shape of plot will answer, only be careful to lay off the plots so that they shall each contain one-tenth of an acre, or 4,356 square feet. Separate the plots from each other by paths at least three feet wide, so that the effect of TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. fertilizer in one plot may not be felt in an adjoining plot. It would be well to locate these experimental plots on some of your poorest land, or that which stands mest badly in need of fertilizer. When all is ready, carefully number the plots from one to ten so that you may keep a record of the nature and amount of fertilizer applied on each plot. Let us suppose that you decide to plant cotton on the ten prepared plots for the purpose of finding our what fertilizing con- stituent is most needed by your soil when growing cotton. Plant the cotton in your usual manner, after a careful preparation of the soil of the plots, thor- oughly ploughing and harrowing the plots in order. Then apply the fertilizers as follows: Fig. 10.—Cotton Field. Treated with Fertilizer, containing 8 per cent. Phosphoric Acid, 3 per cent. Nitrogen, 6 per cent Potash. Yield, 1,520 lbs. Seed Cotton per acre. J. M. Jones, Bournham, Miss. No. 1.—No fertilizer. No. 2.—143 pounds of cottonseed meal. No. 3.—200 pounds of 14 per c2=t. acid phosphate. No. 4.—80 pounds of Kainit. No. 5.—No fertilizer. No. 6.—200 pounds cf acid phosphate and 143 pounds of cottonseed meal. No. 7.—143 pounds of cottonseed meal and 80 pounds of kainit. i No. 8.—200. pounds of acid phosphate and 80 pounds of Kainit. No. 9.—200 pounds of acid phosphate, 80 pounds of kainit and 143 pounds of tottonseed meal. No. 10.—500 pounds air-slaked lime. In many of our Georgia soils lime is sadly lacking, and it may be just the thing needed by the soil, in conjunction with certain other fertilizers. To discover if this be the case, after having fertilized plot No. 2, mark of a strip 2 1-2 feet in width diagonally across the plot, that is, running from one corner to the op- posite corner. Apply to this strip 50 pounds of air- slacked lime, and work it in well with the soil and other fertilizer with a rake. Do the same with each of the other, plots, omitting No. to. Then when the crop begins to grow, if lime was specially needed by the soil in any of the plots, you ought to notice a marked superiority in the two and a half foot strip which runs diagonally across all the rows in all nine plots. In the above fertilizers it is presumed that the acid phosphate is the kind most usually sold, containing 14 per cent. of available phosphori¢ acid, so that 200 pounds supplies 28 pounds of actual phosphoric acid to the plot. The cotton-seed meal is presumed to contain 7 per cent. of nitrogen so that 143 pounds of it supplies 10 “pounds of nitrogen to the plot, and the kainit to con- tain 12 1-2 per cent. of potash, so that 80 pounds yield Io pounds of potash to the plots the kainit is applied to. In applying the fertilizers observe the following precautions: Sow each fertilizer on the plot.to. which it is to be applied broadcast, using your best care and judgment to distribute the fertilizer evenly over the. entire plot. In order to get an even distribution it is best to sow in such quantity that you will have to go Over each plot at least twice to get all the fertilizer distributed. Také care not to sow while the wind is blowing, as it may blow some of the fertilizer on to the adjoining plots. After sowing, harrow the ground, and then it will be ready for you to plant. Plant thick enough to insure a perfect stand. Treat all the plots exactly alike, except as to the fertilizers applied’ Prepare the ground in each plot the same, plant the cotton all at the same time, and always cul- tivate the same and at the same time each day. Take pains to have the same number of plants in each row. It will be well to’ keep a notebook with a page for each plot in which to record your observations. — In this book record: 1st. “The kind of fertilizer applied to each plot and the amount applied, on the page set apart for the respective plots from 1 to 10. 2nd. Note down the date the cotton was planted. 3rd. Note the date the cotton came up in each plot: 4th. When the cotton is about two inches high on the plot containing no fertilizer, note the height and Do You Know What Your Fertilizer Contains? 165 appearance of the other plots. 5th. After you have thinned out to a uniform stand, record the number of missing plants, if any, in each plot. Of course, use every endeavor to have the same number of plants in each plot, but in case of accident to some, be sure 10 put down the number missing in any plot so as to make allowances. 6th. Record any other observa- tions of interest during the growth of the crop on the different plots, such as the comparative dates of blooming, number of bolls to the stalk, date of open- ing of the bolls, height of the stalks after maturity of the plant. 7th. Kecp the seed cotton from each plot to itself, weigh it by itself, and record the weight of the seed cotton from plot No. 1 on page No. 1, and so on with the others. When you have picked and weighed the last pound of cotton, then you will, I think, be able to decide for yourself what fertilizer or combination of fertilizers your land requires. Of course, if you have a bad season, very dry or very wet, you will not be able to decide so well, and in that case repeat the experiment another year. In this way you can analyze your own soil and do it better than the best chemist in the world can do it for you, because you have appealed to the soil itself; you have spoken to it in the language of nature, and it has replied in the same mute, but eloquent tongue, demonstrating the truth of her answers before your The above is taken from Bulletin No. 42 Georgia Experiment Station. You can form some idea of what your soil needs by the way your crops grow. If the plants aré dark green and grow off rapidly it shows that ammonia is abundant, and if they are pale or yellowish in appear- ance ammonia is needed. If the plant seems weak and easily affected by disease, potash is needed, also when crops do not fill out well, or the lint on cotton- seed is light, potash is lacking. Phosphoric acid makes the plant fruit early and heavily, and has a general tendency to bring crops to early maturity. White lint cotton contains very little plant food, the principal- element of which it is composed is potash, and if we want a heavy yield of lint cotton we must be sure this element-is well represented in our fertil- izer. : very eyes. For the benef:t of the farmer who can not work out the formula, we give several here for different The average farmer believes in a fertilizer that will analyze 8 per cent. phosphoric acid, 2 per cent. nitrogen, and 2 per cent. potasi. The follow- ing formulas will come up to that anaivsis: crops. 166 TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. Noe: Or in other words, a regular 8-2-2 complete Com- ING (leer aie Pacem asco odan ONO O GUMS 1200 lbs. mercial Fertilizer containing 240 pounds of plant Gotton=seed Smeal aire cremicitetrreree 600 Ibs. food to the ton. Enh ih One ear iE GeO DcLone co Orcs DIG eromD orp 200 lbs. Fertilizers that will analyze 9-3-4 are quite popim lar, and the following formulas will analyze that pro- portion. These formulas are suitable for cotton, as a general rule: If you wisi to substitute cotton seeu tor the meal, you will use: No. 2 Gopieopoh wiesdlenmengociaod cos pecdadaamod 1200 lbs. INOS Fi Acid: Ppa mI BML SN og bac eee a he Dea 600 Ibs. Acid *Phosphate (16 per cent.)) 22.7 s- 1100 lbs. eaitiitese at mere cra rev aet otenerencevercteyiclerksion 200 Ibs. Cutiantsend” Goal « 143 lbs. MOC HRoMMESC CUM DAs cooks Sialsise Ganiney gee ss 13% bus. No. 15 PNGIOMIAHOSPNATC cae cd secs os tires vans 266 I|bs. IMiEnateMOLUSOGA (a... .6s.svs spies css. 13 lbs SA MMERIVITITINE: Sct cscere visio clo esccossse. 4000 lbs. No. 16, Miigeicmor Potash: io... ote see ee 30 Ibs. Pxciamibosphate:..... 2.5 ..0.+.00: me a3e4ulbss (Distal [Biloca iinet eee ee 167 lbs. No. 17 Mingieeson Potash ...:..........0.02.. to lbs | Acid Phos. with Pot. (2 per cent. K Cotton-seed TVG el leeeeyemae, aehcore cen tevae se micre lacks 286 lbs | No. 18 PUM Sooke cs teccs sens 58 Ibs BCi@mbnosphate (0. ..2... 6.05. be eases. 300 Ibs |e 2 CS ote i ar 70 |bs S ELE 2 VAG ee 2000 lbs No. 19 (MiUteematePotash oo... ..-.. 0.0.0. sees 20 Ibs There is no More Profitable Study Than Plant Growth. 167 JNGIGl EVO DEUS SG SocouuadD HOODS ODO 300 Ibs. INWERahe EO ite SO day. creysiserc cares arses crore cie.e otees 64 lbs. Coltommsee daiercmeriecree viene weet es 134 bus. No. 20 TATA Sr re cretsserehereerods wicheiaie oy acaneodl aatctncclove eee 45 lbs. INGIdmPVOS pldatemenm citations ulcer arene 204 lbs. Cottonseed wera sivctesraviocis a icles erccs.9s aC 2-3 bus. Commercial Fertilizer to analyze as below: Available Phosphoric Acid ..... 10.00 per cent. ZA ODHOOVOVIVIEN och Siclo du EkO co Run ee Be ainG 4.85 per cent. Use 500 pounds per acre. The formulas from 10 to 20 inclusive are intend- ed for land that is about worn out. For cotton on the red hills, and the soil similar to red hills, we would advise that you use the following: No. 21. Acid| Phosphate, 16 per cents seas. se: 1100 lbs. (Gotton=seed meal +4. 455.455 i. 02-750 Ibs. Moiriate sors eotashtaee mean cee ae 80 lbs. MO tale Ssrp cee occa ae ane 2000 Ibs In mixing your fertilizers weigh out the required amount of each ingredient necessary to make a given part of one ton, say 500 pounds. Mix with hoes or shovels on a tight floor or on a smootl:, hard place on the ground. For gray soi] with clay near the top of the ground, the following makes a good fertilizer for cotton: No. 22 Neidu Phosphate tates eee eee ars a 1125 Ibs. Cotton-secdismealieeraacienacie siento 750 Ibs. Miumniatenonebotashtmerrcmiseccrcciecrs cr 125 lbs. This formula when mixed, will analyze as follows: IPORMNOME AVG cioosanoguauoees g.00 per cent. AMM Oma meacwerucre ce cestsssio oresare eetsias. 3.00 per cent. PO tAS Mersey ne ie creton ous peteeeveneistey orace 3-00 per cent. For sandy soils: No. 23. 80 to 120 lbs. cotton-seed meal per acre. 168 160 to 240 lbs. acid phosphate per acre. 40 to 60 lbs. kainit per acre. 280 to 420 lbs. total per care. For the level lands of the Southern long leaf pine region: No. 24. cotton-seed meal per acre. acid phosphate per acre. kainit per acre. total per acre. 60 to 120 lbs. 120 to 240 lbs. 60 to 8o lbs. 240 to 440 lbs. For any well drained soil on which cotton is known to be especially liable to black rust: No. 25. 120 to 160 lbs. cotton-seed meal per acre. 8o to 120 lbs. acid phosphate per acre. 80 to 120 ibs. kainit per acre. 280 to 400 lbs. total per acre. For red bottom land, the following makes an ex- cellent fertilizer for cotton: No. 26. Acid Phosphate (18 per cent.) .....-. 777 \bs. Gotton=seed! meals .ss5- emer se 500 lbs. Nitrate TOL SO dake cerieickevewcleiel-nerenelersy= valent 100 lbs. Mruniaten Ole OLaSIe voctetucrene here steraccri-t-1- 75 |bs. Atel Goods nacoondsodboccoans: 1452 lbs. The above would analyze 10.50 fhosphate, 3.51 nitrate, 3.10 potash. 2 I would apply the whole amount of the above for- mula entirely and apply about 250 pounds to the acre in the furrow, with the planting seed, at the time of planting. All the ingredients, except the nitrate of coda, should be applied at least two weeks before planting time; but the nitrate of soca should not be applied so long in advance. For worn cut creek bottoms, we recommend the following for cotton: INO: 27% Acid Phosphate (14 per cent.) ...... 100 lbs. Cotton=seed jineall aa.) eee 700 lbs. Mutiate: of Potashs mame icteric 75 lbs. Use 400 pounds or more per acr~. The fertilizer TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. should be applied about two weeks Lefore planting. WHEAT FERTILIZERS. The fertilizer analyses as given above are good for wheat on the same kind of lands, except that the acid phosphate should be decreased to one-hatf of what is given for cotton. Also when using these fertilizers, the nitrate of soda should not be mixed with the oth- er ingredients, but it should be reserved and applied as a top dressing in the spring. The Experiment Station at Bouregard, France, gives the following formula for wheat: No. 28. Acid Phosphate mas evcoc coe ee 350 lbs Sulphate vot eAmimomiay i aici 130 Ibs Munriate of Potash “han. 405 eee go lbs This should be applied when the wheat is sown, and is enough for one acre. Early in the spring 90 pounds of nitrate of soda should be appiied as a top dressing. The following is a general formula fcr wheat, oats, - and other small grains, and grasses: No. 20. Cotton-seed meal 2. 22-4. se. eee 800 Ibs. Wed" Phosphates: = 5..ce smc ae eee 1000 lbs. Kainit'= ©... a.s0schee eee ee 200 Ibs. Use 200 to 6oo lbs. per acre. ; No. 30. AcidiMPhoss (Gor percent) me roe goo Ibs. Cottonsseed! meal ~ 225s). ae 1000 Ibs. Muniate of sPotashita. ses ees 120 Ibs. Motal< sSiane dese scte a steeteerenae .2020 Ibs. 9-4-3 Formula. No. 31. NGG Pos (Close Sales). Gooodonensoc 1125 lbs Dried Bloody zits vk Soe eee 500 Ibs Miuniateworebotash eens neeeenee eee 120 lbs. lEsUlkese Toe WSenGl Gosgoecc Seine Rea. - 255 lbs Total «2 raccecisae nase 2000. lbs These formulas when mixed wil! enalyze as fol- lows: Not How Much, But How Well You Cultivate Means Success. Hahoasplioirie tACids 2.255... 5 a oe cs 9.00 per cent. PMI OMAN cnet oe cia inte arate ees 4.00 per cent. PGUATN — oboe Soe er eee aaa 3.00 per cent. UGA ein srorcoie on BEA 10.0C per cent. Top dress wheat and oats in the month of March with 75 pounds nitrate of soda broadcast per acre. CORN FERTILIZERS. Most farmers are of the opinion thit corn does not need fertilizers, and hence they use all their money to fertilize cotton and buy corn. If they would put more fertilizers to corn, and give it better attention they will come nearer paying out of debt than some of them are doing now. The followiny formulas are offered as general formulas: No. 32 CORWONNEST ASG Sonal ae Sm eels eres eee 200 lbs. PNC(MOSPMAtes 5. 66s acces dens oe oe 1600 lbs. SCAM EMP reali ches 3 coe gcaila ics are Ged wieusiatendiowe 200 lbs. Use 200 up to 1000. lbs: per acre. Now 33° Avtidl IPINGS, (GE pe ane) aes aeomeod 1250 lbs. IDirigeal TBICYoYC Le tyeeticea eae nc Seer eer are 375 lbs. Mitimaremor MOtash 2.cc..0.02 ce eae.’ 80 Ibs. Palle Oe Sein CllRcrescr terse eres eee anes 295 Ibs: Blo fail ai ate raiat acters) 242000) IDS: 9-3-2 formula. se No. 34. =a EXeidmehos: (16 pér cent) 4.2.00... 1125 lbs. Cotton-seed’ meal .:.... Bis ats Shoe 750 lbs. Mimaiatewon Potash <1. 4i2.i2. 6 can. Eo 80 lbs. Bt eos clo oie Sok cagreyeiete ce 4 1955 lbs. These formulas when mixed wili analyze as fol- lows: Phosphoric cAcid +02. .6.0.262.4. Q.CO per cent. BRPREIOMU UO veces fk cials we es evn vssd cas 3.00 per cent. _ VS ee ae Pew =) 2c) per cent: pipettes. ec eas Sat. 14.60 per cent. 7 For corn on the average worn ami so-called “ex- hausted” upland soils: 169 No. 35. cid Phosuhate (14 per cent:)) ....-.. 1000 lbs. Cottonymeals (2ii1=2::7)-1 91-2)! Fo eee alee 1250 lbs. - Muriate of Potash (50 per cent.) ..... 30 Ibs. (Or Kainit: 12 1-2 per cent., 120 !bs. ANOEAIE Rr yeseiartresn cra tiaiecae ttt rss 2280 lbs. This would analyze as follows: Available Phosphate Acid ...... 7.50 per cent. Nitrogen, (equal to ammonia 4.65} 3.83 per cent. This is relatively the same as 10:5:2. The mixture would be rendered more prompt in effective action by substitution in place of 40 pounds of the cotton meal, about 200 pounds of nitrate of soda. The practice is to apply about 20 to 30 pounds of nitrate per acre at the time of planting, scattering a small pinch of it not nearer than three to four inches of seed corn. For corn on well improved upland, or on old bot- tom land, or fresh lands: No 36. Acid Phosphate (14 per cent.) ....... 1000 lbs Cotton imealy @ar-2-7,1 1-2) ae 870 lbs Muriate of Potash (50 per cent.) ..... 30 lbs (Or Kainit: 12 1-2 per cent., 120 Ibs. Mo taller iaicie hae eer 1900 lbs This would analyze about as follows: Available Phosphoric Acid 35 On Pen cent. Nitrogen (equivalent to ammonia 3.yo 3.21 per cent. Potash (c20) ..1:47 per cent. On freshly cleared soil, or well improved old up- lands, or cotton, if only a light application is intend- ed the potash may be left out entirely and the cotton meal still further proportionately reduced in quantity. In view of the caution against «pp'ying a large quantity of commercial fertilizers to corn, it may be stated that 300 pounds of the above formula-may be considered the maximum amount for one acre ‘of land. For water melons and sweet following fertilizers: potatoes. apply “the 9-3-9 formula. No. 37. Acid Phosphate (20 per cent.) 170 TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. @otton=seediumealieme crm eriernte ote Wikimene CM. dO 6se5oceca0unccenonc ANCA Sage bon osoongdon ccaeone 9-3-9 formula. No. 38. Ncideihoss (16) per cent.) ear treo IDjeneal iBiloreysl: Sao amooeboudocwsomoooddDe Mitriate jot (Potash faces. acre miele lore pile on SrilGl epoca onseoucoduo0 cos ARON bye oa cidne Ba Coco o.0.dcorn 9-3-9 formula. No. 39. Acid ehos-n(Gisp pera Cenlte) i citer eyaruertci Nineteen Boyki Segbeacctoocos cncodcs Miriate (Of me OtaSiivesmiarnciers sic varsisrenerers sl Boy 21) (Uarcmne uy ey Rrehcin Gra micaaG 1910 Ibs. These formulas when mixed will analyze as fol- lows: Ibhos phonic eA Cid cree toneretsiesereerer= 9.00 LNAMONOME) Gug@ogsoseeoDoAnooU Co0T SAGO) PO taslipecperce et eis Soils istoeeroe 9.00 Acidmehospliates essai eto el er tsiaee Mitiniates of 2 otashieeeiasees a smtamiciienst INfitrate Obl SOU al see aoe ec eieie rae No. 41. Acid Phosphate s( 4) per Cent.) s rrice ce Cotton meal’ Sis. rear erere a aae Nitratemofe Soda ttm aa- se pee eee ete Sulphate (or muriate of Potash) ...... Metal: 2p ceors faiectver terete ‘Gotton-seed meal e yacnenee meee acer INEGI IB WOR ENS Sopa donaododooscana‘e LC ihih Sere Se cece Mops oekbid adoio Use 600 to 2000 Ibs. per acre. No. 43. %0 lbs. Cotton-seed meal. per cent. per cent. per cent. per cent. 800 Ibs. Acid Phosphate; 13 per cent. 200 lbs. Nitrate of Soda. 300 Ibs. Muriate of Potash. This will give you ammonia 5.9 per cent; phos- phoric ‘acid, 6.4 per cent.; potash, 7 pe1 cent. No. 44. Phosphoric acid, 7 per cent. Potash, 8 per cent. Cotton-seed meal, 800 pounds. - Acid Phosphate (high grade,) 900 lbs. Muriate of Potash, 300 lbs. This will make a ton of the above fertilizer. Mix thoroughly until the whole mass is of an even color throughout, being careful to pound up all lumps. If you can apply your fertilizer two or three weeks in advance of planting, use the fertitzer without the cotton-seed meal, but if you have to plant and fertil- ize at the same time, use the one containing the cot- ton-seed meal. FRUIT TREES. A good fertilizer for fruit trees can be made as follows: No. 45. 1000 lbs. cotton-seed meal. 300 Ibs. nitrate of soda. 700 lbs. acid phosphate. TOBACCO FERTILIZER. The subject of fertilizers for tobacco is treated un- der the head of tobacco growing, as it is of so much importance, it is thought best to treat that subject under that head. FERTILIZERS FOR TRUCK FARMING. The truck farmer must get his crop in early if he expects to make a success. It is of great importance therefore that he use the very best grade of guano. The farmer who is dependent upon early crops may afford to buy poor fertilizers, but this is doubted, but the truck farmer must not be content. When we speak of a high-grade fertilizer, of course, it is un- derstood that we mean one that is available at once, | and not one that will be available next month or next year. The all round garden fertilizer should have ibout 20 per cent. phosphoric acid, from 10 to 14 per rent. nitrogen, and from 40 to 50 per cent. potash. The following table gives the amount that should be ised in an area smaller than an acre, for the average vardener does not want to figure on the acre. | 4 Pounds Pounds per Pounds per FRUITS. per plant} Square Rod * acre “A GISS) Ga agaeeeeeen 5.5 3.8 600 Blackberries o Basto 0.4 4.4 700 BSHCTMLES Herel o.e)s.0 0% 4.5 5.6 900 cranberries ...... 0.25 3.1 500 SOTA h The majority of these develop into agamic females resembling the stem mother, though some individuals develop wings and fly to other localities where they establish new colonies. These winged agamic females (Fig. 20) give birth to young resembling those from the stem mother. During the season there may be ten or more generations, as described above. From the last generation each season true males and females develop, which mate, thus providing for the winter eggs. It is no uncommon sight to see a stem mother surrounded by a hundred or more aphis of all sizes. 198 By sucking the plant juices the leaves are made to curl and twist, always toward the side on which the lice are located. When the leaves become badly curled it will be readily understood that the lice are well protected and hard to reach with any insecticide. This characteristic curling of leaves should be care- fully noted, as it is closely connected with the sub- ject of remedies which will be considered after men- tion has been made of one more species of aphis. THE BLACK PEACH APHIS. Description and Life History.—This species, as its name implies, is shining black or deep brown in color. Winged and wingless forms ‘both occur, new colo- nies being established by means of the former. The young aphis are faint greenish-brown, becoming dark- er as they near maturity. All these forms will be found on the growing tips of infested peach trees in early spring causing the leaves to curl in the char: acteristic manner. Unlike the plum aphis this species does not win- ter in the egg stage. About mid-summer many of the aphis on the leaves and branches make their way to the ground and: to the roots where the winter is passed. Dr.. John B. Smith* states that no males have been observed and no eggs have been discovy- ered; hence it is assumed that the black peach aphis breeds agamically all the year round. Early in spring the root form make their way to the surface and to the branches, and there colonies are formed on the opening buds, later living on the fully developed leaves and tender stems. Remedies. Plant lice live by sucking the plant juices, and for that reason they cannot ‘be poisoned with arsenicals. Contact poisons must be employed for these insects. For the forms which occur above ground we have a simple remedy, as kerosene emulsion at 15 per cent. strength or a strong soap solution will kill all the aphis with which it comes in contact. Now it will be seen why the matter of the curled leaves becomes significant. It is almost impossible to spray a tree with emulsion, or any solution, so as to reach all — the aphis inside the curled leaves. This can only be affected by dipping, which is out of the question *N. J. Exp. ste. BullNo. 72; TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. with orchard trees of any size, though it may be practiced with nursery stock. By watching closely for the first appearance of aphis in spring the first colonies may be discovered and destroyed by spray- ing before the leaves become curled. If many leaves are curled when the infestation is first discovered, it may become necessary. to gather the badly curled leaves by hand, and follow with the emulsion to de- stroy all remaining aphis. (For preparing kerosene emulsion see directions on page 182) Whale oil soap solution, t pound to 3 gallons of water, will be found as effective as the emulsion; or tobacco decoction may be prepared by boiling 3 pounds of tobacco leaves or stems, in 5 gallons of water for about three hours. This decoction may be used without dilution and will prove very effective. The black peach aphis occurring on the roots of peach trees will seldom become serious if the form appearing above ground is properly destroyed each year, at least enough to reduce them to insignificant numbers. The greatest danger is that this insect may be spread on nursery stock, but even that dan-— ger is mitigated by fumigation which is required of all nurserymen in some States. Liberal applications of tobacco dust about the roots of nursery stock is valuable for destroying the root form of peach aphis. Any plant lice occurring on leaves or branches may be killed by spraying with the contact insecti- cides mentioned above, and no one need fear this form of insect if the first colonies appearing in spring are properly destroyed. ROOT KNOT OR NEMATODE GALL. While not an insect, strictly speaking, the nema- tode worm, which is the cause of root knot on peach trees, should be mentioned in connection with other peach insects. These knots are caused by a small “eel-worm” or nematode, an individual being almost microscopical in size; but the knots resulting from their attack are readily noticed. (Fig, 21.) A close examination of fresh knots will usually reveal the little cavities containing eel worms in all stages of development. Usually it has been observed that the root knot is most prevalent on trees in sandy soils, such as are found in some parts of South Georgia, while in the stiff clay lands this trouble is seldom noticeable. ; ee Birds are great insect gatherers. The symptom of root knot, which can be seen above ground, is usually a scanty yellow growth. Young trees often die from the effect of root knot during the second or third: year, but where older trees are attacked they may survive for several years or almost indefinitely, although making a poor growth. No good remedy for this trouble is known though Fig. 21—Root Knot on peach root caused by “eel worms” or nematodes. (From U. 8. Dept. of Agr., Farmers’ Bull. No. 33.) much damage therefrom may be avoided by adher- ing to certain rules. In the first place, orchardists should not plant trees bearing roots which show root knot; or if only a very little is present it should be carefully pruned off before planting. Another thing that should be understood is that the nematode worms live on sey- eral common garden and field crops, such as cab- bage, okra, turnip, egg-plant, cotton and cow-peas. In the case of the cow-pea we have an exception in the variety of pea known as the “Iron” cow-pea. This variety is practically resistant to the nematode worm and can be planted with safety in the peach orchard, and in view of the fact that so many cow- peas are grown in the peach orchards, it is fortunate - lected. 199 that we have this resistant variety. All plants which are susceptible to attack from the nematode worm should be kept out of peach orchards where the worms are known to occur. This practically results in a starving out process. Insecticides are of little if any value against the nematode worms. In Florida it was found that heavy applications of potash fertilizer, either. sul- phate or muriate, 3,000 Ibs. per acre, were of some value, but the large amounts necessary make the‘r use prohibitive. It has been suggested that nematode worms may be destroyed by heat, and this may be practical over small areas, especially where only an occasional tree is infested. Under such conditions each infested tree should be dug up by the roots leaving a fair sized hole, above which a pile of brush and wood could be burned. Afterward by filling the hole with fresh earth from an uninfested field, another tree could be planted in place of the old one. This tree would be able to develop a strong, vigorous root system before the nematodes again became abundant. As a general thing it will not be profitable to plant a peach orchard in land where the nematode worms are abundant, as long as uninfested land can be se- Land once infested will remain so for sev- eral years, but the worms will die out gradually if the land is planted in corn, or some such resistant crop. CATERPILLARS Caterpillars are not as a rule a serious enemy of peach trees. Every year, however, a few outbreaks occur, but the damage in the past few years has been almost of no consequence. A few words, however, in this connection may be of interest. THE AMERICAN TENT-CATERPILLAR Every one is familiar with the white webs of the tent-caterpillar, which are found on wild cherries and apples in spring, and which increase in size at an alarming rate. This tent-caterpillar sometimes at- tacks peach trees, and although easily destroyed are often allowed to work unmolested. (For remedies see discussion of Apple Insects.) OTHER CATERPILLARS. The tent-caterpillar is easily controlled without 200 spraying, but some leaf-eating worms are not so eas- ily captured. Whenever the foliage of fruit trees is being destroyed by caterpillars it may be readily protected by spraying with some arsenical poison. Peach foliage is very easily injured by arsenical sprays; hence the following dilute formula is recom- mended to be employed against any leaf-eating cat- erpillars. Formula :— Paris Green or Green Arsenoid ...1 pound Oi cksibintes eas acres eer 3 pounds \WWRUSt =a eococneddduocovodcoCbsc 175 gallons Paris green may also be used in connection with weak Bordeaux mixture, at the rate of 4 ounces of the former to 50 gallons of the latter. One spraying with either of the above mixtures will usually kill enough caterpillars, when present, to prevent their causing any considerable injury. APPLE INSECTS WOOLLY APHIS. This little insect belongs to the same family as the -plant lice which infest the buds and leaves of the ap- ple during the early summer, and differs from the Fig. 22.— Woolly aphis (Schizoneura lanigera). male; b, larva louse; ¢, pupa; d, winged female with antenna enlarged above; all greatly enlarged and with waxy excretion removed. (Mar- latt, Cic. No. 20, sec. s., Div. of Ent., L. S. Dept. of Agr.) a, Agamic fe- — TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. latter mainly in that it secretes a white cottony sub- stance about its body and infests, as a rule, the roots of the trees. Where trees are infested when they come from the nursery they are likely to be found seriously injured in from two to four years after planting. Its cottony masses under which, by a close examination, may be detected the brownish-pink bodies of the lice. By feeding upon the roots these lice cause abnormal swellings or galls, the tissue of which soon dies, and Fig. 23—Woolly aphis (Schizoneura lanigera). a, Root of young tree illustrating deformation; ‘b, section of root with aphids clusteed over it; c, root louse, female—a and , b, natural size; ec, much enlarged. (Marlatt, Cire. No. 20, sec. s., Div. of Ent., U. S. Dept. of Ag.) the roots are destroyed. The main support of the tree being thus impaired, a high wind soon topples it over. The root-infesting form of the woolly aphis is shown in Figure 23. Besides the root-infesting form, there is an “aeri- al” form (see Figure 22) which attacks the trunk and limbs but the injury from this form is not great. This form feeds mostly in cracks, old cuts or bruised places in the bark and its presence is readily detect- ed by the white cottony appearance of the colonies. The damage done by this form is little more than a killing of the bark at the point of attack. The aeri- Bir yw il presence on the root is indicated by | hl form is readily killed by spraying thoroughly with 1 whale oil soap solution made of one pound of whale oil soap to each gallon of water; with kero- sene emulsion, or with some tobacco solution such as diluted Rose Leaf Tobacco Extract. A home- ‘nade tobacco decoction is easily prepared by boiling three pounds of tobacco stems in five gallons of wa- fer for three hours, adding water from time to time ;o make up for evaporation. These colonies on trunk and limbs must be thoroughly drenched with what- pver insecticide is used, as the cottony covering pro- sects them effectually from.any light application. (We consider the aerial form more of an advantage ‘han otherwise, as it serves to give the orchardist warning of the more serious injury that is likely becurring on the roots of the trees at the same time. An apple tree having its roots infested with wool- ly aphis usually presents a sickly appearance, with a \vellowish foliage and a _ noticeable scarcity of healthy leaves. Examination of the roots will usual- y disclose the “aphis galls” in such cases. | As the root-infesting form of this insect is the most injurious, it is important that the main meas- hres should be directed against it. The remedy is basy to apply, but its efficiency depends upon its use when the aphis first appears and while the trees are young. Tobacco dust is an effective remedy and has deen used with most gratifying success in Ohio. In applying this to four or five-year-old apple lrees, remove the soil for about two or three feet on tach side of the tree, and to a depth of three or four mches. Into this opening sprinkle about five bounds of tobacco dust and replace the dirt. Larger \uantities should of course be used upon older and jatger trees. Other remedies, such as boiling water, potash soap, ashes, etc., have been tried, but always with little or no success. The tobacco dust remedy hould be applied in the spring as soon as the round is “settled,” and its thorough success will de- vend upon its application before the trees get old and become badly infested. APPLE TREE BORERS. _A common injury to apple trees is that caused by )orers in the main trunk near or just above the sur- ace of the ground. There are two borers which nay cause damage, known as the round-headed and he flat-headed. These names are descriptive of he larvae of these two different insects, and, as they Don’t fail to spray your fruit trees. 201 imply, the one is nearly cyclindrical in form, with a head about the same size as the body, while the oth- er has a flattened head, which is very broad as com- pared with the width of the body. There is also a marked difference in the life-history of the two in- sects. ROUND-HEADED BORER. The adult round-headed borer is a beautiful beetle, about three-fourths of an inch in length, of a pale, brownish-yellow color and having two _ broad, creamy-white stripes running the entire length of the body. These beetles appear during May and June and the females soon thereafter commence to depos- it their eggs in cracks or crevices in the bark near the base of the tree. The ege hatches in about two weeks into a minute worm which immediately bores through the bark and begins to feed on the sap- wood. For the first year, the larvae confine their attacks to the sap-wood, making a disc-shaped bur- row about the size of a silver dollar. Unless several are present the injury is not likely to be very notice- able the first season. At the close of the first sea- son the larva or borer, which is as yet but partly grown, goes to the lowest part of the burrow and remains there quietly through the winter. The sec- ond year of the borer’s lIfie is also passed in the sap- wood but it no longer confines itself to a small area, but may work around a small tree, completely gird- ling it. When more than one borer is present in a small tree this is often the case. The second winter is also passed in the lowest part of the burrow. The third season of the borer’s life finds him boring into the heart of the tree, and in the case of a small tree the channel may extend nearly or quite to the opposite side of the trunk. The borer attains its full development the third summer and after boring into the heart of the tree the channel through which it entered is closed with sawdust-like castings and another opening is made through which the adult beetle may escape the fol- lowing spring. In this latter channel the larva pas- ses the third and last winter of its life, and in spring the complete change to the adult takes place, and there emerges the beautiful beetle already described. When a borer is discovered in a tree, the only remedy is to dig him out with a sharp knife. This can be done in August and September. Knowing the life-history, it is evident that borers should be 202 removed every year, in order to get them while still in their first season’s development. If a borer has gone into the heart of the tree a sharp wire may be thrust into the opening and twisted about to kill the borer, even though he may not be entirely removed. When looking for borers, a sharp lookout should be kept for discolored patches of bark, which, when pressed with the finger give way and indicate the hollow underneath. Oftentimes the presence of a borer is indicated by an exudation of sap together with some of the sawdust intermingled. The sap, or gum, however, does not often come out in great quantities as it does upon peach trees which are at- tacked by the peach tree borer. In addition to apple trees, the round-headed borer may attack quince, Juneberry, native crab apple, ash and possibly other trees. FLAT-HEADED BORER. The adult flat-headed borer is a beetle about one- half inch in length, with a flattened, oblong body, tapering toward the posterior end. The color is greenish-black, with bronzy reflections, while the legs shine like burnished gold. The feet are shin- ing green in color. As to the life-history of the flat- headed borer, but little need be said except that it is supposed to complete its transformation—from egg to adult—in a single year. From eggs that are laid this summer, adult beetles will develop next mer. The remedy is the same as for the round-head- ed borer and should be attended to at the same time, namely, during August and September. sum- REMEDY FOR BORERS. Aside from the knife remedy, the trees may be protected by a coat of whitewash or a thick alkali soap solution. A _ still better’ plan is to wrap the trees, to a height of about eighteen inches, with thick brown paper tied firmly and pressed into the so that no insect can crawl underneath it. Dirt should be piled around the lower end of this Wihitewash or the soap solution may be ap- plied above the band, but whatever is used for a protection should be applied as early as May Ist to be thoroughly effective. It is also advisable to re- peat this application about June Ist, especially if there have been heavy rains. When paper is used this latter should be removed about the first of Au- cracks band. TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. gust. All these exterior coverings and applications of whitewash only serve to discourage the adult beetles from depositing eggs, and have no effect whatever upon borers that may have entered the tree. THE CODLING MOTH. This is one of the insect enemies that have sup- posedly come to us from the Old World, and it has now spread to nearly all parts of the United States where apples are grown. The annual damage to the Fig. 24.—Codling moths, natural size. - (After Slingerland, Bul. 142, Cornell University Exp. Station.) apple crop of the country by this insect is enormous, being estimated by Prof. C. B. Simpson at 12,000,- ooo barrels, about $11,400,000.* The great majority of the “worms” found in apples are the larvae of this insect. It is evident that the codling worth moth is at present working more injury to the apple! crop of the South than any other pest, the San Jose scale not excepted, Fig. 25.—Codling moth larva or “apple worm,” enlarged about 4 times. (After Simpson, Bul. 41, Div. of Ent., U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.) i The adult codling moth is a small but beautiful in-| sect, but on account of its diminutive size it is sel- dom noticed by the average apple grower. The adult | moths are well illustrated in Figure 24. *Bulletin 41, Division of Entomology, page 18. The moths appear in the spring at about the time the apple trees are in bloom and eggs are deposited on both the young apples and on the foliage. are many opinions as to how and where the young larvae first enter the apple, but it is well established that a great majority of the spring generation crawl into the blossom end of the small apples and there burrow into the flesh of the latter. The larva, when partially grown, is of a delicate pink color, and when matured may attain a length of one-half inch pr over. (See Figure 25). | Many of the wormy apples drop before attaining their full size, but the larvae within them continue to feed until grown, when they burrow out of the pple and select a protected place in which to spin heir cocoons. Loose bark and rubbish offer favor- ble inducements to these larvae, and it is in such naterial in the apple orchard that many cocoons ie be found. A knowledge of this habit is of im- vortance as bearing upon the control of this insect. Remedies. Spraying with arsenical poison has been found jighly profitable, but this spraying must be done at ‘he proper time or it will be of little value. The jight time is just after the petals have fallen, and /rhile the calyx end of the apple is still open. At pis time it also will be noticed that the apples all \tand erect in such a way that a drop of water or \pray mixture will be ‘held by the apple as in a cup. See Fig. 26.) Thus the meal that awaits the cod- ing moth larva is a poisoned one, and as most of ne larvae enter the blossom end of the fruit, they yill not live to reach the interior of the fruit. This oison spray is best applied in the form of Bordeaux Mixture 4-6-50 to which either six ounces of Paris een or two and a half pounds of arsenate of lead added. The poison should be mixed with a very Ynall amount of water, into a paste, before it is add- )1 to the Bordeaux mixture. See directions for preparing Bordeaux Mixture on lage 182. The arsenate of lead is preferable to Paris green, 5 the former is not so readily washed off by rains. aris green, if used slightly in excess, is likely to mn the foliage severely, but with arsenate of lead, sere is not this danger. This spraying should be peated two weeks later, using the same formula t Bordeaux mixture and the same amount of pois- Don’t Neglect The Fruit Trees. There — 203 on. No danger may be apprehended from these early sprayings with poisoned Bordeaux, as by the time the apples are edible—even for cooking pur- poses—all of the poison will have been washed off by the rains. When it is also desired to control.the apple scab, or where the apples are ordinarily at- spraying" three weeks after It may be well to emphasize the point do tacked by the bitter rot fungus, a third should be given the trees about the second. that by spraying, we not mean “sprinkling.” Fig. 26—Showing the right time to spray for codling moth. The bunch on the left is at proper stage for spaying, while the apples on the right are too far developed for spraying to insure best results. (After a photo by A. L. Quaintance). Spraying means a thorough but thin anplication of the spray mixture to all parts of the tree and foli- age, as well as fruit, and this application can be made only with a good force-pump which is equipped with a good, fine Vermorel, Mistry, or Bordeaux nozzle. He who “sprinkles” may expect failure. 204 Mention was made of the fact that apples falling prematurely, contain the larvae in various stages of development. For this reason all wind-falls should be kept cleaned up during the entire season and eith- er burned or fed to stock, in order that the larvae within them may be destroyed before they have a chance to escape. In this way the future generations of the insect may be considerably reduced. Where apples are stored in cellars, bins or out-houses, th latter should be carefully and thoroughly screened to prevent the escape of adult moths which may de- velop from any apples which are placed in storage. Serious. infestations by the codling moths have of- ten been traced directly to the carelessness in not properly screening storage cellars. Fig. 27.—A wormy apple showing the mass of brown material thrown out at the blossom end by the codling moth lar- vae. (After Slingerland, Bul. 142, Cornell University kxperiment Station.) 3y taking advantage of the habit of the larvae, af- ter leaving infested apples upon the tree, of crawling down the trunk to find a sheltered place in which to spin cocoons, we have also a. simple method of trapping them by putting bands about the tree. For this purpose strips of burlap, old sacks or brown pa- per may be used. These bands should be four or five inches wide and held in place ‘by stout twine. One band should be placed about the trunk of the tree and another around each principal limb. These bands should be put in place within three weeks af- ter the blooming period and examined every week or ten days and all larvae, pupae or cocoons found un- der them destroyed. Although the cocoons are not over one-half inch in length, they are white in color and readily found. The bands must be examined at least once every ten days to prevent the adults from escaping. To place bands upon the trees and neglect TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. them, furniskés the codling moth larvae with the most favorable conditions for successfully reaching maturity. THE AMERICAN TENT-CATERPILLAR Everyone is familiar with the white webs of the tent-caterpillar so that no extended discussion will be necessary. Certain points in the life history of this insect should be known. | During winter the eggs may be seen on the small . twigs where they occur in a mass, encircling the | twig. Each mass contains over 200 eggs ~ which » are glued tightly together and covered with a glu-— tinous matter which gives the mass a glistening brown color. The mass of eggs is usually about three- fourths of an inch in length and a little thicker than a plain gold ring. In spring the little caterpillrrs hatching from these | eggs commence at once to form a web in the near-_ est crotch. As the caterpillars increase in size the, nest is enlarged until it becomes a very conspicuous object. The caterpillars feed during the daytime, leaving the nest for this purpose. During rainy | or cloudy days they seldom wander from the nest. When full grown these caterpillars attain the. length of about two inches; body quite hairy, and | ornamented with a continuous white stripe along the back, while on either side short yellow stripes oc-, cur somewhat irregularly. Each caterpillar chang- es to a pupa in a yellow, loosely constructed cocoon | which is usually located in some protected place, such as a ience corner. Remedies. The egg masses may be found during the winter while the trees are bare. In spring if trees are closely watched, the little webs may be found while their inmates are still very small. These nests should be cut out and burned or crushed by: hand, Such work, however, must be done in early morning, or about sundown, or on dark, cloudy days, as at other times many of the caterpillars will| be feeding away from the nest and thus escape. APPLE CURCULIO. This pest is somewhat smaller than the plum cur) | culio, and is dark brown in color. Upon the hinder part of its body, it has four brownish humps. The adults drill holes into the young apples in order to obtain food, and to secure a place to deposit eggs. As soon as the eggs are hatched the young grubs burrow into the core where they feed and grow. [One important feature of the work of this insect is ithat the affected apples do not fall to the ground, \thus making it difficult to combat the pest. The ibest remedy is to gather the affected apples, and de- strop them by feeding to the ‘hogs. Great numbers lof the adults may be captured by shaking the trees ca catching them on a sheet which is placed be- ‘neath, after which they may be destroyed by drop- ping in a pail of water which is covered with kero- jsene oil. i i CANKER WORMS. _ The parents of the canker worm are moths, and {here are two species, one appearing in the spring and the other in the fall. The males have wings, while the females are wingless and only about a half ‘in inch long. The caterpillars are greenish brown in color and are called measuring worms. Full yrown worms are about one inch long. They feed \l1pon the leaves of the apples, pears and peaches, and /bther fruit trees. The best treatment is to prevent ‘he female moths from laying eggs on the trees, and can be done by smearing the trunk of the tree with a band of tar and printers’ ink mixed with lin- feed oil, which will prevent the females from crawl- ing up the trunks of the trees to deposit their eggs. |hese bands should be renewed as long as the jveather is warm. However, this treatment is liable 0 injure the bark of young trees, unless a band of japer is first tied around them, on which the mix- jure is placed, instead of on the bark of the tree. | In using a paper band care must be taken to have |: fit close against the bark, as tlhe insects may crawl i ‘/nder it. Another remedy is to allow the worms to jatch and then spray the trees with Paris green, us- ng a quarter of a pound to fifty gallons of water h addition to one pound of stone lime, or with Bor- jeaux mixture. Arsenate of lead is also valuable nd has the advantage of adhering better than Paris \reen. Use at the rate of 2 lbs. to 50 gallons of wa- tr. The first application of poison should be made . ist as soon as the first worms appear and a second plication should be made after a week or ten days, | | Don’t Kill Toad Frogs. 205 if the worms are not all killed. This remedy is of- ten more suitable than the use of repellent bands of tar, or other sticky substances. SEVENTEEN YEAR LOCUST OR CICADA. This insect is wedge-shaped and is brownish black in color. The seventeen-year locust is not as large as the common dog-day locust, and the latter is greenish in color ‘They are called seventeen-year locusts becausé of the length of time they spend in the ground in an immature stage. Some of the South- ern broods only live thirteen years in the immature stage, while in the North the life of the insect is seventeen years The adults are _ present about a month and cause a great deal of trouble by depositing their eggs on twigs of the apple, oak, and many other trees. The eggs are de- posited in a double row in a slit made in the wood. When the insects are present in large numbers they seriously injure and sometimes kill the trees. When the young hatch, they fall to the ground, and live there the remaining thirteen or seventeen years. Kerosene emulsion will destroy the locusts when they first come out of the ground, but after the swarm has begun flying about there is no remedy. Hogs root out and destroy immature locusts in the ground, while domesticated fowls, sparrows and oth- er birds feed upon them when they appear. THE MEXICAN COTTON BOLL WEEVIL. Introduction. No insect in the history of our country has be- come more widely known in a few years than the cotton boll weevil, and to-day there is no insect or other enemy of the cotton plant that deserves more attention or careful study. In 1903 the loss to the cotton crop in Texas alone was estimated by the Government Entomologist, Dr. L. O. Howard, at $15,000,000.00 while in 1904 the loss was estimated at 400,000 bales of cotton, which at the price of only $50.00 a bale would represent $20,000,000.00. The cotton crop of 1904 was the largest that has ever been known in the history of our country and some may say that the boll weevil could not have ‘had much to do toward lesséning the yield. Those who have studied the matter, however, assert that such a crop cannot again be produced for many years 206 and while all conditions were favorable to the pro- duction of a large cotton crop, the conditions for boll weevil increase were not as good as might rea- sonably be expected in ordinary years. Thus we must consider the boll weevil as an important ques- tion which must not be overlooked. The boll weevil first appeared in Texas Brownsville about 1892, having probably crossed the Rio Grande river in unginned cotton or in cotton- seed. Since that time the boll weevil has traveled at the rate of about 50 miles a year, until now, as mentioned farther on, it is within about 75 miles of the Mississippi river. Mexico is undoubtedly the native home of the boll weevil, and it is also known to occur in Cuba. The earliest record we have of injury to cotton by the boll weevil is in 1848 in the State of Coahuila in Mexico. near Fig. 28.—Bucket Spray Pump. Should be equipped with at least 15 foot length of hose. Every farmer living in the cotton growing States should learn to recognize the weevil in order to detect its first appearance in the cotton fields. To enable those persons living in sections where the boll wee- vil has not yet appeared, to gain a knowledge of the boll weevil the following description and_ illustra- tions are presented. ‘The description of the boll weevil and also the frequently mistaken for the boll weevil is taken from bulletin No. 12 of the Georgia State Board of Entomology. The writ- er of that bulletin, Prof. Wilmon Newell, has had wide experience with the boll weevil, both in Texas and Louisiana. insects DESCRIPTION OF THE BOLL WEEVIL. The Adult Weevil.—The adult boll weevil is a TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. brownish beetle varying in length from one-eighth to five-sixteenths of an inch, and measuring usual- ly slightly over one-sixteenth of an inch across the body at the widest part. The weevil is provided with a long “snout” or proboscis and is not unlike the common acorn weevil in appearance. It is not by any means a far distant relative of the chestnut wee- vil, the plum curculio and a number of other com- mon weevils with which almost everyone is familiar. Weevils shown natural size in Fig. 30. In color the boll weevils vary from a slight gray to a dark chocolate brown or black. As a usual thing, the older the weevil the darker in color it be- comes, Owing to the minute hairs or scales wearing - off the body surface. Under an ordinary magnify-. ing glass the weevil is seen to be covered with mi- nute scales, closely resembling hairs. These hair-: like scales are clearly shown in Figure 29. The wing-covers are seen to be finely lined, the fine lines or ridges running lengthwise of the body. By far the most reliable character in distinguishing a boll weevil from other similar weevils is the presence of two small spines upon the interior of the femur (“upper joint”) of the fore-leg. One of these spines Fig. 29.—Cotton boll weevil: a, beetle from above; b, same, from side—about five times natural size (original.) is considerably larger than the other. These tw spines are not found upon the fore-legs of any othe! of our common weevils although the occurrence 0 a single spine is common to many different weevils The adult boll weevils pass the winter in trash rubbish, grass, old cotton bolls, and similar materia | about the infested fields, and also in the leaves an‘ trash of timber lands. These hibernating weevil leave such quarters in the spring, at about the tim) the first cotton is above ground and beginning t form squares, and having fasted since the previou You Should Know Something of The Life History Of Insects. utumn, begin to feed to a considerable extent upon 1e tender buds and stems of the young cotton lants. As noted above, the weevil has a long beak, - the end of which is a pair of small but very strong andibles. With these mandibles the outer layer of ie cotton bud or square is torn off, the beak insert- 1 into the softer tissue beneath and this latter ac- ally consumed. A square showing a feeding punc- re made by the weevil is seen in Fig. 31. Punc- res are made in a similar way by the females in hich to deposit eggs, as well as for feeding, but cording to Prof. W. D. Hunter, the punctures ne for feeding are usually much larger and deep- than those made for receiving the eggs. ‘The Egg—The egg of the boll weevil is describ- Fig. 30.—Boll Weevils on Cotton Boll. 1 \| by Prof, W. E. Hinds as being pearly white in Jor, oval in form, and about one-thirtieth of an ih in length by a little over. 1-2 as wide. The y is deposited by the female weevil in punctures de in Squares or bolls for that purpose. Within } square or be'l the egg is well protected from Jasites and other enemies. An egg is shown ong the anthers in an unopened square in Fig. | the position of the egg being indicated by the ‘ow. The eggs hatch in from 2 1-2 to 4 days. iss a tule the females deposit only one egg in a jare or form and more than one is rarely deposit- in the same square unless as is the case during dle and late summer, squares are not produced n the plants fast enough to accommodate the ty females then in the fields. In such cases the ‘s are frequently deposited in the young bolls and etimes more than one egg is deposited in a sin- ‘square. As long as there are plenty of uninfest- Squares in the cotton field there is little or no | deposition in the bolls. Owing to the difficul- 207 ties of observation, it is ‘hard to say just what is the general average number of eggs deposited by each female, but Professar W. E. Hinds made careful and accurate observations upon several females, all of which deposited over 225 eggs each. The Larva.—The larva which hatches from the egg within the square or boll, is a white footless “grub” with a brownish colored ‘head and a pair of very substantial mandibles, with which it proceeds to feed upon the tissue surrounding it. The entire larval stage is passed within the square, form or boll in which the egg is deposited, as is also the next or pupal stage. The larva enlarges rapidly after hatch- ing from the egg and by the time it has reached maturity has eaten the greater part of the contents Fig. 31.—Cotton square flared, showing egg puncture of boll weevil—natural size (original.) of the average-sized square. During mid-summer the larval stage varies from 6 to 8 days, while in early summer and in autumn it is longer. It has been found that during November and December the larval stage averaged from 20 to 30 days. One of the first indications of infestation by boll weevil is the flaring of the involucre or “shuck’ sur- rounding the square. This opening of the involucre takes place usually a short time after the larva 208 hatches from the egg and a few days later the in- fested square is shed by the plant. A characteristic flared square is shown in Fig. 33. The presence of boll weevils in any considerable numbers in a cot- ton field is always accompanied by a profuse shed- ding of squares. However, the latter are often shed on account of certain weather conditions, but in this case no insects or larvae are likely to be found with- Fig. 32.—Unopened Cotton Bloom, Showing BEgg of Boll Wee- vil among the Antoers, Much Enlarged. (After San- derson, Froc. Sec. An. Ses. Tex. Cot. Conv.) in them if they are examined soon after falling. In- jury from almost any cause will result in the shed- ding of squares, and squares which have been eaten into by the boll worm (not boll weevil) are of course shed by the plants. The presence of white larva within shed squares or forms should be regarded with suspicion and all such should be carefully ex- amined. In cotton fields badly infested by the boll weevil the feeding punctures and the punctures made for egg deposition cause the squares to shed as fast as formed and before they have any oppor- tunity to develop into bolls. The Pupa.—When the larva has completed its growth it ceases to feed, becomes shorter and broad- er and enters the “pupal stage,’ during which it takes no food. The future proboscis, legs and other parts now TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. begin to appear. The pupae are well illustrated in Fig. 33. This stage lasts from three to six days in mid- summer and is longer at the approach of cold weath- er. The pupa changes into the adult boll weeyil, which emerges from the square or boll (See Fig. 33) and although light in color and soft-bodied upon emergence from the square, it soon becomes darker, the body-covering hardens and the weevil takes its first meal as a fitting celebration of its safe arrival at maturity. Rate of Increase and Destructiveness. From the foregoing it will be seen that during mid-summer the time elapsing between egg deposi- tion and the arrival of the weevils at the adult stage may vary from 12 to 18 days. If an average allow- ance of 6 days be made for the time elapsing be tween emergence and the beginning of egg deposi- tion by the adult, a generation may be produced; 33.—Cotton boll weevil: larva at left, pupa at right- about five times natural size (original.) Fig. every 18 to 30 days. During late autumn the perio'| of development is of course much lengthened. Upo) facts obtained by actual observation in the infeste | cotton fields of Texas, Prof. W. D. Hunter estimate| that the progeny of a single. pair of boll weevil | may in a season reach 134 millions of individuals.) As each female during her lifetime deposits egg in each of from yoo to 200 squares, all of which at; prevented from thakig ‘bolls, the magnitude of th) destruction will be readily understood. | At the approach of frost ‘in the autumn, the adu | weevils seek suitable quarters in which to pass tl, winter. For the most part rubbish about the cottc fields, leaves in timber lands, grass, partially opent| bolls, etc., are selected. In the case of baled cotte | which is lying on the ground about gin houses du| ing the autumn, boll weevils are likely to enter tl) bagging, and if the bale is subsequently moved other localities the hibernating weevils may be ©) ried with it. During autumn there is also a post, ity of weevils, which are seeking hibernating arters, entering bales of hay, straw, etc., in the in- \ted region. During the hibernating period the i weevil is in a semi-dormant condition in which ee survive for several months without any food, ‘1 during this time it is possible for it to be trans- jtted many miles to new or uninfested localities. the weevil-infested sections of Texas, boll weevils } found abundant in the cotton seed at gin houses, ‘well as in cotton-seed hulls. As would naturally | expected, the shipment of these cotton products joften found to be the means of distributing the |1 weevil to new localities. a the first appearance of the boll | weevil in ixas it has spread eastward at the rate of about 50 les a year until at this time it is within about 75 i 100 miles of the Mississippi river. At the pres- | rate of spread it will only be a matter of 12 or (Be when the boll weevil will be over the en- ‘2 cotton producing sections of the South. Indeed, a much shorter time it will spread over the great- part of the area, and the territory which it is put to invade is the richest cotton country east of ‘ ‘Mississippi river.» When the cotton boll weevil 3 spread over the entire cotton belt it is estimat- lthat it will cost the South $250,000,000.00 per ar. Many States are enforcing a quarantine ainst articles that are likely to carry the boll wee- *, and it is confidently hoped that the measures ‘1 retard the progress of the weevil, though it is ‘own that the natural spread of 50 to 60 miles a fr cannot be prevented unless something appears fe is not now known. Remedies. Since the boll weevil was first studied by the ex- rts of the United States Department of Agricul- fe, there have been hundreds. and we might truly 7 thousands, of remedies suggested for the con- pl of the boll weevil. In spite of all this work no lle remedy has been devised, but it has been de- pnstrated many times over that a system of grow- iy cotton under what is known as the cultural *thod, makes it possible to grow profitable crops ‘cotton in sections infested by the boll weevil. It ould require too much space to go into all the de- ils and explanations of why the cultural method is F best way to fight the weevil. For the sake of evity the following recommendations are given. 15 Many Cabbage Plants Are Eaten Up Because Ot Lack Ot Attention. 209 The reader should note that particular importance is placed on fall destruction of cotton plants to destroy the food of the weevil and thereby cause many of them to starve before winter begins, From Farmers Bulletin No. 216 by W. D. Hunter in charge of the Cotton Boll Weevil in Texas and Louisiana, we take the following recommendations: “Although the very large yields of cotton of form- er times may no longer be possible in the region now infested by the boll weevil, it is entirely feasi- ble to produce cotton at a margin of profit that will compare favorably with that resulting from the pro- duction of most of the staple crops of the United States, by following what has become _ generally known as the cultural method. This method consists of the following changes and modifications of the system of cotton raising, made necessary by the boll weevil. It was originally suggested by a careful study of the life history and habits of the pest, and naturally any improvements that may eventually be made will be the result of the continuation of that study. It has now been tested successfully on a large scale by the Bureau of Entomology, as well as by many planters during three seasons. Of greatest advantage is the reducing of the numbers of the weevils by the destruction of the plants in the fall. The advantage thus gained is followed up by bend- ing every effort toward producing an early crop at the next season. “(1) Plant early. If possible, plant seed of the varieties known to mature early, er obtain seed from as far North as possible. This recommendation is made as a suggestion for the benefit of those planters who have not taken care in the selection of the cot- ton seed for planting on their plantation. By far the best method for obtaining early seed is by selection in the field. “Tt is much better to run the risk of re-planting, which is not expensive, than to have the crop delay- ed. The practice of some planters of making two plantings to avoid having all the work of chopping thrown into a short period is very bad policy from the boll weevil standpoint. “Early cotton of improved varieties has yielded from two to three times as much as native cotton under the same conditions, and in many cases much more. Planted at the same time, the early varieties begin to bloom much earlier than native cotton. “The early varieties, in general having a small 210 ‘stalk and short tap-root, are adapted only for rich soil. They also fail to grow well in the very light, drifting sandy loams of many of the river valleys of Texas, which, in long seasons before the advent of the boll weevil, often produced the largest yields. In these situations early varieties will yield but little more than native cotton. : “(2) Cultivate the fields thoroughly. The princi- pal benefit in this comes from the influence that such a practice has upon the constant growth and conse- quent early maturity of the crop. Very few weevils are killed by cultivation. Much of the benefit of early planting is lost unless it is followed by thorough cultivation. In case of unavoidably delayed plant- ing, the best course for the planter to pursue is to cultivate the fields in the most thorough manner Fig. possible. Three choppings and numerous -plowings constitute the thorough system of cultivation that is made necessary by the boll weevil. The old planta- tion rule for the cultivation of cotton, “Once a week and once in the row,” is an excellent one. “(3) Plant the rows as far apart as experience with the land indicates is feasible, and thin out the plants in the rows thoroughly. On land which in normal seasons will produce from 35 to 40 bushels of corn the rows should be 5 feet apart. Even on poor soil it is doubtful if the distance should ever be less than 4 feet. “(4) Destroy, by plowing up, windrowing, and burning, all the cotton stalks in the fields as soon as TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. 34—Boll Weevil Larvae within Cotton Bolls. photo by E. Dwight Sanderson.) f dl wr the weevils become so numerous that practically al the fruit is being punctured. This will generally not be later than the first week in October. Merely cutting off the stalks, by means of the triangular i im: plement used for that purpose throughout the th is by no means as effective as plowing, because the) stumps remaining give rise to sprouts which furnis! food until late in the season to many weevils tha’ would otherwise starve. The plowing, moreover serves to place the ground in better condition fo: early planting the following spring. In some case} turning cattle into the fields is advisable. Asid from amounting to a practical destruction of thy plants, grazing of the cotton fields furnishes consid erable forage at a time when it is generally much it demand. Nevertheless, cattle should never be turn, (Atter a ed into cotton fields in which Johnson grass has be| come started. { “Recommendations 1, 2, and 3 are all aimed to| ward avoiding damage by hastening the maturity 0 the plants and do not involve the actual destructio of the weevils. Recommendation 4, ‘however, re! is consequently directly remedial. “(5) It is known that at present fertilizers a not used to any considerable extent in cotton pro ducing in Texas. There is, nevertheless, no de ub that they should be—not that the land is poor. | that earlier crops may be procured. At present i| is sufficient to call attention to the fact that it ‘has ‘been the uniform experience of experiment stations |and planters in the eastern part of the belt that cer- | tain fertilizers, especially those involving a large per- }centage of phosphoric acid, have a strong tendency ‘toward hastening the maturity of the plants. ' Insects Frequently Mistaken for the Boll Weevil. f Many cotton planters, with commendable zeal, jhave closely observed the insects occurring in their jcotton fields within the past year, and as a result |have discovered many kinds of insects the existence | of which was previously unknown to them. Many of these have been mistaken for boll weevils. In or- | der to assist the farmer in recognizing the more com- | mon of these, a number of species are illustrated on | | Fig. i! which it developed. | the following pages, and the differences by which | they are distinguished from the boll weevil, pointed ‘out. In most cases the illustrations will make this difference clear, without any added description. | The Cowpea-pod Weevil, (Chalcodermus aeneus | Boh)—This little beetle, which is supposed to breed | in the pods of cowpeas, is about the same size as the | boll weevil, but is a jet black color. The body-sur- face is smooth shining black, and instead of the wing- covers being finely lined as in the case of the boll | weevil, both elytra and thorax are covered with mi- _nute impressions. The use of an ordinary hand. magnifying glass will | readily distinguish this weevil from this boll weevil. If The Birds Are Killed Out, This Country Will Be A Prey To Insects. 35—Adult Boll Weevil Emerging from Square (After a photo by E. Dwight Sanderson.) 21t Where cotton follows cowpeas the adult cowpea- pod weevils sometimes attack the young cotton plants soon after they come up, and do considerable damage. Fig. 36.—Cowpea-pod Weevil. (After Chittenden, Bul. 45, Div. of Ent., U. S. Dept. of Agr.) within The Acorn and Chestnut Weevils.—The acorn wee- Fig. 37.—Acorn Weevil, Balaninus victoriensis Chit. (After Chittenden, Bul. 44, Div. of Ent., U. S. Dept. of Agr.) 212 vil, the chestnut weevil. and other nut-feeding wee- vils, all of which closely resemble each other, are discovered from time to time upon cotton plants. It is extremely likely that their occurrence upon cot- ton is purely accidental, as when cotton is growing near or under chestnut or oak trees. In any event, no damage to cotton need be apprehended from them. A weevil which is typical of the appearance of this group of insects is shown in Fig. 37. The Blood-weed Weevils——Duringe the winter a careful examination of the stems of- ragweed or blood- Fig. 38.—Blood-weed Weevil, Lixus sp. (After Hunter, Bul. 45, Div. of Ent., U. S. Dept. of Agr.) weed about almost any field will reveal the presence of long slim weevils in the pith or interior of the stalks. These are the blood-weed weevils, of which there are several species. They are readily distin- guished from the boll weevil by the fact that they are long and slim, as shown in the illustration (Fig. 38.) The majority of these blood-weed weevils are one-half inch or more in length, while the boll weevil is ordinarily about one-fourth inch in length and of an entirely different shape. | Other Snout Beetles—The plum gouger, Fuller’s Fig. 39.—Imbricated Snout Beetle, Epicaerus imbricatus Say. (Atter Chittenden, Bul. 45, Div. of Ent., U. S. Dept. of Agr. TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. rose beetle, the imbricated snout beetle and even so common an insect as the plum curculio have been mistaken for boll weevils. None of these feed upon, cotton and when found upon cotton plants or among cotton seed their occurrence in such places must be considered as accidental... The imbricated snout bee- tle is shown in Fig. 39. Click Beetles—Every country schoolboy is ac- quainted with the long, flattened snapping beetles, which when laid upon their backs, “snap” violently into the air. During mid-summer these snapping beetles are occasionally found in cotton bolls which have been injured-by the boll worm. They seem to be present for the purpose of feeding on the decay- ing tissue and exudations following the attacks of the boll worm. We think it extremely improbable that they are responsible for any damage to cotton, Fig. 40.—Click Beetle, Monocrepidius vespertinus. (From Chittenden, Bul. 45, Div. of Ent., U. S. Dept. of Agr.) as we have never learned of their attacking healthy bolls or squares. Their shape, as well as their habit of “snapping,” when laid upon their backs upon a level surface, will readily enable anyone to distin- guish them from the boll weevil. The Cotton Sharpshooter.—It seems strange that an insect which is not a weevil at all or which is not even a beetle, should be mistaken for a boll weevil. The cotton sharp shooter, shown in Fig. 41, is about one-half inch in length and is not infrequent- ly found upon cotton, which it injures by punctur- ing both the young growth and the squares and forms. The insect is very agile, running to the op- posite side of the cotton stem when approached, and flies readily. It is not easily captured, and this fact alone will always relieve the planter’s mind of any fear that it may be a boll weevil. real boll weevils can be picked from the plants or Ordinarily the =—- SSS SS SS — | squares without any precaution being taken to avoid | their escape. Fig. 41.—Cotton Sharpshooter, Homalodisen triquetra, (Ar- i ter Riley & Howard in Insect Life.) | The Cotton Boll Worm. (Heliothis armiger.)— |There is a tendency on the part of some persons, |not familiar with insects, to confuse the names “boll ‘weevil’ and “boll worm,” believing that these terms ‘apply to one and the same insect. As a matter of “fact they are entirely distinct and separate insects | belonging to two widely separated Orders or groups. i The parent of the boll worm is a moth, not likely to be taken for a boll weevil by even the most un- jobserving. The attacks of the boll worm larvae up- jon the cotton squares or bolls often give rise to re- |ported occurrences of the boll weevil. The attack of the nearly-grown boll worm upon the bolls, takes ‘the form of distinct holes, which are about one- fourth of an inch in diameter, made usually in the as or side of the boll. No such injury as this is ever made by a boll weevil. The holes eaten into | squares by the very young boll worms may, how- \ever, be confused with the holes made in squares by jee boll weevils when the latter emerge. =In the case of injury of this kind, a careful search will ‘usually reveal the young boll worm in the act of eating into the square, or even eating within it. The boll worm larva is readily separated from the boll ‘weevil larva. The young boll worm is supplied with legs, whereas the boll weevil larva is a footless grub, white in color, and incapable of crawling from square ‘to Square as the young boll worms do. You Can Often Amuse The Children By Showing Them The Insects. 213 THE COTTON BOLL WORM. Injury from this insect has long been familiar to all cotton growers in the entire South. Its regular appearance in greater or less numbers each year has caused growers to give but little attention to the in- jury caused by the boll worm. In the following par- agraphs it will be seen that boll worm injury to cot- ton is not common until about August Ist, when its favorite food plant, corn, has become hard and dis- tasteful. Besides feeding on cotton the boll worm is.often a serious pest on corn, tomatoes, beans, peas, okra and tobacco. All the other crops mentioned are in- jured by the boll worms boring into the fruit, or in the case of beans and peas, into the pods. The Insect Described. The boll worm belongs to the class of insects that have four distinct stages in their development, name- ly: adult, egg, larva and pupa. The adult is a moth which commonly flies in the night, but when dis- turbed during the day-time they fly with a quick motion that is quite characteristic. The moths vary in size, but in general they have a wing expanse of about one and one-half inches. The color may also vary greatly, ranging from a dull yellow to a dull olive-green with numerous dark spots and darting markings on the wings. distinguished from the cotton leaf-worm, or cater- pillar moth by the fact that when at rest the boll worm moth holds its wings slightly raised and part- ed to expose a portion of the body, while the cotton These moths may be easily caterpillar moths always rest with the wings tightly closed. The accompanying figure shows the general shape and size to good advantage. (Fig. 42.) Moths usually appear in spring about the time that corn is ten or fifteen inches high,* and in gen- eral they prefer to deposit eggs on young corn in- stead of cotton, the eggs being laid on all parts of the plant, but a preference is shown for silk if it is present. The eggs are small, oval in shape, whitish or yel- low in color, and may be seen with the unaided eye. Each female deposits on an average 1,100 eggs. These eggs hatch in from 3 to 10 days, depending on the season. From these eggs minute worms are hatched which are at first pale green in color, but soon become *Quaintance & Bishop, U.S. Dept. of Agr. Farmers Bul. 212. 214 darker. The full grown larvae may vary in color from pale green to brown or almost black These worms are voracious feeders, a single individual oft-» en destroying a large number of squares or bolls. This habit of going from one place to another on the plant, for the purpose of feeding, explains the reason why the farmer finds many young squares with a hole in the base but no sign of the trans- gressor. (See Fig. 43.) Boll worms first hatched wander around on the plant feeding on the leaves until they find a square or form into which they bore. It is during this time that the worms may be poisoned with arsenicals. A full grown boll worm measures from I 1-4 to I 1-2 inches in length, when , Fig. 42.—Cotton Boll Wom: a, adult moth; b and ec, larvae; d, chrysalis or pupa; (After Howard, Yearbook, U. S. Dept. of Agr., 1898.) (see Fig. 1) and they may complete their growth during the summer season in about fifteen days. When full grown the worms descend into the ground where a cell is constructed in which the pu- pal stage is passed. This period usually covers about two weeks on the average. From the pupa there emerges the adult moth, as already described, ready to mate and deposit eggs for the next genera- tion. In the South there are at least four and possibly five generations, so it will readily be seen that if TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. Fig. 43.—Cotton squares destroyed by Boll Worms. nal.) (Orig! the boll worms confined their attacks from the first! to cotton the damage would be tremendous. In gen-) eral it may be said that the third brood is the one| that injures cotton most severely. Remedies and Prevention. Of the two, prevention is the best, but for the protection of this year’s crop, if the boll worms ap-) pear, the remedy must be considered. There are) two main methods of preventing injury to cotton. The use of corn planted in rows through the cotton’ field to serve as a trap, and the application of ar-! senical poisons to destroy the worms when on the cotton. { Corn as a trap plant should be planted in rows every 200 or 300 feet throughout the entire field. This corn should be planted late, about the middle’ of ‘May or June Ist, so as to be in prime silking con- dition about August 1st. As the boll worm moths — wt “Re -_ Some Birds Are Injurious, But Most Of Them Are The Farmer’s Friend. seem to prefer corn to cotton most of the eggs will ne deposited on the corn, which can be destroyed or ed to stock when the worms are partly grown. If \n early maturing variety of corn is planted about May 1st, and more of the same variety planted about ‘une Ist, the planter will always have an attractive hblant for the moths during the period when they are xpected to be most abundant. Cowpeas should be lanted between the corn rows in time to be in bloom when the corn is in silk. The blooms will attract {he moths. | Poisoning should be attempted when the forms i ton plants. { ust appear on the cotton. Experiments in Texas iv Prof. A. L. Quaintance in 1904. showed that it vill pay well in most cases to poison for the third |Tood. In some sections, as the worms of the sec- nd brood do so much damage, it will probably be ound advisable to poison as soon as the first worms )Ppear on the cotton. This will be about iiitne rte Fy old method of applying poison by means of the kk dusting apparatus carried by a man who valks tapidly along the row dusting both sides of 215 the plant at once (See Fig 44) has proved to be most economical. This fact has been demonstrated by experiments conducted in the Southern notably, Texas and Georgia. States ; It has been found that the best way to apply the poison is to mix it with fine lime dust—cheap flour can be substituted—used in the proportion, 1 pound of Paris green to 4 pounds of dust. This should be applied so as to put at least 2 pounds of the Paris green to each acre. Owing to the fact that the boll worms feed to some extent on the leaves and pass frequently from One place to another even when working on the | Fig. 44.—Method of applying Paris green in dry form to cot- (Photo by Wilmon Newell.) squares and bolls, it is possible to destroy large numbers with the use of poison. The dusting apparatus shown in Fig. 45 is made from a one inch board, 4 1-2 feet long and three inches wide, by boring an inch and a half auger hole five inches from each end, and attaching under each hole a sack five inches wide by: about fifteen inches long. These sacks can be made from unstarched sheeting running about 4 pounds to the yard. If it is found that the poison is being applied too fast or 216 too slow the proportion of lime, or flour and Paris green, must be changed so that the required amount of actual poison will be applied per acre. Fig. 45.—Dusting apparatus for applying Paris green to cotton plants. Possibly the most valuable and economical way ures presented principally to show the difference be-| of fighting the boll worm is to plow the land during the fall and winter, thus breaking up the pupal cells in which the winter is passed. It has been found that nearly all the pupa thus disturbed will die dur- ing the winter. This practice should be followed in all sections where the boll worm is known to oc- cur, This is also a valuable way of fighting many other such as Corn Stalk Borers, Grub Worms, Squash Vine Borers, and all insects that pass the winter under ground. insects Attacking Other Crops. As already mentioned, tomatoes are often injured by boll worms, though when occurring on tomatoes they are generally known as “tomato fruit worm.” The damage is caused by the worms boring into the green and ripening tomatoes, in which large excava- tions are often made. When occurring on tomatoes the worms usually have to be picked off by hand. Poison in liquid form, as recommended further on caterpillar, may be applied while the plants are small. The worms frequently bore into the stems of tomato plants at first, but soon transfer their attacks to the fruit. Winter plowing of gar- dens will aid in keeping this pest in check. Corn should be cut and fed to stock to destroy the larvae and the eggs which may be present. Early corn is most liable to be in- fested and a strict cleaning out of all infested plants during June or July will greatly reduce the numbers of the following broods. When peas and beans, that will be shelled before using, are attacked, the poison in the form of arsen- ate of lead or Paris green and lime mixture is re- commended. for cotton injured by boll worms TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. THE COTTON CATERPILLAR. : . . - - , This enemy of cotton is mentioned here, and fig. | tween it and the boll worm. The main points of difference to be noted betwee: the cotton caterpillar, or leaf worm, as it is some times called, and the boll worm, is in their mode of injuring the plant. While the boll worms feed t| some extent on the foliage, the cotton caterpillar) feed entirely on the leaves and buds unless in ex treme cases where the plant is entirely defoliatec At such times they may gnaw into the squares an| green bolls, but seldow do much injury in this way Fig. 46.—Cotton Caterpillar Moth: a, wings expanded; b) wings closed, at rest. (After Riley, Fourth | Rept., U. S. Entom, Comm.) Fig. 46 shows the adult caterpillar moth, which ma| be compared with the boll worm moth. Fig. 47 rej resents full grown caterpillars. Unlike the bo; worm the caterpillar does not go into the ground t) pupate. This stage is passed in a folded leaf on th plant. There are always several generations eac| year and as the complete life cycle from egg to adu’ may be covered in from three to four weeks, it is ev dent that the increase may at times be very rapid. | } Remedy. : The remedy is the same as recommended for bo) worms in regard to poisoning. The plants shoul, | | | } Spraying Is A Business Proposition. be watched closely and poison applied while the caterpillars are small—as they are more easily kill- Fig. 47.—Cotton Caterpillar: a, from side; b, from above; twice natural size. (After Riley, Fouth Rept., U. S. Entom. Comm.) It Pays If Done Correctly. 217 ed then—and the injury to foliage avoided. Dust- ing with Paris green and lime dust should be done during the early morning hours, as it will adhere better to the plants at that time. dust is frequently washed off by rains, and in that event we would advise the use of Paris water, using a formula, In wet weather green in 1 pound Paris green, 2 pounds stone lime, 100 gallons water. Or in place of the above, arsenate of lead (Dis- parine) may be used at the rate of 3 pounds to 50 gallons of water. The latter will adhere somewhat better than Paris green mixture, but cannot always be as readily obtained when needed at short notice. mycECTS INJURIOUS TO CORN AND ‘TRUCK THE CORN STALK BORER. This enemy of corn has been known since early in the nineteenth century, as it was described by Rey. Lansdown Guild 1828, who reported its pres- ence in sugar-cane in the Island of St. Vincent in the West Indies. Dr. Howard concludes that it must be a native of the West Indies or of South America where the cultivation of sugar-cane was first begun in America. In 1855 this pest was re- ported as injuring sugar-cane in the State of Louis- jana, and in 1881 we learn that the U. S. Division of Entomology made observations on the ravages of this pest in Louisiana, where it was severely injur- ing sugar-cane. In Georgia it was found in Lincoln County in 1880, and was reported from South Car- Olina about the same time. It was probably some years previous to this date that the borer began to attack corn as well as sugar-cane. in Life History and General Appearance. The corn stalk borer is a white six-footed larva at- taining a size when full grown of about one inch in length (See Fig. 48.) The winter is passed in the pupa stage embedded in the corn stubble near the -of the borers of the first brood may CROPS. surface of the ground. Early in spring the moths issue from the over-wintering pupae and when the corn is only a few inches high the eggs are deposit- ed on the stem and leaves. These eggs hatch in a short time into small borers which at once mence to tunnel into the stalk and up through the pithy center. The injury may be quite considera- ble and may even necessitate replanting. Observations made by the writer show that some attain full The change to com- growth by the first week in June. the pupa at once takes place, usually in the stalk above ground, and adult moths emerge at least as early as the middle of June in the latitude of South Georgia. Moths continue to issue until about the middle of July. Corn stalk borers are very active and pass fre- quently in and out of the stalk in which they are working, thus making a large number of holes. The accompanying figure shows the appearance of a corn stalk in which borers were at work. Most of the damage is confined to the three lower joints, but in a few cases larvae and pupae were found three feet up in the stalk. The adult corn stalk borer is a delicate looking moth, fore wings dull yellowish brown, in some cas- 218 es ‘having very little color. The males in all cases have the fore wings a little darker than the females, and the former are always somewhat small in size. Wing expanse varies from a little over one inch to a little more than one and one-half inches. The hind wings are always clear white or cream in color. Fig. 48.—A corn stalk cut open showing borers within. (Original.) The writer is informed that the corn stalk borer injured corn in Georgia in 1900 to an extent of 50 per cent. It has been observed that the injury is greatest during dry seasons, as 1900 was very dry, as was also the season of 1904. Borers may occur in corn stalks without seeming to TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. injure the yield, but usually a certain per cent. of the stalks are destroyed while the corn is still small. This injury should be guarded against, and can be largely averted by following the suggestions given _in the paragraphs on Remedies. Remedies. Considering the habit of the stalk borer it is evi- dent that the damage cannot be stopped after the borer has once gained access to the stalk, without at the same time destroying the corn. It is not practical to remove the borers, unless from a few stalks of corn in the garden, as is recommended for the squash vine borer. It is clearly apparent that corn following corn year after year is most liable to in- festation because of the number of borers that win- ter over in the old stubble. The usual practice in the South of allowing the corn stubble to remain on land is the principal cause of the bad invasions of stalk borers; along this same line rotation of crops offers a relief from the pest. This is an old sugges- tion, but it remains good. In infested fields all corn stubble should be gath- ered and burned to destroy the pupae that are win- tering therein. Deep plowing in early spring to bury all stalks that were not gathered will be ad- vantageous. The pupa should be buried so deeply that the emerging moths cannot escape. If rotation of crops, burning stubble and deep plowing are practiced, corn stalk borers can gener- ally be successfully controlled. 7 CORN ROOT WORM. Corn is often attacked by a root worm soon after the plants appear in the spring. The injury is cause ed by the larva of a beetle that is common in the South and known as the twelve-spotted Diabrotica, the scientific name being Diabrotica 12-punctata. To farmers it is locally known as “bud worm” on account of its causing the bud to wilt when the roots are attacked. The adult Diabrotica is a green beetle (See Fig. 49) about one-third to one-half inch in length, ob- long in outline, tapering toward the anterior end, and ‘having three transverse rows of four black spots on the wings. The adults often feed voraciously on melon, squash and cucumber, and they have been known to feed on almost every farm crop imagina- ble. In fact, they are practically omnivorous. The South looses twenty million dollars each year These root worms have been found to injure corn in bottom lands most severely, and especially early plantings. Corn planted after May 5th to 10th is seldom injured severely, as most of the eggs are de- posited previous to that time. When corn is plant- ed early a surplus of seed can be used and in.most cases enough plants will be uninjured to insure a full stand without re-planting. A simple rotation of crops will often suffice to prevent injury from corn root worms. Fig. 49—Adult beetle, parent of corn root worm (enlarged). (Original. The suggestion that corn can be treated so as to become distasteful to corn root worms, was shown to be worthless by Quaintance in 1900.* So also was the use of kainit as a fertilizer in killing the larvae. In one case he found root worms even worse where kainit was applied. Melons, squash and cucumber plants attacked by the adult Diabrotica should be dusted with land plaster and Paris green in the morning while the plants are wet with dew. As this insect eats large holes in the foliage the use of poison will be found advantageous. As a matter of interest it may be stated that the 12-spotted Diabrotica has often been charged with spreading diseases, such as the pear blight, by vis- iting the blooms and carrying the blight bacillus from one point to another. THE SQUASH VINE BORER. Like the corn stalk borer this insect does its damage by burrowing in the stalks of its host plant. Its injury is confined mainly to squash and pump- kins, but melons, cucumbers, etc., may be attacked. The adult moth, parent of the borer, is one of our *U. S. Dept. of Agr., Div. of Ent., n. s. Bul. 26. from rats and insects. 219 most beautiful species, and described by Quaintance as having fore wings opaque, shining olive brown in color, with metallic green reflections; the hind wings transparent with a narrow fringe of scales. Hind pair of legs are thickly fringed. with hairs, which on the inside are black, and on the outside orange col- ored. The body is about three-fourths of an inch long and the wings may expand one and one-fourth inches. (See Fig. 50.) The moths appear about the middle of May and Fig. 50—Moth, or parent of the squash vine borer. Quaintance, Ga. Ex. Sta. Bul. 45.) (After deposit eggs on various parts of the plants, mainly along the stem, as determined by Quaintance. Eggs hatch in from’ six to fifteen days and the larvae at- tain full growth in about one month. How to Detect Presence of Squash Vine Borers. During the latter part of May and the first part of June examine the vines and if there are any ac- cumulations of yellowish excrement around the stem, carefully cut open the stem and remove the white grub-like borer. This will often save the plant with- out much injury resulting from cutting. The injury is caused by the borers making large channels in the stem (See Fig. 51,) and often causing the whole plant to shrivel and die. Ordinary insecticides and repellents are of very little use. watch closely and remove the borers when they are After the crop is gathered the vines should The grower must present. at once be pulled and burned to destroy all borers of the second brood. Fall plowing and harrowing the gardens will de- 220 TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. | stroy many pupae; this coupled with clean culture and destruction of infested stalks will result in keep- ing the borers in check in most cases. Fig. 51—A squash stem cut open showing the borers within. (After Quaintance, Ga. Exp. Sta. Bul. 45.) CUTWORMS. Cutworms may easily be classed as one of our most injurious species of insects. Working silently in the night, as they do, a vast amount of injury may occur before the damage is discovered. A knowledge of the life history and habits is necessary in order to understand how to fight this pest. | Life History—The adult cutworm moths appear during the months of June and July, and soon after arrival begin to deposit eggs on the grass, weeds and | rubbish. A grassy sod may be selected as the place to deposit eggs or any field where there is an abun-} dance of grass and weeds. Eggs hatch in a short time and the young cutworms, at first very small, begin to feed on any succulent vegetation at hand. At this time of year they are so small and the food \so abundant that the injury caused is not noticeable. By the time cold weather approaches the cutworms may be in all stages of maturity, from one-half inch: in size to nearly full grown. So far no noticeable. injury has occurred. Cutworms pass the winter in. little earthen cells in the soil under rubbish, stones or any protected place. : | In the spring when the land is plowed the cut-: worms, emerging from their winter quarters with ravenous appetites after their long winter fast, begin} to feed on any vegetation at hand. It is, therefore, evident that the first plants to come up in the gar-’ den will be liable to be cut off by the little cut-' worms. Description—The adults of our cutworms are moths belonging to the family, Noctuidae, meaning’ night fliers, and for that reason they are seldom seen) unless attracted to lights. Moths range in size from . one and one-half to two and one-half inches in wing) expanse. Color of front wings dark brown or grey;! hind wings always lighter than fore wings. Cut- worms ‘have naked bodies, eight pairs of legs, three’ in front and five at the posterior end of the body) color may vary from dirty green to grey or dirty) brown. Full grown worms average one and one- half inches in length. Remedies.—Injury from these insects may be| largely prevented by any or all of several methods.’ First of all should be mentioned fall plowing to ex- pose the pupal cells in which cutworms pass the’ winter. This should be practised in fields where cutworms have been numerous. Second, poison the cutworms in the spring with poisoned bran-mash or clover, before the crop is planted. This can be ac-) complished by fitting land_a few days previous to the tinie when seed is to be sown. For poisoned} bran-mash use one pound of Paris green, forty pounds of bran, two quarts of molasses and mix this with just enough water to make a thick dough that Rotation of Crops Helps to Keep Insects in Check. can readily be made into balls. This mash may be placed on the land in little heaps just before night- fall. The cutworms being deprived of all other food, if the land has been fitted as suggested, will readily eat the mash while it is fresh. Another very good plan is to spray a small piece of succulent clover with Paris green, one pound to twenty-five gallons of water, cut the clover, and’ spread it on the land before it has time to wilt. This should be done about sun-down and such bait will be very attractive to the cutworms. It is almost worthless to attempt to poison cutworms after the crop is up, or if there is much grass or weeds on the land. When tomatoes, cabbages and the like are to be transplanted fit the land several days in advance, let it remain untouched for two or three days, in order that the cutworms may become hungry, and then try poison bait for three nights in succession. New- \ly plowed sod land should always be treated in this |way for reasons already stated. No rubbish or weeds |should be left on land after the main crop is remoy- Jed as it furnishes food for the cutworms during the fall months and protection during the winter. As some people object to the use of poison bait on jaccount of liability of poisoning poultry and other es, bands. of tarred paper are recommended for juse around such plants as cabbage and tomatoes. ‘This paper may be pushed into the ground around jeach plant to a depth of at least one inch so that the pases will not crawl underneath. This will pro- itect the plants while small and the bands may be re- ‘moved after a few weeks and used around other (plants. | | SQUASH BUG. M This is the rather large, flattened rusty black bug which i injures squash and other cucurbits. This in- sect has a sharp, pointed beak, through which it i Taws the sap from the plant. Infested plants be- ‘fome yellow, and sickly and often die. | Remedy—Hand picking of adults when they first \\ . Appear is recommended. They may also be trapped “Inder pieces of board, or leaves from the plant, laid Pn the ground and examined each morning.. _ The eggs are laid in masses on the under sides of che leaves and are readily seen owing to the yellow ‘color. These egg masses should be found and de- troyed. If any hatch, the young will be found feed- | | \ \} 221 ing in groups. These may be crushed between the fingers. Attention to these minor details will usual- ly be the means of preventing serious injury. Clean cultivation of gardens, keeping all weeds, trash and vines removed, will cause many squash bugs to succumb to the winter weather. THE CUCUMBER BEETLE. This is the little yellow black-striped beetle that feeds on the young cucumber and melon vines and damages them badly at times by eating small holes in the leaves. This beetle will be readily recognized by the following description: Beetles about one- fourth inch in length; head and antennae black; gen- eral body color yellow, with a black stripe on each wing-cover, and a third stripe where the wings meet along the back. Stripes run longitudinally. These small beetles pass the winter under cover of leaves and trash around the garden. In the spring they come out and deposit eggs in the soil near the base of the food plants, and the larvae when hatched live on the roots. These larvae are slender little white grubs and when numerous they may do con- siderable damage. The principal injury is caused by the adults feeding on the leaves. Remedies.—Clean cultivation of the gardens after the crops are off in the fall so as not to leave any rubbish under which the adults may pass the win- ter. Protecting the young plants with gauze netting while the plants are small. Where plants are pro- tected for three or four weeks, or until they get well started, the injury from cucumber beetles will not be great. Two pieces of wire bent over the plants in the form of a double arch, and thrust firmly into the ground, will make a good frame for a netting to cov- er young plants. Sprinkling plaster on the plants while young will often serve to keep the beetles away, but protection with netting is the only sure prevention. COLORADO POTATO BEETLE. This troublesome pest of the potato plant is so common that it seems almost unnecessary to men- tion it. Still the fact of its being common seems to keep many people from learning how easily it may be controlled. It is a fact that our new insect pests often receive more attention and are fought with 222 more vigor than the ones that are always with us. The Colorado potato beetle derived its name from its native home. Until about the middle of the nine- teenth century this beetle was not conspicuous as a garden pest, for before that time it fed on weeds of the same genus as the potato plant. Life History.—Late in fall the beetles enter the ground and hibernate until the warm spring sun- shine brings them out. The females soon commence to deposit eggs on the under side of the leaves. These eggs are yellow, occur in clusters and are easily seen. Ina short time the eggs hatch into lar- vae having enormous appetites, which they at once commence to satisfy. The soft-bodied larvae in- crease in size with*alarming rapidity and when full grown, which is in from three to four weeks, they go into the ground and form a smooth cell in which the pupal stage is passed. There are several broods Fig. 52.—Adult Potato Beetle in the South and larvae of all sizes can generally be found on a plant. Fig. 52 shows an adult beetle. Remedies.—Paris green in any form is death to potato beetles. While the plants are small it may be applied as a dry powder mixed with ten times its weight of cheap flour, land plaster or air-slacked lime. This powder can be dusted on the plants while wet with dew early in the morning, or after sundown in the evening. The duster recommended for cotton caterpillar poisoning will be found useful. Or Paris green may be applied in liquid form, by mixing one pound of poison and two pounds stone lime in 125 gallons of water. The lime should always be used to prevent burning of foliage. It is even better to use the arsenical in connection with Bordeaux mix- ture. (See directions under Insecticides for prepar- ing Bordeaux-Paris green mixture.) FLEA BEETLES. Cucumbers, tomatoes, melons, turnips and many other garden vegetables are often attacked early in cabbage worms. TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. their life by little jumping beetles that make small round or irregular holes in the foliage, and from their ability to jump, they have been given the name of Flea Beetles. The damage from these little fellows is sometimes very severe, as they attack the plants | while small and tender. The larvae are mostly leaf- | miners, living in the tissue of the leaves and stems | of the host plant, though seldom doing much dam- | age. j Flea beetles vary in size and color, some of them being so small as hardly to be seen, while others, like the grape flea beetle, being nearly one-quarter | of an inch long. All have thickened hind legs enab-, ling them to jump readily. They will be recognized by this characteristic. Color ranges through steel blue, brown and black. Remedies.—Clean culture of the garden is the very best thing to practice, as flea beetles hide in rubbish and trash through the winter. When they appear in the spring young plants may be sprayed with arsen- ical poisons, unless the plants are protected by a, cover as recommended for the Cucumber beetle. It! has been found that young plants covered thickly. with ordinary Bordeaux mixture are not often se- verely attacked, the mixture acting as a repellent. Usually it is best to add Paris green or green arse- noid to the Bordeaux as it will poison some beetles, When the plants have attained some size they are seldom injured by these insects. Simply dusting plants with lime dust will drive some species of flee beetles away. However, it cannot be depended or) in all cases and the best plan is to use an arsenica poison, or cover the plants. . CABBAGE WORMS. Every one living in the country has seen the com, mon white butterflies that usually appear early in thi spring and love to hover around in sunny places) but many perhaps do not know that these butterflie are the parents of our most common cabbage worms that yearly depredate the cabbage patches. Ther) are two common cabbage worms, one known as th) imported cabbage worm, and the other as the nativ The former was imported mam years ago from Europe and the latter is indigenou to this country. Imported Cabbage Worm.—The adult butterfly i Do not let insects destroy the crops after they are gathered. white in color with a faint creamy tinge; the males ‘have one black spot and the females two similar spots on each front wing. In addition to this they both have the front wings tipped with black. The hind wings in both sexes bear a black spot near the front margin. These butterflies have a wing expanse of from one and one-half to one and three-fourth inch- es. Worms when grown are green in color, some- times ‘having an obscure longitudinal black stripe along the back. The worms or larvae when grown change to pupae on the plant, attaching themselves by a silken band. There are several broods and the winter is passed in the pupal stage. Native Cabbage Buitterfly—Adult males of this species closely resemble the imported species in size, color and marking. The females, however, look quite different; though white in general color the wings are much marked with angular black spots. The worms show four longitudinal pale yellow stripes, two on each side of the body. In other respects the species are much alike. Remedies.—Experiments show that cabbage worms succumb to any arsenical poison, but its use has not been generally recommended because of prejudice against the use of poison on account of danger of poisoning the consumer. It may be interesting to the reader to know that experiments have been made in which cabbage ‘heads sprayed with Paris green have been subjected to chemical analysis to find out how much poison actually remained after the first few days. In every case there was only a slight trace, if any; certainly not enough to be dangerous. Besides, cabbages grow from the inside out and the outer leaves are always removed before cooking. It may be said that with ordinary care it is safe to spray cabbages with arsenical poison. We do not, however, recommend its use on full grown cabbage. Paris green or green arsenoid may be used with lime and water, in the following proportions: Paris green, 1 pounds, stone lime, 1 pound, water, 150 gal- lons. Or arsenate of lead may be used at the rate of 2 pounds in 50 gallons of water. Four sprayings through the season will usually suffice to keep the worms in check. When the plants are nearly full grown the use of fresh Hellebore powder is recommended. This should be dusted on the plants every two or three days. It soon loses its + *) 223 poison property when exposed to the air, hence the necessity of repeating the application so often. Poison for Cabbage Worms. Prof. Williams of the Nebraska Experiment Sta- tion gtves the following: “T filled an insect duster, or dust bellows, holding about two quarts, nearly full of air-slacked lime, to which I added a teacupful of green arsenoid. This, after being well mixed by shaking and turning over of the bellows, was applied to our late cabbages in a fine dust that covered the center of the heads or wherever the worms were found. One dusterful was found ample to treat from 800 to 1,000 cabbage plants, just beginning to ‘head. Two days after dust- ing there was hardly a live worm to be found, but the dead ones were greatly in evidence. On rows adjoining we used separate tests of clear lime dust, road dust. Bordeaux mixture with Paris green and rosin compound with Paris green. Neither of these gave any desired results and we went over these rows later also with the lime and green arsenoid mixture. Green arsenoid is a preparation very sim- ilar to Paris green, equalling it in the per cent. of arsenic, but differing in formation of crystals. Paris green or London purple would no doubt be equally as effective. The dust form has the advantage of the liquid solution of these poisons in that the former adheres more closely to the leaves. In the proportion used, one part poison to seven parts of lime, the dust can be distributed quite even- ly and with no danger of getting an overdose of the poison. An ounce of the poison in this mixture would be distributed to 100 heads or more, and a person would have to eat ten heads or more—out- side leaves and all to become poisoned. PLANT LICE. Several truck and garden crops are annually in- jured by small green, yellow or brown soft-bodied insects that live by sucking the plant juices. Plant lice are so small that they often pass unnoticed un- til considerable injury to plants has occurred, when the sickly appearance of the plants causes them to be examined. The lice usually occur on the under sur- face of leaves, when that is possible, though cab- bages may be covered all over. Melon Louse.—These lice may appear on melons 224 early in the spring, winged individuals coming from some of their many food plants in adjoining fields. The winged forms give birth to living young, and these in turn reach maturity in about eight days, and bring forth more young. The colonies thus form- ed live on the under side of the leaves and may soon cause small plants to turn yellow and die. The leaves soon become curled and mis-shapen. More colonies are established by winged individuals that fly from one place to another. These lice may con- tinue to multiply all summer, unless checked by ar- tificial means. The winter is passed in the egg stage, and possibly in hibernation. Remedies.—_Spraying with kerosene emulsion or whale oil soap solution. To do this thoroughly the vines must be turned over or else use a curved rod to carry the spray to the under side of the leaves. Spray as soon as the first lice appear because when the leaves become curled the lice are hard to hit. Carbon bi-sulphide may be used to good advantage when the plants are small. Carbon bi-sulphide is a liquid and can be purchased from any drug store. Dr. John B. Smith* recommends using one dram, which is about equivalent to one teaspoonful to each cubic foot of space. A practically air-tight cover must be placed over each plant to be treated. The cover can be made of heavy ducking stretched over a light wood or wire frame. Place the liquid in a shallow dish on the ground and let the plant remain covered for one hour. It is estimated that five doses will cost only one cent if the carbon bi-sulphide is purchasd at wholesale prices. Cabbage Lice—For lice on cabbage we would re- commend spraying with kerosene emulsion or soap solution. Oftentimes a strong soap solution made from common washing powder is found fully as ef- fective as the kerosene emulsion. The thing to avoid is letting the lice multiply to great numbers before treating the infested plants. Furthermore, one spray- ing should not be expected to kill every insect, and as they increase with such rapidity, the second treat- ment should be given in four or five days after the first. Thoroughly controlling the lice while the plants are small is the best practice. Plant lice on any crop may be controlled if taken in time. The insects are soft-bodied and easily suc- cumb to any common contact poison. *New jersey Exp. Sta. Bul. 121, p. 10. TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. In cabbage fields all stumps should be pulled out and burned to destroy the lice remaining after the crop is gathered. Also keep down such weeds as mustard, shepherd’s purse and the like, as cabbage lice flourish on such as well as on cabbage. Prac- tice clean culture in gardens and along fence rows and walks near the garden. INSECTS INJURIOUS TO TOBACCO. The tobacco plant, fortunately, is not subject to attack from as many insects as might be expected, ow- ing to the nature of the plant. The insects that are injurious are so on account of the fact that the plant is easily injured, particularly the leaf, for market purposes, on account of the holes in the leaves ren- dering them unfit to be used for wrappers. Further- more the leaves that can be used for wrappers are usually comparatively few, and therefore expensive, rendering the slightest injury of considerable impor- tance. The insects mentioned in the following par- agraphs are the ones most liable to cause injury to the tobacco plant. CUTWORMS. The paragraph on cutworms included in the divis- ion “Truck Crop Insects,” and the remedies given therein are applicable to the cutworm injury to to- bacco. (See page 220.) THE TOBACCO STALK WORM. This insect is also known as the Corn-root Web- worm, and was found by Prof. W. G. Johnson as a serious pest to tobacco in Southern Maryland, and is probably liable to occur farther South. Injury.—The injury to tobacco is described by Prof. Johnson as follows: “The injured tobacco had a leaf-spread of from ten to twelve inches. A few rods beyond where the soil was not so gravelly and better, we found the larvae had literally destroyed the first and second planting, * * 7S So far as I could ascertain the attack is always at the surface or just below. In many instances the larvae had hollowed out the stalk from the base of the roots to the branches of the first leaves. * * * * ¥* * Jn the great majority of cases the larvae were found in a small mass of web near the plant, and sometimes within it.” Remecies.—This insect works its greatest damage to grass and clover and will usually be found in sod land. Tobacco growers should therefore avoid plant- ing tobacco on freshly plowed sod land. If the land is used for cotton or potatoes for two or three years and then planted to tobacco very little injury follow from this insect. If absolutely necessary to plant tobacco on sod land it should be plowed early in spring, and frequently rolled and harrowed, to starve and destroy the larvae that live over winter in the soil. By delaying the planting of tobacco, while keeping up frequently cultivation, most of the injury from this insect will be avoided. will The Spined Tobacco-Bug. The stems of tobacco plants are sometimes injured by a true bug (a sucking insect) which punctures the stems to obtain food. Concerning the spined to- bacco-bug, Prof. Garmen, of Kentucky, writes: ‘“Oc- casional plants in tobacco fields are at times observ- ed to have become suddenly wilted, the leaves hang- ing limp, much as if the stalk had been severed. Af- ter a time they recover again, and, beyond a tempor- jary check on their growth, appear to have suffered but little injury. If such plants are searched care- fully while still wilted, a flat, brown bug with each side of the body produced into an angle, or sharp “spine, will be found upon the stalk along the base of the leaves. It is very shy and keeps out of sight, hence any brisk movement on the injured plants is likely to cause it to drop to the ground and conceal itself.” These insects are about half an inch long, of a drab color above and greenish or yellowish be- low. Usually only one bug is found on a plant, so that the best way to prevent injury is to pick them from the plants, and keep down such weeds as‘this- tles and mulleins, upon which these insects feed, in the adjoining fields. Bud-Worms. Young tobacco plants are sometimes attacked by _bud-worms which eat into the leaves before they are unrolled, thus causing many holes in the leaf, these holes being very damaging to the full-grown leaf. The tobacco bud-worm is known also as Corn-worm, Tomato-worm, Cotton Boll-worm and by other /Names. (For description of this insect see the dis- ¢ussion of Cotton Boll-worm on page 214.) 16 Watch the Insects that Destroy the Garden. 22 Remedies.—Concerning the measures to be adopt- ed to prevent injury to tobacco from this insect, Prof. E. D. Sanderson writes as follows: “Poisoned corn meal has been found to be a satisfactory remedy. Into a quart of finely ground corn meal, a half tea- spoonful of Paris green is thoroughly mixed by stir- ring, and sprinkled on the buds from a can perforat- ed like a pepper can. quently, This should be applied fre- especially after heavy rains. Large buds should be opened and a pinch of the poison placed within. When spraying with Paris green is practiced against the also be of service to hand-pick these worms from small patches of to- horn-worm, it will bacco. as is done when the worms are abundant in ear-corn. The Tobacco Leaf-Miner. Injury to tobacco from this insect is caused by the young larvae eating irregular patches of the leaf-tis- sue, leaving only the upper and lower surfaces. These mines appear like blisters on the leaves. They are quite serious, rendering the leaves unfit for wrap- pers. Often a single larvae will destroy an entire leaf, as they do not remain inasingle mine, but move from place to place over the leaf, entering wherever they wish to make a new mine. This habit is of im- portance, as it serves to give the grower a chance to poison the little worms. Remedies.—Wherever plants are sprayed to de- stroy the horn-worm the leaf-miners will be gener- ally controlled, as while entering the leaf to com- mence a mine they will get a fatal dose of poison. As a preventive the common horse—or bull—nettle (the original food-plant of this insect) and closely related weeds should be kept down around the tobac- co fields. THE HORN-WORM OR TOBACCO-WORM. Of all the insects attacking tobacco this worm is the most to be feared. Tobacco plants may be en- tirely ruined unless this worm is kept in control. Description and Life-History. The large bluish-green worms, having a promi- nent horn at the rear end, and white or yellow lines or V-shaped marks on each side of the body, are familiar objects to all tobacco growers. These are 226 the true tobacco-worms. They may vary in color, some being brown or nearly black. There are two species, one called the “Northern Tobacco-worm” and the other the “Southern Tobacco-worm,” though the latter is by far the most abundant in the South. The worms can be distinguished by the marks on the The Southern species have single light color- while the body. ed marks Northern species have V-shaped marks similarly lo- cated. bodied moths known as Sphinx moths. The adults are ashy-grey or brownish-grey in color, the body is long and pointed, and the size, though variable, aver- aging from four to five inches in wing expanse. along the sides of the body, The worms as found on the tobacco plants change to pupae in the ground where they remain during winter, and moths emerge from these over-winter- ing pupae during April and May. There may be as many as four broods during a single season, the pupae of the last brood remaining in the ground over winter. Remedies.—The best remedy on small patches of tobacco is to pick the worms off by hand, but this is a slow and tiresome process in large fields. Flocks of turkeys or guinea-hens will often keep a field free from worms. They seem to have a natural liking for these worms and will devour them in large num- bers. Poison may be applied to the tobacco plants either in dry or wet form. Paris green or arsenate of lead may be used at the strengths usually recom- dended for using those poisons. Poison must be ap- plied while the worms are small and its use must be continued throughout the season owing to the num- ber of broods. both surfaces of the leaves should be covered. Growers need not fear that the poison on the leaves will be dangerous to the consumer of the tobacco, as all the poisons used soon lose their most poisonous property and while strong enough to kill the worms the poison remain- ing will not injure the consumers. In spraying, INSECTS INJURIOUS TO STORED GRAIN. Few farmers realize how much they lose each year on account of insects destroying their grain. It is estimated that Texas alone loses over a million dollars each year, and that 50 per cent. of her corn and rats. But Texas is not the only State that loses on account of annually is destroyed by weevils The parents of these worms are big strong-. TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. : { weevils and rats, for Alabama lc_es 10 per cent. of | the corn she raises. Estimating in the same propor- | tions, the eight Southern States: South Carolina, ) Georgia, Florida, Alabama, Mississippi, Louisiana, Texas and Arkansas lose nearly $20,000,000.00 each year, that is the amount lost on account of the corn) destroyed. And then when we consider the amount} lost on rice, oats, wheat, rye, peas, and other grains, | the loss is enormous. The following descriptions of) grain insects, and the remedies recommended are taken from Farmer’s Bulletin No. 45 of the U. S. Department of Agriculture. [ The Grain Weevils. All the various species of insects that attack stored| grain are indiscriminately called weevils, or simply! “weevil,” but the only true grain weevils are the} granary weevil and rice weevil. These two insects resemble each other in structure) as well as in habit. They are small, flattened, brown] snout-beetles of the family Calandridae. Neither is) more than a sixth of an inch in length, but their Ja of development is so rapid that they do an almost incalculable amount of injury in a short period of time. Their heads are prolonged into a long snout, or proboscis, at the end of which are the mandibles: their antennae are elbowed and are attached to the proboscis. The Granary Weevil, (Calandra ¢granaria Linn,)—| The granary weevil has been known as an enemy te Fig. 54—Calanddra granaria: a, beetle; b, larva; ¢, pupa d, C. oryz, beetle—all enlarged (author’s illustration.) (Courtesy Board of Entomology U. S. Dept. of Agriculture | Washington, D. C.) Tf one will use Paris Green with care there is no danger of poisoning the consumer. |stored grain since the earliest times. come domesticated ages ago, it ‘has long since lost [the use of its wings and is strictly an indoor species. Having be- The mature weevil measures from an eighth to a sixth of an inch, is uniform shining chestnut brown ‘fin color, and has the thorax sparsely and longitudin- jally punctured, as indicated, much enlarged, at fig. (54, a. | The larva is legless, considerably shorter than the adult, white in color, very robust, fleshy, and of the form shown in the illustration (b.) The pupa, illus- ‘trated at c, is also white, clear, and transparent, ex- jnibiting the general characters of the future beetle. |. The female punctures the grain with her snout and then inserts an egg, from which is hatched a larva |hat devours the mealy interior and undergoes its ae eons within the hull. In wheat and other bmall cereals a single larva inhabits a grain, but a ysernel of maize furnishes food for several individu- ! The time required for the completion of the life tycle varies with the season and climate, and there , be, under favorable conditions, four or five | | prods and six or even more in the South. | This species is injurious in wheat, maize, barley, ic other grains and attacks also the chick-pea (Ci- “er arietinum,) a food product of the Tropics. Un- we the moths which attack grain, the adult weevils j eed also upon the kernels, gnawing into them for ‘ood and for shelter, and, being quite long-lived, prob- ‘bly do even more damage than their larvae. This \pecies is verp prolific, egg-laying continuing over jn extended period. It ‘has been estimated that one air will, in the course of a year, produce 6,000 de- \cendants, and it will be seen that the progeny of a jingle air are capable in a short time of causing con- \iderable damage. | \| The Rice Weevil, (Calandra oryza Linn.)—A very imilar insect to the preceding is the rice weevil, hich derives both its popular and Latin name from ice (oryza,) in which it was originally discovered. i is conceded to have originated in India, whence it as been diffused by commerce until it is now estab- ‘shed in most of the grain-growing countries of the World. It is a serious pest in the Southern States, ‘here it is commonly, though erroneously, called black weevil,’ but farther north is of less impor- ance. It occurs, however, in every State and Ter- I | 227 ritory in the Union, and occasionally invades Canada and Alaska. This species resembles the granary weevil in size and general appearance, but differs in being dull brown in color, in having the thorax densely pitted with round punctures, and the elytra, or wing cases, ornamented with four more or less distinct red spots, arranged as in the illustration (fig. 55, d.) Unlike the preceding species it has well-developed and ser- viceable wings. The larvae and pupae are also simi- lar to those of the granary weevil, and in habits and life history these two species do not materially dif- fer, except in that the rice weevil may often be found in the field remote from the granary, in the extreme ' South and in the Tropics lays its eggs in standing grain. The rice weevil feeds upon the grain of rice, wheat, particularly the soft varieties, maize, barley, rye, hulled oats, buckwheat, chick-peas, and the cultivat- ed varieties of sorghum known as Kafir, or Jerusa- lem corn, etc., and the adult beetles, when abundant in storehouses and groceries, invade boxes of crack- ers, cakes, and other breadstuffs, barrels of flour and bags of meal. » The Grain Moths. The Angoumois Grain Moth, (Sitotroga cerealel- la Ol.)—This moth received its name from the pro- vince of Angoumois, France, where it is known to have been injurious since the vear 1736. In this country, where it is familiarly but incorrectly called “fly weevil,” it is said to have been recognized as early as 1728. It infests all the cereals, as well as buckwheat and the chick-pea, product of the Tropics. It has been estimated that in six months grain in- fested by this moth loses 4o per cent. in weight and 75 per cent. of farinaceous matter. The adult moth, insect resembles somewhat a clothes for which indeed it is often mistaken. It is light grayish brown in color, more or less lined and spotted with black, and measures across the expand- ed fore-wings about half an inch (see fig: 55.) The hind-wings are bordered with a long, delicate fringe. The moth deposits its eggs in standing grain and in the bin, singly and:in clusters of from 20 to 30. The eggs shown, much enlarged, in the illustration, are white when first laid, but soon turn red and hatch in from four to seven or more days, when the min- ute larvae or caterpillars burrow into the kernels and 228 feed on the starchy interior. A single larva inhabits a grain of the smaller cereals, but maize affords sus- tenance for two or more individuals. A kernel of corn opened to show the larva at work is reproduced at fig. 55, b, and an ear of infested pop-corn is shown ris. 55.—Sitotroga cercalella: a, larva, side view; d, eggs; b, larva at work; c, pupa; e, moth; f, same, side view (original). (Courtesy Board of Entomology U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, Washington, D. C.) at fig 56. In three weeks or more, according to sea- son, the caterpillar attains maturity, when it spins within the kernel a thin, silken cocoon and trans- forms to a pupa or chrysalis, the moth emerging a few days later, the entire period from egg to adult embracing in summer time about five weeks and in colder weather longer. After copula- tion, the moth deposits eggs for another brood, and thus several generations are produced in the course of a year. In the warmer climate of the South, where the insect can breed uninterruptedly through- out the winter, it ‘has been estimated that as many as eight generations may be produced. considerably Flour and Meal Moths. Four or five species of moths, in addition to the one just mentioned, are injurious to grain in store, but are more prevalent in mill products, and are troublesome as well by their depredations in a va- riety of articles. The Mediterranean Flour Moth, (Ephestia kueh- niella Zell.) —The most important of all mill insects is the Mediterranean flour moth. This scourge of the flour mill, as it is called, has attracted much at- tention of recent years and has been the subject of TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURCZ. many articles and bulletins. Until the year 1877, whe the moth was discovered in a flour mill in German: it was comparatively unknown. In later years it i vaded Belgium and Holland, and in 1886 appeared | England. Three years later it made its appearani in destructive numbers in Canada. In 1892 it w; | Fig. 56.—Ear of pop-corn showing work of Angoumois gTé moth (from Riley in Ann. Rept. Dept. Agr., 1884). (Courtesy Board of Entomology U. S. Dept. of Agricultu Washington, D. C.) reported injurious in mills in California, and in 18) in New York and Pennsylvania. That the Mediterranean flour moth has become ! formidable in recent years is due to the higher a more equable temperature maintained in modern mills, a condition highly favorable to the develop- (i a of the insect. C The adult moth has a wing expanse of a little less jhan an inch; the fore-wings are pale leaden gray, with transverse black markings of the pattern shown In the accompanying illustration (fig. 57, a); the lind-wings are dirty whitish, semi-transparent, and With a darker border. The caterpillar, illustrated at ‘ig. 57 c, e, is whitish and ‘hairy. The chrysalis, |hown at fig. 57 d, is reddish brown. | The caterpillars form cylindrical silken tubes ia \jwhich they feed, and it is in great part their habit if web spinning that renders them so injurious where jhey obtain a foothold. Upon attaining full growth Whe caterpillar leaves its original- silken domicile and Me ns a new web, which becomes a cocoon, in which jo undergo its transformations to pupa and to imago. t is while searching for a proper place for transfor- ‘ig. 57—Ephestia kuehniella: a, moth; b, same from side, | resting; c, larva; d, pupa—enlarged; e, abdominal | joint of larva—more enlarged. ‘Courtesy Board of Entomology U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, Washington, D. C.) 1 mation that the insect is most troublesome. The in- } sted flour becomes felted together and lumpy, the machinery becomes clogged, necessitating frequent nd prolonged stoppage, and resulting in a short ime in the loss of thousands of dollars, in large es- ablishments. | ) iy) i | Although the larva prefers flour or meal, it will attack gtain when the former are not available, and lk flourishes also on bran, prepared cereal foods, in- Huding buckwheat, grits and crackers. In Califor- hia it lives in the nests of a wild bumble-bee and in | he hives of the honey bee. When a mill is found to be infested, the entire puilding should be fumigated, and in case a whole vlistrict becomes overrun the greatest care must be >bserved not to spread the infestation. Uninfested {| | | Not how much you make, but how much you save, counts. 229 i mills “should be tightly closed at night, and every bushel of grain, every bag or sack brought into the mill, subjected to a quarantine process, by being dis- infected either by heat or bisulphide of carbon. The Flour Beetles. The Confused Flour Beetle, (Tribolium confusum Duv.)—The most important of the flour beetles is the one above mentioned. It is about the same size as the true grain weevils, is of nearly universal oc- currence in grain of all kinds following the attacks of the latter species with which it is very often as- sociated. Its principal damage, however, appears to be to flour and other patented articles of diet con- taining starchy matter; in fact, it is without doubt the insect most injurious to prepared cereal foods, if we except the Mediterranean flour moth, which for- tunately is as yet confined to a limited territory. Although known for many years in Europe as an enemy to stored cereals, seeds, and even as a pest in museums, it was not until the fall of 1893 that it was recognized in this country as a species distinct from others of its kind. In less than two years from the Fig. 58.—Tribolium confusum: a, beetle; b, larva; c, pupa— all enlarged; d, .ateral lobe of abdomen of pupa; e, head of beetle, showing antenna; f, same of T. ferrugineum— all greatly enlarged (author's illustration.) (Courtesy Board of #ntomology U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, Washington, D. C.) time of its first recognition here, this insect had been reported as injurious in nearly every State and Ter- ritory. The divisional experience of a single year, 1894, shows that more complaints’ are made of in- juries by this than of any other granivorous insect. As a mill pest it was the most troublesome species 230 of 1895, and annually costs the millers of the United States thousands of dollars by its presence in manu- factured products. The mature beetle is scarcely a sixth of an inch long, elongate, and flattened, brown in color, and of the form indicated in the illustration (fig. 58, a.) The head, with antenna, is shown, much enlarged, at e, and the general characters of the larva are il- lustrated at b, the pupa at c and d. Among the many substances attacked by this in- sect may be mentioned, besides grain and its manu- factured products, snuff, orris root, baking powder, rice chaff, red pepper, ginger, slippery elm, peas, beans, nuts, and seeds of various kinds, in all of which it has been found by the writer. It some- times also invades cabinets of dried insects. The Slender-Horned Flour Beetle, (lEchocerus maxillosus Fab.)—The above-named insect should be mentioned here. It also feeds on flour and meal and is of frequent occurrence in the South and has been found as far north as the District of Columbia and southern Ohio in Indian corn, which appears to be its preferred food. The beetle resembles the two preceding species, but is lighter in color and a little smaller, measuring a trifle over an eighth of an inch in length. On the head, between the eyes, are twa pointed tubercles, and the mandibles in the male} are armed with a pair of slender, incurved horns. There are several other flour beetles occurring in’ the South, but space will not permit of their men- tion here. The Meal-Worms. The Yellow Meal-Worm, (Tenebrio molitor Linn.) —The above-mentioned species is the meal-worm most often referred to in scientific literature, and as it is in the larval stage that it is best known, the name yellow meal-worm has been suggested to dis- tinguish it from the other species, which is much darker in color. The larva is cylindrical, long, and slender, attaining a length of upward of an inch, and being about eight times as long as broad. It is wax- en in appearance, resembling a wireworm. In color it is yellow, shading to darker ochreous toward each end and near the articulation of each point. The anal extremity terminates in two minute spines. Aiave pupa is white, and the adult insect, as will be seen by reference to the illustration, resembles on a large TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. q | 4 scale one of the flour beetles. It is considerably over) half an inch long, somewhat flattened, shining, and! nearly black. An enlarged antenna is shown at e. The eggs, with a covering of meal, are white, bean-shaped, and about a twentieth of an inch long, and are deposited by the parent beetle in the meal, or other substance which is to serve as the food of) the future lava. ! i Methods of Control. The measures to be employed in the control of in-| sects affecting stored products are both preventive) and insecticidal. As an insecticide nothing answers! the purpose so well as the bisulphide of carbon, which is a nearly perfect remedy against all insects that! infest the storehouse. The remedies that will be discussed in the present while intended primarily for use against insects in stored grain, have an almost equal value against all forms of ani- mal life that occur in products that are dried and kept in storage. work, Preventive Measures.—A limited number of in-| sects, like the Angoumois grain moth in the extreme South, enter the grain in the field, and certain pre- cautions are therefore necessary to prevent their ace cess to the granary. This is accomplished, first, by harvesting as soon as the grain is ripe; second, by threshing as soon afterwards as possible. f In the process of threshing or cleaning much in) fested grain is blown out with the chaff and dust,| and the moths and many adult weevils are killed by, the agitation which the grain receives; but the im- mature forms of these insects, concealed in the ker- nels as eggs, larvae, and pupae, are apt to survive) this treatment, and further measures are necessary for their destruction. For this purpose a quarantine bin is desirable, to be as nearly air-tight as possible, in which the new- ly threshed as well as the infested or suspected grain can be fumigated with bisulphide of carbon, accord-| ing to the directions given elsewhere. Fresh grain should not be exposed to insect attack’ by being placed in bins with “weeviled” grain, Ot even housed under the same roof with such grain If before storing in buildings that have been infest ed, the old grain be removed, the bins thoroughly | cleaned, floors, walls, and ceilings brushed and scrub: | : bed, the chances of infestation will be reduced to a minimum. If the storehouse has been badly in- ‘| fested, a fumigation with bisulphide is necessary. | The floors of the storehouse should be frequently swept, and all material that has no commercial value | | burned. A certain amount of attention has always been given to the construction of the storehouse with a |view to the exclusion of insects, and, with the ad- j}vent of the flour moth, our modern mills are being its peculiar habits. | The ideal farmer’s granary, from the standpoint of /insect ravages, should be built at some distance from Mother buildings and the rooms constructed so as to ibe as near vermin proof as possible. The doors "should fit tightly, and the windows covered with frames of wire gauze to prevent the passage of in- | | Do Not Let the Cows Suffer from i'1.22. | Fig. 59.—An Orchard showing the effect of Leaf Curl. 231 sects. The floor, walls, and ceilings should be smooth,, so as not to afford any lurking places for the insects,. and it would be well to have them oiled, painted, or whitewashed for further security. A coating of coal tar has been strongly recommended for the latter purpose. Such measures are not an absolute neces- sity in cold and temperate climates, but in the more ‘heated atmosphere of our Southern States whatever possible should be done to lessen the chances of damage. The Bisulphide of Carbon Treatment.—The sim- plest, most effective, and inexpensive remedy for all insects that affect stored cereal and other products is the bisulphide of carbon, a colorless liquid with a strong, disagreeable odor, which, however, soon pass- es away. It vaporizes abundantly at ordinary tem- 232 peratures, is highly inflammable, and is a powerful poison. It may be applied directly to infested grain or seed without injury to its edible or germinative principles by spraying or pouring, but the most effective man- ner of its application in moderately tight bins or other receptacles consists in evaporating the liquid in shallow dishes or pans, or on bits of cloth or cotton waste distributed about on the surface of the infest- The liquid rapidly volatilizes, and be- and permeates the ed material. ing heavier than air descends mass of grain, killing all insects and other vermin present. The bisulphide is usually evaporated in vessels containing one-fourth or one-half of a pound each, and is applied in tight bins at the rate of a pound to a pound and a half.to the ton of grain, and in more open bins a larger quantity is used. For smaller masses of grain or other material an ounce is evap- orated to every 100 pounds of the infested matter. Bins may be rendered nearly air-tight by covering with cloths, blankets, or canvas. Infested grain is generally subjected to the bisul- phide treatment for twenty-four hours, but may be exposed much longer without harming it for milling purposes. If not exposed for more than thirty-six hours its germinating power will not be impaired. In open cribs and badly infested buildings it may sometimes be necessary to use a double quantity of the reagent and repeat treatment at intervals of about six weeks during the warmest weather. Mr. H. E. Weed, entomologist of the Mississippi Station, claims that 1 pound to 1oo bushels of grain is amply sufficient to destroy all insects, even in open cribs. Mills and other buildings, when found to be in- fested throughout, may be thoroughly fumigated and rid of insects by a liberal use of the same chemical. A good time for this work is during daylight on a Saturday afternoon or early Sunday morning, closing the doors and windows as tightly as possible and ob- serving the precaution of stationing a watchman without to prevent anyone from entering. It is best to begin in the lowest story and work upward, to escape the settling gas. The building should then be thoroughly aired and the grain stirred early Mon- day morning. For the fumigation of a building or a reasonably close room it is customary to evaporate a pound of the bisulphide for every thousand feet of cubic space. TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE In comparatively empty rooms, and in such as do not admit of being tightly closed, two or three times the above quantity of the chemical is sometimes nec- essary. ’ Certain precautions should always be observed. The vapor of bisulphide is deadly to all forms of animal life if inhaled in sufficient quantity, but there is no danger in inhaling a small amount. The vapor is inflammable, .but with proper care that no fire of | any kind, as, for example, a lighted cigar, be brought | into the vicinity until the fumes have entirely pass- ed away, no trouble will be experienced. Bisulphide of carbon retails at from 20 to 30 cents | a pound, but at wholesale, in 50-pound cans, may be obtained for 10 cents a pound. A grade known as “fuma bisulfide,” for sale at the latter price, is said | to be more effective than the ordinary commercial article. : At the rate used the cost of treatment is from Io cents and upward for each ton of grain. A FEW ORANGE INSECTS. include a whole class by themselves. An entire book devoted to the subject would be required to give this matter proper treatment. Only a few orange insects, however, cause a great amount of damage, | but these are ever present and must be fought dili- ) genty and intelligently. The White Fly. This is probably the worst citrus insect in Florida’ and also occurs in all sections where the orange is’ grown. insect winters on the undersides of the leaves in va-! rious stages of development, mostly full grown. The | adults sometimes appear early in February and com-: eggs. mence at once to deposit eggs. These adults are so small that the average grower will never notice: them, but the young insects on the leaves are easily | found. Most of the flies appear in April and May. | Egg-laying at once begins, the eggs being placed on, the undersides of the leaves. The eggs hatch in_ about ten days and the young larvae crawl around to| find a suitable place to commence feeding. The food is taken through a minute beak which is thrust” ¥ , 4 « It is a common enemy of all plants related | to the orange. The insect itself is very small, being) only about one-sixteenth of an inch in diameter. The’ through the surface of the leaves. The adults while winged are not capable of long flight, but they un- doubtedly spread from one grove to another. The young lice are easily carried by workmen and teams for long distances, thus making the possibility of spread very rapid. The white fly does not kill a tree as quickly as | most of the scale insects, but is very persistent in its attacks, saps the vitality of the trees, impairs the quality, flavor and keeping properties of the fruit and renders both trees and fruit unsightly because of the black, sooty mold, which invariably develops in the honey-dew excreted by the insects. Orange | growers fear the attack of this insects as much as some which are really more quickly injurious in their at- tacks. Remedies for the White Fly. | A resin spray recommended by the Florida Ex- | periment Station is considered the most practical |temedy. The following is the formula: estima pithviertzed) © sens. <1 8 pounds Caustic Soda, pulverized Fish Oil 3 pounds I 1-2 pints Boil in a large iron kettle in six or seven gallons will usually be in twenty minutes. Strain into a barrel holding about so gallons and fill the barrel | with water. It is now ready for use as a rather | coarse spray. _ The insects will be found on the under sides of | the leaves so that when spraying care must be taken | to strike the lower surface with the mixture! | This wash should be applied while the insects are eo the larval (young) stage on the leaves. Three or four sprayings may be necessary each year. | Kerosene emulsion at 15 per cent. strength will ‘emulsion only enough should be used to cover the leaves. Too heavy an application may injure the foliage. Fumigation with Hydrocyanic acid gas is prac- itised by some large orange growers for the control jof the white fly. It is most practical on small trees. | The San Jose Scale. _ This scale insect is often very serious in orange | ; | | H of water until the materials are all dissolved, which - | Protect Your Stored Grain from Insects. 233 groves. The remedy suggested for the scale on peach trees will serve also for the orange, only it must be remembered that the strength of wash used on peach can be greater as the trees become entirely dormant. The kerosene treatment for scale or orange trees has in many cases been suc- cessful. emulsion Fig. 60.—Pear Blight. Pear Blight. An Orchard showing the effect of THE COTTONY CUSHION SCALE. This insect was at one time the most dangerous pest in California and did a great amount of damage. An Australian lady-bug was introduced from Aus- tralia and has succeeded in keeping the insect in control. If it had not been for this imported lady- bug the cottony cushion scale would probably have destroyed the orange industry in California. The in- sect is known to occur over a limited area in Florida. The body of the adult female scale is dark orange- red, usually more or less covered with yellowish 234 white powder. The female secretes an egg-sac which is white and beautifully ribbed. This makes a very conspicuous object, one not readily over-looked. Remedies.—As stated above this insect has been controlled in California by the lady-bug. It occur- ring in places where the lady-bugs are not present, spraying with resin wash or kerosene emulsion, as recommended for the white fly, will serve to control this insect, or at least keep it in check until the lady- bugs can be secured. THE RED ORANGE-SCALE. This is one of the most destructive of orange and lemon pests, and in California where it is abundant it is being fought by parasites and by the usual fu- migation and spraying methods. The Red Scale is about the size and shape—generally speaking—of the San Jose scale with which most are familiar. The color of the scale formation covering the true soft- bodied insect, has given it the common name “red- scale.” The fumigation method, with hydrocyanic acid gas generated under tents stretched over the trees has for several years been the principal method of con- trolling this insect. This fumigation is quite costly, and for that reason experiments are being made to determine the value of liquid sprays. It will prob- ably be found that modifications of the washes used against San Jose and other scales will serve to con- trol this pest also. SOME HOUSEHOLD PESTS. Every housekeeper knows the trouble caused by certain insects both in the way of destroying cloth- es, books, carpets, etc. She usually has to fight some insect at all times of the year. A few of the most important pests, together with suggested reme- dies, may be useful in helping to aid the fight against these insects. Bedbugs. Owing to the fact that this pernicious bug can be carried about so easily it often finds its way to the beds of the rich as well as the poor but can usually be exterminated if noticed in time. Beds and bedding should be frequently examined for this pest and if dis- covered apply one or all of the following remedies. TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. Prof. C. L. Marlatt, of the Bureau of Entomology, Washington, D. C., recommends the following: “The bedbug, on account of its ‘habits of conceal- ment, is usually beyond the reach of powders, and the ordinary insect powders, such as pyrethrum, are of practically no avail against it. If iron or brass bedsteads are used the eradication of the insect is comparatively easy. The most practical way to ef- fect this end is by very liberal applications of ben- | zine or kerosene or any other of the petroleum oils. These must be introduced into all crevices, with small brushes or feathers, or by injecting with §mall syringes. Corrosive sublimate is also of value, and oil of turpentine may be used in the same way. The lib- eral use of hot water wherever it may be employed without danger to furniture, etc., is aiso an effectual method of destroying both eggs and active bugs. Various bedbug remedies and mixtures are for sale, most of them containing one or the other of the in- gredients mentioned, and they are frequently of value. The great desideratum, however, in a case of this kind, is a daily inspection of beds and bedding and of all crevices and locations about the premises where these vermin may have gone for concealment. A vigorous campaign should, in thle course of a week or so at the outside, result in the extermina- tion of this very obnoxious and embarrassing pest. In the case of rooms books or where liquid applications are inadvisable, a thorough fumi- gation with brimstone is, on the authority of Dr. J. A. Lintner, New York State entomologist, an effec- tive means of destruction. He says: ‘Place in the center of the room a dish containing about four ounces of brimstone, within a larger vessel, -so that the possible overflowing of the burning mass may not injure the carpet nor set fire to the floor. removing from the room all such metallic surfaces containing as might be affected by the fumes, close every aper- | ture, even the keyholes, and set fire to the brim- stone. When four or five hours have elapsed, the room may be entered and the windows opened for a thorough airing.’ ” FLEAS. The common troublesome fleas which overrun houses are not human fleas as many suppose, but the common cosmopolitan flea of the dog and cat. The eggs of the flea are deposited between the hairs After | Bedbugs Can Be Exterminated If You So Desire. of the dog and cat, but are not fastened, hence the eggs may be dropped wherever the animals lie or while moving about. By keeping all such animals out of houses this nuisance will generally be pre- vented. The eggs of the flea are small, white and oblong. When hatched the larvae are very small and active and readily find a hiding place in some crack where they are not easily disturbed. The use of matting and carpets favors the development of fleas by furnishing a hiding place. Fig. 61.—Rossette. Remedies—The larvae can be destroyed by the liberal application of benzine or similar liquid in all cracks and crevises of the floor and applying the same to carpets and mats. The adult fleas are much harder to contend with. Their extreme activity and great hardiness render any but the most strenuous measures unsuccessful. The suggested plan of using Orchard showing 235 sticky fly-paper to capture the adults seems to have found its most successful application in the plan fol-. lowed by Prof. Gage, of Cornell University. He tied sheets of sticky fly-paper, with the sticky side out, around the legs-of an office janitor, who was then instructed to walk around the rooms of a build- ing for several hours. This resulted in nearly all the fleas jumping on his ankles where they were caught by the fly-paper. Another plan is to let the dogs stay in an infested house for a couple of hours at a the Effect of Peach Rossette. time and then kill the fleas that get on the dog by thoroughly washing the animal with a strong soap solution. The Carpet Beetle, or “Buffalo Moth.” The adult insect is a small, blackish beetle, about three-sixteenth inch in length, and ornamented by a 236 red stripe along the back. pear in fall, but may be present all the year. The damage is caused by the larvae, which is brown with stiff hairs.on the back and sides. It is about one-fourth inch long. When full grown it changes to a yellowish pupa from which the beetle develops. The beetles generally ap- Remedies.—Only the most thorough measures will eradicate this pest. All carpets should be taken up, thoroughly ‘beaten out of with benzine.’ Infested the floors washed with boiling water, filled with kerosene or benzine, be sprayed under the baseboards. It is best to avoid the use of carpets, or at least use rugs that can be cleaned each day. When the insects are in carpets that cannot well be removed, a hot iron and damp cloth can be used to steam the carpets, thus destroy- ing many insects. doors and sprayed rooms ‘must be cleanly swept, and the cracks which should also THE CLOTHES MOTH. How to Destroy Clothes Moths. One of the greatest enemies of the housewife is the clothes moth. It is very small and makes- its way through the smallest The female moth finds its way in early clothes and furs, suitable for food for its young, and there deposits about fifty or more eggs. In about-a week the eggs hatch and the young worms begin to eat upon the cloth upon which the eggs were laid. It Spins a sort of case which it lengthens and. en- larges. Not content with eating and making a house for itself upon the cloth upon which it lives, it cuts its way in various directions through the cloth and drags its case after it. As the weather gets warmer the little worm closes its case at the ends and in three weeks the perfect moth will make its appear- ance. crevices. summer among the Remedy.—Beat the garments well early in the spring and occasionally during the summer. It is better to keep the articles in a large paper bag. Oc- casional airing is good. For clothes packed in boxes or trunks, put a little oil of cedar on a piece of paper and roll up and wrap with other paper to avoid soiling the garments, and put several of these rolls into each box or trunk. Carbolic acid, turpentine or benzine is. equally good, used in the same manner. TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. Black pepper, a piece of camphor gum, or a hand- ful of snuff wrapped up with the clothes is excellent, Caution.—Camphor should never be used in keep- ing seal skin, as it takes the color out of the fur. A close closet lined with tar paper is the best for furs. It is also excellent for clothes. _ F Whole cloves are now used to exterminate moths, and some say they are much better tobacco, camphor, or cedar shavings. The repellents are of no use unless the clothes to be protected are first beaten and aired to remove eggs and larvae. than HOW TO EXTERMINATE SPIDERS. Take a small common kerosene lamp and light it, and late in the afternoon or early in the evening look over the corners and places where spiders are found, and when one is seen hold the lamp chimney directly beneath it, and it will fall at once into the chimney and be instantly destroyed. It is not difficult in this way to destroy all the spi- It avoids kill- ing them by sweeping them down and staining the walls and carpet. Early in the evening is the best time. commonly ders in the house in a few evenings. HOW TO PRESERVE BOOKS FROM BOOK MOTHS. The little Bristle Tail or Silver Fish has a little slender body covered with a delicate silver scale; it has no wings and passes through no chang- es. It feeds on the paste of the binding of books, devours leaves, eats off the labels in Museums, and is generally destructive to both books and papers. Books are also eaten by the larva of a little bug that produces a ticking sound like a watch—it is called the “Death Watch,” as it is usually heard in the night ticking like a watch. long, Remedy.—A little rag saturated with benzine or carbolic acid placed along the back of shelves will help to clear the library of all insects. Insect Pow- der sprinkled over the books will destroy the little “Silver Fish” insect if used freely. A CURE FOR BEE AND WASP STINGS, oe DER BITES, ETC. 1. The cure for insect stings is very simple. Scientists have found that the poison injected by Consult the Spray Calendar in This Book. the insect is an acid, and hence any alkali is an ex- cellent remedy. 2. Remedy.—Apply ammonia or common soda and water. If there is much inflammation and red- ness, apply a solution of borax and warm water. Apply with rag saturated with the solution. FLIES. The Farm. The Fly Nuisance-——Every farmer and live stock grower will freely admit that the presence of flies is a great drawback to the welfare and comfort of ani- mals. Work horses are not able to do as much, and what they do is less satisfactory when they are con- tinually tormented by flies and says “Twentieth Century Farmer.” Colts and calves are greatly diminished in flesh and prevented from mak- ing healthy and thrifty growth when they are ob- liged to continually fight these pests. The yield from milch cows is greatly reduced by the same cause. Taking the whole matter into consideration, it is unquestionably to the interest of the farmer to do something with a view to relieving animals from the tortures which these insects inflict. , As a rule, farmers do not negiect this matter be- cause they are not careful of their stock or because they are willing to permit them to suffer. The trou- ble usually lies in a lack of knowledge and under- standing of the question. Many stock raisers would gladly spend time and money to bring relief from flies and mosquitoes if they knew of a good and re- liable method of attaining these results. For the benefit of these well-meaning parties, whose sym- pathy is touched by the mute appeals of their ani- mals, we wish to give our experience along this line. While treating colts with a standard coal tar prepa- tation for lice a few years ago we discovered that the flies gave animals so treated a wide berth. The smell appeared to be very repulsive to them, and the colts enjoyed a perfect freedom from their bites. Acting upon this suggestion, we have continued to use this preparation for the sake of the freedom of flies which it gives us, even though no lice are pres- ent. : Since that time we have discovered that the addi- tion of linseed oil or cotton-seed oil makes the appli- cation much more permanent in its effects. The Proportions are about as follows: One quart of the mosquitos, 237 coal tar product, one quart of oil and fifteen quarts ter. Such a solution is very inexpensive and brings about a wonderful relief to the animals. Where it is desired to treat work horses or driving horses we make it a practice to omit the oil and make the ap- plication more frequent. A small sprayer, which can *® Fig. 62.—Orchard showing the effect of Brown Rot in Peaches. be purchased for 75¢ or $1, is the ideal method of ap- plying the solution to the animals. With precaution- ary measures so simple and effective, it is to be hope¢ that steps will be taken by the owners of live stock to give them relief from flies and mosquitoes. PRACTICAL RECIPES. Owners of horses will be interested in the method successfully pursued by Dr. A. T. Peters, veterinari- an at the Nebraska Experiment station, for driving away flies. He took an ordinary oil barrel and put 238 into it a wooden spigot, using the barrel as a stor- age tank. Two and a half gallons of Zenoleum, with five gallons of cottonseed oil, were then placed in the barrel and enough water added to fill it. As re- quired, the mixture thus formed was drawn from the barrel and sprayed upon the horses, or applied with a sponge or cloth as the occasion demanded. The control of the flies was not only perfect, but it had one marked advantage not possessed by most other mixtures for the purpose, in that the solution was not sticky, but left the coat of the animal in a fine condition. The mixture has the further advantage of being compounded at very small cost. The Horn Fly.—(Bulletin 153, ment Station). Since the importation of the fly from Europe in 1885, it has spread throughout the Ameri- Even the severe Northern winters for it as frequently ap- warmer sections of the Virginia Experi- can continent. do not effectually check it, pears in Canada South. In appearance it is much smaller than the ordina- and as in the ry house fly, probably not over half as large, about the same color. The life history, as given by Newman, is simple, and is as follows: The fly makes its appear- ance during the middle or latter days of June, ac- cording to the season. The eggs are deposited in fresh dung about the pasture, and the larva hatch in about twenty-four The young parasite then inhabits the superficial layer of the soil, and becomes fully developed in about fifteen days. Of late years by reason of its rapid multiplication, general alarm has been created among stockmen on account of the peculiarly irritating character of the bite, in consequence of which the cattle do not thrive. When in large numbers they gather about the base of the animals’ horns to rest, are sometimes found covering them for several inches, quite hours. and During heavy rains they collect on the under side of the animal’s abdomen, They attack, by prefer- ence, the upper parts of the body, usually selecting those parts which are most out of reach, over the back; and in contrast to most other flies, namely, they remain upon the animal day and night, inflict- ing their torture constantly. In the feeding attitude the fly may be noticed with wings spread ready for flight. No accurate estimate from the pest can be made of the injury resulting in cattle-raising sections. TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. Beef cattle increase in weight slowly, if at all, while milch cows fall off in their milk from one-fourth to one-half during their presence. Various remedies have been recommended from time to time, some not wholly wanting in merit, but lacking the most essential features so necessary for complete success. Among them might be mentioned the daily treatment of fresh droppings with fresh lime, thereby destroying the larva, also the applica- tion to the cattle of substances calculated to disgust the fly, and prevent or modify their attack, the lat- ter being the universal custom. Kerosene emulsion after the following formula has proven the most effectual remedy yet tried: Yellows Soapmarcis dr cece 1-2 pound Sess WWaldaie Sap oceocd bands ccnecos I gallon Xeon Onl Gaagascoascvdeooddc 2 gallons Shave the soap fine and dissolve in the water at boiling temperature. Place kerosene oil in a barrel containing a spray pump, to which should be added the hot soap solution. The mixture is now churned vigorously through the pump for fifteen or twenty minutes, or until the mass becomes like thick cream and is fully emulsified. One gallon of water (or in this proportion) is now added to prevent the solution from becoming thick, curdy and troublesome to be dissolved. This is to be kept as the stock solution and diluted in the proportion of one part to five of water, and thoroughly mixed by agitation through the pump just prior Only the required amount must be mixed in the pump for one applica- tion, as it tends to separate and gives unsatisfactory results. Too severe and continued agitation is to be avoided, as it tends to cause the solution to foam, in which condition it will not spray satisfactorily, and requires a few minutes to settle. to using. One of the simplest preparations is one of about two parts of lard and one of pine tar. Mix thorough- ly together and rub on the neck and behind the shoulders, where the flies are most numerous. This mixture seems to be especially effective in prevent- ing attacks from the fly which produces the screw- worm in open wounds. The United States Department of Agriculture recommends the following: “Take resin, I I-2 pounds; laundry “soap, two cakes; fish-oil, 1-2 pint; enough water to make three a See ee ee ee eee eee EE as Spraying Should Be Done Carefully and Intelligently. 239 gallons. Dissolve the resin in a solution of soap and water by heating; add the fish-oil and the rest of the water. Apply with a brush. If to be used as a spray, add one-half pint of kerosene. This mixture will cost from 7 to8 cents per gallon, and may be used on either calves or cows. One-half pint of this mixture is con- sidered enough for one aplication for a cow; a calf, of course, would require-considerably less. It will be more economical to apply this only to the part of the animal not reached by the tail. At first it will per- haps ‘be necessary to give two or three applications per week, until the outer ends of the hair become coated with resin; after that, retouch those parts where the resin is rubbed off. A bulletin of the Mississippi Station recommends a mixture made with two parts cottonseed oil, lard or any other cheap oil, and one pint of pine tar. Apply with a paint brush or swab. The writer of the bul- letin states that he treated 350 head of cattle with this mixture in about six hours, using four gallons of oil and two gallons of tar, the cost of the materials used being $2.20, or about three-fourths of a cent a ‘head. “Gnat oil,” used so largely in‘the Yazoo Delta reg- ion, is made by mixing I ounce of crude carbolic acid, I ounce of pennyroyal, 1-4 pound of sulphur and 1 gal- Jon cotton-seed oil, and seems to be equally effective. Whatever application is used must be renewed ev- ery ten days or two weeks, or as soon as the flies be-~ come troublesome again. Kerosene should not be used in the place of other oils, and coal tar is not a safe substitute for pine tar. THE SCREW WORM. Its Ravages on Horses, Cattle, Sheep, Hogs, etc. Description and Cure——The mature insect is a fly ja little larger than a common housefly, and ‘lays its eggs in wounds, sores, and in the natural Openings of man and animals. Young calves are al- most invariably affected in the navel, and frequently ‘in the mouth, causing teeth to fall out. Young colts are affected in the same way. Barb wire injures to horses and cattle are the most common sores in which the screw worm is found. Hogs are very liable to be- come affected by castration and other wounds. History—After the egg is laid it becomes a small /Maggot, which soon buries itself in the flesh of the ‘wound. The maggot grows steadily in size, and eats more and more every day of the soft flesh around the wound or sore. The worm is full grown in about a week. They then leave the sore and fall to the ground, and in about 12 days become flies. Symptoms.—A swollen, gaping condition of the wound, and the constant discharge of blood. While the sore is unhealed new eggs are constantly being laid, and if the worms are not destroyed, they eat deeper and deeper and often kill the animal. Remedy.—Cresylic ointment, calomel, chloroform, or a little carbolic acid in water. In some cases ban- dages are useful. In others the sores can be filled with oakum and a few stitches taken. All treatment should be supplemented by daubing the margins of the wound with pine tar to ward off the fly. SPRAYING, INSECTICIDES, AND FUNGICIDES. Great advancement has been made within the last few years in the matter of spraying. The practice of spraying trees and vegetables is just now in its in- fancy. In the older section of the South, there is no doubt about it paying to spray. In fact, it has reach- ed that place where it is necessary to spray in order to produce perfect fruit and vegetables. Most people are afraid of the subject of spraying, because they think that they must learn all about insects and a great many hard names. But one should not be afraid of the subject, for it is necessary in order to make a success of growing fruit. If you have never tried spray- ing, make a thorough test of it, and see the good that will result. Spray the trees thoroughly, and be sure that all parts are sprayed. Better waste a little ma- terial and time than leave a portion of the trees un- touched. It seems hardly necessary to tell the ad- vantages derived from spraying, as every one knows that there are insects and diseases that must be kill- ed by spraying, if they are killed at all. Insects are of two classes, as regards the spray remedies. The biting insects, that may be killed by eating poisoned foliage or fruit, are most easily de- stroyed by arsenic in some form, and those that live by sucking their food must be killed from the out- side and with something that will coat them or their coverings in some such way as to smother them to death. Of the first class are canker worms, cut worms, caterpillars, codling moth, larvae and all the rest that 240 live by eating the leaves or fruit, except those which do it in such ways as so far to have baffled the inge- nuity of scientists and practical fruit growers and gardeners. Paris green has been the form of arsenic most in use, but the arsenic have been found to be cheaper and more effective. They can be made at home by mixing it with and salsoda, and almost any of the State or govern- ment bulletins on insecticides give full directions for One that is thought to be the best is preparations of white lime making them. made by putting one pound of white arsenic and two pounds of salsoda in one gallon of water and boiling it for fifteen minutes. One quart of this will poison fifty gallons of water, or Bordeaux mixture. If wa- ter alone is used, there should be two pounds of lime dissolved and put in with it to prevent the arsenic from ‘injuring the foliage. In the Bordeaux ture, which contains lime, that is not necessary. mix- Of the second class, such as the scale insects, which live by sucking the juices through tiny beaks which they insert into the tender bark, living under tents, which we call scales. They must be coated with oil or something that will keep the air from them ’till they die. The lime-sulphur-salt mixture is of this class, and, strange to say, this has been found a good fun- gicide as well. The basis of about all of the fungicides is sulphate of copper. This is the killing part of Bordeaux mix- ture. DIRECTIONS FOR PREPARING THE MOST IMPORTANT INSECTICIDES. Lime-Sulphur-Salt Wash. No: 1: Formula AE tre 2 hos a Breas ae 20 pounds Sullpliitiee: ones ene es ee 16 pounds Salt 5.5. os Ae arde ype eae 5 pounds Water acer. byacnl: to make 50 gallons Boil for about 40 minutes, or until all sulphur is in solution. More detailed directions for making and applying this wash will be found on another page. This wash is effective against nearly all scale insects. It is also a good fungicide, taking. the place of Bor- deaux mixture for spraying to prevent leaf-curl of peach; also effective as first treatment against such diseases as apple scab, brown rot, bitter rot, and fun- gus diseases that can be reached by spraying when the TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. trees are dormant; that is, before the leaves push out in spring. | Kerosene Emulsion. No, 2. | Formula for Stock Solution: Kerosene hacen eee 2 gallons Ilard soap, (soft soap, 1 qt.) 1-2 pound Wathen nie eo a tee ee 1 gallon Dissolve the soap in boiling water, then remove from the fire and add 2 gallons of kerosene and agi- || tate violently for at least ten minutes. The emulsion | is prepared best by using a small force pump, ‘having d-rect discharge, and pumping the solution back into, itself for ten When properly mixed the emulsion will last for several weeks. minutes. For* convenient reference the proper amounts of water to use in diluting the stock solution for certain strengths is given herewith: j For 5% emulsion dilute with 37 gallons of water. For 10% emulsion dilute with 17 gallons of water. , For 15% emulsion dilute with to 1-3 gallons of water, For 20% emulsion dilute with 7 gallons of water. Kerosene emulsion is used against nearly all soft bodied insects, such as plant lice, currant slugs, small cabbage worms, etc. Paris Green. ; No. 3. Paris green is used at many different strengths 1 but as a general formula we recommend the ul ing: ans. CKeen ee heey te I pound Lime Stating see sete 3 pounds Water 5. asta cay tonic: 100 to 200 gallons When Paris green is used without lime it is liabl to scorch the foliage. The same amount as above it/ used in Bordeaux mixture. Paris Green-Bordeaux Mixture. No. 4. Made by mixing Paris green in the Bordeaux afte the latter is ready for use. An excellent way to ap ply poison for potato bugs, tomato worms, etc., am A Study of Insects is Pleasamt and Profitable. for spraying fruit trees to destroy the canker worm, codling moth, and all chewing insects. Arsenate of Lead. No. 5. This may be made from the raw materials or pur- chased in prepared form under such trade names as . “Disparene” or “Swifts” Arsenate of Lead. Formu- la for making is as follows: Lead acetate (sugar of lead,) 11 ounces INesenateron SOda) ssa. ...006.- 4 ounces Water 50 gallons To prepare, dissolve each in 2 quarts of warm wa- ter. When dissolved pour them together in a barrel of water and stir. This solution gives a very light precipitate, requiring little stirring in the spray tank and has an advantage over the other arsenicals in that it will usually adhere better on the trees or fo- liage. This preparation is not liable to burn the foliage of plants and is very cheap, if prepared at home. Even the manufactured products are not very expensive. A valuable insecticide. Hellebore. No. 6. Used in dry form, 1 part to 4 or 5 of flour or fine air-slacked lime. Kills both by contact and by being taken internally. Hence may be used against chew- ing insects and sucking insects. Not nearly as active a poison as the arsenicals, but sometimes useful on plants like cabbage which are nearly ready to be eat- en. Pyrethrum. No: 7. Is used both in dry and wet form. As a spray use one pound in 3 gallons of water. Use dry the same as hellebore. This material acts only as a contact poison for soft bodied insects; especially useful against currant worms and plant lice. Tobacco. No. 8. Tobacco is often a useful insecticide. It will some- 17 241 times take the place of kerosene emulsion against plant lice and can be easily prepared and applied. Tobacco stems or leaves Water Boil for 2 hours and use without dilution except to add water to make up the full 2 gallons. Especially useful against the aerial form of woolly aphis. Tobacco is used in dry form as stated in discussion of apple woolly aphis; also used as repellent for cu- cumber beetles and other garden insects. I pound 2 gallons Whale Oil Soap. No. 9. For insects, such as plant lice and scale insects, whale oil soap may often be used to advantage. It was once considered the best remedy for San Jose scale until the Lime-Sulphur wash came into use. It is, however, valuable for other purposes. This ma- terial is purchased for about 5 cents a pound in bar- rel quantities, and sometimes less. It is best to pur- chase from some large firm rather than buy from lo- cal dealers. Good’s potash whale oil soap No. 3, sold by James Good, Philadelphia, Pa., and the Anchor Brand sold by Leggett & Brother, New York, both good soaps. For plant lice and soft bodied insects use about one pound to 5 gallons of water; for scale insects use a stronger solution, depending on the hardiness of the plant under treatment. are Potash Lye. No. Io. Is sometimes used to spray dormant trees to de- stroy insects and fungi. In late years it has been found that the Lime-Sulphur wash is better adapted for all winter treatment, and that wash is rapidly taking the place of lye. Lye may be used 1 pound to 5 gallons of water on perfectly dormant trees. It is very caustic and must be handled with care. People should not be deluded by the glaring ad- vertisements of new patent insecticide manufacturers. The old standard sprays are often much more effec- tive and cost less. FUNGICIDES. Standard Formula for Bordeaux Mixture. No. II. 5 pounds fresh, unslaked lime, 242 5 pounds bluestone (sulphate of copper), 50 gallons water. The above formula is designated by the symbol (5-5-50.) Four pounds bluestone and 5 pounds lime would be written thus: (4-6-50,) and other propor- tions in the same manner. Slake the lime carefully with just enough water to reduce it to the consistency of thick cream and dilute to 25 gallons; dissolve the bluestone in 25 gallons of water also. Then in a separate barrel mix the two solutions, first pouring in a bucket of one and then a bucket of the other, or better still, pouring them in simultaneously. After thoroughly stirring the mix- ture and allowiug it to-.stand for a few moments, it will be ready to spray. When thus prepared Bordeaux is at its best, con- sisting of a fine, floculent, pale blue precipitate sus- pended in the water. If either or both of the ingre- dients should be in concentrated solution when the mixing is done, the resulting Bordeaux is coarser grained, settles much more quickly and is less effec- tive as a spray. Bordeaux mixture is used against nearly all fungus diseases and is also frequently used as a carrier for Paris green and other arsenical poisons. It is partic- ularly useful in this form by serving a double purpose and often avoiding the necessity of spraying once for an insect and again for some disease, when both oc- cur on the same plant as is often the case. Copper Sulphate Solution. No. 12. 3 pounds 50 gallons Water This solution is sometimes used in early spring on dormant trees. It must never be used on foliage. Not generally in use. Liver of Sulphur. No. 13. Valuable for powdery mildew upon gooseberries, grapes, etc., acting as a direct remedy. Especially useful after the fruit is set. Biver (Oi Sulphtrs anaes eee I ounce Water acne. alot sone moe eennerere 3 gallons This mixture is not poisonous, hence can be used on fruit which is nearly ready to gather. TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE Ammoniacal Copper Carbonate Solution. No. 14. Copper Carbonateyerc einer 5 ounces Ammonia, Suisse ee 3 pints Water vai. 0 sistent octets 50 gallons Dissolve copper carbonate in the ammonia and di- lute when used to 50 gallons. As the ammonia is very volatile, the solution until ready to use must be kept in a tightly stoppered bottle or jug. The solu- tion is used in place of Bordeaux mixture on nearly ripe fruit, as it does not show so as to injure the sell- ing property of the fruit. Frequently used for grape anthracnose. Sometimes also for brown rot of peach- es and plums. This mixture is somewhat liable to injure foliage and must therefore be used with care. Formalin or Formaldehyde. (40 per cent.) No. 15. For Potato Scab.— Formaldehyde (40 per cent.) .. I pint IWC cc) Seeters tc, or etepsitere creer 25 gallons Seed potatoes may be treated before planting with the above strength of Formaldehyde solution, recom- mended by the Wisconsin Experiment Station.* The solution is placed in a barrel or other vessel and the potatoes tied up in loose sacks, submerged for 2 hours. They should afterward be spread out to dry. For Oat and Wheat Smut.—For smut submerge the wheat or oats, tied in sacks, in the solution for ten minutes. ‘Then remove and spread out to dry. Or the grain may be piled in heaps on a tight floor, sprinkled with the solution and shoveled over to in- sure wetting every kernel; then cover with an oil- } Dry the grain after- © cloth for two or three hours. ward. It may be found necessary to treat seed oats three or four days before they are wanted for jlant- ing, otherwise they may not be thoroughly dry and will cause trouble in the seed drill. will cause the seed to enlarge slightly, and the ger- minating period may be shortened, hence seed grain should be treated only a few days previous to plant- ing. Formaldehyde solution may be used several times so that 25 or 20 gallons will treat a number of bush- els of either potatoes or oats. This treatment » *Wisconsin Agricultural Experiment Station, Bulle- | tin 08. Corrosive Sublimate. (Mercuric Chloride.) | No. 16. I For Potato Scab— Corrosive Sublimate Water 2 ounces 15 gallons || Dissolve the corrosive sublimate in ‘hot water in an earthen or wooden vessel, and dilute to 15 gallons. \Mix thoroughly to insure a uniform solution. The E potatoes should be washed and tied in sacks and sub- \merged for 2 hours. Remove and spread out to dry. | After this the potatoes may be cut and planted as i ] iba ; || Caution.—Corrosive sublimate is a deadly poison t internally, but the solution may be handled with per- ‘fect safety. It acts as a disinfectant for the hands j}and will benefit scratches or sores. | Carbon Bi-Sulphide. | | No. 1 This is a very useful insecticide for fumigating lerain and other seeds to destroy weevils, and other insects. It is also used to fumigate houses to destroy ‘rats, cock-roaches, bedbugs, carpet-beetles and many jhousehold pests. Ants in lawns and moles are often killed by this process. Carbon bi-sulphide is a clear, colorless, volatile ‘liquid, the fumes of which are ‘highly explosive, and very disagreeable to smell. The fumes are deadly poison to all animal life if taken in sufficient quan- tity. People are safe while using it, as the smell is “so repulsive that there is no danger of getting too _\great a dose unawares. The fumes of carbon bi-sulphide are much heavier than air, so that fumigation with it is rendered easy. Grain may be treated in boxes or bins having tight sides: and bottom by simply placing the liquid in eee pans on top of the grain and covering all pypvith a blanket or boards to prevent a circulation of | air. Use from three-fourths to one and a half pounds | of carbon bi-sulphide to each 1,000 cubic feet of space, or in round numbers, one pound to 100 bushels of ‘grain or other seed. Let the bin remain covered for | | \, Protect Your Stored Grain from Insects. 24 5 =) at least 24 hours. Grain or seed treated in this man- ner is not impaired for planting purposes, its germin- ating power not being affected. For corn, oats, beans, peas and the like which will not be used for seed it will often pay to use 2 pounds of carbon bi- sulphide to each roo bushels. To destroy underground forms of insects use two to three ounces of carbon bi-sulphide per square yard, placed in little holes in the earth made with a sharp- ened stick, and closed by pressing with the heel after pouring in the liquid. This liquid must be used with care around growing plants, but may be used in small quantities on lawns to destroy ants and moles. When fumigating houses remove all chance of fire and use about three to four pounds of carbon bi-sul- phide per 1000 cubic feet. Allow the house main closed for 36 hours. to re- Caution—Never expose carbon bi-sulphide in a room with a lighted lamp or any form of fire. Re- member that the fumes are highly explosive. For convenient reference in connection with the fol- lowing SPx.AY CALENDAR the list of insecticides and Fungicides are given below. The numbers are the same as the numbers appearing before the vari- ous formulas in the preceding pages. INEM oo ooo c ale Lime-Sulphur-Salt wash. INOS 25y-t.. Ama isree ae Kerosene Emulsion. INNO Biiripee s spaces ey eeabee oe Atay Paris Green. No. 4.. Paris green Bordeaux mixture. , INTO GS Ach sver-necatachsrs eke Arsenate of Lead. INC HIS) co tcrcone a Dea ct aioe GeoeieAS ed Hellebore. IN OSA Z atic crs sche hens Wiehe eae eae Pyrethrum. No. 8. Tobacco, (dry and as decoction) INO NEO aes anita mtcn ati. Whale Oil Soap. INO O Msg chee cre ery syaiaeiers Potash Lye. INOS TIDE promerecis comes Bordeaux Mixture. INICH TAS olga Copper Sulphate Solution. IN Oo THs vernal orden aetecet Liver of Sulphur. IN Oo MIA eer Amm, Cop. Carbonate Sol. No. 15 Formalin or Formaldehyde. INOS DOE ee Sioa Corrosive Sublimate. INO MI 7 arses ++ereee Carbon - bi-sulphide, Soy ee SS pine woe DISEASE OR WHEN TO SPRAY OR OTHER TREATMENT FIRST SECOND THIRD Remove borers in Oct. or ICE wee He Wo ai lol Ooo Look again for borers in spring. . Just as buds open if lice ADPCM ore vemisb em et sone: When leaf buds are open- eye toe Odie okra! dec 5 days later, repeat. tepeat one week later. When worms first ap- Lb 5 ok fo Gos o 10 days later if worms VOMAIN ec eiie ol ce. ide Just after petals fall off. No. 3 or 5 when worms ENE a pO DO Repeat before calyx GlOSESi ne ce ) days later. During Nov. or Dee. No. 2 in spring for aphis ONY TOOK! 0s Peis os NAME OV WITH WHAT TO PLANT INSECT SPRAY Apple... Borers . . .....| Cannot be reached by spraying. He edo IN POY os Wiad 0 Aphis (on leayes) ov} Tobacco decoction or WES ao a IMO P4 <6 ou Oho 6 No. 4, using 6 ozs. Ap DIOR inne a, Bud Worm. . Paris Green in 50 Gal. Bordeaux No. 4, using 6 ozs. Par- Apples. |. Canker Worms . is Green in 50 Gal. Bordeaux .... No. 4, Using 6 ozs. Par- Apple ... . |Codling Moth (Ap- is Green in 50 Gals. ple Worm) BOrdeaux tae) see Apple és - | Rall Web Worm Arsenicals. . . Tent Caterpillar Apple 68 San Jose Scale Lime-Sulphur Wash. ] Apple . . - | Woolly Aphis. . No. 2 or Tobacco Wash. Apple . . | Bitter Rot Sordeaux Mixture. . Apple .. Crown Gall . . Leaf Blight Never plant nursery trees affected by this disease: 1... sjordeaux Mixture. No. 21 (4-5-50) 5 or 6 weeks after blooming. When leaves are fully ex- panded. Repeat during Teb, tepeat in June if necessary .... Spray when’ neces- * sary Repeat 12 days tel. Insecticides or fungicides in preceding pages, bols (5-6-50) or (6-6-50) see directions for making Bordeaux mixture (No. 11.) bor explanation ot sym- REMARKS AND SSS SS CAUTIONS FOURTH Hunt for borers in trunk pear ground, Remove with knife... 5 = 2). Tobacco decoction recom. mended, but kerosene emulsion. at 15 or 20 per cent. may be used. ——— | ees Iremale moths may be pre- vented from crawling up trees to lay eggs by wrapping trunks with loose cotton. Important to spray just Six weeks after after petals fall, before fruit is set fruits turns down, No, for second 5 may be used in place brood of Paris green, using 3 pounds in fifty gallons 8-10 days later. Spaying will not be necessary if all nests are removed and worms destroyed... ....... Thorough spraying neces- a of ben oo 6 fo 0-0 Aphis on limbs best controlled by us- ing tobacco eoction . . de- Use 10 per cent. kerosene emulsion for root aphis. Apply vy first removing Wao. Sols 6 on boo 6 oO 2 weeks later repeat. 2 weeks later Spray even oftener during warm, rainy seasons. 2 weeks later 12 days later. 10-12 days later. 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Oe 6 eddy pue saavel) quog +s ++ + (gmaqs puv soavel uo) ysny] + * + * addy DLOUsNt NV Id U0 USVASTA panunvoJ—yVANAIVO AVUdS — TO GNVN SPRAY CALENDAR.— Continucd NAME OF PLANT Cantaloupe and Watermeion DISEASE OR INSECT WITH WHAT 'rO SPRAY Melon wouse Contact Poisons or No. Ao G1 B Glo. 086 Cantaloupe and Watermelon Cantaloupe and Watermelon Striped Beetles, lea Beetles, ete. Squash Bug . Arsenicals and Repell- Bhigdelan ae ay aed, Geet. o Cantaloupe and Watermelon Blight, Mildew . Tand-picking and re- INVERNESS Bat Geo gic O | Bordeaux Mixture. . . Carnation . . Leaf Spot, TRU Stir Bordeaux Mixture... Celery .... Leaf Spot, Blight Bordeaux Mixture. . . Chrysanthe- jehlyenl 6 co 0 Leaf Spot . ad Rordeaux Mixture. . WHEN TO SPRAY OR OTHER TREATMENT rirst SECOND No. 2, 8 or 9 when lice ADPEATS» «aus aert cloacae 4-5 days later... Repeat as necessary FOURTH Lime dust, or No. 4 on young. plants.) “..5_- Repeat in few days. necessary No. 4 as repellant on young) plants: 5 =. 2 Spray with No. Repeat as necessary. when young appear, No. 11 (8-6-50) on young ye GIG BL Gone deseuss }10-12 days later. . 10-12 days later. . 10-12 days later No. 11 (8-6-50) on young DIATIES aterm. ni ener uke eri Repeat at first sign of |10-12 days later. . disease... . 10 days later . if necessary On young cuttings. . . No. 11 (8-6-50) on young Ee Guo out pederiericc Repeat when plants are set in field 10 days after first. Repeat 10 days JQCCHTepencat 10-12 days later. . 10-12 days later. . Repeat if neccs- EQ ded oo Cranberry . Fruit Worm Arsenicals or No. 2. . Cucumber and Squash Cherry Squash-Vine Aphis (Mice). See insects and diseases of Cantaloupes and Watermelons.... When worms first appear. 10-12 days later. Repeat if necessary. temove borers from stalks and burn all old vines as soon as crop is pls 5G ooo0.0 0 © Contaet Poisons. . . No. 2, 8 or 9 at first ap- PEATANCC ec autos G days later... Repeat if necessary. Cherrye. : Cherry . - Cureulio . Jarring and Arsenicals o. 3, 4 or 5, when leaves GEE Oplialg ao Golo 6 | Just after fruit is TEDCLL tamer’ Repeat 10 days Brown Rot Bordeaux Mixture. . . }No. 11. (5-6-50) before budsimonens see en awa (3-9-50) when |Repeat in 10-12 10-12 dovs lat | if necessary REMARKS AND CAUTIONS No. 17 is used in tight boxes placed over young plants. One spoonful to cubie foot. Sprays must be directed to un- der side of leaves. .. Land plaster, Tobacco dust ete, are used as repell- NEWS ERE es olnla ab oo Land plaster, Tobacco dust, ete, are used as repel- JENS a oo Gebsc 0 0 Pull out and burn dying planis. Rotate..... Do not spray when plants are nearly grown. ... Use healthy plants for cut- LAbSTEESES Gist, dreds Be ORpow Watch trees as buds open. Destroy lice before leaves become curled. . See d’scusston of jarring method under peach in- EGC ds ako thensdsosn O A fifth and sixth spraying sometimes necessary, All mummied — fruit should be removed dur. ing winter. 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BARES +++) + -guostod poos St Wol}D0d0p oODIVqOT, “Aavssoaveu Jr yeedey)* * * ‘rae, skep OTlssnis uoqa g 10 ‘Z -“ON| }ORIUOD puv S[uoUesIy |* * ° SeABaTT UO SnIS ‘qo ul uyese Avadg|* + ‘oaq Jo “AON Buland|* YSeA AYd[nNg-euyy | * * s[BVogZ ssof uy TL Ovl CRITI GNOOUS LSUlel SNOILLOVO AVUdS QLOUSNI GNV SMUVNGAU LNUNLVOUL UHLO uO AVUdS OL NOEAV OL LVH.M ALLA uo ASVASIG 00}}0) 10}}09 10330) * 003309 10}}09 frecee) nemo AN 10.11 (0) * SITY OD INV1Id TO GNVN POD oS ieee iyiChNneal yn AVUdS : NAME OF eee erAUN Currant and Gooseberry Currant and Gooseberry =e Oe Egg Plant. SPRAY CAILENDAR—Continued DISEASE OR INSECT Worm or Slug . Weaf Spot... .. . : WITH WHAT 'LO WHEN SPRAY FIRST SECOND iLme, Pyrethrum or Dust leaves when worms]Repeat in few days. . moe ChE o oxo ob ENDER Bs 6 66 5 tordeaux Mixture. . . |No.- 11 (3-6-50) as leaves}10-12 days later. é, Oppel G o Maha dd Arsenicals alone or When insects first appear|10-12 days later. Potato Beetle, Flea Bectle ... NOBUS Gp re eno aed Egg Plant . Gates SpOte wa) sak Lordeaux Mixture. No. 11 (3-6-50) when the|10-14 days later. . plants are young. igi ; Mealy Bug .. ...| Contact poison... ...|No. 2 or 8 when insects) Rep¢ in 8 days. . are first seen. ... Repeat when beetles Grape Grape Flea Beetle Arsenical or repellant .|No, 3 or 4 as buds open. ADDER so) a) ones Arsenical or Contact Grape . Grape Slug. . Poison . . Spray when slugs appear|Repeat in 5-6 days. No. 11 (6-6-50) just be|Repeat before blossoms Grape Anthracnose . . Zordeaux Mixture. . fore buds open. . appear... Grape Downy Mildew Bordeaux or No, 13. Just before blossoms ap|When fruit is set. pear. (4-6-50)...... Grape Rots .. ......| Bordeaux Mixture. . . |Same as for mildew When fruit is set. med bran mash made mixing one pound Grass Insects | Grasshoppers. . . . Poisoned Bran Mash, senie in 40 pounds un with one quart Grass Insects ITot-house Plants Army WOrms?.. +. . AK, Pe oat molasses and wa r AT Seni Call Sie sm camer Spray strip ¢ mixture (1 ng I grass in with eel 100 Tobacco dust or decoc- GOT yey eee ay onic re gals. of wate in path of worms. (Tobacco smoke is very effective against most plant lice. To fumigate houses must be air tight). TO SPRAY OR OTHER TREATMENT THIRD 10-12 days later... . Repeat if necessary. 10-14 days later. . Repeat when neces- cEha/os qeon Gene 10-12 days later. . No. 11. (4-6-50) when fruit is set 10 days later. FOURTH Repeat if nec. essary .. Same 2 weeks WERK Sea g 10 days after third w=: REMARKS AND CAUTIONS Look for worm sides of leaves. ... Poison may be applied in Gry, TOL wen eeirerceelin Do not spray mature fruit. Spray with great force to wash off insects. . .. Larvae on leayes may be killed with lime dust or he weldiby 2G oS ea These insects arrange themselves in groups. Easily destroyed. Use No. 14 in place of Bor- deaux as fruit nears PENNE Aad oo 6 Continue every 10-14 days until fruit is nearly grown. 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Peart. i Plum . Plum . DISHASH OR INSECT Peach Twig Borer San Jose Scale, West Indian Scale, Peach. Lecanium Brown Rot and Mi dew. - 6 . Leaf Curlis. . 3ud Worm. . WITH WHAT TO. SPRAY Lime-Sulphur Wash, . WHEN TO SPRAY FIRST SECOND During swintery a) oe cs en «: Not usually necessary. Lime-Sulphur Wash, . During Nov. or Dec. .. Repeat in Feb. on bad- ly infested trees. . Bordeaux Mixture. . . Bordeaux or Lime-Sul- peyote AyeWtly GG 4 No. 11 (5-6-50) before buds open in spring. . No. 11 (8-9-50) when fruit is well set . Spray one month before Arsenical in Bordeaux. Codling Moth Slug. . San Jose Scale. . Leaf Blight .. Arsenicals: 3) 0.2. a buds open. . .. (Same as for apple bud NVODIN') cre Mie cst icersite ehcp cane Touch up unsprayed spots at once, Same as apple. . .. ATSCNICAIS ye) siiell(e) cs Same as cherry... Lime-Sulphur Wash, . During Nov. or Dec... . Spray again in Feb. . Bordeaux Mixture. . No. 11 leaves (4-6-50) when are full-grown. —— Repeat 2-3 weeks later Cut out twigs during sum- mer, and prune Twig or Wire Blight | Remove affected lim thoroughly during win. ter. Disinfect ali pruning implements Remove affected limbs,|Same as apple seab. . Pear Scab . —— Plum Pockets Bordeaux Mixture. Shot Hole Fungus Bordeaux Mixture. . (Aphis eurculio, scale, borers, brown rot, ete. same as ones affecting peach. See under Peach) vermiet reese Before buds open , No, 11 (3-6-50) when|No. 11 (3-9-50) two leaves are nearly weeks later... . BUG WER iret eect, oaalce If insects remain. OR OTHER TREATMENT THIRD No. 2 at 20 per eent. for summer Spraying. ete ens| 10-12 days later re- peat second... Same 2 weeks later. FPOURTH Repeat third in 12 days . REMARKS AND CAUTIONS Winter young winter spray.ng catches borers in their WESSEL Heder d ————— Make use of summer treat. ment only as last resort. Continue same spraying ev- ery 12-14 days unt:! two weeks before vipen- ANS Sosa Gaeta cee ce One thorough spraying will answer. See apple bud worm. .. . Beeriapplen cuscmieene See cherry SUS wsxct ete tees See under peach insects. . Young pear stock may be sprayed 5-6 times ey- ery two weeks. ... a(S Se@uapplema wn cha se ak Disease similar leaf curl. to peach 250 TS3 ‘aostod st pasn aq ABU pa, Jo aj}euasay “19}Bl SAVP OT-8 -u109 * "1028. SABP OT-8 Sooudll YIMOIS Tae woos (0G-9-8) TE “ON ‘SQDUOMMIOD GMOS atoyoq, (0G-9-G) TE ‘ON ‘revel SAUD G-F Feodoy|* * “SJ ‘ON 10 ‘QUIT Ysera ‘SOUR. Pajsey -Ul JSIOM Ung pu }NO ynO * ‘Ysna o[dde vag ‘saved depun aay ‘Aiayo Japun osye avg ‘Sjunid pajyoajye osn Jason ‘sexo, ul A[Soy s$01819 U9 IS BOT 0S Al ano00 JOU SaOp [[AVIA, sienisatenregs “plaly IY} UT peIV}S [TPM oie soq} [jun sjuvjd yoojorg C610 Ow os0 “qvos roy OT puvt GT ‘oN Jo asn aog arq -BN[VA JSOWL ST JI paulq “W0) ST UOSsIod uaYyA pur Juvjedar. se sjov xnvopaog JUaOIJJO JSOU ST F “ON SUIRI Jove 1ajje pol[dde oq isn jsnp uosfod As1q SNOILAV) GNV SMUVWaAY ‘yUBIUIOP a1B SaySnq uoy,\\ OANIXIPYL xXNvaprog * “suosiog joBjyuOD “USB AN aqnydyng-swyy asouovayyuy eee emeevermel STG awog esor uRBg * * SagaqMad “ALIaqyoB[g ‘Sareqds By * ALIIqQMoT “ALaqyo Bl ‘K1Laqds ey °* ALLaqMoaT “ALLIQWO VL DD OO OSGYEDIN Geet ‘Sa1eqds vy Ia }Vl “"UMOIS F-T 81B SaABOT SyooeM Z% }voday) “Suruoo(q Ae}yB owVg jueqsA IL ON] * ‘OIN}XITY Xnvepiog tr SOO “ysny aout “Ivod 10} Sv oweg ‘saved oJ sv omsy “OINJXIFY XUvepIOg | * * * VysItd jvoy aoulnt) 180 “avodde ear ‘S| Boluas gsSn[s woyA G 10 ¢ ‘Z ‘ON] -LV 10 SUOSIOg JORJUOD |** * * : Suis aun ‘yno jos ore sjur[d Disa a Tae OG wi} “1oyB, SALP ZT-OL] JO USIS Jsaty Ye JeRadayy|aeTA (0G-9-F) IL ‘ON|* ° ‘OUNJXITY XNvepsog'| prow. FRaT odg yeaT; CeaMg) oRIOT DED DON Tae Yob seb ysh ci sop sioqn} AUI[Bey Paleg * caprydyns-1q ‘Sdaqn} pasvesip ploay * saeqny pa “ * JOY Vl [TAe8 AA 10 Ja1og? 1003] Goqivo YIM aes AO] -jseyuy AOIJSep 10 paagy Surjuyld aroyaq ysnt Aressao0u Surjuryld ¢ ‘ON F (ON ‘poq poss Ul a1B : ‘S[BOlUaSIY ‘Oq0 J} Jvodey} azaqze skep OT Leadg ut sjue(@ diq|sjuvjd ally F "ON asp “* + +s9078}0d poss yevog] * * * Og On Ge CONTA EE ABsse00U Jt yvadoy]: “19}B, SAVP FT-OT * + sfep Ue} UT ouIBS Jeadayy ‘YsIy saqour ¢ 07 F ore SURI WOT AL ‘sapjoog Ra ‘Ssngq Uep[or) OINIXIPL =xXNvepsog, “arvssod0u J] UIvUIdT S}DOSUT JT ‘yeodet 1ajyv] SAvp 98-e ‘fF ‘ON dO Jaysvyq ‘aw] asn avadde saljaeq Wey AA pasn st prnb Il J] toyet skep OT-8 “rvad -de Sunos& 10 sajjeaq way At TLWAO OUTIL CNGNLVEUGE UaiLO wo GANOO"US LSU AVUdS OL NOWAM ‘[RoTues.y “++ gos IO jJURledey 1oq Aq 10 xneapiog ul [BoTuascy AVUdS OG LVHM ALI penunwo)— Wy Nay On AY ads : “+ quog oV10Od JUST “+ sapjoog tard sojoog = OISIT ET djeeq + opea0jop LOUSNI uO ASVASIA (aeMg) 07807 Qaaag) 0} 810g (JaaMg) 078107 (qsitq) 0}8}0d (UsItT) 078}0g CUshIy) 078}0q (qSHMI) 078}0d NV Id 10 GANVN NAME OF PLANT Raspberry, ~ Blackberry. Dewberry . . IRGSGieiccm pips pes DISEASE OR INSECT WITH WHAT TO SPRAY Orange Rust . . Cut out d’seased canes.. . WHEN ‘TO SPRAY OR OTHER TREATMENT LPiIRST SECOND PHT Ss Rose Beetle or Rose (CCMEHEE Gh a Ifand picking and senicals . Commence by hand picking KAO. (HAY) Oho H 4.5 days San Jose Scale Rose Scale . . Lime-Sulphur Wash, . UTE SWATLEGC Aver telm tsi-t0) tated alana Leaf Spot . .. Bordeaux Mixture. No. 12 3-6-50) when leaves appear. ...=. Repeat in 10-14 Caterpillars . . Arsenicals. No. 3 or 5 at first sign of (ohpmieiy oo | A ole aos Repeat days. spraying in 10 Leaf Roller, slug, ete. Arsenical in Bordeaux. No. 4, when inseets ap- pear, or earlier as pre- ventive measure. . . . Same 6-8 days Same four days late1 if necessary . . in FOURTH Repeat as necessary. Repeat as necessary. Repeat as necessary. Tarnished Plant B Ui areeray aes telnet IXerosene Emulsion. No. 2, at 15 per cent. on young; plants: .-. = = Same before fruit is ripening... Use No. 7, when fruit is ripening . Repeat third if necessary . . Leaf Blight or Rust Mildew... =. IBOVELM es (elie) Bud-worm.. . Cut Worms . Horn Worm . Bordeaux Mixture. Liver of Sulphur. Nos ala (2-6-50) when growth commences. Repeat in 10 14 days. Use No. 14 when fruit is ripening Repeat third if necessary REMARKS AND CAUTIONS Spraying for anthracnose MAY, PIGVENT. cee cue ——- Very hard to combat. .. Often advisable to use both arsenical and con. LLCLa OLS OU Sumerian tae Destroy badly infested SYMONE oS 5 6 fu oho foo No, 7 should be used in LOLIMNOL SPLGYee=e ete se When growth begins. 6-8 days later if mil- dew Burn tops and stubble Poisoned Bran Poisoned Bran (Burning is the only prac- ticable remedy known). Sprinkled in opening buds Repeat in 5-6 days .|Repeat as Repeat as necessary. necessary. When Bordeaux is used. mildew is not likely to (HoH Gof Go -o-0 eo ded See directions for making poisoned bran under grass—grass-hoppers. . . Spread on land before plantings Gao. a. )s), a Place spoonful at base of plants |Repeat in 2-3 days. See directions for making poisoned bran under grass—grass-hoppers. . . Hand Picking-and Ar- senicals . No. 8 or 5 when worms ap- pear, and hand __ pick each morning. . .... Repeat poison in 6-8 days Same when second brood appears . . Hand-pick the large worms. Turkeys may be trained to devour many worms, * ‘squid pue pesvosip [[v wing SOARI] “AUBSSQ00U [[R 91V UOTIVA “Jno poos pure punois aAoqe [Ja dn seyouRaq Suis} YA = -paurq -mo0o §=6surdeids juejsuog e * ‘"ssao0ns qiIM pasn aq ABU G ‘ON ‘oyejod vag “* *-sqjuejd oq} pouLtoy are sqoM IaAo atoy -9q «= ‘Juesa.i1d Jsaly ue peuostod aq 4SNU SULIOA, SNOLLOVO GONV SMUVNGAY Aivsseoeu se jvadayy “loyey] SABP g-G ‘aaquy SAup SLOT “19}e,| SAVP ZIL-OT 19} 8] sep g-¢ Rede Si1vodde ISAJ JAY UsyM ourg ‘surjue[d a10jaq poos yRog pees jo Jue -JRal} LOT GT ‘ON vag “AL YSNOLOY} 9} VAT} -[lt) puke ‘deg puv ‘sny sujinp puel s(qqnj}s Mold “By pue seu “TNS SuULNp PVA a0} Suyjuelg e4vy Aq Uelssey “£INSSaIIU Sv YRodoyy -unjoA [[B AOA}Sep OSTW ‘Burjuvld a10jaq 4soay Savoy Joyye [un Fre Ay) *(Sjoosul Surjeuseqiq Aosep 0} TOJUIM 10 [[BJ UT Svore ‘ul0O) depun v0 sng youryp pojseyur [[e@ TAO uane) * ‘oooBgOT, Jepun vag ‘Weg uobIOg7 |* °° °° * SuloMyn) jos jSi1J o1B gueyd ‘OINJXIP. Xnvaepsog | jJodg ao ysny JvaT wags §(0G-9-§) TE ‘ON “‘joS JSaly ore sjuryd ‘AINJXIFY XnNvopsog |* * © JOL pus WOSSO[E way — (YG-9-E TE: ON Sea RC RONCIEECY (Eric “Uy suldoO1jsop Jo Ayr “[TQRAISeD Vue ‘S}o8SUI &q pvards oq Levu Yor Unies A pasnvod a[quo.L ‘dA(}OaIJO JOU ote SABICY) “10}B[ SAUpP 8-9 Y ia Aerdg asIB[ JJO od ¥ SULIOM HLM ANOv 1938] SABP OT-S CUT * 19} RB, SABP 9-G ++ + -oyR}0d a0J sv omeg apodde SULMIOM UdTPM ¢.10 g ‘ON GQNOOUS LSet CNAINLIVAYL UAHLO WO AVUdS OL NANA * speorues “Iv puke Suryord puryy * WPA 10 SIT + UMOM FT * UWIOA, OF BUT, UOT FBOTM BOTAN sa[qujasaA JOLOTA. OO UTLECON o]BMO, oO] BWOL, DPC T I ONOa Sa gKZG) -104] UI S[BOlUeSsTy * ‘O]0 ‘soljeed BITLT ‘eTJeVE 0FVIO ‘s]BoTMESAy AVUdS OL EVITA ALTA penunuo)—YUVANATVO AVUads UMOM-GaA, esBqqey) LOMSNI uO OSVasId Oo eBUOT, * + soysIpBy pue sdjuing, INV Id JO GNVYN APPEARANCE OF IRRIGATION CA NAL WHEN FIRST COMPLETED. (From U. §. Dept. Agr. Office Expt. Stas. Bul. 105) BOOK vl IRRIGATION AND: DRAINAGE. EDITED BY TAMES CLYDE ADAMS, S. B. MESENA, GEORGIA. Irrigation and drainage are 110re important in the South than most people suppose. The watering of land is irrigation, and the taking away or withdraw- al of the water that is not evaporated is drainage. You will readily observe that the two are directly op- posite. On acount of the importance of these two subjects we will treat them separately. IRRIGATION. A great many farmers are of the opinion that it is not important in the South to irrigate the land. They say that the annual rainfall is so much greater than in the western arid regions, and that while it is necessa- ry to water land there, that it is not necessary to water it here, where the rainfall is so bountiful. If we eould control the water that falls in the South, and have it just at times when we needed it most, there would be no necessity for irrigation. But the water does not come at the time that the crops need Drouth ruins many crops, and has caused farmers to lose thousands thou- It is not contended that irrigation will always pay, for such is not the case. There are some soils, when certain crops are planted on it, that do not need irrigation. Some crops do not require as much water as some other crops. And there are some lands that hold the moisture better than other and therefore do not require so much water as other lands. You can readily see that when you think of irrigation that you think of a great subject. There is an effort on the part of some writers on this It is a subject that will require thought and attention. It will require In agriculture there are no cheap methods or crops. If irrigation required no study, and no expenditure of money, it would be worthless to the farmer. But it requires a good expenditure of both money and brain. [ft will be money and brains well spent, on the subject of irrigation. it most. the Southern and sands of dollars. lands, subject to minimize this subject. study to understand it. Irrigation TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE we Said is watering land, so let us see the impor; tance oi water to the production of crops. | There are some cases on record where crops seer) to flourish and produce fair yields with very small amounts of water, vet these are exceptions, and no| the rule, and few of us would be willing to risk a ero | on a small amount of water, were we able to obtai more water. In the soil are a great many germ which re-act upon dead organic matter in the soi converting this dead organic matter into ammoni: and then converting this ammonia into nitrous H ' | ‘ " rs and then germs transform this nitrous acid into nitri acid, which is the real nitrogen supply of nearly aj the higher plants. These germs must have the righ amount of moisture. If the water supply is cut shor these germs do not do their work, and the plant su! fers. And then there are other germs, whose bus| ness it is to take the nitrogen from the air, an}) transform it into forms that can be used by “ plants. These germs must have water, or they wij not do their work. There is another very importat part played by water, and that is the development a root hairs. These root hairs supply the water to tl) plant, and unless they are developed, the plant su} fers. Give the plant plenty of water, and root hai) will be developed, and the plant can receive a plent of water. A very important work of water is ‘| change the solid minerals that are used as plant foc from a solid insoluble form to a soluble form, so th the plant can absorb them. This work is quite it] portant, for unless the minerals become soluble, thi are absolutely worthless as a fertilizer. Few peop. realize the amount of water that is used by plant) The amount that is required to mature crops of d ferent kinds under various field conditions varies } This amount is dependent up the seasons, whether humid or dry; whether the ter| perature is high or low; whether the wind velociti ate strong or light; also upon the amount of sunshir| There are many other matters that affect the amou of water used by plants. Among these is the tre: ment of the soil itself. tween wide limits. The annual rainfall for the Southern States accord- ie to the United States Weather Bureau is as fol- ows: PAVIA deere ic es 5 aes = Bate elias 49.59 inches. /ATIRGINEAS Sion oomogda cue 4y.20 inches. Ie OFAC 25 es On er ee Aree ae 58.38 inches. Grane Gee ar re 51.45 inches. MBC WUSTATIA oc csi iene sos sens 54-18 inches. MNSSTSSUD Pil com o oy ap) (x) ie ae = Con Be GEORGIA. MESENA, W. S. HART’S APIARY, HAWKS PARK, FLA. Every Well Equipped Farm Should Have Bees. 283 BEE DEPARTMENT. “The bees are humming, humming, ' And the honey crop is coming— In the fall. | If you are in a position to give a portion of your ‘ime and attention to bee keeping, there is no reason why you should not make money out of the business. Df course it is not all profit, and you need not expect It is not claimed fiat the business will pay from the start, for you now that it is an exception for any business to pay jjom the very start. There is one thing that it re- juires to succeed in the bee culture, and that is de- rmination. You cannot hope to be successful with- ery fair profit in the business. | | t determination. Make up your mind that you will ceed despite difficulties. At present not as many \/Mers are engaged in bee culture as there should i Every farmer should have a few hives of bees, |; they will prove a present help in the time of trou- Ve Most every one can look after bees if they have hie. will-power and patience. The bee is very d in disposition, and rarely becomes angry. So | get rich without labor and trouble, but there is a_ Apiary of J. F. McIntyre, near Ventura, if you are on the farm, or live in a village, you should keep a few hives of bees. One reason why bee cul- ture is so little engaged in, is on account of ignor- ance. Most of us are densely ignorant concerning bees, although we have seen them most of our lives. Some people speak of bees gathering honey. Bees do not gather honey. This only shows the ignorance of people. Bees no more gather honey, than dairy- men milk butter. What the bee does is to gather the nectar from the flower, and then converts this nectar into honey. Just how this is done is not known. The honey is very thin and is deposited into cells, and it is then evaporated by a process of the bees’ wings to nearly one-half of what the original amount was. It Cal.—Looking Westward. is one of the sweetest articles produced without the agency of man, and it therefore price. commands a good “All honey, when gathered by the bees, is placed in little wax cells of a hexagonal form, and, after be- ing filled up by the bees, the comb is capped over by them in the same fashion as the housewife seals the preserves which she puts up in the summertime. 284 “So infinitesimally small and delicate has been this wax film placed over as a sealing to these delicate cells, and the walls of these being also exceedingly delicate, it has been absolutely impossible for man to ‘ duplicate the product. So much interest has been created in the past that there are now two rewards, one from Ohio and another from Wisconsis, of $1,000 each, for any one who will invent a machine, or oth- erwise manufacture a full comb of honey which is a duplicate of the product made by the bees. While this offer has been widely spread throughout the country, as yet there has never been a suggestion by any one of even attempting to claim to imitate the original. “The public, when they buy these pieces of comb in the center of these jars, want to be exceedingly care- Comb building in the open air, ful that the capping of these cells is sti!l on the comb, and if so, they can feel entirely at rest in knowing they are getting the pure article. One thing we can feel sure of—that all honey sold on the market in lit- tle section boxes, or in any way in the comb, capped over is the genuine production of the honeybee.” MONEY IN KEEPING BEES. “Whether there is a profit in keeping bees depends upon two factors—it must be made a business, not a side issue, and the keeper must know his business. A TILLING THE SOIL FORPROFIT AND PLEASURE. writer says that five colonies should yield 250 pounds of fancy comb honey each year. The annual cost will be about $2 for honey boxes and comb foundation. Such honey should sell for 22 cents per pound. Half of the yield may be first quality—sections snow white, well capped and filled. The No.1 quality, 125 pounds at 22 cents, nets you $27.50. The No. 2 qual- ity, 125 pounds at 16 cents, nets you $20. Here at an annual outlay of $2 five colonies of bees return $47.50. Do not try to realize these prices from the stores, but sell to those who buy your butter and eggs—sell to the best families and do not be afraid to ask a good price. I will try to give you an esti- mate of the cost of a modest venture. “If you have never handled bees or have kept them in old boxes, a first-class work on bee-keeping should head the list of purchases and be carefully studied. Hives are generally crated in lots of five. Examine all the catalogues you can find and secure the best hive made. If your winters are severe extra protec- tion is needed, such as cellar storing or, better, a close end frame. Having decided on the hive, order five. You will need a smoker. The following articles will equip you for a start in a moderate way and at the same time you will acquire the much-needed experience: Five 1 1-2-story hives, $9.75; five extra supers, $3.- 75; one bee book, $1.25; one smoker, large size, $1.- 25; one spool tinned wire, to cents; one foundation fastener packer, 25 cents; five pounds extra thin brood foundations, $3; two pounds extra thin comb founda- tions, $1.25; 500 No. 1 honey boxes, $2.50. $22.55. “In ordering insist on brood frames being pierced for wiring. ‘Tall sections sell better than square ones and the bees work in them quicker. A section, 4Xx5x I 3-8 is now acknowledged to be the best. A bee veil may be made at home. “During the winter hives, frames, etc., may be as- sembled, the hives painted and all in readiness for the summer campaign. Do not buy hives of some local dealer, no matter how well recommended, until you © have investigated them, as he may be anxious to se » If you do not ; own any bees, buy or swap something for two or three swarms in any old tub or box. Buy your stock early in the spring and place them on a stand : al foot from the ground in some shady spot facing the - cure fixtures of more modern make. east. These must stand where your new hives will Total, Study Carefully Every Movement of the Bees. 285 be placed later in the season. Just as the early flow- -s begin to bloom your first lesson in bee culture is due.” BEGINNING WITH BEES. Before beginning with bees you will find it to your advantage to visit some one who keeps bees and learn allfrom them that you can. If possible, I would ad- vise that you visit some one who is up-to-date, and very small scale. Remember that you are ignorant concerning bees, and that you must learn largely from experience. You should also remember that experi- ence is quite a dear teacher, and if you have a great many hives you will have to pay dearer for your experience than you would otherwise have to do. A few stands will be enough for you to commence with. They should cost anywhere from $2.00 to $6.00 per le is advisable to get them in your own com- In starting with bees it is well stand. munity if possible. Extracting-house of J. M. Jenkins, Wetumpka, Ala. not be satisfied with a visit to some one who does not know their business. If you expect to go into bee culture asa business, you can afford to go some dis- tance in order to find that man who knows bee keep- ing. This is a small matter, but it is quite important. You can get more information from a talk with an ] - up-to-date beekeeper than you can from a great deal of reading. In starting in the business you want to start on a enough to get them in the hives that they are to re- main in during the year, for unless you have had ex- perience, it will prove quite troublesome to transfer them from one hive to another. Also get strong hives, for your experience will not be so bright if you have to feed them the first spring. After you have secured a start do not invest any more in the busi- ness until they have yielded a return. After you have started in the business the bees should pay their way 286 the rest of the time. If they will not do this, of course, excepting some extraordinary accident or ca- tastrophe, you do not care to bother with them. HIVES. The questions of hives is one of importance to the man who has bees on his place. Unless you are so situated that freight rates are high, and unless you are a good mechanic, it will pay you to buy your bee hives, and not try to make them. There are com- panies that make aspecialty of making bee hives and they can make them much better than you can. then when you consider the whole thing, hives that are made in factories by machinery made for the bus- iness, operated by skilled workmen are cheaper in aw FT View of J, M. Jenkins’ Yards, Wetumpka, Ala. Of course there is some advantage in making are many rainy days when you will not be able to work on the outside, and you can without any practical But no matter how the long run than home-made hives. hives, for there outlay of money make the hives. well made the hives are, or how perfect they are in every respect, hives in themselves cannot make honey. P. H. Elwood, of Starksville, N. Y., who has over 1000 hives of bees said in Gleanings in Bee Culture in 1891: “A good hive must fill two requirements rea- sonably well to be worthy of that name. 1. It must be a good home for the bees. 2. It must in addi- tion be so constructed as to be convenient to perform And -TILLING THE SOIL FORPROFIT AND PLEASURE. the various operations required by modern bee-keep- ‘ing. The first of these requirements is filled very well by a good box or straw hive. Bees will store as much honey in these hives as in any, and in the | North they will winter and spring as well in a straw | hive as in any other. They do not; ‘however, fill the second requirement; and to meet this, the movable-— frame hive was invented.” The Langworth hive, | which is the standard in the United States, has ‘ | | ) frame 17 5-8 long by 9 1-8 deep. As to the width, that depends on the number of frames that you desire to use. Some use eight frames, some ten, and some | twelve. Where one runs for extract honey, ten frames, is perhaps best, but where one runs for comb ' honey, eight frames are best. There are now in the United States two styles of hives, the square, and the oblong. There are advantages with each class of frames. Let us consider some of these advantages, looking at the square hive first. Bees have a ten- dency to make a brood nest in the form of a sphere. Therefore a circular hive would be better than a square, but since this would be impractical, the square comes néarer filling that requirement than an oblong hive. It is also claimed that the square hive is bet- ter on account of holding the heat better, in that it gives the greatest amount of cubical contents for a given amount of lumber. These reasons are more theoretical than practical, and most of those that have tried the square hives have abandoned them for the oblong hive. But what are the reasons for favoring’ the oblong hive? By using a shallow frame it per} mits the use of low, flat hives that can be tiered up to’ two, three and four stories high. This is quite an ad-| vantage when one is operating: for extract honey, for when the bees require more room, all he ‘has to do is to add another story to his hive. And. then the long frame permits of being uncapped more easily than the square hive. The blade of the uncapping knife | can reach clear across the oblong hive, which it could’ not do in the square. The shallow frame is more easily lifted out of the frame than a deep frame. But} you will have to get a hive that suits your conveni- ence. Asa rule I believe that the oblong hive is the: better of the two. It will be ‘hard for you to learn how to make a hive from what is given ina book. If} you are going to make your hives, it will be better to send to the factory and get one of the kind that you wanted in the flat, all complete. With the sev- eral pieces to use as patterns you will know just how to make one. SWARMING OF BEES. One of the most interesting features connected with bee culture is the swarming of bees. As to why \they swarm, there are several reasons given. When jbees have filled the hives, and have no more room to |store honey, they begin locking out for new quarters. /And then they have a great many more bees in the ‘hive than can be used successfully. In other words, jtoo much honey, and too many bees cause swarming. Excessive heat will also cause the swarming of bees. \Sometimes they swarm without any apparent cause ‘whatever. It is the old bees and queen that leave i] Worker. lhe hive to the young ones. They usually begin warming in May, and -swill keep it up until July.. It fepends, of course, upon the section they are in, as 1 the time they swarm. It sometimes happens that hey will swarm in August, but this is an exception, nd not the rule. , i Sometimes we are able to tell in advance when bees Te going to swarm, but I do not believe that we can Iways do so. When the bees are clustering around \\n the outside of the gum, ¢hey will go in the hive “jhe day they intend to swarm, but this does not al- ‘ays work. When a hive of bees intend to swarm, pey will not be working like the rest of them that | Let The Bees Pay Their Own Expenses. Queen, 287 day, but will be at rest. Very few bees can be seen going in and out the hive. Bees as a rule do not swarm until they have the hive pretty well filled, and multitudes of bees hatching out daily. The presence of queen cells is a pretty good sign that they are be- ginning to swarm. When the bees are beginning to swarm, or before, one should have everything in read- iness to hive them. “Have empty hives in readiness, and when a swarm is cast off if possible mark the hive from which it came. Ordinarily the swarm will soon settle, when it can be secured and placed in an empty hive. As soon as this is done, take the new swarm and place it where Drone, the old one stood, removing the old hive to as long a distance as convenient. Should the bees in the old hive have started work in the super give it to the new swarm; should be bees in the new swarm ap- pear restless and uneasy, the indications are that they have lost their queen. In such cases give them a fresh brood that has some newly laid eggs, when they will begin the construction of a queen cell, and usual- ly commence work. In all cases it is well to examine the new swarms in about nine days and should there be no indication of laying it is best to give a frame of new brood. After the old hive is removed to a new place it is well to examine it carefully and destroy all 288 the queen cells but one of the best, or if there be any colonies in the yard that are queenless the extra cells At the close of the honey season always shut up the entrance to the hive to about two inches, so that the bees may be able to protect themselves from outside robbers. About Oc- tober 1st begin preparing your bees for winter by plac- ing burlap over the top of each hive, putting on an empty super and filling it with chaff straw. It is well to place two half inch strips on top of the frames un- der the burlap, so that the bees may have space to travel over the top of the frames. Fasten the lid se- curely by weight or otherwise. Before putting on the may be used in requeening them. Evergreen Shade Louis Scholl and his Texas Bee-Yard. on the left, and Prickly Cacti on the right. burlaps see that each hive has about twenty-five pounds of honey for winter use.” It is a difficult matter to lay down specific direc tions for hiving bees. There are so many methods, and so many circumstances that alter these methods that you will have to use a great deal of common sense and tact. There are many automatic ‘hivers on the market, and some of them good too. Sometimes it is desired to prevent bees from swarming. It is claimed by some that by preventing them from swarming, and making them use all their efforts in the manufacture of honey, that they will produce a larger crop of honey than by swarming. TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. Whether this contention is true, is an open question. This is done by not allowing the queen bees to raise. [excessive swarming is generally brought about by a large number of queen bees, that are not fertilized. By catching the queens and removing them, or by pre- venting the queen cells from hatching out. To keep the hive well shaded, or having the walls entirely protected from the sun will do much to prevent bees © from swarming. Also give them plenty of room, and they will not be so apt to swarm. FEEDING OF BEES. | | The feeding of bees is a poor business. It is prac ticed for two purposes. The first purpose is to stim- ; ulate brood rearing at times of the year when there » is no honey coming in from natural sources, and to | supply them with food when the winter supply is short. But it is a bad job, and is liable to cause the bees to rob other hives. Not only is it a messy job, but it is expensive. It is frequently true that feeding is made necessary on account of extracting the honey too close. It may be that in certain cases, you will find it necessary to feed bees. If such is the case, there is nothing that is better to feed with than gran- ulated sugar converted into syrup. There are certain forms of molasses and sorghum that may be used, but as a rule it is best to buy first-class sugar and make a syrup out of it. There are two processes of making syrup. One is the old-fashion method of making it by artificial heat. When feeding bees to stimulate brood-rearing, place boiler on the stove and into it pour a mixture of sugar and water, using one-half sugar and one-half water. The heat should be aplied slowly while the mixture is stirred. It should not be heated higher than 180) degrees, as it is liable to scorch, and burnt sugar is death to a colony of bees in the winter. Continue to- stir the syrup until every particle of sugar is melted. ’ Sometimes it is simply mixed well together, but no heat applied on account of the liability of burning. When this is the case, it will ‘have to be stirred vig™’ orously. But we would advise that you avoid feeding if’ there is any possible chance of doing so, as it does: not pay. There are many patented devices for feed- ing. STINGS. Most every one knows that bees sting. And they Do Not Anger The Bees. know that it is not very pleasant to be stung either. The bee cannot kick like horses, nor can they hook like cattle, they cannot bite like other animals, but they can sting. And most people dread to be stung. However, much of the pain of stings is imaginary. One can bear a bee sting with a great deal of ease if they will not allow themselves to think of it. The mind has no littie to do with the body. I do not Mtaa to say that you can remove all pain by not thinking about it, for such is not the case. When a bee stings you, you are to a certain extent poisoned, and no amount of thinking or not thinking by the mind can remove that poison. should not stop one from their work. ter to keep on at work, for your mind will not be on As a rule bee stings It is much bet- 289 which contains the bag of poison. Many recommend removing all parts, but this is based on theory and not on practice. Many remedies are recommended for bee stings, but they are as a rule no good. In fact, the best thing to do after removing the sting is to forget all about it. Indeed, most remedies are posi- tively harmful. The poison enters the flesh through a very small puncture,—one so small that the small- est cambric needle could not enter where the sting did, and there is no means of getting the remedy for stings in, except by rubbing, and this causes more trouble than it is worth, for it causes the poison to spread faster. It sometimes happens that a great many bees sting a person or animal, and unless some- thing is done death results almost instantly. If you Scene in aplary of W. L. Womble, Raleigh, N. C. the sting. Pay just as little attention to the matter as possible, and do not rub or irritate the stung por- tion. The sting should be removed as quickly as possible. There is a wrong way of removing the sting, and there is a right way. With the sting there is a bag of poison. To pull out the sting between the finger and thumb means to push the poison out of the bag into the wound. On the other hand, to re- move the sting by running a knife blade under the poison bag and lift the sting out, does the work’ so nicely that no more poison gets into the wound. If a knife is not convenient, take the nail of the finger and push it out. The sting should be removed as quickly as possible. Sometimes the sting separates, in which case T would advise just to remove the part or your animal is stung a great many times, cover the affected parts with blankets or cloths dipped in boiling hot water. If you cannot possibly get the hot water, use real cold water, but the hot water applica- tion is better. HOW TO AVOID BEING STUNG. It is not very pleasant, to say the least of it, to be stung. In working around bees, I would advise that you never stand directly in front of the hive. Above all things don’t let the bee know you are scared, for bees will do more harm when they find that you are afraid of them than otherwise. A single’ beé never follows one into a house. A whole colony that is very much enraged may’ do so. ' % 20 290 FOOD VALUE OF HONEY. “It is estimated that the food value of honey is equal to that of butter, and it is a typical sweet and universal luxury. The sources of honey come through nature’s bounty on all fields and forests, and may be utilized at less expense than any other commodity of equal value. It is reasonable that the occupants of all rural ‘homes are entitled to all of their products. People who rent the land pay no rent on the honey crop. Yet the vast flow of nectar is permitted to go to waste on the greater number of farms. Since the forests have been filled, and the fertility of the soil largely exhausted, bee pasturage has become too TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. pily combined, so that the family apiary will be easier kept up than a stock of chickens for home supply, and really more profitable, when the expenses and atten- tions are fairly weighed up. “This is only one of the several small industries home comfort and independent living. , “Tt is a reflection on Southern industry to see a family coming from more congenial climates and liy- ing in luxury on what is neglected or wasted by those who toil the year round to make cotton pay for gua- no! “While concentration of energies is essential to success, diversity of resources is the only chance for As bees are kept in the South. scant to warrant an effort to make honey for market- ing purposes by the collective masses of inhabitants. “Failures on this line have been so common that many have abandoned the business entirely in dis- couragement, or gone back to the primitive plan of using ‘gums’ and killing out the weak colonies after the fall crop has been stored. Much as this plan is deprecated, it remains true that more honey is ob- tained on it than by unskilled use of modern hives, and uniting weak colonies. “The only families who keep up small apiaries and have honey on their tables every day in the year, that I know of, still keep shy of advance scientific schemes. “The practical plan lies in the exercise of inventive thought, by which the good features in improvements and the simplicity of ancient methods may be hap- the masses of people to make an independent living, and it will be found that there is no well beaten trail to a state of general prosperity for the population of the whole country.” Let the beehives and chicken coops be in close proximity and ants will not annoy the bees, for the chicks will devour the little pilgrims as they wend their way to and from their homes. White Dutch clover is very desirable as pasturage for the bees, and the seed may be sown any time in March or April. It resists drouth much better than most of the grasses and forms a close green turf for the lawn if kept cut after it is well rooted. } When feeding bees to stimulate broodrearing, the difference in localities should be considered. In some parts, feeding the first of March would be all right Study the Life History of Bees. 201 In other localities, they are not through the winter at this season and should not be disturbed. Bees, like all other creatures, relish salt and should have it placed before them occasionally in a diluted form. To give bees access to salt, just sprinkle some on the sawdust in front of the hive. The rain will dilute it properly and the sawdust will retain it for them. During winter queens stop laying eggs and often shrink so much in size that they look almost like the worker bees themselves, and a beginner looking through the hive might conclude that the bees are queenless. Of course, if you know that the queen is dead, then the sooner you can introduce another to the bees, the better it will be for them. Queens can be procured from the South as early as April. THE QUEEN BEE. The queen bee is the most important bee in the hive. She is the mother of all the bees in the hive. In fact, the queen is so important that should the ‘hive be deprived of the queen the workers go to work and raise another, if they have any worker larvae in the hive with which to do it. There are some where there is no queen bee, but these cases are very rare. It is safe to say that there is always a queen in every hive. The queen is the only perfect female bee in the hive. She is longer than either of the oth- er species, and is dark in color. She never leaves the hive except to meet the drone. She is treated with great affection by the bees. The average age of the bee is three years, and no one should be allowed to become any older than that, for after that age they become barren, or if they do deposit eggs they only produce drones, cases ae an aaa oe arate ee A PAIR OF GOOD ONES OWNED BY OLTMANNS BROS., NORTH FT. WORTH, TEXAS, fer Ase S OF THE HORSE i Gee CARY B.Sc) Ds VM. PROFESSOR OF PHYSIOLOGY AND: VETERINARY SCIENCE AT THE ALABAMA POLY- TECHNIC INSTITUTE; VETERINARIAN OF THE ALABAMA EXPERIMENT STA- TION; DIRECTOR OF FARMERS’ INSTITUTES AND STATE VETERINA- RIAN OF ALABAMA, AUBURN, ALABAMA, INTRODUCTION These chapters on the diseases of the horse are written that they may help farmers and horsemen who are not within reach of qualified graduate veterinarians. They may help the ordinary man who has not the technical knowledge of the graduate veterinarian. The more the farmer or the stockman knows the better he is able to see the necessity for employing a specialist or one who is expert in operating and | treating live stock. Much of the following pages is written in terms that are not considered scientific. | But it has been my aim to leave out all technical terms as far as possible in order to make the meaning l Sp ao plain to the average man. The treatment suggested for the different diseases is not the only one that | might be employed; but is one method selected, oftentimes, as the one that may be used with the least | difficulty and expense, by the farmer. (Cae GROVE Auburn, Ala. n.—nostril. en.—end or extremity of nose. en.—chin. mb.—maxillary border. ch.—cheek. t.—throat. pa.—parotid region. Te.—temple. so.—supra-orbit. a 4 we EXPLANATIONS OF FIGURE 1. Fd.—forehead. Fa.—face. Nk.—neck. Ji.—ugular furrow. W—Withers. bk.—back. lo.—loins. H.—haunch or hip point. Crp.—croup. rb.—rib region. Flk.—flank. abd.—abdomen. st.—stifle. Th.—thigh. but.—buttock. lg.—leg or gaskin. hk.—hock. can,—cannon, Ft.—fetlock. Pn.—pastern. Co.—coronet. Ct.—chestnut. sh.—shoulder. am.—arm. fm.—forearm. k.—knee. nd ee eee EXTERIOR ANATOMY, OR THE OUTER FORM OF THE HorsE This consists in a study of the good and bad paints of a horse as indicated by his outer form or con- formation. In order to get a clear idea, we must first know and study the various parts or regions of the surface of the horse’s body. The surface of the ‘horse may be divided for convenience into— ieee lead: Trunk, or body, 3. Limbs. 1. HEAD. (17 Regions.) Front Surface Back Surface. Side Surfaces. Lower End. Upper End. 1. Forehead. 4. Lower Jaw. 7. Kar. 14. Mouth. TS. = Poll: Qeeiaceor Nose. 5. Space between the 8. Temple. (a) ips: 16. Parotid Region. 3. End of Nose. branches of g. Supra-Orbit. (b) Teeth. Lae hnroate lower jaw. 10. Eyebrow. (c) Bars. 6... Chin, Mie ive: (d) Lingual Canal. 125 5 Cheeke (e) Tongue. 13. Nostrils, ({) Palate. z. BODY. (20 Regions.) Upper Surface. Lower Surface. Side Surfaces. Front End. Back End. Genital Organs. 1. Neck. 6. Xyphoid 8. Ribs. Tete Chests uzl, Peril, ( Male.) (a) Mane. region. g._ Flanks. 12. Interaxilla. 15. Anus. 17. Testicles and (b) Forelock. 7. Abdomen 10. Groin. iz. Asxillae: 16. Perineum. envelopes. 2. Withers. (belly ). (arm pits). 18. Sheath and Penis. Biback:. ( Female.) 4. Loins. 19. Vulva. 5. Croup. 20. Mammary Glands. (Bag or udder.) 3. LIMBS. (15 Regions.) Front Limb. Hind Limb. Regions Common to Front and Hind Limbs. 1. Shoulder. 6. Thigh. to. Chestnut. Zhe iya0ak Fo Sree. Ir. Cannon and Tendons. 3. Elbow. 8. Leg, or gaskin. 12. Fetlock and Ergot. 4. Forearm. © g. Hock. 13.. Pastern. 5. Knee. 14. Coronet. TSae Hoots 2y6 HEAD. Front Surface. (See cut for location of regions.) 1. Forehead.—This region should be wide, rather long and nearly straight. A large forehead indicates large muscles and large brain. When narrow, very convex or depressed, it is defective. 2. Face or Nose.—This region presents for study a middle part and two latteral parts. The middle part should be straight and rather wide. If very convex or concave it is defective. The latteral parts slope downward and backward. The right and the left lat- teral parts are usually full and round in the colt or young horse. In the old horse they are more or less flat or depressed. This is due to the variation in the length and size of the molar teeth in the young and the old horse. When the root of a molar tooth is dis- eased the part over that tooth will become enlarged; this will occur usually on one side. In bighead both A wide middle part respiratory sides may be equally enlarged. of nose or face is an indication of large capacity. 3. End of nose lies between the nostrils and above ‘ie upper lip. It should be large and free from inju- ries. 4. Lower jaw.—This corresponds to the borders of the lower jaw. These borders are thick in the young animal and thinner in the old animal; the variation here is also due to the difference in size of teeth. 5. Space between the branches of the lower jaw.— This space should be concave, covered with thin skin, fine hair, and be free from swellings or enlargements. Abscesses form here when the horse or colt has dis- temper or strangles. Good width between the branch- es of the lower jaw is another indication of great re- Spiratory capacity. 6. Chin.—It corresponds to the place upon which the curb strap or chain presses. It should be free from injuries and harmonize with surrounding parts. 7. Ear.—The ears should be relatively wide apart; neither too long nor too short; relatively thin ; covered with fine hair and thin skin; and possess freedom of movement. A very short ear indicates nervousness: a long, ‘heavy ear signifies sluggishness. Defective ears are sometimes classed as lop-ears, swine-ears, restless and “walking ears.” The means that the ears move in unison with the walk of the animal. The ears may be broken, torn, cropped, split, or show scars from the action of the twitch. To hide defects last name TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. dealers clip the coarse hair, apply ‘hoods or nets, or use other means to deceive the buyer. A deaf ear is hard to detect; such a horse does not respond to the voice of the driver and its ears do not move readily or remain relatively fixed. 8. Temple.—This region should be free from blem- ishes and harmonize with surrounding parts. g. Supra-Orbit—It lies just above the eye; is full and round in the young animal and sunken or de- pressed in old horses; this is due to the variation in the quantity of fat and muscle in the Supra-Orbit. In very poor animals it may also be hollow or sunken. Jockeys sometimes blow air under the skin to fill up this depression and make the animal look young. 10. Eyebrows.—They are not distinct in old horses and only visible in very early life. 11. Eye.—The eye is located in the orbital cavity. The eyeball or globe is surrounded by muscles and pads of fat which help fill the cavity and also protect the eye. The eyes should be wide apart; fill the cay- ity full; stand out fairly well, but not too much; they should be equal in size; the pupil dark—nearly black in color. The cornea, which is usually clear and trans- parent, should be free from white spots, or spots of any kind that interfere with light. The size of the Fig. 2—Regular or normal axis of front limbs viewed | from in front. ‘Giltmer Bros., Eminence, Ky. 2098 f \ Myuyuil Fig 3.—Ground or base narrow front limbs or the feet too close together. pupil should change quickly when the horse is brought from darkness to light, or from light to darkness; the pupil is large in the dark and small in the light. This can be tested by the use of a lamp or lantern, or by moving the horse from a dark stall out into the sun- The eyelids should be thin, fine, freely mova- ble, and without blemish. The lining or inside of the lid should be scarlet or light rose red in color. The tears should be clear and sufficient in quantity to keep the lids and eye moist. Finally, the eye should be large and expressive. Defective eyes are small, une- qual in size, concealed or hidden, very protruding, cloudy or opaque. The wall eye is one in which the color is almost absent. It is sometimes called a Such an eye is unsightly, but not necessarily defective in vision. A short sighted horse or a long sighted horse may be addicted to shy- ing; but such conditions are hard to detect by the average man. light. “white” or “glass eye.” Cheeks.—It should be a plain surface, free from scars, swellings, and wounds. The skin should be thin, covered with fine hair, and the blood vessels Its defects may consist in I2. quite distinctly visible. wounds from the teeth, swellings, and distension from it you are able to own stock, you are able to have good stables for them. a collection of food between irregular teeth and the inside of the cheek. 13. Nostrils—These are the external openings of the nasal passages. They should be large, wide apart and well separated from the upper lip. Largeness of nostrils means large lung capacity. The membrane lining the nasal passages should be clean, scarlet red, and smooth. The discharge from the nose should be clear, inodorous, and small in quantity. After exer- cise this lining membrane may be deep red in color. The movements of the nostrils should be regular to correspond with the respiration. If the nostrils are small the discharge abundant, puslike, green, yellow, or bad smelling, the nostrils or nose are defective or diseased. Usually, a bad smelling discharge is a sign of a diseased molar tooth, especially if the discharge is only on one side. Inspiration and expiration should be noiseless. 14. Mouth.—This complex region may be consid- ered the beginning of the digestive canal. (a) The lips should be thin, relatively stiff and held closed when the animal is not eating. The cut or depth of the mouth should not be too great or too small. The lips may be paralyzed; if the lower lip is paralyzed on both sides it hangs pendulous, and the animal cannot drink without plunging its mouth into water below the corners. If paralyzed on one side the lip is drawn to the opposite side. The lips may be cut by the bit. The quivering lip is one that cannot be held still, owing to nervous irritability. (b) Three kinds of teeth are found in the mouth of the horse. The incisors or front teeth are twelve in number—six above and six below. The canines or tusks are found in the male; sometimes incompletely developed canines are found in the mare.’ They are four in number. The molars in a full mouth are twen- ty-four in number—six in each half jaw. In examin- ing a horse always determine the regularity, length, direction, integrity, and soundness of the teeth, as well as the age. (The age of the horse, as indicated by the teeth, will be discussed in another place.) (c) Bars.—They occupy the space between the lower molars and the canines in the horse and the in- The bit rests on the bars. They should be free from injury; not over sensitive to the bit, but respond regularly and accurately to the im- pressions of the bit. cisors in the mare. ~~ eee ee Lingual Canal.—In this space lies the tongue. the (4) Good width, with proportion to the volume of congue, is to be desired. ‘ (e) Tongue.—The tongue aids in grasping, chew- jing, mixing, and swallowing the food. It should be ‘relatively large, possess free movement, and be free jfrom wounds. The most serious defect is the lolling tongue. In this the horse carries the tongue hanging ‘but one side of the mouth, especially when the bit is ‘in the mouth. This is the result of a habit, and in ‘some cases it may be prevented by bits especially con- structed for that purpose. (£) Palate.—This is the superior wall of the mouth. ‘{t has a series of ridges and grooves running from ‘ide to side. The ridges are sometimes erroneously jralled bars. The covering membrane should be rose polored. When this hard palate is swollen the horse s said to ‘have “lampas.” The swelling may be caused ‘by cutting teeth, rough, irritating food, diseased teeth ind indigestion. Sometimes it may be caused by a ‘orm of sore mouth. As arule, the hard palate should i0t be cut and never burned for this Re- nove the cause or wait until the colt gets over cutting jeeth, and recovery will take place without treatment. ‘The soft palate hangs down from the back part of the pard palate and closes the opening between the mouth ind the pharynx or throat. This soft palate is so jarge in the horse, that it prevents air or food from /oming back into the mouth after reaching the throat, ‘dence, when a horse vomits the food or water comes but through the nostrils instead of the mouth. | trouble. f | | | 15. Poll—This is sometimes called the nape of jhe neck. It is the region injured by throwing the ead up against objects, or by a stroke with a club over the head. In some cases abscesses form as a re- sult of such injuries; then a large swelling will occur ‘ind sooner or later the abscess erupts or breaks open md discharges pus on the surface. The animal is jhen said to ‘have “poll evil,” a very serious and trou- lesome disease. It can only be cured by proper oper- ition and correct treatment. This may _ require A Pie. | 16. Parotid Region.—This lies below the ear, above Jhe throat, and connects the side of the neck with the cheek. It should be neither too full nor too much de- oressed, i 17. Throat.—This unites the inferior border of the eck with the head. It should be wide, because great | TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. 299 width signifies a large larynx, and that means a large air passage; hence, large lung capacity. The Head as a whole.—All the regions of the head should harmonize with one another. It should be neither too large nor too small for the size of the horse. The length of the classic head is about two- fifths of the height of the horse. The direction of the ey hit a Ay Fig. 4——Base wide or ground wide or feet too far apart. head, or the position in which the head is carried most commonly, should be such as to make an angle of about forty-five degrees, with the horizontal or level ground surface. This position enables the horse to see better to the side and in front of him, and also en- ables it to support the bit with ease and execute move- ments readily and easily. If the head is carried more vertical, the horse is usually tender in the mouth. If it is carried more nearly horizontal the horse is us- ually hard in the mouth. BODY. Upper Surface. 1. Neck.—It presents for study an upper border, a lower border, a right and a left surface. The upper border supports the mane, and should be thin in geld- 300 ings and in mares. In stallions it is usually quite thick. It should be nearly straight or slightly curved from above to below. The inferior border is round Its width meas- A large from side to side and relatively wide. ures in a degree the width of the wind pipe. wind pipe means a large lung capacity. The side sur- a £ Fig. 6—Regular or normal axis of front limb. faces are convex from above to below, with the thick or heaviest part being nearer the lower than the up- per border. Along the lower part of the side surface runs the jugular furrow, in which lies the jugular vein. The direction of the neck should be such as to make an angle of forty-five degrees with the level or hori- zontal. If the head makes a similar angle with the horizontal, then the head and neck will make an angle with each other of ninety degrees, or a right angle. In form, the neck should be nearly straight, or but slightly arched, except in the fancy riding horse the swan neck may be desired. This means a high head and a compressed throat, but not speed. The mane and forelock grow out from the upper border of the neck. If the mane is long, coarse and stiff, it signi- fies common. breeding. In well bred horses the mane is fine, silky and not overabundant; in fact, many well bred horses are deficient in quantity of mane.. Some- times this is due to a disease of the skin and not to breeding. 2. Withers.—This is located between the top of the neck and back, and between the tops of the should- ers. The withers should be high and extend well to- ward the back. As a rule, the withers represent the highest part of the body, except the head and _ neck. Dont depend too much on hired help to look after yo lame in both right legs there will be a see-Sawing ac- on between the head and the haunch, due to the rais- ag of the head when the lame limbs come to the round and dropping of the croup when the well mbs strike the ground. These motions are present ithe trotter. If the animal is a pacer the head and ie lame croup go up together, and the head and ell croup go down together. If the animal is lame \ diagonal limbs, as a right front and a left hind, the itire body rises as the lame limbs strike the ground hd drop when the well limbs strike the ground, jhen the horse is trotting. After locating the lame limb or limbs, then locate | . TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. 317 LAMENESS AND THE Disrasrs Asso: | CIATED WITH IT. the seat of the lameness in that limb. ‘This can only be done by the study of special diseases and their at- tending symptoms. PUNCTURES OF THE FOOT. Sharp objects like nails, Snags, etc., may pass through the sole or frog, injure the soft, vascular and sensitive tissues above and infect them with pus or other disease-producing germs. The nail or other sharp object usually passes'through the sole or the frog near the point of the frog or along the sides of the frog. In most cases the nail is pulled out when the foot is lifted by the animal, but in some cases it may re- main until removed by man. If the snag or nail is out, the hole may partially close or be filled with dirt and sand and the animal may not show any lameness for one or two days. Symptoms.—Usually the lameness is more or less intense, showing signs of great pain. The pain may be so great that the animal refuses to place the foot on the ground. Close examination of the sole or the frog with the drawing knife or pen-knife may locate a black spot, and this may be the point where the nail or snag entered the foot. By using a clean darning needle or an awl, one may determine whether this hole passes down to the quick or not. By the use of hoof searchers or the blacksmith’s nippers, one may produce pressure over various parts of the sole and the frog to determine the sensitive place; when a place is found where the horse flinches on pressure there is likely to be found the place of entrance of the nail or snag. Sometimes this place cannot be found by the ordinary observer; then pus forms above the sole and frog, producing great pain and finally break- ing out and discharging at the back part of the foot between the frog and the sensitive tissue above it. In some cases the punctures will injure the bones and the tendons, and this may result in a serious and pro- longed form of lameness. In other cases the articu- lation may become diseased and often result in a stiff joint. 318 It does not cost much to haul Treatment.—As soon as the location is found, cut through the sole or the frog around the puncture down to the quick, making an opening one-half to one inch in diameter. Now use clean cotton and boiled and cooled water to clean out the place; then smear tar round over the sides and bottom of the hole and plug the opening with cotton. The tar will hold the cotton in place, act as a disinfectant, and prevent germs from getting into the wound. The next day remove this cotton, clean out the pus with wads of clean cotton, and put in more tar and cotton. Repeat this daily until recovery takes place. As a rule, this simple treatment will cure all ordinary cases, but if the bones, the articulation or the tendons are injured and infected, recoveries may be slow; yet it is well to follow this line of treatment. THRUSH. This disease involves the frog and may extend to the sensitive tissue above the frog and the sole. It may be caused by injuries to the frog, but it is most frequently produced by permitting the horse to stand in manure and urine. The germs in manure and urine disintegrate or rot the frog, and in some cases the entire frog is destroyed. This disease may be as- sociated with nail puncture, grease-heel or canker. Symptoms.—The frog exhibits signs of decaying; gives off a bad smell or odor, and pieces of it may be readily torn away. If any of the sensitive tissue is exposed, lameness will be present when a hard object strikes that tissue, but as a rule lameness is not pres- ent in the early stages of this disease. Treatment.—Remove the cause; if the horse is standing in filth, get it into a clean stall; clean and disinfect the feet, and many cases will get well with- out further treatment. Coal tar or pine tar may be applied daily to the diseased frog. If the sensitive tissue is not exposed, powdered zinc sulphate or calo- mel may be dusted over the diseased frog after it has been cleaned. If associated with another disease the other disease must also be treated. CANKER. It involves the sensitive or velvety tissue above the sole and the frog. The exact. cause is unknown, but straw and leaves in the winter. it is very likely due to some irritating germ. ‘Te is often associated with, or a sequel to, nail puncture, or an old standing case of thrush. Symptoms.—A soft fungus-like growth may ap- pear through an opening in the sole or frog; some- times this growth appears at the back of the frog be- tween the frog and the sensitive tissue above it. This growth is well supplied with blood and appears like “proud flesh” or exuberant granulations. Often | it grows to enormous size and sometimes there may be more than one of these growths. Treatment.—First clean up the parts with water that has been boiled and cooled, to which has been add- ed some creolin or carbolic acid (one tablespoonful of creolin or carbolic acid to one quart of water) ; now take a sharp knife or a pair of curved scissors, and clip off this growth down level with the upper sur- face of the sole or the frog. With some cotton apply strong carbolic acid or creolin, and if possible apply bandages around the foot so as to produce pressure upon the spot or place from which you clipped this growth. Pressure may be obtained over this place by applying a shoe to the foot with a broad piece of leather above the shoe. Then cotton may be stuffed in from behind to produce pressure on the place. The last method makes it somewhat difficult to dress the place when that is required. But if the place is | thoroughly disinfected when first dressed it may not require another dressing for a week or ten days. Many times at the end of that time we find that an- other growth has made its appearance. away again and be more careful in applying plenty of strong creolin or strong carbolic acid, and be sure to In | get plenty of pressure over it with the cotton. some instances this disease may appear in all four feet and the growth may come out all over the sole | Such cases are usually hopeless when | and the frog. it comes to treatment, especially in the hands of the ordinary man. CORNS. If so; eut it || They may involve the velvety or sensitive tissue — above the sole at the heel, between the bar and the outer wall. They may also involve the sensitive tis- | sue on the inside of the bars. Corns occur usually in the front limb, and more frequently at the inside heel than the outside heel. TILLING THE SOIL FOR Causes.—Flat feet are predisposed to injury of the velvety tissue of the sole at the heel. High heels are predisposed to injury of the sensitive tissue inside of the bar. Paring away the sole at the heel and leaving the shoe on too long pulls the shoe forward and off of the wall on the sole at the heel, which finally in- | jures the sensitive tissue above the wall at this point. | Cutting away or thinning the bars often leaves too un- even pressure at the heels, resulting in corns. Exces- | sive drying out and contraction of the hoof often lead |to corns. In some cases horses seem to be predis- | posed to corns in such a degree that it is difficult to | determine the cause. {| | Symptoms.—As a rule, there is more or less lame- ness; it is intensified on hard ground or pavement, and when the foot becomes dry. Producing pressure | with hoof searchers or the blacksmith’s pinchers will usually produce pain and flinching. If the shoe 1s “removed, cutting or rasping away the sole at the heel “may show red spots in the sole at this place. Cutting away the sole down to the quick may show nothing | but blood stain or moist horn; yet in some cases pus jmay be found, and when this pus is not liberated it |may work its way up inside of the wall to the top of the heel and escape between the skin and the upper \border of the wall of the hoof. Treatment.—It is wise to prevent this trouble by proper shoeing and removing the shoe and re-setting it at least once a month; also use hoof ointment in hot and dry weather to prevent excessive drying out lof the hoof. Moreover, avoid rasping away the wall or cutting away the sole at all. The curative treat- ment in the early stages consists in removing the shoes, poulticing the feet at night, or standing the horse in water which just covers his hoofs until the hoof becomes soft and flexible. On removing the ‘poultice or taking the horse from water, clean the hoof and when nearly dry apply all over the hoof some of the following ointment: 4 5 I pound. Lard 3 pounds. Melt the tar and lard together and mix thoroughly, and let cool before ap- plying. 25D O° OO OC On ORCRCRO: Oo OuCNOeDED Gh Oleed SP Sheipeieliailelia fel 0\'e)/e|/e\eie\e, e).aiis) », © | In. some cases it may be necessary to poultice or soak the feet every night for a week or ten days; also PROFIT AND PLEASURE. 319 apply the ointment every morning. In shoeing a horse with corns, or one subject to corns, the heels should be rasped down so that they do not press on the shoe; the shoes should be removed and re-set as soon as the heel grows out and begins to press on the shoe. In such cases it is well to apply every day the hoof ointment all over the hoof. If pus is found it must be liberated by cutting a free opening, then disinfect with carbolic acid or cre- olin solution and apply tar and cotton as for nail puncture. Repeat this treatment every day until no more pus appears and new sole is formed, then apply hoof ointment and shoes as previously directed. LAMINITIS, OR FOUNDER. It is an inflammation of the sensitive laminae; this membrane is very vascular and sensitive; it lies just inside of the wall of the hoof and covers the front surface of the third phalanx or coffin bone. It cor- responds to the inner sensitive part of the skin; in fact, it is a modified form of skin. Causes.—Young animals, unaccustomed to hard work, are predisposed to this disease. Overwork or exhaustive exercise may cause this trouble. Often it results from prolonged slow work, in which the feet become exhausted; rapid work or excessive exercise for a short period may produce the trouble in a horse unaccustomed to work. When the feet are exhaust- ed and the animal is hot from overwork, drinking an excess of cold water or eating an excess of food will cause this disease. In some cases, eating too much corn, rye, barley, wheat, or any concentrated food may produce founder instead of colic; but sometimes this will produce both colic and founder. Occasion- ally excessive purgation will in some way result in founder. In rare instances founder may be a sequel of, or be associated with, lung fever, pleurisy, or in- flammation of the bowels. Symptoms.—In severe and acute cases the temper- ature may be as high as 102 to 105 degrees Fah.; and the appetite may be entirely lost; the animal may show signs of intense pain, and rapid breathing; re- fuse to move unless forced, and prefer to lie down most of the time. Close examination of the feet will find them warmer than usual; and they also may be relatively dry. Pressure with the hoof searchers or pinchers, especially at the toe, will produce pain and 320 flinching. When the animal is forced to move and the disease is in only the front feet, the hind feet will be advanced under the body and both front feet will be raised and carried forward at the same time, and the horse will try to rest the weight on the heel by throw- ing the front feet forward. If the hind feet alone are involved, which is very rare, the front feet will be placed back under the body, in order to take as much weight as possible off of the hind feet. At the same time, the hind feet may be pushed forward so as to rest most of the weight they bear on the heel. If all four feet are foundered then the animal may re- fuse to move and desire to lie down most of the time. In some cases a foundered horse may persistently stand in one place until it drops from exhaustion. A horse with this disease will move with less pain over soft ground than over hard ground. In a chronic case, or one where repeated attacks of acute founder have occurred, a change in the form of the hoof will take place. At first, there will be a series of more or less rough rings appear round the top of the wall. The sole will become depressed or bulged downward; this is due to the separation of the sensitive from the insensitive laminae at the toe, and in consequence the third phalanx or coffin bone drops down at its front part upon the sole; the space be- tween the sensitive and insensitive laminae may be filled up with blood or organized material resulting from the inflammation. In the course of six to nine ‘months the toe line or front part of the wall becomes concave or depressed from above to below, rough and softer than common; the sole in some cases may be worn through by contact with the ground and pres- sure from the bone. A chronic condition like this is very difficult to remedy, and in many cases never can be cured. Treatment.—Ordinary acute cases should be placed where the feet may remain in moderately cold water for hours immediately after the disease is discovered. In case the animal cannot be placed in water, wrap rags or cloths around the feet and keep them wet with cold water. Some prefer to apply poultices of bran, corn meal, or any clean material that will hold moisture on the feet; but poultices should be changed frequently to prevent souring and filth. If the ani- mal is suffering intensely, apply hot water to the feet, using it just as hot as you can hold your hand in. Apply this with rags around the feet and keep it up It takes just a Jittle more time to give fresh water, than old water. for several hours.. After the animal is over the in- tense pain, cold water may be used instead of the hot. If at any time the horse is taken out of the water, or its use is discontinued, let the feet partially dry, ap- ply hoof ointment all over the hoofs, using the same recommended under the subject of “Corns.” In the course of two to five days, many cases will appear to have completely recovered; the pain will have disappeared and the animal walk as if sound and well. Yet it is unsafe to put that horse to work; it should rest with light feed or in pasture for 10 to 15 days, and during all this time apply the hoof ointment all over each hoof every day. When the horse is put to work it should be done with care and frequent rests. Remember that one attack predis- poses a horse to another, and repeated attacks lead to incurable chronic cases. ointment as In cases where the animal has overeaten and shows — signs of indigestion or colic, it may be necessary to treat the colic or indigestion at the same time the feet are being treated. Some persons are anxious to treat these cases by drawing blood from around the coro- | nets, but this should not be practiced, because it is _ liable to lead to serious injury to the foot. In a horse in good condition one to three quarts of blood might be extracted from the jugular vein. In some cases partial relief might be secured by making an opening through the toe of the sole, near the line of union between the sole and the wall; this opening should be made down to the quick; it will let out any | blood that may have accumulated there, but will not . do any good unless there has been some escape of | If this is done, plug the open- - blood into that part. ing with tar and cotton, and treat it thereafter as for nail puncture. Chronic cases cannot be treated in the same way that acute cases are handled. The chronic case should be placed in a large box stall or paddock where the floor or ground is kept well littered and Apply the hoof ointment daily and once every | soft. three or four weeks rasp down the heels about one- fourth of an inch; also rasp away the point of the toe from above to below, cutting only the toe part of the wall. an opening and allowing the bone to protrude. The feet or legs should be rubbed well two or three times per day; the animal should be fed so as not to be kept too fat, making the weight on the feet as light as pos- sible. If recovery takes place it will require 12 to 18 Never pare away the sole for fear of making — | \ \'I 4 nonths of this careful handling and treatment. A jew hoof must be grown, and in its normal condition, so that the sensitive and insensitive laminae (leaves) ‘may be normally united, the wall in its proper direc- ‘ion, and the sole and the bone in their proper con- litions. QUITTOR. This term is applied to designate mortification, de- ay, or death of a limited part of tissue anywhere be- bw the knee in the front limb, or below the hock in jhe hind limb. It may involve the skin and some of lhe tissue immediately under it, then it is called skin juittor. It may involve a coronet, and then it is valled caronary or sub-horny quittor; this is a variety }f skin quittor. It may involve the tendons, about he foot, then it is called tendinous quittor. It may ‘Iso involve one or both lateral cartilage, then it is Jalled cartilaginous quittor. | Causes.—Injuries which bruise the skin or injure ‘ne deeper parts give opportunities for germs, such as jhe necrosis bacillus, to enter and destroy cells and issue. Wounds made by shoe calks, by interfering, iruising of any kind, and punctures may lead to this ‘ouble. 'Symptoms.—If the skin is involved, there will be ».ore or less swelling, and in the course of a few days te dead parts will lose heat, the hair on it may stand a end, this dead skin may crack, and finally a line ‘ separation will appear between it and the living ssue around it. In the course of several days, some- |mes weeks, this dead part will slough out, leaving a pep pit-like ulcer, which should heal with proper } ite, leaving a scar with no hair on it. If the \jury is at the cornet, passes down under the upper order of the wall, there will be considerable pain and meness; this is due to the fact that the horny wall _yevents swelling, and this increases pressure on the rve ends and pain. If atendon is involved, a ther deep opening is found and at the bottom of it ay be seen and felt a more or less ragged soapy- xe tendon. Parts of this tendon may come away in ‘reds. In some cases only part of it may be de- royed. It is important to note that the tendons ‘n along the front and back surfaces of the cannon, ‘tlock, pastern, and coronet. The latteral cartilages are two in number, an inside 22 TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. 321 and an outside one. They are attached to the lat- eral angles of the coffin bone. The front end of each one begins just inside of the upper border of the wall, about one inch from the middle part of the upper bor- der of the wall. Each one extends backward along this border, and its back end curves around the back end of the fatty cushion above the frog. The lateral cartilage in health is flexible.’ It can be felt above the border of the wall at the heel. When this carti- lage is injured by a bruise or wound, and it begins to decay, as a result of the action of germs, it may con- tinue to decay until the entire cartilage is removed. This may go on through a period of several months. The parts around the injury will be swollen and en- larged, causing considerable pain and lameness. A small opening through the skin may remain imme- diately over the decaying parts of the cartilage. This opening in the skin is usually surrounded by button- like granulations. When the part of the cartilage immediately under this opening is destroyed, anoth- er Opening may occur in front or behind the first opening. Then the first opening will close. Thus a successive series of openings will appear and disap- pear in the skin over the cartilage along and above the upper border of the wall of the hoof. Treatment.—In skin quittor and coronary quittor cleanse the part with boiled water containing creolin and carbolic acid, then apply some strong creolin or carbolic acid immediately over the dead tissue; next cover it and the surrounding skin with carbolized vas- eline, then with a layer of cotton, and over this ap- ply a bandage. In some cases this must be dressed every day; in others, it may be dressed every three or four days, or once a week. When the injury extends under the upper border of the wall of the hoof, it may be necessary to rasp the wall away immediately over the injury, until it gets quite thin; this will permit it to distend and relieve the pressure and pain. In treat- ing tendinous quittor clean out the wound with clean, boiled cotton and water with creolin or carbolic acid in it, and remove all shreds or loose pieces of tendon; now apply, on a piece of bandage or some cotton, a small quantity of ointment made by mixing two drams of red iodide or mercury with two ounces of vaseline; then apply, vaseline around the opening, clean, boiled cotton and a bandage. Repeat the use of the ointment every other day until the wound stops discharging pus, then use less in quantity of the ointment and dress less frequently, being careful 322 to keep the wound well protected with clean cotton and bandages. fect a cure. In treating cartilagenous quittor good results are more difficult to secure, and many times it is impossi- ble to do effective work witnout a complicated surgi- It may require several weeks to ef- cal operation, but this can only be done by an expert. However, the farmer can try the following method: Secure some good, stiff cord about 1-16 of an inch in diameter; soak this cord in a saturated alcoholic so- lution of bichloride of mercury (corrosive sublimate) ; this solution can be made by adding the drug to alco- hol as long as it will be dissolved; let the string soak in this for one or two days; remove it and hang up until it dries. Clean the foot round the opening through the skin, take a small piece of this dry cord and push it down into the opening as far as youcan clip off the end even with the skin. In thecourse of three or four days remove this and insert another piece of this cord. Repeat this until the opening closes. This may not remove the enlargement or the lameness, but may stop the decay of the cartilage. Applying hoof ointment to the hoof every day will make it more flexible and permit greater expansion, thereby reducing the pressure and consequent pain and lameness. CRACKS IN THE WALL OF THE HOOF. Wall cracks are designated toe cracks and quarter cracks, according to their location. A toe crack is located at the toe of the wall and extends from the upper to the lower border, or from the lower to the upper border. A quarter crack usually lies behind the widest part of the foot in the side of the wall ex- tending from above to below. Causes.—The condition of the horn often deter- mines the presence or absence of a crack. If the wall or entire hoof becomes excessively dry as a re- sult of the blacksinith rasping away the protective covering of the wall or paring away the sole and frog, normal contraction and expansion may not occur without splitting the dry and brittle hoof at some weak point. The hoof may become weakened and partially disintegrated by standing the animal for a long time in manure and urine, or any wet, muddy Such a hoof is liable to crack with ordinary expansion and contraction. It is possible that horses with high knee action or high hock action may pro- duce sudden and violent expansion upon hard pave- place. Stock cost too much, not to attend to them prcperly. ment or road and suddenly produce a crack in a rath er strong hoof; but this is not common. Symptoms.—The most prominent symptom is thi visible crack, which opens and closes when the foo’ is used. A toe crack closes when the foot is on th ground and opens when the foot is off the ground A quarter crack opens when the foot is on th ground and partially closes when the foot is take Fig. 45.—This illustrates two methods of closing crack in the wall of the hoof. One with horse-shoe nails and tt other with clamps that are applied with a special force’ like instrument. from the ground. This opening and closing pinche irritates and injures the soft tissues (sensitive leaves which press up into the crack. Germs readily ent: the tissue and produce inflammation and pus. Wh« the pinching occurs it produces great pain. Treatment.—lIf the crack can be closed in the ear stages before inflammation and pus appear, the pa’ will cease. The crack may be closed at the toe by ing small horse shoe nails and driving them throu; from one side of the crack to the other. Usual three or four nails are sufficient. It is well to cut little opening or hole 1-8 to 1-4 of an inch deep abo I-2 an inch from the crack; these holes can be ma! on each side so that the nail can enter the wall at 0 and come out at another directly opposite it. It, well to keep such a foot shod constantly. These na should hold the crack closed until a new hoof grovy, this will require 12 to 18 months. In many cases t wall at the quarter is too thin to permit the use, nails in closing the crack. In that case apply a sh that is about half way cut in two at the toe; have | nail holes run back to the heel; also an inside clip tl will catch on the bar at the inside of the heel next the frog. Nail on this shoe after preparing the foot} for normal shoeing; if the foot is very dry and hard may be necessary to pare away some hard part of TILLING THE SOIL FOR bar and cut. down the heel a little more than common. When the shoe is nailed on use the blacksmith’s tongs between the heels of the shoe and ward slowly and gradually until crack is closed. In close the press them out- some cases it may be necessary to partly erack the first time and in three or four days complete it, The objection to the use of such a shoe is that it must remain on, being re-set every three or four weeks, for 6 to 12 months. This seriously with the expansion and health of the foot. | When pus and inflammation are so great that the track cannot be closed, it is well to cut away the horn pn each side of the crack, until it is so thin that it will ‘not pinch the soft tissue. Now cleanse the part, apply ar and cotton or hoof ointment and cotton and a ban- lage so as to produce pressure. Repeat this applica- jion every day until no more pus is present, then re- interferes peat it only about once a week. During this treat- | nent the animal must have rest, and in the course of ‘t month or six weeks it may be in such a condition “hat a normal shoe may be applied and the animal put ie work. i HORNY TUMOR of the WALL. This involves the wall of the hoof, the sensitive and Insensitive leaves, and the third phalanx, os pedis or offin bone. Causes.—It may be a sequel of toe crack or quar- Yer crack; the nail of the shoe may be driven too (lose to the quick and long continued pressure cause \his trouble, toe clips and quarter clips may also in- jluce it by long continued pressure; clefts or openings jn the white line at the union between the sole and the wall may permit dirt, sand and small pebbles to work ‘ipward and produce )ause this trouble. pressure that would in time | Symptoms.—At first there appears an lameness, which is hard to locate; ytessure with the hoof searchers or the blacksmith’s /ippers, a sensitive place may be found. Closely ex- jmining the white line will show that this line at the Jensitive place is obscure or bent inward toward the ‘fog. Sometimes an opening may be found which is illed with dirt. After locating the place involved, Jake a small, narrow, and long knife, a small pointed ‘Tawing knife is best, clean out the part from the vite line up on the inside of the wall, going up as /ar as any dirt or soft, white, leafy insensitive tissue obscure later, by applying PROFIT AND PLEASURE. 323 may be found. This will require much care and pa- tience, and sometimes it will be necessary to cast the animal before it can be done. ~When cleaned plug the hole with tar and cotton; completely repeat the dressing daily and apply hoof ointment every day. If not completely removed, the tumor will return in the course of a few months; then it may be removed may be necessary to remove a strip of the wall from its lower border to the upper border, about 1-2 inch wide, again. Sometimes it immediately over the tu- Then the entire tumor can be removed; after its removal, apply cotton and hoof ointment or tar and bandage so as to apply pressure. Repeat the dressing every day for three or four days and there- after about once a week. In the course of two months the shoe may be applied and the animal put to light work. It will require 12 to 18 months be- fore a new hoof will mor. be developed. SIDE BONES. The lateral cartilages, the involved in an- which are diseased in cartilagenous quittor, are sometimes other disease called Side Bones. In this lime salts are deposited in the cartilage in sufficient quantity to harder and inflexi- This trouble is more frequently found in front than in the hind foot. make the cartilage become larger, ble. the It is also more frequent- ly found in mules than in horses in the South. Fig. 46—Shows side bones. a ring bone at pastern joint and two furrows in the toe of the third phalanx produced by pressure of a horny tumor of the wall. 324 Causes.—In health the back and upper part of the cartilages are pressed outward when the foot expands at the time it is on the ground and bearing weight. If the nails in the shoes are back in the quarter and heel, as is so commonly the case in shoeing mules, this form or kind of shoeing prevents expansion and increases pressure on the lower part of the cartilage. Fig. 47—A photograph of a left front foot of a mule show- ing two side bones extending above the outer parts of the superior border of the wall of the hoof. Long continued work under such conditions produces a low and slow form of inflammation, which finally results in the formation of a side bone. Excessive drying out of the hoof also contracts the wall, makes it harder, less flexible, and thus increases pressure, It is possible that overwork and over expansion of the lateral cartilages might lead to inflammation which would result in which may result in side bone. lime deposits in the cartilage. Sometimes side bones may be associated with navicular disease, quarter cracks, cartilagenous quittor, ring bones and occa- sionally it is said to be a sequel to founder. Again it is possible that a direct injury which might not cause an open wound might result in side bone; this, how- ever, is very infrequent. Symptoms.—The lameness will be more intense on hard than on soft ground. In the early stages there may be distinct sensitiveness or flinching when the In the later stages the cartilage will be hard, inflexible and cartilage is pressed by the thumb or finger. large. Sometimes the enlargement is so great that it makes the mule foot appear as if it had bunions, and wider: above than below, this is especially so if both cartilages are involved. If you can’t feed and water your own stock, have a responsible man do so. SS | Treatment.—In the early stages apply cold water | or soak out the feet in water to reduce the fever.) When the animal is removed from the water and the| feet nearly dry, apply hoof ointment all over the hoof, See that the shoes thereafter are not nailed at the) heel or quarters and that the foot does not dry out} or become too hard in dry weather; excessive dry- ness of hoof may be prevented by frequent applica-/ tion of hoof ointment. In old standing cases, where the cartilage is large, hard and inflexible, try to in-| duce greater expansion at the heel by frequent soak-| ing the feet and frequent applications of hoof oint-| ment. This may not cure the trouble or remove the} enlargement, but may relieve the pressure and the’ pain, and thus enable the horse or mule to do consid-| erable work on the farm. It is a good plan to keep! such an animal off the hard road, and work it only on} the farm in the soft fields where the animal will not! suffer so much pain. It is possible to relieve the} pain entirely by taking away the nerve supply to that; part of the foot; this can only be done by an expert.) NAVICULAR DISEASE. The navicular bone, the flexor tendon, which plays| over the back surface of this bone, and the sheath that covers this tendon are the parts involved in nay-| These parts are somewhat deeply situated and cannot be felt or seen; hence the change: icular - disease. that occur are not visible on the surface { Causes.—It is probable that a tendency to navicu lar disease is inherited from some near ancestor Deep punctures that may reach the sheath, the ten: don, or the bone may cause this trouble. It is possi Fig. 48—N is the navicular bone showing conditions as 1) navicular disease. 3 is the os pedis with bony and rougl growths from osteitis and s is the second phalanx with ¢ ring bone. . TILLING THE SOIL FOR ble that excessive strains on the tendon may result n navicular disease. Some persons claim that bruises or bruising strokes over the region of the frog might hause it: this is very doubtful. If the foot becomes Iry, contracted or hard, there is little expansion and ittle dispersion of concussion; the navicular bone is lirectly under the gravity line of the limb, and as a lesult it receives this increased shock or concussion; iow if this condition of excessive concussion on the \avicular bone be continued indefinitely on a hard joad, it is very likely that the bone will suffer; or it Will result in some form of inflammation of the bone. “his seems to be the most common cause of navicu- hr disease. It is said that horses which have rheu- hatism or big head are very liable to have navicular Horses with short, upright pasterns and flat jisease. et usually have excessive concussion on the bone; ind this may be one of the predisposing causes of nav- ular disease. i Symptoms.—At first there will be obscure lame- less, and it will be difficult to find any swelling, in- ity or change in the limb to account for this lame- ess. The lameness may disappear and recur again 1 two or three weeks. After a few days it may dis- ‘pear and return in a few weeks. This periodic ming and going of lameness may be kept up for ‘e or two years before the horse becomes contin- busly lame. If the foot or hoof is not already con- acted smaller than its opposite, it may become so in je course of six months or a year; this is partly due \ non-use of that foot. In some cases the muscles \the shoulder will shrink, a result of non-use, on ac- junt of the lameness in the foot. Very rarely is this et found in the hind foot, but it is more frequent | the front foot; and sometimes it may be in both jont feet. If in both front feet, the horse will shift 2 weight from one foot to the other, and try to keep 2 feet when standing, in advance of a normal ‘n. Backing is rather difficult; the steps are short, id the animal walks as if on stilts. Except in rare ses the animal is more lame when it is first taken ‘\t of the stall than it is after being driven some ne. The lameness is more intense on hard ground Pavement than on soft ground. Occasionally a 1. step will produce violent pain; and the animal for ‘ynetime may be unable to bear weight on that foot ‘thout great pain. If one foot is involved the posi- ‘n of that limb or foot may indicate something of 4 ' character of the disease. Some say the foot wili posi- PROFIT AND PLEASURE. 325 be extended in front of its opposite, others that it will be held back on the toe; but it is more probable that the animal will shift the position of the foot from one place to another, in order to secure rest and from pain. It is often asserted that pressure in the hollow of the heel with the thumb will produce pain and flinching; this is not to be relied upon, relief because many horses are excessively sensitive to this pressure. If the animal is shod, it will be noticed that the toe of the shoe is worn away much faster than the heel. If it is not shod, the toe of the wall is worn away fas- ter than the heel. Sometimes the foot may be picked up and twisted or wrenched with the hand from side to side, and this will cause flinching or pain. In making a diagnosis all other parts of the limb must be carefully examined in order to see that there is no other cause for the that a horse lame with navicular disease is quite often said to be lame in the shoulder. lameness. Remember Fig. 49.—Same as Fig. 48 except the first and second phalanges are in their natural position, Treatment.—In the early stages give the animal rest with slight and regular daily exercise; soak out the feet and apply hoof ointment to prevent contraction and induce expansion. Sometimes it may be neces- sary and useful to rasp away the wall over the quar- ters and heel, until it is so thin you can make an im- pression by pressure with the thumb; also rasp down the heels and lower border of the wall, and cut away. the bars until they are quite thin. Now apply hoof 326 Good judgment is a good thing ointment and let the animal take exercise every day in a pasture. A soft and wet pasture if possible. The hoof ointment should be applied to that foot every day. In the course of two or three months that foot should have become as large and as well ex- panded at the heels as its opposite. In old standing cases the only means of relief is to “nerve” the foot. This operation removes a section of the nerves that supplies the foot with sensation; this can only be done by an expert. However, it must be remem- bered, that with proper care and judicious handling, a horse with navicular disease may do considerable slow work on the farm if kept off the hard roads. RING BONE. This disease usually involves the first and second phalanges, and sometimes the third phalanx or os pe- dis is also involved. The regions enlarged may be the pastern and the coronet. An inflammation in the bone or involving both bones and the pastern articu- lation, usually results in a bony enlargement. Ring bone may occur in any limb, but it is more common in the front limbs than in the hind. Causes.—A tendency to ring bone may be inherit- ed. A bad conformation may also be inherited. A short upright pastern predisposes a horse to ring bone, because it increases concussion. Some assert that a long oblique pastern increases the weight to such an extent on the tendons and ligaments that they are lia- ble to be torn loose or become diseased at their points of attachment; this would in turn produce inflamma- tion in the periosteum, the vascular membrane that Fig. 50.—A ring bone at the pastern joint. The joint is stiff and the bony growth is large. 1 is the first phalanx and 2 is the second phalanx. The fetlock is at the upper end of (1) and the coffin bone or os pedis is below (2). in the management ot stock. covers the bone, and finally result in a bony enlarge- ment or ring bone. Rheumatism and big head are said to be predisposing causes of ring bone. The real exciting cause of ring bone is excessive concussion, re-| sulting from short, upright pasterns, high stepping, hard roads and pavements, an excesively dry, hard and inexpansible hoofs. Symptoms.—In the beginning a small enlargement may apear somewhere along the front or latteral sides. of the pastern or corners. The enlargement may be. so small that it is hard to detect. Lameness may be more or less severe, according to the ‘extent and lo: cation of the inflammation. If the pastern articula tion is involved, the lameness may increase with ex:| ercise. If there is no enlargement on tae back sur} face of the pastern or coronet of the front limb, the, animal will try to bear most of the weight on th heel: often the heel will be placed on the ground first] and then on the toe. In the hind limb the anima | will usually put most of the weight on the toe. I cases of some standing the enlargement will be mor prominent, it will be hard and bony, and the anima may be more lame or more stiff; the pastern join may become obliterated or in other words the firs and second phalanges firmly united by a bony de posit. Treatment.—Rest is very essential in this disease If there is much fever and pain it may be well t apply cold water for several hours each day until th’ fever is reduced; then apply some of the followin. ointment : : i 4 4 drams. 2 ounces. Mercuric Iodide Vaseline Mix thoroughly and apply all around the | pastern over the ring bone after clipping off the hair with the scissors or clippers. This should be rubbed in well; it is best to apply | it at night and tie the halter strap so short that the animal cannot reach the foot with its lips; keep the animal thus tied for 24 hours. The ointment will blister and make the part swell and become more or less sore on, the skin. In the course of two oF three days the pastern may be washed with water and soap, and a little vaseline applied. In two or three weeks, if the animal is still lame, make a second application of this oint , ale lore. wie ojo) .e/,efgol'w (0) 10109 0L\0)1°, 4° eminem Pt | plint bone and the cannon, are called splints. In ment in. the same manner. Remember that rest for a considerable time—from one to four months—is very essential to the treatment of ring bone in its early stage. In old cases, where the bony growth is large, the ‘listering treatment may not do much good. Then ie only means of relief is to remove the nerve supply ‘) that part of the limb. In all cases it is well to note he condition of the hoof; if it is dry and hard, soak | up and apply hoof ointment regularly. SPLINTS. |Bony enlargements along the lateral borders of he cannon bone, at the line of union, between the pene animals a splint bone is united to the cannon _pne by a ligament. In some cases this ligament be- ‘mes injured and inflammation appears, which re- iilts in bony enlargement and union of the two pnes. Sometimes the union is made without an ex- /rnal enlargement. |Causes.—Splints occur in young horses far more fre- tently than in old ones; this is especially true if the bung horse is put to severe work on a hard road or avement. The concussion becomes so great that /e interosseous ligament uniting the two bones be- ‘mes partly separated from the bone, or the perios- m becomes injured and consequently inflamed; jis results in the formation of a bony growth to jore firmly unite the bone. It is during this period inflammation and bony growth that the animal is me. Asa rule, a splint that is present in an old tse rarely produces lameness; because that splint is formed when the animal was young. Symptoms.—In the very beginning lameness is ie only symptom of the disease; in a short time an largement may appear along the border of the splint | \ne or the cannon. This may be quite small at first d afterwards become more prominent. In some [ses more than one small enlargement may appear png the border of the cannon; then the animal is id to have a beaded splint. The lameness during ° growth of a splint increases with exercise and is iy intense on hard roads than on soft ground. Oc- sionally an enlargement may appear along the inner 4] ! TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. 327 border of the splint bone near the tendons and sus- pensory ligament. This cannot be seen but may be felt by lifting up the foot and pushing the tendons to one side. This form of splint is often called a peg- splint. Splints occur most frequently on the inside border of the front cannon; occasionally they occur on the outside border of the front cannon and quite rarely appear in the hind limb. Sometimes a splint on the inside of the front limb will cause the horse to throw his foot outward when in motion. The most serious form of splints are those that are high up near the knee in the front limb, or near the hock in the hind limb; also the peg-splint is liable to cause severe and sometimes incurable lameness. Treatment.—Rest is important in the treatment of splints, but not absolutely necessary. The blistering ointment recommended for beginning ring bone may be applied toa splint. It will not remove the enlarge- ment, but may remove the lameness after one or two applications. The cause of pain in a splint is often due to pressure of the bony enlargement against the per- Fig. 51.—Shows the bones of sound hock. o is the os- calis which forms the point of the hock and to which is at- tached the large ham-strong tendon; a is the astragalus which articulates with the lower end of the tiba; se is the scaphoid, sometimes called the middle cuneiform; Ic is the large cuneiform; ¢c the cuboid; s the external splint bone; can is the cannon ‘bone. Between the scaphoid (sc) and the larger cuneiform (lc) is the place where a bone spavin usually begins. 328 iosteum. In order to relieve this pressure, a needle- pointed firing iron may be pressed down through the skin and periosteum when the iron is red hot. This serves in place of blister and also relieves the pressure en the periosteum. Some surgeons use a knife and in- sert it in a small opening under the skin and cut the periosteum; but this can only be done by the qualified expert. It is never advisable for an ordinary man to attempt to chisel away or cut off splints. As a rule, an expert veterinarian does not cut off a splint. Remember that old splints which do not produce lame- ness are not considered as causes of unsoundness. Old splints are generally regarded as only unsightly and a slight blemish. BONE SPAVIN. In most cases this disease is confined to the four small bones on the lower part of the tarsus or hock. Fig. 52.—The left hock showing a well developed bone spavin. In other cases it may involve also the two upper bones of the tarsus, the lower end of the tibia, and the upper end of the cannon, and one or both small splint bones. Causes.— Narrow hocks and crooked hocks are pre- disposed to bone spavin. The narrow hock is too Horses and mules do not know everything. . small to witHstand the pressure from concussion and the pressure from the pinching action in extreme flex- ion of the hock while in motion. It is possible that rheumatism and big head predispose a horse to spay- in. It is also very probable that a tendency to bone | spavin is inherited. Young animals, race horses, hunt- | ers are said to be predisposed to bone spavin; but in | many cases this may be due to the violent and severe work required of the hock in these kinds of work. The exciting causes of spavin are excessive cencussions, great pinching action and possibly the partial tear-/ ing of ligaments of the hock. Concussion when eae sive and prolonged produces inflammation in the small bones, where it is most severe. The pinching action occurs when the hock is excessively flexed; then the small bones are pinched very like the nut in the nut cracker. The tearing of ligaments may occur when the foot is caught and the animal pulls to get loose; this seems to be very rarely the cause of bone spavin, In fact, it is about as rare as the production of bone spavin by direct strokes or injuries. Symptoms.—In many cases a_ small enlargement first appears on the inner and front aspect of the low er part of the hock. At first this enlargement will bi so small that it is difficult to detect. Rub down thi hair on both hocks and compare one with the other using the fingers and the eyes. In cases of som standing this enlargement will be sufficient in size ti be seen and felt quite easily. In other cases there may) be no outer enlargement, and yet there will be a bon| spavin present; in this. case the inflammation is con fined to the articular surfaces between the small bones The bone spavin with an outer enlargement is calle a periosteal ‘spavin. One without an outer er) largement is called an occult or hidden spavin. Th| lameness in spavin is peculiar. In periosteal spavi| the lameness usually gets worse with exercise. Th! length of the step in the limb with spavin is shorte| than usual. In moving the foot forward in flexing th cannon and hock of the tibia there is often a kind ¢ hitching, double movement. This is not always preset’ and it is hard to observe, when it occurs. If the foot | held up in the position in which the blacksmith hol) the hind foot while shoeing it, for five or six minutes then the animal is immediately forced to trot the lam) ness will be greatly intensified; often the animal wi) start off on three limbs, holding the lame limb fro’ the ground. In some cases the animal will raise tl | instances with success. TILLING THE SOIL FOR limb upward, and higher than usual, somewhat in the manner indicating stringhalt. Pushing the animal from one side of the stall to the other, may produce signs of lameness. Treatment.—With proper treatment over 50 per cent. of the cases should recover from the lameness. The enlargement may not disappear and a little stiff- ness may remain. Rest is essential in treating this disease. Point and line firing have been used in many If point firing is used, the small point should be pushed down into the enlarged Fig. 53—Two hocks showing two different bone spavins. bone, through the periosteum, over the entire enlarge- ment; the points should not be closer than 1-2 inch to one another. In line firing the lines are about 1-2 inch from one another. Some advise cutting the tendon which runs obliquely down over this region, and re- moving a section of the tendon. Others advise in- )perting a curved knife under the skin and cutting the | periosteum over the bone in one or two places. As a ‘tule, the firing and the operations above suggested can only be done by the expert. PROFIT AND PLEASURE. 329 The farmer can best use applications. The following is one of the many that may be tried: blistering Red Iodide of Mercury ...... 4 drams. Pulverized Cantharides ...... 3 drams. diunpentine san =e eee I fluid ounce Maseliney tas dconcn vont eee 3 Ounces Mix thoroughly and apply some of it all around the hock covering the enlargement; it may be well to clip Fig. 54—Hind view bone spavin (sf). bone spavin. hock This is sometimes called a “periosteal” of showing a well developed the hair before applying; always rub it in well. Tie the halter strap short, so that the animal cannot reach the hock with his lips. Keep him thus tied for 24 hours. The application should not be repeated under three or four weeks. During this time the animal should have rest in a box shall or small pasture. DISEASES OF THE TENDONS AND LIGA- MENTS. Most commonly this involves the back tendons in the cannon region; also the suspensory ligament and the sub-carpal tendon, or check ligament, may be in- volved. If the back or flexed tendons at the cannon region are injured by sprain or a stroke from kicking, and sometimes from the single-tree or plough, they may become inflamed. It is believed that over-work and exhaustion of the muscles will lead to sprain and inflammation of the tendons. Symptoms.—As a rule, the enlargement of the ten- dons may be seen and felt. The enlargement may not 330 In bad weather see to it that be very great, and a swelling in the skin should not be mistaken for an enlargement of dhe lameness usually gets worse with exercise and with work. In old, standing cases the inflamed and enlarg- ed tendons may contract and become shorter; this will pull back the foot in varying degrees and_ likewise push forward and over the fetlock. Thus the horse may become “cock-ankled,” and in some cases may be so bad that the animal walks on the toe or on the front wall of the hoof, instead of the sole and frog. The suspensory ligament begins on the back sur- face at the upper end of the cannon bone, between the heads of the two splints bones; it runs downward on this surface to about the lower third of the cannon; here it divides into an inner and an outer branch. Each branch runs downward and forward over the fetlock of its corresponding sesamoid bone, and then bears downward and forward untilit unites with the anterior extensor tendon. This ligament helps hold up the fetlock and is the one pressed by the thumb and inger when we wish to make the horse raise its and finger when we wish to make the horse raise its foot. If injured, it occurs usually along one of the branches just above the fetlock, and the enlargement may be seen and felt. The sub-carpal tendon or check ligament is a down- ward extension of the back ligament of the carpus or knee; it runs downward from the back part of the knee between the back tendon and the upper part of the suspensory ligament, It unites with the deep flexor or back tendon about the middle of the cannon region. It may be injured by sprains and possibly by direct strokes. If injured, it is enlarged and the enlargement may be felt. In determining enlargements of these tendons or ligaments always compare the tendon or ligament with the same in the opposite limb. the tendons. Treatment.—There is no disease producing lame- ness in which rest is more essential than in inflamma- tion of the tendons and ligaments. Secure a woolen flannel bandage 4 to 5 yards long and 2 or 3 inches broad. It may be well to have two or three of these. Wet this bandage and put it on from the pastern up to the knee; it may be drawn mod- erately tight, but not too tight. As it dries out it con- tracts and produces pressure. The water also reduc- es inflammation. wet it again, or use another, and apply as before. Re- move, wet, and re-apply this or another bandage six to ten times a day. In cold weather four to five times When it has become dry, remove it, cae eet , knee sprung the stock have exercise. a day may be all that is necessary. This should be kept up a least two weeks, If at the end of that time the enlargement and lameness have not disappeared, apply over the enlarged part some of the blistering ointment recommended for beginning ring bone. Do not repeat this blister for two or three weeks. If the tendons have contracted, the ankle thrown forward, and the foot backward, the only means of relief is an operation that cuts one or both of the tendons and per- mits the limb to become straight. This can only be done by the expert. Tendons in other parts of the limbs may become inflamed. For example, the tendons back and above the knee may become contracted and produce the *.condition. Sometimes this may be Occasionally the “ham operation. remedied by an Check ligament Splint bone Flexor perofraus Cannon bone Flexor perforatus Suspensory Ligament Fig. 55—Shows the position and relations of some of the parts of the front limb. Along the line of union between the splint bone and the cannon is the location of splints. The location of the suspensory ligament is also clearly de- fined. The check ligament or subcarpal ligament is visible, The back tendons, here designated flexor perforans and flex- or perforatus, are known respectively as the deep flexor and | the superficial flexor tendons. TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. string” tendon above the hock may be injured; but this is rare unless there be a distinct wound, such asacutor bruise. If the “ham string” tendon is com- pletely severed, little can be done by the ordinary man to produce recovery. CURB. Any enlargement along the back border of the hock from just below the point of the hock down to the cannon is said to be a curb. Usually a curb involves a ligament running along beneath the tendons at this border. Sometimes is involves the tendons and occa- sionally it may be associated with enlargement of the bone. Causes.—Crooked hocks or crooked hind limbs and young horses are predisposed to curbs, No doubt ex- cessive strain on a weak hock will injure the liga- ment or the tendon. A tendency to this disease, es- pecially a crooked hock, may be inherited. In fact, some instances a stroke against a single-tree or other hard objects might produce this trouble; but this is extremely rare. Curbs are produced in young horses when they are over-worked or when they are being broken, and they rear up frequently, throwing exces- sive weight and strain up on the hocks. Symptoms.—A distinct enlargement or bulging along the back border of the hock is a positive sign of curb. This may be best observed by standing at one side. In the early stages there may be some lo- cal fever and some sensitiveness on pressure with the thumb or fingers. Generally the lameness increases with exercise ; yet in some cases the lameness appears to be better after the animal is warmed up. Treatment—In the early stages apply cold water bandages for a week or more. Then apply the mer- curic iodide blister (see treatment for ring-bone for this blister). If the horse is still lame at the end of three weeks, repeat the blister. Some fire in lines and blister at the same time. Rest in a box stall is very essential. If the animal is a colt or young and playful, he should be restrained from running, jumping and rearing. In old horses a curb may be present which | is of long standing and not attended with lameness. Common law would hold such an animal as unsound, yet the animal may never go lame from the curb. 331 DROPSICAL CONDITIONS OF THE SYNOVIAL SACS. These conditions are commonly called “wind galls.” However, the soft, puffy enlargements never contain- ed air or gas, but nearly always contain an excess of synovia, the lubricating material of joints and tendons. The synovial membrance becomes injured or chang- es in such a way that synovia is secreted faster than it is absorbed; this results in an excess of thick and ab- normal synovia, which distends or dilates the synov- ial sac, producing the enlargement. Causes.—Injuries of the synovial membrane may be so slight that the changes come on very gradually. Sometimes the slight pinching or pressure on the se- creting cells of the synovial membrance may result in their destruction. Over-work in many cases may account for this trouble by causing over stimulation and secretion by the synovial membrane. QOccasion- ally this trouble may be associated with rheumatism or big head. It also may be a sequel to severe inflam- mation of an articulation or tendon. Symptoms.—In the early stages there may be lameness, but as a rule lameness is absent. When the weight is off the limb, the enlargement is soft and puffy, but when the weight is on the limb it may feel hard and tense. This variation is due to the varia- tion in the pressure of the liquid against the wall of the sac. In very old, standing cases, as in old horses, lime salts may be deposited in the tissues around the sac, and thus it may become hard and bone-like; in these cases lameness may be more or less severe. The most common one of these synovial distensions is found at the fetlock, it is just above the fetlock, along the inner and outer border of the back tendon; this is a distension of the sac of the deep’ flexor tendon. Another is found just in front of the branch of the suspensory ligament; this is a distension of the synov- ial sac of the fetlock articulation. Another is found on the front surface of the fetlock. This is a dilatation of the sac of the anterior extensor tendon. On the front, the outside, and the back surface of the knee may oc- cur five different synovial distensions of sacs of ten- dons and the articulation. Occasionally one may oc- cur at the point of the elbow, and also at the point of the shoulder. In the hind limb three may occur at the fetlock as in the front limb. At the hock one may oc- 35- cur at the point of the hock. Another may occur on the back part of the hock; this shows a soft, puffy en- largement that is larger on the inside than the out- side; it lies on the back surface some distance from the point of the hock and the “ham string” tendon, and the inside enlargement often extends down along the back part of the inside surface of the hock. This is a distension of the deep flexor tendon synovial sac of the hock. It is sometimes called a tendinous thoroughpin. The distension of the articular synovi- al sac at the hock may occur in three places; one at the internal, upper and front aspect of the hock, com- monly called “bog spavin;” another on the back sur- face and internal part, and a third on the back sur- face and external part. The last two are called an ar- ticular thoroughpin. The distensions called “bog spavin” and articular thoroughpin may be changed Pressing on the bog spavin will enlarge ’ by pressure. the distensions on the back surface of the hock, and pressing on the inside or outside of the back surface will enlarge its opposite or the “bog spavin.” Some- times the bog spavin enlargement is present without any enlargements on the back surface. At the stifle a synovial enlargement may appear, but this is not common. Another may occur just over the upper ‘rend of the femur directly over and to the outside of the hip joint. This is a distension of the synovial sac of the tendon of a muscle. Treatment—As a rule, it is unwise and dangerous to open the sac-of an articulation, because it may lead to inflammation of the articulation, and result in a stiff joint. Moreover, it is not wise or safe to open all synovial sacs of tendons. The following synovial sacs of tendons may be opened with some degree of safety; the sac of the anterior extensor tendon at the fetlock may be opened at its lower part. The synovi- al sac distension at the point of the elbow may be freely opened. The distension at the point of the hock, commonly called “capped hock,” may be open- ed on its back part low down and to one side. After opening any of these sacs keep them cleansed by us- ing boiled and cooled water and creolin or carbolic acid, and as a rule it is well to let the animal have some ex- ercise every day. The other tendinous sacs may be treated by applying blisters and sometimes by using an aspirating needle and drawing off the excess of thick and abnormal synovia. This is a hollow, sharp- pointed needle, like a large hypodermic, and is pushed Some horses need whipping; some don’t. into the sac and the liquid allowed to escape; it can be done every day for a few days and then the follow- ing blister mav be aplied. Pulverizede Canthanidess on the condition of the weather. (See f gure 57.) Treatment—Some advise firing in lines from above to below on the outside, inside and front, and imme- diately after firing applying a good, stiff blister. In some cases this is followed by good results. The farmer might try the following blister: Mercunicalodidessanc csc seot ee ene 6 drams, PulverizedeCanthanidesie -. 5-6. chee oeee 2 drams, Murpembines ve iF5av-5-1 se yctonc arteries 2 fluid ounces, Mase lime Nel eticigicasierousteteivohele or sienstan east 4 ounces. Mix thoroughly, apply and rub well over the out- side, front, and inside of the articulation; for the first 24 hours the animal must be tied so that he cannot lie down; also apply some to stifle, or apply a bandage around the abdomen. This is to prevent blister from getting on the abdomen. Repeat the application of this blister in the same manner in three or four weeks. If both limbs are involved, do not treat both limbs at the same time, but apply the blister on the one about a week after applying it on the other. It should be re- membered that many of the old standing cases of this trouble cannot be cured. lard over the abdomen next the SHOE BOIL. This occurs at the point of the elbow, and is caus- ed by the horse lying down on. his feet like a cow. The hoof or the shoe injures the tissues at the elbow. At first there is a soft swelling, which in the course of 23 338 If your horse gets sick, weeks develops into a fibroid tumor. This tumor will vary in size, according to its age and rapidity of growth. Usually it is about the size of a man’s fist, but sometimes it becomes much larger. Treatment.—In the early stages it is best to try to prevent the animal lying down in that way and con- tinually injuring the part. Some apply a large leath- ed pad around the pastern; the animal lies down and the weight rests on the pad instead of the foot. Oth- ers apply a padded boot for the same purpose. But these methods are troublesome and are often neglect- ed. Others use some short strips one inch thick, 1 don’t wait, but doctor him, 1-2 to 2 inches wide, and two to three feet long; these are nailed across the middle front part of the stall; when the horse lies down on his feet these strips hurt his cannons and he rolls over on his side, taking the weight off the feet. It works very well as long as the horse is kept in his own stall, The habit is very difficult to break. The injured part in the beginning will very soon get well if the cause is removed. If a tumor is present it must be removed by the use of the knife. During the time the wound is healing the horse may learn to lie down in the proper way. But some horses produce another tumor in the same old way. FRACTURES. The breaking of any bone of the body into two or more parts is a fracture. They are caused by violent contacts and in rare cases by powerful action of mus- cles. An old animal, one with big head and some- times animals with other bone diseases become pre- disposed to fracture of bones because the bones are weaker than normal or healthy bones. Fractures are classified under several heads, but here only a few of the most important will be considered. A simple fracture is one where the bone is broken without an external wound opening down to the bone. A com- pound fracture is one where there is a wound extend- ing down to the fractured bone. A comminuted frac- ture is one in which there are a number of small pieces of bone at the place of the fracture. We may have a simple comminuted fracture, as well as a compound comminuted fracture. The fractured bone may be broken squarely across its long axis, or obliquely or lengthwise of the bone. The bone may be broken partly into two parts but usually it is entirely bro- ken into two parts, The fracture may extend into an articulation, then it is called an articular fracture. Symptoms.—Increased motility of the part is very prominent in places where the bones are not deeply covered by muscles. If the scapula, the humerus, the pelvis, and sometimes the femur are broken it may be difficult to detect it by the motility of the parts. Then we must depend upon the grating or crepita- tion caused by the moving of the broken pieces in contact with each other; often this grating sound or -be successfully treated. motion can be heard and felt. Sometimes the parts are dislocated or displaced, and this will enable one to defect a fracture. In the course of a day the tis- sues around the fracture will be greatly swollen and it will then be more difficult to determine its pres- ence or absence. thoracic breathing, sometimes by displacement of the parts, and in a few instances a knowledge of the A fracture of the back one of the spinal vertebrae will usually cause pa- ralysis of the hind limbs. If a horse becomes injured and is so paralyzed that he cannot stand on his hind feet, and there is no other explanation of the trouble, it may be safely regarded as a fracture of one of the | | cause of the injury may help. or bones of the back. However, before killing the ani- mal, it may be best to secure the diagnosis of a veter- inarian. Treatment— In old horses and horses of little val- ue, it is doubtful whether it.pays to treat fractures of the limbs in such animals. Young horses, especially 4 those that are not extra heavy, may in many instances In treating a fracture it is | important to get the horse in a position where exces- sive movements and use of the fractured limb can be prevented. Asarule, it is best to place a horse witha fractured limb in slings, Slings can be improvised on the average farm at little expense and in a short time. Secure some cotton bagging and fold it over in four or five foot lengths, making at least three layers. Se Fractures of the ribs may be de- j tected by the soreness of the part, by the absence of | Z ? me! | ' i. “Skidoo,” owned by Miss Ottley, of Atlanta, 340 TILLING THE SOIL FOR cure four pieces of 1x4 plank about eight inches long- er than the cotton bagging is wide. With one of these pieces make one roll on the end of the cotton bagging and nail another piece to this; fix the other end of the three layers of cotton bagging in the same way. Holes may be made in the end of these pieces, into which ropes one or two feet longer than the piec- es may be tied. A tripod derrick may be made by tying together the small ends of three pine poles (not less than 6 inches in diameter and about 20 feet long) with a strong rope or chain; a few strong hands can raise this tripod, spreading the legs in a triangular Now attach a block and tackle to this tri- pod. It may be well to place the tripod over the horse or near the horse, so that the horse may be placed under it without much trouble. With the horse under the tripod, pass one end of the cotton bagging under the horse, letting the middle of the bagging fit up around the body. With a strong sin- gletree or a heavy neck yoke attached at its middle to the rope of the block, the end ropes of the bagging sling may each be attached to its respective end of the singletree or neck yoke. Now by putting the rope in the block the horse may be raised and held ina standing position with its feet on the ground. It may be necessary to arrange a sort of a breast strap from one edge of the bagging around in front of the breast to the other; also another rope or strap be passed from one edge of the bagging around behind the buttock to the other. These ropes or straps will prevent the animal from falling out,in front or behind. The horse is now ready to have the fracture set, or the bones put in their natural pos- ifion, and bandages and splints applied to keep them in that place. It is well to have plenty of clean cot- ton and a great number of bandages. Bandages can be made by buying 5 to 10 yards of cheap cotton sheeting; this may be rolled up into one solid roll, and with a sharp butcher knife it may be cut into seg- ments 2 to 3 inches long; when cut the bandages will be 2 to 3 inches wide and already rolled. It may be well to have 3 or 4 pounds of plaster of Paris. Also position. may WOUNDS. An incised wound is a clean cut wound made with a sharp instrument. A lacerated wound is one that is torn and its lips are ragged. A punctured wound PROFIT AND PLEASURE. secure some pieces of paste-board, some thin strips of soft wood, and if possible, some pieces of sole leather. If the fracture is anywhere below the upper third of the forearm, or the upper half of the leg or, gaskin, it can be readily held in position by the prop- er application of splints and bandages. After get- ting the bones in position, apply a layer of cotton, holding it in place with bandage from the pastern up above the fracture. See that the cotton is smooth and that plenty of bandages are:used. “New apply strips of paste board all around the fractured” place, and confine them there’ with bandages. — In « some| cases it may be well to wet the bandages and then| apply some wet plaster of Paris with the hand) A thin layer of plaster of Paris may be around the fracture and some distance above below. Now put on more strips of pasteboard ot thin strips of wood and apply more bandage. Then apply another layer of plaster of Paris. Over this; may be applied more bandage. It is always well tc see that the ends of the wood strips and the upper and lower borders of the layers of plaster of Pari are well protected with cotton. If it is a simple frac ture, and the dressing does not change its place 0 get out of position it may remain undisturbed for. to 6 weeks, when it may be removed and no othe | replaced if the bones are united. If the bones ar not united, it may be necessary to apply the band ages and other materials so that an opening will bi left just over the wound that opens down to the frac tured bone. This opening may be enlarged while th dressing is fresh and before the plaster of Paris ha set. Sterilized cotton may be inserted around th wound and over the opening to protect and to cleans the wound. The wound may be dressed and cleanse with boiled water, boiled cotton, and other antisepti dressings. This may be done once a day or as ofte, as necessary. It should be remembered that com pound fractures will require more care and d not recover as readily or as frequently as do simpl fractures. aed is usually small and deep. It is made by a shar} pointed instrument. A contused or bruised wound made with a blunt object that does not cut but crus! * Don’t wait for a more convenient time ss. A gun-shot wound is very like a punctured vound, except it is usually deeper. A poisoned ound is one that is made with a poisoned instrument : by the bite of a poisonous animal. Wounds heal by what is called first intention and by granulation. Vhen a wound heals by first intention its lips must be rought as near as possible into the natural position ind union takes place without leaving very much, if i scar. When a wound heals by granulation, the raulations fill up the space between the open lips of fe wound and form the scar; this scar contracts and \ usually very much smaller than the original gap- hg wound. Treatment.—In some cases, it may be necessary to yop the bleeding. This is best done by picking up he vessel with sterile forceps, and then tying the end the vessel with a thread that has been sterilized by piling it in water. But if this cannot be done, the ound may be packed with cotton or bandage that ‘as been sterilized by boiling it in water with some "eolin or carbolic acid. Over the cotton packed in \e wound firmly pressing against the bleeding ves- Is, a bandage may be tied. This dressing may be t until the following day, when it may be removed (id another applied if necessary. In some _ cases essure above or below the wound will show the lo- ‘tion of the blood vessel by stopping the fiow of ‘ood; then a piece of cork or a knot in a_ bandage hay be made to press over this spot by the use of press, and thus stop the bleeding. If the wound not bleeding excessively, it may be dressed with Hy good antiseptic, being careful to have all the tton, the bandage and the water completely steril- d by boiling and using in the water some carbolic (id, creolin or bichloride of mercury. Some wounds a ybe benefited by using stitches to close them. If ere is no filth or dirt in the wound, and you are (tain that it is clean, do not wash it, especially if u cannot use sterile material in cleaning it. Stitch up without washing. The stitches may be deep or allow, according to the depth of the wound. Sin- ‘or separate stitches about 1-2 inch apart may be ed; or the whip stitch may be used, which is con- uous from one end of the wound to the other. It well to leave the lowest part of the wound slightly fn, so that it may drain. Be sure to boil the thread water for about one hour before using it to stitch a wound. It is best to use silk thread. Remember t where muscles are cut and pull the wound open, to do anything about the stock. 341 _ stitches will not hold with any degree of satisfaction. If a wound becomes infected, discharging pus, it should be thoroughly cleansed with carbolic acid or creolin in boiled and cooled water and packed with stronger creolin and earbolic acid on bandages or in cotton each day, until the pus ceases to form. Then the wound need not be dressed every day. A wound that is not discharging pus should not be washed, be- cause washing removes granulations and retards heal- ing. Punctured wounds that are made-with old, dirty instruments, especially if such instruments have soil on them, are liable to lead to tetanus or lockjaw_ if they are not opened and thoroughly cleaned. This is especially true of nail punctures about the foot. Sometimes deep punctures may be cleansed by insert- out the wound with sterile water or with a good antiseptic so- lution. ing a small and long nozzle and washing If in doubt about a punctured wound, inject some tincture of iodine or a solution of potassium io- dide down into the bottom of the wound. After an hour or so this may be washed out with sterile water. If no syringe can be secured, saturate a small strip of bandage with the tincture of iodine or some strong carbolic acid or creolin, and with a darning needle or some other long, small instrument, push one end of this saturated bandage strip down to the bottom of the weund and leave it there until the next day. In dressing wounds that cannot ‘be bandaged a protective and antiseptic dust powder is often useful. A good dust powder may be made as follows: danmnic INcid Wehr ee eee ae 2 ounces. IB OnaCicwACI di nes aerate 2 ounces. Podotornieanvrseysetie ari I-2 ounce. Mix thoroughly and dust over the wound at least once a day, using enough to cover the entire wound surface with a thin layer of the powder. Another good powder can be made of equal parts of sub-nitrate of bismuth, oxide of zinc, calomel and air-slacked lime. This is applied in the same manner as the other dust powder, and has the advantage in that. it does not smell so bad. The following may be used instead of the dust pow- der as a protective and antiseptic lotion for wounds: Zinc Sulphate 2 ounces. xeeigh INCHES: Suadouseoudaude 2 ounces. 342 TILLING THE SOIL FOR CarboliceANcidiaaas cece 1 fluid ounce. Botledawateranmr eas strerit I quart. Mix and shake well just before using. SNAKE BITES. The treatment following the bite of a poisonous snake must be given quickly after the bite. In some cases, depending upon the location, a piece of the tis- sue may be cut out all around the bite. Some advise applying the mouth and sucking out the poison, spit- ting it out and rinsing out with water and an anti- septic solution. This mode of treatment has proven very successful in snake bites of man. Sometimes it may be benefited by using stitches to close them. If above the bite; it can only be done when the bite is in the lower part of the limb. Strong caustics, as strong ammonia, nitrate of silver, caustic soda, have been applied, and if used immediately and all parts of the wound are reached by the caustic, the results may be good’ Some claim that strong solutions of permanganate of potash, or tincture of iodine may be applied and worked into the wound. Local treatment may not do much good after the poison is absorbed; yet it may be best to apply the local treatment so as to destroy any poison that may remain unabsorbed. The swelling resulting from a snake bite may be treated by local applications of antiseptics once or twice per day. If necessary some stimulants may be given internally to keep up the strength of the ani- mal during the action of the poison. FISTULOUS WITHERS. A deep-seated injury of the withers leads to a deep- seated abscess. In some cases the injury may be on the surface and infection extend from this to the deep- er parts and result in an abscess. It is possible that pus germs might be transmitted by way of lymph or blood vessels to the deep structures in this region and result in an abscess. Some injuries of the withers may produce a serous cyst, in which there are. no in- fected germs; but when this is opened pus germs may gain admission through the opening. In such cases the liquid that escapes when the swelling is opened is a kind of thick lymph, slightly stained with blood. Sometimes when the cavity is opened pieces of dead tissue and pus or serum escape. Treatment.—It is essential to establish by opera- PROFIT AND PLEASURE. | . tion free openings to ail the cavities and to thorough ly clean out and remove all pus and dead tissue. I may be necessary to make one or more openings o1 each side of the withers. These openings should b! made so that the resulting wound will not gape to much. In the front part of the withers it may be bes to cut from below obliquely upward and forward; i the back part cut from below obliquely upward an forward. Never cut across the top of the wither: Using boiled water containing creolin or carbolie aci (1 ounce to the quart of water), and cotton that ha| been sterilized by boiling in water, thoroughly clea, out the cavities. It would be well to have a goor clean, hard-rubber, or metal syringe with a capacit of 2 to 6 ounces. This will be useful in forcing liqui to the bottom of the cavities. A pair of curved sci! sors are useful in cutting away pieces of dead tisst, in and around the cavity. Now saturate some bar’ dage with a mixture of equal parts of raw linseed c and turpentine. Pack the cavities full with this bai} dage, leaving one end lying in one of the openings, s| that it can be readily picked up when it is necdcht to remove this packing. In one or two days | the packing, thoroughly wash up the outer surtac with water containing boiled cotton and a little ba ing soda. If pus is coming from the cavities pack again as before, and repeat this dressing every day | every other day until pus is not formed in the cay ties; then the internal dressing or packing may not | repeated more frequently than. once a week. It important in treating these cases that great care observed in keeping out all the infection by using } materials that have not been thoroughly sterilized }j | boiling or otherwise. Also regular and constant ol and observation are necessary. When the parts haf healed keep all pressure of collar or saddle from tlh withers for several months. During treatment it | not best to work the animal, but if necessary, wu) breast harness. q POLL EVIL. This occurs at the poll and has similar causes, p/ sents similar symptoms and conditions to fistulcs withers. The treatment is quite similar, except opening the cavities at the poll the openings shot be made nearly parallel with the top border of 1? neck. The opening should be made large and to ce side, but never across the top. Apply the same tre - ment as for fistulous withers. 7 Good horses are the cheapest. 343 DIsEASES OF DIGESTIVE ORGANS. The Mouth.—In the mouth diseased teeth and in- flamed or ulcerated mucous membrane may occur; the tongue may also be wounded or paralyzed. If the teeth are diseased, it may be necessary to extract one Or more. This can only be done by some one who has had experience and is equipped with the proper instruments. If the mucous membrane be- comes inflamed or ulcerated, we may have small ul- cers on the tongue or other parts of the mouth; this may be attended by excessive slobbering and difficul- ty in eating and swallowing. It may be treated by washing out the mouth with water and then applying | a mixture of— | Hlucanimicn Acid fic... 23. 4 I ounce. | Garbolic Acid’ ..0.......: 1 fluid dram. | GIcenine sc.2. artes ee 4 fluid ounces. Watters ener ee 4 fluid ounces. | After washing out the mouth apply { this by means of a cotton swab, or inject 1 _asmall quantity into the mouth with a This can be done two or | three times a day. Feed the animal on } soft food; cut the hay or fodder and i steam it or scald it with hot water to | make it soft just before feeding. small syringe. | If the hard palate is swollen and the animal has I] lampas, resulting from cutting teeth, hard food, indi- \\ gestion or sore mouth, remove the cause or treat the | disease that is causing this trouble, or wait till the | animal gets over cutting teeth. It is not best to cut | the hard palate or to burn it for this trouble. Change 1 the feed and wait till the cause disappears and re- | covery will occur. \| | If the tongue is cut by rope or by bit or by the i} teeth, remove the cause and treat the wound with the i prescription advised for sore mouth. If the teeth | are cutting the tongue, or the upper teeth are cutting | the inside of the cheek, they should be clipped and | floated or filed down. This can be done by the prop- \] & use of a chisel and float that. may be secured at instrument houses. CHOKE. This is an obstruction in the pharynx or throat or in the oesophagus or gullet. In the horse it is usually caused by the animal eating greedily and bolting dry food, such as oats or peas in the hulls. Sometimes it may be caused by a cob or corn and cob meal. In the cow and piyz, choke results from an attempt to swallow old pieces of turnips, potatoes or apples. In a dog it occurs with an attempt to swallow bones, es- pecially fish bones. In some cases the gullet may be dilated and food collect in this dilitation in such a mass that it cannot be passed on into the stomach. In other cases the gullet becomes contracted, and this predisposes the horse to choking. Symptoms.—The animal makes violent efforts to swallow. If water is given one or two swallows may be started but usually the water comes out through the nostrils, and may be followed by coughing. In some cases you can feel and see the enlargement of the gullet along the left side and upper border of the wind pipe. But if the choke is in that part of the gullet that lies in the thorax it cannot be seen, and, as a rule, the horse dies in a short time. The cause of the death may be due to pressure on the heart, the large blood vessels, or upon nerves. When the choke is in the neck portion of the gullet, or in the throat, the horse may live three or four days and die from sys- temic infection, originating in the gullet or throat. Treatment.—Let the animal have free access to good, clean water. ‘The water which he attempts to swallow will soften up the obstructing material and help to remove it. Some advise giving mucilaginous or oily drinks to soften up the material and make the surfaces slippery. Whatever may be used it should not be forced down the animal, except in very small quantity, and then not too frequently. In some cases the long stomach tube, called a probang, may be pass- ed into the mouth and down the oesophogus; when it reaches the obstruction do not push heavily, or you will injure the cesophagus. If light pressure does not start the obstruction to move onward remove the pro- bang. In some cases the mouth of the horse or the 344 cow may be held open by means of pieces of board or specially constructed iron placed between the teeth to keep the mouth open; the hand may be passed through the mouth and into the throat or pharynx to remove the obstructing object. There is some dan- ger in this, but with care it can be done. Sometimes when the obstruction is in the neck part of the gullet it may bé worked loose with the fingers carefully pressing on it from the outside; it is usually best to try to work it back toward the mouth. Jt is inad- visable to use whip stocks, fork handles, or other like objects to torce the obstruction into the stomach; such implements usually injure the parts beyond re- covery. Sometimes a piece of smooth wire, about Io feet long, may be bent in the middle, the two ends being brought together, then twist the wires on each If this wire is very smooth it may be oiled with vaseline or raw linseed oil and passed down to the obstruction and with care in working the wire the other, leaving a small loop at the middle end. obstruction may be dislodged. The wire should not be too large, a No. 10 or 12 wire is about the right size. If the choke is not readily dislodged by a mild use of any of the instruments suggested, stop using them at once, for more harm will be done than good by violent use of any of the instruments. Many cases recover by the use of nothing but plenty of water, and keeping all feed, unless it be fresh gruel, away from the ani- mal for 2 to 4 days, INDIGESTION AND COLIC IN HORSES. These terms are used together because these trou- bles are so frequently associated in actual practice. Indigestion is often the forerunner of colic. It may be acute or chronic. Acute indigestion is often con- fined to indigestion in the stomach proper, and sometimes it may be intestinal indigestion. It is caused by irregular feeding, improper feed, sudden changes in food, greedy eating, and sometimes an ex- cess of cold water. It may be associated with or a sequel of any systemic disease that weakens the ani- mal. Symptoms.—The appetite is capricious or absent, the mucous membrane of the mouth may be dry, the breath smell sour, and the tongue coated. The ani- mal’s abdomen may become small and tucked up, the feces Or manure may be passed frequently, and in TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. small quantities. Later it may pass into spasmodic or wind colic, as a result of the irritation or fermen- tation of the undigested food. Treatment.—In many cases, when the animal first loses its appetite, proper care and proper feeding may result in a recovery in the course of a few days. In other cases it may be necessary to give a drench, con- sisting of one pound of Epsom salts, and one or two © tablespoonfuls of table salt, both of which are dissoly- - ed in one pint to one quart of warm water. In giving this as one drench, do not choke or strangle the ani- ; \) mal. CHRONIC INDIGESTION is accompanied by prolonged changes in the diges- } tive action in the stomach or intestines. Sometimes | structural changes may occur in the mucous mem- j) brane of the stomach or intestines. It is also caused } by improper feeding, greedy eating and feeding de- I cayed, rough and indigestible food. It may be asso- | ciated with other diseases in which the system is re- duced in strength. | Symptoms.—At times the appetite is good and at other times it is bad. Usually the animal is poor andj weak, the skin is rough and dry, the tongue is coated, | more or less red around the edges, and the mouth is | sour and stale. In some cases the animal may have, loose bowels; in others, the bowels are more or less ot feed, and feed regularly. If the animal is greedy, spread the feed over the bottom of a large box, sv, that it cannot be eaten quickly. Always water the animal before feeding it, and salt the animal at least three times a week. The following prescription ‘a constipated. Treatment.—Give small quantity of the very best. be given: Pulverized Gentian .......... 4 ounces. Pulverized Digitalis Leaves ..2 ounces. Pulverized Copper Sulphate ... 1 ounce. Pulverized) Sulphur <-25-e). =. 2 ounces. WinseedieWiealtia tees ee I pound. Mix thoroughly and give one table- spoonful in the ground feed two to three times per day. \ SPASMODIC COLIC. This is usually regarded as a disease of the intes- Hines, and is that form in which no appreciable quan- jlity of gas is formed. But it must be remembered \;hat colic is not always confined to the intestines, nor ‘is there no gas formed when it is not apparent to the ‘observer of the living animal. In actual colic condi- jtions fast and hard lines are not drawn. By many /yersons any form of abdominal pain is called colic. Causes—Over eating, especially on rest days, decay- ed food or other indigestible food may also produce ‘bolic. Acute or chronic indigestion may precede an attack of colicy pain. In some cases chilling the sur- face of the body, as exposure to a cold rain, may pro- ‘duce colic. Bots or grubs rarely, if ever, produce col- ‘ic. In some cases small worms may produce obstruc- ‘tions in some of the small arteries that supply the in- dtestines with blood. This is said to bea frequent ‘cause of periodic colic; yet it cannot be determined un- ‘til after the death of the animal. The most common ‘ause is over feeding just before or immediately after /severe exercise. A sudden change of food, as from old ‘corn to new corn, may produce indigestion or colic. | Symptoms—The appetite is gone, the animal shows ‘signs of abdominal pain. The signs may be manifest ‘by pawing, lying down and rolling or continual walk- ‘ing, sometimes kicking at the abdomen. Asa rule, there will be periods of relief, followed by periods of intense pain, During the exercise and the severe pain the pulse may be increased and the temperature may b slightly raised at that time. But during the inter- al of relief from pain the pulse and temperature will teturn to the normal. In some cases, when severe pain i is present, the animal will sweat freely. The bad ilor unfavorable signs consist in a rapid and wiry pulse, ‘\cold limbs and ears, and cold sweats, trembling mus- ‘cles, anxious expression, dilated pupils, dark colored ee membrane, and in some cases general depres- sion. Treatment—If the animal is in great pain, relieve the pain by giving 3 to 7 grains of morphine dissolved in ja small quantity of water, or give 1-2 to 1 oz. of chlo- tal hidrate dissolved in one pint to one quart of water. These should not be repeated for 10 to 12 hours. [If it vis known that indigestible or irritating food is causing Always remember that horses and mules have feelings. 345 the colic, give a purative. One pint of raw linseed oil, or I pint of castor oil, or cotton seed oil may be given at one dose, being careful not to choke or strangle the animal. Never drench the horse through the nose. One pound of Epsom salts dissolved in one pint of wa- ter may be given instead of one of the oils. Purga- tives should not be repeated under 12 to 24 hours. In some cases the drug to relieve pain may be mixed with the purgative. For example Chloralyitidnate tia. ace Neer I ounce Creoling toscssaic ee 2 drams. Gly.ceninchererme ee 4 fluid ounces WWiatermmnrles et enieitacromer eee sean I pint. Mix and give as one drench. This should not be repeated under 12 to 24 hours. Some veterinarians prefer to give I ounce aloes made into a ball or large pill and administered by oiling it and then pushing it with the fingers as far as pos- sible on the back part of the tongue, thus causing the horse to swallow it. This can only be done after learning by trial or experience. In some cases, where the animal is constipated, it may be well to inject one to four quarts of warm water into the rectum once or twice per day. While the animal is suffering pain it should be kept in a place where it cannot injure itself, or it may be slowly walked around. Never should it be abused by running or excessive motion of any kind. In all cases of colic decide on a single line of treatment and do not give every- thing that may be recommended. Re- member that many cases of colic are killed by overdosing. Wait with patience a sufficient time for medicine to act be- fore repeating doses, or giving another remedy. FLATULENT OR WIND COLIC. This involves chiefly the intestines, but like spas- modic colic, its action is not limited to the intestines. Its causes are very much like the causes of indiges- tion and spasmodic colic, except there are germs or chemical substances coming in contact with the undi- 346 TILLING THE SOIL FOR gested food which produce fermentation and thus eliminate or set free gas. Symptoms.—The manifestations of pain are quite similar to those of spasmodic colic. In addition to the symptoms of pain, the abdomen becomes enlarged or distended by the excessive gas in the intestines and stomach. The distension is usually larger or more prominent in the right flank than in the left. When the abdomen becomes distended the breathing becomes short and rapid. This is due to the absorp- tion of poisonous gas by the blood and to the pressure of the abdominal organs against the diaphragm. The grave or bad signs are rapid pulse, say 80 to 120 per minute, cold surface of the body, dark colored mu- cous membranes and cold sweats. Treatment.—In the early stages the treatment may be the same as for spasmodic colic, except that it is always well to give something to stop fermentation. For this 1-2 ounce of strong creolin may be mixed with one pint to one quart of water, and the whole given as one drench. In some cases I quart of warm water in which has been disolved as much salt as it will take up may be given as a drench. Sometimes thé gas will be formed so rapidly that its rapid ab- sorption will in a short time kill the animal, providing relief is not obtained., In such cases it is advisable to use the trocar and canula to let out this gas and relieve the animal. This instrument can be obtained at instrument houses, and should be kept in a clean, sterile condition, at all times ready for use. To use it, clip the hair over the right flank and wash thor- oughly with boiled and cooled water, containing cre- olin or carbolic acid. With a sharp knife cut an open- ing through the skin about 1-2 inch long; now push the trocar and canula down into the intestines 3 to 5 inches; pull out the trocar and the gas will escape through the canula. If the horse is standing, it is us- ually best to make the opening through the skin and insert the trocar and canula rather high up on the flank, but if it is lying down it may be made some- what lower on the flank. In some cases the animal will be inclined to kick. Then a hobble should be placed around the pastern of that limb and the foot held so that the animal cannot kick the person doing the operation. The canula may be kept in place as long as any gas escapes—say for one hour, if neces- sary. In some caces a small rubber tube and funnel PROFIT AND PLEASURE. | may be attached to the canula and one pint or mor | of diluted creolin may be passed into the intestines this is done to stop the fermentation. Before with drawing the canula, insert the trocar. This will pre! vent some of the intestinal contents following out th canula and infecting the wound. If in the course ¢ time the horse becomes badly distended again wit, gas, the trocar and canula may be used in the sam way, but not in the same place. Choose some othe spot in the right flank. Remember that this instru ment is used in the right flank of horses, and the lei flank of cattle and sheep. If a purgative has not al ready been given, it is well to give one of those rec ommended for spasmodic colic. WORMS OR ANIMAL PARASITES THAT LIV] IN THE STOMACH OR INTESTINES. Numerous small, round worms and large roun worms may be found in the intestines and stomach c the horse. These parasites are more frequent i horses and colts at pasture than animals fed contir uously in barns or stables. This is probably due t the fact that pastures may become infested by sca tering infested manure over the grass. In this mar ner the animals become more frequently infested tha those kept in barns. These parasites cause more © less irritation and disturbance depending upon th number and to some extent upon the mode of life. Symptoms.—The only positive sign of worms in th alimentary canal is the presence or observation some of the worms in the manure passed by the ani mal. It is true that excessive numbers may interfer with digestion and absorption of food, and the anima) become emaciated in consequence. Some assert tha’ these parasites may produce an injurious or poison ous product, which is passed in the feces from thei bodies and absorbed by the membranes or tissues © the horse. This has never been positively establishec Treatment.—lIf animals are kept well supplied wit! salt, they do not, as a rule, suffer from excessive in festation by worm parasites. An animal in 00) health seems to be able to throw off many parasites) but an animal that is weak usually becomes very bad ly infested. The following prescription may be use to destroy the ordinary round worms found in the in} testines and stomach of the horse: bbon horse. s blue ri Nym McCollough , in , Ga, on Anna Bai on Peel of Atlanta, Miss Mari 348 Pulverized Gentian Pulverized Sulphate of Iron .. 2 4 ounces. ounces. Pulverized Copper Sulphate I ounce. Pulverized*Sulphurséectss. 2 ounces. Ibyiekreeel. IMIGEN Gop pdond0Gbes I pound. Mix thoroughly and give one to two tablespoonfuls in ground feed two times per day, according to size and age, doses for colts should be 1-4 to I-2 as much as the horse. BOTS OR GRUBS IN THE STOMACH OF THE HORSE. This so-called worm represents one of the stages in the life history of an insect, commonly called the bot fly (Gastrophilus Equi.) In order to understand its relation to the horse, its complete life history must be known. In the summer, from June to November, bot flies may be found depositing eggs on the hairs about the front part of the body, usually on the forearm, knee and cannon. Each egg is cemented to a hair, and in about 24 hours it may hatch and the young worm-like embryo may crawl on the skin, producing some irritation, causing the horse to lick the part with his tongue. In so doing he may carry away the embryo to the mouth. From the mouth it passes to the stomach, and there it attaches itself by means of the hooks about its mouth to mucous membrane, us- ually on the left side of the stomach. Here it re- mains and grows by absorbing food from the stom- ach’s cu\ntents, until late winter or early spring, when it lets loose, passes out with the manure and enters the ground. Ina short time it takes on the pupa stage of insect life. This stage continues for 30 or 4o days, varying with the temperature; and then. it molts or changes and comes out of the ground as an adult bot fly. This fly is about the size of a honey bee, and makes a noise very much like a honey-bee. When the egg is laid and attached to the hair of the horse it does not hurt the horse. But as a rule horses and mules fight and kick at the fly because they must mistake it or think it is a bee that will sting and hurt them. It will be seen from the life history that one stage of its life is spent as a parasite in the horse’s stomach, and this is commonly called the bot stage. Usually, the bots attach themselves to the skin-like portion of the mucous membrane of the stomach. In doing this it may make a small hole in the lining Stock appreciate good water whether they get it or not. membrane. But this part of the membrane is rather tough and does not secrete gastric juice. Asa rule,a few of these bots do little or no damage. An exces- sive number of them may cause some irritation and might in rare instances be associated with indiges- tion. Occasionally they collect in such large num- bers and attach about the outlet of the stomach at the place where the stomach opens into the small intes- . tine, that they occlude or plug up this opening. Some- times they may collect in large numbers in the begin- . ning part of the small intestines and there obstruct | the passage. If such obstructions remain for any pe- riod of time, they might result in the death of the ani- mal, but no one could be positive that such tions existed before the death of the animal. In some cases of colic the stomach of the horse becomes rup- tured, possibly from violent attempts to vomit. The rupture occurs along the bottom or greater curvature of the stomach. Then the contents of the stomach escape into the abdominal cavity, producing death in the course of 12 to 24 hours. When the animal is opened and the ordinary observer sees this hole in the ' stomach and some of the bots out in the abdominai cavity, and a few of the little holes in the mucous membrane on the left side of the stomach, where bots have been attached, they readily say that bots have eaten through the stomach. This is by no means the case. Previous to the death of the animal bots never eat entirely through the walls of the stomach. The disease commonly called bots is usually some form of colic; in fact, there is no such disease as bots. It is true that bots may take some food from the stom- ach, and sometimes obstruct the outlet of the stom- ach or the beginning of the small intestines, but the disease produced by such conditions should be called indigestion, colic, or obstruction in some part of the alimentary canal. Remembering these facts the bots can only be responsible for one death out of 1,000 of the so-called cases of bots. In order to prevent bots from entering the stomach, the eggs must be singed , or clipped off and burned every few days from the hairs on the body of the horse. entered the stomach and become attached to it no medicine will make them let loose without injuring the stomach. pass out when that stage in their growth is complet- ed; hence all remedies for removing the bots from the stomach should be avoided. This is especially so if the horse is sick with the colic or indigestion; be- condi- After the bots have \ It is true that they will let loose and © | move all the attending causes. | given in the drinking water, or the quantity of water , allowed the animal for drinking is reduced. } times chalk is given in the drinking water. , to one dram of pulverized sulphate of iron may be | rhoea stops. used internally, but as a rule it is inadvisable to check mation of the intestines, most frequently the lining membrane of the small intestine. _ however, involve any part of the large intestine. Sometimes the inflammation may extend to all other coats of the intestine. TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. cause any medicine strong enough to destroy the bots in the stomach would only injure the horse and make it more sick. DIARRHOEA. , This is sometimes called purging. Causes.—Changes in food, soft food, indigestible food, over-eating and frozen food. It is sometimes associated with indigestion or colic. Occasionally large draughts of water and sometimes overdoses of © purgatives may produce it. Some horses seem to be predisposed to it. Symptoms.—The bowel discharges are soft, watery and frequent, and this may continue from one to sev- eral days. If continued long the animal gets weak and poor. Treatment.—Correct the faulty and re- Sometimes starch is feeding Some- One-half given in dry ground feed once per day until the diar- Other astringent antiseptics may be the action of the bowels too suddenly. If there is some irritating and fermenting food in the alimentary canal causing the diarrhoea, a small purgative, as 1-2 ' pint of castor oil, might be given in order to remove this irritating food from the alimentary canal. Then this is followed by the treatment previously suggest- ed. If the animal is weak it should rest during the treatment. INFLAMMATION OF THE BOWELS. This is sometimes called enteritis. It is an inflam- involving It may, the Causes.—It is usually caused by irritating drugs, such as poisons, strong alkalies, acids, and other caus- tic substances. It is possible that it might result from the action of some germ, but these cases are uncom- mon. It may attend a strangulated bowel, as an ir- rope 349 reducable rupture, and some claim that cases of colic may pass into inflammation of the bowels. This may be true when the bowels become obstructed, tele- scoped, or twisted, or when too strong and irritating drugs have been used. , A. few castor béans will cause violent inflammation:of the a it ‘and the bowels; an overdose of croton oil will also produce the same result. Symptoms.—The pain resembles the pain of colic, but in this case it. is continuous. The temperature will rise to 104-0r 105 degrees Fah. After a day or so it may go down to about 103 and remain about that place until recovery takes place. The pulse is rapid, small and weak. Respirations are more or less rapid and confined to the thorax. Abdominal breathing is very limited or absent. The animal does not lie down and roll around as in cases of colic. The abdomen is too sore to permit it. Sometimes the animal will stand and rub against the wall or side of the stall. In other cases pain is so severe that it may prefer to walk around rather rapidly or continue to change its position. In some cases diarrhoea may be present. This, however, is not continuous, because the bowels, especially the effected part, become paralyzed; then the ordinary rumbling noise that may be heard in the abdomen of the healthy horse is absent, because the intestines are not moving as they do in health. Asa rule, the animal will not lie down for any great length of time, and in some cases it will stand until he dies or recovers. Treatment.—Keep the animal quiet and relieve the pain by giving 8 to 10 grains of morphine every four hours until the animal is relieved. If the animal de- sires food let it be well cooked and given soft. Never give irritating hay or rough forage of any kind. Cold water should not be allowed. The chill should be taken from all drinking water before it is given. Do not get alarmed if the bowels do not act for several days. Keep down the tendency to fermentation by giving creolin, 1 dram; glycerine, I ounce, and water, 3 Ounces, 3 or 4 times per day. Remember that it will require 1 to 3 weeks for the animal to recover. When the animal’s appetite begins to return be care- ful to avoid overfeeding' and rough feed: Most cases of inflammation of the bowels die, and:many of them are killed by improper:treatment and improper feed- ing: Hs Pepighacy meeaTens babar ci 350 DISEASES OF THE RESPIRATORY Stock need salt regularly every day. st ORGANS. The respiratory organs consist of the nasal passages, the throat, the larynx, the wind pipe, the bronchial ‘tubes, the air sacs, the lungs andthe thorax. The nasal passages in the horse are peculiarly enlarged by their connection with cavities called the frontal ‘sinus, the superior and the inferior maxillary sinuses. The mucous surface of these passages are also enlarged by the scroll shaped bone, called It is possible that the turbinated bones. this enormous surface of mucous membrane connected with the nasal passages is so ar- ranged to warm the air before it enters the lungs. At any rate, this immense surface gives great opportun- ity for the action of germs or irritants in the air to produce inflammation. Cold or catarrh in the head in- volves this mucous membrane. It is caused by ex- posure to cold, irritating gases, germs, and irritating drugs when the horse is drenched through the nose. Symptoms—At first the mucous membrane of the nose is dry, the animal is dull and sleepy. is decreased, it may Its appetite shiver, and sometimes the tem- perature rises One or two degrees. Usually the skin is dry and rough, and sometimes the bowels consti- pated. Later an excessive watery discharge comes from the nose, This may become thicker and opaque or whitish in color; sometimes it may be yellow. In some instances the eyes become inflamed. At first they are red and discharge thin, watery material, which later becomes thicker and pus like. This dis- ease is more common in old horses and mules than in young horses. If the case is acute, it may last a week, but it may become chronic and last several weeks. Treatment.—When it is first discovered that the ani- mal is cold and chilly, rub the entire body and cover with a good blanket. Keep the animal in a well ven- tilated stall protected from drafts and rain. Steam the animal two or three times a day in the following man- ner: fill a bucket 1-3 to 1-2 full with hot water; put one teaspoonful of creolin, carbolic acid, or lysol into this water; place the bucket in the bottom of a large sack; put into the bucket a red hot iron weighing four or five pounds. Hold the top of the sack under and } over the horses nose for ten to twenty minutes, per- | mitting it to breathe this hot steam. It.may be nec- | essary to force the horse to hold its head over this } steam at first, but soon it will learn to like it. Be | careful that the horse does not become scalded with | Most cases will recover with no other the hot water. treatment. Some cases may be associated with some © other disease* or become chronic. In _ chronie ' cases the discharge from the nose may continue for weeks; in fact, some chronic cases never get well. Chronic catarrh should be treated by trying to build up the body of the animal with good food, good care, and light work. Sometimes the following prescrip- tion may help: Pulverized Belladona Leaves....... I ounce ’Pulverized Digitalis Leaves ../... 2 ouncés Pulverized) Gentiant a. a seeeee 3 ounces Pulverized’ Copper Sulphate ...... 2 ounces Winseed: Meal! \ soreeseeee ree I pound Mix well and give in ground feed three times a day, | I to 2 tablespoonfuls. Remember that chronic cases of | catarrh may be in fact cases of glanders, and it is saf- | est and best to have an expert veterinarian make re- i peated examinations of such an animal. i DISTEMPER OR STRANGLES. | This is an infectious disease, involving primarily | the mucous membrane of the nose, and secondarily, i” it may involve the subcutaneous connective tissue in | . the space between the branches of the lower jaw. © Sometimes it may involve the lymph glands about’ the throat and extend to the various parts of the | body, producing a form of pyaemia. tococcus equi. The attending causes are exposures | i. i Causes.—The exciting cause is a germ called strep- | t {cold and possibly irritating gases and drugs. ymptoms.—In the early stages it appears like cold |} the head or catarrh. The animal is dull, sluggish, jmetimes chilly, and again feverish. At first the mu- ius membrane is red and dry; later an excessive wa- ly discharge, followed by a heavy pus-like dis- jarge. Usually a swelling appears between the bor- rs of the lower jaw and in the course of a week an jscess forms at this place, which usually erupts on ‘> surface and discharges pus. Sometimes an abscess ‘hy form about the throat, and occasionally one or pre abscesses may form in different parts of the body |metimes abscesses may occur in internal organs. \is disease was at one time called strangles, because tge abscesses forming about the throat will often angle or suffocate the animal. It occurs more fre- jently in colts and young horses than in old horses. |me claim that one attack produces an immunity hich prevents a second attack. | ‘Treatment.—Steam the animal as directed for ca- |'rh and repeat this three times per day. lbd and give good care. When a soft fluctuating luce is found in the swelling between the borders of » lower jaw, it may be opened and washed out with iled water, containing lyscl, carbolic acid, or creo- This cavity should be cleaned out daily until it als from the bottom. If an abscess forms about the foat, be careful in opening it, lest you cut some large ipod vessels. In opening an abscess at the throat, ‘careful to cut just through the skin with the knife. wen with your index finger work it into the abscess. ler Opening it wash it out as previously directed. here pyemia occurs, the surface abscesses may be ened and treated as directed, but usually such cases yminate fatally. Remember that this disease is in- ‘tuous, and will extend from one animal to another, decially among colts, until all have contracted the pease. In many cases this can be prevented by iso- jing or separating the first cases from all other ani- ils. Feed soft BRONCHITIS. This involves the bronchi and sometimes the wind | he and may be associated with distemper, catarrh _ the head, or pneumonia. Usually it involves only | \ lining membrane of these air passages, and is a (m of catarrh inflammation. TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. 35! Causes.—Undue exposure to cold, germs, irritating gases and irritating drugs administered in such a way that the horse strangles when being drenched and much of the medicine passes down the air passages into the trachea and bronchial tube. Occasionally some irritating food may accidentally pass down through the larynx into the wind-pipe and bronchial ‘tube and produce inflammation. Symptoms.—In the beginning the animal may have a chill, subsequently develop fever or a high tempera- ture, throat may be sore and a cough may be present. At first the cough is dry and later it becomes moist. The pulse is soft and weak, but quick. The respira- tions are more or less rapid and labored. In some cases the temperature may be quite high, 105 or 106 degrees Fah., in the early stages. Sometimes the ap- petite is lessened, the animal is thirsty, the mucous membranes are congested and redder than usual, the bowels may be constipated, and the urine smaller in quantity than usual. In the course of a few days a profuse discharge of a mucous-like nature may pass from the nostrils and there may be a sort of a moist, rattling breathing in the throat and bronchial tubes. Treatment.—In the early stages, when the animal is chilled, rub the body until warm and apply a warm blanket. Steam the horse as recommended in catarrh of the head. If the animal is weak give carbonate of ammonia in 2 or 3 ounces of water once every 3 or 4 hours. Other stimulants may be used instead ‘of this, such as alcohol in 1 to 2 ounce doses. or turpentine I-2 ounce, mixed with I or 2 ounces of raw linseed oil. As a rule, stimulants are not nec- essary in the early stages. Sometimes, when the kid- neys are inactive in the early stages, 1-2 ounce doses of potassium nitrate may be given in the drinking water night and morning. This should not be contin- ued after the high fever passes off. The animal should have soft food, in order that the bowels may be kept open and prevent constipation, Sometimes, when the bowels are constipated, it is well to give 1-2 pint of warm castor oil once a day or as often as found necessary to keep the bowels open. Good care, good nursing, and careful feeding are big factors in treating this disease. Remember that a clean stall, plenty of fresh air, without drafts, are very essential. one dram of PNEUMONIA OR LUNG FEVER. This disease may involve the air sacs, the small 352 Many farmers fail because their stock are not fed regularly. bronchial tubes, and sometimes the larger bronchial tube, and all other air passages, as well as the other tissues in the lung. It usually lung, but may involve both lungs at the same time. The inflammation usually begins in the lower parts of the lung. involves the right Causes.—It is now generally believed that lung fe- ver is a germ disease. At least, it is conceded that certain germs are always present in the lungs in pneu- monia. It is true that exposure to cold and anything that will reduce the vitality or vigor will predispose the animal to lung fever. Many of the causes that produce bronchitis, such as irritating gases, foul air, food and irritating It may also foreign bodies, and particles of gases and be associated with bronchitis and other respiratory diseases. drugs May cause pneumonia. Symptoms.—Usually it is ushered in with a chill, but in many cases the chill is passed before the dis- ease is observed. The temperature may be high, ex- tending as high as 105 or 106 degrees [fah, In the course of 2 or 3 days the temperature may come down to 103 or 104. The pulse is usually full and bounding at first, but later it may become softer and ‘less frequent. The normal pulse, varying from 36 to 44 per minute, may rise to 50 or 60, or even higher in the early stages. At first, the respirations are accel- erated, and sometimes the nostrils dilate so much at each inspiration, that it appears as if the horse was grasping for air. The visible mucous membrane are usually red and congested in the early stages. Later they may become lighter or less red in color. The ap- petite is almost lost, the thirst is great, and nearly all secretions and excretions are diminished. The urine is small in quantity and thick; the bowels are constipat- ed; and the skin is dry ard rough. There may be a short, shallow and dry cough, which later becomes moist. In severe cases the mucous membrane lining the eyelids becomes mahogany colored in spots, and be- tween these spots it is yellow. The crisis is usually reached about the eighth day. At this time, if the ani- mal is getting better, the temperature may fall quite rapidly. In some cases it may fall at this time when the animal is dying, but generally, when the animal is getting worse at this period, the temperature does not fall. In some cases the fever gradually comes down. A reduction of temperature is usually attended with beginning recovery, the animal’s appetite gets better, body, and a good warm blanket over the body. the bowels, the kidneys, and the skin act better ar every organ seems to be recovering its normal actiy ty. In some cases a discharge more or less seve may occur from the nose after the third or four) day and continue for several days, or until recove takes place. In examining the lungs by listening | the lower rib region, just behind the arm, one m: hear various sounds at different stages in the diseas In the early stage, by placing the ear in contact wi the lower rib region, a sound may be heard that r sembles the rubbing of hair between the fingers, or tl crackling of salt when it is thrown on live coals. Fi the next three or four days, until the crisis is reache’ the inflamed part of the lung is solidified and no 2’ enters it; during this time the respiratory murm cannot be heard in that part of the lung. But imm diately after the crisis, when recovey begins, a moi crepitating sound may be heard along the line b tween the healthy and solidified part of the lun This last stage of lung fever is often called the resol tion stage, because the solidified parts’ are beit’ changed into liquid or semi-liquid material and cz’ ried out. The mo’st crepitating sound is made byt air passing through some of the liquid, or semi-liqu formed in th’s process. As a rule, the horse persi! ently stands in piteaimania until recovery begins, f cause it cannot breathe easily while lying down, Treatment.—It should be remembered that pne monia usually runs its course, and it is rare that ite be cut short by treatment. As a rule, in the hands the ordinary man, good care, good nursing, a cle, stall, and plenty of fresh air are the best means 4 plied in curing a case of pneumonia. Much of time of the attendant can well be spent in rubbi/ the horse’s body and limbs, keeping the limbs ya and skin active. When not rubbing it'may be well | apply woolen flannel bandages from the feet up tot the early stages, when the animal is thirsty, let | have cold water, but not too much at one time. As rule, it is best to give soft feed to keep the bow! open, but if the animal will not eat soft food, let’ have good, dry feed in small quantities. In the eat stage, when the temperature is high and excretory ( gans are inactive, give 1-2 pint of warm castor | once per day and also give in the drinking wat night and morning 1-2 ounce of nitrate of poti) sium. This may be kept up for two or three day then it may be necessary, if the animal is weak, esy TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. jially if the heart is weak, to use some stimulant. )ne-half ounce of turpentine or spirits of camphor i. be given 3 or 4 times a day in 2 or 3 ounces of 4arm castor oil or warm raw linseed oil. Or one to jvo drams of carbonate of ammonia may be given in ie or three ounces of water three or four times per hy. In some cases, where the weakness of the ani- jal i is quite marked, it may be necessary to keep up jie animal’s strength by giving a mixture of milk, jell-beaten eggs and whiskey. This may be repeated | often as the indications require. But if whiskey ‘oduces a high temperature, an excessively rapid part or a dry and rough skin, it should not be used. UF other that there are no fixed rules for treating ing fever. It will run its course, and if the animal in be made to hold out by good nursing and good re, it may recover. PLEURISY. | ( ‘The membrane that lines the thorax and covers the ter surface of the lung is called the pleura. It forms lclosed sac which secretes a water-like liquid that pricates the inner surfaces of this sac and prevents iction. Pleurisy may be associated with pneumo- i. r a eer Occurs more frequently in young than jold horses. It may result from injuries to the tho- s, caused by strokes, kicks, or penetrating wounds. }ysome cases it may be associated with influenza, or anders, or lung fever. Prolonged exposure to cold, pecially following the time of clipping. As a rule, /ms are present and probably are exciting factors in cause as may occur on one or both sides. In } early stages the animal may suffer pain and act y much like a horse with the colic. It may begin jha chill, the animal becoming dull, the hair rough 1 skin dry, the limbs and ears cold; these condi- as are followed with a high fever. The pulse is Il, quick and hard, and rapid in the early stages. ser it may become softer and weaker. The temper- Te in the early stages will range from 104 to 106 ‘Tees Fah. But after effusion of liquid into the ural Sac it may drop to ror or 103 degrees Fah. At i the respirations are short and abdominal. There y be an abrupt stop in the inspiration. This is to the rubbing of the dry pleural surfaces over —— { 24 353 each other in the early stages. Sometimes there is a double expiratory movement after the effusion. In many cases the animal grunts and may move as if he was foundered or had rheumatism in the muscles of the shoulder and breast. the early stages. After the effusion it may disappear. Nearly all cases of pleurisy may be divided into three stages. In the first stage there may be a high fever, quick and hard pulse, and great pain. In the second stage an excess of liquid is thrown out into the pleural sacs, the fever drops, the pulse becomes softer, the pain is less severe, and sometimes the double expirato- ry movement is shown by the double inward dropping of the flanks. In the third stage the liquid becomes absorbed, the breathing less difficult, and the animal improves in strength and condition. If we place the ear to the side of the thorax, in the first stage, a rub- bing, friction sound may be heard; this is caused by~ the rubbing of the dry and inflamed pleural surfaces over each other. In the second stage or effusion period, respiratory murmur cannot be heard in the lower part where the liquid is found. This is very prominent in Sometimes there is a tinkling or a water dropping sound that is produced by the movements of the excessive liquid in the pleu- ral sacs. In the third stage this water dropping sound grows less, and the friction sound may return and finally it disappears. The first stage may last one or two days; the second stage three to eight days or longer; the third stage until the animal recovers. Treatment.—In the early stages many advise mus- tard or other forms of blister to the sides of the tho- trax. But this is not now recommended by the best authorities. Sometimes, in the early. painful stage it may be necessary to give one or two doses of mor- phine, but this should be avoided if possible. After the effusion is formed, it may be gotten rid of by the use of purgatives and stimulants to the kidneys. In giving purgatives, such as oils, epsom salts, or aloes, remember that large doses may lead to excessive pur- gation or laminitis; hence, give small doses about 2 times per day rather than one large dose. To stim- ulate the kidneys give one-half ounce of potassium nitrate dissolved in the drinking water night morning ; and this drug may depress the heart and must be discontinued if the heart becomes weak. Some- times it may be followed by giving one to two ounces of tincture of digitalis three to four times per day; this drug will increase the force of the heart and stimulate the kidneys. If the appetite becomes poor, 354 Do not work your stock and it does in many cases, it may be stimulated by the use of 10 to 20 grains of quinine two to three times per day. If at any time the animal becomes ex- tremely weak 1 to 4 ounces of whiskey in milk and well-beaten eggs may be given; but it must be dis- continued if it produces a high temperature and a rough, dry skin. Do not forget to rub the entire body frequently and keep it from becoming chilled. Keep the stall clean, protect the horse from drafts, but give it plenty of good, fresh air. In some cases the pleural sac will fill up so completely that the pressure of the liquid on the lungs produces suffoca- tion. Sometimes this may be prevented by the use of a trocar and canula, which is inserted between the eighth and ninth ribs, about the upper part of. the lower third of that surface. This is usually done on the right side. After inserting the trocar and canula one or two inches, pull out the trocar and allow the liquid to escape. Remember that it is best to thor- oughly cleanse and disinfect this region before serting the trocar and canula. in THE “BELLOWSED” HORSE, OR HEAVES. This is a disease involving the lungs, the nerve supply of the lung, and possibly of the stomach and the muscles of respiration. It resembles asthma in In old standing cases the air sacs in the lungs con- man. become enlarged; also there may be spasmodic traction of the small muscles around the smaller bron- chial tubes. unknown. prominent Causes.—The real and exciting cause is Some assert that dusty hay is the most cause; others claim that overwork of the lungs, espec- ially violent and prolonged, fast driving in hot weath- Still others believe that dilatation of the stomach from over-eating of forage, especially hay, will produce it: this habit of over-eating must be continued for some time in order to produce the disease. Many be- lieve a tendency to this disease is inherited. It is suggested that violent attacks of coughing may rup- Cl. ture and enlarge the air sacs. In many cases it is a sequel of pneumonia, pleurisy, or distemper, and at other times it is found associated with glanders. Symptoms.—In the early stages the animal have an attack of rapid, short breathing. This occur usually when the weather is warm and sultry, It may pass off in the course of a few days, especially may will » La | | more than six days a week. | if the weather becomes cool. But when the weather becomes warm and sultry again another attack of rap- id and short breathing may appear without any appa- rent cause and may last for one or more days. In N the course of a few weeks, or two or three months, this rapid breathing and shortness of breath will oc- cur every time the animal is given a little rapid exer- cise. In due time there will appear the double expir- | atory action, which may be observed at the moyable part of the flanks. In order to make this abnormal breathing more prominent, give the animal a good, large feed, and then give it rapid exercise. This treat- ment will bring out the difficult breathing so charac: | teristic of the bellowsed horse. The “bellowsed” horse is usually a greedy eater and always has a bad cough. ——~> Treatment.—When the disease is once well estab- lished it cannot be cured. When the first attack of rapid breathing appears give 1-2 ounce of nitrate of potassium in the drinking water night and morning. Reduce the quantity of hay and grain, always sprin- kle the feed with water before it is given, in order to lay the dust. If care is taken in working and feeding a horse that has had only one or two attacks of rapid and short breathing, it may be kept from the third attack for some time, and possibly all the time. But when sultry and warm weather appears look out for another attack. In old standing cases feed grain fre- quently in small quantities and reduce the size of the abdomen by feeding small quantities of hay or for-| age. Also never allow the animal to drink large quan tities of water. Always lay the dust in the grain and the hay by sprinkling before feeding. Carefully and continually observing these precautions will enable one to get considerable work out of a “bellowsed’ horse. If the cough is very bad, put 1 ounce of fliic extract of belladonna into 1 pint of boiled water ant give the animal 1 tablespoonful in ground feed nigh and morning. This will help the cough and may f lieve temporarily the difficult breathing. SPASM OF THE DIAPHRAGM. This corresponds to hiccoughs in man and is some times called “thumps” in animals. It is produced b some nervous irritation occurring in the stomach 0 other organ, and this nervous impulse is ref transmitted to the diaphragm, producing a spas Hilda and Hildagarde, property of J. K. Oittley; have won many blue ribbons in Southern shows. 356 TILLING THE SOIL FOR contraction. Usually it is due to overloading the stomach with food or cold water. Sometimes it is a sign of indigestion. In other cases it may be a result of inflammation in the stomach, or some other abdom- inal organ. It is not very common in horses, but is quite frequently found in suckling pigs that do not have much exercise and obtain a good supply of milk. Symptoms.—It is characterized by an intermittent DISEASES. OF THE INFLAMMATION OF THE KIDNEYS. This involves the kidneys, the blood vessels, the se- creting cells, and the connective tissue frame-work may all be involved. Causes.—It may be a primary or a secondary dis- ease. If secondary it is a result of a disease in some other organ. Prolonged exposure to cold and wet weather, large doses of turpentine, carbolic acid, pot- ash, phosphates, or cantharides may produce inflam- mation of the kidneys. The kidneys may be inflamed in fevers caused by special germs. In some cases they are inflamed in pneumonia, peritonitis and other inflammatory diseases. Symptoms.—Inflammation of the kidneys as a pri- mary disease is very rare. So many observers of a horse with the colic assert that the kidneys are dis- eased, because the horse frequently passes urine or strains to pass urine. These frequent attempts to uri- nate in colic attacks are due to reflex stimulation of the kidneys and bladder, and not to inflammation of the kidneys. If the inflammation of the kidneys is due to exposure in cold and wet weather, a sudden chill, followed by a slight fever may appear. The urine is diminished in quantity, highly colored, may contain blood and albumen. If some of this urine is collected in a small glass vessel and allowed to stand, it will show a heavy deposit at the bottom, which consists of blood corpuscles, secreting cells, and albumen. The pulse may be hard and rapid and the skin dry. Some assert that the animal is sensitive to pressure over PROFIT AND PLEASURE. and sudden contraction of the diaphragm, and a con- vulsive movement of the whole body, producing a thumping sound that may be heard some distance. Treatment.—In young pigs get them out and let them have plenty of exercise in pasture and the trou- ble will disappear. In horses give 1-2 to 1 dram of fluid extract of belladonna in the drinking water night and morning. If necessary, put the drug in a small quantity of water and drench the horse with it. URINARY ORGANS. the loins. This, however, is not constant or reliable, because some horses are abnormally sensitive in this region when in health. If the inflammation is caused by over doses of the drugs mentioned, the fact that such drugs have been given will help in the diagnosis. Treatment.—Give the animal rest, stimulate the skin by rubbing, allow the animal plenty of water to drink, and give a purgative. If associated with anoth- er disease, the other disease must be treated before the kidneys can be relieved. Some advise the appli- cation of blisters to the loins. It is doubtful if such treatment is of much value. It would be better to ap- ply hot cloths to the loins, or hot water, than to ap- ply blisters. A woolen cloth may be dipped in hot water and the excess of water wrung out with the hands, and then it may be placed over the loins. Over this place a piece of oil cloth, and then another dry blanket. When the wet woolen cloth becomes cool, wring it out again in the hot water and replace it. Keep this up for several hours. When it is removed permanently rub the skin till dry and then cover with a blanket. IRRITABLE CONDITIONS OF THE BLADDER. In some cases drugs that are given in regular doses are eliminated inthe urine, irritating the kidneys and the bladder. In other cases some of the solids of the urine may become deposited, first, in small quan- tity, and this small beginning may grow in size by re- peated or continual deposits until what is commonly known as a stone in the:bladder. Most of the stones \| in the kidneys, the ureters, or in the bladder are com- | posed of uric acid, which is deposited in acid urine, but kept in solution in alkaline urine. The small stone may begin in the kidney or the ureter and pass down into the bladder, and there become in time a | large stone by additions to its surface. In some cases there are numerous small, hard particles that appear like sand. A large rough stone may irritate the blad- | der or it may get down at the outlet of the bladder and obstruct the free flow of urine. | Symptoms.—Ordinary irritation of the bladder is | indicated by frequent attempts to urinate, and some- | times by colicy pains. If a stone obstructs the flow of the urine, the urine may come away very slowly or in drops. In such cases the animal suffers consider- able pain. In order to determine the presence or ab- sence of the stone when such symptoms are presented, roll up the sleeves, cover the hand and arm with oil, and insert the hand into the rectum; now feel through | the floor of the rectum for the bladder and its neck; if a stone is present you can feel it, and sometimes | work it back into the body of the bladder and thus | allow the urine to escape. In order to remove a stone | GLANDERS. This disease is caused by a specific germ called bac- j illus mallei. Sometimes this disease involves chiefly the mucous membrane of the nose and then it may be | designated nasal glanders. At other times it may ) involve the skin, and then it is termed skin glanders or farcy glanders. In other cases it may involve | prnicipally the lungs, and then it is designated pulmo- nary glanders. But it must be remembered that the Same specific germ is found in all the different forms / of glanders, and that in some cases all the forms of | the disease may be found in one horse or mule. More- | Over, other organs may be attacked by this disease be- | sides the ones already mentioned. i} Symptoms.—If the nasal mucous membrane is in- || volved, it may first become inflamed and appear some- “what like an ordinary case of beginning cold in the head or strangles, but sooner or later small, pimple- Stock need rest as much as people do. 357 from the bladder it will require an expert to perform the operation. If the trouble is in a mare the hand must be inserted into the vulva and vagina in order to feel for the stone in the bladder of the mare. In order to relieve ordinary cases of slight irritation of the bladder, place 1 ounce of fluid extract of bella- donna into I quart of water and give 1 tablespoonful in ground feed night and morning. Some mules and horses may make a strong attempt to urinate, or be unable to urinate until after several attempts are made. This may be due to a stone in the bladder or spasms of the neck of the bladder. These spasms may be caused by exhaustion from overwork or by the animal being forced to go too long without permitting it to stop and pass the urine. Some horses and mules persistently refuse to urinate except in the bedded stall or some other accustomed place. This will cause the holding of the urine an undue time and may result in spasm of the neck of the bladder. In treating this trouble it is not good to give nitre, rosin, or any other drug that will stimulate the kidneys. Always remove the cause, if possible. Sometimes the belladonna solution recommended for irritable bladder may give relief. LINFECTIOUS AND CONTAGIOUS DISEASES like nodules will appear, which in a short time become soft and yellowish, and finally break open and dis- charge an oily liquid which resembles raw linseed oil. The eruption of these nodules usually produce raw, deep, ragged-edged ulcers, which get larger and larger as successive crops of these nodules form and erupt. Sometimes these ulcers heal, and then they form ir- regularly shaped scars. The discharge from the nose is at first thin and watery; later it becomes yellowish, thick and sticky. not smell bad in glanders, especially in the early stages. Sometimes the ulcers in the nose and the discharge are only on one side. The lymph gland, which is found on the inside and back part of the branch of the lower jaw, up near the base of the tongue, becomes enlarged as a result of its receiving some of the infectious ma- terial that comes from a glanderous ulcer on that side. If both sides of the nose are involved, the glands on each side will be enlarged. These glands never form As a rule, the discharge does 358 abscesses and break open as in cases of strangles or distemper. The discharge from the nose may be smeared over the leg or the skin of other parts of the body by the horse wiping its nose, as it were. In some instances the skin becomes infected in these places. In the early stages the breathing through the diseased nasal passages may be normal, but when the mucous membrane becomes swollen and extensively ulcerated, the discharge and swelling may interfere with the pas- sage of air. If the skin is involved nodules will devel- op in the skin, usually along the course of the blood vessels and lymph vessels. These nodules are most frequently found along the inside of the thigh, along the sides of the neck, and in the lower part of the hind limb. But they may occur in any region where infec- tion occurs. The nodules usually break open and dis- charge an oily liquid that resembles raw linseed oil. From the original seat of the infection in the skin or blood vessels the disease may extend along the lymph or blood vessels. Sometimes large, deep ulcers result, the skin becomes swollen, and infection may extend rapidly in all directions. Sometimes the first crop of ulcers may heal and no others appear, or other ulcers may appear in this same region and the part become irritated or conditions favorable. In some cases the lower part of the hind leg may be enlarged and the characteristic ulcers and nodules of glanders appear. Successive outbreaks of nodules and ulcers may devel- op in this region and no other part of the body be- come involved, for several months or years. If the lungs become involved, acute cases may resernble pneumonia. In chronic cases the symptoms may re- semble those found in a “bellowsed” horse. Treatment—It is not advisable for the ordinary man to attempt to treat a case of glanders, because man can contract this disease. Moreover, the ordinary man is unable to know when a case of glanders is so complete- ly cured that it cannot transmit the infection to anoth- er animal or to man; hence it is best that all horses and mules that are positively known to have glanders should be destroyed and their carcasses burned or buried 4 to 6 feet under the surface of the ground. This disease is transmitted from one horse or mule to another by infected hitching post, public watering troughs, infected harness, infected stalls and not infre- quently by one animal licking the glanderous ulcers of another; hence it is best to thoroughly disinfect all buckets, harness, watering troughs, and stalls that - other people’s horses or mules to TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. have been infected by cases of glanders. Old and worthless infected materials may be burned; stalls can be disinfected by cleaning them out and applying whitewash made of 5 lbs, of lime, 3 lbs. of bluestone, dissolved in 4 gallons of water. It is best to apply this hot and completely cover all the manger, walls, and ceiling. It may be well also to spray these parts with a hot § per cent. solution of creolin or carbolie acid. For safety, keep all animals out of that stall for one or two months. When animals are suspected of having glanders they should be isolated or quaran- tined until a positive diagnosis can be made. To do this a small pen or shed may be made in some place, some distance from, and inaccessible to, all other ani- mals. Remember that cats, dogs, horses, mules and man are susceptible to glanders; but cattle, sheep, goats and hogs are insusceptible. In most of the States there are specific laws which prevent the use of horses or mules having glanders on public highway or in any way that would expose infection. Some States require animals with glanders to be quaran- tined, and hold the owners responsible for the infec- tion of other people’s stock that may result from the non-observance of the quarantine law. Other States require the destruction of all mules and horses having the glanders. Horses and mules that have been ex- posed to glanders should be kept and worked by themselves or separately for one or two months. INFLUENZA. This is a highly infectious disease, the specific cause of which has not been positively discovered. Some in- vestigators claim to have found a specific germ, but the positive proof that this or that germ causes in- fluenza in horses has not been established. Influen- za is sometimes called pink-eye, horse disease, conta- gious epizootic, typhoid fever in the horse, catarrhal fever, and sometimes LaGrippe in the horse. This disease may involve a great number of organs. The organs of respiration, of digestion, of the nervous sys- tem, of vision, and of circulation may be involved; also the skin and the urinary organs may be involved. Causes.—The specific cause is very probably one or more germs. The predisposing causes are numerous. It attacks young animals and weak animals usually more severely than old animals or strong and vigor- ous animals. It is said to attack the horse, the don- | Wash out the | 4 limb or place to another as in rheumatism. The| lameness is usually due to the ulcers in the articula! cartilage that covers the articular surfaces of the bones, (See fig. 61.) Nearly every articular surface of thi| limbs in old standing cases will have one or more ul cers. Exposure to cold and changes in the weather pro duce changes in the degree of lameness. Sometime! the limbs will be drawn out of shape and occasionall} the loins will have dropped down to an abnormal de gree. (See fig. 59.) When lameness is severe in oli standing cases, or in mares in foal or just after foaling the diseased animals may get down and be unable ti: rise without assistance. This may occur every nigh, or two or three nights out of a week. Usually indigestion and poor or deficient assimila tion are associated with this disease and in conse quence the animal becomes poor, weak and sluggish | | TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. 305 je appetite will vary from good to bad; and in some \ses the animal will be subject to periodic attacks of plic. Tue % 3 £ bs gested. ee. acne Fig. 60—Lower jaw and face bones in osteo-porosis or big | fad in a horse. | Treatment.—There is no specific for this disease. jearly all cases of big head will improve with a long riod of rest in a good pasture, especially in the sum- ertime; also careful feeding on ground corn and oats | { ith peavine hay or other good hay, with good rub- SKIN ‘Small parasites often live on the surface of bing and with light and regular exercise, may im- prove many cases. Sometimes good care may restore a horse so that it may be used at slow work, espec- lally on the farm. Many advise blistering the en- larged places of the face and lower jaw and the dis- eased joints; about all the good that such treatment does is due to the local stimulation.and the slight ab- sorption of the mercuric iodide. Doses of two to three drams of barium chloride in the drinking water once Or twice a week for two or three weeks during periods of great stiffness or lameness, may “limber up” the horse and stimulate the muscles, produce pur- gation and improve digestion, and assimilation. Some advise the use of lime in the drinking water, es- pecially if the water is free of lime (free-sigsne.) Oth- ers advise the use of phosphate of lime in one to four dram doses given in the ground feed, nights and morn- ing. At noon give one dram of pulverized iron sul- phate. Remember that a case of big-head should be kept in a stable entirely separated from all other horses and mules; but it may be worked with well animals. The big-head horse and all others should be kept in dry stables having proper ventilation. Damp, wet, and poorly ventilated stables will make all cases worse and possibly aid in causing the disease. Good care, regular and frequent rubbing; light and regular exercise with properly balanced and regular rations, will do much to prevent it and will also materially as- sist in curing it. It is not best to breed mares hav- ing this disease because it ‘may be transmitted to the offspring, and it also intensifies the progress of the disease in the mare. When the affected animal has chronic indigestion, the treatment suggested under that head may be used. In this disease pin your faith on the long run at pasture and good care in the form of good feed, plenty of grooming, well ventilated and well drained and clean stables. DISEASES the in, and some forms burrow into the outer layers of e skin. The various forms of mange or itch in ses are caused by small animals called mites. The aces infested become dry, sometimes wrinkled and ickened, and in many cases the hairs fall out. nse itching may cause the animal to rub off In- the hair and in some cases injure the skin. With a small magnifying glass the small mites may be seen on the roots of hairs and among the scales of the skin. It is usually best to stand the horse where the sun may shine on the infested part, and in a short time scrare off some of the scales of the skin and hair and place this on a piece of black paper and examine it with a 366 If you are able to own stock, lense. The mites may be seen as long as they are warm making motions or crawling. If the skin dis- ease is due to the variety of mites that burrow into the skin. it will be necessary to scrape the skin until you get some of the material or scales from the deep- er layers of the skin. Treatment.—Scrub all the parts affected with soap, water and a good brush. Remove all the rough scales and scabs and loose hair. Now apply a 5 per cent, solution of creolin or carbolic acid, or a weak solution of blue stone. A good ointment may be made with 2 pounds of lard, 4 ounces of sulphur, and 1 ounce of carbolic acid. Melt the lard and add the sulphur. and carbolic acid, mix thoroughly and apply over the infested skin once per week. It is also nec- essary to thoroughly disinfect the stalls in which horses having the mange have been kept. This can be done by thoroughly cleaning the stall and the free application of white wash. LICE. Lice are found on horses, mules or colts more fre- the They are liable to become very numerous on quently in winter or spring, when hair is long. weak colts. They may be seen along the back in the mane and sometimes in the hair of any region of the body. ‘They irritate the skin, cause the animal to rub and may check the growth of a colt. Treatment.—In the middle of the day apply over all of the body a weak solution of creolin. Be care- ful that the animal does not chill following this ap- plication. Repeat the application in the same way in 8 or 10 days. If the skin becomes rough and the hair dry, frequent rubbing or the occasional applica- tion of a little lard and sulphur may relieve this con- dition if the weather is suitable. Clipping the ani- mal all over will be a great aid in getting rid of lice, but in doing this be extremely careful that the animal does not contract pleurisy or pneumonia as a result of a sudden change from warm to cool weather, SKIN TUMORS. These are abnormal growths that may appear in any part of the skin or the body. The causes in many cases are unknown, but wounds are often followed by you are able to attend to them. excessive growths, which result in the formation of a tumor. Many of these new growths are developed by frequent irritation from rubbing or biting and gnawing. Sometimes germs and other plant para- sites may get into the wound and by their growth ir- ritate it and produce an excessive growth of granula- tion tissue. The so-called “Jack” sores that are so commonly found in summer time on jacks, are likely due to infection of the skin by certain forms of plant parasite. A slight wound or scratch will permit the ‘ ‘ Crkec- :§ Rorigtew Cs gta Fig. 61.—Photograph of (a) the lower articular end of th cannon bone and the (b) two articular condyles on the low er end of the femus. ‘These articular surfaces exhibit ulcer in the articular cartilage that are usually present in case) of osteo-porosis. y parasite to gain admission to the skin and constatl biting and gnawing stimulates the growth of a ray and bleeding tumor. This tumor usually gets large and more extensive during the hot weather and whe’ cold weather comes on it may partially or entirel disappear and reappear again the following summer, ! become larger and more extensive than ever. ‘Treatment.—When possible the tumor of any kin bs \|should be removed with the knife or scissors. In ‘|some localities this can only be done by the expert. |Usually an inexperienced man can confine the animal by casting it or otherwise, and cut away the tumor \;down level with the skin, or down as deep as_ the ‘thickness of the skin. Then this surface may be )/well cauterized with a red hot iron. If the animal ‘ican be kept from rubbing, biting or gnawing this /|place it may recover. Some advise the use of strong ‘}eaustics, like arsenic, caustic potash, or strong acids. i But these are dangerous, because in the hands of the {ordinary man more tissue may be destroyed than is | necessary and great injury result. Sometimes small |wart-like tumors may disappear if they are covered frequently with castor-oil. But this will not appre- 'ciably affect a large tumor. AZOTURIA. This is a serious and somewhat common disease H a /occurring most frequently in the larger and heavier | horses; yet it may occur in light horses. Horses that ‘are working regularly and are in good condition may | be rested and fed on a Sunday or a holiday the same 'as when at work, but on Monday morning or the | morning after the holiday the horse may be brought ) out showing no signs of illness and often exhibiting an excess of vigor and life. The animal may be driven /a short distance and then show signs of weakness | about the hind limbs: sweat over the croup and thigh, | the muscles tremble and twitch. Finaily the horse it is down. As a result of this struggling it may | sweat considerably over various parts of the body, and | the muscles over the loins, croup, and thighs may be more or less hard and rigid. If the animal passes urine its color is usually dark red, or almost black. This abnormal color is said to be due to the presence of an excess of the coloring matter coming from the Droken down muscle material, or from the disintegrat- _ed blood corpuscles. During the struggling or imme- diately after the struggle is over, the pulse may be ac- celerated and the temperature may be raised two to four degrees. Some time after the struggling is over, the pulse and the temperature become normal. At- tempts to get the horse to rise will develop the fact _ that it is paralyzed in one or both hind limbs. This | paralysis may pass away in a few days, or the animal may be permanently paralyzed. In many cases the animal cannot pass urine, owing to paralysis of the } TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. | may stagger and fall and struggle considerably after . 367 bladder or spasms of the neck of the bladder. In some cases, where the driver stops the horse early be- fore it falls down and rubs the legs well, the animal may be gotten back to the barn and only a mild at- tack will occur, and recovery will take place in a few hours or a day. Many ordinary observers will say the kidneys are diseased and others will say the horse has the colic. In rare instances the paralysis may be in one or both front limbs or in one hind and one front limb. Causes.—The predisposing causes are rich diet, es- pecially excessive eating of proteid or nitrogenous feeds, high condition of the animal, and full rations during a day of rest following a period of regular work. Mares are said to be more liable to this disease than geldings or stallions. It is also said to cccur most frequently in the prime of the life of the animal. Some attribute the cause to a germ; others believe that 1n some way suf- The exciting cause is unknown. ficient lead has been taken into the body to produce lead poisoning. Others claim that the high condition of the system, containing an excess of nitrogenous material, prevents or interferes with the rapid elimi- nation of waste materials from the body, that are thrown into the circulation at the time the horse is brought into the full exercise after the period of rest. This waste material accumulates so rapidly and in such quantity, that it acts as a poison and produces the paralysis. Others assert that exposure to cold after being kept in a warm stable produces the change in the muscles; this, however, is largely theory. Treatment.—As soon as possible get the animal in a comfortable position and in a place where it will not be injured by struggling or by attempts to rise. In many cases it may be necessary to pass the cathe- ter and draw off the urine regularly two or three times times per day. Some German authorities advise giv- ing 3 to 4 ounces of carbonate of soda, dissolved in 1-2 to I pint of water. This may be repeated 3 or 4 times per day. A purgative, stich as recommended in cases of colic, may be used here. Recently some practition- ers have met with marked success by giving I-2 to I ounce of potassium iodide dissolved in 3 vunces of wa- ter. This is followed every 2 hours by giving 1 dram of potassium iodide in 1 ounce of water. This treat- ment should not be kept up beyond 1 or 2 days, be- cause it is liable to lead to potassium iodide poisoning. 368 It is always well to keep the animal rubbed and in a comfortable position. As long as it is unable to rise it should be turned over from side to side every 3 or 4 hours. When the animal makes attempts to rise the attendants should aid it, and when it gets on its feet rub the legs and body and try to keep it on its feet. The feed should be soft, in order to keep the bowels open and active. Preventative treatment is more effective hands of the average man in this disease than cura- in the Keep the feed troughs clean. tive treatment. Horses that are worked regularly and in high condition should he fed less on rest days than on work days. Sometimes a soft feed may be given the night previous to a rest day. When the animal is it taken out on the morning following a rest day, watch it very carefully, and if any signs of this dis- ease should appear, stop the horse at once, give it a thorough rubbing and return it to the barn or some convenient place where the rubbing may be continued and a purgative given if necessary. CONDITIONS AND DISEASES OF CGlE MON INTEREST OCCURRING IN BREEDING ANIMALS. The Organs of Reproduction in the Mare.—Be- ginning at the outside, the first is called the vulva. It has two lips and two corners, and at the lower cor- ner, or just inside of the lower corner, is a small bunch of erectile tissue called the clitoris. Four to six in- ches forward and inward through the vulva is the va- gina. On the ‘floor, at about the union of the vulva and the vagina, is the opening of the tube that is the outlet of the bladder, The vagina is from 6 to Io in- ches long and is separated from the body of the womb or uterus by the neck of the uterus. The neck of the uterus is the contracted part of the beginning portion of the wall of the uterus. Usually this neck presents a teat-like projection into the vagina and through the center of the projection is a small opening which leads from the vagina into the uterus. Just before and at the time of the delivery of the young at birth, this neck is so expanded that there is no line of demarka- tion between: the wall of the vagina and the wall of the uterus. The uterus has a body and a right anda left horn. The cavity of the body is continuous with the cavity of each horn. Extending from each horn is a small tube, which runs from the horn up to the ovary on its respective side. Here this tube ends in a rather. wide, cup-like expansion, close to the ovary. There are two ovaries, one on each side. The uterus, the tubes, and the ovaries are held in place by broad expansions of connective tissue, sometimes called liga- ments. When the animal is in “heat”, an ovule may erupt from the ovary and fall into the mouth of the tube, pass down the tube into the uterus. There it meets the spermatozoa that comes from the male when the mare is served by the stallion. The fusing or un-- ion of the spermatazoa with the ovule may be desig- nated fertilization. A fertilized ovule is the beginning of the embryo. The period of gestation in the mare is about 48 weeks in length, This period represents the time between the fertilization of the ovule and the birth of the colt. It may vary, occupying more or less time than the average, which is about 340 days. The periods of heat larly in the spring or fall than any other season of the Usually these periods occur about every 21 days, and last each time from one to three or four days. After the birth of the colt the first period will occur in 7 to 9 days, and thereafter every 21 days un- til the mare gets in foal again. In some abnormal cases the periods of heat may appear more or less reg- ularly after the mare has become pregnant. The common signs of pregnancy are cessation of the periods of heat; the mare becoming more docile and quiet taking on more flesh; a gradual increase in the size of the abdomen; after 6 or 7 months move- ments of the kicking colt in the uterus may be ob- served in the flanks, especially just after the mare has had a drink of cold water. With a little experience, one can make a positive diagnosis by inserting the hand into the rectum and feeling for the colt in the year. in the mare occur more regu- iterus through the walls of the last part of the intes- fine. This should be done with care lest injury result. *he foetus will not be large enough to distinguish un- jil three or four months old. Sterility in the mare is not uncommon. It is a con- lition of the mare in which she does not breed. It jay result from various causes. Sometimes it may be jue to a disease of the ovaries. This, however, could jot be discovered in the living animal. At other |mes it may be due to some disease in the uterus. this might be apparent by excessive discharges com- i ig from the uterus through the vagina and vulva. In jnat case it may be best to secure an expert to treat hat disease before the animal is bred. In other cases he neck of the uterus may be closed, so that the sper- jaz cannot reach the ovule. In some cases the le: of the uterus may be opened by gradual twist- ig and firm pressure with the index finger. Remem- pr that the index finger should be thoroughly Neeneed with soap and water and disinfected before tis work is attempted. In case an opening cannot be Voduiced without violent pressure, secure the services i an expert veterinarian. Usually it is best to open ye neck of the uterus when the mare is in heat and \|st before she is served by the stallion. A mare that |, excessively fat or very poor is often predisposed to llerility. In some cases sterility is said to be due to condition of the uterus or vagina, which can be rem- lied by inserting a small quantity of yeast in the jgina. The pure yeast used in making bread may be ved for this purpose. Just how it acts has never been apo explained, and its value seems rather oubtful. Sometimes the apparent sterility in the are is due to the stallion, When other causes can- 't be found to account for this condition in the mare, lis well to take her to another stallion, preferably a pee stallion or a jack. In some instances apparent- | sterile mares may be gotten with foal by the use of | impregnator, but there are cases for which there is ( remedy. ‘During the period of pregnancy or gestation, the te can do work in the hands of a careful man, No ubt pregnant mares are better off at light work an standing idle in the stable. In many cases they 2 kept at light work right up to the period of deliv- im however, it is better to let them have rest in pas- ve at least one month before the birth of the colt. from any cause the foetus is expelled before the time ten it can live independent of the mother, the mare 25 | { TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. 369 is said to abort. The causes of abortion are numer- ous. Over work and rapid, violent exercise may in- duce abortion. Kicks and injuries are also prominent causes. Heavy doses of purgatives may produce abor- tion. Certain grasses, such as wild rye, may contain ergot, and this may cause abortion. Colic attacks, in which the animal tumbles and rolls, may result in abortion. germs may produce what is called infectious abortion. In this form of the disease several mares are liable to abort in the same stable or pasture. One abortion predisposes a mare to a second, and the second abortion usually oc- Sometimes infectious curs about the same time in the period of gestation occurred. that irritate the kidneys will also irritate the repro- ductive organs, and result in this trouble. Sometimes the service of the stallion when a pregnant mare is in heat will produce abortion. If a colt is born before the proper time, and can live, that is termed premature parturition or birth of the colt. Prevention of abor- tion is the only logical treatment. As a rule, it will not be discovered until after it is too late to prevent it by use of drugs. Usually it is not best to breed mares that have been exposed to infectious abortion, or that must be kept in barns or pastures where that disease is of common occurrence. Mares that are in foal and have been subject to any other ordinary causes that might lead to abortion, should be watched closely and kept quiet until the danger period shall have passed. Some advise giving drugs, such as morphine, chloro- form to quiet and prevent contractions of the uterus. that the first abortion Sometimes drugs In breeding mares an accurate record should be kept of the time when the mare became in foal, so that the time of delivery or birth could be determined. When the period of delivery is at hand a careful at- tendant should be present to watch and see that all conditions are favorable. If the mare 4s jin the barn she should be in a large, well bedded, box stall. If the colt is being delivered normally, and without de- lay, no assistance will be required. Immediately af- ter it is born the naval cord should be tied with a piece of silk cord, or any other strong ‘cord that has been disinfected by boiling it in water, or by some other strong disinfectant. The naval cord is tied about 3 inches below the abdomen and the part below the tie is cut away. Then cover the naval cord with either of the dust powders recommended under the subject of wounds. Apply this dust powder to the naval and the cord two or three times per day, until the cord be- a og oe ee ee ee ai = Mr. Fleming, of Augusta, and One of a string of Horses. Mr. J. Lee Barnes, of Atlanta, Ga. His roadster one of the best in the South. a. Es<. 4 a FIGURE 63. Illustrates how the colt should be delivered when the hind feet are first presented. FIGURE 62. Shows the correct position of the colt when the head and front feet are to be delivered first. The head should be be- tween the front limbs. FIGURE 64. Shows a front end presen- tation with the head turned to one side. With one hand, cr a represser, on the breast cf the colt push its body back into the uterus far enough to permit the other hand to pull the head around between the front limbs. FIGURE 6s. Exhibits a front end presen- tation with the head turned on the back. With clean and sterile ropes on the front feet so as to fix them, apply the hand to the breast and push the body back into the uterus and pull the head around be- tween the front legs. ar . poy bt Pa ee ESS ot ay Front end _ presentation a5 with hind limbs raised into the outlet. Fix the front feet with clean plow line ropes and hold the front in posi- tion and push the hind feet back out cf the outlet. Some- times it may be necessary to push the colt back into the uterus before the hind feet can be removed from the out- let: FIGURE G6, RON i /: Dn. TRVAD ee _—————— FIGURE 67. Buttock and croup presenta- tion. Push the colt back in- to the uterus and pull up the hind limbs, flexing them at the hock until the hind feet can be taken out first. comes very dry and hard; thereafter per day may be sufficient. one application The normal position for the birth of the colt should be the front feet and head coming first, as if the colt were slipping out, front end first, belly down and back up on its belly. The next position is hind feet lirst, as if it were slipping out backwards on its belly. When the colt is delivered front feet and head first, the head comes out so that when the colt must breathe defore completely delivered it can secure air. If the ind feet come first, then if the colt must breathe be- fore complete delivery it may suffocate for want of ir, Hence in the second method assistance should be given to make the delivery as rapid as possible. This may be done by catching the hind feet and pulling firmly and steadily when the mare strains. In doing this much patience and careful judgment are required. in some cases neither of these positions are found, in fact, a veriety of abnormal presentations may occur. lf an attendant is on hand who knows how to do the light thing at the proper time, much difficulty and sometimes serious results may be prevented. For in- stance, if the front feet are coming and the head is aurned back on one side, this can be righted quite easi- ly in the early stages. Clean the hands thoroughly with joap and water and a disinfectant; then cover them tach vaseline. Now with one hand apply pressure—say on the breast of the colt—when the mare is not strain- Ing; with the other hand feel for the nose of the colt or jhe head, and when found, pull it around in its correct dosition, between the front liinbs. When this is done jteady pulling on the front limbs will help the mare m delivering the colt. Other abnormal presentations may be corrected according to conditions, and this fan always be done more easily in the early part of ‘he period of delivery than after labor has been in >rogress some hours. In rare instances the colt can- Ret be delivered without first cutting it to pieces in the uterus. This cannot be done except by an ex- ert veterinarian, and should not be attempted by the ~verage farmer. After the birth of the colt all of the jnveloping membranes or the “after birth” generally jomes away in the mare without any help. | ! Some- imes it is retained, or part of it must be removed by areful pulling with one hand and separating it from he uterus carefully with the other hand. In doing his work be sure to have the hands and arms well ‘leaned and thoroughly disinfected. In some cases he contractions of the uterus continue after the colt | . | . | Do not get in too big a hurry when looking after your stock. 373 is delivered to such an extent that the uterus becomes everted. In other words, an attempt is made to turn the uterus inside out. This is present when there is a large, dark-colored, more or less round body pro- jecting from the vulva. It is sometimes as large as a peck or half bushel measure. This is not very com- mon in the mare, but more frequent in the cow. If replaced at once the life of the mare may be saved. In order to replace it, it may be necessary, first, to clean it. In doing this be sure to use cotton that has been boiled in water containing some baking soda, and also use the water that has been boiled and cool- ed. After it is cleaned is may be necessary to pro- duce presure by wrapping it with broad, sterile ban- dages, or by large, sterilized towels. The pressure causes the blood to flow back into the vessels and reduces its size. This may require considerable time and patience. When it is gotten inside the mare may strain to throw it out again, but it should be held in place until it gets warm, and if the mare still strains, give a dose of 4 to 5 grains of morphine. This may be given per mouth or hypodermically. In some cases it may be necessary to keep an attendant watch- ing and keeping this in for some time after it is re- placed. Some advise taking 3 or 4 deep stitches through the lips of the vulva, so as to prevent the an- imal from throwing out the uterus. As a rule ever- sion of the uterus in the mare is very serious, and often leads to infection and the death of the In cows it can be successfully treated in stances. mare. most in- After the naval cord has been ligated and covered with dust powder, the colt should be wiped dry and It should have the first milk, which usually acts as a purgative, but in some cases it does not; then the colt may be constipated. In gotten up to suck. that case give 1-2 to I ounce of castor oil and a small injection of warm water into the rectum. In other cases the colt may have diarrhoea. This may be due to laxative food the mare is eating, or to infection of the colt. It may be treated by first giving 1-2 to I ounce of castor oil, and then give 1 teaspoonful of tincture of opium once or twice per day, until the diarrhoea is checked. Sometimes a little’ lime water mixed with the mother’s milk may be all that is re- quired. At other times a little pulverized magnesia, I or 2 tablespoons in the mother’s fectually remedy this trouble. milk will ef- 374 DISEASES OF THE EYELIDS. Tumors of various kinds are occasionaly found on the eyelid. The upper lid is a favorite place for warts —diseased, excessive growths of the outer layers of the skin. The exciting cause of warty growths is at present thought to ‘be a very minute plant or animal parasite. It is best to excise them with a knife; or if small, to snip them off with the scissors, being careful not to cut deeper into the eyelid than the thickness of the skin. After the bleeding has partially ceased and the blood has been wiped away with a clean, moist sponge or cloth, the raw surface may be touched or Eye D’Arboval) showing the relative position of the various parts. In reading the description of the anatomy of the eye fre- quent reference should be made to this cut. Fig. 68.—Diagramatie Section of the Horse’s (after a, Optic nerve; b, Sclerotic; ec, Choroid; d, Retina; e, Cor- nea; f, Iris; g, h, Ciliary circle, (or ligament) and process- es given off by fhe choroid though represented as isolated from it, in order to indicate their limits more clearly; i, in- sertion of the ciliary processes on the crystalline lens; j, Crystalline lens; k, Crystalline capsule; 1, Vitreous body; b, n, Anterior and posterior chambers; o, Theoretical indica- tion of the membrane of the equeous humorfli p, p, Tarsi; q, q, Fibrous membrane of eyelids; r, Elevator muscle of upper eyelid; s, s, Orbicularis muscle of the eyelids; t, t, Skin of the eyelids; u, Conjunctiva; v, Epidermic layer of this mem- brane covering the Cornea; x, Posterior rectus muscle; y, Superior rectus muscle; z, Inferior rectus muscle; w, Fib- rous sheath of the orbit (or orbital membrane); 1, Section of orbital arch; 2, Lachrymal gland; 3, Section of small ob- lique muscle. TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. cotton dipped in strong aarbolic acid. Melanotic (black, pigmented). tumors are occasionally found on | the eyelids of white horses. If they are small and are removed in the early stages of growth they are not so liable to return; but if they involve considerable tissue ‘ | Fig. 69—Normal Horses Eye (after Goubaux and Barrier). or are of long existence, they are very liable to return after removal. All small tumors of the eyelids may be removed in a similar manner to that described for' warts. 4 Pedunculated tumors may be litigated by tying a, strong cord around the pedicle close to the skin; if it does not fall off in a few days another strong tha may be tied around it in the same place. Caustic) medicines (Lunar Caustic or Tri-Chlor-Acetic Acid) tnay be applied, once every four or five days, a the tumor can be pulled away by the fingers. Car@ must be taken not to get these caustics into the eye, it is best not to use caustics except on tumors witl/ large, thick bases that cannot be litigated or excised. ; Wounds cf the Eyelids. Dar These occur through bites, tearing on nails, har’ ness, hooks of snaps, barbs of wire fences, and othe. projecting points, about the stable or stall. If th wound is fresh the edges may be brought together b), | | DISEASES OF THE lava i, cauterized with lunar caustic or a small ned ee | stitches one-third of an inch apart; ordinary white silk thread may be used. Inflammation of the Eyelids, Various injuries and bruises of the eyelids may oc- cur when a horse is rolling or throwing his head dur- ing colic attacks, or other painful diseases; or neigh- boring tissues may be injured or bruised and the in- flammation extend to the eyelids. The writer has repeatedly observed the eyelids of cattle attacked by ringworm, a transmissable parasit- ic disease of the skin, causing not only inflammation of the eyelids but also of the conjunctiva, extending | at times to the cornea. ' Constitutional diseases (anthrax, Texas fever, pur- pura) may be attended by swollen and inflamed eye- lids. Small wounds may admit germs into the tissues of the eyelids and produce inflammatory swellings. Inflammation, resulting from wounds, bruises, etc., may be reduced by bathing the eye in cold water and _ applying antiseptic solutions. In ringworm the crusts | and scales must be washed and scraped from the skin and then a one per cent. solution of corrosive sublim- ate may be applied once per day for three or four days. Other parts of the body and other animals with ring- | worm must be treated in the same way; since this parasitic skin disease is transmissable. Inflamed, swollen eyelids from constitutional diseases may be _ remedied by treating the disease with which they are associated. Enthropium—Folding Inward of the Lid. | The free margin of the lid is folded in against the eyeball; generally the entire margin of the lid is rolled “inward, but, at times, only that half near the inner or nasal angle of the eye is thus affected. | This disease occurs most frequently in the dog but f occurs also in the horse; the ox and the sheep. It has ‘been observed in some animals at birth; and, no | doubt, a tendency toward this disease is inherited— lespecially among dogs. Spasmodic contractions of the orbicular muscle that closes the eye, a relaxation | or loose condition of the skin and an excessive devel- | opment of the skin and tarsus of the lid, are said to \be prominent factors in producing entropium. Scar { tissue—resulting from wounds, ulcers, etc., on the in- | ner surface of the lid—contract, or make tense, the | conjunctiva to such a degree that it pulls the free Stock appreciate kindness, and know their friends. 375 border of the lid inward; while the contraction of the orbicular muscle (in winking) would roll or fold the lid. One or both lids of one or both eyes of the dog may be affected; but, as a rule, only the lower lid of one eye in the horse is so diseased. The constant friction occasioned by the continual rubbing of the Fig. 70.—Entropium—Folding inward of the lower lid; the eye-lashes and hair rub over the conjunctiva and cornea, when the eye lid or eye-ball is moved, producing inflamma tion by constant friction. eyelashes over the conjunctiva and the cornea, pro- duces great irritation, which, if long continued results in inflammation. The conjunctiva be- comes congested, light red and slightly swollen, the cornea may be clouded and at times ulcers form on its surface; the tears flow in excess; and the animal constantly attempts to close the eye. As soon as the lid or lids are returned to their normal position, the inflammation, cloudiness, etc., begin to disappear and the eye to retain its normal condition. Treatment consists in removing by excision a portion of the re- laxed and loose skin. In the horse a strip of skin, one-fourth to one-half inch broad, is cut away parallel to, and about one-half inch from, the margin of the lid. The elliptical strip may be removed by using small, sharp shears. The free edges of the skin are then brought together by silk stitches, about one-half inch from one another. As a rule, in the course of a week the stitches may be removed. In the dog the relaxed skin may be excised much farther from the margin of the lid and the gaping wound may be left to heal without bringing the edges of the skin to- gether with stitches. It is however, safer and better to stitch up the wound. Ectropium—Rolling Outward of the Lid. In this disease the eyelid is drawn. away from the eyeball, the conjunctival surface turned outward, the 376 free border (lower lid) downward; the eyelid is roll- ed outward and downward, leaving the eye unpro- tected, subject to constant irritation from air and dust and rapid evaporation of tears. This condition ‘produces chronic inflammation of the conjunctiva and leads to the formation of clouded spots and vas- cularity of the cornea, This disease also occurs most N Fig. 71—Ectropium—Folding outward of the lower lid. frequently in dogs, but may appear in the horse, ox and sheep. It is caused mostly, in the horse, by scar tissue in the neighborhood of the lower eyelid; this makes the skin so tense that the traction pulls the lid from the eyeball, Inflammatory swellings and new growths on the conjunctiva may also cause it. Dogs with deep set eyes and in a poorly nourished condi- tion suffer with this disease. Ectropium is treated by cutting away a narrow strip of the conjunctiva parallel with margin of the lid. The shears may be used but no stitches are required. Ptosis—Falling of the Upper Lid. When the upper lid hangs abnormally downward and outward from the eyeball, without folding or rolling, it is called drooping of the lid or Ptosis. It is usually associated with paralysis of the facial nerve, and may occur on one or both sides. In paralysis of both nerves there is constant dribbling of saliva, par- alysis of the lips, the nostrils and the upper eyelids. This is said to result from an injury of the facial nerve or some of its larger branches. The injury is usually produced by bruises or due to pressure of the bridle or of a yoke. In the first stages of the par- alysis, it may be improved by reducing the inflam- mation or by removing the pressure on the nerve or its branches. But, as a rule, paralysis of one or both facial nerves is incurable. Yet the drooping of the TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. eyelid may be removed by a surgical operation too complicated and difficult for unskilled hands. DISEASES OF THE HAW OR MEMBRANA NICTITANS. The conjunctival mucous membrane which covers the haw may become inflamed when the other parts of the conjunctiva are diseased. Also the haw may be pushed out over the eye when the eyeball is drawn back into the socket, which is done in certain eye diseases for protection. In such cases uninformed persons say the horse has the “hooks” and at once proceed to cruelly cut them out, sary to remark that nearly every case of so-called “hooks” is only a symptom of another disease and would certainly disappear if the real cause were re- moved. In some instances the haw is injured by being torn at the upper part of its free margin or it may be torn : Nearly all cases of : or cut in other parts by injuries. injury recover without treatment, but should the sep- arated or divided haw continue to irritate the other parts of the eye, it may be removed. Occasionly tumors appear on the haw or eye-washer; if small and harmless they may be left undisturbed or clipped off with the shears; but if large and harmful, the entire haw (if necessary) may be removed. In cutting away the torn haw, or the tumor and haw, the ani- mal should be securely and safely confined (by cast- - ing or otherwise) and a few drops of a ten per cent. i solution of cocaine may be put into the eye; af- ter waiting a few minutes for the cocaine to take ef- fect, the haw or tumor may be grasped with small ; the shears; » forceps and completely excised with during the next few days cleanse the eye, two times per day, with warm water, and a one per cent solu- Fig. 72—Abnormal extension of the haw or “eye-washer” as observed in tetanus (lockjaw) inflammation of the haw, 7 _ ete. This continued projection of the haw, is many times called “hooks.” It is scarcely neces- | p tion of carbolic acid. After repeated or severe at- tacks of inflammation of the conjunctiva, or repeated attacks of moonblindness, the haw remains more prominent and farther projected over the eyeball than normal. In tetanus or lock-jaw in horses the _haws are partially or completely extended over the | eyeball—especially on exposure to strong light or when the head is elevated. DISEASES OF THE TEAR APPARATUS. In all cases where the tears are running down ov- er the side of the cheek and there is no swelling or redness of the lids in their normal position, it is wise to examine carefully the lachrymal or tear appara- | dus. Most frequently the lachrymal canal is obstruct ed at its opening into the nostril; this may be reliev- | ed as a rule, by removing the dirt and pus-like mat- | ter which clogs the opening. | Sometimes the canal is obstructed in its superiot | part near the tear sack, then it is best to inject by means of a small syringe, carbolized water or a two: per cent solution of boracic acid, into the canal at its lower or nasal opening. If the tear canal, tear sac | and tear ducts are open or pervious, the water will _ pass out at the tear points near the inner angle of the eye on the margin of each lid. Occasionally the canal | or the tear ducts are obliterated, resulting from ca- | tarrhal or infectious inflammation and from fractures In such cases | of bones along the course of the canal. | it may be made pervious by forcing a small silver _ probe into the canal; but sometimes the canal is so completely obliterated that it is impossible to open | the old passage-way for the tears. When the conjunc- _ tiva or the eyelids are inflamed and when the under lid | is everted in ectropium, the openings of the tear ducts are closed or are so displaced as to prevent the passing of the tears into the ducts. After recovery ' from these diseases, the tears cease to flow over the _ cheek. DISEASES OF THE TISSUES SURROUNDING THE EYE AND IN THE ORBITAL | CAVITY. Fractures, bruises and wounds may take place in _ the bones and tisues surrounding the eye, and must be treated according to the conditions presented. _ Generally speaking, continual application of cold wa- _ter baths or fomentations to the injured parts will If you can’t feed and water your own stock, have a responsible man do so. 377 materially reduce and prevent inflammation. Tum- ors or new growths of various kinds may appear in the orbital cavity outside of the eyeball. As a rule, they are very serious and eventually necessitate the re- moval of the eyeball with its surrounding tissues and sometimes requires the excision of the eyelids and the skin with other tissues in the neighborhood of the eye. Whenever cancerous growths begin to spread or extend to the parts around the eye it is well to cut away all the parts involved. Such malig- nant growths are liable to return, even after several removals. bital region should always be considered as very ser- ious and as nearly always incurable without com- Deep-seated spreading tumors of the or- plete excision. DISEASES OF THE CONJUNCTIVA. Conjunctivitis—Inflammation of the membrane lining the eyelids and reflected over the eyeball around the cornea. mucous Causes.—1. Mechanical and chemical irritants—— Small seeds, pieces of hay, straw, glumes, wheat or ‘barley beards, small insects, coal dust and other kinds of dust, sand, hair, smoke, entropium, parasites —all foreign bodies that act as mechanical or chemi- cal irritants may produce conjunctivitis. Not infre- quently has the writer observed this disease in a very severe form, resulting from injudicious and ig- norant application of caustic and blistering ‘salves, liniments or quack eye washes. Striking the animal in the eye with a whip, or stick, bruising or wound- ing the eyelid or parts near the eye may excite in- flammation in the conjunctiva. Cold, sharp or ex- cessively dry winds may cause it. 2. It is associated with other diseases, as—ulcera- tion of the cornea, periodic opthalmia, occasionally with Texas fever and anthrax, influenza, strangles (distemper in horse), rinderpest, and, now and then, in the course of other infectious diseases; often it is associated with catarrhal inflammation of the mu- cous membrane of the nasal passages, sinuses of the head and of the lachrymal canal and ducts. Inflam- mation of the conjunctiva and the cornea is quite often observed in sheep when they are affected with “head scab,’ or parasitic skin disease, confined to the short wool regions of the sheep. Conjunctivitis is also associated with sheep pox. Cattle are at- 378 tacked by an enzootic inflammation of the conjunc- tiva and cornea, which is considered in detail under diseases of the cornea. Diphtheritic conjunctivitis ap- pears in fowls. Symptoms.—On the irritated and inflamed Spot of the conjunctiva there will be red streaks of strongly congested blood vessels, the mucous membrane will be slightly swollen; this inflammation may in a short time extend to all parts of the conjunctiva and in- volve the circumference of the cornea; the eye is very sensitive to light, and is kept closed continually. During the early stages the secretion of tears is greatly increased and they flow in profusion over the cheek, but during the more intensive or severe in- flammation a mucus exudate appears, which is of light gray color and contains semi-transparent flaky particles. If the inflammation is still more ‘severe the exudate or secretion appears as a grayish yellow or a green fluid which consists of pus cells and tears. At one time, in severe cases, the secretion may be pus mixed with serum, and at another it may be pus- mixed with mucous. An organized membraneous ex- udate is present in diphtheretic conjunctivitis and toa The su- ferficial layer may be involved in severe cases, while in other instances all the layers and the submucous limited extent in follicular conjunctivitis. tissue may be involved in the inflammation; these distinctions are not always well defined; but as a rule, great intensity and long duration of the inflam- mation indicate that the entire conjunctiva and sub- mucous tissues are affected. Treatment.—The first thing to do is to remove the cause if it can be discovered. If the animal is very sensitive about having the eye examined, it is best to put a twitch on his nose. Place the thumb on the lower lid and the endex finger on. the upper; by gradual and firm pressure, open the eye and look carefully for a hay seed or any foreign body or irrita- ting particles that may bein view. After completely cleansing the index finger and removing the long, rough or sharp margin of the finger nail, it may be pushed around under the lids and under the haw in search of the irritant; this must be done with great care, and it is always best to put a few drops of a three per cent. solution of cocaine into the eye be- fore introducing the finger. Following this search and the removal of the irritant, the eye may be washed with pure cold water or with a solution of TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. corrosive sublimate I part and pure water 5,000 parts. Bathing the eye in very warm water will re- lieve the pain and sensitiveness; while cold water fo- mentations will remove the fever. A great many cas- es of conjunctivitis readily yield to the simple meth- od of adjusting a large, clean wet cloth over the eye, keeping it moist by pouring cold water on it every hour. It is generally best to put the animal in a dark stall, but unless such a place is well ventilated I pre- fer the open and well ventilated box stall. The fol- lowing prescription has met with great favor in Ger- many: Borax, 0 grains; Aqua Amygdalae Amarae, 2 drachms; Gum Arabic, 2 drachms; Pure Water, 2 ounces. Apply to the conjunctiva by putting sever- al drops into the eye twice per day. : In purulent conjunctivitis, when pus is present in the eye secretion, one may employ corrosive subli- mate I part, water 1,000; or nitrate of silver 4 grains and water 1 ounce. In a few seconds after applying the nitrate of silver solution, the eye may be washed with a weak watery solution of common salt; this checks the burning irritation of the silver nitrate. It is safer to use the solution of corrosive sublimate. Diphtheritic conjunctivitis develops in chickens, doves and other fowls that are affected with diphtheria of the mouth, the throat and the nose. The healthy should be separated from the diseased fowls; the diphtheritic membranes should be removed from the mouth and eye; and the mucous membranes should be covered or penciled over (by means of a feather or small brush) with a 1 to 2 per cent. solution of corrosive sublimate or with 1 to 2 per cent. solution of silver nitrate. In 20 to 30 seconds after applying the nitrate of silver solution, bathe the eye and other affected parts with a weak solution of salt water. When chronic inflammation of the folli- cles of the inner surface of the haw is present, it may be relieved by using a I per cent solution of cor- rosive sublimate; this should be applied as previously directed, being very careful that the fluid does not come in contact with other parts of the eye. As a rule, follicular conjunctivitis occurs only in dogs. When it will not yield to medical treatment, the in- flamed follicular spots are clipped off; or part or all of the haw may be removed. Nitrate of silver solu- tions should be discarded in all cases where the cor- nea is also involved, since it is liable to leave perma- nent opacities of the cornea. — Ae Hilda and Hildagarde. Owned by Oscar Ray, Atlanta, Georgia, 380 DISEASES OF THE CORNEA. Wounds. The transparent cornea may be injured by a stroke of the whip, by hard straw or hay stems, by thistles, and occasionally by sharp objects—glass, nails, splin- ters, hedge thorns, and wire barbs. Small, rough or sharp objects that get into the eye not only injure the conjunctiva but also may scratch or even penetrate the cornea. In fact, many of the chemical and physi- cal causes of injuries to the conjunctiva in like man- ner affect the cornea. The shunning of light by closing the eye and an ex-- tra secretion of tears are always present during the active stages of the inflammation. The seriousness or severity of an injury depends upon the extent of surface affected and whether the outer or middle lay- ers are separately or conjointly injured; or whether the entire thickness of the cornea is perforated. If there be but a small spot of the outer layer injured, recovery takes place in a few days, by keeping the eye covered with a clean cotton or linen cloth saturated in a solution of 1 part carbolic acid to 100 parts of water. If the deeper or middle layer of the cornea be injured, it will require quite more time for healing and is liable, in the horse, to leave a scar—a whitish opaque spot. Treatment may consist in the continued application of the 1 per cent carbolic acid solution, or in applying continually a cloth saturated with a solution of 5 to Io parts antipyrine and 100 parts of water. After the painful and feverish stage is past a few drops of a solution of 2 parts of potas- sium iodide and too parts of water may be used two times per day. If the cornea be perforated the aque- ous humor escapes, and this leads, in most cases, to inflammation of the entire eye, resulting in loss of sight and generally in the destruction of the eyeball. Occasionally a perforating wound heals by granula- tion, the iris becomes free and sight is restored. But most frequently in such cases the iris remains attach- ed to the wound or scar tissue of the cornea and pro- hibits the light from passing into the eye. If the per- foration is near the margin of the cornea, a few drops of a solution of 1 gr. of eserine to 1 ounce of water may be applied, two times per day. But if the perfo- ration is near the centre of the cornea a few drops of a solution of atropine I gr. to water I oz. may be used, night and morning. By the use of eserine the It takes just a little more time to Give Fresh Water, than Old Water, pupil is contracted and the free borders of the iris are taken away from the marginal wound in the cornea. By the use of atripine the pupil is expanded and the borders of the iris are removed from the edges of the central corneal wound. Infectious and general in- flammation of the eye may be obviated by adjusting over the eye a cotton or linen cloth moistened every half hour with a solution of carbolic acid 1 part to wa- ter 100 parts; or corrosive sublimate I part to water 1,000 parts, KERATITIS OR CORNEITIS. Inflammation of the Cornea may involve the super- ficial layer, or the middle layer of the cornea; it may embrace only part of the cornea or may be diffuse— extend over the entire cornea. The partial or limited form is generally the result of injuries of the cornea. The friction of the eyelashes in entropium, small, sharp substances, and irritating salves, are common causes of local inflammation of the cornea. Diffuse inflammation is associated, as a rule, with infectious conjunctivitis in cattle or sheep; and, at times, ap- pears in the course of cow-pox and sheep pox, and of diphtheria in fowls; and inthe course of influenza and the acute attacks of moon-blindness, in the horse. Symptoms.—When the outer layer alone is affect- ed: As soonas the cornea becomes inflamed the ani- mal avoids the irritating light by partially or entirely closing the eye, and tears flow down over the cheek. The cornea becomes opaque at a not sharply limited spot or over its entire surface; this opacity may be grayish blue, gray or light gray in color. One may see this opacity best by viewing it, not from directly in front of the eye, but from one side. If the inflam- mation is of long duration blood vessels will be found in the cornea, which may be seen in their conjested condition near its border. When the opacity and the other symptoms appear suddenly (without blood ves- sels forming in the cornea), recovery is quite certain to occur in a few days. The darker the opacity or cloudiness the weaker the infiltration or the less dam- age in the cornea to be required. Light gray and white colored opacities denote intensive changes which re- quire eight to ten days for their complete removal. If blood vessels form in the cornea of the horse, a per- manent opaque spot may remain, but in the dog the complete removal of the opacity will usually occur. — TILLING THE SOIL FOR If the middle layer or principal part of the cornea be injured, the opacity develops slowly, is grayish blue, gray or light gray in color. The opacity is gen- erally irregular in form—cloudy, striped or ray shaped; these points or spots extend over the entire cornea. When inflammation produces such spotted or irregular dotted opacity, it is designated keratitis punctata (see Fig. 6). This spotted appearance of the cornea is due to the dotted opacities in the outer layer while the inner layer may be evenly clouded in all its parts. The deeper seated opacity may be ob- served by viewing the cornea from one side; this is Er MMT TNS Fig. 73.—Keratitis Punctata—Inflammation of the internal or posterior layer of the cornea produces a spotted apacity; the dots or opaque white spots may be larger or smaller than those in the cut and may extend over the entire surface of the cornea. Another form of keratitis punctata is developed as mentioned in the text. perceived best by illuminating the eye in a dark stall or room. A yellow colored, sharply limited opacity, announces the formation of a corneal abscess. Shunning the light and an excessive flow of tears are always present during inflammation of the outer surface of the cornea or the formation of an abscess. In acute cases the opacity may entirely or partially disappear in three to six weeks. Should the opacity continue longer, from improper treatment or non-dis- appearance of the cause, vascularization (formation of blood vessels) with abscess formation or ulceration of the cornea appears; thus the prospects of recovery are decreased, while the danger of a pus-like exudate ap- pearing in the aqueous humor or the perforation of the cornea increases. Not infrequently do these bad results appear in cow-pox, sheep-pox or infectious conjunctivitis and kerititis among cattle and sheep. Treatment.—Examine the eye critically, being es- pecially careful to discover and remove any irritating foreign body or particles. Bathing the eye in very warm water twice per day and then adjusting over it PROFIT AND PLEASURE. 381 a clean cloth, saturated with a I per cent. solution of carbolic acid, will, in most cases, be sufficient. But, should there be an abscess or an ulcer present, the cloth might be saturated with a solution of corrosive sublimate I part and water 1,000 parts; and during the reparative stages warm water baths night and morning, and the application of the following salve, will aid in the removal of the opacity: Calomel, 30 er., iodoform, 30 gr.; vaseline, 5 drachms. Instead of this salve one may apply with a feather a small quantity of equal parts of pulverized calomel and iodoform. INFECTIOUS CONJUNCTIVITIS AND KERA- TITIS, OR INFECTIOUS INFLAMMATION OF THE CONJUNCTIVA AND CORNEA. This eye disease is most frequently found in cattle, but may appear in sheep, horses and goats, It is said to occur only during the summer months, but the wri- ter saw it in a herd of cattle in February and March in South-eastern Iowa. That winter was exceptionally warm. It attacked cattle of all ages; but calves and young cattle seemed to be predisposed to it. A num- ber of young colts, running in the same field with the cattle were similarly affected. Several outbreaks of this eye disease have been reported to me as occur- ring during the spring and summer months of 1892, in Alabama. The disease announces its presence by an increased flow of tears; the eyelids are closed and slightly swol- len. The conjunctiva becomes swollen, its blood ves- sels congested and, in severe cases, a purulent dis- charge appears. Fig. 74—An illustration of an abscess and the attending vascularization of the cornea as observed in infectious ker- atitis and conjunctivitis in cattle. The black spot in the cut represents the yellow abscess and the radiating lines the blood vessels in the cornea. 382 It Does noi Cost Much to Haul Young animals seem to have a general fever, hang- ing of head, loss of appetite, and consequent emacia- tion; loss of appetite, etc., is most probably the result of pain instead of fever, These symptoms continue to increase for the first 8 or to days. About the third day from the first appearance of the disease, the cor- nea will exhibit a small delicately clouded spot, near its center, which will gradually extend over the entire cornea, giving it a milk white appearance. The cen- tre of the opaque cornea is at first pearly white in col- or, but in a short time a straw colored or yellow spot appears; this spot signals the formation of an abscess. The cornea at the yellow spot is rough and surrounded by a wall of thick, swollen, pearly white tissue. From this yellow centre (see Fig. 7) numerous blood ves- sels take their course toward the sclerotic border of the cornea. The yellow centre is generally longer from side to side, shorter from above to below, and it is said to be occasionally mistaken for “an oat grain in the eye” by uniformed laymen. The abscess general- ly erupts or breaks open on the outer corneal surface leaving an ulcer to heal by granulations forming over its sides and bottom. In cattle, as a rule, the scar tis- sue is entirely removed and the cornea becomes clear and completely normal. However, in horses and oc- casionally in cattle a permanent pearly white opacity remains, causing partial or complete blindness. Some cases do not advance to the stage of abscess forma- tion; in others the abscess may not erupt, while in still others the abscess may be so large that when it breaks open, the pressure of the aqueous_ humor against the remaining thin portion of the cornea will perforate it; this sudden removal of pressure on the lens may rupture the capsule of the lens and per- mit it to escape; the entire eye is thus involved, re- sulting in total loss of sight and of the eyeball. The cause of this spreading eye disease is unknown, yet there are indications that-point towards a germ or a micro-organism as an exciting cause. Billings claims that it slowly extends over a herd from one an- imal to another; one eye may be at first affected, but in a short time the other eye is attacked. According to some of the German authorities the disease spreads quite rapidly—in a few days attacking 50 in a herd “of 300; in 7 days attacking 20 in a herd of 40. Treatment.—Separate the sick from the healthy; ‘apply a solution of corrosive sublimate 1 part, water 2,000 parts; saturate a clean cotton cloth with the Straw and Leaves in the Winter. above solution and adjust the cloth over the eye; keep the cloth moist with the solution. During the puru- lent discharge from the conjunctival sack, the eye may be washed night and morning with warm water. ‘ULCER OF THE CORNEA. Loss of substance or destruction of a limited portion of the cornea may result from the erupting of a cor- neal abscess, as in infectious keratitis; it may also ap- pear in suppurative inflammation of the conjunctiva or cornea, and it is occasionally found associated with influenza in the horse; very often it is observed in the course of influenza (distemper) in the dog. Ulceration of the cornea appears to be caused by an infectious or contagious microbe, since the disease is transmitted from one eye to the other, and occasional- ly appears as a disease that may e::tend to a number of animals in a locality. An ulcer may appear near the center of the cornea or near its border; the cornea surrounding it is gef- erally opaque; the bottom of the ulcer may be green- ish yellow or gray white in color; the borders of the ulcer are, in the early stage, so abrupt that it appears is if it had been cut out with an iron punch. It may extend in depth to the internal layer of the cornea, then the reparative process may begin. Shortly after the formation of the ulcer, the cornea becomes vasct- lar; the blood vessels give the opaque cornea around the ulcer a reddish tinge. As soon as the developing blood vessels reach the advancing borders of the ulcer the process of repair begins and continues sicwly un- til the ulcer completey disappears, leaving behind a pearly white scar in the horse, but in the ox and the © dog this opacity is, as a rule, removed, If the ulcer is located near the border, the healing process progresses more rapidly than when it is in the center of the cornea, because the developing blood | vessels can reach the ulcer sooner and thus check its advancement. If the internal layer of the cornea is destroyed by the penetrating ulcer, the inflammation extends to all parts of the eyeball, and generally re- ‘ sults in the loss of the entire organ. Treatment.—Prof. Moeller very highly recommends aqua chlorata diluted with 2 or 3 parts of water. A solution of corrosive sublimate 1 part and water 1,000 » parts may be employed; or a 2 to 4 per cent. solution of boracic acid. It is not advisable to use silver ni- ’ | ulcerations and abcesses are termed opacities. _ treatment. improved and many times can be removed by judi- TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. trate as it generally leaves a permanent opacity :n the cornea. In examining the eye care should be exer- cised to prevent transmitting the purulent irritating discharge with its microbes, from the diseased eye to the healthy one. It is also best to separate the dis- eased animal from all others. If the cornea is perfor- ated, a I per cent. solution of eserine or atropine may be used as advised in perforations of the cornea un- der the head of corneal wounds. OPACITIES OF THE CORNEA. Scar tissue, infiltrations and organized exudates that supervene or result from injuries, inflammation, These opacities remain after the inflammation has subsided or after the wound or ulcer has healed, and are not to be confounded with the opacities attending active in- flammation. Slightly foggy, weakly clouded, translu- cent, grayish blue or gray spots, not sharply limited are mostly found in the outer layer of the cornea and are sometimes called nebuloe. If the opacity is semt- | transparent, sharply limited, gray or milk white, it is designated acula. If the opacity is a dense, complete- ly opaque, pearl white, gray or white, regularly dis- tributed or in large spots or stripes, it is called a leu- coma. There are also chalk-like, well defined opaque spots which are formed by using acetate of lead or silver nitrate with common salt, calomel or corrosive sublimate; insoluble precipitates are thus deposited in the corneal tissue. Black colored opacities may be spotted or cloudy and are due to bleeding from the vessels in the vascular cornea, or to adhesions of de- tachments of the pigmented iris; the latter may oc- cur as.a result of the attachment of the iris with the inner surface of the cornea. The harm produced by opacities depend upon their location; an opaque spot in the center of the cornea cuts off more light than one located near the border. Total blindness is better (more safe) than partial blindness; hence large and dense opacities are pref- erable to weak and diffuse opacities, unless the latter can be removed. Scar tissue, from ulcers, wounds or abscesses, can not be removed in the horse; it may in Some instances disappear in the ox, but in the dog, it is, as a rule, entirely removed. Chalk spots, streaks or stripes, as a rule, are permanent—not amenable to Weak and superficial opacities may be cious treatment. 383 The following ointment may be employed: Yellow oxide of mercury, 4 grains; atropine, I grain; vase- line 4 drachms. Put a small quantity under the eye lid; then with fingers on the outer surface of the lids work or move them around over the cornea in radial and circular directions. Finely pulverized calomel may be thrown into the eye by placing a small quan- tity in a quill and blowing it into the eye. This should not be repeated oftener than once per week. In case the horse will not permit the blowing of the calomel into the eye, it may be used in the form of a salve, by mixing it with vaseline. A salve of potas- sium iodide 10 grains and vaseline I ounce may be employed. Some authorities recommend massage treatment—placing two fingers upon the upper eye lid and with slight pressure moving it in a circular direction over the opacity. may be repeated daily unless signs of inflammation This massage treatment should appear. STAPHYLOMA OF THE CORNEA. The bulging forward and outward of the cornea is designated staphyloma. It may be partial or com- plete, depending upon whether a part or all of the cornea is involved. Thinning of the cornea by ulcer- ation and eruption of large abscesses, so reduce the resisting power of the cornea that the intra ocular pressure (pressure of the aqueous humor, etc.) dis- tends, projects or pushes the cornea outward. The scar tissue resulting from ulceration is also unable to withstand the intra ocular pressure and the cornea Fig. 75.—Total Corneal Stophyloma (after Armatage). bulges forward, forming a partial staphyloma. A staphyloma from either of the foregoing causes is generally opaque, gray or white colored. In the heal- ing of perforating wounds, the iris may adhere to the scar tissue, should the corneal scar then become dis- tended it would carry with it the iris and the result would be called an Iris-staphyloma. 384 Occasionally intra ocular pressure pushes forward the entire transparent cornea. The treatment of staphyloma is mainly tive. preventa- In impending perforations of the cornea from ulceration, wounds or abscesses, a compress bandage and a 1 per cent. solution of eserine may be employ- ed. atropine may be used as before directed for perforating In cases of established perforation the eserine or wounds of the cornea. treatment of abscess- es, ulcerations and wounds of the cornea will also pre- 12 roper vent the formation of a staphyloma. NEW GROWTHS ON THE CORNEA. Pterygium (see fig. 76) is a peculiar fleshy growth consisting of an abnormal development from the con- dogs and junctiva. It has been observed in horses, Fig. 76—PTERYGIUM.—Fleshy growth on the conjunctiva and cornea (after DeStchweinitz.) cattle. Its usual situation is at the inner side of the eye ball; it is triangular, or fan-shaped, with the apex extending almost to the center of the cornea; ally it is loosely attached to the cornea and the con- junctiva. Sometimes it is present at birth and at times it results from the repairing of an ulcer near the border of the cornea, It is believed that animals exposed to smoke, dust, heat and slight injuries to the cornea are predisposed to its development. Treat- ment consists in removing the loose pterygium with the knife or shears; this should be done by a surgeon after the animal is cast or confined and a solution of cocaine is applied to the eye. The cornea usually re- mains opaque at the spot from which the tissue is re- moved. When a pterygium results from the con- tracting scar tissue pulling the conjunctiva over a part of the cornea, it should be left undisturbed. A Dermoid is a small, skin-like usually appears on the nasal side of the eye ball, part- ly on the cornea and partly on the conjunctiva. The outer surface is generally covered with long hair that gener- growth, which ‘means of the knife or shears. Curry Combs and brushes are cheap. project outward between the lids. (See fig. 77.) It occurs in calves, pups, colts and lambs and is most frequently present at birth; but, according to it may be acquired after birth. The hairs interfere with the rays of light and the dermoid, some authors, as a whole, irritates the cornea and conjunctiva. Treatment consists in removing the dermoid by Fig. 77—DERMOID.—Left eye of dog (after Gurlt). The animal is cast and the eye is anesthized with cocaine; then the loosely attached skin-like growth is carefully dissected from the cornea and conjunctiva; a permanent opaque spot remains, but the constant irritating action is remoy- ed. DISEASES OF THE IRIS. Iritis or inflammation of the iris is generally asso- ciated with diseased conditions of the ciliary bodies, or the choroid coat; because, a close connection exists between these parts of the eye, in location, attach- ments and blood supply. Iritis also appears in the course of inflamma of the entire eve ball, in periodic opthalmia (moon-blind- ness) ; it occurs also, in some instances, in connection with influenza, strangles (distemper), infectious in- flammation of the lungs and pleura, in acute muscu- lar rheumatism, in inflammation of the navel in young animals and occasionally in connection with catarrhal inflammation of the conjunctiva or ulceration of the cornea. Penetrating wounds or injuries near the mar- gin of the cornea excite inflammation in the iris. Very rarely does iritis appear alone—without other parts being involved at the same time. Owing to the fact that the iris is richly supplied with blood vessels, it is disposed to produce exudates, or to bleeding from its surfaces. The exudate may be flaky and gray, floating in the aqueous humor; or it may be pus-like and form a yellowish sediment at the bottom of the aqueous chamber. TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. These exudates may be tinged with blood or the en- tire aqueous humor may be colored by blood from the vessels of the iris. The exudates from the poste- rior surface of the iris falls between the iris and an- terior or front surface of the lens; this pushes the iris forward; unless the iris is moved by the expansion of the pupil, the back or posterior surface of the iris be- comes firmly attached to the capsule of the lens. The iris may, also, become attached to the posterior sur- face of the cornea; this frequently results from per- forating wounds or ulcers of the cornea. The discol- oration, swollen condition of the iris, and the flaky, purulent or bloody exudates can not be observed in many cases, because the cornea is so clouded or opa- que. However, in the first or the last stage of such cases, one may be able to view the iris. During the “clearing up” period in moon-blindness one may ob- serve the iris, faded somewhat in color, with its pu- pillary margin more or less ragged and irregular. Gen- erally the tears flow in excess, dread of light and ex- treme sensitiveness are present during the active stage of iritis. In the treatment of iritis the chief aim is to pre- vent the pupillary or free margin of the from forming attachments to the capsule of the lens or the posterior surtace of the cornea. For perforations of the cornea directions for treatment have been given. To prevent adhesions to the capsule of the lens, the pupil may be kept expanded, during the active stage of the inflammation, by the use of atropine. The fol- lowing has proven very beneficial in the hands of the writer: atropine I grain; potassium iodide 5 grains; pure water 1 ounce. A few drops way be put be- tween the lids two times per day. The application of hot water will stimulate the absorbents and hasten the removal of the exudates and, at the same time, re- duce the pain; while cold water fomentations will best reduce fever and inflammation. iris CLOSURE OF THE PUPIL. If the iris, during the extreme contraction of the pupil, becomes bound down to the capsule of the lens throughout its entire pupillary margin, it may leave a small, clear pupillary opening; this condition is de- nominated exclusion of the pupil. But if the pupil be completely obliterated during extreme contraction of the pupil when the iris is attached to the capsule of the lens, or the small pupil becomes filled in with an opaque, inflammatory deposit or exudate, the condi- 26 385 tion is termed occlusion of the pupil. The destruc- tion of the pupillary attachment of the iris to the lens capsule is soon followed by the formation of a catar- act—opacity of the lens. The anterior division of the aqueous chamber is completely separated from the posterior and the iris is bulged forward at all parts except at its margina! attachments tc the lens cap- sule. If the attachments of the iris to the capsule are not firm and solid, the iris may be torn loose by the use of atropine. In case that does not succeed, the iris may be mechanically separated or detached by a sur- gical operation; or a new pupillary opening may be made by the operation known as irodectomy. These operations can only be performed by a skilled sur- geon and are, many times, done after the lens has be- come opaque or the operation is followed by opacity of the lens, destroying the vision. The writer observ- ed a case of occlusion of the pupil in both eyes of a three year old horse that was brought to the free clin- ic at the experiment station in Auburn. The cornea and aqueous humor were transparent, and the occlu- sion was very probably a result of acute iritis. A strong solution of atropine was dropped into the eye but the iris was so firmly fixed it could not be de- tached. Excessively developed or large “soot balls” “grape- like bodies,’ hanging from the inner aspect of the su- perior part of the free margin of the iris, interfere with, or obstruct, the passage of light into the eye. The large, brown, flake-like bodies are quite frequent- ly the cause of shying and cases have been recorded where complete blindness appeared as a result of these “soot balls’ entirely closing the pupil. By a surgical operation they could be removed; this should be attempted only by a skillful operator. Some white horses possess such a high degree of sensitiveness of the eye to light that in clear sunshine the pupil is closed by complete contraction and the animal cannot see until the sun sets. 99 66 CATARACT. All opacities of the crystalline lens, regardless of size, origin or condition, are embraced by the general name cataract. A false or spurious cataract is pro- duced by collections of pigment on the capsule of the lens, resulting from the tearing loose of the attach- ment of the iris to the capsule. It appears in dark, almost black, colored spots on the anterior surface of 386 the capsule. True cataract means that there must be opacity in the substance of the lens or its capsule. If the opacity is in the substance of the capsule it is known as capsular cataract, and when in the sub- stance of the lens, it is designated lenticular cataract. Lenticular cataract may be partial or complete; the former when a small portion of the lens substante is ‘involved and the latter when the entire lens becomes opaque. The causes of cataract are various; and in some cases are not distinctly understood. Occasion- ally a catatact may be present in one or both eyes at Fig. 78.—PARTIAL CATARACT (after opaque spot or spots in the lens or its capsule may be seen Armatage).—The through the pupillary opening. Spots in the cornea should not be mistaken for the deeply located opacities in the lens. birth. Heredity, no doubt, exercises a great influence in the production of cataracts during foetal life and also predisposes an offspring to the disease in later life. Cataract frequently manifests itself in the course of diabetes mellitis (Sugar in the urine) but there is no positive proof that the sugar in the sys- tem causes the cataract. Hemorrhages (bleeding) in the aqueous chamber lead to straining of the capsule; the coloring matter of the blood is deposited in the capsule and the dark colored opacity remains after the blood is absorbed or removed from the aqueous Disturbances in the nutrition of the lens in old age is said to be the cause of senile cataract. In old age the lens substance becomes more and more solid; this leads to irregularity in its density; also prevents changes in the curvature of the lens that are necessary in the adjustment, or its accommodation, to different distances. The constant straining of the eye to bring a hardened lens to the various positions or forms for different distances, would lead to per- verted nutrition and possibly to inflammation, in the capsule, the lens, the ciliary ligament-or ciliary bod- ies. The nutrition of the lens may also be perverted by inflammation primarily in the lens itself or from extension of inflammation in the iris, the ciliary bod- chamber. Take time to brush your horse every day. ies or the ciliary ligament, tothe lens. Active inflam- mation in the lens or the surrounding parts, (from wounds, injuries or other diseases) generally leaves inflammatory products or deposits in the substance of the lens or its capsule, which form permanent opacities. Strokes on the head that produce sudden concussion are said to cause opacities in the lens. There are many cases of cataract, the cause of which cannot be determined; but the most prolific cause of cataract in the horse is periodic opthalmia (moon blindness). Straining the eyes to see objects in im- perfectly lighted barns or stalls, no doubt, plays an important part in producing cataracts as well as other eye diseases. Occasionally small spurious cataracts of the cap- sule disappear, because of the great activity of the But opacity of the lens sub- stance very rarely disappear; because changes in its structure take place very slowly, for it contains no blood vessels or nerves. cells of the capsule. Sometimes small gray specks may remain un- changed; but, as a rule, the little gray star-like opac- ity gradually increases until total lenticular or capsu- lar Opacity appears. In examining the eye for a cataract one may read- ily see a gray, a bluish gray, a greenish yellow, a brown or a pearl white reflection in the pupillary opening; the form (star-shaped, cloudy, fog-like, feathery, streaked, or scattered dots, ball-shaped, etc.,) can be determined if the opacity be sufficiently de- Fig. 78144—TOTAL CATARACT (after Armatage.)—The opaque lens gives the entire pupil a grayish white color. The exact location and form or the small, beginning white speck may not be visible to the ob- veloped. server's unaided eye, especially out in the clear sun- shine or when the ground is covered with snow. The animal should be placed so that the light falls upon the affected eye from a clear window or an open door in front of the animal. The observer then looks into the pupillary opening, standing in front or to one side; it is well to observe the eye from various points Firse Prize Young Herd of Morgan Horses at St. Louis Exposition. . Owned by the Highlands Farm, L L. Dorsey, Anchorage, Ky. _ The Morgan horse is the oldest and most distinctive reproducing native type in America. They are just- dy famous for symmetry, docility, intelligence, steadiness and speed. “Buster Brown” 30777, the Great 6-Year-Old Percheron Stallion. Own- ed by Mr. Tohn K, Lewis, Lynnwood, Va. 388 of view. If the pupil is contracted or too small to ad- mit of sufficient examination, a few drops of a solu- tion of atropine (1 gr. atropine to I ounce of water) may be put into the eye to expand the pupil. The lens may, also, be examined by placing the animal] in a dark room and illuminating the eye with a candle, or a candle and a double convex lens, or with a can- dle and a small concave mirror (see methods of exam- ining the eye.) Treatment of cataracts in domestic animals consists The reducing of all inflamma- tions of the eye, the prevention of periodic opthalmia, keeping the surroundings of the animal in proper con- dition and maintaining sufficient light for the animal to see distinctly in all parts of the stall without strain- ing the eyes. ter the stall or barn from behind the animal, or from chiefly in prevention. Asa rule it is best to have the light en- pias) = Fig. 79.—Luxation (dislocation) of the opaque lens into aqueous chamber; the lens lies in front of the iris, almost completely obstructing the passage of the light through the pupil. both sides. In man the opaque lens is removed by a surgical operation, and a double convex lens is adjust- ed in front of the eye thereafter. But this is imprac- ticable among domestic animals, since the double con- vex lens can not be adjusted to the eye, and the eye would always be hypermetropic (farsighted), permit- ting the animal to see close objects indistinctly and frightened. However the opaque lens is occasionally removed in horses and dogs to eliminate the unsightliness of the cataract; but there is always more or less danger of losing the entire eye ball. therefore inducing it to shy or become AMAUROSIS. Paralysis (palsy) of the retina or optic nerve has been technically named amaurosis. This condition may depend upon tumors in the brain, injury to the optic nerve between the brain and the eye-ball, or in- flammation of the retina. Parasitic cysts often ap- TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. { pear in the brain of sheep and the amaurotic condi- t tion of the eye is a characteristic symptom, ; Abscesses sometimes implicate the roots of the op-li tic nerve and amaurosis Temporary amaurosis is present during the intoxication period of) — lead poisoning; atta (“ivy”); during the comatose condition of the cow ny paturient apoplexy (milk fever); and in congestion of the brain. Inflammation of the retina is nearly al-|_ ways present in moon blindness and occasionally if’ al terminates in paralysis of the retina—amaurosis. De: + tachment of the retina from the choroid, hemorrhage from the retinal blood vessels, and emboli (plugging; by clotted blood) of retinal blood vessels and exces‘ sive loss of blood, cause temporary or permanen’| amaurosis. If, in the course of inflammation, if the retina pigment is deposited in the retina, it produce‘) night blindness—a condition that prevents the animaj seeing at night. Extreme sensitiveness of the retina{ as observed in Albinos and in some white horses leads to day blindness. In such cases, the pupil is s« nearly or completely closed that the animal can no see in clear sunshine, or when the ground is coverec supervenes. poisoning from Kalmia ¥ bin with snow; but during twilight, on cloudy days, anc at night vision is normal. Amaurosis sometimes re, sults from castration. In well established cases of amaurosis there is tota blindness; yet there are no opacities in any of the tis | | Fig. 80—AMAUROSIS.—The pupil is greatly expanded, gray-blue in color and the eye appears bright, glassy, ver) clear (after Armatage). ; 4 y sues or humors of the eye. The eye is bright, cleat and perfectly transparent. The animal steps high stumbles over, and runs against objects in its way. li) at a short distance, you noiselessly threaten to strik it, there is no winking or manifestations of fear. Th ears are very sensitive to sound, and the outer ear — are constantly on the alert to catch all noises. Th pupil is expanded to its extreme limit; the iris is im) movable and insensitive to light. Leading the anima) — rom the dark into the light, or from the light into e dark, does not change the size of the pupil or jnove the iris; while in the normal eye the pupil ex- jands in darkness and contracts on being brought to \ight. The pupillary reflex (the light reflected from jhe retina outward through the pupil) is, as a rule, frayish-blue; but may, at times, appear more gray jhan blue, or present a more or less distinctly green Jolor. | Treatment.—When amaurosis is a result of another jisease, it is evident that the disease of which it is a jymptom should be treated. In cases of recent stand- g, good nutritive food, extra care and a nerve tonic |drachm doses of nux vomica two times per day) may he employed with advantage. But treatment of long jtanding cases always proves valueless. Hf 1 GLAUCOMA. ' This name is applied to several varieties of a dis- vase whose chief symptom is increased ocular tension. Whe increased intro-ocular pressure is a direct result of the jelly-like vitrous humor becoming thin, more atery and greater in quantity. This condition may ippear independent of any other disease, but it gen- prally appears, accompanied by, or as a sequel of, in- lammation in the choroid or the ciliary bodies. How- ver, the exact cause in many instances is unknown. he extra amount of lymph or watery secretion with- jn the eye has been explained in various ways. Some nave claimed that it was due to obstructions in the ‘ntro-ocular lymph vessels, which carry off the extra amount of lymph; others have suggested that the ex- ra supply of water was due to excessive secretion by the choroid, and especially the ciliary bodies. The development of glaucoma is slow, its course is nearly always chronic and of a more or less intermittent ‘orm. Old animals which. have far-sighted (hyper- \ etropic) eyes are predisposed to glaucoma. : Symptoms.—Increased hardness of the eye-ball, or cise of intra-ocular tension, is the most prominent ymptom. These conditions may be determined by placing the index finger of the right hand upon the upper lid of the left eye and the index finger of the left hand upon the upper lid of the right eye; then compare the tension or hardness of one eye with the other by palpating with the tips of the fingers; in in- creased hardness, firm pressure of the finger tip pro- | ( . - Horses and mules are not made of stecl. 389 duces no impression; but the tension may be doubt- ful unless there is a marked difference in the impres- sions made upon the two eyes. The pupil is general- ly greatly expanded and the lens, as a rule, remains transparent, but may in rare instances be opaque. The depth of the anterior part of the aqueous cham- ber is diminished; the front surface of the iris is al- most in contact with the internal surface of the cor- nea. The iris in some cases appears swollen and it is sluggish in movement or entirely inactive. The slight diffuse cloudiness of the cornea and the aque- ous humor produces the sea green (glaucoma) color of the pupil. The episcleral and conjunctival vessels are more or less congested. But the excavation or sinking or depression of the optic nerve can not be seen without the aid of an opthalmoscope; this cup- ping of the optic disc is due to the intra-ocular pres- sure; the cup is ‘called the glaucomatous cup and the yellow halo around it is known as the glaucomatous ring. Treatment consists in preventing inflammatory ad- hesions between the iris and cornea by using eserine. Also, reduce inflammation of the iris, ciliary bodies and choroid, that may lead to glaucoma; this may be accomplished by using hot or cold water fomenta- tions. A well developed case can only be relieved by irodectomy. If eserine is used constantly it must be in a weak solution (1-10 to 1-16th grain to one ounce of water.) Irodectomy consists in removing a por- tion of the iris; in glaucoma one-fifth to one-fourth of the iris should be removed; or what is known as the broad peripheral irodectomy can be done only by a skilled surgeon. HYDROPTHALMUS. This is an enlargement of the eye-ball due mainly to an,increased secretion of the aqueous humor, as in glaucoma. Sometimes the eye ball becomes twice its normal size; the cornea is generally so opaque that one cannot see the inner parts of the eye. quence of the enlarging of the eye-ball the attach- ments of the lens are partially or entirely torn loose and the lens may float in the vitreous or the aqueous humor. denly, in twenty-four hours; or may advance slowly. Seldom is it relieved by treatment. Occasionally the cornea is ruptured and the eye-ball lost. In the early stage, the cornea may be punctured, thus allowing the extra amount of aqueous secretion to escape; this In conse- The enlargement of the eye may appear sud- 399 has, in some cases, proven beneficial; however, it can- not be done by the novice or the inexperienced. DISLOCATION OF EYE BALL—EXOPTHAL- MUS. The eye-ball may be pushed out of its socket by tu- mors that originate behind the ball; sometimes by bleeding, from deep penetrating injuries, congestion of blood vessels; by horns of cattle, by: biting and scratching among dogs and cats, also by dislocation of the lower jaw in the smaller animals. Occasional- ly an animal has its eye dislocated by having it crowded out with a blunt stick or club in the hands of a cruel boy or attendant. If the eye is not lacerat- ed, bruised or seriously injured and the optic nerve is not torn, the ball may be returned to its cav.ty and a compress bandage applied over it to keep it in place. This should be done as early as possible or the swell- ing of the parts around the eye will prevent return- ing it to its proper place. However, the outer angle of the eye may be divided if necessary to admit the eye-ball to the socket. Should the eye-ball be badly injured or in case it is impossible to return it to the socket, the entire protruding parts may be cut away as deeply within the eye socket as possible; a pledget of cotton,saturated with a one per cent. solution of carbolic acid or corrosive sublimate may be pressed into the cavity; a compress bandage should then be placed over the eye. When the eye is dislocated by growing tumors in its socket, or if there are malignant or fungoid tu- mors within the eye, or if the eye is very badly injur- ed, it may be necessary to exterpate the eye-ball, its muscles and the surrounding tissues. For this the animal must’ be cast, anaesthised with chloroform or some other anaesthetic; an assistant holds the eye lids apart; the operator grasps the cornea or the in- ternal or external rectus muscle with the forceps in his left hand; the eye-ball, the tumor, or the entire con- tents of the orbital cavity, if necessary, are then re- moved, with the shears or knife. The bleeding is checked by applying a pledget of cotton, and a com- press bandage as before described. ANIMAL PARASITES OF THE EYE. Filaria papilosa is a small, round, white worm that is found most frequently in the vitreous humor; but is occasionally observed in the aqueous humor and TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. ‘pure drinking water is probably the most common) 4 commonly spoken of as the “snake in the eye.” It ! from one-half to two inches in length, and it is very probable that the young filaria reach the eye by wa} of the blood vessels, and develop in the humors of tht eye. However, it is scarcely probable that the humor: of the eye are the natural habitat or home of this par} asite, since the same worm has been found in othe: parts of the body. One man reports that he observec a worm in the aqueous humor during a period of sb years. Buta few months is usually the length of tinn| this parasite lives in the eye. A number of cases ar recorded where this parasite has produced inflamma, tion of the cornea and iris, with an extra flow of teari| and opacities of the cornea and aqueous humor; thes: conditions may subside in a short time and leave : slight cloudiness of the cornea and aqueous humor. Ip certain districts in India this parasite is found very frequently in the eye of the horse and if not removec) the eye goes blind. This worm has also been observ] ed in the eyes of cattle. The worm may be removec " from the aqueous chamber by cutting a small open| ing in the cornea at its upper border near the sclero: tic margin; then remove the worm with small forceps) 3efore operating it is necessary to cast the horse o} ox; anaesthise it with chloroform or ether and apply| a ten per cent. solution of cocaine to the eye. Afte!| operation keep the eye moist and cool by frequent 01)” constant cold water applications, and occasionally pu into the eye a few drops of aone per cent. solution 0\ carbolic acid or boracic acid, or a weak solution 0% 1 corrosive sublimate. Filaria lachrymalis is a small, white, round worn one-half to one inch long; it lives in the lachryma| ducts, under the haw or eye washer and sometime: under the eyelids; it causes inflammation of the con junctiva and lachrymal ducts and may close the teat ducts. Remove the worms from the tear ducts anc the conjunctival surfaces by using small forceps; ther, apply, two or three times per day, a few drops of <) corrosive sublimate solution (1 part c, s. to 1000 parts of pure water). As elsewhere mentioned, Willach has discovered in the eve the young forms of various round and flaj worms, and he claims that these animal parasites play, 7 an important part in producing periodic opthalmia. | Since nearly all parasites gain admission into the) system by way of the alimentary canal, infection may) be prevented by observing a few precautions. Im: carrier of the various animal parasites. Hence always) It is an easy matter to drive a horse too hard. give animals water from deep wells or pure springs, and never from ponds, rivers, or stagnant lakes. The digestive tract may become infected with these para- sites by ingesting infected food. In all cases where parasites are found in the alimentary canal (manifest- ed by the occasional passing of parasites with the feces), it is advisable to give one-half to one drachm doses of sulphate of iron or sulphate of copper in the ground food two times per day for one week; then give a purgative, consisting of one pint of raw linseed oil or one ounce of Barbadoes aloes. STRABISMUS, SQUINTING OR CROSSEYE. In this defect the visual axis or line of one or both eyes deviates from the normal. In other words, the eye-ball is turned inward, outward, upward or down- ward by the excessive contraction of a muscle or as a result of the paralysis of one of the muscles of the eye. In converging (inward) strabismus, the exter- nal rectus muscle may be paralysed and thus be un- able to counteract the contractions of the internal rec- tus, its antagonist. This weakness, partial or com- | plete paralysis of one or more muscles of the eye may be due to the pressure of tumors on the nerve of the muscle, rheumatism, tumors at the base of the brain or injuries of the muscle. Squinting or crosseye may be treated by section of the antagonistic muscle, but this can be done only by a skilled veterinarian. How- ever, this defect is rare in domestic animals and may be detected by noting the squinting appearance and carefully comparing one eye with the other. When strabismus is present it causes considerable shying, which is especially annoying in nervous animals. SOME OF THE CAUSES OF INDISTINCT VIS- ION AND SHYING. Hypermetropia or farsightedness is that defective condition of the eye which causes the principal focus to fall behind the retina, as illustrated in figure 81— H. In other words, the parallel rays which enter the eye come to a focus behind the retina. Asa rule, the axis of the eye or the diameter from before to behind is too short and the cornea may appear less convex or Hatter than normal. Convex glasses are used in hy- permetropia in man, but are impractical with animals. Distant objects may be seen distinctly but the images of objects at a short distance are blurred and some- times distorted into frightful forms. Hence farsight- ed horses are frequently frightened, or are caused to shy as a result. of indistinct vision. ‘adjusted, or accommodates 3oF Myopia or shortsightedness is a condition in which the refractive index of the eye is too great or the axis of the eye is too long; the parallel rays come to a fo- cus in front of the retina (as in fig. 81—M.); or the principal focus falls in front of the retina. In short- sightedness the cornea may appear very convex or conical as it frequently. appears in cattle. Close or near objects can be seen distinctly but distant objects may be distorted or become very indistinct. Concave Fig. 81. Diagramatic section of an eye (after Meller) to show: That the parallel rays of light, which enter the normal eye,. converge or focus on the retina, E, making a distinct image. That, in the farsighted eye, the parallel rays focus at H_ be- hind the retina, forming a blurred image on the retina. That, in the shortsighted eye, the parallel rays converge at M in front of the retina, forming a very indistinct image on the retina. glasse_are used by farsighted persons; but since the use of glasses is impractical for animals, shortsighted- ness, therefore, becomes a permanent cause of shying and fright. In the Normal or Emmetropic eye, the principal focus falls on the retina, and distinct images of all ob- jects, at near or far distances, form on the retina (fig. 81—E.) The cornea, the aqueous humor, the lens and the vitreous humor take part in the formation of the image. The cornea is the principal refracting me- dium when the eye is at rest; but the changes in the convexity of the lens (caused by the contractions of the ciliary muscle) are the means by which the eye is itself, to different dis- tances. In the far-sighted, short-sighted and normal eye the curvature of the cornea and of the lens is regular; but sometimes the curvature of the cornea may be so irregular that one part or meridian may produce short-sightedness while still another meridian may be normal. This condition produces a very much distort- 392 ed image and is a fruitful source of shying or the cause of fear and fright. Irregularities in the meri- dians of the cornea produce the condition known as astigmatism. This defective may also be caused by an oblique position of the lens. There are several kinds and degrees of astigmatism, all of which are very difficult to distinguish and can only be re- lieved by the use of proper glases which are inap- plicable to animals. Slight cloudines or opaque spots in the cornea, weak cloudiness of the aqueous humor, beginning cataract, vision beginning amaurosis or beginning glaucoma are ac- companied by indistinct vision, and consequently pro- duce frequent shying. In fact, partial blindness from any cause is always attended by indistinct vision and shying, fear or fright. PERIODIC OPTHALMIA—MOON-BLINDNESS. This is an eye disease peculiar to horses and mules. Before the development of veterinary science the be- lief was prevalent that the moon exerted a direct or indirect influence upon the eyes; because the inflam- matory attacks recurred at monthly or somewhat reg- Thus the names “moon blindness” and But as veterinary ular periods. “mooneyed science progressed, extensive clinical and anatomical investigations made known the fact that moonblind- ness was a periodic or recurring inflammatory disease of the entire choroid coat and the ciliary bodies. horses” originated. eye, involving primarily the iris, the Symptoms.—This disease makes its appearance very suddenly—generally beginning in the night; in the morning the eye is found closed, extremely sensitive to light with a very great flow of tears down over the cheek. In some instances there is systematic fever, while in other milder cases, it is not manifest; but, as a rule, the horse or mule is dull, wanting in vigor, and energy, indicating constitutional disturbance. The eye-ball is drawn backward into the orbital cavity, by the retractor muscle; this makes it appear smaller than the healthy eye; after several attacks the eye- ball is said to shrink in size—decrease in actual vol- ume. The conjunctiva exhibits slight swelling and diffuse reddening; the surface blood vessels of the sclerotic are congested; this produces a light red ring, injection. ) or seam around the cornea (pericorneal The cornea near its outer border exhibits a weak, dif- fuse cloudiness, which soon extends over the entire cornea; in the beginning this cloudiness is weakly TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. marked and the cornea appears as if it were glass with a thin layer of fat spread over it. In the advance- ment of the disease the middle or principal layer of the cornea becomes affected, which leads to intense, diffuse cloudiness and occasionally to vascularization of the cornea; the latter is distinctly visible at its bor- der in a few days after the beginning of the attack. Sometimes a pearl white opacity may appear at some spot on the outer surface of the cornea. In the be- ginning the slight cloudiness of the cornea does not prevent one from viewing the iris, the lens and some- times the vitreous humor and the retina. The puru- lent or flakey exudate in the aqueous humor and the excessive contraction (almost entire obliteration) of the pupil hide from view all the internal parts of the eye. The iris appears rough on its outer surface, slight- Fig. 82—Diffuse cloudiness of the cornea as observed in moon blindness and in inflammation of the cornea. The In- ternal structures of the eye are cut off from view by the to- tal opacity of the cornea (after Armatage). ly glazed, lighter colored than normal; at times it is covered with a grey exudate. The ciliary portion of the iris is bulged forward and outward; the move- ments of the iris are slow and weak; it is quite insen- sible to variations in light, and the pupil does not ex- pand in the dark. The color of the pupil when visi- ble during its contraction is greyish green. Atropine causes the iris to expand slowly, weakly and irregu- larly; at points the pupillary border of the iris ad- heres to the capsule of the lens; the remaining parts are free; expansion of the pupil under such conditions produce irregularities in the iris and in the outline of the pupil (see fig. 83). At the lower part of the aque- ous humor, in the anterior chamber, there is a gray- yellow, partly sedimentary, partly flocculent exudate, which sometimes is colored with blood. The quan- tity of the exudate varies; in the early stage of the attack—especially in the later attacks—it is visible by focal illumination asa slight cloudiness; at the height, or severest stage, of the attack the aqueous chamber ES SSS ‘lis almost entirely filled; the exudate settles to the lower part of the aqueous humor, and is gradually ab- jsorbed and entirely disappears in the course of ten to {fifteen days. No prominent changes are exhibited in the conjunc- ‘|tiva; however, the pigmentation of the conjunctiva of ‘the eye-ball makes it difficult to observe variations in ‘its blood vessels. Occasionally the conjunctiva be- Jcomes swollen and produces a slimy, serous secretion. (In cases where the vitreous humor can be observed lin the early stage of the attack it is found to be cloud- led. In the active, inflammatory stage, the eye-ball is ‘found, by palpation, to be sensitive and hard. Opac- ity of the lens appears during the later attacks, and, "| | Fig. 88.—This cut represents the free border of the iris at- ‘ached at points to the capsule of the lens, producing an ir- jregular, ragged outline of the pupil and wrinkling of the iris. ‘This may be observed after several attacks in periodic opthal- ‘nia (modified from Armatage). i | as a rule, when the lens become entirely opaque (to- fal cataract) the periodic attacks cease in that eye. in six to eight days after the beginning of the attack fe inflammatory appearances begin to subside, the isensitiveness to light and extra flow of tears abate; ihe exudate in the anterior eye-chamber begins to dis- \ippear; the pupil begins to expand and the iris may ye-act with regularity. After about fourteen days from he beginning of one of the early attacks the inflam- “matory changes will have so completely disappeared hat casual observation fails to discover anything ab- ‘hormal in the recently diseased eye. However, a care- ful and critical examination discovers that the iris is ‘till attached to the capsule of the lens; or one may Jind on the capsule pigment masses which were left here in the breaking away of the iris from the cap- ule; the iris is lighter in color—lighter brown, very ‘ike the color of dead leaves. Occasionally the iris is 0 pressed forward that it come in contact with the ‘ornea and the anterior division of the aqueous cham- ver appears obliterated. The pale green appearance ae pupil indicates more or less cloudiness of the <3 or vitreous humor. In most cases, especially af- —— il We Never whip a horse or mule when angry. 393 ter the later attacks, there remains a bluish ring around the margin of the cornea—a diffuse cloudiness —the upper eyelid, instead of presenting a continuous arch, exhibits an abrupt bend a short distance from the inner angle; the upper lid and the eyebrow are also more wrinkled than usual; after a few attacks the eye-ball shrinks in volume, is smaller than normal, and in the interval between attacks the eye-ball, by palpation, exhibits uncommon softness. In most in- stances cloudiness of the vitreous humor and detach- ment of the retina can only be discovered by first ex- panding the pupil with atropine and then examining the eye with the opthalmoscope. After the disappear- ance of the acute inflammatory symptoms, or after the inflammation has subsided and all damages are par- tially repaired, or the eye has “cleared up,” it may re- main free from another attack for a month, for two or three months or even for a year. However, as a rule, the attacks occur somewhat regularly every four or six weeks until the eye becomes entirely blind.- This disease generally results in the formation of a total cataract and occasionally in paralysis of the ret- ina or optic nerve—amaurosis. The attacks may vary in severity in the different cases, but the sucessive at- tacks in each case grow more severe and leave behind mote distinct and prominent signs of approaching to- tal blindness. Five to seven attacks, as a rule, com- pletely destroys the sight; thereafter that eye re- mains free from periodic inflammatory attacks; the other eye is then liable to become similarly affected until it goes blind. Rarely are both eyes thus diseas- ed at the same time, but they may be attacked alter- nately until each one becomes blind. The diagnosis of periodic opthalmia is not difficult. The previously mentioned symptoms and course of the disease are generally quite distinct. There are exceptional conditions and times when the owner or observer will be in doubt. During the first attack, when the cornea and the aqueous humor are so badly clouded that the pupil, the iris and all internal parts of the eye are invisible, one can not determine be- yond question whether it is a case of simple iritis or iritis associated with some form of influenza. In some attacks the cornea may be so opaque for a time that one is unable to discover whether the aqueous humor is clouded or not; in such a case the owner may be- lieve that the cornea is injured in some way. Time alone will bring forth or make clear the other symp- toms. Again, during the interval between the first and second or between the second and third attacks, 304 TILLING the before mentioned symptoms may be indistinctly marked; it will then be necessary to wait for the ap- pearance of another attack. But in all the doubtful, indistinct cases, the characteristic fact of its recur- rence in the same eye will remove all doubts in the mind of the owner if not in the mind of the buyer. Causes.—A number of different microbes have been found in the tissues and humors of eyes affected with moon-blindness. Vigezzi has which he believes to be the direct cause of the dis- ease: Trinchera discovered an immovable, curved bac- cillus: R. Koch found a short bacillus, rounded at its ends: Richter found a diplococcus and a triplococcus. However, no positive proofs have as yet been discov- ered, by experimentation or otherwise, that would justify a positive declaration in favor of any microbe. In fact the investigators have found a germ associat- ed with the disease; but, if the microbe has been cul- tivated on artificial media the eye disease has never been artificially transmitted or produced by means of the germ. Willach examined 37 eyes from 24 horses and has discovered a variety of forms and kinds of round and flat worms; most of them were found in the humors and represented the young stage in their develop- ment. Similar parasites were also discovered in the alimentary canal, the liver and the lungs. Willach be- lieves that these worm-like parasites migrate from the alimentary canal during their early life—chiefly by way of the blood vessels—and thus reach the eye; these migrations take place periodically or at such times as the egg or young forms of the parasites reach the alimentary canal in the food or water. This theory would, of course, explain the periodic nature of the disease and many other phenomena connected with it. But the worm-like forms were found only in the examination of dead eyes, whereas the limited number of cases and want of transmission or actual production of the disease by experiment will not jus- tify, beyond question, the ‘far-fetched’ conclusions. On river bottoms, on moist clay soils, on marshy grounds, on moist coast lands of seas and lakes, in malarial districts, this disease is said to be most prev- alent. In 1875, a regiment was moved from Frank- furt on the Main to Hofgeismar; at the former place moon-blindness never appeared; during the first year; at the latter place, 5 cases appeared among the horses of the regiment; the second year 12; the third year 11: the fourth year 14, and the fifth year 42. The THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. found a micrococcus. regiment that was stationed at Hofgeismar was moy- ed to Frankfurt; during the last five years of this reg- iment at Hofgeismar there were 130 cases of periodic opthalmia, and during the first five years at Frankfurt not a single case appeared. Hofgeismar, Saarburg, | St. Avold and other places in Germany seem to be i peculiarly adapted, by their moist clay soils, to the de- Y velopment of the microbe, the parasite, the gas or 4” miasmatic factor that causes this disease. Records al- so show that on certain low lands of Belgium, France, Spain, Italy, Austria and England, this eye disease prevails extensively. Likewise in our own country i certain localities have more cases of moon-blindness than others. The writer has observed that this disease is more | prevalent in the Southern States, than in the Central or North-western States. Compare the number of cases in the dry, cool climate of South Dakota with | the moist, warm climate of Alabama and the result shows the extrenies—the almost complete absence in the former State and the unpleasant prevalence in the latter. It is said to occur less frequently on lime soils. Clay soils will retain moisture longer and as a rule | are richer in organic materials than sandy soils; con- | sequently germs, malarial parasites, etc., will grow | abundantly on the moist clay soil. The disease appears on sandy soil if there is suffi- cient moisture; it will also appear on moderately high | — rolling land irrespective of the kind of soil if there be| sufficient moisture—as a rainy season followed by a| warm season with occasional heavy rains. A number | of cases have been observed at Auburn, 800 feet above the sea level, with a gray sandy soil; however, there| are red clay districts not far from Auburn. I, also, have reports of its appearance on sandy soils in other parts of this State. In the period from 1879 to 1890, appeared 2183. cases of periodic opthalmia among the horses of the) Prussian army. Of this number 585 were in the 15th. army corps; 358 in the first; 339 in the rith; 145 in) the oth; 135 in the 5th; about 80 in the 2nd, the third, and the 8th; about 70 in the 7th; about 60 in the 4th, the 6th, the oth and the 14th; 49 in the guard corps. It will be observed from the above records that the — disease prevailed quite extensively in the respective | localities of the first five of the army corps above mentioned; while in the districts of those last men-| — tioned the disease was comparatively rare. | Cloudy weather, or moist air, so common and con-| stant on wet lands, is said to. be a factor in causing | Mr. Lee Douglas, of Atlanta, Ga,, on bis blue ribbon horse, 396 this disease. Rank, succulent fodders, grown on wet lands, associated with a damp, sultry atmosphere, is conducive to the production of a lymphatic tempera- ment or constitution—a horse with a coarse open tex- ture of bones and muscles, with an excess of connec- tive tissue, with thick skin, legs covered with an abun- dance of long hair and with labored, sluggish move- ments. No doubt, such animals are predisposed to moon-blindness. JFodder, hay or grass, from low, swampy or wet soils may also contain the germs or malarial parasites which are believed by some to cause this disease. In some localities of Europe the hay and fodders, grown upon certain soils, are said to be the cause, or the carriers of the cause from the soil to the animal. A constant ‘stimulating diet of corn, rye or barley grain—especially in summer or when given to the growing colt—contain too much of the fat and heat producing food and not sufficient proportion of the muscle and bone forming food; the horse so fed may be very fat but less able to resist the germs of dis- ease, more liable not only to moon-blindness but also to “big head” and other constitutional diseases. Con- stant feeding of corn will certainly make the periodic attacks occur more frequently and also augment their intensity. This has been proven by a number of trials. A reliable farmer living near Auburn had a fine young mare that had been attacked two or three times; he believed the corn was making the hence he withheld the corn and thereafter fed her upon disease worse; oats; the eyes were not again attacked, and they re- covered so completely that her owner could never ob- Certainly the feed- ing of corn alone did not produce the disease, but af- serve anything wrong with them. ter the real exciting cause had established it, the corn either maintained a supply of food for the microbe or diminished the general vigor of the animal or the re- power of the leucocytes—germ cells of the body. High feeding associated with ir- regular exercise, feeding irregularly and using un- sisting destroying wholesome, decayed or partially rotten hay, fodder or grain; also the surface water of runs, ditches, ponds and shallow wells receiving the impurities from barns, barn yards or outhouses—all these are contributing causes and many times the impure water may convey the microbe, the originating cause, into the system. Overworking an animal, no doubt, depresses the vigor and resisting power of the animal, thus attacks are more liable to begin or recur during the severe, exhausting spring plowing and summer work. Dur- Horses if fed regularly, are never foundered. ing the time of breaking the colt and of the eruption of permanent teeth the attacks are excited to greater severity and are called forth more frequently. The eruption of nearly all the permanent teeth occur dur- ing the last half of the third, fourth and fifth years of age. The small teeth that usually appear just in front of the first molar on either side of the upper jaw, very rarely in lower jaw, are commonly called wolf teeth or “blind teeth.” Many people believe that this little tooth in some mysterious way affects the eye, causes it to go blind “by pressing on the nerve of the eye.” This is, to say the least, very unreasonable if not non+ sensical. Those little teeth never affect the eye. No doubt they are broken off many times when a horse has an attack of periodic opthalmia and the eye “clears. up” in ten to fifteen days—not because the little tooth was pulled or broken off with a punch—but because that eye disease appears and disappears periodically. Heredity is certainly a strong predisposing cause of the disease. (It does not originate the disease, the offspring inherits the tendency or weakness of the eyes, that permits the originating excitant to call forth the disease with little resistance. This transmission, from sire or dam to the offspring, of defective tenden- cies is, no doubt, responsible for the appearance of periodic opthalmia in certain families when the orig- inal blood was so contaminated. In France the gov- ernment discourages, and prohibits when possible, the use of blind stallions or mares for breeding purposes. The farmers and stockmen of the country have. ob- served and noted the influence of heredity in the pro- duction of moon-blindness. From the replies to a cir- 4 cular letter which I sent to fatmers and stockmen in all the counties of Alabama, twenty-one stated that , heredity was a primary or secondary factor in the 7 cause of periodic opthalmia. Poor or badly ventilated and improperly lighted stalls or barns are also casual factors. Prof. Williams | of Edinburgh says: “Fifty years ago thousands of horses became annually blind from opthalmia; now- a-days one seldom sees a case of blindness from this cause. This happy result is due to the enlightened — writings of Coleman on ventilation and the advance — of veterinary science—facts which the public seem to ignore.” In improperly lighted stalls or barns the light is so weak, or small in quantity, that the eyes ‘ are continually strained in order to see distinctly; or the light enters from a small window directly in front ' of the horse, placing the horse on the shady side of - the objects in front of him, and this in combination, = TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. or contrast, with the constant glare of the window, is certainly as trying on the eyes as insufficient light. The light should come from behind or from either side of the animal in quantity sufficient to make all objects in the stall distinctly visible. It has been sug- gested that exposure to cold, or to any of the atmos- pheric influences which ordinarily produce acute ca- tarrh or cold in the head, will cause an attack of moon-blindness. The records of the disease in the Germany army show that more cases occur in winter than during any other season. But in this State the majority of cases appear in the spring and summer. A rheumatic condition of the system is said to play an important part among the long list of causes of moon-blindness. It, however, like many other de- pressing diseases and influences, is only a: preparing or predisposing cause or condition originate the disease but may excite frequent attacks and increase its severity. Smoke, pungent vapors, hayseeds, dust or any local irritants or injuries may awake the latent tendency or augment the intensity of an attack. In short, whatever depresses the vigor or debilitates the system will aid in originating the disease and will also increase the intensity and fre- quency of the attacks; anything that strengthens the constitution or improves the animal vigor will be a protective or assist in preventing periodic opthalmia. The essential and originating cause is very proba- bly a microbe, @ miasmatic germ, an animal, worm- like parasite or the poisonous product of a germ. The natural habitat or its native place of propagation and development seems to be on moist lands that are, dur- ing one season, extremely wet and at other times dry enough to bring forth crops. The surface water of such districts, and the fodders, grasses and hays grown on such lands, transmit or carry the germs in- to the system of the animal. During January, 18093, the veterinary department of the Alabama Agricultural College issued about two hundred circular letters containing questions relative to eye diseases among domestic animals; these were mailed to farmers and stockmen in all the counties of Alabama, and they were also published in many of the daily and weekly papers of the State. The prin- cipal question in the circular letter read as follows: which can not “Are horses and mules in your beat or county af- fected with what is commonly called moon-blindness? If you have such an eye disease please state how fre- quently it occurs, and what is your view of the cause of it.” 397 From these re- records on pe- I received in all nearly 125 replies. plies I have obtained the following riodic opthalmia or moon-blindness: Eighty (80) cases were reported in such a manner as to leave in doubt just when they occurred; 33 cases were reported as being in existence at the time. (Jan- uary and February) of replying; 7 parties report that the disease was prevalent in their respective beats ten to twenty years ago, but not of late years. During the first three months of 1892 and during the same time in 1893, 21 cases have come under my observa- tion at the free Saturday clinic; these cases were from the country and towns surrounding Auburn, and rep- resent fully ten per cent. of all the diseased cases that appeared at the free clinic during the same time. The above records certainly indicate that: periodic opthal- mia is a common disease among horses and mules of Alabama; and according to the reports on other eye diseases it is the most prevalent and frequent cause of blindness. The reports do not give data sufficient for one to state in just what beats it occurs, but they do show that moon-blindness has been, or is at present, in nearly every county in the State; that annually a great many valuable horses go blind as a result of it. Generally speaking, the reports seem to indicate that the disease is most prevalent in the low lands or ma- larial districts of the State; yet the knowledge given of the local geography of the places from which the reports come, is not sufficient for one to make an ac- curate comparison. From the replies I find that a variety of opinions were expressed as to the cause, and a great many fail- ed to express their views, while others said they did not know. Let me now give a concensus of the opin- ions expressed. Six parties believed that improper and irregular feeding are important factors in the cause of moon-blindness; 3 say “not enough variety in diet; 4 believe “too much fodder and grain and not enough hay” is the cause; 1 says “feeding corn to colts;” 9 claim “feeding corn as an exclusive grain diet” is the direct cause; 3 give “exposure to cold” the credit; 1 says the “eruption of permanent teeth and the shedding of colt teeth;” 1 says “blind teeth ;” t makes “high feeding and irregular exercise” respon- sible; 11 claim that “overwork” in various ways is a potent casual factor; and 21 say heredity, especially in blind or “weak-eyed” breeds, is the chief cause; six (6) parties traced the history directly to a blind sire or dam. Surely the above ideas, relative to the 398 cause of periodic opthalmia, show that the stock own- ers of Alabama have been searching for the cause; and if they have not discovered the actual originat- ing cause, they have found factors that intensify or conditions that make the disease worse. Some have suggested that homebred horses are more disposed to this disease than horses ar mules brought here from other States; yet others claim that the opposite is true. I am of the opinion that the animals freighted here from Kentucky, Missouri, Illinois, etc., are far more liable to contract periodic opthalmia than home-bred horses, because the diet of the Northern horse is very greatly changed and he must also become acclimated —his system must be adjusted to new climatic condi- tions. The susceptibility of an animal is determined to some extent by age. From the reports of cases where age was mentioned, and also from the records of European authorities, the period of greatest fre- quency is from 3 to g years of age. this danger period from 2 to 7. Yet it should be re- membered that periodic opthalmia does occur outside of the above age limits, for I] have reports of cases 12, 13 and 15 years old. Some have placed indefin- the nu- Treatment.—T aking into consideration our ite knowledge of the originating cause and merous attending, exciting and predisposing causes, and the fact that the disease generally results in total blindness in one or both eyes, it is evident that pre- ventative treatment is the most profitable and reasona- ble. The drainage, ventilation and light in most barns are sadly neglected and generally very defective. The barn is usually resting on the ground and the stalls are filled with clay which becomes saturated with urine. The clay allows very little moisture to pass through it; the urine, which falls upon it and with which it becomes saturated, passes off mainly by evaporation. With little ventilation or drainage be- low it, the clay rarely becomes dry and the atmos- phere of the stall is consténtly saturated with un- healthy gases (ammonia, etc..) from the fermenting urine and decomposing organic matter of the feces. Such unhealthy conditions can be greatly improved by following the methods usually adopted in building houses in this climate. The floor of the barn should be two to three feet above’ the ground; this may be accomplished by making the brick or stone pillars for underpinning the required height and using strong plank two inches thick for flooring. If people treated horses as well as they cid themselves both would be better off. Lattice work between the outside pillars will per- mit free circulation of air under the barn and prevent the use of the basement for a dog house, pig pen or as a place for fowls. This will give good, cheap drainage below with excellent under ventilation. The ventilation of the box stall (the best and healthiest kind of stall) should be so arranged that the hot and light air may escape through an opening or series of openings in the upper part of the outer wall, permit- ting it to pass directly out of the barn. Similar open- ings should be located in the outer wall near the floor to allow the heavy gases (carbonic acid gas exhaled by the lungs, etc.) to escape. Besides these openings lattice box stall doors and lattice outer hall doors and windows should always be in use for sumther ventilation. There may be objections (its hardness and the drying out of the feet) to standing a horse on a plank floor; but these may be overcome by bed- ding or littering the box stall; by occasionally soak- ing the feet in water, and, when nearly dry, oiling them with an ointment made of one part of pine tar to eight ‘or ten parts of lard or cotton-seed oil. The light should, as before mentioned, enter from behind or from both sides of the animal; in the box stall the light should thus enter when the horse is standing at the manger. Furthermore, the light should be so ar- ranged and of sufficient quantity to enable the horse to see distinctly in all parts of the stall. The water supply and time of giving water to horses should be carefully considered. All surface water, from ponds, brooks, rivers and shallow wells should be avoided. spring, filtered rain water or other kinds of filtered water, or water from deep wells are best, and less lia- ble to contain disease-producing germs. The horse and the mule should always be given water before feeding grain—never after, unles it be given two hours after feeding. a 4 Spring water, taken directly from the A constant corn diet is to be avoided, especially as a food for colts. ..[t is extremely doubtful if corn for colts is ever advisable. Furthermore, it is injudicious to feed horses or, mules upon. corn as the only grain food at any other time except in the cold period of winter. In fact, there is no time in this climate when corn alone is really needed or demanded by the sys- Far better results wil] be obtained by using oats as the staple or chief grain food; and, at times, equal tem. sround corn, cow peas and oats, or equal parts of ground corn and wheat bran, may be substituted for TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. joats alone. Corn should never be fed to horses with weak ‘eyes or with diseased eyes. Corn and fodder | (leaves) form the staple articles of food, for horses and mules, in some parts of the South with a climate ithat will produce green rye for soiling during the en- tire winter and green sorghum and green millet for Corn is too stimulating and contains too the corn fodder is a |summer. imuch heat=producing material; jdry, rough food, which in combination with corn is \fliable to lead to attacks of constipation, producing ‘passive congestion of the blood vessels of the brain jand the eyes. To be sure this does not always occur, ‘but many times an attack of periodic opthalmia may hus be called forth. Variety should al- ‘ways be considered, and extended according to local Hood supply; watch the effects of the quality and the uantity of the various foods, and many times you ‘will be able to regulate the diet of the animal accord- pe to your experience in feeding it. No fixed or ab- in rations ‘solute laws can be made to fit all cases; horses have jheir individual peculiarities as well as persons. | High feeding, with irregular exercise ; excessive and -xhausting work; exposure to cold (rheumatic in- Iuenees) are to be avoided as far as possible, espe- vially with animals affected with periodic opthalmia br predisposed to it. f _ The indiscriminate use of blind animals for breed- mg purposes can not be too strongly condemned. He- Jedity is certainly the most potent predisposing cause if periodic opthalmia. Mares with weak eyes and vith a lymphatic temperament and structure should jot be bred to stallions of similar temperament and \ eb | Proper curative treatment will sometimes check ne progress of the disease, and may, in rare instances, jesult in permanent relief. During the active inflam- hatory stage bathe the eye in cold or hot water for to 2 hours morning and evening; after each bathing ut into the eye a few drops of the following solu- hit Potassium Iodide, 10’grains; Atropia Sulphate, > grains; Boracie Acid, 10 grains; - Pure Water, 2 fihces. This medicine may be used for 6 to 15 days jatil the eye begins to clear up; then use the same ‘rescription, omitting the Atropia Sulphate. When dssible adjust over the eye a cotton cloth or small ag of cotton, kept constantly wet with cold or hot jater. It is well to keep the horse, during the in- ammatory stage, in a dark box stall if the ventila- n, cleanliness and drainage of the stall is healthful th good. If the horse is constipated a mild purga- 399 tive (one-half pound of Glauber’s salts or one-half pint of raw linseed oil) may be given. Constipation may be thereafter avoided by giving a bran mash once or twice per week. Moderate and regular exercise or easy work is beneficial, but keeping the affected horse or mule at hard work is decidedly injurious. In every instance it is wise to remove, when possible, all pre- disposing or attending causes. Recently a new treatment has been used in treat- ing periodic opthalmia. Harrison originated the plan of opening the anterior chamber of the eye (the cav- ity containing the aqueous humor) and allowing the aqueous humor and the pus-like material with its germs or parasites to escape. This should be done with great care and the eye washed or bathed, regu- larly every day with water that has been boiled and cooled. It is well to add a little soda, carbolic acid or creolin to the water. The puncture is made in the cornea near its lower border and from below upward. Unless the operator has had experience it is best to employ some veterinarian who is an experienced op- erator. As indicated in several reports from different parts of the State, periodic opthalmia seems to be disappear- ing in certain localities. frequency, It will certainly decrease in or entirely disappear, when the stock raisers comply with the hygienic laws governing the health of horses and mules. The principles of feed- ing, ventilation, drainage, breeding and sanitation in general must be studied and practiced, froma scien- tific stand-point. Besides, the South can and should raise her own mules and horses. Healthier, better and cheaper animals can be bred and raised in the South than the majority of those that are annually shipped here from the North. METHODS OF EXAMINING THE EYES. Remove the blind bridle or any harness obstructions to free vision. Tie a cloth over one eye and then lead the animal over obstructions that will cause stumbling or high stepping. Repeat this test with the other eye blindfolded. If the animal with one eye blindfolded stumbles over low objects the vision of the other eye is defective. Note the attentive and erect position of the ears indicating that they are attempting to com- pensate for the defective sight. Carefully compare the fullness or prominence of one orbital region with the other; note that in fat or young animals the orbital cavity is full and that in poor or old animals the eye 400 socket is not completely filled and the orbital rim or bony border Excessive fullness of one orbital region would indicate that the eye-lids or the tissues, surrounding the eye-ball, are swollen, or it would indicate the presence of a tumor in the orbital cavity. Closely observe the form, position and condi- tion of the eye-lids: the presence and position of the eye-lashes; also, compare the curve of the free border of one upper lid with the same lid of the other eye. Examine carefully the secretion at the miner angle of the eye. The tears are like water; mucus appears gray and flocculent; pus mixes with the tears and ap- is prominent, pears yellow and cloudy; in the dog pus sometimes is colored green. If the mucus and pus are mixed, the mucus flakes are colored yellow. An excessive quanti- ty of tears, mucus or pus is manifest by the flowing of the secretions down over the cheek. The presence of the mucus, pus or an extra quantity of tears flow- ing over the cheek should induce the observer to look closély for foreign particles in\the eye, inflammation of the conjunctiva, abscess or ulceration of the cornea and closure of the lachrymal ducts, For further ex- amination the animal should be taken to a barn or stall. It is best to use a stall with one window or one door; the animal’s head should be turned tothe open door or to the window, allowing the light to fall on the directly in front or from to the The eye may be opened by the lids apart with the eye from an angle right on left of the front. gently and firmly pressing thumb and index finger, using the right hand with the left eye, and the left hand with the right eye. To see the conjunctiva of the upper lid, it may be everted by grasping the eye-lashes with one hand and evert- ing the lid over the forefinger of the other hand. Ex- amine closely the haw or “eyewasher” and all parts of the conjunctiva for signs of injury, inflammation and irritating particles. Examine also the opening of the tear ducts. attention is next directed to the size, form and position of the eye-ball. It is al- ways advisable to compare one eye with the other that the abnormal may be judged by its deviation from the normal. Ifthe eye-ball projects outward and forward excessively, dislocation of the eye-ball, hydropthalmus (excess of water in the aqueous humor) or a tumor in or behind the eye may be suspected. If the eye-ball is drawn backward into the eye socket, severe inflam- mation is present, attended by extreme sensitiveness to light, as in the beginning of an attack of moon-blind- A decrease in volume or size of the eye-ball, The observer's ness. A horse that plows sir days has no business on the road on the seventh. (after repeated attacks of periodic opthalmia and ir tuberculosis of the eye-ball) is manifest by apparent drawing of the eye into the socket and the more or les: infolding of the upper lid near the inner angle of the eye. The tension and hardness of the eye-ball may be tested by palpation upon the upper eye lid, wit!) the index finger; both eyes should be tested at th same time that one may be compared with the other) Note the presence or absence of the congestion of th) pericorneal blood vessels; its presence indicates inflam mation of the ciliary bodies, the iris and sometime] the choroid coat. | | f The cornea may be next viewed from various pos) tions, noting carefully its curvature, its opacities, th presence or absence of ulcers, vascularization, swe lings or new growths. The location, color and limité| tions of the opacities should first be determined. Th} weaker the opacity or cloudiness the more blue th] color; intense opacities are white. Black opacities «| the cornea signify pigmentation from iris adhesior| or from blood stains, Striped and pearl like opacitie) with sharp limitations, point f to scars or chron}, chances in the cornea; chalk spots result from the er ployment of silver and lead salts in wounds and ulce) of the cornea. Viewing the cornea in profile, or fro| one side, will enable one to locate the opacity, revez| ing in a degree what layers of the cornea are involve ; and to a certain extent enables one to determine ti) curvature of the cornea, especially in partial or tot} staphyloma and extremely flat or very conical forr| of the cornea. If the transparency of the cornea w permit, investigate the aqueous humor, searching f) the gray, floculent exudate or the yellow, sedimenta/ pus exudate in blood effusions; these may be prese in penetrating wounds of the cornea, iritis and moc} blindness. The color, condition of the outer surface, mo; ments and attachments of the iris should next be ¢ amined. The iris may become grayish brown by t deposition of inflammatory products in its sue or become gray from the deposit of an exudate on surface. The bluish-green color of the iris, manift after one or two attacks of periodic opthalmia, is ¢? to an atrophied (shrinking) condition of the iris. ( casionally in cattle a tubercular growth develops fr the iris and completely fills the aqueous chamber the eye. The iris may be attached by inflammatc adhesions to the capsule of the lens (as in iritis’ moon-blindness) ; or it may thus adhere to the pos} rior surface of the cornea (a result of penetrai —— | | TILLING THE ‘wounds and ulcers.) By the use of atropine, if the Jpupil is small or contracted, or eserine if the pupil is jarge or expanded, these adhesions may be destroyed r their permanent presence made known by the im- te ie iris and unchangeable form of the pupil. The iris, when attached to the capsule of the lens or to the cornea, may appear rough on its outer surface and ts pupillary border is more or less irregular. The bagged, irregular border of the pupil should not be \mistaken for the large brown “‘soot balls” that appear Jso frequently along the upper and lower parts of the pupillary border of the iris. The movements of the ris should also be watched when the animal is taken [rom the sunlight into the barn, or from the dark stall ‘nto the sunshine. If the pupil contracts regularly in pright light and expands regularly in partial dark- jness, the action of the iris is normal. But should the bupil remain greatly expanded under all conditions of jight and darkness, one would suspect partial or total amaurosis. If the pupil remains partially or greatly contracted under all conditions of light and darkness, pne should suspect adhesion of the iris to the capsule of the lens. ‘ | The pupillary reflex or color of the pup! is the re- ection of light from the retina and the choroid. The ‘normal color of the pupil varies with the variations iin its size or in its degrees of expansion or contrac- ome its color also changes with the variations in the ight. By great expansion of the pupil it appears blue-green ; by medium expansion it appears blue- black; by great contraction it appears black. The olor of the pupil in amaurosis is generally lighter, more clear and glassy than in the normal eye. When the pupil is small atropine should be used to produce Maximum expansion. Or, the animal may be taken jinto a moderately dark stall where the color of the light reflected from the upper part of the retina and ‘choroid will be green, and that reflected from the op- \tic papilla (spot where the optic nerve enters the eye pall) will appear light red. This light red color is very distinct in carnivorous animals. | Cloudiness of the lens or the vitreous humor chang- ke the color of the pupil according to the intensity jof the cloudiness. Total cataract gives the pupil a E a white or whitish yellow color; while by a par- tial cataract the normal color of the pupil is cut off lat the points or places of local opacities of the lens for its capsule. In cloudiness of the vitreous humor ithe pupil becomes more or less distinctly green. A liquid condition of the vitreous humor combined with 27 - SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. 401 cloudiness of the same also produces a distinct green pupil. Sudden or great movement of the cloudy vit- reous humor, is a certain proof of its fluidity. The observer should view the pupil from various posi- tions; by the use of the hand or a black hat the su- perfluous rays of light, or those coming from certain directions, may be cut off. The observer should not mistake the images of white objects (white shirt fronts, windows, holes in the building), for white or gray opacities in the lens or other parts of the eye. Dislocation of the lens, falling of the opaque lens into the anterior or aqueous chamber of the eye has its appearance suggested by figure 79. But if the opaque lens should fall into the vitreous humor, the upper part of the pupil may reinain transparent, and optic papilla might be visible; yet a portion of the white or gray opaque lens could ‘be seen through the lower part of the pupil; the iris remains passively inactive and its pupillary border floats in the aqueous humor. Sometimes the lens may be partially dislocated or may have some shred-like, or hanging thread-like, attachments to its old location; these conditions would present different views in the pupil. the small appearing asamnile: In order to be more accurate in locating and discoy- ering opacities, the animal should be placed in a dark room where the eye may be illuminated by the use of a lamp or candle. The lamp may be placed in differ- ent locations, in front of, and outward from, the eye to be inspected; opacities will then be made more dis- tinct. Three images of the flame may be seen as il- lustrated in figure 84. In the normal eye the first image is the largest, the most distinct and reflected from the front surface of the cornea; the sec- ond image is smaller, upright and reflected from the upright, Fig. 84.—This cut (after Schlampp) shows the images of the candle’s flame. The animal should be placed in a dark room or stall, or the test may be made at night in an ordinary stall; the candle is held a short distance in front of the eye to-be examined and the following images, as above illustrat- ed, will be seen. The first upright image is reflected from the cornea; the second upright image of the flame is reflected from the capsule on the anterior surface of the lens; the third or inverted and small image of the flame is reflected from the capsule on the posterior surface of the lens. The dark back-ground of the cut represents the pupil. 402 anterior surface of the lens; the third one is the small- est, inverted and reflected from the posterior surface of the lens. In the normal eye it will be noticed that these images are more or less distinct and that, as the lamp or candle is moved, the first two images of the flame will move in the same direction that the candle moves, but the third or inverted image moves in an opposite direction to that of the candle. As the can- dle is moved about in front of the eye, it may reach a place where the first two upright images clear and distinct, but the smallest and inverted image becomes cloudy and indistinct; this would indicate that the substance of the lens or the posterior part of the capsule is opaque at the point or spot where the candle’s rays attempt to pass through. If the second image becomes indistinct the opacity lies in the ante- rior part of the capsule; if the first image becomes remain hazy and diffuse the cloudiness is inthe cornea. To- tal cloudiness of the cornea would obliterate all three images, and the diffuse cloudiness of the aqueous hu- mor obliterates the second and the third image. A small double convex lens may be used, as illus- trated in figure 85, to focus or collect the rays from Or, a con- a candle or lamp in a dark room or stall. Fig. of the eye for the purpose of examination. on the cornea and lens in the above cut. CONTROLLING THE Horse. | EDITED BY DR, J. C. CURRYER, ASST. SUPT., MANKATO, MINN, DEVICES FOR CONTROLLING SOME OF THE BAD HABITS OF OUR HORSES, ETC. For the want of a proper education when young, together with the careless handling and abuse of our horses, they contract habits that are both dangerous to themselves, their companions and those who han- dle them. 85.—This cut (after Schlampp) illustrates the double convex lens is employed in illuminating the eye or parts The examination is made in moved forward and backward until the candle’s rays are focussed upon the desired part or various parts, as it is up- A farm horse cannot be driven like a livery horse. | : cave mirror (with a small, round opening in its cen- ter for the observer to look through) can be used to) collect and reflect the rays from a candle or from an open door or window; in using the mirror the candle: or window should be backward from the head and) outward from the shoulder or body. By employing the double convex lens or concave mirror, the trans- parent or opaque condition of the cornea and the aqueous humor may be distinctly observed and many opacities can thus be seen that are invisible in ordi-. nary daylight. By employing atropine to expand the pupil, slight opacities of the lens may be made dis- tinct and cloudiness of the vitreous humor may be; These methods of illuminating the eye al- so enables one to carefully examine the condition of! observed. the iris. The opthalmoscope is an instrument that is used by oculists to look at the retina, its blood vessels, the papilla optica, and to determine the degree of far- sightedness, shortsightedness, astigmatism, etc. Its use, however, requires great skill and much practice; hence, direction for using it will be omitted, since they, would be of little value to the average man. 7 { a dark room or at night; the gass lens 1s | It has been our purpose all through life to careful ly study horses’ habits and the laws of their contro’) with the least possible inconvenience and punishment! convinced that the simples and most effective means of control is through de|_ vices that harmonize with the laws of his organiza| tion. / and we are thoroughly TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. His strength being sup - TEACHING TEAMS TO PULL. | It is a real pleasure to have a team that can be re- vied upon to pull whenever wanted to do so. Any )eam, if not of a too highly nervous temperament, jay be trained to perfect reliability. We need, first | \ Mf all and forever after, to recognize that the horse | has a mind and, at least, the mental qualities of mem- ory and affection. The consideration of paramount |mportance in this matter, according to the view of _ writer in Stockman, is to develop the team’s con- idence in themselves and in their driver. It is just \s true of a horse as of man, that he will not exert jimself greatly over what he has no hope of accom- dishing. But different from man, the horse thinks of previous loads instead of the one to which he is ‘tached. This is the reason a balky horse is apt to TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. 413 refuse to pull a very light load. He kas no way of estimating his load only by pulling upon it. Hitch a horse to a very heavy load, let ‘him pull upon it, then transfer him to any empty wagon and start him. You will see him gather himself for a pull. He has in mind the heavy load. Had the horse been stalled with a heavy load, and whipped until the driver and horse were both certain he could not pull it, you would have a horse thoroughly broken not to pull. This writer says: “Let me impress the truth of this by calling to mind another illustration of the result of similar treatment. I have seen men who had horses given to pulling up- on the halter, put one on them they were confident the horses could not break, and then whip them over the head in order to make them pull. Nearly always when a horse finds he cannot pull loose he will walk up to the hitching post. I have heard men argue that a horse could be so thoroughly broken in this way that a tow-string would hold him. There is some truth in it, though not all horses are to be manaze] in the same way. A horse of nervous temperame xt should never be excited. They will always do their best in a perfectly calm state of mind. “Have a definite and small vocabulary to use with your team, and always use the same word for one purpose. Keep the same two horses working togeth- er, and always on the same side. Use open bridles, so that the team can see what is going on around them. Keep all attachments strong, that your team will not be in fear of straining themselves throuch something breaking. Use close-fitting collars and harness, and never allow a horse to become sore from any part of the harness. Teach your team to start together. Keep them strong and in good spirits by good and regular feeding, and good care in every par- ticular. Let them come to heavy pulling gradually, and not at all until their bones are well matured.” HORSES NEED LIGHT. The importance of having stables ventilated in ac- cordance with correct principles of hygiene is gener- ally admitted. That the supply of fresh air should be ample is frequently insisted upon, but that the light should also be abundant is not so commonly recog- Some stables are at midday in a state of semi- darkness—a condition, to say the least, anything but conducive to the well-being of the horse. No animal enjoys. the light of day more than he. In his wild state he frequents the open plain or mountain side in the nized. 414 ‘full light of day. Wild horses are never found to in- habit gloomy forests or dark ravines. The horse is a child of light and he should be treated accordingly in domestication, if ‘he is to be kept in perfect health and spirits with his eyesight unimpaired. The fre- quent transition from a dark stable into full glare of day cannot fail to act prejudicially on his visual or- gans, and so also must almost permanent gloom and darkness. If we studied only his comfort, we would give him at all times a stable full of cheerful light as well as refreshing air—London Live Stock Journal. MEANS AND METHODS FOR CONTROLLING OUR HORSES. While we shall endeavor to impress upon the mind ,of,every reader the fact that there is fully as much virtue in the methods as the means used, we are quite certain too many will adopt the means of control, (as the key of success) and ignore the methods, (man- ner of using the appliances) and then failing in the desired results, will condemn the author. In compliance with the proper methods for using electricity, it has been found to be a valuable servant, but how is it when the means are used regardless of the well established methods? Why, death too often results. The means and methods herein given ‘have often been used by the author and found the most valuable of any he has tried. They are not a mere theory, principles established upon experience. We have, in the preceding paragraphs, tried to impress upon the minds of our readers the importance. of com- plying with the simple laws governing our animals and we cannot do justice to our noble servant—the horse—without referring briefly to them again, and, possibly, in a manner that will make it more impres- but sive. SOME OF THE LAWS GOVERNING OUR HORSES. Ist. ‘Whatever transpires at the front of the horse impels him backward. 2d. Whatever takes place at the rear of the horse, inclines forward action. 3d. All side motion effect in like manner—in op- posite direction. 4th. In all of our operations with the horse, it Plant a Forage Crop for the Stock. should be our highest aim to avoid giving him pain when in close contact with him. | 5th. Whenever ‘he becomes entangled by acemibae: or we do it purposely, we should stay away from him until he realizes his utter helplessness to free himself, then go to his assistance and kindly relieve him, when he will appreciate us, and readily become our willing But, if, by entanglement, we abuse him for: it, then, whenever he finds himself encumbered in any, he naturally goes to work to free himself anc dangerous horse, instead of what he should be—kind and gen. tle. | 6th. We should endeavor to control our horses bj means and methods that will demonstrate to then that we are the stronger, (through the means used) but associated with kindness whenever in close con tact with them. 7th. In connection with the means to demonstrat our superior power over the horse, we should neve: forget, that the medium of the stomach is the mos| direct road to his affections—consequently, notwith | standing, we may lay him down, deprive him of thi} use of his legs, etc., we should feed him sugar, swee | apples, cookies, or whatever he relishes from ow hand, and it is astonishing, to the masses, how soo the wild or even vicious horse is as docile as a lamb 8th. The reader will observe that the means se forth, in this article, are not intended to injure thi) horse in any way, but to enable his handler to de monstrate his superior power (throug!) these means) over that of the horse, without an) manifestation of anger or abuse on the part of th handler. Ny oth. We should endeavor at all times to keep th| horse cool and quiet, and endeavor to show him kind ly what is expected of him, rather than to try to fore him to do what ‘he does not understand. servant. way, get away from his handler—making a muscular toth. We should always make the lessons shor and impressive, and never try to progress faster tha/) the horse fully understands what we want of him. y HANDLING BY THE HEAD. 3 | As most of our horses are controlled, through th’ medium of the mouth, we have thought best to begi’) our illustrated part with easy and effective means am methods of controlling the horse through the moutl We are decidedly opposed to the use of harsh bits which lacerate and mutilate the sensitive part of th) TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. 415 (No. 1.) horse (through its sensitive character) by which we communicate our very thoughts, to this noble animal, through the medium of the reins. For many reasons, we like to begin our education of the horse through the medium of the mouth, with a small (comparative- ly soft) rope, instead of iron bits. It is much more effective, will not bruise the soft, sensitive tissues and by its binding character, in which it is applied, makes our work more readily appreciated by the horse. For instance, when we pull on the rope, it binds in the mouth, and does not let go until the horse comes to us Or we go to him and loosen it, which is at once appreciated by the horse, and makes us looked upon as a friend in need, and not an enemy. STALLION OR SAFETY BRIDLE. We take about twenty feet of one-fourth inch ma- nilla rope, with which we make a better stallion bridle than we have ever used of any other character. We first throw one end of the rope over the neck of the horse, with the left hand; reach under the neck, _ with the right hand and grasp the end of the rope, and tie a bow—bowline knot quite snug to the neck, (but not really tight or too close) now pass the left hand under this part around the neck, .and draw _ through enough rope to go in the mouth, as shown in cut No. 1. Next stand with the face toward the rear of the horse, taking the rope in the right and about (NOs 2) one foot from the neck of the horse, then reaching over the rope with the left hand, take hold of the rope, with the back of the hand up and forward, as seen in cut No. I. We now pass this rope, as ‘held in this way, over the horse’s head, bringing the right hand to the base of the ear and left hand down under the neck, as seen in cut No. 2. APPLYING THE SAFETY BRIDLE. Now change hands, taking hold of the rope with the right hand where held by-the left and open the 416 mouth of the horse by pressing the soft end of the finger, or thumb of the left hand, against the roof of the horse’s mouth, when he will readily open the mouth, and we pass the rope through the mouth, an4, changing hands again, taking hold of the rope, just at the left side of the mouth, with the left hand; then pull on the long part of the rope, with the right hand, to adapt the rope to head, and we have the most ef- fective bridle for the control of strong, vicious horses, or biting stallions. By pulling on this rope, only moderately, the lips of the horse are forced between the molar teeth, so that it is impossible for him to close his mouth and bite, even though we put our hand into his mouth, and hold it there. METHOD OF USING THE SAFETY BRIDLE. When we have it snugly applied to the head of the horse, (not loosely) we permit him to run away from us, the length of the rope, and with a sudden pull, pivet him on his hind feet, or stop him. He is will- ing to stop, no matter how well he feels, for he finds that ‘his head and mouth are in a vice, as it were, with apparently no relief. Now, ifthe does not come to us, we go to him, pat him caressingly on the cheek, and gently loosen the rope in his mouth. He is now free again, and, possibly, may be so reckless as to try it again, with the same results. We do as before, three or four times if necessary, when the fully real- A small patch of millet or sorghum will help out a great deal. izes that he had better not get to the full length of the rope away from us, or if he does, the rope binds his mouth as before. But if he will come to us, we never disappoint him in relief, and kind attentions, when in close contact with him, which insures his confidence in us, that no matter what troubles he en- counters, he is assured we will help him out of the difficulty. We have given a full description of the method of applying the safety handling bridle, so that our read- ers can readily comprehend the principle of handling our vicious horses without serious abuse or danger. The horse is a very apt scholar, to learn either good or evil, and it is for us to direct him aright. A GOOD CHEAP RIDING BRIDLE. Cut. No. 3 represents a cheap and very effective riding bridle. It consists of a piece of quarter inch ho Piss i s Can aa Ses ee (No. 5.)—Blinding the Horse with an Umbrella, oss LVS 8 manilla, or cotton rope, from six to eight feet long- By placing the middle part on top of the ‘horse’s head, drawing down on either side of the face and passing through the mouth from each side, up on top of the neck, and tying a knot at the withers to keep from dropping out of the mouth, you have a good bridle, as illustrated in cut No. 3; down in front of the horse as well as applied to his head. HANDLING UMBRELLA. For remember the law, as previously referred to, | that what happens at, or toward, the rear of the horse, | impels him forward, as well as that in front of him, jforces him backward. It is well illustrated in cuts 4 jand 5 in handling an umbrella on horseback. When | the umbrella is back of the center of his body, and he takes fright, he naturally tries to run, but by bring- jing the umbrella over his head, as seen in cut 5, he {stops instantly, and reverses his action so suddenly, os | ~ mw PLS a (No. 6)—Cheap Casting Harness. hat we must be on our guard, or we will go over his aead. Now, how much better it is to understand this law, and hold on to the umbrella, until the horse finds ‘le cannot get away from it, than to throw it away at irst fright, and ever after incline him to run away 28 TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. 417 from every object he is afraid of. We must not get in a hurry in the education of our horses, if we would have them fully understand our meaning in all we do with them. POWER OF MAN OVER THE HORSE. Whenever we find the horse does not feel disposed to give us his undivided attention, with the applica- tion of the safety bridle, and its associate treatment, then we proceed to demonstrate to him our superior a Zh, | . sae oe as Zale faa i 6 Mey =; —s . MW he ast: oh, a MT tae Dee ie ee Nera iene WORN DIG, Dae (ex (No. 7.)—The Horse :% Trouble. strength, through the means we use, together with very kind treatment. We first take about fifteen feet of three-eighth inch rope, double it at about one-third its length, and slip a two-inch iron ring over this doubled portion, and 418 tiea knot inthe double rope, so as to ‘hold the ring in such position, that the doubled end will make a crup- per and back piece the required length, to have the ring rest at the point of the back, where the saddle of the harness should be. The remaining portion of the rope forms a circingle as seen in cut 6. Now, we take a fourth inch rope, twenty or thirty feet long, pass one end through the ring on the back, pass it along the right side of the neck of the horse, through the ring of the halter, and back to the ring referred to on the back, and tie securely. Next we take the hold-back or side strap to a single harness, or a good ham-strap will answer, pass it around the pastern of the left front leg, passing the keeper, so that the buckle will be on the outside of the leg when the strap is pulled backward. Then we lift up the left front foot of the horse, run the strap under the circingle, with the hair, and buckle up quickly and seen in cut 6. As soon as the leg is securely fasten- ed, we let the horse have his liberty to about through short, as the (No. 8.)—The Horse in Greater Trouble. length of the rope, when he is apt to be halted, as seen in cut No. 6. We do not try to throw him down, but allow him to hobble around on three legs, until he gets tired, being sure to keep at a distance from him all the time, letting him realize that he is in trou- ble. By keeping his head inclined to one side, with RN oO “Sa. REIS Patience is a great heip. slight tension on the small rope, he will soon get tired, and drop on his knees, when his head should be pull- ed to his sfde, as seen in cut No. 7. We continue to stay away from the horse and, holding him in this uncomfortable position until he falls over on his side, we pull hard enough on the small rope to bring his nose to the ring on his back as seen in cut No. 8. If the reader does not believe this is an uncomfor- table position, let him try to look back over his shoulder one minute by the watch and see ‘how his neck will ache. After the horse has lain in this posi- tion one-half minute to a minute, he will make a des- perate struggle to rise but if the small rope is kept. \ > (No. 9.)—The Horse in a Comfortable Position, tight it is impossible for him to get up. Just as soon as the struggle is over we approach him, (keeping the hand rope tight) caress him on the head and neck an¢ begin relaxing on the hand rope until he is stretchec out on the ground in an easy position as seen in cul). No. 9. TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. | If he fails to appreciate the comfortable position | we have given ‘him, and attempts to get up, we sim- ply spring away from him and again get him into that |same uncomfortable position by pulling on the hand Now we hold him in this very uncom- | rope as before. |fortable position a short time, to let him know that and he unable to extricate ‘him- do as before; but if he | we are sone from him | celf, If he struggles again, we ns p= NG | submits without a struggle, we never keep him long in this position, but go to him and relieve him as be- fore. By the second or third round of trial to get up, | he fully comprehends that when we are in close con- | tact with him, he is relieved of his troubles; also, that } when he attempts to rise we are suddenly gone, and ‘he is at once in that same uncomfortable position || again. | As soon as the horse discovers that we do not mean t hurt him, and that whenever he is in serious trou- ble we come to his relief, he, very naturally, has con- fidence in us, and cares but little what we do to him, or with him, that does not give him pain. i} While we have the horse down in this way, it is a good time to make him familiar with us, from every position, holding on to the hand rope all the time, and being ready to pull his nose to ‘his side at any mo- )ment, he should strive to avoid us. } As soon as the horse is familiar with us from every position, also with our weight, on any part of his Bee Cees. LS LVEre : 419 body, lying, sitting, or standing, we then begin with other objects, such as the noise of bells, pans, drums, The sight and touch of blankets, robes, or um- brellas, open or closed, as shown in cut No. 10. etc. By bringing objects to the horse when down, we can make him acquainted with them, without his get- The horse examines all things very much as we do, first by sight, ting away from us, or injury in any way. (No. 10.)—Bringing Objects to the Horse. and then by touch. But if the sight is sufficient to frighten him away, he never fully satisfies himself by the touch; he stays away from the object through fear. Consequently, the importance of having him in a po- sition by which we can bring the objects in contact with his body, and shown him, by touch, that there is no cause for pain from them. If we have done our work consistently, and in such order that we have carried the ‘horse along with us, in understanding, step by step, we may now take every incumbrance from him, and he will appear as seen in cut No. 11, confident and contented. The above cut was made from a photograph of a handsome four year old mare, and the writer, after having had a lesson of about twenty minutes, on the fair grounds at Madison, Minn. She was a powerful mare, active and very nervous to begin with, but very soon became remarkably docile, as almost all horses will, when properly handled. Now, dear reader, please remember what we have 420 repeatedly said, that there is as much virtue in the methods as the means. To be sure we can, by the means here represented, throw the horse with consid- erable violence, and punish him severely while down and in close contact with him, without his being able to help himself; but by so doing we defeat the very object aimed at, viz., every time thereafter, remember- received, he would refuse to But by our cool, ing the punishment submit until entirely exhausted. quiet method and not being in too great a ‘hurry, the horse realizes his trouble, gets weary, lies down, finds th OK W|\|" (Za SEN S ‘ Lyrae et : ~ ereSesy he is unable to rise of his own efforts, yet finds he has a friend in us, who comes to his assistance in time of need, and he certainly appreciates it with a kindly re- Don’t let us ever forget that the horse is endowed with intelligence, kindness, fear, passion membrance. and revenge; and we must conduct ourselves accord- ingly, observing closely the laws of correlation be- tween men and animals. miliar with the horse, by laying him down and prov- ing our superior power, (through the means _ used) and at the same time relieving him when he got into any serious entanglements, if he still persists in as- serting his wishes as soon as he is assisted to his feet again, then we use other means to control his pow- ers of locomotion. Having made ourselves fa- CONTROLLING THE HORSE BY HIS LEGS. Of the many ways and means of, controlling the In breaking stock, be as easy with them as posible. . 11.)—Contentment of Horse and Man. horse through the medium of ‘his legs, we will men- tion but two or three. We commence our operations by taking the saddle We use both girths in order to retain the shaft-holders down in position. The lines, for driving, we pass through the shaft. holders, instead of the terrets on the saddle. By ‘hav- ing the lines through the shaft-holders, the horse is! prevented from turning around, and facing us, as the lines pull across his thighs, instead of over his back and we are enabled to keep his head from us. and crupper of a single ‘harness. SSS See (~s o* ) EX eae a . ‘ & few! Soges cS Sate Avmreene co Af vee (No. 12.)—Reins to the Legs. Better than the Bits. | When we have the lines so adjusted, we then buckle ‘a strap around each front pastern. Then take about twenty feet of quarter inch rope and with one end in the hand we put it under the girth of the harness against the hair, pass it down, and under the strap of the pastern, of the right leg, and back under the girth | again, with the hair, and down to, and attach to the strap of the pastern, of the left leg, when we take the ‘rope and lines in hand, and get behind the horse, and | commence proceedings as seen in cut No. 12. If with | this means applied, the horse persists in trying to get away from us, or rears, we proceed to draw his front feet to his body, as seen in cut No. 12, by pulling on the rope; or if he attempts to run from the start, we pull on the rope, for the same purpose as seen in cut INGE 13. (No. I When the horse is determined to get away, with even good treatment, the use of the double foot at- tachment, is very effective, if in the hands of a con- |siderate,. and affectionate horseman. If the horse ‘starts by rearing, or running, and we pull on the rope, result is the same, in both cases, and is very well | hown in cut No. 14. Now, that we have the horse, in this helpless con- ‘dition, we must not keep him here long, or he will get discouraged, and lie down, and possibly refuse to get up. But if we hold him in this position but a moment, or until he becomes comparatively quiet, then go to him calmly, caress him, put our arm under his neck, \Toosen the reins, and rope, and lift on him a little, with van encouraging word to get up; he will ‘get to ‘his feet | Promptly, and be a little more careful afterwards. If we find he is getting warm and excited, we must stop TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. 421 for a few moments and give him time for reflection, or rest, as you may choose to call it. If we observe conditions carefully, he will soon be driving about cool and docile as seen in cut No. 15. FIRST LESSON IN HARNESS SATISFACTORY. The extremes of use and abuse of this appliance for the control of our horse is very wide apart. One handler will use it with the most satisfactory results by going slow and careful, not dropping the horse on his knees, but once or twice, and the horse realizing the advantage taken of him, and not becom- ing confused, quietly adapts himself to the wishes of his teacher, while another handler with the same horse would make some mistakes, get confused or angry himself, and soon get the horse excited and have a 13.)—The Wouid‘bs Ninaway Secured. rcai light between horse and man; a condition that should be avoided at all times and undez all condi- tions, as no good can result. The natural query to the reader, then, would be, is this method valuable or dangerous in my hands? We can answer only by saying, that by these means we can prevent the horse from running away, or doing much mischief in any valuable to both man and horse. But we would urge all ‘handlers not to put the horse down on his knees any more than can possibly be avoided, for the best results. The horse can trav- el with this appliance about as well as without it. We would advise the use of knee-pads if.the horse is to be driven on the ‘hard rough roads. This appliance is more serviceable in driving with only the harness on single, than double harness, and our next device is well adapted for double team. way, which we consider 422 TZ RSUASIVE CONTROL OF THE HORSE. Now, dear readers, please don’t complain of our heading ; forcible Persuasive influence, with both men and ani- because we mean it in its most sense. mals, is certainly the most effective, as we shall try to show here; and if our readers will apply the means and methods here laid down, instead of the whip and other brutal force, we are confident of gaining our point, with both the horse and his handler. Means and methods, you will observe, are our prin- ciples of convincing the horse, that if he is determin- ed to have a struggle, it must be mostly with himself. We want to take as little part in it as possible, con- It would be well to put yourself in your horse’s place occasionally. Seis See (No. 15.)—Persuasive Coatrol of the Horse. sequently, try to devise the means, by which he can demonstrate to himself that he is fighting himself rather than ‘his handler. In the preceding example of handling the horse by his feet, and taking both front feet from him, we thereby stop him in further pro- gress of locomotion, of which if persevered in, will have a tendency to anger or discourage the horse. While we like this method of taking the front feet from the horse, in his very first lesson in harness to convince him that at the word whoa, or in an attempt to run away with us, to rear, or kick, we can at once demonstrate to ‘him (without pain) that he is power- less to do so, to any satisfactory degree. But it has its objectional features, as we have before indicated, beyond the first short lesson, which we always use to begin with, to be sure we have all the advantage on our side; after which, we use the persuader, until the horse fully understands what we wish him to do for us. We do not like to depend on the bit, and especially harsh bits, to control the young, ambitious, or even vicious horse, because, in his eagerness to get away, or do mischief, we are too apt to injure his mouth, to ’ such a degree, that it is ever after tender and sore, or, so calloused, that he is a “puller,” (lugger,) ever | after. But, if we apply our “persuasive” influence, as hereinafter described, we are of the opinion all users © will be pleased with its effect, and not take the chances of making a runaway, kicking, dangerous horse, in his primary lessons in harness. By‘the ues of the “persuader,” we are enabled to make the horse a cripple, for the time being. and yet not necessarily stop, or hurt him; but impede his progress to such a TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. 423 degree that it is not really dangerous to his handler or encouraging to the horse. If the horse proves to be a runaway, we let him tun upon three legs instead of all four. If he is a kicker, he must stand on one front leg to do the most of his kicking. If he is restless and uneasy about standing, we let him stand on three legs, part of the time. When we find we have a confirmed kicker it is best to attach, bells, tin pans, a fourth of a sack of bran, or other objects to the crupper of the harness, and let it hang down to the hocks or near there, and drive about without being hitched to a vehicle at first, as seen in cut No. 16. The cut represents the horse in the act of doing ‘his utmost to rid himself from the bells attached to the erupper of his harness, before the persuader has been put into operation. The “persuader” is applied, by having a strap around one front pastern only, then take the end of the small rope, and pass under the (No. 17.)—The “Persuader” applied to a Restlezs Horse. girth from the rear, down under the strap around the Pastern and tie to the girth. See cut No. 17. With the confirmed kicker, we prefer to first give him the Opportunity once or twice, or even more, at the ob- ject attached to induce him to kick, before making it hard work for him by the use of the “persuader.” As soon as he gets warmed up to his work in earn- est, or starts to run, we puli on the rope which takes one front foot from him, so that he is compelled to balance ‘himself on one foot while he does his kick- ing, which soon persuades him that he is making hard work of it for himself. Cr, if he attempts to run and kick, he must do so on three legs, by which he is soon persuaded is too hard work to be enjoyed. If he is a powerful horse and starts to run and kick, we always incline his head toward the opposite side from the leg that is held up, which induces him to run in as small a circle as possible, and by a sudden turn of the kead he is very apt to fall broad side, which again per- suades him he is making hard work of the kicking business, which must be the object to be attained in the correction of the kicker. 424 Mere preventives, such as kicking straps, high checking, ete., rarely ever cure the kicking habit. But if we give the horse the opportunity to kick at something that cannot hurt him, and have him in such position that does not necessarily prevent him from kicking, but makes hard work of it, ‘he is soon per- suaded, that he prefers to have anything hanging to him or hitting his heels, rather than work so hard to get rid of it and fail, too. Everything attached to the harness to induce him to show what his natural inclination is should be se- curely fastened, as every time he succeeds in getting rid of it, is an evidence to the horse that he can ac- complish his object if he only tries long enough, and he is perfectly willing to try as long as he sees any possibility of succeeding. The restless, uneasy and impatient horse can, ordi- narily, soon be persuaded to stand until we are ready _ to give him the word to move, by simply letting him stand on three legs a part of the time when he is most. anxious to go. But as soon as he becomes at all quiet —even for a few seconds—he should have the benefit of all four of his feet. to assure him that we will give him this benefit if he will only be quiet. This is fair- ly well shown in cut No. 17. It will be seen by cut No. 17, that the horse is stand- ing on two feet only, which requires good balancing power to maintain his equilibrium. Now isn’t it plain that if this is all done and without apparent effort to simply annoy and tease quietly, the horse, that he will soon be persuaded that ‘he is only working against himself, and conclude that he is doing a great amount of hard work for nothing? Isn’t it also apparent, to even the casual that we can permit the horse to still observer, keep going, though somewhat crippled in one leg, that he will be persuaded to go quietly, much sooner than he will if we take both front feet from him, which stops him from moving entirely? We neglected to state before, that when we are ready to hitch the kicker to a vehicle, we prefer to first drive in double harness and be sure to have the “persuader” on the outside front foot, so that if ‘he should fall at any time he will fall outwardly, instead of on the pole, and so, possibly, break it. As a pre- cautionary measure we always apply the “persuader” to every colt when first harnessed to a wagon or oth- er vehicle, so as to persuade him, at once, that if he attempts to run or kick, that ‘he must necessarily find it a hard undertaking. If you were a horse, how would you like to be treated? Before closing our remarks in regard to all the pre- ceding appliances for the sure and safe education of our horses, we would again impress on the reader's mind that a knowledge of the methods is of miore- importance than to know how to make and adjust the means, They go hand in‘hand and must be used hus manly, or the objects aimed at will be utter failures. We consider this one of the very best appliances, properly used, to persuade the horse to become man’s willing servant, that we have ever had anything to do with. It can be used without any inconvenience to the action of the horse and, if required, can be put in- to immediate effect with the very best results. THE WILLFULLY VICIOUS KICKER. If the persuader, and other means and methods, fail to accomplish the desired results with the confirmed kicker, then we try a means of self-punishment that we have never had fail us with this class of unruly horses. It is valuable for the reason that the punishment is dealt out the very instant of the violation, and at the (No, 18.)—Kicking Attachment for Single or Double Harness. other, or front end of the horse, which, naturally, at- tracts his attention to the point of punishment with such force that he, as naturally; forgets what has transpired at the rear. The means to accomplish the work, consists of one piece, of one-fourth, or three- eighth inch rope, about twelve or fourteen feet long and another piece of five-sixteenths inch rope, about six feet long; a pulley; four straps one inch and a fourth wide and about one foot long, each, and two jron rings, One and a half inches in diameter. First, thread the long rope through the eye of the pulley, and the short rope around the pulley _ itself. Now, check the horse’s head, the desired height, with |. good, strong, overhead check. Next draw the short ope backwardly, from the front, and under the girth, 0 the pulley will rest just back of the girth, as shown cut No. 18. Next, take the ends of the small rope, carry each to the rings of the bridle-bit, at either |hrough the rings, from the outside, (which will bring he rope over the head, under the headstall of the lyridle), and carry over the head, from each side, and bass through the rings again from the inside, and let Jhem hang there until the balance of the attachment as been adjusted. \bove, and below the hocks, and through the rings, as yeen in cut No. 18. Jope into these rings at the hocks, by half hitches, so ls to leave the pulley just back of the girth, and fur- lish the adjustment by drawing the ropes, moderate- ly taut, at the bit, and tie on either side, by half hitch- Ss also, (which makes the rope easily untied, no mat- ler how tight drawn), and we are ready for the first jrial. side, passing First, by buckling the straps, Then tie the larger and shorter D )| We always prefer to commence this first lesson 1: only the harness and reins, because the first kick hay be a terrible one; but, in all probability, it will Je the ‘last severe one, as it will never be forgotten Iby the horse. We are, naturally, asked why. Well, we will tell you. It is for the reason that, when the lind legs are forced backward, the rope, Over, ste leak has drawn the bit so far up into the angles of e mouth, and holds it there, that the horse forgets what happened at the rear, from the fact that he is jto so much trouble at his front end (the mouth.) | It should be our duty to go to the horse’s head and raw the bit down into the mouth away from the an- lies, and caress him immediately after a hard kick, atisfying him that notwithstanding he got himself to trouble we are charitable enough to help him out fit. If, by the first hard kick, any part of the kick- ng attachment has been broken, it should be repair- ld before relieving the horse at the head. This at- achment is applicable to either single or double har- tess, the wagon, plow or other vehicle; but we never iq to hitch a kicking horse to any’kind of vehicle, there he can injure himself or break the carriage, un- 1 TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. 42 on til we are satisfied he knows better than to kick hard, at least. With this kicking attachment the horse can walk, trot or pace, but cannot run to much purpose, as when the hind legs are brought backward together it must produce an effect on the mouth; whereas, the movements of walking, trotting or pacing, move one lex at a time, the leg rope plays back and _ forth, through the puiley, without any appreciable affect on the mouth. Except, in a very straight hock, the straps will stay in their places, especially if both upper and lower straps are of the proper length to allow the ring to draw from the center of the hock. The reader may wonder why we want to pass the long, small rope up over the horse’s head and tie in- to the bit-ring on the opposite side; but, say to him- self, it is just aS well to tie to the bit-ring on either side, instead of going to the trouble of passing it over the head and tying on the other side. We answer by saying. if tied directly to the bit-ring, and the horse should kick hard, he will certainly bruise his mouth badly, and may break the bit and get ‘his freedom; whereas, when the rope is passed over the head, as directed, the hard kick draws the bit up intg the an- gles of the mouth so tightly (and the rope being un- der the head-stall of the bridle), that the pressure continues until relief is brought to the horse by his handler pulling the bit down into the mouth, which, if done in the spirit of kindness, will soon satisfy the horse that it don’t pay to kick any more. Its use should be persevered in for a considerable time. THE SWITCHER AND REIN CATCHER. i Sa TT (No. 19.)—Preventieon and Probable Cure. 426 (No. 20.)—The Balky Horse, Hitched for the Start, The rein catcher, with the tail, is often a danger- ous character; notwithstanding he, or she, may other- wise be a very valuable animal. See that the stock have plenty of fresh air during the summer. Mares are generally worse than geldings, and, while they have free use of the tail, may constantly keep trying to catch the rein under the tail. with the tail has become a constant practice, we endeavor to pre. When the habit of catching the rein, vent it by tying into a portion of the ‘hair of the tail a little above the terminal end of the tail bone, the middle portion of a string of sufficient length to ex- tend to the tugs, or traces, on either ly tie, — ES SSS OOS side, and secure! The tie in the tai something in manner of ty ing the tail of the horse, in the first section of this de partment, Figs. 7 and 8, but, with only a small portion of the hair on the under side of the tail, about the size! of a pencil, to that of the size of the finger. If it is done in this style the string should be wrapped two o three times as shown in cut No. Io. should be made securely; V around the bunch of hair to prevent it! becoming loose. The string*to the tugs should be drawn taut to be (No. 21.)—The Balky It is very bad policy to try to suddenly pull the rein from under the tail whenever caught by accident or purposely. But, if it is possible to let the rein loose, or the tail can be lifted from off the rein, quietly, by the hand, the animal may soon recover from any ner- vousness in consequence. ; It too often happens that the mischief is done by some unthinking, or inexperienced driver, and the animal rendered dangerous, or, at least, troublesome, to say the least. Horse Pulling ty His Tail. gin with, and, as the animal becomes used to the reir! it may, from time to time, be tied more loosely. It will thus be seen that it is impossible for the an | mal to securely catch and hold the rein with the ta where this device is used; and, by gently droppin the rein from side to side, without teasing the anima we soon establish confidence between us and the an mal, and the habit is eventually forgotten. We onc used this device a whole summer on a very nervot, mare before she entirely gave it up. Prevention an 1 ‘}confidence must be established before the habit is broken up. ; | THE BALKY HORSE. The reader will, naturally, say to ‘himself, you have “tackled” a subject in which we are all interested. But few of us know how to handle it (we refer to the horse), but all of us want to learn. WHAT IS A BALKY HORSE? | A balky horse is one that has been badly han- . dled or overloaded. His shoulders are sore or he jis discouraged, disgusted, or prevented to, and, naturally, says to ‘himself, from going ‘}when he wanted you have stopped me, now I will go when I get ready. Here we are, and the question is “what are lwe going to do about it?’ Well, most people will be- ||gin to whip, yell, yank and pound the poor horse, and | so confuse him that he loses what horse sense he had ‘and stands there like a post, puts his head over the himself to the ground, other horse, or, throwing | breaks some part of the harness or wagon, and thus |gains his point in the large majority of cases. REMEDY FOR BALKY HORSES. i Before giving the remedy, we must repeat the law Whatever happens at | governing the horse, to-wit: the front of the horse impels him backward; and that | \ | (No. 22. TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. 427 at the rear, sends ‘him forward. Now we must take advantage of this law in applying the remedy to the balky horse. Instead of the usual confusion, excite- ment and punishment, we quietly get down from the wagon, caress him as though nothing was wrong. We then take a rope or strap strong enough to draw the load, and from eight to ten feet long, with the short end toward us we lay the rope or strap across the tail of the horse, as seen in the first section of this department, Figs. 7 and 8, just below the end of the tail bone about three feet from the end of the rope or strap; now turn all the hair of the tail back toward the body of the horse, holding the same with the left hand. Reach under the tail and grasp the long part of the rope or strap with the right hand, bring it around the tail and tuck it under that part around the tail dou- ble, as shown in cut No. 20. As soon as the knot in the tail is drawn firmly, we tie the short end of the rope or strap to the end of the then we quietly get into the wagon, taking the long end of the rope or strap into the wagon, as is well shown in cut No. 20, ready for the start. When we are all ready to start (not before) we touch the other horse with the whip or rein for a sudden start, which pulls on the other fellow’s tail, and he wonders what has so suddenly happened to him at the rear end, which induces him to, at once, move forward with- out further ceremony, which is very nicely repre- sented in cut No. 21. We prefer to keep the horse pulling by his tail un- The Stake Winner. King Leaf, Chestnut Horse. J. D. Smith, Muir, Ky., Registered No. 15735. by The Errol Farm, Plymouth, Fla. Bred by Owned til he becames fairly reconciled to that way of draw- ing and going steadily, when we quietly pull on the rope or strap we have in the wagon, which releases his tail and permits him to pull in the usual manner This should be done while the without stopping. horse is in motion, and, if he does not appreciate the- change and should stop, we again get down, as quiet- ly as before, and connect him to the wagon by the tail and start as before, and keep it up much longer, repeating as often as necessary, until the ‘horse de- cides that he prefers to draw the loads by his shoul- ders, rather than his tail, as shown in cut No. 22. Our articles is twofold; first, to give a more complete description of the means and especially the methods, than we ‘have heretofore cbserved by other writers on the subject; second, to object in writing these NOTE —Photographs on pages 339, 347, 370, 372, 379 and 395 were taken by Mr. | William F. Ne'son especially for this Book. be able, at least, to a degree to ameliorate the suffer- ings of our horses in the hands of those who would treat them more humanely if they only knew means and methods by which they could effectiyv do so in an intelligent manner. We do not cha the abuse of our horses to the naturally cruel disposi- tions of their handlers, but to want of the proper means, and, also, to the inherited impression that the horse is only a brute to be driven, driven, driven, without giving this noble servant credit for scarcely any of his innate intelligence. We have given this subject close attention for more than 4o years, and have studied the natural laws which the horse can be made as obedient, and useft an animal, as treads the earth through the mean and methods of his education. We hope our artic will awaken an interest in the young men of the South, to a better treatment of our greatest anim a servant, the Horse. A Typical Southern Horse. Owned on Diversification Farm ' No. 3, Uniontown, Ala. DosEs aND AcTIONS OF DRuGsS } SHEEP AND NAME OF DRUG ACTION HORSES CATTLE SWINE DOGS Acetanilid . ». |Reduces fever ie PMC chicka Potaam che raietech eloiee TRO SNarams yey SOM LONG we 2 LOWLONOON STs. shes tOd Oner Acid, Boric. . . . |@xternal and intestinal ANCISCDELCIe eleteee stant 2 to 8 drams . |/2 to 10 dr. .../30 toG0 gr... |5 to 15 gr “— Carbolic . . |External and internal antiseptic ....... 15 to 30 grainy |15 to 60 gr..../5 to 10 gr .. .J1 to 2 drops « Gallic . eee RLernal aAstringzente .) y=) sj lciketist/eiley « Ss i|dentol 2. dramss 2) toosd =. @ -/10) to s0,erains |i5, to) 15) ter “ — Salycylic Intestinal antiseptic, anti-rheumatic ..... Te tor Gwidieaes) syis| 2) tole Ocdr mean | hl > atowe Over 5 to 10 gr “= '@nnic em MxpermMalwanointerhal aAStrineelt cue: elfeie nie ie: « {|b ito) + Glims (| COMM Gra) eirio0) LO OOmers a2.) te toe LON igi Aconite, Powder . . |Décrease the force and frequency of the heart 5 to 15 OTE cee Du COM DO Wem mene|yotLOY DI ey ea ey "(PLA Om Os lay gar «Extract . -|Decrease the force and frequency of the hearf.)2*to 5 ..... DtonGy Steven eli) Lose igre. < ALOStoN A/S er * Fluid extract |Decrease the force and frequency of the heart./5 to 20m ..-|5 to 30 m ..|/%4 to 2m... J1/5 to1 m. Aconitine .. ..- .- -| Powerful heart depressent and toxic... . {1/30 to 1/10 gr |}1/30 to 1/8 gr .|1/100 to 1/50 gr) 1/200 to 1/50 gr. Alcohol . .----- Increases’ force and. frequency of heart....|1 to 20z. ..../2to3 oz. ..../lto 3 dr.... |% to 1 dr /.\E23. 28 cape eo PURE! Go gw due ado GUOb BLO dha, Omnbo. 8 bi PAM Ko AO, Gog slay RB Gie Gosia al imp eho So ey IE Arayeeyoy fae Alum......-.-+- |Astringent and irritant to stomach and fiaicee iDEA acne cu Sets euonclty & 4 een reed Habre Siiebe Se coo dl Hoh YobeY us co lal(G) ston BIO) efge ito; oar Ammonia water . .|Heart and respiratory stimulant, antl-acid. . {1 oP oO ollie tne CE GbR me GlAciw) auitebe -}2 to 10 m PES PITIC |)... Heart and respiratory stimulant, anti-acd...|/4to12dr ....j5to15dr....{1 to 2 dr 15 to 30 m « Spt aromatic .|Heart, respiratory stim. expectorant, stomachic.|4 to 12 dr DalLomlondie ert ile ato, 2d 15 to 60 m Ammonium Acetate .|Duretic, deaphoretiec and anti-acid. . . ..|/2 to60z..... SetolwOoZueeae Ae ator suds J1 to 4 dr “Carbonate .-.|Heart and respiratory stimulant, expectorant. emetic mene od dae 0 APG oO eo bey Cb G5 liber cE he a 6 Go Sliiay nyc Oiae a Breil any Glerse Areca Nut .....-- Kills round and tape worms in intestines. .|4 to 8 dr ....5 to 10 dr .../30 to 90 gr .-/15 to 60 gr Arnica, tinct. of flowers ... . |Stimulates skin. Little value internally. ..|% to 1 oz -..(|%toloz.....1/1 to 2dr... -|15 to 40 m Arnica. tinct of root|Stimulates skin. Little value internally, ..|% to loz ....|J%toloz...../1 to 2 dr..../10 to 20 m ABIROIIC 9 o fe se ss, Poison. Destroys intestinal parasites. Tonic.|3 to 6 gr ....j/4 to 10 gr....|%tol gr... .{1/60 to 1/i° gr * Fowler's so- MELO Uses OLSON: peELONLC Ws Veer sls) (vile elie” e.elegle ir ep ia 20 (TOs 8, ear 5. Sito ON re ce een totaly o- eal) > tones Olam « Donovan's so- ! RAD eee a POLLO LODIC V.eewelkeue: (| 2.2).cHel seat) alle pss) 2aitou Sie OLwee= | Sutoul Ondrecstien||\tatomdiircdie r= | 2eato mel Ofer Aspidium I? Ext. .. .|Destroys round and ane worms in intestines..}3 to 6 dr .../4 toS dr ....|/%tol1dr... |15 to 60 m e - Oleo resin .. |Destroys round and tape worms in MICE STES, 5 SiitonGmdre-e- |\4atonsidrern sion psatontadr 15 to 60 m Atropine sulphate. Increases frequency of heart. Checks secre- LOSES SoS gS: py eal tc ote Guciec dente ~~ | to 1344 er -. 134 to 2egr . = “|1/15 to 1/12 gr] 1/100 to 1/20 gr: Belladonna F. Ext of] Increases amass of heart. Checks secre- eaves: oss TONS sty ShPs toe Py ueue ene vellovidies; ef hetec eee | tom2 ar allalgicy Biiebe AS olalaary abaya Gai oalal tie), 8% sen Barium Chloride .. .|Purgative, sti meats involuntary muscles.. .}1 to 2 dr aN Phkey Cele” 6 oy oh||PH i te, Soro edly ites aerate Bismuth Subnitrate .| Protects mucous surfaces .,......-.- 1 to 4 dr Ze tow oi vw le tou Uletan.s | LOmtomo Omer Mmeriay 2 6 en ee Stimulates) sheantayescm-cieicicaciieticl itech peienen = 2 to 4 02. 3 to 6 oz 1 eS 2 oz ../1 to 4 dr Buchu leaves .... - Stimulates kidneys) °/.............-.|2 to 2 oz. 2 to 3 oz % to 1 dr... ./10 to 30 gr @aiomel. 2 2s TORR GS C'S Gy cho eae Oeunmore Sis roa) OL eRrnO aac 1 to. 2)dr. 2 to 4 dr a2 ton 20 teri stato onger Camphor spirits .. |Stimulates heart, respirations of stomach and hme O50 Buc a awiclofo1g @ Glalane ato MO PACA 6G ove allah nay Pl Gr Bb o ik CE Glen ole oe Sate al Cbs @ipstenm. . ...-. St'mulates mucosa of digestive tract .......|/20 to 60 gr. ../20 to 90 gr =.|5 to 15 gr ...{1 to 8 gr @hurcoal> ......: Absorbsigas when) Gry) 2-2) sre 6 jee «1 =) = tO 2 OZ ewe out=l| (COR MOZ ere meenen || ecOMOMGIN valremmers |i Omtonmo Omer MDEMOM a eens.) CIR EATLVC.*2, 02 <5. 2s, * cdoOddoDD dO OOo Ss % to.1% pts. al Kol 7 TOES A ole Gy (OYA Gg Gea |P toy Ziahes Chloral hydrate is Depresses brain, heart, respirations, ant!-septic.|1 to 2 oz .../1 to 2o0z. ..../1 to 3 dr... ./5 to 20 gr @iloroform . ...... Used in colie, diarrhoea, cough, anasthesia .|1 to § dr. 2 tol Ovdrs 95 | 2Ontos GOnmrry ee PLO! tol coOlam Cinchorie bark. . . ./Tonic, astringent, anti-periodic ........ 2 to 6 dr. StoolOndre <3 «| 0) stor’ dr) 2910) ito. (60) er Copper Sulphate . ./Antiseptic, astringent, kills round worms. . .|1 to 2 dr. 2 BCI ecient) can|seatOly2OweTomrmel cilia tomomer SMOG wore ur a-UCEITaMtpUuneative. 6 le wie 6 sya ees os rnd 15 to 30 m. 20%to 40pm. |byito. 10)my <2 40/2) tow) mi Digitalis tinct . .. |Increases force of heart, and diuretic. ....|3 to 6 dr, 4 to 8 dr ¥% to 2 dr ...{10 to 40 m Epsom salts ..... Saline purgatives for cattle and sheep. .. .|]4 to 16 oz... .|/8 to 382 oz. USO) 8S CYA) Bi coal ue tebe 1500) aoe Stimulates uterus: checks internal bleeding . .|% to 1 0% ...|/% to 1 oz....|/1 to 2 dr ...4.4% to 1 dr Ether, nitrous .. ..|]Generai stimulant and diuretic. ....... tito 2ozy = 2) | tor? oz =| 200 40 ee.) 7. 8efO) bo1G0) me: ) Ee Bitter Monicyandestomachic, =... 1. (2-0 Anton MOZAeney pil PautOLoLOZs velien on |e tTOmou Gr mentee > mtoroOner Stine 1comp. .|Bitter Tonic’ and stomachic :......... OS OV a, SII Woh OV Goo OEE Wo fs) hea SG fal my) ZY abe Gnger... . ...|Tmproves appetite, aids in expelling gases. ...}2 to 8 dr. .. .|4 to 10 dr A StOMS Orie rs ontop oOLar meoaexts . .).'.|\stomachic.iand| carminative: «2. 4.0... 5: DN TOMmS a Gre aya e|tonito tO 2dr a| le COMB MGs sie) and carminative. .....\..-.-- Sto) 21.0240 me, |petOnoLoz DLO AME Re smother 10 to 60 m Guycerine ©... is). Laxative and protective. Purgative ..... Dito Afoza- = foto! LOMO zs Lito: 207 | eel eto: Sdr miyeyrinza. . . . .|\axative and Demulcent. ........+.+.--. 4° to) 8) dry =). io) toy 10) dr tone dies ses -| 20 to GO dr Ilamamelis F ext. . }| Astringent used in diarrhoea ......... ATOM 2m O Za ek tee BUM LOR2AG Zs ielllciate tees Ne 2 to 4 dr % to 2 dr Ifydrast's (Golden Stimulates motion and secretion in stomach/2 to 8 dr... |8 to 10 dr Ato; 2 ar 5 to 60 gr BSED) iec diay 2) fet Melts cine!» WE SS. gf aucrinoes Dede ld . Wydrozen Dioxide . .|Ant‘sept’e external and internal: US CO SeOZ iets!) le tol anne cs 2 aie to 2, ar Hlyascyamus ..... Increases frequency of heart beats. BECLECONSHiey On Pye nees 6. ROS peat tet, os Piet || 4 tom OMGr ees Pee tO dren lipitor toler 429 - et NAME OF DRUG ACTION HORCLS CATTLE Hyascyamus, fld. Increases frequency of heart beats, dilates pu- ext: chvaces HS Se Ceci o.6-aN. sot oc. ban yoo nino - |4 to 8 dr. 4 to 10 dr Hypophosphites, c syr.... .. -|Stimulates cell activity, and nutritive. ....|/1 to 2 oz. . 1 to 3 oz Todinew cre cee da te lle Sntiseptic, irritant, checks secretions. ....}4 to 1 dr. Il juaee4 Clos G 6 “ Lugal’s Sol. . |Antiseptic, irritant, checks secretions. ....|2 to 4 dr. 2 to 4 dr COT ibe Big late e Antiseptic, irritant, checks secretions, ....]/2 to 4 dr. 2° to 4 dr FOAGLOnM sre eke =e Antisept:e, irritant, checks secretions, 4 to 8 dr. Ay 1Hey AK) ob GAG G IPAS og FG OOH Od ISS CCLOL ATE eee! us hehe oalasmal felted coloiiss (ej etait iot= 1 to 2 dr. PAN RODEN GGG 9 INGO” ono oon oe May) nha Sarto oO Ondo Often ceolola G ote 2 Iron chior_de tinet. | Tonic, astringent, antiseptic, destroys worms. .]1 to 2 oz. Om oO Zu er teihe Iron and Quinine citrate .... Tonic, astringent, antiseptic, antiperiodic.. .|1 to 4 dr. Ala W oy syxshie Aes, 6 Iron sulphate. Tonic, astringent, antisepti¢e, destroys worms.}1 to 2 dr. ash: Choa G5 4 Lime-water . ..). ,|Anti-acid. Checks diarrhoea.:. :-....... 4 to G6 oz. ... |5 to 8 oz Tinseed! oil) cee ee BWweureative: andy prokectivies i wi ceusnie tata: tills % tol pt. ae tow2) pts Magnesia... .-- 2. Used to check diarrhoea ins calves and colts.J1 to 4 dr. 2 to 4 dr Magnesium sulphate .|Saline purgative (best for cattie) ...... 1d to 2) Ib. Es tome2elbs Mercury with chalk |For diarrhoea in calves and colts. ......- 10 to 15 gr .|10 to 30 gr Mercury bichloride , |Externally antiseptic 1 to 1000, Internally an- LMA HGS reels S Gugedeo Oa Oma Ai coldue 5 to 8 gr. 15 to 10 gr Mercury red iodide | Used as blister, 1 part in 4 to 8 of lard or VION FS Ge bo odo oo SC GB So eee Morphine and its salts . ATCOLLe: “ANtiSMpaSmOdIGy jes wc) ecticlc: fe + |e to 10 gr... |4 to 22 gr IMCS TaN Claere eiiear ponte in waiter, externally, mild blister, int. a sti- mulant 4 to 8 dr. 4 to 10 gr Mustard ......-+« AIST EMY Ke els SG aioe oo els iS yet (etienkel (a Nux vomica .....- Respiratory, heart and bowel stimulant. ¥% to 2 dr. -{2 to 3 dr ” ” tinct Respiratory, heart and bowel st-mulant. |; to 6dr: ..% = |2 to) 8! ‘dr Olivesoileets ed 4 ichsws Laxative, purgative and protective. Oo 005 1 to 1% pt. Th Key, 2 AE SG oll Opium ....+-.+.... Narcotic, depresses action and secretion of Loch Gao ater obolo- olq o's Ga gua a's 1 to 2 dr. 2 to 4 dr « Tineture . Narcotic, depresses action and secretionof bow- GIGK “Soo a oo oor tuo GE OO ond GIO Din ok 1 to 2 02. 1 to 3 02 Bs « Camphoi| Paregoric, narcotic, depresses action and st CLEtOM OLA DOWEIS Lis tryaienventel ec tlicnem cite dite 2 to 4 oz 2 to 6 oz Pumpkin Seed | Destroys) tape AWOLMSS va. speulette elersel sues sels Petroleum (vaseline) |l°or sore throat when dry, rough or raw.. .|1 to 8 oz. -;L to 10 oz Vhysostigmine Salyeylate or sulphate, purgative, hypodermi- Cally ered. cinch gteneire. Sasha eee mom serene ke 1 to 1% gr. 1 to 2 gr o Pilocarpine and salts|Increases saliva and stimulates intestines...]1 to 3 gr. . 13 to 6 gr Podophyllin .....- Stimulates liver, purgative: ....5....... 1 to 2 dr: 2 to 4 dr Potassium Carbonate }|Anti-acid, alkalizer of the plasma of the blood.|4 to 8 oz. 6 to 10 dr «= Tod:de Stimulates cell activity and lymph glands..|4 to 8 dr. |4 to 8 dr see eTICY a Clave eeuten = Depresses heart, stimulates kidneys. .... . 4 to 8 dr. 4 to 10 dr “permanganate .|Used chiefly as mild antiseptic externally. Pyrethrum ....... Used een, to drive away fleas, ete..... Quinine and Salts Tonic (small doses) to reduce fever large dose % to 5 adr Th roy tsyole Sy 4G Santonin) 7 <= =). Destroy intestinal! worms) | opt 0s) ets eee 400: /SRGrs 5 x 4 to 10 dr Sodium bicarbonate. .}Gastric Sedative, alkalizer of blood plasma. .]|1 to 4 oz. J2 to 5 oz Sodium bromide Nerves depressentas “ENaATCOULC stern thet loltetiel enact 1 to 2 oz 1 to 8 oz Sodium hyposulphite |Gastro-intestinal, antiseptic, Jaxative. ..... 1 to 2 o2. 1 to 3 oz * salicylate .|Anti-rheumatic, intestinal antiseptic ..... 2 tos ar Dato) wOmdr «sulphate Glaubers Salts;ipurgative, ... 2.0.5... 8 to 16 oz. 1 to 2 lb Stramonium, fld ext. |(Jimson weed) action same as Belladonna. {20 to 60 m 30 to 90 m Strophonthus tinct Decreases frequency and increases force of HEAT E: OEY Fees ee CO en eo OME ena tera 1 to 4 dr. 1 to 8 dr Strychnine and salts |Stimulates heart, respirations and spinal motor nate eee eey DUC o) Oo ft Ono. Ss Socket oF alec ¥% to 2 gr. i fol 2er) sr. Sulphur Book XIII SHEEP DEPARTMENT. EDITED AND REVISED BY WILLIAM LEA, Marietta, Georgia. Angora Goats, Anderson’s Farms, Marietta, Ga. Young Does, Anderson’s Farms, Marietta, Ga. A Typical Angora Goat. ——— se It Does Not Cost Much to Raise Goats, But it Pays. 447 SHEEP DEPARTMENT. Many sections of the South have found it profita- ble to engage in sheep raising. ‘They are profitable both for woo! and for mutton. From the very earli- est ages the raising of sheep has been found to be a profitable industry. _we hear much of the sheep industry. great flocks of sheep. The demand for: mutton is steadily on the increase.- New York City requires over a million pounds of mutton per year. Mutton is taking the place of pork on many tables, and the rais- ing of sheep for mutton is largely increasing. One reason why sheep have not received more attention is on account of ignorance on the part of the raiser. As to the kind of sheep that are in demand now, one of the greatest needs of to-day is a mut- ton sheep, distinctively, which is represented by legs of from 16 to 20 pounds in weight. The sheep pro- ducers as a rule, especially in the South, do not give sufficient thought to sheep raising. Not only is the item of food produced by the sheep important, but the returns in fleece are quite important, and must be taken into consideration. It will require a_ great many more-sheep in the United States to produce the wool needed, for a great deal of wool is imported. Away back in the Biblical times Abraham ‘had sheep WHAT IT TAKES TO SUCCEED WITH SHEEP There are two or three requisites for sheep busi- ness. In the first place, it is important that you get a suitable location. Sheep cannot stand ‘wet quar- ters, therefore you do not want an undrained pasture for sheep. Land that ‘is best suited for sheep is a well drained sandy loam or gravelly loam. It should be hilly or rolling rather than flat or level. Low spots or marshes should be avoided, for one place of this kind on a farm that is all right in other respects may cause the sheep to contract deadly diseases. Perhaps there is no animal so easily affected by sur- roundings as sheep. There is more in prevention of disease in sheep than there is in curing them. If the proper care is observed in handling sheep, there will be little sickness in the flock. Another requisite for Success in sheep raising is that the raiser have a love for the work. Not only must he have a love for his work, but he must possess tact, patience and perse- verence. There will come seasons of depressions, and there will come temptations to abandon sheep rais- ing for some temporarily more promising pursuit. BREEDS OF SHEEP. There are many breeds of sheep, but attention will only be given to those breeds that are adapted to tne South. The Hampshire-Downs.—This is a mixed breed brought about by crossing the South-Down on the native breed of the Hampshire, followed later by the Gotswold. This breed was very popular before the Civil War, in the South. They are a hornless breed, and have a black face, Roman nose. The South-Downs.—This was once one of the most celebrated breed of sheep, but here of late it is not produced so much, They are models of what a mut- ton sheep should be. Wherever it is desired to pro- duce a mutton sheep, perhaps this breed will answer the requirements better than any other. are very prolific. The ewes The American Merino.—This breed is known all over the United States. description of them. It is not necessary to give a SHROPSHIRE. A breed of sheep that has won popularity more than all the others in the same length of time is the Shropshire. They are some larger than the South-Down. The face and legs are a blackish brown; the ears are of the same color, and should be short and thick. The wool should extend down over the face, head and on the legs to the hoof. The fleece of the Shropshire is longer than on the South-Down, and closely set on a clear pinkish skin. A good ordinary flock of Shrop- shire will shear from seven to eight pounds per head. The Shropshire is a short legged block built 448 sheep, furnishing a carcass for mutton that is not sur- passed by any breed. lor the grading up of the common sheep of the South, the Shropshire ram by experience, has proved his superiority over all breeds. Adding size, increase of fleece, and stamina to his offspring. An industry that would be very profitable to the Southern farmer is that of growing early or hot-house lambs, as it-is termed in the East. The two breeds of sheep used for this purpose, are the Dorsets and the Tunis. The Dorset sheep are white faced and white lerced, with a tuft of wool in the forehead. The ewes are horned as well as the bucks. They are very solidly built, having a broad back and short licers’ Their most prominent characteristic, however, is their unrivaled feucidity. The ewes will take the ram in May, thereby dropping the lambs in October so that they are ready for the holiday markets. They can be bred again soon after dropping this fall lamb, and bring another, or other lambs in March and April. With the proper management and handling the most prolific of all the breeds of sheep. The Tyorse!s are pretty well raised in the Eastern States and as far South as Virginia, supplying New York, Boston, Washington and other Eastern cities with their early lambs. The sheep is a great scavenger, and can be used on the farm to clean the weeds to a great advantage. But the idea that has gotten into the Southern farm- this is mer’s head that a sheep does not require much feeding this When we learn to know that we can grow fine root ‘has brought about his great failure along line: crops here inthe South, such as turnips, rutabagas, su- gar beets, etc, and that rape, rye, clover and the cul- tivated grasses will furnish us plenty of grazing for the winter, we will be on the road to success along the sheep line. Then added to this, Bermuda and other native grasses, with the by-products of our cotton, cotton-seed hulls and meal, pea vine hay and _ sor- ghum hay, we have a ration that cannot be surpass- ed. The growing and feeding of root crops to sheep, has made England famous along this line. The Englishman can grow sheep profitably on land worth $4.00 to $5.00 per acre. Why can’t we on land worth from $5.00 to $25.00 per acre? The next in importance to good feeding 1s dipping. This should be done twice a year to free the sheep of lice, ticks, and other external parasites, as well as im- TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. proving the condition of the skin. skin produces a good fleece. A good healthy, As to the kind of dip that we should use, will say | that the day of the home-made dip is past. tual experience it has been proven that home-made dips that are made from lime and sulphur are very injurious to the wool, and the sheep as well. | We have on market at present a number of prepar- ed dips that are safe, effective and cheap. Every sheep shed or barn should have a creep for the lambs to go to for a feed of chopped oats and) bran. This creep should have entrances so that only the lambs could go into, keeping the old sheep, out. There should be rollers on each side of the en- trance so that the lambs would not tear their fleece in squeezing through. The lamb must be kept grow- Of all the diseases of the sheep the internal para- ing, as it is the steady advance that counts. ) sites are the most trouble, and the worst of these are the stomach worms—strongylus contertus. They in- habit the fourth stomach of the sheep and goat These worms are little thread-like worms; red, and from five to ten inches long. from this parasite in the stomach are weakness, pale- ness of the skin and membranes, some fever, diar. rhoea, and wasting of the body generally. A flock o! sheep that are infested with these worms is a pretty hard proposition. The eggs pass out with the droppings of the sheep waiting a favorable time to hatch out on the ground then the young worm crawls up on a blade of gras: awaiting an opportunity to attract the young lambs| One reason why sheep should never be allowed tc! drink water around stagnated places is on account 0} such places being the breeding grounds of stomacl worms. , A remedy that has proved very effective fox, this disease is gasoline given to the lambs in tea, spoonful doses, well shaken up inva half pint of swee milk for three mornings in succession. The lamb should be kept away from feed for twelv« hours before administering the gasoline. This anc dogs, we consider the two greatest enemies to thi sheep industry of the South. - THE AVERAGE WOOL PER SHEEP. In the United States the average weight of woo. per fleece is over five pounds, in Australia it is ove: four pounds, in Great Britain four and three-quarte’ pounds, in the German empire three and two-third) The symptoms arising|_ ce ‘| pounds, in France nearly five pounds. | average than any other country in the world. | necessary for home use. | THE BREEDING AGE OF. SHEEP. WATER FOR SHEEP. when they are pastured. | plenty of fresh water. nant pools to furnish them water. || tract disease from impure water. SHELTER FOR SHEEP. | / some place should be provided where they can get in | from the rain and wind. There are two or three im- | portant things in connection with the barn for sheep. | In the first place it must have a good location, and | be well drained. Sheep and water do not go well to- | gether. Do not place your barn on a location where | it is wet and marshy. It is a poor policy to place any barn in a damp location, but to place a sheep The goat industry is not so important in America as it would be were it not for the prejudices of peo- \ple. It is quite frequently the case that you hear peo- | ple say that they do not like kid, but they are fond of mutton. Now, the truth about the whole matter It Takes Very Little Feed For Goats. So we see by this comparison that the United States has a greater And | yet the United States does not produce al] the wool The proper age for sheep to breed is two years. | In the autumn after the ewe is one year old, she may be placed with the buck. As a rule it does not pay | to breed sheep after they are seven or eight years old. One ram should be kept for forty or fifty ewes. } Some people claim that sheep do not require water This is a mistake, and you | should not pay any attention to such folly. On very juicy grasses they will use very little water, but they need some, and they should always have access to At times they require more | water than at others. Sheep are especially sensitive to impure water, and therefore do not depend upon stag- This is quite im- portant, for it is a very easy matter for them to con- The house for the sheep need not be expensive, but 30 449 barn in such a place is the height of folly. The barn should be well ventilated. Sheep need plenty of fresh air, but do not need a draft. FEEDING PLACES. It will be found necessary to feed sheep some, and this should not be done on the ground. Have a trough made for them, but do not place it too high. The feeding arrangement here in the South need not be so extensive as in the North, where they have to feed more than here. DISEASES OF SHEEP. GRUBS IN THE HEAD, OR GADFLY. The gadfly deposits eggs in the nostrils of the sheep in July and August. When these eggs are hatched out, the magots find their way through the meat, causing the sheep much pain. You can generally tell when the gadflies are seeking the sheep, for the sheep will crowd together, keeping their nose to the ground, stamping violently. Remedy.—After the gadfly has once taken hold, it is a difficult job to dislocate him. The following remedy will do good sometimes: Inject up the nose equal parts of sweet oil and turpentine, but be care- ful not to strangle the sheep. Prevention.—It is much easier to prevent sheep from getting sick than it is to get them well after they have taken sick. Smear the nose of the sheep with pine tar during the fly season. If you have a large flock, smear the inside of the salt trough with pine tar, and when they go to get salt, they will do the rest. Goat INDUSTRY is, that few people can tell the difference between mutton and kid. When we come to consider the facts in the case, much so-called mutton that is sold from our city butcher shops, is nothing else but kid. Yes, it is just a goat that ‘has been killed and named ©4590 mutton. It is very often the case that people who say they cannot eat kid are fooled and eat it very gladly when it is called mutton. Most authors tell us that goat is not much esteemed in the United States as a food, but notwithstanding this assertion, kids always find a ready market in the cities. The goat will live and do well on less attention than any animal known. They requ:re practically no attention in the summer, and very little in the win- ter. They will live where other domestic . animals would literally starve. If farmers who have a few hill tops that are unproductive wiil fence it, and place a few goats in there, they will find it quite profita- ble ». The goats will often bring them in some return when cotton is out of the season. What the South wants is diversification, and the adoption of the goat industry will help to bring this about. Many farm- ers are now raising cotton, and depending upon that crop altogether, when they could raise a few goats without any outlay of money, and find it a paying in- vestment. And one great advantage in the goat bus- iness is that they are so hardy. ‘There is one enemy to the goat in the South, and that is dogs. If you can keep the dogs away from them, there should be little trouble in raising goats. They are subject to very few diseases, have unusual digestive ability, will thrive on oak leaves and a little of nothing. As to what kind of goats you should raise depends upon the object you have in raising them. If you de- sire to raise,them for the fleece, you would want the Angora, but if you simply wanted to raise them for the meat, a short haired goat would answer your pur- pose better than a long haired goat. You should not cross the long haired and the short haired goats, for they will not do well. THE ANGORA GOAT. The Angora goat gets its name from Angora, a province in Turkey, Asia Minor. People who are not posted on the subject often make the mistake of call- ing the Angora goats Cashmere. We feel safe in saying that there is not-a Cashmere goat in America. During the administration of President Polk, the Sultan of Turkey requested of him that ‘he recom- mend some one who would experiment in the culture of cotton in Turkey, S. D. James B. Davis, of Co- fumbia, S. C., was recommended, and received the appointment. Dr. Davis’ work proved so satisfac- tory to the Sultan, that he desired to reciprocate the TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. courtesy of the President, presented him with nine choice goats of his domain. So these were the first Angoras ever brought into the U.S. During the year 1854, Col. Richard Peters, | of Atlanta, Ga., bought all or a part of these goats from Davis, and from all information at hand Col. Peters owned about all the Angoras in the U. | S. previous to the outbreak of the Civil War. ‘Two of these goats were sold in the spring of 1854 to Wil liam M. Landrum, of San Jeaquin County, California. ' Mr. Landrum is still breeding Angoras at Laguna, More than half the Angora goats of the U.S. would trace back to these nine goats. We mention | this little sketch just.to show what wonderful devel- ! opment can come from a small beginning and it will ° Tex. interest many, especially in the South, to know that j this great industry had its origin here. We will say in the outset that there are three | principal reasons for. the present interest in the in- dustry, which are as follows: (1) They are very effective brushweed and weed destrovers; (2) they carcass | are mohair producers; (3) they yield a that is very palatable and highly nutritious. DESCRIPTION Or THE MODERN ANGORA GOAT. While there has been no effort by an association or body of goat breeders to adopt a standard or a | description of an ideal goat, we believe that the fol- lowing description will be accepted by most breeders: | The Angora is smaller than the ordinary goat. It ,) will weigh from 60 to 100 pounds, although some. will weigh considerably more. The back should be straight with shoulders and hips of equal height. The chest should be broad and deep, denoting a good constitu-’ tion, the body round, legs short and_ strong. aie: bead should be erect, clean cut, with bright eyes and : e : ; broad muzzle. The horns are grayish, never 4 black. All grades show more or less kemp There is a demand for fleeces that are oven’ twelve inches, and they will bring on the New York’ market from one to two dollars per pound. New’ York and Boston are the markets for mohair in the’ United States. ' All goats are browsers by nature, but the Angora is more so than all others. _We have never seen any kind of weed, vine or bush that an Angora would not eat. After he has his fill of pine tops, sumach ber- ries, sassafras buds, and what not, he will finish up on the bark gnawed from thunder wood, (or poison, for sumach is a very deadly poison.) never seeming the worse for the same. They will clean up all the un- dergrowth in two years where enough is put on for the space to be cleaned. Every leaf and twig in their reach is greedily eaten, and this constant nibbling off of the leaves and buds soon kills out the weeds and bushes. They will desert the finest grass pasture for such an outlay. A thicket so dense that a man can- not get through will soon be converted into an open woodland. Angoras have done some wonderful work for us here, cleaning up such places, while at the same time he is paying more than any other live | stock on the farm. The South has thousands of acres where they could be used profitably for the only pur- pose of cleaning up the land. Then the land is left tich after they have cleaned it up, from their drop- | pings, and the grasses native to the locality “come ”? in,’ making a fine pasture for other stock. Different from most other animals, the Angora /| buck comes into heat. Their breeding season is from | July through a period of about six months and the gestation in goats is about five months. The mating | of the buck to the does should be along in November so as to have the kids to drop in April or May, so _ that there will be plenty of green browse for the does to furnish a good flow of milk for the kids. Angora lids are delicate for the first week or two and cannot || stand exposure to cold, damp weather. After the | kids are two or three weeks old they are very hardy and active, and can care for themselves as well as any animal of the same age. We think that there is no _ animal so pretty and intelligent as the Angora kid. A good, strong, healthy buck that is in good health can be mated to from forty to sixty does. A buck like any other domestic animal should be in the best » possible condition when put to service. Pure bred Angoras do not generally drop more than one kid at- )) a time. We always figure on an increase of 100 per / cent, during the year. There is generally enough | twins dropped to make up for any losses that may occur. When an Angora buck is used on common or grade does, they drop the usual number of kids, two | tothree. The increase ina flock of Angoras depends | on the care and management of the same. We have Kids Bring a Good Price at the City Markets. ASI known of an increase as high as 120 per cent. froma pure bred flock. In this section of the couniry we shear only once a year, during April or May, but in some sections of the South-west they shear twice a year. The shear- ing of the goat is the same as the shearing of sheep. Anyone who is a good sheep shearer can shear goats, the only difference being that one should use shears with short, blunt blades when they are sheared by hand. We have used here with success the hand power clipping machine. With the clippers there is no double cutting of the mohair, and then it does smoother work. Another source of profit from Angoras is their skins. Taken when the mohair is from 4 to 6 inches long they make the most beautiful rugs and robes. The mohair retains its original luster and may be used in the natural white, or dyed any color desired. The demand for these rugs cannot be supplied. They bring on the market from four to eight dollars each. The kid’s finest fleeces adorn the collar and border of the ladies’ most'handsome opera cloaks. In the stores they are sold under some peculiar name, the purchas- er being unaware of the true name of the “furs.” Angoras can stand any amount of heat and cold. They must not be allowed to stay out in the cold rains. Ifithey stand ina cold rain during the winter season, when they are carrying heavy fleeces, it will rove detrimental to them, causing them to take cold, bringing on rheumatism, and the does to lose their kids. They need a good dry shed to go in. It need not be a warm one, just so it is dry. Goats need very little feed in the South. A few cotton seed during the severest weather, along with some hay will kee> them in good shape. There is a creat demand in the South for Angoras at the present time, and we know of no like stock that will pay as well. It has been fully demonstrat- ed that they will do well here. They are subject to no disease and much of our ‘hilly or rough country could be profitably turned into this industry. We have the browse, the good, pure water, and an abun- dance of rough land that is good for nothing else. We think that the opportunity is ripe for the goat industry ‘in this section, and the first man into the field will reap the benefits of the same. Mewes 4 book NL Cow DEPARTMENT EDITED AND REVISED BY Ga wi LOUGHBY, B: Agri: Secretary Georgia Dairy and Live Stock Association; Dairyman and Animal Husbandman, Georgia Experiment Station, Experiment, Ga. 454 TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. DISEASES OF (@ Aan: CONTAGIOUS DISEASES. Contagious Pleuro-Pneumonia. disease, and one of It was in- Cause.—This is a contagious the most fatal that cows are subject to. troduced in America in 1843 in Brooklin, L. I. when It is gains access to the a cow was purchased from an English captain. caused by a specific virus which system through the lungs. It is sometimes going for two months before there is any It was stamped out by the slow in developing, entward manifestation. U. S. Bureau of Animal Industry, and no cases re- ported in America for several years. Symptoms.—The first symptoms likely to be no- ticed are a rise in the temperature to 103 to 106 de- germs live a long time before they develop, and the whole herd is liable to be affected. Treatment.—There is no medical treatment that will avail anything. When the disease gets started there is no cure. Sometimes people think that they have a cure, but not so. Mild cases show signs of recovery ; they appear to be in good health, will feed well, fatten fast; the milk cows produce -milk again, but they ‘have not recovered, and are liable to break out at any time. As soon as the disease is known to be contagious Pleuro-Pneumonia, have the animal killed at once, and buried. Do not attempt to save the hides, for it may mean the loss of more of your cattle. Place quick lime on the carcass. Prevention.—It is certainly true in this case that “an ounce of prevention is worth a pound of cure.” There are three methods of prevention: Fig. 1—View ot farm of W. R. Clifton, Waldo, Tex., where grees Fahrenheit, there is a loss of appetite, cough, ‘There the ribs over the lungs; cough increases; the hind legs slight shivering, loss of milk, scanty urine. will follow tenderness upon pressure between will be drawn under the body. Later on there will be a watery, or sometimes a thicker discharge from the eyes and nose. Sometimes the disease kills im- mediately, and sometimes it runs from two to eight weeks. If one suspects that his cattle are affected he should have an expert veterinarian called in at once, as it is of the most contagious type, and the Red Polled cattle are bred as near perfection as pure blood, proper breeding and treatment can make them. First. Stock to this country should be quarantined for at least 2 months so that there can be no danger of disease from them. Second. Inoculation.—Inoculation for Contagious Pleuro-Pneumonia is a recent thing, having been practiced for only a few years. At first it was not successful, but it has been improved, until now it is used with great success. Inoculation does not pro- duce the disease itself, but a fever which the animal The virus which is taken from Quarantine Regulations. imported overcomes readily. . } Salt Your Cattle Regularly. 455 the lungs of an affected animal is used to inoculate the animals. The tip of the tail is the place to in- oculate, for the danger from gangrene is less here than at any other place. One drop of the virus is sufficient. Third. Disinfection—When any animal has suf- fered from the disease, the rest of the herd should be isolated, and the premises thoroughly fumigated. The best and cheapest way to do this is to burn sulphur in the buildings, closing them as tight as possible, and to whitewash every part of the building, roof, shed and all with lime whitewash, using one pint of erude carbolic acid to each bucketful of whitewash. VARIOLA VACCINAE OR COW POX. Cause.—This is also a contagious disease. It is to the cow what smallpox is to men; either can be pro- duced in either men or cattle by inoculation from the other species. To have either, secures immunity from the other from a subsequent attack, at least for Cow pox is a blood poison that has a period It is a very a time. of incubation from three to nine days. common trouble, and almost every cow will be sub- ject to it at some time of life. Symptoms.—The local symptoms of cow pox are heat, swelling, tenderness of the teats for three or four days, followed by irregular pimples on the teats, udder, flanks, around the vulva, nose, mouth and eyes. ‘These pimples are red at first and enlarge from day to day until they become about a half inch in di- ameter, and then they become yellow and burst. Treatment.—The best treatment is good nursing. The disease rarely proves fatal, Give the cow a good dose of salts, and after each milking bath ‘the teats and udder with diluted carbolic acid, and smear with lard, vaseline, or any healing ointment. ANTHRAX, OR CHARBON. Cause.—This disease is known by different names, such as Anthrax, bloody Murrain, Black Leg, Black Quarter, etc. It rises spontaneous- ly in low, dam pastures, also in pastures where there is a great amount of organic matter, and on account of cattle being fed on food that is too rich and juicy, It is contagious. especially clover, great changes in the temperature between day and night favor its development. Symptoms.—Anthrax has two ways of manifest- ing itself: with external wounds, and without them. Black Leg is not a typical anthrax, but is related, and occurs in young, fast growing cattle. Its effect is “SARAH Fig. 2—Hypodermic Syringe for injecting Blackleg Vaccine. (Bureau Animal Industry) very rapid. In the morning a calf is dead of blackleg, when nothing appeared to ail it the night before. There is a stiffness in the affected quarters, with some diffuse swelling and heat, fever, the swollen part soon mortifies, becomes cold, gas forms under the skin, and crackles if rubbed. The black tongue as seen in animals is known by the red, purple, or black blisters on the tongue, palate and cheeks, and these blisters at times get as large as a hen’s egg. Then they burst and run a watery, colorless matter, and the sore becomes an ulcer in appearance, and has 456 discharges, As it runs from the mouth, the dis- charge is bloody, the fever runs high. Treatment—There is no successful treatment for Anthrax or Blackleg. The only thing to do is to pre- vent it by inoculation with vaccines prepared for They should be inoculated every year. with the purpose. Prevention.—Prevention is better than cure Drain the soil in the pas- tures, do not give the cattle much juicy food. Late in the summer, and early fall stock at night, when the days are hot, and the nights cool. Give the stock plenty of fresh, good water. Stock all contagious diseases. shelter the appreciate good water as much as people do, but they The dead ani- Fumigate the do not always get it as they should. mals should be burned, hide and all. TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. For this reason, we go into details. The disease is caused by micro-parasites getting into the blood of cattle, and using up the red corpuscles of the blood. The disease is, as a rule, carried from one cow to an- other by ticks. .As to whether the disease originates in the blood of one cow, and is carried to another, or whether it originates in the tick, arid is transmitted to the cow is not settled. Indeed, there are many pecu- liarities of this disease that are yet.to be explained. It sometimes appears where there are no ticks, but as a rule it only appears where there are ticks. When the ticks bite through the skin of susceptible animals, and introduce the fever germs, they begin to multiply very rapidly. After being in the blood for eight or ten days they attack the red cells of the blood and de- stroy them in large numbers. They have destroyed Fig. 5—Adult Cattle Ticks and their eggs. (From Mississippi Experiment Station, Bulletin No. 73) Do not ‘handle stock with blackleg any more than pos- sible, and when it is compulsory wash the hands be- fore and after handling them with a solution of car- bolic acid, using one part acid to one hundred parts water. buildings where animals have died or been sick. TICK FEVER OR SPLENETIC FEVER. Cause. One of the greatest drawbacks in the South to the cattle industry is the tick or Splenetic fever, or what is commonly known as Texas Fever. The dis- ease was called Texas Fever hecause of so many deaths in Texas on its account during the early histo- ry of the disease. It is hard to compute the amount lost by the South each year on account of this disease. half the usual number in a week’s time by actual This drain of vital force of course weakens the animal, and it finally dies, because of the great amount of broken down waste matter which must be disposed of by the kidneys, liver, spleen and bowels. count. Symptoms. The symptoms of Tick Fever are loss of appetite, constipation, hot, dry muzzle, tempera- ture from 104 degrees to 106 degress F. If it be a milk cow the flow of milk will cease almost suddenly. These symptoms are intensified as the disease ad- vances, the head is held down, the back arched, ear drooped, red urine is frequently passed. The Ticks that are seen at this time are frequently small. If the animal has never ‘had ticks on her before, and has any at all now, or has been where she could get them on her, there can be no doubt but that she has tick fever. a —— i — ee | ||After the fever has run for a while, the animal be- Meomes weaker, and shows that she is suffering great- jly. The animal holds her head either back in the flank or straight forward, when she is lying down. Many die within two or three days, while others go | 1 i i ‘Fig. 4—Instruments used in Blood Inoculation. 1. Trocar and Canula. 2. Lancet or Knife. 3. Wire Whip Stirrer. 4. Glass Jar. 5. Hypodermiec Syringe. from five to ten days. If the animal is able to go over \ eight days, there is hope for recovery. Treatment. There is no specific treatment for Tick Fever that can be relied upon. The most important | thing is to get the bowels open freely as early as pos- sible, and to keep them in good working order, also keep the kidneys working well. In fact, much de- pends upon the kidneys, for the recovery is dependent A Poor Milker Is No Good at any Price. 457 clean off all the ticks immediately, and give the fol- lowing purgative, one and a half pound Epsom salts, one quarter pound table salt, one tablespoon ground ginger, all dissolved in a quart of warm water to be given as a drench. In case the salts is not conveni- ent, one or two pints of castor-oil may be used. ,Give the animal plenty of fresh, cool water. After the fev- er is over, say after eight or nine days, the fever may suddenly leave, and the temperature drop suddenly below the normal temperature of the body, and the animal dies from collapse. should be watched at this time, and should there be much fall in the temperature, tered. The animal stimulants should be adminis- Prevention. of ticks, we will enter At birth calves are only to Tick Fever. Few calves under old ever die of Tick Fever. After six months old, the Tick Fever becomes When cattle once have the Tick Fever, there is little, if any danger of their having it a second time. There- fore cattle raised where ticks are plentiful become im- mune to the disease from tick bites early in life when the disease has little or no effect upon them. How long they are immune from disease is a matter of doubt among veterinarians. It is known, that atter cattle have been where there are no ticks for a few years, they can contract the disease azain. Since Tick Fever is spread as a result into this matter in details. slightly susceptible six months more dangerous. however, Perhaps something of the life history of ticks would be of interest here. The most common tick that we see is the adult female tick, which is about the size of a grain of corn, and of a dull lead or blu- ish color, These ticks drop from the cattle to the ground, hide under grass or trash, and in four or five days begin to lay eggs. Each tick will lay from 1500 to 3000 eggs, and then die. After about twenty or thirty days these eggs begin to hatch, if the weather is favorable. As soon as hatched, these small ticks begin to crawl about, getting on grass, waiting until some animal comes near enough for them to crawl upon them. As soon as a cow lies down they get a foothold upon her, and crawl to the tenderest parts about her, such as the neck, brisket, belly, inside the thighs, around the udder. The male tick always re- mains small, something about the size of a pin-head. The female ticks begin at once to grow, and gorging themselves with blood. In about three or four weeks 458 they are mature, when they fall to the ground, begin Thus they go on from sea- If there is no agency to destroy these laying eggs, and then die. son to season. eggs, it would be a matter of little time until they would take the world. the sunlight, ‘hence we have more ticks in the woods, The ef- fect of the rays of the sun has doubtless had a great deal to do with keeping them down. The effect of water upon the tick eggs is very little if any at all. They are often carried some distance by water, from This is only true when These eggs cannot hatch in and places where they can be in the shade. one pasture to another. TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. by disinfection of the pastures, and second by killing the ticks on cattle. ———= Ticks may be exterminated from the pastures by keeping the cattle away. The cattle can be taken off) in the spring, and by November all the ticks will have starved to death. Or the cattle may be taken off in mid-summer, when there will be no ticks by the next spring. If the cattle are taken off in November, byl the following July there will be some ticks left, as), they will be carried through the winter unhatched, | and will hatch out in the summer, and will not starve) Fig. 5.—Drawing Immune Blood from Supply Animal. they float in bunches, for when the individual ticks be- come separated, they soon drown in the water. The effect of cold is very slight, if any, on the tick eggs as long as they remain unhatched. The seed ticks, how- ever, cannot stand so much cold. The young ticks af- ter being hatched will live four or five months without food, that is, without getting onto an animal. There are two methods of getting rid of ticks; first before July 1st. A ‘better plan is to divide the pas tures, keeping the cattle in one pasture one year, andi the next year in the other pasture. In doing this) care should be observed that the cattle do not carr 1 the ticks into the disinfected pasture. If you have not sufficient land to allow one pasture to lie out.) then you may cultivate the land not in use for a pas} ture. Ticks do not crawl far, nor do they go from one) animal to another,.so thers will be little difficulty in|) Many Men Fail in the Dairy Business Because of Lick of Attention. keeping them from going from one pasture to anoth- er. A board placed tight on the ground, or two fences of wire, say six or eight feet apart will be sufficient. The “feed-lot’”’ method of cleansing cattle advocated by Professor Morgan, of the Tennessee Experiment Station, is based upon the fact that the parasitic per- iod (from attachment as seed tick to dropping to ground as a fully engorged female) of the fever tick In this method a portion of the ground is set apart, half of is not more than forty days; less in summer. which is of sufficient size to accommodate the number of cattle on hand. The area selected should be conven- ient to plenty of feed and water. the lot with a double Surround and divide (8 to 10-foot space). Feed the cattle for 20 days on one side, then remove them to the other for 15 or 20 days longer. fence Every tick will ‘have dropped, and the cattle may then be placed upon such field or pasture as may be tick-free and available. By this method entire farms may be cleaned during a summer period of not exceeding four months. In the early spring select a field with water and shade available to be devoted to broadcast sor- ghum, corn or millet, or all three. On June 1 fence off the feed-lot (within the forage field), in which place all the cattle on the farm, and feed and rotate _as described above for forty days. At the end of this period the cattle may be turned into the field of sor- ghum, millet or corn, and there pastured until Octo- | ber 15 or November 1, by which time all fever ticks _ Fig. 6.—Inoculating Calf with Immune Blood. 459 upon the entire property outside of the feed-lots will have perished. After the animals are removed the feed-lots should be immediately plowed and thoroughly cultivated, and their edges completely sprayed with crude petro- leum, zenoleum solutions, or other substances de- structive to tick life. . 8—Dipping Vat for Cattle. The second plan of getting rid of ticks is to kill them on the cattle. This plan requires more labor than the other, but it is quicker, and more successful than the other. The plan is to grease the legs, belly, and under parts of all cattle once or twice a week, and pick or scrape off all ticks, taking care to destroy those that you get off by burning them . The grease used should be one part kerosene and three parts of some crude, cheap oil, such as cottonseed oi! in crude form, or axle grease, and it may be applied witha large paint brush. However it frequently happens that the herd is too large to give so much attention to each cow, in which case we use dipping or spraying. The cattle can be held in a chute while they are sprayed with a kerosene emulsion, or with a ten per cent. solution of Chloro-Naptholeum or Zenoleum. The plan used by the U. S. Government is not prac- tical for the average farmer or cattle raiser, but we give it for the benefit of those that can use it. Have a narrow wooden vat some thirty or forty feet long, and about six feet deep, At one end have the floor slanting so that the cattle will have no trouble in get- ting out. This vat is filled with water, and on top is placed a layer of oil or disinfecting fluid about an inch thick. The cattle are driven to this vat, and either pushed into it, or allowed to drop in there by a 460 to swim out the coated with hinge trap door, and they have other end. By this time they become oil all over. The oils that are used are cottonseed oil, although it is quite expensive, Virginia Black Oil, crude Beaumont oil. The Beaumont oil is said to be the cheapest of all. about $150.00 and will cost anywhere from ten to fifty cents per head to dip the cattle. To install such a plant will cost TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. dusty, and the animal ceases to lick herself, a dry, dull cough will be noticed; if the cow is with calf, abortion will take place; followed by diarrhoea; the animal reduced to skin and An infallible test for tuberculosis is tubercu- indigestion is soon bones. lin, which can be kad from chemical supply houses, the Bureau of Animal Industry at Washington, D. C., or from some State Experiment Stations. The Fig. TUBERCULOSIS. Cause.—Tuberculosis is caused by the introduction into the system of a germ, the bacillus tuberculosis. It has not been definitely settled as to whether it is the same disease that affects man or not. Dr. Koch, who discovered the bacillus of tuberculosis, says that the two are altogether different diseases. It is sup- posed to be caused by inhaling the germs as they are blown through the air, or it may be taken by the di- gestive tract. Close stableing, poor ventilation, feed- ing on innutritious foods, all predispose the animal to the disease. Of course, no matter how weak the animal may be, if these germs are not taken in the body, there will be no trouble from tuberculosis. Symptoms.—It is hard to tell tuberculosis until it has developed to a great extent. The first sign is an unthrifty condition of the animal, the milk becoming poor in quality and quantity, appetite changeable, first good and then poor; skin and hair dry and 7.—Aterdeen, Angus Heifers Nos. 14 and 15. animal's temperature is first taken morning, noon and night in order to get the average temperature. Then at eleven o'clock at night inject the tuberculin, and the next morning at six o'clock begin taking the temperature, and take it every two hours until six o'clock at night. If the injection causes a rise in the temperature to 106 degrees Fahrenheit at any time during the day, the animal should be considered tu- berculous. If an animal reacts or shows a rise of temperature between 103 and 103.9 degrees it should be tested within two weeks to confirm the work, Do not test an animal that has fever, nor cows just be- fore nor just after calving, nor when in heat. Treatment.—If an animal reacts to the test and is also in poor physical condition, it will be best to con- , demn and slaughter her at once. The carcass may be | used for beef if it proves after slaughter to be only slightly affected with the tubercules. diseased, the carcass should be buried with lime. . . . a | If the reacting animals seem otherwise strong and | If extensively | Your Cows Will Need Shelter in the Winter. HOE healthy, and are valuable for breeding purposes, they can be saved, if such cattle are given light and airy quarters and plenty of good food. The calves from such cows will invariably be free from any disease, but should be taken from their mothers immediately after birth and raised on milk cows that are known to be healthy. Young animals may be vaccinated with mild tuber- culosis serum, which seems to prevent them from contracting this disease during life. The scientist, Von Behring, and Dr. Pearsun, of Pennsyl- German vania, are at work upon the production of vaccined which have this effect, with much hope for success. It may be possible that a cure will be discovered be- fore many years for tuberculosis in mild stages. Fig. 9—Sue, a grade Jersey, having a record of over 500 Ibs. of butter per year. Owned by Mr. Williamson, ‘Commerce, Georgia. Disinfection.—Stables, yards or bedding used by animals affected should be kept well disinfected with lime or carbolic solutions, especially before putting a healthy animal in the same quarters. LUMPY JAW, OR ACTINOMYCOSIS. Cause.—This disease is said to be contagious, and is due to a ray shaped fungus germ called actinomy- cosis, which is taken with the food, and may locate anywhere in the body. It generally affects the jaw bones, tongue, glands around the head and_ throat, lungs, liver, and in the walls of the small intestines. The germ enters the jaw bone through a split or de- cayed tooth, and destroys the bone in every direction. The disease is known by tumors being formed at the seat of the infection. From this seat of infection, sprouts or small portions of the germ are carried by means of the blood to other portions of the body of the animal, hence it is important to stop it before it has time to spread. If the jaw bones are affected they frequently swell to an enormous size, the teeth get loose, the tumor bursts, and discharges a thick, yel- lowish white matter, containing little yellow masses or clusters of the fungus about the size of grains of sand. The bone has soft spots in it surrounded by hard shell. Treatment.—l{ you find what the disease is before it has had time to develop too far, there is hope for a cure. But when it has had time to develop and get scattered over the system there is little hope for a cure. Give the animal one dram iodide of potash Fig. 10.—Actinomycosis cf the Lower Jaw morning and evening in bran mash for three weeks. If the eyes should get watery, and a considerable amount of saliva run from the mouth, stop for a few Rub the lump once a week with a dram of biniodide of mer- cury, and one ounce of lard. days, and then begin the treatment again. NON-CONTAGIOUS BLOOD DISEASES. PLETHORA. Cause.—Plethora is caused by an over-fat condi- tion of the blood. It is caused by feeding too rich food to young animals. When digestion and assimi- lation are unusually active the blood is supplied with more material than the system requires, and can use; the excess not being poisons the blood. assimilated, degenerates and Symptoms.—Plethora is known by the full bound- ing beat of the pulse; redness of the mucous mem- brane, and a tendency to store up fat. Sometimes there is a slight fever which lasts only a short time. 462 Treatment.—As the disease is brought on by feeding too rich food, the first thing to be done is to remove the cause. Give four or five ounces of Epsom or Glauber Salts every six hours, until you have given one or two pounds. commended. Bleeding for Plethora is not re- ANAEMIA. Cause.—This disease is just the reverse of plethora, and is seen when the animal is thin in flesh, on ac- count of insufficient quantities of good, wholesome food; exposure to weather; sites. impoverished by para- Symptoms.—This disease is known by the lack of energy, languor, loss of appetite, tendency toward in- digestion, and rapid wasting away. Treatment.—Give the animal a complete change of diet, See to it that If the bowels be torpid. give a laxative; if diarrhoea is pres- the food is wholesome. ent, the bowels must be checked. If any parasites ure plastering the animal they must be destroyed. Give the following tonic in one dose in the feed, re- peating morning and night: One half ounce of copperas, One handful oil cake, meal, or ground flaxseed, Powder and mix thoroughly. RHEUMATISM. Cause—The cause of rheumatism is the accumula- tion of an acid in the blood which settles around the joints, covering the joints, lining membranes of the heart, muscles and ligaments. The affected parts in the acute form, swell, and discharge a considerable amount of pus, also some synovial fluid with the pus. Thin flesh, exposure to cold, dampness in stable and poor ventilation often are the indirect causes of it. Symptoms.—Rheumatism is often known by the disinclination of the animal to move, and_ in the course of a few hours or days a swelling of the joints, The disease moves The temperature which are quite hot and painful. rapidly from one joint to another. is increased, the mucus membrane becomes red, bow- els apt to be constipated. ; Treatment—lIf the disease be in its acute form, TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. give a good dose of Glauber’s or Epsom Salts, follow- ing with the treatment here given, two or three times a day. Two ounces bicarbonate potash. One pint of water. Another Treatment.—After placing the animal in a good, dry, warm place, give the following receipt morning and night in soft feed: Two drams colchicum, Two drams Nitrate of Potash. Give this for a week. Then give the following » treatment for a week; giving as a dose morning and night : One-half ounce copperas. One handful cottonseed meal, or ground flaxseed. Fig. 11.—Imported, Agathas Foxull Keene, 1st prize yearling bull, Atlanta, 1905. I Then in a week change back to the treatment of , colchicum, etc. q HAEMATURIA OR RED WATER. Cause.—This disease is caused by the kidneys se- of albumen, and some iron, which gives the urine the anpetiamey of having blood in it. creting with the urine large quantities The disease is most commonly seen in low, swampy lands, and disappears in such cases as soon as the land is drained. Symptoms.—Haematuria will be known in the first place by the color of the urine, which will assume a | pale, pink color at first, and then change its color un- The urine increas- two or three | til it reaches a dark brown color. es greatly in quantity. For the first weeks there will be no damage noticeable, but then the milk will begin to fall off, the animal becomes thin; the bowels at first are loose, but become cos- tive. Treatment Make a complete change in the food, | feed linseed meal as much as possible. Give the fol- | lowing as purgative: || Twelve ounces Epsom Salts, One ounce Ginger, | One ounce Gentian. *| Four ounces syrup. h Enough water to make two quarts. | Mix this thoroughly, and give as one dose. Follow jthe above dose with the following: | One half-ounce copperas, One handful oil-cake. \| Give night and morning. | Continue this dose for two or three weeks. ti MALIGNANT CATARRH. Cause.—This disease is due to virus which affects the mucous membrane lining, ews of the head and the nasal chambers. Symptoms.—The disease will first be noticed with a specific the sin- tigors, or a shivering fit; dullness and debility; the Sa aS) mucous membrane becomes a bluish red color, eyelids swollen: eves closed; tears flowing over the cheeks, a kind of watery fluid, saliva flows from the mouth, a } dry cough ensues; there is a great thirst but no appe- | tite, urine scanty but high colored. | | Treatment.—Enemas. should be given to relieve | constipation. Li every four hours diluted in a pint of water. the animal inhale hot steam. Give two ounces of sweet spirits of ni- Make 2 ee DISEASES OF THE RE- SPIRATORY OR- | GANS ee | SIMPLE CATARRH OR COLD, OR HOLLOW i. HORN. Cause.—Catarrh is brought on by sudden change ii During the Winter Months, Your Cattle Should Have Some Feed. heal up in three or four weeks. 463 in the temperature especially when the animals are poorly fed; damp, badly drained stables, exposure to storms and winds; sleeping on the cold ground, etc. of the and eye is red and dry; more or less fever and fits of Symptoms.—The mucous membrane nose shivering; watery discharge from the eyes; pulse rap- id and rather hard; appetite fails; urine scanty and highly colored. It sometimes affects the horns, since the ‘hollow of the horn connects with the nose, and catarrh in the nose often affects the sinews of the horn. This is possibly the reason for the belief in hollow horn. Treatment.—If the horns are affected, and the own- er desires tokeep the horns on the cow, little can be the will usually done to relieve situation, but the trouble in the. horns get well as soon as the catarrh is cured. However, if the owner does not object to ‘having the horns removed, and I can see no reason why he should, the horns should be sawed or clipped off close to the head, taking a ring of hair a quarter of an inch all around with the base of the thorn. Clip off all the hair around before cutting, and dust the cut surfaces with a mixture of equal parts powdered alum and boric acid. If the cavities of the horn are filled with matter, take it out and wash the parts with a five per cent. solution of carbolic acid, that is, using one part acid, and nineteen parts wa- ter. Repeat the washings daily, and keep all matter out of the cavities. Squirt a little water into her They should If the bowels are con- stipated, give a pint of melted lard. If the bowels are head to make her throw out all matter. loose, give the following as a drench of one dose: One pint of infusion of quassia, One ounce laudanum, One-half ounce sulphuric ether, One pint thin gruel, cold. Repeat the dose in six or eight hours if there is no action. But whether the bowels are loose or consti- pated, use the following remedy: Three ounces spirits of nitre, Two drams tincture aconite root, One-half ounce fluid extract belladonna. Two ounces nitrate of potash, Two ounces muriate of ammonia, Water enough to make one quart. Mix thoroughly, and give a half-teaspoonful every three hours until better. If the animal exmeriences 464 difficulty in breathing, steam the ‘head by placing blanket over head as shown in the illustration. SORE THROAT OR LARYNGITIS. Cause.—This disease is caused by the same thing that produces cold, that is, standing in bad weather, lying upon damp, cold ground, exposure to winds and storms, etc. It is an inflammation of the upper wind- pipe, and interferes with the breathing. Steaming. Fig. 12.—Nose-bag for Symptoms.—The cow experiences difficulty in swallowing, has hard, tickling cough, loss of appetite, cud not chewed, and there is a flow of saliva from the mouth, when it is open. If the cow attempts to drink water it comes back through the nose. Treatment.—Place a bran poultice on the back. If this does not relieve, rub mustard paste well on the throat. This should be washed off in an hour and more rubbed in. chlorate of potash in the water, morning and evening. Give one-half ounce of salt-peter or BRONCHITIS. Cause.—Bronchitis is an inflammation of the mu- cous membrane of the bronchial tubes. It is caused by exposure to wet and cold, inhaling smokes, fumes, or the introduction of foods and fluids into the wind- pipe. Symptoms.—Wheezing, difficult breathing, deep, hard, distressing cough, and after it has run for sever- al hours, a high fever will be noticed. By placing the ear by the front and sides of the chest, a dry, grating TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. sound will be heard. The cow lies down a great deal in this disease. Treatment.—Place the animal in a warm, well-ven- tilated place. By a well-ventilated place, we do not | mean where there will be a draft on the animal, as some would suppose, but where she can get fresh air | without a draft. If the disease be in its first state, give the following: Two ounces acetate of ammonia, Twenty drops tincture of Aconite root, | One half-pint of water. Mix thoroughly, and give as one dose. Repeat ey- ery two Lcurs until the chill is over, and the pulse beats naturally. Then give the following remedy un- til the cow gets well: Three drams conperas, Two drams Gentian: One dram Ginger, One dram Foenugreek Seed, Mix and give as one dose morning and night. Mustard applied to the sides will be of much bene-, fit to the animal. Allow her to drink all the water, she desires, and give her plenty of soft feed. PNEUMONIA. selves, and should have prompt attention, for if re- lief is not furnished, the disease will prove fatal. In most cases it is the result of a cold or catarrh, laryn- , itis, bronchitis, ete. It is sometimes caused by per=. mitting medicines to enter the windpipe and lungs when drenching the animal. Symptoms.—The disease is first shown by the ani- mal having a shivering fit, loss of appetite, quick and The cow does not like to lie down as it increases the pressure upon her chest. labored breathing, severe cough. If you tap the sides of the animal a dull, heavy sound is heard, the muzzle of the cow becomes dry and hot, the expired air is hot, the ribs are fixed.' ‘ | | Cause.—This is an inflammation of the lungs them- Treatment——The animal should be placed in a | warm stall, which should be kept thoroughly clean. | Feed the animal plenty of good, nutritious ‘food, and give plenty of fresh water. Give the following each i morning in a pint of gruel: Two drams saltpeter, | Two drams Bisulphate of soda. | Be Careful to Keep Everything Very Clecn. Apply mustard to the chest. Another Treatment.—lUse the same treatment as prescribed for Bronchitis. PLEURISY. ‘ Cause.—Pleurisy is an inflammation of the lining which lines the cavity of the chest, and infests the lungs. It is caused by exposure to cold, and injuries to the wall of the chest. This may be done by the an- imal swallowing a nail, and it working itself into the chest throughout the intestines usually from the sec- ond stomach. Symptoms.—The breathing is painful, something like a person with pneumonia; the ribs fixed; pres- sure between tke ribs cause intense pain. By apply- grating, rasping sound is >? the ears drooped; the ing the ear to the side, a heard; the head is hung low, expired breath is not hot as in pneumonia. Treatment.—No matter how slight the attack, the animal should be placed in a dry stall, with plenty of fresh air, the animal’s body should be well clothed, the legs rubbed well, and bandaged. To reduce the fever, give from fifteen to twenty-five drops of tinc- ture of aconite every two hours, and one-half ounce nitrate of potassium. fering great pain, give one dram of opium three times a day in a little gruel. water and wrung out, and apolied every half hour, should be used. above treatment, apply a blister made of two drams of cantharides and one and a half ounces of lard. Af- ter the acute stage has passed, give the following stim- ulant : One ounce tincture of Gentian, One ounce Ginger, One ounce chloride of Iron. Give as a dose in a pint of water three times a day. If the animal appears to be suf- Blankets dipped in hot, boiling If the pain continues after using the DISEASES OF THE DIGES- TIVE ORGANS. INFLAMMATION AND PARALYSIS OF THE TONGUE. Cause.—Paralysis of the tongue is the effect of care- lessness in drenching, that is, wounding the tongue, 33 465 and mouth, also by getting foreign bodies in the fod- der, such as thorns, etc. Symptems.—By an examination of the tongue, one can readily tell if the tongue has been injured. Fre- quently the tongue will swell, and if the paralysis be complete, the tongue will hang out lifeless. Treatment.—First examine the tongue and remove the cause, if it still be persistent. If the tongue hangs out of the mouth it should be bled slightly. Apply the following solutions: One ounce vinegar, Two ounces honey, One half pint water. Mix thoroughly and apply with swab three or four times a day to the tongue. BLOAT, HOVEN, OR TYPHANITIS. Cause—This is a swelling of the paunch with gas It is It is caused by feeding too much on account of fermentation in the first stomach. usually indigestion. clover, green feed, or changing food too quickly. and Cannula. ig. 13—Trocar Symptoms.—At first the animal shows signs of un- easiness, swells up badly, groans all the time; back is arched; if the hide is tapped between the last ribs and the point of the hip, it is resonant and sounds like a drum, especially on the left side; the nostrils are dis- tended, the eyes blood-shot, and run matter, the pulse at times very slow and at other times very rapid. Treatment.—Give one and a half pounds of Epsom salts in a ‘half-gallon of water as a drench to cleanse the system. Add one ounce of vinegar to the drench. Then take Tour ounces sulphate of iron, Two ounces of nux vomica, Mix thoroughly together and divide into twenty- four doses, giving one morning and night in a bran mash, 466 Another Treatment.—Pour cold water continuous- ly over the back and loins of the animal, and lead or drive her around the lot until the exercise brings re- lief. Another Treatment.—If the animal be sufferinz too much, perhaps the following treatment is better. Plunge a trochar and cannula into the region of the greatest swelling at the point midway between the the left side, pointing the trockar downwards, letting it spines of the loins, last rib and point of hip, on Fig. 14.—Showing where to insert trocar. Where ab de cross is the place to insert trocar. pass in obliquely to avoid the kidneys. The trocar is an instrument as shown here in this illustration. If the trocar be not convenient, use a pocket knife, keeping it in the wound until the largest quill obtain- able can be inserted in its place, and the gas allowed to escape. When the gas has passed off, give a good dose of linseed oil. The wound being small, will us- ually heal without trouble. IMPACTION OF THE THIRD STOMACH. Impaction is otherwise called Dry Murrain, and It is occasionally mistaken for Spin- The trouble occurs in the third stom- manifold, becomes overloaded Grass Staggers. al Meningitis. ‘ach, called the which manyplies, or honeycomb, with coarse, hard feed, causing inflammation and stoppage of the entire di- gestive apparatus. Impaction may be caused by an excess of green feed, but it usually comes from eat- ing hard, withered grass late in the summer when pastures are dry and short and the supply of water is insufficient. Eating cornstalks, withered wheat or oat hay, or uncured vetch are also frequent causes. smutted The symptoms vary considerably with the severi- ty of the disease. In light cases the signs are loss of TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE a appetite, stopping of rumination or chewing the cud, bowels constipated, and the animal appears dull and The cow lies down most of the feverish or sluggish. time on the left side and moans frequently. There is much tenderness on the right side under the short j ribs when punched with the fist, the back is often arched, and the hind legs unsteady. The hardened |) contents of the stomach can sometimes be felt with the hand, or bloating will occasionally be present, which should be treated by tapping. ¥ In acute stages the animal becomes highly excited, bellowing and staggering, turning round and round, or falling in convulsion. They will | about, running over objects as if blind, or pushing the head against trees or fences for minutes at a time, and pawing the earth. The breathing is loud, the heart beats hard and fast, and | toward the last profuse diarrhoea may set in. Death will occur often in a few hours after the first symp- toms appear. rush blindly Ss Treatment for Impaction.—As will be readily recog- nised from the nature of the disease, the first treat- ment should be to induce action of the stomach and bowels to throw off the offending substance. To ac- complish this, it is sometimes necessary to use the strongest purgatives. known to medicine, as well as It would be best to begin with a medicine purgative, such as the following formula: Epsom salts, one pound, common frequent injections throuch the rectum. salt, half-pound, ginger, two ounces, all dissolved in two or three pints warm water given as a drench. An- other formula which is just as good would be; Castor- oil, one pint, raw linseed oil, half-pint, mixed and given as a drench, The animal should have plenty of water if it will drink and watery foods if it will eat. An injection with a large syringe or a spray pump and hose, forcing two or three gallons of warm watery soap-suds into the bowels should also be used. If the bowels do not operate in eight or ten hours, repeat the purgative, or if the case is becoming des- | perate, use the following formula; Sulphate or soda, , (Glauber salts) half pound, calomel, two drams, dis- | solved in a pint of water, and Croton oil, twenty-five | or thirty drops, given as a drench. The only chance 1s to use sufficiently strong cathartics to break up the hardened contents of the stomach and force them out: | During the time while the purgatives are acting. the strength and nervous force of the animal should be Milk Absorbs Many Impurities. kept up by stimulants, Any of the following will serve well; Powdered Nux Vomica, forty grains dis- solved in a little water, or Carbonate of Ammonia, five or six drams in pint of water, or half-pint of key diluted with wate~. This tonic may be three times daily during the sickness. free action of the bowels is secured it is best to use green foods, soft mashes, and plenty of water and even keep up small doses of salts to insure per- fect breaking up of all the impaction. The tonic might also be continued for several days in small doses. It would probably be best to move the cattle away from land that has been in pasture many years to fresh spots. whis- given After DYSPEPSIA OR INDIGESTION. Cause.—Indigestion or Dyspepsia is caused by im- proper feeding, exposure tc colds and storms. 467 Treatment.—Give the cow one pound of Epsom salts, and one ounce ground ginger, dissloved in half- gallon cold water, at one dose. After this medicine has acted, boil a teacup of linseed into a pulp with a gallon of water, and while hot pour it over a half-pail of bran, making a mash of it. When the mash is cold put in some of the following powders: Four ounces sulphate of iron, Four ounces nitrate of potassium. Divided into twenty-four doses. for several weeks, if necessary. Give one daily Another Treatment.—Give phosphate of lime in the form of ground bones, and a little lime water, about a half-teacupful morning and night in bran mash. Still Another Treatment.—Give morning and night the following prescription: Three drams bicarbonate of soda, Two drams gentian, Two drams ginger. Fig. 15.—Herd pure bred Jerseys, Symptoms.—One of the first symptoms that will be noticed in a cow suffering from indigestion is ca- pricious appetite. They will eat constantly, but are never satisfied, will sometimes eat heartily of one diet once of twice, and then will not eat again until the diet is changed. Sometimes the animal will be _ seen licking the walls, eating dirt or lime, chewing sticks, trying to eat straw, rocks, coal, or other indi- gestible materials. The animal loses flesh, belches up most everything that she eats, manure is small in quantity, dry and glazed; she frequently has little thirst for water. Anderson’s Farms, Marietta, Georgia. CONSTIPATION. Cause. Constipation is caused by feeding too hard food, insufficient or impure water and too little ex- ercise, Symptoms.—It can be readily recognised by hard dry manure which is sometimes glazed. Treatment.—Make a complete change’in the diet. If the attack be in the fall or winter, give from one to two quarts of melted lard, or a pint of raw linseed oil. If it be in the spring or summer, give once a day the following prescription: 468 TILLING THE SOIL FOR Twelve ounces Epsom Salts, One ounce ginger, One ounce gentian, Wiater sufficient to make two quarts. Prevention.—The cattle should be salted twice a week in the winter, and three times a week in the summer, also give plenty of fresh water. Cattle suf- fer a great deal in the winter for lack of water. As a rule, the weather is cold, and the careless farmer al- lows his cattle to suffer for the want of fresh water. It 1s not sufficient that they have plenty of water, but the. water should be of a temperature that they can drink with comfort. Just because the trough is full of water covered with ice an inch thick is not sufficient. Cattle do not enjoy ice water, when they are about to freeze from the chilling wind. See to it that your cattle have plenty of fresh water, of a temperature that they can drink, and plenty of salt, and they will not be troubled much with Constipation, DIARRHOEA OR SCOURS. Cause.—This disease is caused by improper feed- ing, and in calves impure milk, over heating, etc. Symptoms.—The actions are too thin, watery, and occur too often. If it is allowed to continue, there is ereat thirst on account of the feverish condition of the stomach, but no appetite; the milk dries up, the belly is tucked up, and back arched. After a little the animal loses flesh and the temperature falls below mormal. Treatment.—If it be in the calf, special care should | It is quite frequently the case that if vou change the diet of the other, you will experience no further trouble. If there are irritating substances in the stomach or bowels, be given to the health of the mother. give the following: Three ounces castor-oil, One teaspoonful of Ginger. Follow this with two ounces lime water, and two ounces infusion of gentian. Give this two or three times a day in the milk or linseed gruel. It is a good idea to add a half ounce of chlorate of potash to a pailful of water. Especial Treatment for Calves. Two drams Salol, PROFIT AND PLEASURE. Four drams oxide bismuth, One ounce carbonate of lime. Mix thoroughly and divide into six equal doses, and give the first two doses at an interval of two hours, and the four.remaining doses every four hours. Give the medicine in a glass of calomel infusion. If the calf be very bad, add a glass of wine. Another good treatment for mild cases is to feed a teaspoontul of dried blood twice daily in the feed. DYSENTERY. Cause.—This disease is caused hy eating poison- ous plants, and by neglecting diarrhoea. Symptoms.—This disease will be known by vere straining, watery, offensive and bloody discharg- Se- es, high fever with excessive thirst; loss of appetite; cow ceases to give milk; eyes discharges; back arched and tail elevated Treatment.—Give at one dose, one pint and a half raw linseed oi] and two ounces tincture of opium. Then give the following: One ounce turpentine, One ounce prepared chalk, One quart boiled flaxseed. Mix day. and give as one dose. Give this three times a ~ Th = Fig. 16—Showing Truss used for Rupture. Another Treatment.—Give the following: Seven ounces Epsom Salts, Two drams powdered opium, Two drams powdered gentian, One pint of gruel. Mix thoroughly and give as one dose once a day. HERNIA OR RUPTURE. Cause.—This is a rupture of the investing mem- ee el ee ae if You Are Going to Sell Milk, do Not Water It. brane of the abdomen caused by some external injury or severe strain, letting the intestines out into the ad- jacent spaces. times seen is as larce as a half-bushel, but it is soft and can be easily pushed back. Sometimes a great quantity of the intestines are cut, and this is called strangulated hernia, and must be reduced, or death The swelling of the hernia as somie- will follow from inflammation and mortification. Treatment.—For calves a truss is used, as shown in the illustration. The skin may be pulled icgether and placed between two wooden clamps, but should be exercised not to get it too tight. In the rup- ture of the belly, the same appliances can be nsed. care DISEASES OF THE URI- NARY ORGANS CYSTITIS OR INFLAMMATION OF THE BLADDER. Cause.—This is an inflammation of the lining of the bladder. It is caused by feeding on musty hay, Over-ripe grasses, or grain; also from the improper use of diuretic medicines, especially is the cantharides apt to produce it, on account of being spread over too large a surface which is absorbed in large quantities, Or being given in too large doses internally. Symptoms.—Great uneasiness, colicky pains, nose turned towards the flank, efforts to vomit, if a male, the testicles are drawn up towards the body; urine _ is passed with pain, and is scanty; the urine in health, is alkaline, while during this disease it is acid. Treatment.—Give the animal plenty of linseed tea, or gum arabic water. Evacuate the bladder by the use of the catheter. GRAVEL OR LITHASIS. Cause.—This is the formation of sand-like deposits in the bladder by the union of the acids or alkalies with the urea in a changed condition. These sand de- posits cause the bladder to contract, and this causes the urination to be very painful. The disease affects the males more than it does the females. 469 Treatment.— One dram citrate of lithium given in, One half-pint of water daily. Another Treatment— Twenty drops Hydrochloric acid, Three drams gentian, One pint oat meal gruel. Give this morning and night for a few days. In somie cases the stones have to be removed, in which cases an operation must be performed, If an opera- tion is necessary a veterinarian should be called in. DISEASES OF. THE NER- VOUS SYSTEM. INFLAMMATION OF THE BRAIN. Cause——The immediate cause of this disease is too great flow of blood which presses on the arteries and causes increased action in all circulatory vessels Symptoms.—The pulse in the temporal arteries will be strong, the cow will suffer greatly, and will be raving; eyes inflamed; the animal will fall suddenly; will attempt to rise again. Treatment—Keep the head of the animal cool by using ice or the coldest water that can be had. Give once a day the following dose: Twelve ounces Epsom salts. One ounce Ginger, One ounce gentian, Water sufficient to make two quarts. If this dose does not cleanse the system readily, in- jections of warm water and soap will prove beneficial. LOCKJAW OR TETANUS. Cause.—This disease is caused by the introduction through the wound of a microbe called bacillus tetani, This microbe thrives best in a wound where little or no air can get to it, hence in a small wound there is more danger of lockjaw than in a large wound. The microbe increases very rapidly. and produces a chemt- cal poison that is absorbed by the blood, and poisons the nervous systems, producing cramps in the muscles. Lockiaw occurs mestly in wounds of the feet, for the microbe exists in the soil. 470 Symptoms.—The disease operates under cover, that is, in most cases you do not know that the animal is afflicted at all until the dangerous stage is upon us. Lockjaw does not always lock the jaws of the animal. The animal is usually dull, and disinclined to move; the muscles are stiff, and the head poked out in front, and the tail almost straight out behind; the animal persists in standing up; the hind legs are held apart; and frequently the back is depressed downward, and sometimes it is arched upwards. Treatment.—The first thing to be done is to give a drench of Ten ounces Epsom Salts, Ten ounces common table salt, Two drams calomel, One ounce pulverized gentian, Two quarts of warm water, This should be given as a drench, if the jaws are not locked so as to prevent it. After giving the above drench, do not give any more drenches. You should now search for the wound. Remember that the wound may be, and probably is, very small, and it will be dif- ficult to find, as it may be hid by the hair. When found wash it thoroughly, using hot water, soap, and a clean ray. Then app!y to the wound some lotion made by using Thirty grains bichloride of mercury. One ounce pure carbolic acid. One quart of water. Pour some of it into the wound, and swab al! parts with it, Do not be afraid of getting too much on, and rubbing it in too deep. Make soaking wet with some lotion on absorbent cotton, and bind the wound with it, changing tke dressing once a day. lkeep the anima: in a dark stall, give her any food that she will eat. 1: the jaws ave locked you cannot give anvthine inter- nally, but you can use the latter part of this treatment. But little hope is offered where the iaws are locked. A serum is now offered on the market, which is a great aid in preventing tetanus or curins it in the the earlier stages, by injectiny the material under skin. PARASITIC DISEASES. LICE. Poor, neglected, half-starved animals are the ones TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. most seriously affected with lice. One of the simplest and best remedies for lice, or any other parasitic dis- ease is a decoction of tobacco. Take two or three ounces to a quart of water. Another Treatment.—Take forty per cent. solution of pennyroyal, and apply every fourth day. Another Simple Treatment is the use of kerosene in smal] quantities. Too much kerosene will likely re- move the hair. Whenever the modern coal tar disin- fectants are available, such as Creolin, Chloro, Napth- oleum, Carsul, etc., they will serve the purpose of kill- ing parasites and producing healthy growth of skin and hair better than almost any other material. WOLVES OR GRUBS. For wolves in cattle, saturate on the cow’s back three times a week with spirits of turpen- tine, cottonseed oil, or kerosene. Usually three appli- cations are sufficient, but sometimes more is required. The grubs may also be squeezed out and killed to pre- the lumps vent further propagation. RINGWORM. This affection is due to a fungus or vegetable para- site that gets into the hair. It is very contagious, go- ing from man to the lower animal, and from lower an- imal to man. Jt will be known by the circular patch of scaly crusts, which first appear to stick close to the hide, but which in tine become detached. Treatment.—The first thing to be done is to sepa- rate the af.ected animal from the rest. Remove the crusts and dest:oy them so that some other animal or man will not take the disease. After cleansing the parts with soap and water, apply tke following: Cne ‘half dram iodine, Cre half dram of iodide of potash, Cre ounce vaseline. Another Treatment.—After cleansing the affected parts as above directed, paint the places with One part carbolic acid, Twenty parts acetic acid, ECZEMA. This is an affection causing great itching. In treat- ‘jing this affection, change the food if possible. Bathe the affected parts with a half-ounce carbolic acid, and itwo quarts of water. The disease should be attended to as promptly as possible, for if neglected, it will be- lcome chronic, the skin thickens and cracks, from which cracks there is a constant discharge of semi- jpugalentt fluid. MILK FEVER. This disease usually occurs within three days fol- lowing the time of calving, and never occurs after the [first calving, and rarely after the second. It most fre- ‘quently occurs after the third, and subsequent calving |times. Cows that are in good condition, and good milkers are more subject to this disease than any oth- jer. The symptoms are: weakness; muscular trem- ors; unsteady gait; inability to stand; loss of appetite; | while the cow is down, the head is generally thrown around on the side; consciousness 1s lost to a great | degree; the cow not noticing her calf; saliva drops \from the mouth; bloating sometimes takes place, but this as a rule is the result of too liberal feeding just ‘at the time of calving. q| | if Treatment.—Treatment should begin as soon as the | first symptoms are observed. It is a very good idea to keep close watch over the cow for the first three | days after calving, so if the disease should begin, you ) can check it. | In treating this disease, the udder should first be | filled with either air, oxygen, or a solution of iodide I of potash. The air treatment is the latest discovery, | and when successful, no other work is necessary. The only apparatus required is a tube to insert in the \ teat, connected with a syringe bulb, bicycle a'r pump, ‘or bellows. The best teat tubes are metal, but in H emergencies a small rubber or glass tube, or a smali | chicken quill may be used. The instruments should _be clean and the air pure. _ The older treatment with solution of iodide of pot- | ash was performed with a teat tube, a long rubber | tubing, and a funnel through which to pour the liquid into the udder. The solution is prepared by dissolv- ing two drams of iodide of potash in a quart of clean, boiled water, that hes been cooled to blood ‘heat. Di- vide the quart of solution into four equal parts and inject or pour one part into each of the quarters of the udder, hands and instruments clean. Some practi- tioners have used warm water and an ordinary house- | A Few Dishonest Dairymen Ruin the Reputation of Many Honest Men. 471 hold bulb syringe with good effect. The new air treatment is doubtless the best. Additional medical treatment is sometimes neces- sary to get the bowels and stomach started to work well again after an attack of milk fever. A good pur- gative may help matters, such as salts or oil, and a tonic, such as copperas or nux vomica. MISCELLANEOUS RE- CEIPTS AND DISEASES. INFLAMMATION OF UDDER OR MAMMITIS. Cause.—This disease is most common just after calving, and before the secretion of the milk has as- Fig. 1S—Queen Bessie Landseer, Stephensville, Farm of E. J. Hewlett, Tex. sumed a normal condition. However, it frequently has no connection with calving, and is contracted by ly- ing on cold, damp ground. Cows that are in poor coa- dition, or are neglected are most affected by it. Symptoms.—The bag swells, becomes hard, red and sore, and very tender; the milk is often curdled and sometimes bloody. The trouble should as early as possible. receive attention If allowed to continue, it may go into suppuration, that is, the formation of pus, which is discharged inside and, comes out with the milk. Sometimes the pus does not come out with the milk, but through an opening in the outside. In such cases the milk from that affected quarter will usually be Treatment. 472 soiled. Give the animal one and a half pounds of Ep- som Salts, and one ounce pulverized ginger, dissolved in a half gallon of warm water, and After this medicine has acted, give the ani- give as one drench. mal half an ounce of nitrate of potassium twice a day in the water she drinks. three or four days. with hot water, for an hour, three times a day. This should be continued for From the first, bathe the udder After each bathing, rub in well a mixture of one half ounce acetate of lead, one half ounce sulphate of zinc, and cne quart.of salt water, shake weil before using, Con- tinue this until all the inflammation is gone. TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. and abuses her. Remember that the cow has feelings, and if her teats are sore, that it hurts her to be milked. After milking rub on Two ounces Witch Hazel, Two ounces sulphate of zinc, Two ounces of lard, Rub on the affected parts a few times. This is a fay_ orite treatment among dairymen. Anctker Treatment.—After milking use ne dram pulverized alum. Two ounces vaseline, Fig. 19—imsported Red Polled Heifers. Waco, Texas. Another Treatment.—Give the internal treatment as prescribed in the treatmert above, but bathe the ud- der with the following lotion: Four ounces liquid camphor, One ounce turpentine, Two ounces of lard, One teaspoonful of coal-oil, or kerosene. SORE TEATS. A cow’s teats frequently become sore, chapped, and cracked. In such cases, the milking is quite painful The milker frequently becomes enraged because the cow suffers, to the cow, and annoying to the milker. Owned by W. R, Clifton, LUMPS IN TEATS. For some cause, lumps are formed in the bag, and they frequently get down in the teats, which prevents the milk from coming down those teats. Sometimes the lumps can be forced back in the bag, in which disappear before the next season. If not, you will have to use a milk tube, case the lump will doubtless which can be procured from your druggist. HARD MILKER. If frequently happens that cows that are valuable are hard milkers. In such cases, it is of the greatest 4 If You Are Going Into the Dairy Business, Buy a C ood Separator. importance to remedy this defect. Take a chicken feather, from the wings is best, and insert it in the teat, without touching the feather with a knife, for that would then cause the feather to hurt the teat; work it up gently, turning it around and around, un- til you have worked it up an inch or more. Then draw it out, and proceed with the milking. Do this for a week or more, and the cure will be permanent. Sometimes it requires the operation of a veterinarian to open up the teats. Metal teat dilators may also he secured from any surzical house. GARGET. Cause.—This disease affects heavy milking cattie more than others. it is-oiten the result of careless or rough treatment or neglect. The carelessness of persons who do the milking in leaving some of the milk in the udder is one of the most prolific causes of garget. Care should be exer- cised to see that the udder is milked out clean at ev- ery milking. Symptoms.—The symptoms of the disease are simt- lar fo those of inilammation of the udder. Lumps form in one quarter, and from the teats of these sides frequently no milk can be drawn. The glands of the udder become inflamed, and when this inflammation goes far enoush, the glands “break down” which re- sults in pus forming. Treatment.—This trouble is hard to cure. In fact, a cow once affected is liable to a second attack at any time. The cause of the trouble must be allayed or re- If caused by cold, keep the cow in a warm. If caused by im- moved. dry place and cover with blankets. proper milking, blows or germ infection, the udder should be thoroughly milked out by hand or milking tube. Then bathe and foment the udder with water as hot as the hand will bear, for half an hour or more at atime. Continuous hot bathine and active rubbing with the hands will give more retief than any cther treatment. The udder should be thorouvhly kneaded at the same time, the lumps maninulated, and all the caesin and pus forced out as comnletely as possible. In order to keep heat around the udder, it is advisable to use a cloth bandage padded with cotton over the entire udder, supported by cloth or strans running over 473 the cow’s back, and pour hot water on the padding continucusly. Soothing ointments should then be rubbed all over the outside of the affected parts. In slight case the use of lard or vaseline mixed with camphor will an- swer; but in the worst cases it is necessary to apply solid extract of Belladonna or strong mercurial oint- ment to relieve pain and soften the bag. The entire process of lot baths and rubbing with ointment should be repezted frequently, as often as once every hour until some relief is secured. When interior ab- scesses form, or in case cI germ infection, the quarter should be milked out,and injected frequently, through a milking tube and syringe, with a 1 per cent, solution of peroxide of hydrogen, allowing this to remain half an hour, and then mi:king out. If an abscess forms near the outside and the teat should be blocked up, the only resource is to open the abscess with a knife and allow the pus to escape, afterward treating the wound with antiseptics and glycerine until healed. Dr. A. T. Peters, of the Nebraska Experiment Sta- tion, recommends filling the affected quarter with air just as for milk fever, and giving a thorough treatment of massaze or kneading, working the air all through the quarter with the hand. It is claimed that the treatment opens up the spongy tissue, bursting and dissipating the collection of pus, and restoring the quarter to normal condition. The air should finally be forced or milked out of the udder, bringing with it most of the pus and lumpy material. The treatment may be used once a day, or twice At the same time it is well to use some soothing ointment daily in severe cases, until a cure is effected. and kot water applications as described. The internal medicines which should accompany the udder manipulation are sufficient purgatives of salts or oils to keep the bowels loose, followed in ordinary cases with ‘half an ounce of saltpeter daily, dissolved in water. In cases where abscesses form, it is neces- sary to give internal antiseptics in addition, liyposul- phite of soda, half ounce daily in a pint of water, or half an ounce of tincture or muriate of iron three times daily. If gangrene should occur, strong stimu- lants should be used, combinations of ammonia, ether and whiskey. A severe case of garget results in the loss of the milking function in-one or more quarters of the udder, and shrinking of the parts. If half of the udder be lost, it would be better to sell such animal to the 474 butcher before calving time occurs again, to prevent further trouble. In light cases the milk flow will be established naturally again, or return to its usual work at the succeeding calving time. BLOODY OR STRINGY MILK. When the.udder has been injured by blows, or con- gested for any reason, the milk may become tinged with blood. When the cow is in heat and under con- siderable excitement, blood may flow through the teats. Other causes are, changing suddenly from poor to‘rich, heavy feeds, and eating of carid resinous TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. Stringy milk is genrally caused by the entrance in- to the udder of germs which collect various sources on the end of the teats, enter the opening and gradually work their way up inside the teat, spread- ing through the entire mass of milk, It can be con- trolled by keeping the cattle away from any contam- ination, such as mud-holes or manure filth, and in ob- stinate cases by giving a drench containing one-fourth ounce Hyposulphate of Soda. from WARTS. Warts frequently appear on the cow, and they are weeds or plants. Some cows are more subject to this than others, being what are called “thin skinned,” the small blood vessels are liable to break inside the To cure the trouble, ascertain the cause and if necessary bladder and discharge blood in the milk canals. reduce the feed or change pastures. If injury or con- gestion has occurred, treat the same as for garget, by hot water bathing and greasing with lard or oint- Always milk out For internal treat- ments or a weak solution of iodine. and throw away all bloody milk. ment give a drench of one pound of salts and half an ounce of saltpeter. 20—A round up in Florida. especially troublesome when on the teats. Tie a silk thread around the warts. In a few days they will come off. Then apply terchloride of antimony to the affected parts, and you will have no trouble with them. If the warts are fat, or for any reason you cannot tie a string around them, take a knife and scarify them, and then apply a little nitrate of silver or terchloride of antimony every third day. After the warts have dropped off, heal the parts with two ounces tincture of catechu, two drams carbolic acid, eight ounces wa- tens Another remedy.—Apply nitric acid on wart daily, i" it is removed. If you should get too much nitric ‘jd, use vaseline or some other kind of grease. CHOKING. ‘nis is the result of feeding roots, apples, etc. The \perfect chewed particle lodges in the gullet, which ee small in cattle, and resists all efforts of the an- fal to dislodge it. The symptoms are: the head is fended and stretched out; saliva flows from the uth; the animal is restless; and shows pain; she ps chewing and making efforts to swallow. Open i mouth of the animal and place something like a w clevis in it to keep open, and run your hand n her throat and remove the obstruction. If you - unable to reach it, or for any reason the above ligg give the animal Jne ounce sulphuric, ether ‘Dne quarter pint linseed oil. i] Kt thi§ plan does not avai® a probe will have to be lerted. In such case, a veterinarfan should be em- yed, or one familiar with its use. TUMORS. Tumors frequently appear on the cowe Sometimes y come on the udder, sometimes on the jaw and at ious places. Open the tumor, and bathe it well yee times a day with hot water, and after each hing rub it well a little with the following lotion: Dne ‘half ounce acetate of lead, Ine half ounce sulphate of zinc. Jne quart soft water. The tumors should be tinguished from Lumpy Jaw which requires difier- internal treatment. shake well before using. FOOT EVIL. | Where the foot divides, there is usually Lore, If there is a sore where the foot divides, dis- lve one tablespoon blue vitriol in a pint of soft wa- | and apply to the affected part twice a day for jee days. If the place where the foot divides is not €. apply a bag of salt to the affected part, and mois- this with vinegar. | COW TONIC. He frequently happens that cows need tonics, just as Do Not Buy Dairy Utensils Because They are Cheap. 475 people do. The following tonics are recommended: Two ounces sweet spirits of nitre, Two ounces tincture of gentian, Two ounces tincture of ginger, One ounce tincture of chloride of iron. Mix thoroughly and give as one dose in a quart of oatmeal gruel. Another tonic.— Four ounces sulphate of iron, Four ounces nitrate of potassium, Two ounces nux vomica. Mix and divide into twenty-four doses, and give dose morning and night in a bran mash. This tonic is especially recommended to stimulate blood circula- tion. BITTER MILK. It is often found that cows, eating some kind of weed, give bitter milk. In such cases the only thing to be done is to keep them in the lot, or change pas- tures so that they cannot eat the weed that causes the trouble. Feeding» small amount of charcoal and salt- peter will often remove the disagreeable taste. Again bitter milk comes from uncleanliness. Few people re- alize the importance of cleanliness in ‘handling milk. _ It is frequently the case that the stable is not kept as clean as it should be. So often is this true that milk absorbs bacteria from the cow stable. If the milk is allowed to stand there for some time while the cow finishes eating or the calf is separated from its moth- er, it will all the time become more unfit for use. Then be certain that the milk is in a clean, cool place after bringing it into the house. The milk utensils should be kept perfectly clean. If everything is kept clean, and the cow fed proper food, the milk will al- ways be pure and sweet. DEHORNING. Although dehorning has been adopted for many vears, it has only recently come into such comrnon use. Horns were evidently given to the cow as weap- ons of defense, but under the present feeding and stabling methods, they become a trouble and at times are dangerous to other cattle and people as well. De- horning is considered by many as a cruel operation, but it is no more so than permitting a “boss” cow in a herd to be constantly injuring weaker animals. Dai- 476 ry cattle require less room when dehorned, and the operation seldom has any effect on miik flow. There are several methods of dehorning, the oldest being by the use of a saw. This is more painful than other methods, and should be used only on adult an- imals over three years of age, with hard tough horns, The use of clippers in sucu cases may crush the horn or crack the skull bones. The head of the animal should be confined in a stanchion or tied close to a strong post, the hair clipped at base of ‘horn, and the horn sawed off close enough to the skull to take off with the horn about a ring or a quarter of an inch of skin at its base. A fine toothed wood saw, or a regu- lar butcher’s saw may be used. The wound should be treated with pine tar or vaseline, and the openings plugged with cotton for a few days. For animals not over two years old, it is better to use the dehorning clippers sold for the purpose, as they do the work much quicker, leaving a smooth, clean cut which readily heals. The horn at this age is soft enough to prevent any danger as mentioned in re- gard to adults. When the button begins to grow, scrape with a knife till raw, and apply a little caustic potash to the spot, rubbing well on the button. The next day if there is a little dent there, the horn is dead. But if no dent appears, make a second application of caustic. This is certainly a better plan than to wait till the Fig. 21—iMethod of breaking cow from sucking herself. cow is grown, and cutting it off with clippers. In handling caustic soda, care should be observed that it be not allowed to touch the hands, as it has a corrod- ing effect. Caustic potash can be bought at any drug- store in the form of a stick, about the size of a lead pencil. TO BREAK A COW FROM SUCKING HERSELF. To break a cow from sucking herself, place an ordi- TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. nary halter on the head, and a surcingle around he’) chest, just behind tHe front, then take a stick and ti one end to the surcingle, and the other to the halter This plan allows the cow to eat and drink with ease) but she cannot reach her udder. Another Plan.—Make a necklace of fork or a handles, as shown in the illustration, and string ther together. Care should be observed that it is not lon; enough to choke or chafe the cow. Fig. ° 22 Method of breaking cow from sucking herself TO PREVENT COWS FROM KICKING. Tie both the cow’s hind legs together tightly, ar you will have no trouble about her kicking while b ing milked. At first she may fall down, but she w: soon get accustomed to the restraint, and you w') have A surcing strapped lightly around the abdomen just in front : the udder will break some cases. no further trouble with _ her. BULL. (Clifton |) Fig. 23.—Head of the Herd. Owned iby W. R. Waco, Texas. 4 The average farmer does not realize the importan ” of having the service of a good bull. It is far, mc) important than he imagines. Let us do away with t} idea of most farmers that any old bull will do. Tha is why we have so many poor milkers and scru} among the milk cows to-day. If there is any class E people in the world that should have first-class milk | cows, it is the Southern farmer, but as a rule they ‘have the poorest. In many places the farmers of a | community co-operate and buy a first class-bull, This Jis an excellent idea, for they then will have something lthat will be a profit to them. A good bull should be |pure, and the offspring of good milkers. A bull is fit | for service at sixteen months old, but the first year i|he should not be used for more than a dozen cows. The next year the number may be doubled. Bulls are of- 24—Pure Bred | Ocalla, Fla. Fig. Hereford Bull, Palmetto Stock Farm, ten dangerous because of lack jlight work will not ‘hurt them, of proper exercise. but it will be a help. )A one horse tread power is a good machine for a bull i exercise with. wood, pump water, shell corn, Ithings. Allow the bull to have iI \ His energy may be used to saw and do many other plenty of fresh air. for it ays kills, and be certain to 4de- Above all things, -do not trust a bull, is the vharmless bull that alwa | horn him. THE MILK COW. One good milk cow is better than two poor ones. t takes less time and attention to ‘have a good milk tow than it does to bother with several scrubs. Not pnly is this true, but a man thinks more of himself. Why some farmers persist in milking a ‘half-dozen ‘ows, just for the milk supply of their own family, when one good cow would give sufficient milk, is a m natter I cannot explain. The period of pregnancy in attle is slightly variable, but as a rule 280 days is an rr: Service in December or January will pro- uce calves in September or October, and this is the est time. It is best-for the calf, for he will not be |? Ensilage Makes a Very Fine Winter Feed for the Dciry Herd. 477 troubled with the flies so much during the time when he is weak. By the time spring comes he is ready to eat the spring grass from the pasture. It is better for the man who sells milk, for, as a rule, the milk supply is not so great, and he can secure a better price for his products than in the summer. And then milk and butter can be handled much better in the cold weather than during the hot months. Jerseys should be bred when from twelve to fifteen months old, and the larger breeds six months to a year later. During pregnancy, the cow should be wisely fed. Away with the idea that the cow does not need food other than what she gets in the pasture, for now she has two lives to support. For a while before calving, the food should be slightly reduced, for the growth of the calf is complete, and the cow should not be toa fat at calving time. If the cow is giving milk, let her be dried off a month or six weeks before she calves. Hay may be fed freely at any time. Thé birth of the Fig. 25.—Cow Producing over 500 Ibs. Olwnea by Mr. Butter per year, Williamson, Commerce, Ga. calf involves no special pain or trouble to the mother cow, if all goes well. If not, a, veterinarian had better be called in. The mother cow will lick her off-spring, and the calf, as a rule, begins sucking of its own ac- The first milk of a cow is of a peculiar character, and is intended by nature to act as a purgative, and to set the bowels of the calf to acting properly. The milk of the cow should not be used for human food until after the calf is four days old. A mature cow will drop a calf once a year, but in the case of a heif- er, she should have more time in which to recuperate. cord. 478 An old English writer has described the cow so well in verse, “She’s long in her face, she’s fine in her horn, She’ll quickly get fat without cake or corn; She’s clean in her jaws, and full in her chine, She’s heavy in flank, and wide in her loin. She’s broad in her ribs, and long in her rump, A straight and flat back, without e’er a hump; She’s wide in her hins. and calm in her eyes, She’s fine in her shoulders, and thin in her thighs. She’s light in her neck, and small in her tail, She’s wide in her breast, and good at the pail, She’s fine in her bone, and silky of skin— She’s without, and a butcher’s within.” In buying a cow, you must depend on your own judgement. Study cows, and learn to be able to tell a cow when you see one. They should have the capaci- ty to consume and digest large amounts of feed, and be able to turn it all into milk. a grazier’s THE BABY OR CALF. Many farmer believe that the calf should suck dur- ing the milking, or the cow will not let down her milk. But not so, unless the cow has been spoiled. The proper thing to do is to take the calf away when quite young, and do not allow it to suckle its mother at all or longer than three days. But if you are bent upon allowing it to suck until weaned by the natural order of things, teach it to do its sucking, after the cow has been milked. It may be occasionally neces- sary to let the calf suck at first, but not as much as generally supposed. It is not a difficult task to teach the calf to drink. It takes some patience, and at first, only a small quan- tity of milk. As ‘has been suggested, the calf is an ig- norant creature with only instinct to guide him, In the first place, he is a dumb brute,’ and naturally has not as much sense as some men, although he has more sense than the man who thinks that a calf a day old ought to know all things. Take a quart of milk, say when the calf is three days old, and put it in a eight or ten quart pail. Take the calf into a room where you can back it up in a corner, straddle it and take the lower jaw with one hand, and the milk pail with the other hand. Dip your fingers in the milk, and then let the calf suck your fingers. In this way, -denly as it will not work well. TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. / he will get a taste of the milk. Naturally his ! points upward, but by degrees lower it into the It may be that at first he will not suck, but de give it up. Let the calf wait until he gets good hungry, and you will have little trouble with it. ) at it, do not give up. 3 There are many patented calf feeders on the ket, and they may be good, but it is hard to bea plan here outlined. In the first place, these pate feeders have an imitation of a teat which the calf and it is no unusual thing for the calf to pull this off. But the calf has never learned to drink wi’ it, while you are hundreds of miles, another, the calf may be starving. And then age is next to impossible to keep rubber parts clean many calves die on account of the filth accunn in the feeders. If you cannot spare new milk three or four days, of course you will have t¢ skimmed milk, but the change should not be mad It is also a goo to change from sweet to sour milk, if the calf is raised in the summer, for it is a difficult thing t the milk sweet, unless a separator is used. The should be warmed to blood heat before feeding See to it that the calves have a good shelt barn in cold or wet weather. It is cheaper to} barns than it is to feed. If they are neglected lowed to stand in the rain or cold, it will tak that much more feed to keep them in condition. then look at it from a humanitarian standpoin you cannot refuse to give them shelter in |} They should have some milk until | three months old. i sending weather. THE FARMER’S COW. The Southern farmer as a rule, where he Hh ly enough cows for his home use, has not th) that the dairyman has to devote to the study 0! and feedstuffs, and their chemistry. The qt} with him is how to get the most out of the co) the least expense. The man who gets the m¢ of ‘his cow with the least expenditure, is the mi/ raises the most feed at home. If feed is low ir) you may be able to even buy feed, but you ? gain anything from a financial point, where yi) all your feed. It is far more satisfactory to MT the feed that your cow will consume. Of co's a man has any feed at all, he should have a smi ture. A pasture is almost necessary. Many hi) | | a Keep Your Blood Pure: and others plots of land that are now idle could be turned into money by converting them into pastures. Look about your place and see if there is not some land that could very easily be turned into a pasture, and your cow almost entirely fed there. With a good pasture in the summer, you will only have to feed your cow a little ground feed. Some of the waste from the kitchen may be fed to the cow and some to chick- ens and hogs. Hjow many farmers allow this waste to be thrown away, when it could be converted into food. They enjoy eating vegetables and will eat them either cooked or raw. The skim milk can be poured over her food, and used to advantage, if there are no hogs to be fed. And then there is a great deal of waste from the garden. the roasting ears are taken should not be allow to stand and drv 1p. but should be fed to the cow. And then there are the potato vines, they should be fed to The cornstalks from which Owned by House Nacoochee Valley Farm. Dr. L. G. Hardman of Commerce, Ga. Fig. 26—Dairy ‘the cow. In fact, if you will only try, you can feed your cow upon many things that would otherwise be wasted. But if you cannot pasture the cow, a great deal of food can be raised. such as millet, sorghum, and such other foods, on small space and cut for feed- ing. If you have to buy feed, the following ration is about the average for the American cow. Now we do a wash basin. 47) not claim that it is the proper amount, but it is an av- erage. It may be that your cow will need more, or it may be she will not need so much: (Northern Advice) 15 pounds good, sound hay. 10 pounds wheat bran, 5 pounds corn meal. This ration should be divided so as to cover the en- Cheaper foods can be prepared than this A ration much tire day. food, but this is considered the best. used in the South is 5 pounds Cottonseed Meal. 15-20 pounds Cottonseed hulls, 5 pounds hay or fodder. See that your cow is milked.—Milking a cow is not simply going to her and drawing the milk properly He who milks successfully should study The cow should be milked as quickly as from her. the work. possible, as she will give more milk when it is drawn from her rapidly, than when it takes a long time for her to be milked. And then a good milker will get ev- The last milk is the richest. “A cow may be dried up by not taling all the milk, She If some be ery drop of milk. produces the milk as it is taken from her. left with her, then the next time she will not give quite as much. Above all, the It is not an uncommon thing for the milker to moisten his hands with milk and then proceed to fill the pail. milker should practice cleanliness. This practice does not make the milking any easier, and it is simply inexcusable to use the milk bucket for Before beginning to milk, the udder be washed thorouchly clean, and It is best to milk with the As soon as the milk is drawn from the and teats should then dried with a cloth. bands dry. cow, it should be carried into the house and strained, end rot a'lowed to stand in the barn for a halfthorr, absorb‘ne imourities. The milk should be strained immediately into shallow pans, or deep cooling cans, Do not make the mistake that and 7’'ewed to cool. many formers’? wives make in allowing the milk to sit around until after supper before it is strained. is to churn One item in makino the best butter often. Do not allow the milk to stand after the cream It is a poor plan to wait until you get When it is ripe, then is the time to has ripened. more cream. churn. And just a word about the place where the mill is kept, Did you ever study the places that the average 480 family keep their milk and butter? Let us just take a peep into an ice chest. The ice chest, as a rule, does not contain over six cubic feet of space. Strawber- ries have a very pungent odor, but they appear first; and then there is some cheese, and then a bowl of vegetable sowp that was left over, and that must be kept on ice, or it will sour. And there is beef, and the butter and the milk, and a great many other things. The milk and butter all the time are absorbing these The milk should be kept by itself. It may be more expensive, but it will be more satisfactory. odors. The cow appreciates kindness—Many things can be done with a cow by treating her kindly, that cannot be done in any other way. She should have plenty of salt. Do not forget to salt her at least three times a week. It is a very good plan to keep salt where she can get it all the time. It is not necessary to feed while milking. The cow is a creature of habit, and,will do as she is trained. DAIRYING. With butter selling at from 25 to 40 cents per pound, and milk from 18 to 25 cents per gallon the year around there is good money in dairving.—a grea: deal more than raising cotton at 10 cents per pound. ‘The South is pre-eminently the place for dairy work. It is easier to raise feed here than any place in the United States. years when the old hills of the South that are now It should only be a matter of a few producing three hundreds pounds of cotton pyr acre will be producing feed stuff, or used as pastures for dairy cattle. The dairy business is an occupation. It requires time and patience to learn it, but there is ne calling that will give better results for the amount in- vested than the dairy business. To the man who has been making only cotton for the past ten or fifteen vears, it will take but a little reasoning for him to see how much better it would have been for him to have devoted some of his time to other work. Cotton is an easy crop to raise. As a rule, it takes only a few months to raise it, and very little exposure to cold, rainy weather. But not so in the dairy business. Cows must be milked, fed, groomed, and the milk at- tended to twice a day, seven days in the week, and fifty-two weeks in the year. Atlanta, Georgia, uses 500,000 pounds of butter per year, and the most of it it shipped from the North and West. This butter costs the grocers from twenty-five to thirty-five TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. cents a pound. Other Southern cities are the same way. They need butter, and the people of the South can supply them, and do it easily, if they will, while helping to enrich their lands. To embark in the dairy business requires some capi- tal, a great deal of common sense and determination. If the business is managed right, it can be made to pay from the very beginning. If you have had no ex- perience, do not go into it too heavily, or on too large a scale. You do not know just what is best, and must learn from experience. There are many things that cannot be taught in books. The school of experience will teach you many things. The average farmer will find it a profitable business to carry on a dairy busi- Fig. 26—Cow of Mr. Williamson, Commerce, Ga. Producing over 500 lbs. of butter each year. Every good farmer has a few good cows. Now it will not be costly for him to pur chase a good pure bull, and perhaps one or two pure cows. In connection with his farm business, in tht course of a few years, there is no reason why he can not have a first-class dairy herd. Of course, in breed, ing up a dairy herd, all the poor cows should fin¢ their way to the butcher’s pen. A poor cow is a bat) Weed them ou and get the very best. But if the man will look fact. in the face he will be convinced that dairying pays, so that the next question that comes up is, what an) how must ‘he go about the business. ness as a side line. investment for milking purposes. Produce First-Class Goods, and Demand First Class Prices. THE BARN. There can be no definite plans or rules laid down for the construction of the barn or farm buildings. If the side of a hill with a south or east exposure can be secured it will be better to build on it, as it will save time in doing the chores. And then the barn must be built according to circumstances. The floor of the barn should be of cement. Dig out the place to a depth of six or eight inches, and make the bottom where the floor is to be laid level Then fill in with gravel and broken stones, and thor- oughly wet and trample down. Give a slant in the stable from the manger to the gutter of one or two inches. It is very important that you get the gravel and stones thoroughly packed, as this will prevent the floor from cracking. If it 1s not packed thorough- ly the floor will be sure to crack. Then you should mark the place for the gutter, which should be from Fig. 28—Showing bull paddock, cow lot and barn of W. R. six teet three inches to six feet eight inches from the manger depending, of course, upon the size of the cows: The gutter should be dug three inches wider and deeper than wanted when finished. It should be nearly level from end to end, and_ should be about eight inches deep, and _ sixteen inches wide when finished. If you intend to foundation posts, measure from the manger use the proper distance, that is, the distance you want the foundation posts from the manger, and drive one inch pipes into the ground for eighteen inches, leav- ing six inches above the surface to set the posts on, holes being bored in the lower end of the posts to re- ceive the pipe. This is better than putting the posts into cement. 32 481 Mix thoroughly together one part cement, and nine parts gravel, and sprinkle it, until it is damper than. freshly dug earth, A box should be made, whose out- side measurements are the same as the gutter, so that it can be used in making the gutter. The concrete, as mixed above, should be put on to a thickness of two anda half inches in depth. It can be smoothed over with a straight edge. Then on top of this should be placed another layer of cement and sifted sand, using one part cement and three parts sand. Care should be observed that the sand be free from dirt. After you have made the floor smooth, it is a good idea to go over the floor with a rake, letting the teeth go in the cement just a little. Go over it both lengthwise and crosswise. This will prevent the floor from being slick, and keep the cattle from slipping. The size of the stalls depends upon the length of the animal, and should be from 3 to 3 1-2 ft. wide, and Clifton, Waco, Texas. from six to seven feet long. There are a great many forms of ties, stanchion and patent stalls, each having some advantages. The simplest is a rope, strap or chain to tie the cow to the front or side of the stall. If stanchions are used they should be of the swinging or chain hanging variety to give freedom to the cow. Some stalls are arranged to fit the animal exactly with- out tying, confining her by means of a rope or chain across the back of the stall. The most economical and satisfactory method of watering is'to have one or two large drinking troughs in protected places, where there is footing without mud, and allow the cattle to have access to this at least twice a dav, Separate watering devices in each stall 482 have not proved satisfactory in practical use on ac- count of being unsanitary. The partitions between the stalls can be made of wire or boards, but should be movable, so that the barn can be more easily cleansed. The cow should have a good bed made of saw-dust, leaves or some- thing of the kind. This will cause extra trouble, to be sure, but it will pay for itself in the saving of the ma- nure. The bedding should be renewed at least once a day. This is much better than having the cow lying upon the cold cement. A 4 or 6 board may be fas- tened on edge of gutter to ‘hold bedding in place. In planning your barn, perhaps the cheapest plan is to build a barn thirty-two feet wide. This will allow a ten-foot hall-way down the center, and two rows of stalls, oneon each side- The cows canbe placed with their heads towards the hallway, and this will facilitate feeding them. However, some prefer turning the cows the other way, as it is more convenient in carting off the manure. The barn should be long enough to give every cow a stall, and have two or three extra box stalls ten by ten feet to be used for hospitals, calves, ete. Fig. 29—Cow barn which can be converted into hog barn. Erroll Farm, Plymouth, Fla. Of course, behind the gutter there should be a walk for getting into and from the cows A good plan has been used by some dairymen in having the outside wall of the barn made of cloth fastened at the top. By this plan, at night in the summer, and the summer in the South lasts most of the year, this canvas wall can be raised, and the cows will keep as cool as out- side. Then in the winter, and cool nights it can be lowered, and the cows kept warm. If the winters are TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. severe it may necessitate using a bianket on each cow, but the comfort they will get in the summer will com- pensate for the extra trouble in keeping them warm in — the winter. Then the canvas sides afford better op- portunities for ventilating and letting the light in than | a board wall. Another good plan for the South is to have a small - well-built stable room for milking and feeding pur- poses, to contain half or a third of the total number of cows, permitting them to eat the grain ration here while being milked The remainder of the time they - are kept under a large, open, covered shed, where they + can secure water freely, hay or fodder from racks, and lie down at will. The floor should be kept well-bedded with leaves, pine straw or saw dust, and the manure be allowed to accumulate with the bedding and hauled out once a week to the field. This plan give the cat- tle freedom and comfort, produces more manure, and saves space of a tightly built barn. FEED FOR DAIRY CATTLE. The question of feed in the dairy business is one of the largest items. It is a question that every dairy- man must study. You cannot hope to succeed in the dairy business without the proper feeding. The ra- tion or feed of a working animal should be quite dif- ferent from that of a fattening animal, and the ration of a young, growing animal should be different from that of an old, mature animal. In feeding a cow, the object is not to fatten, but to make her produce milk. Certain kinds of foods produce bone and muscle, and repair all the waste. These are called proteids. Pro- teids also produce the casein or cheesy part of the milk. Then there are foods that produce the heat and supply the fats to the cow. These are called car- bohydrates, and are also used to produce the butter- fat of the milk. Experiments have determined that there should be twenty-five pounds of dry vegetable matter to every , thousand pounds of live weight of cows. Of this twen- ty-five pounds required for a 1000 pound cow, there ought to be two and a half pounds of digestible pro- tein or flesh producing foods, twelve pounds of carbohydrates, and four-tenths of a pound of fat. This ration, of course, is an average and not com- puted for every cow. As the cow gives milk, and the amount of protein and fat should be materially in- > creased, while the increase in the amount of carbohy- drates should be only slightly increased. Perhaps we | and a_ half, | : , f ) ) jn do no better than to give the complete tables as jen in the Bulletin issued by the Georgia Experi- ‘ent Station on the question of feeding cattle. “Nutritive Ratio—This expression means the pro- rtion between the amount of digestible proteins in a ibding stuff, or ration, and the amount of digestible ‘rbohdyrates and fats it contains. It is found by jultiplying the amount of fats by 2.25 (2 1-4), adding e product to the amount of carbohydrates and divid- 3 this sum by the amount of proteins. This is done cause the fat is considered to be two and one-fourth mes the food value of the carbohydrates. The stand- ‘id for an average milch cow, as givenin Table No. 1, Jat a nutritive ratio of 1:5.4, which means that the car- hydrates and two and one-fourth times the fat \dded together) are 5.4 times greater than the pro- jin. Thus: Take field corn, the first feeding stuff in jig. 30—Silo on U. S. Diversification farm at Talladega. Ala., weatherboarded as a house. , | { ‘able No. 2. It contains 4.3 pounds of fat in 100 ounds, which multiplied by 2.25 (2 1-4), equals 9.7. \dd this 9.7 to 66.7—the amount of carbohydrates in feld corn—and we 176.4 pounds. Divide this 76.4 by he 7.9—the amount of proteins in field corn and we i 9.6, which is the nutritive ratio of corn or corn qeal. Appearance Adds A Great Deal to a Value of an Article. 483 “Feeding Standards—Table No. 1 gives what are called the “Feeding Standards” for different kinds and conditions of animals, based on 1,000 pounds live weight. It is known as the Wolff-Lehmann standard, and is adapted from Henry’s “Feeds and Feeding.” The original Wolff standard ratio for the average milch cow in the table as indicated. “This calls for a daily ration for a 1,000 pound cow of 25 pounds of organic matter, including 2.50 pounds of digestible protein, 12.50 pounds of digestible carbo- hydrates, and 0.40 pound of digestible fats. This standard is the basis for the suggested feeding formu- las for milch cows, which will be found on this page. “Substantially the same principles and conditions that should control in the make-up of a daily ration for a milk cow apply also to rations for fattening cat- the hogs, sheep,. etc. Table No. I. Feeding Standards. Per day and per 1,660 pounds live weight. (Woolff-Lehmann.) Digestible Nutrients. | Total Nutri- : E Dry | tive KIND OF ANIMALS | Matter | Protein | Carbo- Fats ; = ratio hydrates Pounds. | Pounds. | Pounds. |Pounds. | 1 * — 1 Oren— | At rest in stall . - 18 0.7 8.0 0.1 | 11.8 At light work 22 1.4 10.0 0.3 ey} At beavy work. . 28 2.8 13.0 0.8 5.3 2 Fattening Cattle— First Period . .. 50 2.5 15.0 0.5 6.5 Second per.od. . - 30 3.0 14.5 0.7 5.4 Third period. .. 26 2.7 15.0 0.7 6.2 3 Miich Cows— When yielding daily— 4 quarts of milk 24 1.6 10.0 0.3 6.7 8 querts of milk . 27 11.0 0.4 6.0 12 quarts of milk. 29 13.0 0.5 5.7, 14 quarts of milk. $2 13.0 0.8 4.5 Average Cow (Wolff) 25 12.5 0.4 5.4 { ITorses— At moderate work. 23 1.8 11.2 0.6 6.9 At heavy work 25 2.8 13.4 0.8 5.4 5 Fattening Swine— First period ..-. 36 4.5 25.0 0.7 5.9 Second period. . .- 32 4.0 24.0 0.5 6.3 Third period . .. 25 2.7 18.0 0.4 7.0 6 Fattening Sheep— First period . .. 26 3.0 15.2 0.5 5.4 Second period . . 25 3.0 14.4 0.6 4.5 7 Growing Cattle (Dairy Breeds) Age in Av. live wt. months a hd., Ibs. PSE ine Goo 0 Oo 15 23 4.0 18.0 2.0 4.5 SAGi a) chew esis 2 OU 24 3.0 12.8 1.0 5.1 GSR 5 otoctoo obi 27 2.0 12.5 0.5 6.8 AA 6 6 Go 6.0 ol! 26 1.8 12.5 0.4 feo, TEEN A SS Bort 90} 26 1.5 12.0 0.3 8.5 484 Total Digestible Nutrients. Nutri- Dry tive KIND OF ANIMALS | Matter | Protein | Carbo- Fats . ratio hydrates Pounds. | Pounds. | Pounds. |Pounds.}| 1 ?— 8 Growing Cattle— (Beef Breeds) PR og GO COU 16( 23 5.2 13.0 2.0 4.2 Be 24 3.5 12.8 1.3 4.7 25 2.5 13.2 ORT, 6.0 24 2.0 12.5 0.5 0.8 me 8 oe 0 cro EE 24 1.8 12.0 0.4 ee? 9 Growing Swine — (Breeding Stock) PREG Gc o.oo oH) 44 7.6 28.0 1.0 .0 BE Big oo ao oly) 35 7.6 23.1 0.8 5.0 516 Ua Sos oars 120, 32 3.7 21.4 0.4 6.0 6-38i55 ee . . 200 28 2.8 18.7 0.3 7.0 BO 6 5 6 ono 6 OHI! 25 2.1 15.3 0.2 7.5 10 Growing, Lattening Swine— Ma 5. q- Stondlo,0 OY 44 7.6 28.0 uy) 4.0 BD Geo So B oecih 35 5.0 23.1 0.8 5.0 ies Hao ni fo 150 33 4.3 22.3 0.6 Lata CB ie eyes) . 200) 30 3.6 20.3 0.4 6.0 PER, Gon 300, 26 3.0 18.3 0.3 6.4 11. Brood Soacs’. . . - 22 2.5) iy 0.4 6.6 It is not insisted that the ration for milch cows should exactly correspond either in total amount of “dry matter” or in the proportion of protein, carbohy- drates and fats. The quantities and proportions given in Table No. 1 are the averages of a large number of feeding experiments. In the nature of the case, differ- ent animals, different conditions of the same animal, different outward surroundings—such as temperature, stable comfort, ete—will call for different proportions of elements, and different quantities. It is for the in- telligent dairyman to study these conditions, to note the personal peculiarities of each cow, the quality of the component foods, and the results in milk produc- tion, and to govern himself accordingly in making up the feed formulas. A careful and painstaking feeder will make changes in feed according to the observed peculiarities or conditions of the several cows. The “feeding standards” are for general guidance and not for implicit compliance in matters of detail. It should be remembered that no ordinary change in the composition, or in the proportions of the nutri- tive elements of the ration will cause any change in the quality of the milk, ie. the percentage of butter fat. fat into the milk.” opinion as to the amount of water she will put into her milk, or, in other words, how rich her milk should be, and no art or device of feeding will materially or permanently change the result. Feeding even the most Each individual cow has ‘her own TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. It is now generally admitted that we cannot “feed ' succulent and watery foods does not—as was long(é lieved—materially affect the richness of the milk Quality, or richness of the milk, depends (1) on’ breed, and (2) on the individual cow, and can noj changed by changing the feed. Quantity of milk rf be the aim of the expectant dairyman when he is/t stricted to a given cow, or a herd of cows. J] quality and quantity should be the aim of the int gent breeder. | Of course there are other qualities of milk besie richness in butter fats. Flavor, keeping qualities, ° both of the milk and of the butter, and the firmnes the latter are materially affected by the characteje the food consumed. ANALYSIS OF FEED STUFES. For convenience, the following table (No. 2) ja been compiled, giving the proximate analyses of; stock foods in common use, including especially t}s most popular and available in the South. The t also includes the average amount of fertilizing const ents in one ton of each kind of feeding stuff aij column showing the commercial value of the st based on the following prices of the three valuabl ements: Nitrogen, fourteen cents, per pound; avja ble phosphoric acid, five cents per pound; and port five cents per pound. On an average, about eit per cent, of the fertilizing elements contained ina fie ing stuff will be found in the manure. Table No. II. _ Average Digestible Nutrients and Fertilizing Con}t uents in American Feeding Stuffs: x Digestible Fertilizing} i Nutrients in Constituent Ee 100 lbs. in 2000 Ibs. ey t =| S EI | 5S 4 NAME OF FEED = S = 2 g Sale - & a | a) § a C2) a a | 2 | 2 | oie » 2 | 2 | So eae | = a] a ij ay = a oa 2) a oO BlzAle GRAINS AND SEEDS | | | | Corns Wieldis an chs es eae s9.1!| 7.9!66.7| 4.3 | 36.4)14.0) 8.0) 2 Gorn, (Sweets. go sme ctemes 91.2|| 8.8|63.7| 7.0 37.0)....Je+-])! Gorn Coby «pica tkeuch Saran: 89.3] 0.4/52.5] 0.3 | 10-0] 1.2/12.0) 7-0 Corn and Cob Meal... .. .| 8.9|| Sle 2.9 | 28.2|11.4] 9.4) 4m Gluten Mealiya eee eeseer-a spe 91.8! 125.8]43.3]11.0 |100.5] 6.6] 1.0) 44 Wheat, Whole... ....2-. 89.5||10.2]69.2| 1.7 | 47.2 15.8}15-0| | Wheat Bran. .....--.-- 88.1] |12.2|89.2| 2.7 53.4|57.8|32.2| Wiles SHOLUS a: a mnOe ste nial: 88.2] 112.2150.0] 3.8 | 56.4/27-0/11.8)"/8 Wheat Middlings ... - 87.9 |[12-8|53.0 8.4 52.6/19.0 12.6 NAME OF FEED ‘otton Seed .. lotton Seed Kernels (Meats) otton Seed Meal Jotton Seed Hulls unflower Seed unflower Seed Cake .. eanuts, Hulled Yeanut Cake . . oja Bean (Japan Pea) ‘ow Pea, seed . \ Kentucky Blue Grass ..... MiNmUIYING TASS)... .) = + oso Orehard Grass Rye Fodder Barley, Green Bitevcemodder . 2:7. 2... Sugar Cane Fodder . . Sorghum, Whole. . ‘Red Clover . Alsike Clover Crimson Clover . . /Burr Clover . )Vetch (Vicia Sativa) a Wetch (Vicia Villosa)..... Lucerne (Alfalfa) Cowpea . . Soja Bean. . Sweet Potato Vines... . SILAGE. jnseed Meal, New Process . Test Your Milk and See How Much Butter Fat Each Cow Produces. 485 = Digestible Yertilizing 4 Digestible Fertilizing | Nutrients in Constituents a Nutrients in Constituents = 100 Ibs. in 2000 lbs. es 100 Ibs. in 2000 lbs. i = a S ao S H HS a Y | 5 3 a6 = el kee |= ae g arte < Bs ane 5 2 leh leadies By iH £ 5 0 NAME OF FEED ts) s ao 3 | 8 S SS) 2 fe oa) 3 |g os = Balsa: Pal 26 | |o%8 z Bele. Bowe lies eigle|s//2| sles Sense lee lee ale ee eal etal Sf an oun Cp I te tere | (ier | See 2/4 Bi Oe Somialliies. |e PUZ|E) 2/2/21 Fil23 Rilele|/ele 21828 emlenleo laa | zal 23 alla|olealz Bile les | 48.8]23.4/16.8]| 8.84 RedeGloveraseceberor-es nek 28.0|| 2.0|13.5| 2-0 | 10.2] 2.4] 9.0]] 2.00 88.4]; 9.9/67.6] 1.1 | 35.2/16.4/10.8|| 6.29 Sorghurmig-fey peuapckien ieee oes 23.9]| 0.6]14.9] 0.2 | 4.4] 1.6] 4.4/| 0.92 89.1]| 8.7|65.6] 1.6 | 30.2/15.8] 9.6]| 5 50 Ib Go ayaroLoe ai Gi ms 27.5|| 3.0] 8.5] 1.9 | 14.2] 2.5]11.0]| 2.66 89.8||18.6/37.1| 1.7 | 71.0|28.6/32.6 Cowpea tae cantatas 20.7)) 4.5] 8.7] 0.9 | 3.2] 2.0] 6.0|| 0.85 24.3/| 3.9] 9.3] 1.4 | 17.8) 6.2) 1.0 Soja: Bean eeteiisas) heme renee 5.3] 2.8|10.4]| 1.40 89.0]| 9.2/47.3] 4.2 | 41.2/16.4}12.4 92.1] |11.5/52.1] 5.9 | 47.0)....]..--]]---- HAYS, DRY FORAGE AND 87.6]]| 4.8/72.2) @-3 | 21.6] 3.6] 1.8]| 3.29 STRAW. ' 90.3] | 5.3]45.1] 7.3 | 14.2] 5.8] 4.8]| 2.52 Mixed Grass Hay ...... - | 87.1|| 5.9/40.9] 1.2 5.76 90.0)]| 9.0]55.4) 6.5 | 39.4/53.4/14.2]} 8.90 Kentucky Blue Grass Hay. 78.8|| 4.8/37.3] 2.0 5.30 87.2]| 7.0/02.1] 3.1 | 29.6/16.2] 8.4]| 5.37 Timothy Grass Hay . . | 86.8]| 2.8/43.4] 1.4 4.96 85.9]| 7.4/48.3) 2.9 | 32.6 Orchard Grass Hay . ... .-| 90.1]| 4.9]42.3] 1.4 5.96 84.8]| 7.8)57.1) 2.7 |..... am ssct lees S| [aeons Hungarian Grass Hay 78.8|| 4.8/37.3] 2.0 90.8} |20.6]17.1/29.0 | 72.2]27.8]20.6]|12.53 Redtop Grass Hay... . .. -| 91.1]! 4.8/46.9] 1.0 2/20.4]| 4.60 89.9] }28.2/40.1) 2.8 |115.6/36.6127.8]|19.40 Creat (Piomus Secalinus) 86.0}| 3.9]45.0] 1. Beers ais 89.7] |12.5/30.0)17.3 | 62.6/25.4/23.4] |11.20 Graberassphlay pve ese even 86.0]| 4.3]36.4| 1. 8130.0]| 5.94 90.0] }29.1)26.3]24.3 | 99.6/34.6/22.8 [15.67 Bermuda Grass Hay...... 86.0]} 6.9]39.0] 0. -7|32.2) | 5.40 91.8] |37.2)16.9/12.2 |135.8]57.6]17.4| |22.76 Johnson (Geass) sy. sers ene es = 85.7/| 6.0/41.4] 1. .6|35.7|| 6.79 88.9]| 0.3)33.1] 1.7 | 13.8] 5.0/20.4|| 3.20 Lepedeza Striata (Jap. Clover) | 86.0|] 7.8]41.4] 1. -0/27.8]| 7.48 92.5] |12.1]20.8]20.0 | 45.6/24.4]11.2]] 8.16 Desmodium Molle (Beg’r W’d) | 86.0]] 9.7|37.9| 1. .5/42.0]| 6.56 91.8] |31-2)19.6)12.8 | 111.0)43.0/28.4) |18.19 Shredded Corn Stover . 80.0|| 2.3/43.2] 0. 6/36.0|) 6.02 93.7] 122.5] 6.0]00.0 | 90.0/24.8]25.4{ |15.11 Corn Stalks—Butis .. . 80.0]] 0.5/54.0] 0. a0 89.3] |42.9]22.8) 6.9 |151.2/26.2/30.0| |23.97 Corn Stalks—Tops. . ..... 80.0]| 1.1]42.8] 0. ae 89.2||20.6/22.3114.4 |106.0]37.4]39.8] |18.70 Corn Blades (Corn 1s odder). 80.0|| 4.0/40.8] 0 85.2] /18.8/54.2] 1.1 | 66.6].... BOS Corn Shucks (Husks) . . 80.0]] 1.3/49.9] 0 $5.7||22.4]49.3] 1.2 | g1.4/24.0/25.8] |13.89 Red) Glovers Eayiecurc atone terete 84.7|| 6 PALE NSO Std tenes Gad|lGocal lscod ae White Clover Hay....... 90.3 83.5|]...-]...-|--- 23.8] 8.6]46.6|| 6.09 Lucerne (Alfalfa) Hay 91.6 Peanut cHayy... 6) ee wreytet =) one 92.4 oils 8 Cowpens, Hay. . sre se > 89.3 . 3). #2 7.4E 20.0)| 2.5/10.2) 0.5 | 18.2] 4.6]15.0}] 3.52 Burr Clover (Medick) Hay . | 83.3]| 8.8 43.3]10.7]§ 8.20 20.7)) 1.0}11.6) 0.4 8.2] 3.0] 6.6]| 1.63 Alsike Clover Hay .......- 90.3]] 8.4/42.5/ 1.5 | 46.8]13.4]5 9.45 25.0)) 2.4/13.5) 0.2 |.....J....[.... boda Crimson Clover Hay. 90.4]]10.5/34.9] 1.2 | 41.0) 8.0]26.21] 7.45 34.9/| 3.0/19.8) 0.8 | 10.5] 3.5/13.8]| 2.33 Vetch Hay (Vicia Sativa). 3.3] 114.6]30.6] 2.3 | 45.4/21.4]56.6]|10.25 38.4]| 1.2/19.1| 0.6 9.6] 5.2]15.2]] 2.36 Cotton-seed Hulls... .....- 88.9|| 0.3]33.1] 1.7 | 13.8] 5.0/20.4|] 3.20 27.0|| 1.5)11.4] 0.5 8.6] 3.2]15.2))] 2.12 Wiheatp Sulalwar io. pele uescdiets 90.4|| 0.4]36.3] 0.4 | 11.8] 2.4]10.2]] 2.28 28.9|] 2.0/16.0] 0.4 | 7.8] 3.2/11.0]| 1.80 Oat Straw... .....--.. | 90.8!] 1.2/38/6] 0.8 | 12.4) 4.0/24.8]] 3 18 34.7] | 2.1)21.2) 0.6 Gard ard ase Se Rye Straws... se ee 92.9]] 0.6/40.6| 0.4 9.2) 5.6/15.8]] 2.36 33.0] 1.9]14.0] 0.6 | 9.9] 5.3]11.6]| 2.29 Barley, Strawgcee stele esse ei 85.8]| 0.7/41.2] 0.6 | 11.2] 6.0]41.8]] 3.96 33.0]| 2.6]14.8] 0.3 | 16.0] 3:5/12.8]] 3.05 Wheat Chait <2 1.) 0 went =) 85.7/] 0.3]23.3] 0.5. | 15.8]14.0), 8.4]] 3.3 34.0]| 2.4/16 5) 0.5 | 12.9] 3.8]14.3]| 2.72 ate Ohattrwen acme aerate 85.7])| 125]33.0] 027 ||...-.. a0 30.0 2.7|14.4] 0.6 | 14.4] 2.1| 9.7]] 2.60 30.0|) 3.4)13.2) 0.4 8.7| 5.5]14.0]] 2.19 ROOTS, TUBERS, UNDER- 37.8|| 2.7|18.9] 1.0 | 9.8] 2.6] 7.6]] 1.78 GROUND SEEDS. 23.4 | 2.1/14.1] 0.4 | 6.6] 3.0]14.6]] 1.80 SweetwPotatay en emnncnee nan 28.9||| 1.0/22.5[" Bool Basal enone 21.0]| 1.9]10.2] 0.4 | 6.6] 4.0]10.2|| 1.63 TaishwLOtatose pn veumeyie caietne cy 21.1]| 0.9]16.3] 0.1 | 6.4] 2.4] 9.21] 1.48 36.0] |2.80]18.0] 0.9 | 10.8] 3.0/14.0]| 2.36 Artichoke (Jerusalem) 20.0]| 2.0[16.8] 0.2 | 5.2) 2.8] 9.4|| 1.34 obada me resi l serarll lietetente Sugar Beet:... ......- +. | 13.5]| 1.1]10-2) 0-2 4.4] 2.0] 9.6]] 1.20 20 6]| 0.6]12.2] 0.4 |. 4.6] 1.8] 4.6]] 0.96 Manrcelpabec te miutae-y em oor 9.1]] 1.1] 5.4] 0.1 | 3.8] 1.8] 7.6]] 1.00 29.2|| 2.9]14.8] 0.7 | 10.6] 2.6] 9.2]] 2.07 Common Garden Beet. 13.0]| 1.2] 8.8] 0.1 | 4.8! 1.8] 8.8]| 1.20 25. 2.7/13.1| 0.6 8.8] 2.2] 4.0]] 1.54 Flat Turnip. . 9.5]] 1.0] 7.2] 0.2 3.6] 2.0] 7.8]| 0.99 19.1 | 2.4] 9.1] 0.5 | 8.6] 2.6] 9.8]] 1.82 Rutabacawcwes alana weer 11.41! 1.0] 8.1] 0.2 | 3.8} 2.4] 9.8]| 1.14 25.0|| 2.6|17.5] 13.0] 2.2] 9.6]| 2.46 Garrotirarew-i-n-e Wein eaten 11.4|] 0.8] 7.8] 0.2 | 3.0] 1.8]10.2]] 1.02 25.0|| 4.4] 9.2] 0.7 | 13.6] 6.4]12.2|| 2.83 (Ciibiem er, Rol oeqhakn olowes oy Beotls ello eu eee lee Medode | He one guaac rel letesal|lflesiee Peanut (Hulled) ...... - - | 92.5]/19.8] 8.6|35.6 | 20.8] 2.8/16.2]| 3.86 28.2|] 3.9]12.7] 1.0 | 14.4] 2.6]11.2]} 2.70 | | 16.4 8] 8.7] 0.2 3.4] 2.0] 6.2]| 0.88 MISCELLANEOUS. 24.9|| 3.2/22.0] 1.0 | 5.4/ 3.0]10.6]| 1.43 Capbagemsucn-arescactiesc taro « 15.3[| 1.8] 8.2] 0.4 7.6) 2.2| 8.6]| 1.60 20.0 8.4] 1.4]14.6]| 1.97 Stang 4 os eo cod a5 20.0|| 1.5] 9.8] 0.3.] 7.6] 5.0[11.8]| 1.90 | | Sugar Beet Tops. ....:.. 12.0]] 1.7] 4.6] 0.2 9.2] 3.0] 7.2] ily | | | Rutabaga Tops.-...-.-..- 11.2]! 2.1] 6.8] 0.5 | 5.0] 1.8] 5.6]] 1.21 20.9]| 0.9]11.3] 0.7 | 5.6] 2.2] 7.4]| 1.26 Pumpkins ewe cues eka 9.1]| 1.0] 5.8] 0.3 |..... | 486 TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. é Digestible Fertilizing z Nutrients in Constituents & 100 Ibs. in 2000 lbs. J 7 : S | 3 lets Ea © 2 3) ab , e Sales < Bu NAME OF FEED os i s 7 aa a 3 | os & SS BE) PO toct ie a q eB = a SW eS Uf be) aay Nea | a Sales cs ial © 7 a ro) DR iS} ~~ > ee ee | Sas ee SS Be | eo) S| Sols | eee [=a ae Sr ih [S) ya i) [iS] Raperamerenere ae Hiitkokka sq ichtylc 14.0|| 1.5] 8.1] 0.2 9.21 3.0] 7.2|| 1.77 ASCOT St ehehbeeiichte noe agcme tenes EAM cst Be alee Sagca|lscadl faodo Sugar Cane Bagasse.. .... Ware a atl ead) eee areal eats Sorghum Bagasse.. ..... 1620) ||| OFS GLO4 |S aeral Feee- ansallodod|(||s00.0 CowASpeNUilicipe seme eh eens) tee 12.8]| 3.6] 4.9] 3.7 | 10.6] 3.8} 3.6]] 1.85 Cow's Milk, Colostrum . ! ..| 25.4] 17.6] 2.7] 3.6 56.4/13.2] 2.2]] 8.67 Skim Milk, gravity ..... 9.6]| 3.1] 4.7] 0.8 11.2} 4.0] 3.8]] 1.96 Skim Milk, Centrifugal . .. | 9.4]} 2.9] 5.2] 0.8 | 11.2] 4.0] 3.8]/ 1.96 BUNA Ce UNUS G GS Tora Sete 9.9|| 3.9] 4.0] 1.1 | 12.8] 3:4] 3.2)| 2.12 Wie y, ha hcl ease wipe Sanches 6.6|| 0.8] 4.7] 0.3 3.0] 2.8) 3.6]| 0.75 (OY EMP os | ct oncete cecas 55.0] [27.2] ... 90r.6|23.0]. 5.0]] 4.08 Biter ta tee peat ee ee 100.0} {00.0} 0.0}100.0 | 00.0)007D} 0.0] |00.00 Feeding Formulas. From Tables 1 and 2 we may now calculate a ration for a dairy cow weighing 1,000 pounds, with a view to inducing a full flow of milk. Suppose we have available the following feeding stuffs, the composition of each of which is given in Table No. 2: Cowpea hay, corn silage and wheat bran: Table No. 2 shows that cowpea hay contains, in eve- ry 100 pounds, as follows: Dry matter, 89.3 pounds; proteins, 10.8 pounds; carbo-hydrates, 38.6 pounds; and fat 1-1 pounds. We want to know how much of these elements there are in one pound of cowpea hay; so we divide the 89.3 pounds of dry matter by 100, or 89.3 by 100 equals 893 pounds, or simply set the decimal point two places to the left. Then, as there are .893 pounds of dry matter in one pound of cowpea hay, there must be .893x15 in fifteen pounds of the hay, or 13.39 pounds. This amount is placed in the column of “Dry Matter.” Then, as Table No. 2 shows that 100 pounds of cowpea hay contain 10.8 pounds of protein, proceed as before: 10.8 by 100 equals .108, and .108 multi- plied by fifteen gives 1.62 pounds of proteins in the fifteen pounds of cowpea hay, and we place the 1.62 in the column of proteins. Then proceed in like man- ner with the carbohydrates and fats and place the amounts of each that is contained in fifteen pounds of ‘hay in its appropriate column. Then proceed, in like manner, to calculate the amounts of dry matter, proteins, carbohydrates and fats that are contained in forty pounds of corn silage and three pounds of wheat bran and place each amount in its column. Add up the columns and find that on the first trial we get: Dry matter, 244 protein, 235; carbohydrates, 1485) tats 0.52, which the ratio is 1:5.3 (1 to 5.3). The result nearly right. It is a little short in the amounts dry matter, and in each of the ingredients except fz But the ratio is 1:5.4—exactly correct. It is pre; evident that if we add two pounds of wheat br five pounds in all of bran, that the form: making will be correct. It may make it appear more clearly to show 1 different steps of the calculation, as follows: Cowpea Hay. In 100 Libs. In 1 Lb. Dry Matter ......89.3 + 100 = .893 15 Protein 0... ...10.8 - 100 = .108 15 Carbohydrates . . 38.6 + 100 = .386 X 15 Fats .-5 2 37. 8) lel — = 100) ==. 00n i aes Corn Silage. In 100 Libs. In 1 Lb. Dry Matter . . . 20.9 + 100 = .209 —K 40 Proteins... . . 0:9: = 100 = 009 eeo Carbohydrates . . 11.3 + 100 = .113 & 40 Fats’... . 0... 0.7 += 100 = 007 3p Wheat Bran. In 100 Lbs. In 1'1Lb. Dry Matter . . . 88.1 + 100 = 881 X 38 Proteins . 1... . 12:2 = 100 == 122 Carbohydrates . . 39.2 + 160 = .392 x 3 Bats..0.66 2 4. . 2v9== 100 = 02a Now arrange the above in tabular form together / comparison with the Wolff-Lehman ave © ge standa' we have: TL. STIBLE Be ‘ a e FEEDING STUFFS | © a wis = 2 on cs as 2 2 wn os £ aS S aa 3 od | ie Lbs Lbs. | Lbs. Lbs. A Required by an aver- age cow... .- | 25.00 2.50 42.50 0.40 15 pounds cowpea hay 13.39 1.62 5.79 0.16 40 pounds corn silage .| 8.36 0.36 4.50 0.28 3 pounds wheat bran 2.64 0.37 1.17 0.08 Virst trial ration 24.39 2.35 | 11.48 0 52 Add: 4 Cc 2 pounds wheat bran | 1.76 0.24 0.79 0.05 Second trial ration | 26.15 | 2.59 | In the same manner feeding formulas may be co Cows Appreciate Good, Pure Water. structed of a mixture of two, three, four or more of the different feeding stuffs that may be available. “For convenience of such as may not be ready at “fieuring,’ a number of calculated feeding formulas are given in Table No. 3. It will be observed that these formulas vary within moderate limits in their proportions of the constituent nutritive ingredients. Some of them are “narrow,” which means that they contain a larger proportion of proteins than the stand- ard; others are “wide,’ which means that the pro- portions of proteins is less, or that of the carbohy- drates is greaer than the standard. A ratio of less than 1:5.4 is said to be if greater, it is “wide.” “narrow,” TABLE No, III. Daily Rations for 1,000 Pounds, Live Weight. For Milch Cows. Tbs. No: 8: Nor 1: 20 Crab grass hay. 20 Tilay. mixed grasses. 6 Sorghum seed, ground. 5 Whest Bran. 3 ¢. S. meal. 2 Cy S. Meal. AVartlOw cpr ts 3) coed 5:2 2 Corn Meal. Ratio rg) ke 250 No. 9. No. 2. 15 Cowpea hay 0 Shredded corn stalk Ban ienricedit erasses. a ede d corn stalks. sos 2, (6. Ss: Meal: BGS. Meal. 2 Corn Meal 4 Corn Meal. 5 aur LEG 60.0 G6 Bl EHS 27 No. 10. No. 3. 15 Cowpea hay. 2) Corn fodder (blades). 40 Corn Silage. PEGS: Neal: 5 Wheat bran. 20 Green. fodder corn. Ration. Weujsm ie etl ayb.3 IREMBO) Gobo oo iby R240) No. 11. No, 4. 20 Cowpea hay. 25 Shredded corn shucks. 8 Corn Meal. 5 C. S. meal. lethal oo aeadh “By {aul 3 Wheat Bran. IES 5 6 6 goal) Jae bY No. 12. 15 Cowpea hay. No. 5. 10 ¢. S. bulls. %” C. 8. hulls. 5 Cowpea meal. 5 C. S. meal Ratio css nie) (5.0 Ly oo) ah Hey No. 18. No. 6. 5 28 Bermuda hay. 20 C. S. hulls. 8 Shelled oats. 4 C. 8B. Meal. 1 C. S. meal. 5 Wheat bran. REM) oo gloat fH EB TSAR OG on loth IEE? No. 14, No. 7. 20 Cowpea hay. 20 Cowpea hay. 15 Sweet potatoes. 10 Shredded corn stalks. 4 Corn meal em) 58 oy all eat Ratio .. esmios: 487 No. 15. No. 18. 12 Corn. “shucks” (husk : SNS se (NEES) 14 Vetch hay. 10 Cowpea hay. 4 ‘ 10 C. S.. hulls. Corn ear 6 Corn meal 3 C. S. meal. stir ay INERAKG, 6 ceatodl 2 Gay Ratio; s=.). 1: 53 No. 16. 35 Lucerne (Alfalfa) green. ° No. 19. 10 Oat straw. 6 Cowpea meal. 15 Cowpea hay. Ratio 1: 50 8 Cotton seed. 6 Corn meal. No. 17. IU 6G, procodl Gb) be! 18 Lucerne (green). 6 Corn meal. 3 Shelled oats, Ratio . 1 Byam For Fattening Steers. No. 21. No. 24. 20 ¢€..S. hulls. 1s C. S. hulls. 5 Cc. S. meal. 7 Soja bean meal. 5 Corn meal. 6 Corn meal. VaGIOsFes es 2, 16-5: Ratio’ © is > al) Hse 558 REE : iy No. 25. No. 22. 40 Sweet potatoes. eee ie 10 Corn fodder (blades). ae C. 8. hulls. 5} ©: S! meal: 5 C. S. meal. om Gornuencdl Ration few sc stl uct G- 0) IH Bid ool BEL, No. 26. No. 28. F 40 Artichokes. 20 Shredded corn stalks. 10 Shredded corn stalks. 5 C. S. meal. 4 C. S. meal. 6 Corn meal. 6 Corn and cob meal. RATIOF emt -nt 57, 2 Rigtion:.a- awe ales 10s SILOS AND ENSILAGE. The question of silos and ensilage is a new one tc most of the people of the South. But if we take the testimony of those who have had experience with them, they are certainly a help to the farmer, or dairyman. Silage is canned grass, or corn, or forage of any kind. The silos are to the forage what the cans are to fruit. Ensilage was first prepared in the United States by Manly Miles, of Michigan, in 1875. The advantages claimed for silage are as follows: Succulent palatable food for the cattle may be kept all the year, maintaining a good milk supply the year round. In order for cows to keep up their milk sup- ply, especially in the South, they must have good succulent food all the time. This is the only method by which the food can be kept in a succulent state in winter. 2nd. A larger per cent. of the food har- 488 vested can be kept by the silo than either by hay or fodder. There is practically no waste in the silo. A great deal more food can be placed in a given The item of and ord, amount of space by using a silo. space on a farm, especially large stock farms dairy farms, is no small item, for it is certainly important to have plenty of food for the stock to carry them over the winter. Most heavy forage crops may be used for ensilage. The crops of the South that are best adapted to make silage out of are corn, millet, sorghum and cowpeas. In planting corn for ensilage it should not be broadcast, as a great many people think. In planting the corn, you want a variety that will produce a small ear. . 31—Silo on dairy farm, Selma, Ala, Built with staves. The rows should be from three to three and a haif feet apart. The corn should be planted from eight to ten inches apart in the drill, depending of course upon the fertility of the land. The corn should be cut and placed in the silo when the kernels begin to glaze, or when denting is well established. It should be cut up before placed in the silo, into pieces about half inch long, Care should be observed that the corn be pack- ed down thoroughly, especially around the edge of the silo. The silo may be filled as rapidly as the corn can be placed in it, or by repeated fillings. When the silo is filled, it should be thoroughly packed every two or three days, for eight or ten days, and then TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. covered with a six-inch layer of straw well dampened with water. This will cause the first eight or ten inches to rot, and form a kind or air-tight covering. The most modern machinery for filling silos in- cludes a blower that elevates the cut material through | a sheet iron tube over the top of the power. Corn should be the main dependence in the South for silage. silo by air It may be mixed ‘half and half with sor Peas and sorghum do_ not make good silage alone, becoming too sour and slimy in the Southern climate. A good way to get peas in the silo is to let the vines run up the corn stalk in the field, and run them through the cutter together- ghum, or with cowpeas. A few years ago there was considerable complaint from consumers of milk against the s‘lo, stating that the use of the silo affected the milk. This matter was thoroughly tested, and it was found that the trouble was in the method of handling the ensilage. For instance, when the cows did not eat up all the ensi- lage, it was left in the manger, or used as bedding, If any silage is left by any of the cows, it should not be left in the barn, nor and it very quickly soured. should it be used for bedding, as it quickly sours, and the milk takes up the odor. Again, when you be- gin using ensilage at least two inches should be taken off every day in the winter, and three inches in the summer, for if this is not done it spoils. For milk cows, it is better than any other food we know of. But in feeding to dairy cows, it should not be fed un- til after the cows are milked, as it may taint the milk. From thirty to thirty-five pounds a day along with the hay and grain is considered a very good amount to feed dairy cows. Silage, so the Kansas Experiment Station says, should not be fed to bulls, as they tose their virility, and become slow and uncertain breed- ers. Horses, chickens, and sheep do well on certain amounts of ensilage. The silo is a building, or can, for the preservation of the forage crops. They built of wood, stone, brick, cement, etc., but as the first cost of wood is less, more wood silos are built than any other kind. if possible, a silo should be twenty-five feet deep, in order that the silage may be packed down by the weight, and exclude all the air. A silo can be built which ‘s only twenty feet hig’h, but it is better to have The walls of the silo should be vertical, and as smooth as possible. It is far better to build a round silo, or nearly so, than a may be one thirty than twenty feet high. a = jon of a The Dairy Herd Needs Exercise During Bad Weather, But Nct Too Much. - ¢. square one, as most of the spoiling, where any takes place, occurs at the corners. The size of the silo de- pends, of course, upon the amount of feed that is to be preserved. A cubic foot of silage well-packed will weigh on an averagebetween 35 and 40 pounds, which is the amount that should be fed to a cow weighing 1000 pounds. If you feed the cow silage for six months, each cow would consume about 3 1-2 tons of silage. An acre of good corn will produce anywhere from eight to fifteen tons of silage. The following table will give you the capacity of silos: i 489 same kind of covering as you would use on a house will be sufficient, or plain board will do. SOILING. Soiling has long been familiar to farmers of some sections, but in the South, with so much cheap land, not many are familiar with it. Soiling is a system of raising various forage crops, which are cut and fed, green, instead of pasturing them. By doing this, you can secure from two to three times as much from the same land each year, and the land is maintained in a Inside diameter of silo in feet, and capacity in tons. pepth 15 aa G ALTE Tr > >) ey nS of Silo in feet Tus Tns Tns Tus Tns Tus Tns Tns Tus Tns nse snis: 2 ons COS COR CBOE ogni ictoacaete 59 67 7 85 94 105 115 127 138 150 163 ny ant PHONE cic eiais seis ei lersie%s wreepertisies 63 72 81 91 101 112 125 13 148 161 175 189 Po aioe ci ciate visicjcisielete sles inye ole 67 77 86 97 108 120 132 145 158 172 187 202 Rte ois cclayerevectiniars wisps. aie oie S48 72 82 92 103 115 127 141 154 169 184 199 216 Be oceans arcs cienie) Ter ora tirelers visser aa8 76 87 98 110 122 135 149 164 79) 195 211 229 Ss) oe arraictscayepiie ciel Sietaulaielevelisi'e 3% 81 92 104 116 129 143 158 174 190 206 224 242 BUMP ee chs eiie se rctsnere ustens eterehape: toes 85 97 110 123 ilpsyi 152 167 184 201 219 237 257 AM Pot ese sees y cre cteres ohnive lefenels gectese 90 103 116 130 145 160 alii 194 212 231 251 PAL RIE ass crest ael eye) cvavedsyone: eeiede;erellene 95 108 122 1327 52 169 186 205 223 243 264 285 d,s oo UCD Ee OOn Ore eR Oe orice etiono 100 114 128 144 160 178 196 215 235 256 278 300 lie oo SOG B OG. OO DOD OEe DE er ioiotacaord 105 ALD) 135 ileal 168 187 206 226 247 269 292 SLs | BOM ee eget cases cinieuete eaapeae eel 3 110 125 141 158 176 195 216 236 258 282 305 330 32n sop ae CODE E DOO DD OE.GOD DD pOOIne oon 115 130 148 166 185 205 226 247 270 295 320 346 Of course some of the silage will be lost by spoiling, etc., and a little more than the above amount should be allowed for a cow. The cost of building a round silo is small when com- As a rule, anyone that can build a barn can build a silo. The hands on the farm can bé used in this work during rainy days. In build- ing a silo, it is perhaps better to have a rock, or brick foundation, as this preserves the wood from decay. Then use 2x4 studding, placing them 12 inches apart in a circle. Then ceil this with two layers of ceiling, with tar paper in between. Linseed oil or tar should be applied to the inside, as it helps to make the silo Sometimes they are built on the fash- and being bound pared to its advantages. nearer air-tight. tank or tub, using staves, with hoops: Where the door is to be made, the stud- ding should be set double, and the staves sawed out as and high as the door is to be. ‘rhe door is made Some advocate not using a The wice to fit over this air-tight. cover on the silo, but it is better to use a cover. higher state of cultivation, and the manure is better preserved. When land was plentiful, the people of the South did not need to practice soiling so much as they do now. This is especially true around our cit- ies, for land there is too valuable to be used for pas- tures, when from two to three times as much can be produced by other uses. In doing this, it is necessary to have a suitable rotation of crops. With the excep- tion of corn and sorghum soiling crops donot do well It is therefore best to plant a small-sized plot, just large enough to run for a week, and plant each week such a plot. This keeps your stock in fresh forage all the time, and enables them to get it while it is at its best. In the fall you for longer periods than ten days. may sow barley or rye, and will be ready to feed early in the spring. Winter oats or vetch make a fine com- bination for use in the spring. Sorghum and corn can be grown nearly all summer, also millet. Alfalfa makes an excellent soiling crop, with four or five cuttings per year, beginning in March and growing constantly till frost. 490 GRAINS. The dairy herd must have some grairs if the best results are to be had. For the South, corn is better than most any other grain to be fed to milk cows, un- less it be cotton seed meal. But corn meal is better fed with some other food, such as bran, shorts, cotton- seed meal, etc. Cottonseed meal produces a firmer butter, and raises the melting point of butter, and is therefore recommended. But care should be observed in feeding it, not to get too much. In some States it has one effect, and in some another. It should always be thoroughly mixed with cut hay or fodder or cotton- seed hulls to give bulk to the mixture. DAIRY UTENSILS. Cream Separator. Every man with five or more cows selling cream or butter, should have a Separator, he stands in his own Any of the Of course with a large number of cows will separator, but for only a few cows, the hand separator light if he refuses to buy one. standard makes of separators are good. the dairy require a power will answer every purpose. To make the very best grade of butter, the time must be as short as possible after the milk is drawn from the cow, until it is made into butter. Every minute the milk is exposed to the warm air increases the danger of spoiling. By using the hand separator, the cream is taken from the milk as ‘soon as it is drawn from the cow, and the cream can then be easily reduced in temperature. Again you can make from 10 to 50 per cent more butter by using a separator than by shallow setting. The gen- eral rule holds good that the best is cheapest, so buy a first-class machine. By a first-class machine we do not mean a large machine, but a machine that will do the work satisfactorily. When you set up the ma- chine, be sure to read and re-read the instructions carefully. Remember that this machine has to make about five thousands revolutions therefore must be put up right. It upon a solid foundation, and level, per minute, and must be placed must be set perfectly If it is not level this will cause it to run hard, and wear out on the upper side. It is a good plan to go slow in setting up a machine. It is very important that it be washed clean every time it is used, not- withstanding what some agents may tell you. Do not believe them when they tell you that the machine TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. will not have to be washed each time it is used, for it is not so. the machine, run some water through it, so that it will not dry before you can wash it. BABCOCK TESTER. In this day of competition, a cow that does not pay a profit cannot be kept in a herd. The same princi- A merchant does not want a clerk who does not earn a profit, nor does ple works in other lines as in this. he want to handle a line of goods that does not pay. It is very important that we should know just what each cow produces. weighed at every milking and a record made of it. Not only must the dairyman know the amount of milk she produces. but he should know the value of One of Before making the test the milk should be thoroughly stirred so that an average sample can be secured. this milk so far as butter fat is concerned. the best testers is Babcock’s Tester. These samples are then mixed with sulphuric acid, and whirled in a centifrugal machine. The heavy parts cf the milk fly to the bottom, and the butter fat, which is lighter than the other part of the milk, comes to the top, and the percentage of butter fat may be read on the grad- uated scale on the bottle. The principle back of it is that the sulphuric acid dissolves the other solids of the milk, leaving the fat globules free, and they, being lighter than the other solids, collect nearest the axis of the machine. Few dairymen fully realize the importance of this matter of testing. For instance, recently two cows of similar breeding, with exactly the same milking, feed, etc., one yielded 20 pounds of butter per month, and the other 63 Ibs. per month. Supposing that the butter sold for 25 cents per pound, the profit of one above the other is $10.75 a month, which is quite an item in itself. Another illustration, two cows were fed and managed as near alike as possible for a year. One produced 252 pounds of butter fat more than the oth- er, yet the two were under the same treatment, and received the same amount of food. You can readily see the importance of testing your cows, and seeing which one pays and which does not. And when you find a cow that does not pay, that does not produce at least 5000 pounds of milk per year, containing 200 pounds of butter, get rid of her. She may make good beef, but she is not fit for the dairy herd. e Immediately after getting through with. The milk of each cow should be’ a During the Winter See That The Cows Have Plenty of Fresh Water. AERATORS AND COOLERS. As soon as milk is drawn from the cow, it should be immediately strained, and cooled down as low as 40 degrees F., if possible. Of course where you can- not get it down that low, 60 degrees will help. There are several ways to do this. There are several milk aerators and coolers that have been devised to do the work. The object of cooling the milk is to re- lieve it of all animal odor and animal heat. This pre- vents bacteria from multiplying, and enables the milk to remain sweet much tonger than it would do other- wise. Secure from some dairy supply house a good mill aerator or cooler, and you will find it a profitable investment. LaGrange, Ga. Fig. 283—Showing Creamery, CHURNS. Many dairymen have paid hard-earned money for ¢hurns that were utterly worthless to them. At the ‘dairy Fairs it is no uncommon thing for the churn man to be there with his patented churn, and if you will just let him, he can show you its advantages without any trouble. But he never shows you its dis- advantages. There are two things necessary in a dairy churn- It must be practical, and it must be so simple that it can be thoroughly cleansed. The one-minute churn it not practical. Before purchasing a churn of any kind, ask yourself have you the power to run the churn as the agent has. Do not be deceived in letting him make you believe that any old power will do. And then again, is the churn offered for sale, ‘simple enough in construction that it can be kept clean? The matter of not being able to keep them clean, is the 491 objection to most patented churns. It is a matter of great importance to the dairyman, for if the churn cannot be kept clean, good, pure butter cannot be made. The more parts a churn has, the harder it is to keep clean. There is the great objection to butter and churns combined, and it See to it that the churn is simple, and that workers is a serious objection. it can be thoroughly cleansed without too much ef- fort. A barrel churn is the best and most practical. Cream should be churned at a temperature of from 60 to 64 degrees. If the cream be in the proper con- dition, and churned at the correct temperature, it will not take long to bring the butter: The best but- ter is produced by churning from 30 to 45 minutes. It might be said that giving the cows salt regularly otherwise causes the butter to come than would be. quicker If considerable cottonseed meal is fed, it is sometimes necessary to churn as high as 70 de- grees. DAIRY THERMOMETER. No man who wants to be up-to-date in the dairy business is going to be without a dairy thermometer, especially apiece. when they can be bought for 25 He simply cannot afford to do so, here is no use in guessing in a matter so important as hay- ing the correct temperature in milk, when you can be accurate by having a thermometer: cents There are many other dairy utensils that must be kept at the up-to-date dairy. cannot be made. Mention of each one Of course the strainers should be thoroughly up-to-date, and easily cleansed, and above all things, they should be strainers, that is, should get every form of trash out of the milk. And then there are milk bottles, and milk cans, and many other things. Remember that the greatest questions to be asked before any utensil is bought for the dairy is. can it be cleaned? and is it simple? THE DAIRY BREEDS. Much depends upon the cow in the dairy. If a cow produces enough milk and butter fat, she will be pretty likely to pay. As to the breeds, a discussion of this question cannot be gone into, for the simple reason that there is no definite way to determine which is the best breed. Some very prominent dairy- men like one breed, while other dairymen equally as prominent like another breed. There are four good 492 breeds, the purchase of one of which will be a good selection. But do not try to cross breeds, for you will make a failure. Purchase the breed that you like, and keep it pure, The Jerseys and Guernseys are re- markable for their richness of milk, and the ease with which it is converted into butter. If you are to run a butter dairy, perhaps one of these breeds will be best suited. The Holstein is a very large animal, and is remarkable for her large milk yield, but she is a low butter fat producer. When she becomes un- profitable for the dairy herd, she fattens well, and makes a good return for beef. The Ayrshire is also noted for her large yield of milk, but like the Hol- stein, she does not make butter. She does not’ suit for beef production either. It is safe to say for a but- ter dairy, use either Jerseys or Guernseys, and for milk producers, that is, where the milk is to be sold direct, use either Holsteins or Ayrshires. As to the appearanee of the individual cow, the reader is re- ferred to three stanzas given under the head of “THE COW,” in another part of this work. In selecting a cow do not place too much importance on the size of the cow. It is true that breeders and owners of the Holsteins claim a great deal for size, but remember that to be a beef producer is one thing, and milk and butter producers another. Most people, especially those who are not posted on the subject of cows, nat- urally think the larger a cow, the better dairy cow she is. This rule will not hold good. And you cannot re- ly on the amount of milk, for you must take into con- sideration the amount of butter fat iuat is in the milk. When it comes to milk yield alone, it will be granted that the larger cow, as a rule, gives more quantity than the smaller cow, but they eat more, and the milk is not so rich in butter fat. Prof. T- L. Haecker, who is perhaps the best authority in the United States on profitable cows, in explaining why the small cows produce butter more economically than the large cow, has this to say: “The question is naturally. asked, why does the small cow produce more economically than the large one? In the first place cows that give milk containing 3 per cent. butter fat, vield 2.6 pounds of “milk solids not fat, to one pound of butter fat, while cows that give 5.5 per cent. butter fat, yield only 1.6 pounds to one of fat. So, for every pound of butter vielded by the cow that gives the lower grade of milk, she ‘has to make an additional pound of solids not fat, and hence it takes more nutri- ment to produce the one pound butter fat in the thin milk. The large cow also requires three pounds more solids not fat, TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. nutriment daily for maintaining her body.” There are exceptions to this rule, for no definite rule can be laid Gown. However, these are the facts taken as a whole. TAKING CARE OF THE MILK ON THE FARM. Milk when it is drawn from the cow, is practically free from germs. The germs that cause most trouble with milk get in immediately after the milk is drawn from the cow, so the important thing is to keep them out. When the calf takes milk from the cow, he closes his mouth around the teats so that no germs can get in. When man takes the milk from a cow, he takes a very wide bucket, with opportunity for getting many germs in it. You cannot keep sweet milk longer than six hours, if it is exposed to the bad atmosphere very much. It is better to spend five or ten minutes on the cow before beginning to milk. Some people are very careful to see to it that the udder is clean, when the rest of the cow is filthy. Take pains with your milk, especially in drawing it from the cow. If you use pans or crocks to cool it, strain it into these as early as possible, but do not allow these pans or crocks to rez main in the kitchen. but remove them to some place where they can cool off as quickly as possible. When milk is set in shallow pans or crocks, it should be skimmed, just as soon as the milk begins to clabber at the bottom, This is a very important matter for as soon as the milk becins to clabber, the cream not only stops rising, but it begins immediately to get stale. In the winter, if the milk is liable to freeze, a blanket thrown over the milk as soon as it is strained, and it will be very apt to keep from freezing. Tall shotgun cans are better than shallow pans for cooling and permitting cream to rise. HOW TO START A DATRY. Perhaps a few suggestions, for they are only sug- gestions, upon the important subject of starting a dai- ry will not be out of place. In the first place, you must learn the trade. Dairy papers, schools, and books will be much help to you, and you should take advantage of all of these, but these are only supple- mentary to the great schools of experience. If you have never had experience in the actual work itself, you had better stay out of the business until you get that experience. Hire yourself to some first-class dai- ryman, learn the business, and learn it correctly: Learn everything about the work. Do not merely Look After the By-Products. watch others do the work, or you will prove a failure asa dairyman. And then there is another advantage in hiring to some dairyman, and that is, you have an op- portunity of learning whether you like the business or not. If you do not like such business, of course you will make a failure of it. It is better to work for some one else for a while, to find out as to whether you have the “everlasting-stick-to-itiveness’ to succeed than it is to invest money, and have to sell out for fifty cents on the dollar. Do not be in a hurry to Iccate—You may make a good dairyman, but be in a location in which you can- not dispose of your products. Study the local situa- tion thoroughly before you think of locating anywhere. Get where the people consume butter and milk, and where there is a good demand for it. If you can get betweea two cities that consume a great deal of butter, then you have the advantage, if you will take both It makes no difference if there is a competi- where markets. tion, for it is far better to go into a market there are.a large number of competitors, than it is to go to a place where there is neither a market competition. And then you must take into considera- tion the matter of transportation. keep a horse and wagon, and you will have to watch this matter. If your local market is not good, ship your butter to the cities. The express companies give a special rate upon milk products, and this will be The best trade- nor It is expensive to cheaper than getting a horse and wagon. trade for good butter is a high-vlass family Hotels and restaurants, as a rule, do not give the highest price for milk products, for they depend upon getting it in job lots. The grocers do not pay the best price, for they must make a commission. Go right into the fight of selling to the consumers, and take a product that will sell. THINGS NOT TO DO IN THE DAIRY BUSI- NESS. Strange to say that books and dairy papers as a rule do not pay any attention to the “dont’s” that make up the dairy business. The dont’s are as impor- tant as the “do’s,” and must be attended to, if a first- class dairy is to be kept. Let us look at a few of the “dont’s.” In the first place, don’t let your “know-all” neigh- bors, who know practically nothing about the business, convince you that it does not pay. Remember that 493 the dairy business does pay, when you run it as a bus- iness. Like all businesses, it will not pay if allowed to run by itself. The facts in the case are, that it does pay. Just because some man makes a failure at the business, is not a conclusive proof that it does not pay. It will pay if it is backed by a man with plenty of com- mon sense and determination. That there will be difficulties, there is no doubt. That you will have trouble there will be no doubt. But these are some- times necessary to the best success. Don’t believe that you know it all. Be willing to learn. Remember that there is someone else that know a few thing more about some things than you do. Be willing to learn from anyone, no matter how low in life ‘he may be. The wise man learns from the experience of others, and the men who know it all, do not learn at all. Don't be a know-all. Don’t run after fads. There are some men who take up their business to get up new fads. Be open to con- viction, but be convicted before you change your plans or ways of doing things. If you have a cow that pays, and you know she does so, do not get rid of her just because she does not come up to some ot'h- er man’s ideal. The thing you'want is results, and be sure that you will get better results before you make a change. Don't let some one persuade you that it does not pay to feed. Remember that you must feed to get re- Get your feed as reasonable as possible, and if the cows do not pay for it, dispose of the cows, for it is better to dispose of them than it is to keep them on half feed. If a cow will not pay for her feed, when given all she will eat, she will not pay for it when given one-fourth as much as she wants. You are in the business for money and that is what you want. Don’t let the laughs of anyone keep you from hav- ing everything as clean as it is possible for it to be. Remember that dirt causes dairymen to lose custom- ers, and that people like to buy from dairies where ev- erything is kept scrupulously clean. Don’t let the horns grow on cattle. Sentiment says for you to allow the horns to grow out, but common sense says take them off. This can be done easily, especially if you do so before the calf is thirty-six hours old, The calf will suffer practically no pain, and it will cause you a great deal of trouble if you allow them to grow out. Don’t neglect to keep books on the cows. You must know which one is paying, and which is not, to carry on a successful dairy business. sults. Cows cannot give milk unless they are fed. 494 A merchant who did not keep books would go under, and so will the dairyman. Know how much each cow pays. If you will do this, you will be surprised at the results. Don't use any kind of preservatives in your milk and butter. It is far better to be honest, than it is to carry on this kind of practice. Be a man as a dairy- Preservatives are the resort of the ignorant or the lazy. Don’t fail to raise all the hay you can, and other feeds. Remember that one of the greatest expenses to a dairy is the feed bill. All that vou can successfully make on your dairy is that much profit. Start out to raise your feed. mali. ee { ( l | | u Fig. 32—Showing door. of silo. A is the door, b shows how it fits; should open on the inside. Don’t fail to save the manure. You need it on the fields where you propose to raise your feed. Don’t stay at the bottom of the ladder in dairying. Remember that there is a top and a bottom in the dairy business and that it is left entirely with you, as to whether you are on the top or the bottom. Be at the top. Don't fail to study your business. You need to think and plan in the dairy business as in any other. Be a thinker and a planner. Know you business, Don’t be discouraged. Keep at it. Don’t make beef, do so, but don’t try bloods. If you want to to mix these two You cannot do it successfully. If you have to use scrubs on your dairy farm, do so, but don’t mix beef blood and dairy blood together. mix beef and milk blood. The beef cow takes the feed and turns it into fat, whereas the thing you want is butter and milk. Don’t abuse your cows, or allow them to be abused. Kindness will work wonders. Remember that when TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. you use a cow for commercial purposes you are using a mother that is giving miik for the sake of her young, and that this action is not voluntary, and any slight cause may prevent her from giving the very best re- turns. Remember the more regularly she is handled, the more comfortable she is kept, and the more kind- ness shown her, the greater will be her flow of milk- There are some very peculiar things about cows. It thas been a long disputed question as to whether a cow could of her own accord hold up her milk. This is a theoretical’ question, for we all know she does so, whether voluntarily or involuntarily. If you take a cow’s young cali away from her, or frighten ‘her, or whip her, the milk ceases instantly to flow. If she be chilled or otherwise made uncomfortable, the same results follow. If any of these things happen to a marked degree, the stoppage of the milk is equally as marked. If aman be not blind to his own interest, he will not allow such. A cow thus treated will show it in her milk yield. Do not allow the boys to frighten are not race The cow should look upon the farmer as her friend. Be kind Learn to love them. Don’t allow thein the cows, for they horses. to your cows. to be abused. LITTLE THINGS ON THE DAIRY FARM. A man who cannot observe and take note’ of little things is already a failure so far as the dairy business is concerned. The little things are the ones that bring success or failure in the dairy business as well as in other business. The young man who is above all these little things cannot succeed. But let us no- tice some of the little things on the dairy farm. There is cleanliness. It is not such an item to al- low a little dirt or filth to accumulate, but it means the loss of customers. The supposed dairyman who is too high above such things a sto give ‘his personal attention to the matter of keeping everything clean, cannot hold customers. The little cracks in the cow barn let in large amounts of cold wind, and this wind makes the stable uncomfortable. These cracks are but little things, but they call for feed, for the temperature of the cow must be kept up. And they frequently cause the cow to drop off in her milk and butter products. Little mice and rats spoil many dollars worth of feed. Get a lot of cats, and the little mice will seek headquar- ters somewhere else. To keep these cats at the cow barn, give them a little drink of milk once a day. In See to It Tlat Your Dairy House Is Perfectly Clean. passing through the stable you smeil a bad odor, It is a little odor, but it must be attended to. See that there are no holes in the floor, and that the floor is even, for an uneven floor is a very uncomilortable thing for a cow to lie upon. It is not such a great thing to look at the udder of each cow once a day, but it may save you money, in that you discover a small injury, which if allowed to run on, may throw the cow out for six months. But it is a small thing. It is a small thing to watch the new milker to see if he is kind to the cows, and if he knows how to milk. Some milkers have a powerful grip in their ‘hands, and squeeze the teats entirely too hard. This is a small matter, but it is worth looking after. Britisher No. 145096. After the milk vessels have been washed, rub your finger along the inside and outside of the vessels. If they are not clean, your fingers will slip along, but if they are clean, they will stick. Do not allow the but- ter-milk to stand in the churn after it has been churn- ed. Keep the churn clean. Do not allow smells to accumulate. Be careful about these little things, and the large ones will take care of them- musty selves. BY-PRODUCTS. Milk, butter, and cheese are the main products of the dairy. The products of minor importance are calves, whey, buttermilk, skim-milk, manure, pigs, poultry. In this work a long discussion of these products can- net be entered into. But many farmers allow these products to be wasted. Why men will allow such, when they can be turned into ready cash, is a hard matter to explain. Skim-milk is an excellent food for humans, and its sale should be encouraged by law. One question that has been before the wide-awake dairyman, ‘thas been how to supply milk to the trade. Skimmed milk, when allowed to be churned, does not produce buttermilk, and cannot be sold for butter- tailk. This is on account of bacteria that work in the 495 milk on account of the cream. It has been found out that if you take a gallon of buttermilk and churn it with several gallons of skimmed milk, that you will get as good buttermilk as when produced from tie This is on account of the bacteria that is introduced into the skimmed milk through the real buttermilk itself. And every dairyman who is alive to his own interest thas a drove of hogs around, to help to use up the skimined milk. Indeed, it is a loss not to have them. And the up-to-date dairyman can raise poultry very profitably, if he will do so, and can do it with practi- cally no expense. cream itself. DAIRY NOTES. Feed at the same time every day. Then the cows will not be worrying about their feed. If you do not have the stables well ventilated, do not let another day pass until they are ventilated. Keep the bedding well under the cow’s knees. Al cow can have little comfort with her knees bruised on a hard floor. Only the rich can afford to keep poor cows, and they don’t. It is hard to tell which is the more useful, the man behind with the milk pail, or the man in front with the feed pail. It does not always pay to try to fatten the old cow. You had better sell her for what she will bring. It is alright to have books, and be able to figure back, and tell who your cow’s great, great grandmoth- But the great question with you is, who is Is she making you very er was. your cow and what is she doing? money, and how much? British Blossom No. 204533. Always be kind to your cows. Remember what Ward C. White said, “Always speak to a cow as you would to a lady.” Grow your own cows. To do so is cheaper and bet- ter, for you can then control the quality of your herd. As the calf is trained, the cow will incline. SHS ER SS = (CELLS SILVER PENCILED WYANDOTTES. Book. XV. PouLTRY DEPARTMENT. Edited and revised by i Re le Sa Editor Southern Fancier, Secretary Atlanta Poultry Association, Atlanta, Ga. was ANID) SA a Jute 3 VV Oo Be. Member National White Wyandotte Club; Member North Carolina Poultry Association; Member Pied- mont Poultry Association; Director Poultry Department, Forsyth County Fair, Winston, N. C., and Central Carolina Fair, Greensboro, N. C., Rurall Hall, N. C. 33 498 TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. PouLtTry DEPARTMENT. INTRODUCTORY. Before taking up the subject of “Poultry Culture,” it is deemed advisable to give a brief resume of the industry in this country, to familiarize our readers with the vastness of its importance, so that the busi- ness will become fully understood, and the prospec- tive poultry breeder, contemplating taking up this line of work will be fully alive to his responsibilities, and the magnitude of this industry as shown by the last census report. From the nineteenth annual report of the Bureau of Animal Industry, we gather the following facts: The valuation of fowls on the farms throughout the country in 1900 was estimated at $85,794,996.00. How much of this amount represents fowls under the ages of two or three months it is difficult to say, ibut we are all aware that it is considerable. After | making these deductions, we gather that the balance | remaining represents quite accurately these fowls that have been kept for breeding and laying. These birds produced for market in one year poultry worth — $136,891,877.00 and eggs worth $144,2%6,370.00, a | ’ that the in-. vestment yielded an income of over 400 per cent. | What other legitimate business can do this? If we consider the amount invested and compare results we find that poultry and poultry products easily stand first, and compared with the wool crops | it exceeds it in money value by over one hundred and eighty-nine million dollars. | This, of course, is quite contrary to the generally total value of $281,178,247.00, showing ee eee i oe ok 4 ree Do It Yourself Is a accepted view that the poultry industry is of little importance when compared with the standard crops and products of the country. When another census shall have been taken, we predict that this industry will eclipse most of the industries now ranking with it, for with improved breeds now finding their way from every farm from Maine to California it is the aggregate of the millions of small flocks which gives this business its economic importance. The beginner who starts with poultry should have in mind that upon his foundation stock will depend his success or failure, and too much stress cannot be laid upon the importance of starting right. This re- fers as much to the selection of incubators, brooders, houses, etc., and the management and handling of the stock as to anything else. It does not require a learn- ed man, in the general acceptation of the term, to run Very Good Motto: 499 every other business, it takes push and hustle to make anything out of it. We do not mean to say, when we say that the poultry business is a paying business, that you can make money at it without work and attention, for it is not true. A great many men have lost money at the poultry business, but this was because of non-attention, or lack of judg- ment on their part. Many farmers would find it profitable to raise poultry as a side line. There is a lot of food that goes to waste if there are no chickens to use it. This grain and other matter that goes to waste can be turned into profit by raising poultry. The great trouble with most farmers is in not giving their chickens enough attention and thought. Eggs sell at a good price all the year, and a part of the season they sell at very high prices. Chickens are the same. But if you decide to enter the poultry business, do not go into it on too large Fig. 2.—Laying House with separate scratching pen attach- ment. @ poultry plant, for we have seen men who made their feputations in the learned professions fail absolutely as poultry farmers. It does require an industrious one, ‘however, and one who will look after every lit- tle detail. There is no more paying business taken from a financial point of view than the poultry business. This is especially true in the South, and many farm- ers would find it far more profitable to raise poultry than to raise cotton. The poultry business is like A good house for the South. a scale. Experience can be had with a few fowls, and this experience will be worth no little to you. Start off on a small scale, and let the increase in your business graduate itself as you become capable of taking care of it. A business that does not pay ex- penses and a little besides is not a paying business. If you cannot make ten hens pay expenses it will be quite difficult for you to make a hundred ‘hens do so. If you can make money out of a dozen hens, increase the number to two dozen and see what the results will be. There are several questions of vital interest 500 TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. to the poultry raiser that we desire to give attention to. LOCATION. The location of the poultry farm is of some impor- tance. It is better to get near a town when possible, or a city, for then your products can be put on the market in a fresh condition. You will want to be close to a railroad or steamboat landing. It will re- quire grain for poultry, and it is a good deal of trou- ble to haul it over many miles of rough road. If you can produce a part or all of this food so much the better. It is not so important that you be near a city if transportation is good, as the additional expense in the value of lands near to a city will more than off- set any advantages you may secure through it. Some people have the idea that any worn-out land is suit- able for a poultry farm, but this is not true. In the first place it is the by-products that show the profit. The manure of poultry is quite important. With land that is untillable, this by-product cannot be used to an advantage. Select rolling, well drained land, sandy preferred, and you will be a long way towards success. HOUSES. The question of the house for chickens is quite im- portant. But this questions is not so important here in the South as it is in the North. In fact, the house depends altogether upon the purpose in view and to what extent you are going into the poultry business. If you have only a few chickens on the farm, you will want a small house for them, especially to protect them from the winter rains. If you are going into the business on a more extensive scale you will want more extensive quarters for your chickens. Outside of the house should be a shed under which you can feed them, especially in bad weather. It is never ad- visable to feed them in the house. A puddled clay floor one-half foot higher than the ground outside, makes a very satisfactory and cheap floor for the hen house. The roosts should all be of the same height so that there will be no crowding by the fowls for the highest places. They should not be over two and a half feet from the ground. Have boxes one-half foot square on low shelves for nests and dust fre- quently ‘with wood ashes to prevent insects. Al- ways have clean straw in them. Pine straw is very good where obtainable. Do not neglect to burn nests. Although more difficult to build, those who can will find those nests which project on the outside of the poultry house, with openings for hen on inside and hinged, and slop- ing lid cover on outside for the eggs to be gathered from and setting hens attended to, decidedly more satisfactory. These nests should be two feet above the floor and with running for hens to walk on. so soon as setting hens come off. Always have enough nests to White- prevent crowding, or annoying setting hens. Fig. 3.—Colony House, Chickadotte Farm, Rural Hall, N. C. wash house and nests every month during summer, and do not allow fertilizer to accumulate if you do not desire insects and disease. Many practical poultry raisers use loose nest boxes, (soap boxes,) as they are so easily removed from the house for cleaning and to be burned out inside, thus ridding them of lice and their eggs. A house ten by fourteen feet should accommodate 30 chickens. In some sections, the houses have win- dows, but this is not necessary here in the middle South. Perhaps best results can be had by dividing the house into two parts, one for roosting, the other for feeding and scratching shed in the day time. If it can be so located as to front the South, have the lower two-thirds of the front covered only with wire netting. This gives sunlight and air. Balance of the ‘house boarded tight, with roof sloped toward the north. The roosting side might be closed all around, but for most of the southern sections we say not. The selection of a dry location, sheltered as much as possible from prevailing winds is one of the essen- board in front of nests — It Takes Work to Succeed With Poultry. tials of an ideal house. If the soil is not naturally dry, good drainage should be the first consideration. Wet and damp soils are unsuited to successful poul- try culture, and becomes a breeding place for disease germs, and is withal a most fruitful source of roup, one of the most destructive of poultry diseases. A high elevation is often warmer and more suitable for poultry than low ground, where the air is likely to be damp and cold. If the houses face the east or south they will have more sunlight and in consequence give greater comfort and cheerfulness in winter than they would through any other exposure. 501 for the fowls in these 16 houses, provided that the rounds were made six times a day, three times to feed; once to water, once to clean and once to gath- the poultry- go from er eggs, besides in inclement weather man would be exposed when forced to house to house. All these matters deserve serious consideration. Then too, separate houses entail greater expense, both in cost of erection and material necessary to their construction. One end of each house is saved by bringing the ends together, and this applies as well to yard fences. Every time a division fence is Fig. 4—Style of house-used at the West Virginia Experiment Station. The form and location of poultry houses have much to do with their convenience, and steps may be saved by studying the form and location of the building. Time is money and a poultry plant should be built with a view to saving steps. If the colony house plan of keeping poultry, in which each flock has its own little house and yard, a great deal of time is spent in going from house to house. If a plat of ground 300 feet square and containing slightly more than two acres is divided into 16 square runs, and a house located in the center of each, then a man would be obliged to walk nearly 550 miles in a year to care taken out, each flock has twice as much liberty as before. Fences increase labor. The labor of culti- vating small yards is much greater than it would be if all were in one field. Large flocks can pasture in the same field. Hens know enough to return to their own roost. The biggest bump on a hen’s head is her “bump of location.” The yards as a rule should be long and narrow, and double vards are desirable, allowing one to ro- tate crops, which practically converts the filth, which would otherwise become a source of danger, in- to a valuable food crop. Long and narrow yards fa- 502 TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. cilitate cultivation. Making them 35 feet wide and 150 feet long would readily accommodate fifty hens, although the more room the better. Planting a row of fruit trees through the center of these yards will produce shade and give a fine yield of luscious fruit. Now, in building houses we must remember the nearer square a house is, other things being equal, the less lumber it will require. It is twenty feet further around a house ten feet wide and forty-five feet long, than it is around a house fifteen feet wide and 30 feet long, although both houses have the same floor space. SSS 7 = —— : SS aS SS ES BE Fig. 5—A good poultry house for the South. expense of building a shed roof ‘house as compared with the gable or combination roof house. Shingle roofs should generally be one-third pitch. Most of the roofing fabrics last longer on rather flat roofs as chickens have less tendency to creep down the roof and thus tear loose from the nails. Usually a slope of one foot in eight or ten feet will be sufficient. In sections where much snow falls, flat roofs must be substantially built to withstand the heavy burdens of snow which they may have to carry. Each form of roof has its advantages and disad- vantages. The single span roof is the easiest to build. SE = = i. << —— —_—_— re Open front at top admitting sufficient ventilation at all seasons, and can be Closed during bad weather. The shape of the roof affects the value of a poultry house. It takes the amount of material to build a gable roof, a one pitch roof, or a combination roof, if the pitch of the roof and the ground plan are similar. If we assume that the window is six feet high in a building fifteen feet wide it would be nec- essary to have both sides of the house the same height, which makes more interior air space than is necessary and requires the rear wall one and a half feet higher than would be needed with a one-pitch or combination roof. A one slope roof will cost the ex- tra lumber to build three feet higher in front than is required by the combination house. The steeper the pitch the greater the comparative Same It gives the highest vertical front exposed to the sun’s rays which are reflected back, drying the ground and making a warm shelter. It throws all the rain water to the rear, lessening the length of the eave troughs one-half, and keeping the front of the house dry where no eave troughs are used. A tarred paper roof will last many years longer if not exposed to the ver- tical rays of the sun. The gable roof provides for a larger garret space, which can be utilized in storing away odds and ends. Sunlight is a necessity, carries good cheer and tends to arrest and prevent disease. Too much _ glass makes a house too cold at night and too warm dur- ing the day, besides increases the cost of construc- Some Farmers Believe that Chickens Will Live Withcut Focd. tion. Allow one square foot glass surface to sixteen square feet of floor surface, if windows are properly placed. The windows should be high and placed up and down rather than horizontally and low. In the ~former-the sunlight passes over the entire floor dur- ing the day from west to east drying and purifying practically the whole interior. The time when sun- shine is most needed is when the sun is lowest, that is, from September 21st to March 21st. Window sash with small glass seriously obstruct the light. Very large lights break too easy, and are too expen- sive. 8 x 10 is a good size glass to be used in a twelve light sash, making it about 3 ff. 9 in. high by 2 ft. 5 in. wide. Use two of these in a house that is about fifteen feet square. Single sash are usually Fig. 6—A modern breeding house. less expensive than double sash of the same size and the cost for window frames is less. Single sash naay swing from the side or top, or be made to shove to one side and are against the wall where least likely to be broken. With double sash this is more dif- ficult. Whitewashing the inside of the house makes it as much lighter as an extra window. Interior Arrangement—While considering con- struction of houses, we should at the same time con- sider the interior arrangements, such as roosting places, nest boxes, dropping boards, etc. Movable fixtures facilitate in cleaning the house. For the most part they should be portable to facilitate in fighting mites. Generally they should not be allow- 593 ed to touch the sides of the house. If they do the wall must be kept tight and vermin proof. should be placed in the warmest places out of drafts Roosts on same level, allowing from six to twelve inches tor each fowl, according to the breed. The form of perch most desirable is a 2x4 set edgewise and the narrow edge rounded. Under the perches should be a plat- form for the droppings, far enough below to permit cleaning without removing the perches. As lcns prefer darkened nests they should be so arranged to exclude the light, which will tend to please them, and to mitigate the egg-eating habit. Under tke dropping boards will make a good place for them, raised from the ground and so placed that without much the eggs can be gathered trouble. Owned by the Cherry Grove Poultry Yards, Knoxville, Tenn. Short cut straw makes a good nesting material, for if moss, long straw, etc., are used the fowls in scratch- ing about preliminary to ‘her laying operation is apt to throw out any eggs already in the nest, and tan- gle her feet in it and cause trouble. As the open-front house is advised in our Southern States, a good provision against extra cold or dis- agreeable weather is to have a curtain of any close material which can be let down at will. If the cur- tain is oiled with hot linseed oil it becomes practical- ly water proof, as well as wind proof, forming a good barrier against wind and cold, and aiding in making the open front house one much to be desired in the South. 504 TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE, COOPS. | And yet this question is not so important here as in the The question of coops is one of importance. North, for here the greater part of the year coops are But the successful poultry raiser There are not needed at all. will use coops in caring for little chicks. 7 Fig. 7—Poultry house without scratching shed and with glass front. many methods or plans for building coops. There are two or three things which a person must bear in mind in making a chicken coop, one of which is that it must be constructed so as to be dry and at the same time admit of plenty of sunlight, and a plenty of fresh air. If you can get a coop up that meets these requirements, that is just what is wanted. We direction for two kinds of coops. just as good. Take three or four half them stretch cotton secure the ends and edges. The air now gently pass through the coop all night, though the slatted front be closed Hinge the front in order to provide shade for the hens and chicks. The sec- ond plan is as follows: take frame like the gable roof, Slats for sides are to be made of boards five inches wide and one-half inch thick. Nail on a slant To do this start at the bottom and nail up shingling fash- ‘present here There are others box and nail the top. Over a grocery hoops over cloth and will like half turned shutters in a window blind. ion. To make coop absolutely rain proof, nail one board upon about one inch of the other. When you make a coop in this way the door is the only means of ingress and egress. Far more important than the coop is the number of chicks in the coop. More harm is caused by crowd- ing than any one thing. Have more coops and fewer chicks is the advice that can always be profitably followed. The older they get the more room they need, so look forward to that in planning your coop. WATER FOR CHICKENS. Perhaps there is more trouble in raising chickens on account of impure water than from any other cause. And nowhere is there more trouble than on the farm, where chicken raising is not made a spe- cialty. Many farmers have an iron trough or cook- ing vessel, and they fill that when it is empty, usual- The water is so hot that the chickens cannot drink it over one-half the day dur- ly about twice a week. ing the summer, and in the winter it frequently stays frozen over all the day. It never occurs to these peo- ple that chickens like fresh cool water. these same people complain of “hard luck” when their chickens all Cie. There is no excuse for the poultry not having plenty of fresh water. If you will take an ordinary jar cr jug made of earthenware and fill it full of water bottom-side upwards in a plate or sau- Fig. 8—Colony House. cer, it will make a splendid drinking fountain. The water will run down in the fountain as it is used out. This fount should be kept in shade in the summer, and should be filled with fresh water every day. In winter a good supply of warm water once a day will be greedily swallowed by the hens and go a long way towards inducing them to lay. INCUBATORS AND BROODERS. Nearly every successful poultryman now uses if- And still . cubators. As to how long artificial breeding has been pricticed, we are unable to tell. In wee used. It is not claimed that incubators hatch every fertile egg, and neither will the ‘hen. It is tlaimed, however, that the incubator will hatch as mahy eggs in warm weather as the hen, and more in cold weather. The brooder takes care of the little chidks better than the hen. for the brogoder does not| drag them through the dew and _ dirt and\ neither does the brooder cover the little chicks with lice. One reason why the incubator and brooder have not been used more, is that the opera- tor las not understood how to operate them. They have| had the opinion that the incubator could be operated without attention, and as a result have fail- Egypt ovens will Fig. 9.—A new all metal incubator, a style that is coming into use in the South. ed. For a long time the farmers were afraid of them, and thought that they were for the fancy poultry- men, but they are fast dropping this idea and taking up with the machine that will make them _ dollars where they made pennies before. There are many advantages to be gained by the use of the incubator, so if you desire to be up-to-date you had better use one. As to which make is best we cannot say. There are a great many good makes on the market as well as any number of worthless ones. With the incubator you can have chicks at any time that you can get the eggs. You do not have to wait until the notion strikes the hen to set. In other words, you are in- dependent of the notions of hens. By the use of the incubator you can have spring chickens the year See to it That Yhat Your Poultry Have Plenty of Water. ‘them. 595 round. It is claimed by some that breeding chickens should not be hatched by the incubator, as their sys-; tem is not so strong as when ‘hatched by “Mother; Hien.” This theory is without foundation, and the contrary has been proven time and again. If you are raising for the market broilers, fryers, etc., it would be well to use the incubator altogether. However, you do not know’ all about incubators, and it will pay you to get one of the medium sized’ ma- chines, rather than one of the largest ones. There are several advantages to be gained in purchasing a small incubator, for in experimental work if you lose a hatch, your loss is less than if you had run a large machine. It is true that the advertiser claims that they are so simple that a child can operate them, but when it comes to a test a child cannot operate It is more than some grown people can do. And even if you wanted to operate on a large scale, you could get two or three medium sized machines in preference to one large one. There are several advantags in having three or four machines over large One advantage is that you can use a different machine for different kinds of eggs. For instance, suppose you want a capacity of three hundred eggs. You could purchase three incubators of 100 eggs each. You can use hen, duck and turkey eggs, using a separate machine for each. Having three machines, you can fill one and start it, while you are getting eggs for the next one, and so on. It takes different amounts of moisture for different eggs, and you must learn this. If you make a mistake you will come nearer discovering it when using a few small machines than when using just one large one. After you have received your in- cubator, you should study it. Nine out of ten who use standard and up-to-date makes of machines are successful with them and would not part with them and go back to the hens for anything. A good ma- chine with care and common sense methods will bring success. Remember that it takes time to learn and that you must do a little experimenting with your machine. Mr. J. A. Hunt, a very successful user of the incubator, says: “When you receive vour machine and get it set up and in running order, take a whole day if necessary to study it in its various parts. The regulating ap- paratus should receive particular attention; do not be satisfied in knowing that it does the work, but find out how it does it. Familiarize yourself with every part, as it may be useful knowledge to you in having just one machine. 506 future operations, for should your regulator through any accident or without accident fail to work, you will be able to discover the difficulty and remedy it without delay.” September marks the beginning of activity in poul- try matters in the South, so we propose to give here- with a few hints that will be found useful by those who will take up the work for the first time, as well as those who for various reasons have been unsuccess- ful in previous attempts. Cheapness in an incubator should offer no induce- ment for a beginner, nor for that matter, to any one else. The experienced breeders, the men who have TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. so in the hands of careless ones. Some are better suited to certain localities than others, al- though the modern up-to-date machine is guaranteed to excel in any climate, under any conditions. There are machines operated in the South that do away en- tirely with the moisture question, because the sys- tem of ventilation is so nearly perfect that the hatch- es will average as well as under hens, under same conditions. Others again require supplied mois:ure, or at least do better with it, and so it goes through- out the list. Every manufacturer claims to have the best machine, and so the beginner stands in a maze of conflicting claims of superiority, unable to decide 10.—A Fig. steer clear we do not long since passed the experimental stage, of such and buy the best. By the best mean a machine in a mahogany case, for while there are such on the market, they represent nothing new in modern incubator construction, except in useless ornamentation, which appeals only to the “extrava- gant rich.” The same machine in a pine case will give you equally good results, so when we say buy the best, we do not want to confuse the reader into believing that the best is represented by the costliest machine. What we desire to emphasize is the fact that a machine considerably below the market price of a standard make of an incubator is doubtless also below them in the hatching possibilities. Nearly all the standard makes give good results in the hands of careful, observing operators; none do Modern Incubator House. for himself. the same on trial. meet your expectations, you can return it, and your receipt from the railroad showing its return shall be | authority on which you can secure your money from whoever you deposited it with. If a manufacturer has the confidence in | ‘his machine that he claims he has, he will send you | You can deposit the money with | your postmaster, express agent or merchant, with the” distinct understanding that if the machine fails to | Don’t sign any paper obligating yourselves to go_ beyond this. Some concerns make sales by fore ing their goods on unwilling people, and once they get your money, you have considerable getting it back. Taking it for granted now, that your machine has trouble in Corn Does Not Produce Eggs. arrived and been set up, you will have to run it a day at least, may be longer, to get the heat under control. In starting it up, we would run the ventil- ator wide open for a few hours. When you have ad- justed your regulator according to the instructions coming with your machine, and it maintains an even temperature of 102 or 103 degrees, you are ready to place your eggs in it. We will suppose that you have provided eggs that are from strong, healthy stock, and that will show good fertility, that they are as near one color and uniform size as possible, for the eggs of Brahmas, Cochins and other heavy breeds never do well when incubated with eggs from Leg- horns. etc. The best results from eggs as nearly as possible of the same kind. The Asiatics are always later in hatching, and being thick shelled, require more ventilation to dry them down, or, secure the proper air-space, hence, if two lots of eggs of Brah- mas and Leghorns are incubated at the same time, if you provide the correct ventilation for the former it will be to the detriment of the latter, so that point is easily explained, and even the novice will grasp the idea. ' After the eggs are placed in the machine, the tem- perature will drop considerably, and it will take sev- eral hours before it will be back to where you start- ed it. you will see it come back to 103 degrees and stay ‘there. We will assume that you are operating your machine in a living-room, (seventy-five per cent. of them are), and you should see to it that there is no direct draft on the lamp, as it will cause it to smoke, | and also cause the machine to become unevenly heat- ed. After second day, you should begin to turn the eggs at a regular hour morning and night, also cool- ing once a day, preferably in the morning, and fill- ing lamp too. If the filling of the lamp is done at night, you are not in a position to watch the temper- ature, and if you have given too much lamp light, the regulator may not be able to take care of the ‘surplus heat, and you endanger your hatch. For this eason we prefer cooling and filling lamps every “morning. When there are very marked changes in ‘the weather, a little care should be exercised to see ‘that a little more lamp flame is given if weather \turns considerably colder, and a little less, if the re- jverse. You will soon get the hang of the thing and ‘then you will wonder how you ever got so nervous and seared, and why you looked at the thermometer every +4 minutes. Looking at the thermometer will not {( | If your regulation has been correct, however, 507 hurt, if you will quit working with the regulator, for if you start the thing right, the regulator will within rea- son take care of any little inside changes. Don’t get frightened ifit runs up alittle,justturn down lamp flame a little, but let the regulator alone. If there is any adjusting to be done it should ¢be before the eggs go in, and after that you can do the greater part of bal- ance by controlling lamp flame. On the seventh day you will be ready to test the If you have a good tester before a strong light, you will be able to tell fertile eggs by examin- ing closely. It is better for you to start with thin- shelled, light eggs, as they show better the germ in the egg, which will look like a spider with little blood veins for legs. You will see it move, contract and expand, and after that it will be easy for you to pick out the strong fertile eggs, but in case of thick-shell- ed eggs and others, you will find it more difficult. Whenever in doubt, take a saucer and break the egg and you will soon learn. You may lose a few chicks by this process, but it is the best of all teachers. It is generally conceded that the first week of in- ones eggs. cubation is the most critical, and we advise a careful following of the instructions going with the machine. No writer can advise you along this line, as there are certain directions which must be observed, peculiar to each incubator. If your eggs are good and strong, and your hatch a good one, you may continue the same way for the next hatch, but if the reverse, you should immediately write your incubator manufactur- ers, giving details, and they will straight. doubtless set you They cannot afford to have a displeased customer, and should be more than willing to help you out. About moisture, if a no-moisture machine, follow instructions and take off hatch without supplying any, but if you find the weather exceedingly dry, it might be well to place a tub under the machine or about the room in which incubator stands. Don’t sprinkle the eggs. On the seventeenth day all eggs with a hatchable chance will appear perfectly dark. except the air space. less. Those which are not are worth- If the air space is too small, your ventilators must be opened wider; if too large, they must be clos- up some. Your operating instructions will give you correct size that air spaces should be at certain stages. When the eighteenth day comes around, some of the eggs will probably commence pipping. Don’t open machine after this until the ‘hatch is over, not 508 even to help out a struggling chick. If you do, you endanger the balance of the hatch, and a chicken that can’t help itself out will never amount to anything. Keep them in the machine for twenty-four hours, throwing ventilators wide open after hatch is over. Don’t forget to clean out incubator thoroughly after each hatch, nor get excited if the heat runs up to 105 degrees when hatching. This is all right. All eggs that are not hatched by the twenty-first day are usually worthless. Ventilation in Incubators.—It is the popular idea that ventilation evaporates the moisture from eggs during incubation, and so it does, to a limited ex- tent, but the main cause is the pressure in the egg due to the growth of the chick and the shrinkage of the shell. Eggs, during incubation, get rid of the ex- cess moisture more on account of the pressure with- in than on account of the ventilation. At least the ventilation can only carry off the poisonous gases. As proof that pressure forces the moisture out of fertile eggs during incubation, we point to the infer- Infertile eggs only If ventilation tile eggs in the same machine. perceptibly shrink in size and weight. controlled the evaporation, then there should not be so much difference between fertile and infertile eggs under the same conditions. I have been operating incubators for a long while, I feel sure that I can voice the opinion of nearly ev- ery operator of incubators, that getting the air cell too large is more imaginary than real. We all read about it, but few have seen it. The lack of sufficient ventilation fails to carry off the gases arising from the eggs, and the natural conditions and actions of the egg are interfered with; the chick fails to devel- op naturally, hence wet, weak chicks, with an unripe appearance. It is very evident to any one who thinks (beyond what they read of) that moisture and ventilation are so mixed up that the influence of one is taken for the other. Excessive applied moisture has exactly the same effect as the lack of ventilation; it makes the air too heavy, it’s the same with poor ventilation. This heavy mucky conditions of the air blocks the expelled or evaporated moisture from the egg. An- other proof of the pressure within the eggs during incubation is the enlargement of the air cell as the incubation progresses. I dispute that the air cell is for the purpose of fur- nishing air to the chick except just before it pips the TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. shell. The division between the air cell and balance of egg is air and moisture tight; if it were not tight, it would fill with moisture; the chick could not pos- sibly use the air, even its movements and different positions would dispute the theory. Just before the chick pips the shell it usually breaks through to the | air cell, but not always. I contend that the first real breathing of the chick is after it pips the shell, and from the time it pips the shell until it makes further | effort it is accustoming itself to real air. The air cell ‘has a purpose, it helps form a pressure — in the other end of the egg; it has still another pur- pose, it holds the contents of the egg intact; it makes , a back stop and makes it possible for the chick to brace for action. If it were not for the air cell the contents of the egg would float. | Ventilation is just as important as the temperature in incubation. Ventilation does the same work in in- cubators as in other things. Doctors draw a line on draughts of air, but make no attempt to exclude or curtail it, and why should we in ventilating incuba-- tors? As stated, such a thing as air cells becoming too large is more imaginary than real. We read of the Fig. 11.—New style of brooder with outside runs for chick- 7 ens. In much use throughout the South. if | cautions, but the real thing is rarely in evidence. Fertile eggs, during incubation, get rid of the excess) moisture through pressure more than through ventil-_ ation. In incubators, like in houses we live in, the} question of ventilation is settled when we correctly‘ draw a line between plenty of air and draughts of a This is such a simple and well-known problem that! it hardly needs mentioning. The theories about car bon, oxygen and other component parts of air serve’ to muddle more than to explain, and insomuch as! these things are rarely mentioned in connection with’ air for ourselves, we cannot see the great need of using up space on the question in connection with incubators, except perhaps in some cases wherein the lamp might burn the air before it enters the egg) chamber. ; \ Oats Makes a Very Fine Single Grain Food. BROODER. The one great difficulty with the use of the incuba- tor was the taking care of the chicks after they were hatched. But this is now done by the brooder. The question of the brooder is one of importance. And very little is known of brooders The great trouble is that most poultrymen place the importance on the incubator, while they consider the brooder of secondary importance. Some one has said that it is easier to hatch healthy chicks in an incubator than to keep them healthy afterwards in a brooder. It is often the case that the beginner studies with dili- gence the use and work of the hatcher, while he never really considers the brooder at all. As a result his chicks are hatched out all right but they die after a few days’ confinement in the brooder. There are many good brooders on the market, and most of them are good. While the brooder is not intricate or as hard to understand as the incubator, yet it is very es- sential that its construction should be on right lines. There are many things to be considered. How to avoid crowding,» over-heating, getting too cool and chilling the chicks, either of which (too much heat or too little) will cause losses at the expiration of three or four days’ time. It seems advisable to pur- chase a first-class brooder until you become thor- oughly familiar with the methods, then if you wish to attempt to make your own well and good. The price of first-class makes would not warrant anyone in building his own machine, however. either. By brooding is meant the care and nurture of little chicks. The subject of brooding may be discussed under two natural divisions, brooding by hens and brooding by artificial means. BROODING BY MEANS OF HENS. This is the natural way of raising chicks and when only a small flock is kept it is undoubtedly the best method to follow. The hen should be kept free from ‘lice by the use of insect powder or other means, and it is usually a good plan to confine her for a few days until the chicks become streng enough to follow her readily. The coop for this purpose should be dry and clean, and the slats across one end should be far enough apart to allow the chicks to run in and out at will. In a few days the hen also may be allowed to tun at large. If she remains unmolested by vermin at night she usually will return each evening to her own coop, which can then be closed to be opened 509 again the next morning after the dew has dried off the grass. BROODING BY ARTIFICIAL MEANS. As it is not an easy matter, especially for a begin- ner, to raise chicks successfully by artificial means, it is worth while to consider how an ideal hen cares In the first place, the hen remains on the nest until after the last chick has hatched, dried off, and gained strength to By this time the chicks which hatched If the weather is warm for her chicks until they are weaned. follow her. first may be a day or so old. enough the hen then wanders a short distance from the nest calling the chicks to her by chuckling, and attempts to find something for them to eat. Scratch- ing in the earth, she now and then finds a tiny bug or worm and calling her brood to her with eager clucks she indicates with ‘her beak the tempting mor- If the hen is allowed to raise her brood in her own way, the chicks are on the move from morning sel. until night, wandering a few feet away while search- ing for tidbits on their own account, and now run- ning with all their their mother an- nounces the discovery of a choice morsel, which if too large is broken into suitable pieces for them. If at any time the chickens become too cold and send forth their plaintive peep, then the hen answers with ‘her motherly cluck, and the little ones run under her protecting feathers, become thoroughly warm in a few minutes, and then are ready to run away again on another foraging expedition, might when In other words, a chick- en raised under normal and hence natural conditions is busy from morning until night searching for food which is eaten in small quantities at a time, and only when night comes is the craw full, and chick’s hun- ger fully appeased. Not only is the food eaten slow- ly, but it consists of a large variety of materials, bugs and worms, the tender tips of sprouting, grain, the grain itself more or less softened by its exposure to the moisture of the soil and now and then a little piece of gravel and a sip of water. Grit, green food, grain, animal matter and pure water with plenty of exercise during the day and a sufficient degree of warmth during the night are the main requisites for successful brooding. Taking off the Hatch—lIf the incubator has been handled properly, the temperature of the egg cham- her will be about 95 degrees when the chicks are ready 510 to be removed. If the weather is cold, and it is nec- essary to transfer them some distance to the brooder house or to the brooders, a warm cloth-lined box should be used and the little fellows tucked up snug- ly, as they are very tender. A few minutes’ exposure at this time may chill them sufficiently to cause in- flammation of the lungs, which may destroy half or more of them in ten days. In fact, during the first two weeks of a chick’s life it is of very first impor- tance to keep the temperature just right. If the tem- perature of the brooder is too high or too low the re- sults will be unsatisfactory even though all the other conditions are ideal. Fig. 13—The S. D. McMillan Brooder. This brooder is ex- tensively used throughout the South. The Proper Hover Temperature.—When the chicks are placed under the hover the temperature should be between 95 and 100 degrees. The temperature should not be to fall below during the first week, and nt below 90 degrees during the From tnis time on the hover tempera- allowed 95 degrees second week. ture can be lowered more rapidly, depending some- what on the outside temperature. At no time should the chicks be uncomfortable, either on account of cold or too much heat. If they are too cold they huddle together, those inside the bunch become too warm, and pass to the outside, there becoming too cold again. Under these conditions the chicks catch cold, and soon die. On the other hand, if the hover tem- perature is too high, the chicks will be forced outside, where it is too cold for them. If the temperature is high enough they will not bunch together when ly- ing down, but will scatter promiscuously over the hover floor, and a day or too later many will be found with their heads projecting from under the hover fringe. For the first few days they must be kept very TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. close to the hover, for if they get a short distance away, they will bunch together to get warm, instead of running under the hover. Under these circum- stances, the attendant must assume to a certain ex- tent the duties and responsibilities of the mother hen. FEEDING. A chick just hatched out has quite a large supply of food stored up for it in the unabsorbed contents of the yolk sac, and as a consequence feeding may be delayed for a while. Practice differs somewhat re- garding the age of the chick when it should receive its first meal, but most breeders delay feeding until the chick is at least 48 hours old. By this time, the reserve material is about used up, and the digestive system has been materially strengthened. What to Feed.—What is fed during the first few days is of less importance than how it is fed, and how much is fed. A chick when in a brooder or brooder house takes far less exercise than when following a hen, and if fed too liberally becomes sleepy and digestive troubles soon carry it off. A brooder chick should be induced to take as much ex- ercise as possible, and this can be accomplished but | Crack- 4 by feeding dry food scattered in short litter. ed wheat, corn cracked in pieces as large as one-half of a wheat grain, granulated oat meal and a small amount of millet seed will answer the purpose, ad- mirably for the first few days. It is surprising to see how quick they learn to scratch for their grain. Hay and straw cut into inch lengths make a good lit- : ter for this purpose. Care should be exercised, how- ever, that the material cut up for this purpose does not contain sharp beards which are apt to get in the chickens’ eves, and thus cause trouble. Ripe clover heads are especially to be avoided. Fine chick grit should be scattered on the floor of the broods, so that they will take some grit with their first meal. Pure water should be supplied from the start, and the drinking dishes should be cleaned fre- quently, as they become foul in a short time. After the chicks are a few days old a small amount of ground fresh meat and ‘bone or beef scraps should be fed and some tender green food supplied to them. Lettuce is excellent for this purpose, but frequently cannot be secured, when recourse must be had to cabbage or the beets, the latter which may be slick- ed and tacked up, so that the chicks can just reach it. sluggish and : I have had very good success raising chicks ac- cording to the method outlined above. While differ- ent breeders use different methods to mine, no one will fail if they follow the plan above outlined. The | beginner must always remember, however, that in or- ‘| der to raise chickens successfully by artificial means, , Fig. 12—McMillan’s Brooders with runs for exercising the ! little chicks. iseveral things must be done just right; the chicks +must be fed properly; the temperature at which they jare kept must be suitable; they must be in a healthy “condition when hatched; and finally the parent stock jjmust have been vigorous and thrifty. Just as the ‘strength of a chain depends upon its weakest length, so does the success in raising chickens depend upon | that factor which is relatively the weakest. | If a considerable number of chickens are to be praised, a brooder house equipped with a hot water Wheater is a practical necessity. In my experience out- |i\door brooders cannot be used to the best advantage jearly in the season, when the weather is_ variable. \Later, when the nights become warmer, and less ar- \|tificial heat is required, they may be used out of doors jsuccessfully. The individual brooder whether in-door or out-door, is expensive to operate, both in respect jto material and labor. The oil which must be used lin the brooder lamps cost relatively much more than the coal which is used in the heater in the brooder Jhouse, and a large amount of labor is required to clean, fill and light the brooder lamps and care for In the case of in- the individual brooders properly. door brooders, there is in addition, a tisk from fire, which may not only destroy the brood- ers and their contents, but also the building in which considerable Chickens on the Farm Need a House for the Winter Rains. 511 they are located. On the other hand, the relatively large first cost for house pre- its adoption by a majority of people who keep Therefore, it is of importance to discuss the a special brooder vents fowls. best way of handling individual brooders. Location of Brooders.—Outdoor brooders should be located so as to shelter as much as possible from the prevailing winds, for in such a place a more equita- ble temperature can be maintined, and when the chicks begin to run on the ground they will be more comfortable in a sheltered location. An eastern or southern exposure is best, and on the east and north there should be a windbreak of some sort, either the farm buildings, a hedge or a tight board fence. The brooders should be located near the farm buildings so that the chicks can be cared for conveniently. Be- fore placing the chicks in the brooder, the floor may be covered with sand or chaff. These are used to add to the comfort of the chicks and to facilitate the The brooders should be warm and thoroughly dry, especially if the chick- daily cleaning of the brooders. ens are placed in them directly from the incubator. For the first few days it will be necessary to confine the chicks to the brooder until they become accus- tomed to their surroundings and learn where to go Fig. 14.—An out-door brooder, with solid top cover, much preferred to glass fop brooders, formerly used. when cold. Particular care should be taken at night to see that they are not ‘huddled together in the outer compartment. If they have done so, they must be placed under the hover, Before allowing the chicks to run out of the brooder onto the ground, it is usual- ly best to build a yard containing 25 to 50 square feet for them to run in for the first week or so. The yard prevents them from getting lost when small, and is also a great help when thunderstorms come up and it is necessary to get the chicks quickly under the shel- ‘ ter. As soon as the chickens begin to roost on top of the brooders, they may be removed to colony houses, and the sexes separated. DISEASES OF THE BROODER CHICKS. J. A. P. WOLF. Although the diseases of poultry will be discussed under a separate head, it seems wise here to consider the reason that these diseases are usually due to mistakes made either diseases of brooder chicks, for the in handling the parent stock, in hatching or in brood- ing. When the brooder chicks begin to die and the cause of the death can be discovered, then the opera- tor can usually remedy the trouble without much dif- ficulty, while on the other hand, if the source of trou- ble cannot he located. the beginner usually gives up the poultry business in disgust. NON-ABSORPTION OF THE CONTENTS OF THE YOLK SAC. Symptoms.—For the first three or four days the chickens may apparently be vigorous and_ hearty. Soon, however, many of them become drowsy during the day, and stand nodding. Bowel trouble sets in. Deaths occur most rapidly when the chicks are from six to ten days old. If the abdominal cavity of a chick be opened at this time, the yolk sac will be found to contain a large amount of semi-fluid sub- stance which, not having been absorbed and digest- ed, has suffered a putrifactive change, thus causing the death of the chick. Sometimes a chick may not die from this cause until it is two or three weeks old. In these cases the contents of the yolk sac is of a yel- lowish cheesy nature. Causes.—It is quite probable that the non-absorp- tion of the contents of the yolk sac may be brought about in more than one way. If the eggs have been laid by hens which are so fat and sluggish that the germs are weak; if the eggs ‘have been subject to a has not been a sufficient amount of oxygen during the variable temperature during incubation; if there hatch; or if the chickens are fed too soon or too much, then they will be more liable to die from this TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. disorder. There is no remedy so far as wé are aware. Preventative measures alone are of value. | BOWEL TROUBLE. | Symptoms.—The droppings of the chicks instead. of being of a proper consistency, are soft and sticky, | and frequently collect in masses about the vent. The chicks become drowsy and have a tendency to seek | the heat under the hover. \ Causes.—The non-absorption of the contents of che yolk sac frequently causes this trouble. It may be however, by improper food or by a slight | cold which settles in the bowels instead of in the lungs. There is no remedy if it be caused from non- absorption of the yolk sac. If caused by improper food, or a cold, the remedy is evident. caused, INFLAMMATION OF THE LUNGS. If the temperature in the brooder or brooder house is too variable one-half or more of the chicks may die of this trouble. Symptoms.—The chicks become drowsy and seem to require a high hover temperature. In severe cases, the chickens may even gasp for breath, appearing as though affected with gapes. If the lungs be examin- ed in the first stage of the disease, one or more may be congested and of a darker color than usual. Later little tubercles of a lightish color may be found scat-/ tered through the tissue. Whether these tubercles | contain the germs of fowl tuberculosis is unknown. It | would appear, however, as though they resulted sim- ply from the breaking down of the lung tissue due to the intense inflammation present. DISEASE OF THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS. | If the food which the young chicks receive does not | contain the elements essential to growth in right pro- | portion, digestive disturbances may be set up which | may cause the death of the chicks. At the Rhode | Island Experiment Station 826 brooder chicks which died from sundry causes were examined. Of the | chicks examined 75 per cent. had abnormal livers, 39 per cent. had various forms of intestinal disorders. “In order to ascertain the cause of the mortality a feeding experiment was instituted. Two hundred and | Don’t Get Discouraged, But Keep Trying. nineteen chicks of Several breeds hatched under sim- ilar conditions were placed in four pens of approxi- mately 50 each, all conditions being identical, so far as apparent, except in the single factor of food. All pens for 30 days after hatching were fed at the same time as much as they would eat. The composition of the ration varied in each case. The following facts confirmed by these experiments show: Negra Fig. 15.—Brood Coops Ready for a Storms Also shows a part of the poultry houses. Chickadotte Farm, Rural Hall, N. C. 1st. Careful external and internal examination (such as anyone can readily make) of the dead chick- ens will generally disclose the cause of the death. The necessary remedies are usually not difficult to find. 2nd.. Death from overcrowding, trampling can be readily corrected. quent than is generally suspected. suffocation and It is more fre- 4th. Trouble of the liver and bladder are usually easily recognized from the green stain. For correcting this feed more animal food. The use of the proper proportion of animal food will pay a hand- some profit through decreased mortality and increas- ed weight of chicks. In feeding bear in mind that chicks in a state of nature spend practically all their working hours in search of food, and that they do not fill their craws in ten minutes every two hours. Feeding should be, as far as the time of the attend- ant renders possible, a continuous process, but by no means a continuous gorge. gall 5th. Diarrhoea, etc., frequently results from feed- 34 513 ing a too large proportion of animal food, and is also brought on often by cold, exposure, etc. 6th. If the yolk is present in a considerable quan- tity in chicks a week old, or if more than I or 2 per cent. of deformed chicks appears, look to the better regulation of the incubators, or to the health of the breeding pens. LEG WEAKNESS. This usually is an ailment of chickens which have been forced into too rapid growth by the use of rich mashes, by being kept at too high a temperature and through lack of exercise. Symptoms.—The chick walks in an unsteady man- ner and frequently squats down. The hocks are gen- erally swollen and hot to the touch. Treatment.—Feed dry grain scattered in littter so that the chickens will be obliged to exercise. Re- duce the temperature and provide plenty of green food or steamed clover, which will tend to allay the feverish condition. GAPES. This is a parasitic disease caused by the presence in the wind pipe of the affected chick small worms which are attached by their heads to the mucous membrane. This parasite, known scientifically by the name of Synganus trachealis, when removed from the trachea ‘has a branched appearance. The longer part which is about one-half inch long is the female, while the shorter part is the male. The female does not lay eggs during her lifetime, but after reaching maturity she is expelled from the windpipe, and the eggs es- cape after her death through a rent in the body wall. Other chicks take these eggs into their systems, eith- er with their food or water, and thus the disease is propagated. Symptoms.—The chick when badly infested, gasps for breath, quently stands with wings drooping and eyes closed. coughs as-though suffocating, and fre- Treatment.—In practice only preventative -neasures are of value. The worms can be removed by means of a gape worm extractor, if one has the necessary skill and patience, but on a large scale, this is impos- 514 sible, and all possible effort should be directed toward preventing further All diseased chicks and the runs and If in- simple expedi- new location each the total permanent infection. should be placed by themselves houses thoroughly cleaned up and disinfected. dividual brooders are used, the ent of placing them in a year, often almost disappear- ance of the trouble. If runs infected, they may be disinfected by the frequent use of caustic lime which is spread thickly over the sur- face and worked into the soil. Or the run may be causes become TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. hen and chicks from the nest until 25 hours after the last chick has hatched. For hen and chicken shed we use a south side wired up, with sand floor. Place the hens and chicks in a clean new nest in a nest box made of a cracker box, with a round hole sawed in one side next to one end. This makes an ideal sit- ting nest and nest for hen and chicks. We place near the end a pan of dry flaked oatmeal, grit and fresh, clean water and leave the hen and chicks to come out at will. The hen will call the chicks out and in this way any chicks that are not strong will remain in the ere! me Tati Ad r] 8 1 | | Fig, 16.—Raising Jersey Red Chickens at Sumter, La. sprinkled thoroughly with a 2 per cent. solution of sulphuric acid in water. The lime and acid, howev- er, should never be used in combination. CARE OF LITTLE CHICKS. By J. A. P. Wolf. We do not remove chicks from incubator or take nest, and the hen after feeding the chicks that came out, will return to the nest with the chicks and all is well. We have watched them do it many times. This nest arrangement may be placed immediately in the colony house, placing one in each end and plac- ing two ‘hens with chicks in each colony house, es- pecially as the weather grows warmer. This does away with the little brood coops and is a great sav- SSS SSS There Is No Easy Road to Success With Poultry. ing of time and labor and money, besides giving the chicks more room on a stormy day, when they should be confined to the colony house. Our second feed is dry bread crumbs, and the third Ciphers or any other good chick feed, feeding only three or four times per day for two or three weeks, never giving the same food twice in succession. When the chicks are one week old, we give once a ‘day, usually at noon very finely chopped onions, cab- bage, salad or fine grass. When from four to six weeks old, :f the weather will permit, the hen and chicks should have access to rye, grass and clover at The houses are thoroughly cleaned from two sprinkled on the will. to four times per week, and sand floor. In the use of brooders we place them in or be- side the colony houses, making little runs around the brooders until the chicks learn to go into the brood- ers. The brooder chicks are fed and treated the sams as those with the hens. When the chicks are old enough, we remove the brooders and the chicks nat- urally go into the colony house, and you have them where you want them. When chicks are from 8 to 10 weeks old we feed wheat in the morning, or a small feed of chick feed, and at noon beef scraps, and at night cracked corn. Sometimes I keep beef scraps in a self-feeding bin before them at all times. When the hens wean the chicks, you only have to place them back in the breeding pens and the chicks come home to roost, and you do not have to go night after night with a basket and remove them from the brood coops to the colony house. They know where they should roost, and will remain there until fall, when they can be removed to their winter quarters, the cockerels and pullets having been separated at the proper time. NOTES ON LITTLE CHICKS. One should see to it that the chicks are not chill- ed, while being transferred from the incubator to the brooder, and that the hover temperature at the be- ginning is as high as the temperature of the incuba- tor from which the chicks are taken. In the brooder or brooder house, the chicks must be taught where to go to get warm. It usually takes about a week for them to learn this lesson. The hover temperature should not fall below 90 de- grees during the first week, nor below 85 degrees cur- ing the second week. 515 Brooder chicks must not be overfed. If fed too much they droop and die. Make the chicks exercise by scattering dry cracked grain in deep but short litter. They will go to the bottom for grain if kept a little hungry. Grit, green food, animal matter and grain, togeth- er with plenty of exercise, pure air and fresh water are necessary for the highest degree of success in raising chickens. Keep the brooders clean, dry and free from lice. A brooder to be satisfactory must be simple, dura- ble and easily cleaned. The lamp must be accessible and have ample power to keep the brooder at the right temperature. If a brooder is made for 59 chicks, do not place 100 in it. Fifty many as should be together. If some of the chicks die, cut them open and find If the lungs scattered Do not cvercrowd. chicks are as cut what the trouble is; then rectify it. are inflamed or have whitish nodules through them, then the chicks have caught cold. If the gall bladder is enlarged, there has been a de- ficiency of animal food in the ration, and more should be supplied. If the contents of the yolk sac remain unabsorbed, then either the incubation was imp1oper- ly performed or the chicks were fed too soon or too much or the parent stock was in an unhealthy condi- tion. Do not permit incubator hatched chickens to come in contact with stock hatched under hens. This is a prolific source for the spread of lice, and should be avoided. Open water vessels are not desirable for drinking fountains. Many birds are lost by falling into such a death trap, besides such vessels accumulate filth and dirt and aré unsanitary. Watch the brooder lamps. Make your last round before retiring and see that everything is snug and safé. You will be amply rewarded both in content- ment of mind and better stock for any little extra at- tention vou give your birds. BROODING THE CHICKS. This subject has been worn almost threadbare, so we think, who have handled it continually season af- ter season, but whenever we come in contact with a new beginner, full of enthusiasm and hope, and who must depend upon us for advise which will assist ‘him on to success, we feel that we can not dwell too long 516 or too forcibly upon this subject, because in successful brooding it is the key to the whole situation. There are many good incubators, in fact, nearly all the old standard makes do good work in the hands of care- ful, observing operators, but of brooders, we have so few that we feel it a duty to warn not only beginners, but old operators as well, that here is the danger line, and this the block upon which so many stumble. ~ Most of the brooders are built at the North, and with a view to withstanding extremes of cold weath- er, while “n our section we seidom have to encounter zero weatver, and 1i we do, only for a day or two at most. Working on the lines of instructions usually sent with incubators and brooders, beginners take everything for grant-d. “They run the heat up as in- structed, paying very little attention to ventilation, Fig. 17—1st Prize Hen, Atlanta, Ga. Also winner of silver cup. Bred and exhibited by J. K. Ottley, Atlanta, Ga. the very essential in our clime. So far as getting up sufficient heat is concerned, we can take a dry goods - box and carry a brood through, if we have solved the question of ventilation. It is a well-known and ac- cepted fact that less ventilation is needed in cold-than in warm weather, but sufficient must be provided at all times to carry off the poisonous gases which are gencrated, and to enable the chick to breathe the sweet, pure, life-invigorating atmosphere which nature intended for it. If we observe the chickens under the hen, we will notice that while their bodies are snugly protrude and they breathe the pure air, while their hidden among the downy feathers, their little heads necessary pure air. TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. ‘bodies are warmed from the animal heat the hens — throw off. We prefer a brooder that enables the chicks to hover, and we have seen them when a com- fortable degree of heat was given to hover their little bodies under the flannel strips of cloth, their little heads protruding and an air of contentment about them, which assured us of their welfare. In many brooders, sufficient provision is not made for hover- ing the number of chicks at which it is rated, without crowding some beneath it, where they cannot get the Chicks naturally are inclined to huddle, and in brooders not provided with hovers, we usually find them piled up in a corner, unless the chamber is overheated, which is just about as inju- rious. If we had to err on the side of too much or too little heat, we would choose the latter, although there is no excuse for either. Too many people rely on their thermometers as to correct temperature. A chick can stand considerable cold, if it has access to a warm place wherein to get comfortable, and we would prefer to give plenty of ventilation, even to burning twice as much oil to bring up the desired temperature, rather than economize at the expense of the health of the entire hatch. During our fine spring weather we are able to supply all the ventilation nec- essary, even to raising the cover, provided the chicks have a place, a hover, under which they will find comfort, as they do under a hen. We would advise beginners and others to look care- fully into this question of brooding and observe these things, as upon them will rest your success in the business. Too many buy a 300-egg incubator and but one brooder. Manufacturers are much to blame here. In the battles of fierce competition now rag- ing, too little regard is had for truth and _ honesty. They know as well as we do that fifty birds to any one brooder is sufficient, no matter whether rated a 50, 100 or 200-chick size. The fact of the matter is they do not do well in larger numbers, and I would prefer a half dozen small brooders to one large one any time. Another thing to be observed is in sepa- rating the weak, stunted looking chicks from the oth- ers. They teach the others the crowding habit, and besides this never recover if left to be run over and trampled by the others, Lots of failures in brooding chicks are charged to feeding, when the whole thing “is due to-bad ventilation, overheating and chilling. Another thing observable in brooder chicks incor- their feet. Compared with the full, moist, shiny-look- rectly brooded is the dried, shriveled appearance of - . Peas Make a Very Fine ing feet of the hen’s biddies, the comparison is strik- ing and noticeable. We prefer to have a generous amount of clean sand in.the brooder—an inch deep is not too much—and it is advisable and ‘helpful to stand in each brooder a can of water, so placed that the chicks can’t get to it, which will be found very help- ful to them. You all know how hard and dry the air become in a room where a stovevis burning, and how placing a kettle of water on it renders the atmosphere moist and more agreeable. It is similar in a brooder, and at best can do no harm and a little experimenting along this line will soon give you an insight into its value. With the heating and ventilating controlled, the feeding becomes easy. At the present price of all or- dinary grains, we would advise the use of the well- known brands of chick-feed advertised, as with this on hand the beginner is on an even footing with the oldest breeder in the land, for besides being about as cheap, it is a well-balanced ration prepared especially for young chicks, and contains everything necessary, even to grit and meat scraps. It eliminates the dan- ger of feeding stuff injurious to young chickens, saves time, insures raising the greatest possible, and fed in litter, provides exercise necessary to the best development of the growing chicks. For the first few days, in cold weather, the chicks should be confined to the brooder, and not allowed to roam. After they become active and sprightly, they may be allowed a small inclosure about three feet square to run in, and this should be increased daily until after a week’s time they may run at will, they will know their home and return to it when cold, or at roosting time at night. Care should be paid to gathering in any stragglers. The heat should be gradually reduced, and in mild weather in the South, after they are several weeks old, their bodies will generate sufficient heat to maintain the necessary temperature for their comfort. number of chicks BROODER CHICKS. ' Give water to drink from the start. Remove the chicks to new runs, if confined in pens, and plant oats, rye or other green feed. Tiny brooder chicks sometimes peck each others feet until sore. Keep them busy by feeding grain in short litter and they will forget these small vices. Don’t feed your brooder chicks like mother used to do. Mother’s chicks were brooded by hens, and were quite a different proposition. : Food for the Chickens. 517 Keep out the sunlight let in the doctor. Assafoedita in the drinking water is good for little chicks with gapes. Remove your chicks from ground on which your Sprinkle lime freely, then spade the run and lime again. Scrub treatment will make scrubs of thorough- breds. Accumulated manure breeds disease. chicks become infected with gape worms. Fresh water is worthless if poured vessel. Clean the brooders daily. into a filthy “GOLDEN QUEEN” S »\ ed Fig. 18.—A fine Buff Rock Hen, winner at Atlanta, Charles- ton, S. C., Macon, Ga., and other shows. Owned by C. Wayne Fowler, Smyrna, Ga. STARTING A “BROILER PLANT” ON LIMIT- ED CAPITAL. So long as the demand exceeds the source of sup- - ply, so long will the raising of poultry for market or for eggs remain a profitable industry, when conduct- ed by persons who are adapted to the work. No one need attempt the undertaking with the expectation of running up against a “snap.” It is work, work all the time, early morning until night with the closest 518 attention necessary to details, cleanliness, regularity in feeding, guarding against vermin, and supplying every want of the fowl, and looking after its comfort. In going into this line of business, we should first determine upon the wants of the market which we aim to supply, whether it is broilers, or eggs or both, as upon this desire will depend the first steps to be taken in securing breeding stock, incubators, brood- ers, etc., as well as location, nearness to market be- ing a prime essential in some cases. We will suppose in this instance that broilers for the market is the main consideration, and take up the “ego farm” under a separate head. TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. during the year under contract, if the breeder can give ample assurance of his ability to supply this de- mand, Two hundred hens should supply in season — suffi- cient eggs to run two incubators of 200 egg capacity per week, and give you a surplus besides. In the off seasons more hens may be required, depending upon your ability to create the “laying habit” in your fowls. This would require six 200 egg machines with an ad- ditional smaller machine to start at the same time you do your large ones, so that at testing time you can fill in from the surplus to offset the umfertile and doubtful eggs removed from them. The first week Fig. 19—An ideal Buff Plymouth Rock. Tor this purpose one should have sufficient means at his disposal to buy his breeding stock, his incuba- tors and brooders, as well as feed, and look for no in- come the first 6 months. In the South broilers are mar- keted at from 10 to 12 weeks old, and brine an aver- age of from 20 to 25 cents each in the markets where a demand has been created, and which can be regu- larly supplied. We have in mind several cities in the lower South that will take a large number of birds you start two, 200 egg machines, together with the smaller one. One week later you start two more, testing out the unfertile eggs from your first lot, and refilling from your “tender” as we will call it. This will probably leave your “tender” empty, and ready to start again with your second hatch. Should it not do so, it might be well to have two small machines for “tenders,” say of 100 egg size capacity, so that 14 event the first tender is not ready for use, the second If You Are Going to Make Poultry Raising a Business, use Pure Breeds. may be brought into play, and on 14th or 15th day of last test you will have used up all surplus from first tender leaving it ready for starting your third ‘hatch, which will now put in use all six of your machines, the first of which is already weel s under way, so that when the last hatch has run one week, your first machines are three weeks under way, and are hatching. Every week after the third you will have a hatch coming off, and at the lowest reasonable calculations you should get out 60 eggs with two per cent. of all eggs put in, or 240 chicks every week, 519 this expense and further losses which one experiences when depending upon outside help. In arranging your yards and brooding accommoda- tions, you must figure on supplying your yard room for at least ten or twelve ‘hatches of 250 chicks, for your first hatch will be from ten to twelve weeks old before coming to marketable age, so that have from ten ; you will to eleven subsequent hatches on your hands ranging in age from one week to eleven, as the case may be. Fig. 20.—A typical Brown Leghorn. from which you should raise to twelve weeks old at least 200, which should bring you $50.00 in your lo- eal market. This then woud be your income from a ‘small broiler plant running 6 200-egg machines with two small “tenders” from which you would have to deduct cost of feeding, expenses, etc. Besides this profit, you would have surplus eggs from your main flock, and if you have provided ample brooding facili- ties and prepared to keep your different ages sepa- rated, you will with little or no outside labor avoid To handle them to the best advantage. your brood- er yards should be so arranged that they will increase in size, so that the one intended for the youngest hatches being suited to their ages, and each succeed- ing one being larger, to take care of the different ages, and if hawks and other vermin are trouble- some, it will be necessary for you to string meshed wire, the writer having found single strand No. 14 wire or smaller well adapted for this purpose, string- ing it six inches apart. No hawk will attempt to go 520 TILLING THE SOIL FOR through, and if so, his hawkship will be unable to get out. skunks, opossums, etc., during the day time, but care should be observed that houses are carefully closed at night before these prowlers are on the move. You will experience little trouble with Snakes are sometimes very destructive to small chickens, and no high weeds or hiding places should Many a prom- ising bird has given a meal to these “thieves” and are hard to detect in their stealthy work. In selecting the stock for the production of eggs for be tolerated near your chicken yards. your incubators, birds of one variety are always pre- ferred, and for broilers, none surpass the Plymouth Rocks or Wyandottes. The whites in both varieties are the most popular, ‘having no dark pin feathers, and make an ideal bird for broiler The first cost for good layers may be a little more than for a lot of mongrels, but then one should not embark in purposes. this business unless sufficiently equipped with capital to start right. While the income from the broiler plant practically begins with the maturity of the first hatch at 3 to have sufficient surplus on hand to meet any disap- months, it is always advisable forthe operator He must also bear in mind that while his first 200 birds are getting pointment that may ‘happen to him. to marketable age, he has a large number constantly coming on that require feeding, which is a consider- able item when 100 to 200 chicks are considered, to say nothing of the hens that are kept for supplying the eggs. One should never depend on eggs purchased from outsiders to run the incubators. This has been the source of more failures in the broiler business than all the other causes combined. No matter how well you think you know the people or the flocks from which they originate, it is seldom that the results will even pay the actual cost of the eggs. If your advent in the broiler business is dependent upon this source of supply of eggs, we say emphatically “don’t.” Many of the largest plants in this country amply capitaliz- ed have failed because of this same trouble that we are now warning our readers against. The treatment of the chicks while in the nursery is about the same whether intended for broilers or breeders, the object being to carry the chickens safe- ly past the many dangers which beset them during the first three or four weeks. The prepared chick feeds supplemented with grit and green feed, and PROFIT AND PLEASURE. plenty of exercise is now used by the most successful broiler people in the business. The thing of greatest importance is cleanliness and this apples not alone to the brooders but to the runs as well. These should be plowed or spaded and if possible planted frequent- ly in green feed of some kind. Foul ground is one of the causes of great mortality in chicks. If the broiler business of the past has been extremely hazardous, it has not been due to a lack of ready markets at good prices, but rather from causes entirely within the con- trol of the operator. Experience alone can give the desired information as to details, etc., and this must be supplemented with proper equipment of incubators, brooders and brooder houses. EGG FARMING IN THE SOUTH. There is no branch of poultry husbandry that carries with it less risk from losses, nor greater certainty of immediate profits with quick returns than “‘Egg Farming.” among the Mediterranean breeds, consequently non- setters, the successful ege farmer relies almost whol- ly on artificial incubation and brooding for obtaining his annual supply of new stock birds which are to furnish the eggs for another year. On the majority of the egg farms in this country the non-setting varieties are used almost exclusively, with the preference greatly in favor of the White Leg- horns. There are also some very successful plants in which the American varieties are given full sway, no- tably the Barred, Buff, and White Plymouth Rocks, White and Buff Wyandottes, and ttie Rhode Island Reds. These birds become broody however, and some develop remarkable tastes for obstinate brood1- ness. The successful egg farmer will, however, break up this broodiness as early as possible, usually at the very first sign of it, and a method employed with much success, which eleminates any resemblance to cruelty is practiced on some of our largest egg farms. The method is as follows: A box such as is usually employed for the use of setting hens is procured, the bottom taken out and regular poultry netting nailed in its place, allowing it to sag down a little to form a hollow the shape of a nest. This box is nailed up from the floor, high enough to allow the air to circulate under it very freely. It seems as though the ‘hen cannot stand this cooling off process, having nothing under her to As the greatest layers are- If You Have Good Stock, You Will Have to Pay For Them. break the air currents, and in two or three days all signs of broodiness disappear. This method is sup- plemented with another which usualiy effects a radi- cal cure. By placing this hen for a day with a young, vigorous male bird, all ambition for setting seems to be obliterated and she soon resumes her egg lay- ing, to the satisfaction and profit of the owner. A’ notable observation where the praciice has been in vogue for some years, shows that the tendency to broodiness is gradually reduced, the birds exhibiting less and less inclination to set and devoting more time to egg production, which is what the egg farm- er is after. The remarkable demand for eggs, which increases as the years roll on, makes this branch of the poul- try industry an ideal one for anyone having the nec- Fig. 21.—A typical Leghorn as grown by Jno. R. McMillan, LouisvMle Ry. essary capital and love for the business to undertake it. It is conceded that the value of the laying pullet is $1.00, also that the food and labor for the year will average $1.25; this then would make a total of $2.25 for one laying fowl for a year. This will be found an average cost throughout the country. While this cost may be somewhat higher than here in the South, this is balanced by the fact that we get a little less probab- ly for our product. Now, figuring that a laying pullet will produce ‘her first year one hundred and fifty eggs, these at 25 cts. per dozen would bring $3.13. At the end of her first laying year, this hen will have a market value of at least 60 cts. This makes a total of $3.73 which may be figured as the returns of one layer kept for egg 521 production cxclusively, and shows % profit of $1.48 or over 60 per cent. profit on your original invest- ment of $2.25. ‘hese iigures may be increased if pure-bred birds are used, when the farmer will have quite.a demand for incubator eggs at advanced prices, which will go a long way towards swelling the pro- fits of the year’s business. Indeed, we know of one egg farmer in Georgia close to Atlanta who from 500 birds kept, uses probably 50 per cent oi his product in filling orders for incubator eggs at $5.00 to $6.00 per hundred and his surplus is contracted for by an Atlanta firm at 25 cts. per dozen throughout the year. During one week he sold over $60.00 worth of stock at prices ranging from $2.00 to $5.00 per head, due to the fact that he culled his flock closely year by year until to-day you can find on this model “eggs plant,’ finer specimens of Buff Wyandottes than usually grace the yards of the fancier who caters only to the “fancy trade.” Another attractive feature of an ege farm is the fact that it is an all-the-year-round branch, which caters to a constant demand, and brings in an income throughout the year in proportion to the poultryman’s ability to keep nis hens laying. We k10Ww of no oth- er branch of the poultry business that offers greater inducements fo a beginner, and it admits developing all other branches, as he adapts himself to the work. If we examine into the history of most of our suc- cessful egg-farms, we find that they are the results of a small beginning, developing gradually to meet the demands of the trade, and growing steadily into a profitable business, which has scarcely any limit to its possibilities. While it is true that the success of any ege farm depends upon the number of eggs which can be pro- duced per head, which is influenced greatly by the method of feeding, etc., still the selection of birds: from ancestors that ‘have established an egg-record is one of the most important things that is to be taken into consideration. This selection can only be made by the use of trap nests, which subject has been treated very exhaustively under the title elsewhere in this work. A careful system of selection, continued through several years will result in giving you birds of established merit, and which as breeders, will pro- duce stock that is as near to egg machines as hu- man ingenuity can make them. After this, the feed- ing becomes a prime factor in assisting you in get- ting the greatest number of eggs, but if the bird itself is not a good layer by heredity, all the feeding in the 522 ‘ ’ world cannot make her a “record fowl,” ‘hence our advice that you select birds by the tiap nest method, which is the only sure way of knowing what you have, all others being purely guess-work. All experiments heretofore attempted prove con- clusively that pullets lay more eggs than Lens, hence Pullet those the farmer should use pullets exciusively. eggs are not as good to use for breeding as from which you will produce the laying pullets an- other season. Use a male bird from a hen that has proven her leying qualities. Such a bird will go a long way towards fixing the strain. We prefer the colony plan for our b.rds which has the advantage of furnishing large range and exercise. This, however, becomes a matter fsr the considera- TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. in the healthfulness of your stock, and the increased eggs produced from *them. This is no lazy man’s business, yet offers to any good worker a handsome profit on his investment, an independent life, with plenty of outdoor work, and health and happiness as a consequence. THE EGG BUSINESS. The market price of eggs during the past seasons, more particular during the winter months, has been such as to turn the attention of many to this branch of the poultry business as offering the quickest and most profitable results, with greater chances for suc- cess. Considering the fact that it is a business from Fig. 22.—Partial View of the Poultry Houses and Yards at individual’s environments, and if the birds are to be yarded, as large a run should be given tion of each In this case it is necessary to feed which them as possible. all grain in litter to induce exercise, without best results are not obtainable. As regards the kind of house, this subject has been fully treated elsewhere in this book, and will convey a very good idea of the different styles of buildings adapted to the business. All rules of cleanliness must be carefully observed, as much so in this line of poultry culture as any oth- er. Fowls cannot do their owner justice ff lice and vermin thrive; and filthy quarters are a most fruitful source of disease and vermin. Chicken houses should be cleaned regularly, the accumulate droppings re- moved and applied to the land used for crops, and the work necessary to do this will be greatly compensat- ed for in the increase of the yield of grain, as well as West Virginia Experiment Station. which a steady income is possible all the year round, it offers extra inducements to those of limited means who can not wait over-long for the income to begin. The inexperienced often make the mistake of fig- uring too largely, basing their calcu'ations too often on the misleading statements of caialogue writers and would-be poultry experts who never raised a bird » in their lives. The 200-egg hen was an unheard of proposftion not many years ago, but pick up a poul- try journal and go through the advertisements to-day and you will find hundreds of reputable(?) breeders advertising stock and eggs of this 200 and 250-egg strain anywhere from $1 to $5 per setting. It is an easy matter to figure a fine profit on the basis of 200 eggs per hen per annum, and this the enthusiastic be- ginner is more than apt to do, and when, therefore, he realizes only 100 eggs per hen cr less and his dream of fabulous wealth goes glimmering and the ————S—_—————— ESSE Hired. Help Cannot be Depended on With Poultry Very Much. reality forces itself upon him, too ofte2: when too late his little earnings ‘have sunk with his venture. It is more reasonable to figure on an average of 25 cents per dozen than to select layers that will yield 200 eggs per year. One hundred. and twenty eggs are nearer what you will get, and this.average is only possible in large flocks under systernatic feeding and with care and cleanliness observed. To realize 25 cents one must have access to a good market, or have acquired a reputation for his product that will command him a premium over the regular quotations. market One collar per head, though being generally allow- ed as the cost of feeding a fowl for a year, will hard- ly be sufficient with feed at its present prices—$1.50 would be nearer the mark. So we see that with a flock averaging to dozen cegs per annum and these Fig. 23.—Winner 1st prizes at Winston and Raleigh, N. C., 1902. Owned by Chickadotte Farm, Rural Hall, N. C. bringing $2.50, from which the feeding takes $1.50, leaves us a profit of $1.00 per head, providing we have no other losses to take from these figures. The novice will be content to figure on this basis, and get great consolation from it, for if 100 hens will earn him $100 net, won’t 1,000 earn him $1,000? Here is where he strikes a snag, for no beginner, and few older breeders, can make 1,000 pay the same propor- tion as the smaller number. So many things enter into this arrangement to cut down the profits that it is always best to take up the business on a small scale and work up to larger proportions. If any one 523 thinks they have a flock of the 200-egg hens, you may dissipate this illusion by trap-nesting what you con- sider your best layers. Even the 200-egg hen can not be relied upon to reproduce chicks that will aver- age this number, so that when you purchase and pay for the reputation some breeder has made on a few birds, don’t feel assured of what you have bought until the trap-mest has proven the fact. THE CARE OF BREEDING STOCK. About the middle of December we mate our birds for eggs used for hatching. oof But do not send out an egg for two or four weeks after birds have been mat- ed up, usually not until after incubating enough ‘¢gs to test their fertility. We feed wheat, oats cr cane seed in litter for morning feed, cabbage, turnips, beets or rape at noon unless there is ample green stuff in the runs, and the weather favorable to running out of doors; at night we feed one evening corn, then the next evening a mash composed of 2-3 wheat bran and 1-3 corn meat to which is added once or twice a week 10 per cent. beef scraps. Once or twice a month after February, we add to this mash 2 lbs. of sulphur, or 2 lbs. Ep- som salts for every fifty or sixty hens. We find that this keeps the fowls in good spring time when cholera is ance, prevents it. condition and in the apt to make grit, oyster shell and self-feeding bins before them all the time, also clean, fresh water. Once or twice a week we feed small quantities of green cut bone, and twice a week we feed clover hay thrown in the straw in the scratching room, or place it in little racks. We have never yet failed to get a rea- sonable amount of eggs Db>oS~>) its appear- We keep charcoal, or coal cinders in and usually a very satisfac- tory number. After June when our breeding pens are broken up, we usually let our ‘hens have their own way about the place, and are not quite so careful about our feed- ing, and feed much less corn until the hens begin to molt, when we begin to feed more cially on wheat and oats. heavily, espe- We have tried the starva- tion molting process, but do not find that it is so sat- isfactory as some recommend it to be. With us the hens do better under a reasonable feed than to starve them from two to four weeks, and then increase the feed, as this method runs them down in condition, which takes longer to build up than it would if they are fed during the time and feed more heavily when 524 TILLING THE SOIL FOR the hens show signs of molt. Take the hen that has the late brood that lives around the old garden or around the stable and is well fed, and she is the first to put on her new coat of feathers. The above method is not so necessary with farm- ers whose flocks run at large and secure a_ great many things that yarded fowls cannot secure. A good way to feed oats in the winter is to pour boiling water over them the night before and feed in With yarded fowls a great many things can be done to increase the egg production, such as throwing in sliced onions, celery scraps, apple parings, etc. troughs the same as a mash. Fig. 24.—Single Comb White Leghorns. . EXERCISE. I wonder how many of the poultrymen of to-day still fail to give the fowls plenty of exercise, or rather to feed them in such a way that they will be com- pelled to work? Of course no one who calls himself up to the times would fail in this part of the work. A few will say, “Why must exercise be given?” Look for a moment at the way which nature intended that PROFIT AND PLEASURE. every animal should get its sustenance. It was not intended that any animal should get its food without | working for it. So we can easily see the evils of lack | of exercise. Allowed to remain idle and given plenty | of feed will soon destroy the usefulness of any bird in- |) tended for laying purposes. And it will take longer | to get the bird back to the proper condition for lay- ing thai it would to get it too fat. Exercise is as we may say life to the bird, for it is only the active bird | that proves itself an egg-producer. If we fail to make them exercise they get fat and certainly will. not lay. A fowl too fat is liable to get some disease, such as indigestion, etc. " No need of allowing the , birds to get fat except when intended for market and_ at no other time should they be allowed to become, fat. There is a proper condition for the laying hen to be in which can be learned by experience. To be. healthy and a good egg-producer the hen must be fed well and yet be made to exercise enough to keep, down surplus fat other than that which should al- | ways be present. There must be some fat, but not | enough to be a detriment to egg-production. Do Not Let the Mites Get Started About the Houses. Now, in regard to the way of giving them the ex- ercise. In summer, on the range, they will get it in hunting for bugs, etc., but in winter it will be neces- sary to keep six or eight inches of straw or leaves on the floor and scatter the grain in it so they will have to scratch to find it. They should be given a small amount of grain in the litter early in the morning so they can get to work the first thing and not stand around. It is a good idea to scatter the grain in the litter at night after dark so you will have it ready for them as soon as they come off the roost in the morning before you will want to get out to feed them. The first feed should be a little grain in the Fig. 25—A. B. B. Red Game Brood Cock. litter, then if a mash is fed it may be given along some time in the forenoon after the fowls have warm- ed themselves up working in the litter; then give a little more grain to keep them at work. Also give them green food, etc. Then at night the full feed of grain that is usually given may be scattered in the litter. Care must be taken that this last feed is given early enough that they may have time to get a full crop before dark. It will not be too early to give it to them along in the middle of the afternoon, as the days are short during the winter, and it will take them some time to dig it out of the litter—Percy W. Shepard. FEED FOR CHICKENS. The question of feed for chickens is one of impor- 525 tance to the poultrymen, for it is by feeding that eggs and chickens are produced. The domestic fowls that receive very little attention from the farmer, that is, approach more nearly the natural conditions, lay most of their eggs in the springtime. There is a rea- son for this and that is the surroundings and food that are best suited for egg production. The weath- er is warm, the fowls have plenty of green food, some grain, a great many insects and plenty of and fresh air. When all these conditions are met the fowl produces eggs. The successful poultryman will try to meet these conditions the year round, and let the fowls have a continual springtime. Many farm- ers and poultrymen feed entirely too much corn. By some cause many people ‘have the idea that corn will produce eggs. Indeed, until recently corn has been exercise considered the universal poultry food of America. Experiments have clearly demonstrated that corn should not be fed to laying hens exclusively. Corn is too fattening to be fed to fowls kept in close con- finement. Wheat is perhaps a better food for lay- ing hens than corn, but since farmers in the South raise more corn than wheat, corn will remain a standard food for poultry among farmers for a long time. Where corn is fed so food should be supplied. constantly, green Oats is better than wheat or corn, and comes nearer being an ideal food than any single grain. When browned in the oven it will be relished more and aid egg production very great- ly. But there is no one grain, or no one food for that matter, that will be successful in itself. Fowls need a variety in their food just the same as any animal. Experiments have been made which show that a larg-. er per cent. of the food is digested when a great number of foods are fed together, than wheré just one or two different kinds of food are used. To have a large variety of foods is more nearly natural and like the wild birds feed. So it is much cheaper in the long run and your returns larger to use a combina- tion food. Also, most poultrymen concede that ground or soft food should be fed as well as grains. Grain should be scattered in leaves and straw, as it furnishes exercise. They need exercise and this will come nearer furnishing it to them than any- thing we know of. But they should not be fed more than they will eat up clean. Fowls should always be kept active and on the lookout fer another grain of corn, wheat or oats. Most farmers do not realize the importance of green feeds. In the spring they have all the green them 526 TILLING THE SOIL FOR food that they want. And we remember that this is the time of the year that they do most of their lay- ing. In order to make a success in raising poultry you must see to it that they have green food the year round. Rye makes an excellent food for chickens, and it comes in at a time when fowls are sadly in need of some green food. ‘Turnips, stock beets and cabbage make a good variety and are easily pro- duced. If you make the right kind of effort you can supply them with green food the year round. Fowls that are confined need some meat. Fresh bone that is obtained from the butcher shop makes an excellent food, if cut finely with-a good bone cut- ter manufactured for the purpose. You can with this cutter turn bones into the best of food. Tainted bones should never be fed to poultry. See to it that the meat you give them is fresh and not spoiled. If you cannot obtain meat, skim milk may be substitut- ed. If you are living on the coast and can obtain fish cheaply, you will find that they make an excellent food either baked or boiled. Cotton-seed meal is a good food. Many poultry- men do not realize the value of cotton-seed meal as an egg producer. One authority says that he con- siders cotton-seed meal as valuable as cut bone as an ege producer. In feeding cotton-seed meal it should be dampened, but it should not be wet. It should be fed in proportion to one teaspoonful to two fowls. Do not, however, feed it too constantly, -but alternate it with other things. with some ground feed, preferably oats, corn and wheat- It should be fed mixed bran in equal parts, finely ground. These soft feeds should be seasoned with salt and a little dash of red pepper. Soft feed should be moistened with warm water. It should not be fed boiling hot even in cold weather. Do not feed moldy or spoiled any time, although it may be bought for a price. It would be dear in the end, causing trouble, and all kinds of similar troubles. There are many ready mixed grains for sale, which seem to be the very thing needed for the scratching pen, and are cheaper in the end than buying separate grains. grain at small bowel THE MOLTING SEASON. Mr. R. M. Drake has the following to say concern- ing the Molting Season: “There is no season of the year when mature fowls need more careful attention than during the molt. At this time the fowl replaces its old coat of feathers PROFIT AND PLEASURE. which has become worn and dirty with a year’s use, by one that is new and clean and _ beautiful. The making of this new coat taxes severely the powers of the bird, usually stopping egg-production and some- times so overtaxing a weaker constitution as to bring about death. “Time of Molt.—The time of molting varies with the age, condition and treatment of the individual. It frequently begins in June or July but may not do so until late in the fall. As a rule younger birds molt earlier than older ones, and fall-hatched pullets are usually through with their molt by the end of their first summer and are ready to get to laying again. On the other hand, pullets hatched very early in the spring are apt to shed their first mature coat toward the end of the fall and to be in molt when the cold weather sets in. Hence if eggs are- wanted in the early fall months when the most of the hens are tak- ing a vacation, it is wise to hatch fall and winter pul- sut these should be marketed when the later spring pullets come to the nest, in November or De- cember. The first because they are not likely to come up to standard size or to be good breeders having been retarded by the winter coming in their growing season, and the latter because they will probably take a long vacation during the season when eggs are high and the cost of keeping animals jis greatest. lets. “An early molt is considered desirable, as the warm summer months are more propitious for this change of clothes and the hens can return to their laying in the fall when eggs are especially desirable. “It has been asserted that the period at which molt- ing takes place can be controlled. What is called the Van Dresser system consists of penning the fowls pretty closely for two weeks about July rst on' half rations (which is thought to cause the feathers to be- gin dropping) and then to give them free rahge with abundance of food best fitted to form feathers. It is claimed that this brings about an early and quick molt, and certain experiments reported from the West Virginia Experiment Station seem to sustain the claim. “T ‘have been creditably informed that in a certain community in Tennessee a more vigorous method is adopted. The hens are picked and left bare to get new feathers as best they can. The results are said to be good. I should, however, be cautious in trying such a method. “During the period of molt the hens should be at- A Few Turkeys Will Pay on Most Every Farm. tended to with more than usual care. Their quarters should be kept clean and dry, and they should be kept free of lice and. mites. “In regard to feed they should have a plenty, and it should include some feather-forming elements. Sunflower seed are highly recommended at this time. Oats make a good feed. If it is practicable to turn the flock on oat stubble that ought to be of great benefit. A mash consisting of equal parts of wheat, bran and corn hearts has given good results for me. Some corn should be fed also. If on range fowls will probably provide themselves with animal food, but if they do not it should be provided for them. Clabber makes a very good feed at this time or at almost any time of the year. “With a little attention the hens should be soon filling the egg baskets again and more than paying for their keep.” Fig. 26—Winner of 1st prize Winston Fair. Owned by the Chickadotte Farm, Rural Hall, N. C. SUMMER CHICKS. There are three important essentials to the success- ful raising of summer chicks, viz., cleanliness, proper food, and a generous supply of clean, fresh water; and taking up the subject in the order named, we will endeavor to present a few facts from our experience, together with the methods we have used and found to give the best results. We will presume that we have decided to get off some late hatched chicks, and that we will use hens for incubating. Before setting the hen she should be well dusted with some good insecticide, and given a nest of clean straw in some quiet place where she will be free from intrusion from the balance of the flock. A few days before hatching she should be again well dusted with insecticide. After the hatch, grease the head of each chick with lard, and give the hen another dusting, rubbing the powder well into the feathers; then remove the hen and brood to a clean coop with slatted front, and a good close, slant- ing top that will shed rain; put a few handsful of straw in coop with a generous supply of clean sand or grit; this should be renewed once or twice a week. Attach to coop a movable pen 2x4 without bottom, made of plastering laths, in which the hen can dust and exercise. We keep the hen in this coop until chicks are ready for weaning, when we remove them to their permanent quarters. Feed.—Young chicks should be fed about five times a day, and just so much as they will eat up clean at a feeding. We find that chicks do well and grow off nicely on the following foods, which we al- ternate at each feeding: Corn bread, cooked crumbly, millet seed, cracked corn, cane seed, wheat, etc. We are strong advocates of dry feeding, and seldom ever feed soft food, especially to summer- hatched chicks. And last, but by no means least, is the question of water. We believe that stale and im- pure water causes the death of more fowls and chicks every year than any other two causes combined, so look well to it that your chicks have before them all the time a goodly allowance of fresh water, and our word for it, that with due regard for until cleanliness, proper food, and a generous supply of clean, fresh water you can raise prize-winners, even in the sum- mer-time. Some of the finest birds in our yards to- day were late hatched. LITERATURE THAT SHOULD BE IN THE HANDS OF ALL POULTRYMEN. The U. S. Department of Agricutture at Washing- ton, D. C., has just issued a pamphlet on “Incuba- tion and Incubators,’ by Richard H. Wood, M.D., that will be of interest to poultrymen generally. In the summary, the following rules have been taid down: Study your incubator. Acquaint yourself with all of its parts. 528 Read the manufacturer’s directions for setting it up. Set it up carefully according to instructions. Never try to run an incubator in a drafty place, nor near a stove, nor where the sun shines upon it. Set fertile eggs only. Waste no effort upon those thateare infertile. Learn how to trim and clean a lamp. Keep the Iamps full and the wick and tube clean. Avoid smoke. See that the eggs are clean and dry before setting. Balance the eggs, large end up, a few hours before setting them. Do not overfill the tray. Cool the eggs every morning. Be sure your hands are clean when handling eggs. Test all eggs by the 7th day. Test again by the rith day. Test again by the r5th day. If the afr space is too large, supply moisture; if too small, put a saucer of dry lime in the room and run without moisture a day or too, Do not expect to learn all about the air cell the first hatch. You will learn that later. Do rot disturb the eggs after the evening of the w8th day. Have a regular hour for incubator work. Do not tinker too much with the regulator. Get the adjustment right and keep it so. Heat your machine and make your adjustment be- fore placing the eggs in the chamber. Experience comes from the work itself. Among the many publications of the Department of Agriculture that are free to all, the following are TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. of interest to poultrymen and can be had without charge by sending request to Secretary of: Agricul- ture, Division of Publications, Washington, D. C. No. 22, The Feeding of Farm Animal, 37, Kaffir Corn, Culture and Uses, Fowls, Care and Feeding, 51, Standard Varieties of Chickens, 59, Bee Keeping. 64, Ducks and Geese, Milk.as a Food, 85, Fish as Food, , The Vegetable Garden, 98, Suggestions to Southern Farmers, . tor, Millets, . 102, Southern Forage Crops, . 118, Grape Growing in the South, No. 125, Protection of Food products from injuri- ous temperatures, Qo 14 oF Or Oo) i 2 Ss) em No) te O95 ZLZAAZALZAZAZAAAAZ {o} No. 126, Practical Suggestions for Farm Buildings, No. 128, Eggs and their uses as food, No. 141, Poultry raising on the Farm, No. 154, The Home Fruit Garden, . 150, The Home Vineyard, No. 182, Poultry as Food, No. 183, Meat on the Farm, Butchering, Curing, etcr, No. 185, Beautifying the Home Grounds, No. 200, Turkeys, No. 234, The Guinea Fowl and its use as food, No. 236, Incubation and Incubators. A perusal of these works will prove of benefit to our readers, and they make a handy library for use- ful reference. DIsEASES OF POULTRY. Bya ja. BP? WOLE: Cleanliness is next to Godliness, so goes the ola This we do know that cleanliness is neces- sary to healthfulness. Plenty of clean fresh water, sound wholesome food in variety and moderation are the best cures or rather preventatives for all diseases, as they keep the birds in good health and condition, thereby preventing to a great extent, and when con- maxim. tracted give the fowl the constitution to withstand the ravages of disease. CHOLERA. ‘Cholera, which is a liver trouble is attended with fever, often very high, but easily controlled if taken Keep Every Thing Clean Around the Poultry Yard. in time, by separating the sick fowls and giving one- fourth teaspoonful kerosene oil to each sick bird once a day, giving water and food only once per day. We find wheat is the best food at this time, although soft food with plenty of Epsom salts is good. After you have separated your sick birds, do not neglect the rest of your flock. Cut down your feed one-fourth and add 10 drops of carbolic acid to each gallon of drinking water. Once a day feed one tablespoonful kerosene oil to each gallon of mash, made of one- third corn meal and two-thirds wheat bran, until you are satisfied that you are past danger. Smetehed Scene TF orh Sous S.Srokann s”99 529 COLDS AND ROUP. Colds and roup, the most dreaded of all diseases, will first be noticed by a discharge from the nose, usually one or both nostrils being pasted over with a feather, dirt or other substance by the discharge. This is a cold, and if not attended to will run into roup. The eyes and head swell, and sometimes there is a disagreeabie odor. Birds often contract colds at shows, and this will run into roup, if neglected. Remedy.—For colds feed 2 lbs. Epsom salts in 2 Fig. 27.—An excellent specimen of the Brown Leghorn hen. Another quart of meal, one large tablespoonful coal oil (kero- sene,) one ‘heaping teaspoonful black pepper, one tea- Mix it all together and dampen Remedy.—For 12 grown fowls take one spoonful table salt. it and place it where the chickens can get to it once a week and you will seldom have cholera in your flock. However, if they do have it make them eat this prescription even if you have to force it down them. gallons mash to every 30 or 40 fowls two or three times a week. Take equal parts sweet oil and kero- sene oil and inject into the nostrils of the sick fowls a few drops of the mixture. Use 10 drops carbolic acid to each gallon drinking water as in cholera. For roup treat in the same way, first washing the fowl’s ead in a weak solution of carbolic acid or strong carbolic soap suds and warm water to clean the af- fected parts. Keep the fowls in clean, dry, warm 35 530 quarters and feed well. In very severe cases anoint the swollen or inflamed parts with carbonated vase- line or camphorated sweet oil. The above treatment will be found to be effective in the treatment of sore head, canker and chicken pox. Clean and whitewash all houses and coops and spray with water to which has been added a tablespoonful of carbolic acid to each gallon of water. SCALY LEGS. Scaly legs is caused by a parasite burrowing under the scales of the legs. Treatment.—For yellow legged fowls use lard and sulphur mixed into a good paste and grease the legs two or three times per week until cured. For white legged fowls wash the feet and legs in kerosene oil. This remedy would be better for the yellow legged, except for the fact that it fades the yellow legs and runs them white. CHICKEN POX OR SORE HEAD. This is a disease peculiar to Southern States where the climate is warm. The disease is caused by over- crowding of the fowls in the house and yard and the lack of cleanliness. It makes its appearance as a rule on the head, a small eruption appearing near the eye, ear or on the bill. These eruptions spread until finally the eyes are covered and the whole body is appears on the legs of the infested. It sometimes fowls. As soon as the disease appears, the affected fowls should be removed and the premises disinfect- ed by using whitewash, Bordeaux mixture or carbol- ic acid. For the diseased fowls take one part of car- bolic acid and mix with twenty parts soft soap and apply it on the sores and unfeathered parts of the head. This should be put on until a cure is effected. Another Remedy.—Take one part calomel and eight parts of vaseline and mix and apply to the sores and unfeathered parts of the head once a day until a cure is effected. Another remedy is to put a little pine tar on the sores each day until they get well. LIMBERNECK. This disease is a new one and the authorities say that it is caused by fowls eating maggots that prey on dead carcasses of fowls or animals. One author- TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. ity says that when a case of limberneck is reported to him he always advises that all possible sources of | decayed meat be cleaned up. The chickens seem all right when they go to roost at night and on the next morning the affected ones will remain on the perch with their heads hanging down and their necks ap- pear to be broken. The head and neck are bluish and feverish. The fowls are very sleepy and thirsty and if their skins are examined they will be found to be red. There is no sure cure for this disease. The best plan is to prevent it. All decayed meats should be burned or buried deep especially in the summer time. When the disease is developed give your birds a dose of castor oil. Allow one teaspoonful of oil to each bird, mix with corn meal to a stiff mash and feed so that each bird gets its share. But it is safer. to prevent the trouble than to try to cure it after it has taken hold of your fowls. Be careful to keep everything clean and do not throw the refuse of the chickens that you kill where the live ones will get it. GAPES. (Treated in another part of this work under same head.) Gapes are caused by little white worms in the throats of fowls. These worms are so numerous at times as to completely choke the fowls. This dis- ease, like most others with poultry, is not so easily cured, but can be prevented without much trouble. The pens and yards should be kept clean and dry, and the chickens kept in as healthy condition as possible. For treatment of, say, 25 chickens, take one teaspoon- ful of flowers of sulphur, mix in wet corn meal, and give one feed once a day for three days, then omit this medicine for three days, and then give it te them again, once a day for three days. Another Remedy.—Moisten a feather in turpentine or kerosene oil and insert in the windpipe of fowls, and turn it around until the. worms are removed. This is a popular remedy. PNEUMONIA. Pneumonia is a disease brought on by shipping fowls in very cold weather, keeping fowls in houses that are not ventilated, and exposure to the winds. The fowls make a noise in the throat, droop and sit around with their head back in their feathers and fi- nally they die. The comb turns light and not dark. See That Your Poultry Have Fresh Water in Winter. The disease as a rule kills the fowls before you realize that they are sick. There is little that you can do in treating this disease. The fowls should have plenty of fresh air, but they should not be in a draft. The house should be sunny and kept as near the same temperature day and night. HOW TO KEEP RID OF HEN’S LICE. There is a tendency on the part of fowls to be in- fested with lice. They do a great deal of harm, cov- ering the body of the hen to such an extent that sometimes you are unable to tell the natural color of their feathers. But by a little attention you can rid your poultry of lice and it will pay you to do so. Remedy.—Sprinkle the nests and the brooders with Scotch snuff or flower oi sulphur at intervals of two or three days. Keep the hen-house and all houses connected with the poultry business white-washed. Another Remedy.—Close the house up tightly and burn sulphur in it. The sulphur fumes will go into every crack and destroy the lice. CHICKEN MITES. The chicken mite is one of the worst enemies to the chicken and it is very important that your poul- try yard be kept free from them. It is a very easy matter to keep the house and yards free from mites if you will only start in time. Dusting the house in- side by throwing the ashes so the house will be fill-- ed with dust and keeping dry ashes where the fowls can dust in them will keep the chickens free from mites. However, if they should get the start of you, you can rid your place of them by smoking the house out with tobacco. First stop the cracks and then burn tobacco or tobacco stems in it, keeping as much of the smoke in the house as possible. Another Treatment.—It is quite important, that all old nests and straw be removed from the house and burned. Then white-wash house, roosts and every- thing connected with the house with a mixture of lime and kerosene. Then make a mixture of ashes, Scotch snuff and air-slacked lime, using equal parts of each, and take the chickens by their legs and while suspended in the air thoroughly dust their feathers. Get this dust thoroughly in them and you should have no more trouble with mites. 931 Another Remedy. Take an empty quart bottle and fill two-thirds full of kerosene and add four table- spoonsful of spirits turpentine, also four spoonsful of camphor gum dissolved in whiskey or alcohol. Shake well together and sprinkle the roosts, nests and all places infested with this mixture. This is said to be an excellent remedy. INDIGESTION. Liver disease or, more properly speaking, indiges- tion; is the result, direct or indirect, of improperly feeding fowls. It may be that the food is not wholesome, or per- haps the fowls are pérmitted to eat decaying animal or vegetable matter, or oftener still the food given the fowls is not of the kind that they need, and is not given at the proper time and way. Fig. 28.—First Prize White Plymouth Rock at Atlanta, Ga. By degrees the digestion of the fowls is impaired, and by degrees the system gives way, until the final breakdown, and then jt js that we begin to search for the cause and the cure. During the warm months fowls need but little food other than that which they gather. Bugs, worms and insects swarm over the fields, and the fowls enjoy them. During their pursuit they not only get exercise, but they obtain the very kind of food that gives them health and vigor. Fowls that show symptoms of indigestion, that droop or decline to eat, should be driven to a shaded field or pasture and left to seek their food as best 532 they may. A few weeks of such outdoor living will restore them to health. STIFF JOINTS. Mr. H. B. Greer, of Nashville, Tenn., has the fol- lowing to say concerning stiff joints: It is a little singular that there should at this time be so much complaint about chickens developing stiff joints and lameness, with a tendency to sit about during the daytime, and gradually weaken and final- ly die. In my past experience, I have noticed the symp- toms most prominently, in inbred stock; that is, stock that has been bred for a number of years with- out changing cocks, so as to infuse new blood, which latter is always invigorating and valuable in stimu- lating more active or rapid growth, and earlier and more prolific laying on the part of the pullets from such matings. This is one way in which to forestall, or prevent stiffness and swollen joints; but it does not help us any with fowls that are already affected with it. There is one remedy, however, which is very sim- ple, and which costs nothing, and that remedy is to be found in the scratch pile. Let a chicken scratch for it’s living as nature intended it should, and it will soon limber up and be healthful and vigorous. I would suggest this remedy to our friends who have fowls with stiff joints: Fix up a place where the rain can not get to the litter, and scatter it to the depth of 4 or 5 inches, boarding up the sides three feet high, and then scatter the grain for the chickens in the enclosure—raking the litter about so as to cov- er the feed up completely, and leave it to the fowls to find. They will work with a hearty good-will and be the most active and happy lot you ever saw. Do this daily, and all stiff joints will become normal, the combs will redden, and in a short time there will TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. be music and eggs. Indeed, it is advisable to adopt the scratch pen now, at the beginning of the winter laying season, as a means of stimulating the hens in this latter respect. POULTRY AILMENTS. When a fowl ‘thas difficuity in breathing look out for pneumonia. When the crop is hard and unyielding there is dan- ger of the bird becoming crop-bound. When the discharges are streaked with blood it is time to give preventives for diarrhoea. When the hen seems giddy and turns round and round, she is probably suffering from apoplexy. When the joints are hot and swollen and the fowl is disinclined to stand, rheumatism has taken hold. When the excrement secreted by the kidneys, which is normally pure white, appears yellow, look out for bowel trouble. When the bird has leg weakness, with no disorder of the liver, feed lighter and give plenty of bone-form- ing material. When a bird is “going light,” has good appetite, but passes food from the bowels undigested, it is the early stage of consumption and treatment is useless. When the nostrils are clogged with dirt and the eyes water, ward off a possible case of roup by time- ly treatment. If the case is bad apply the hatchet and bury the carcass. When a hen seems to drown down behind and goes repeatedly to the nest without laying, she is usually suffering from a disorder of the oviduct, and might as well be killed and eaten. When the bird seems lame and has a small swell- ing on its foot, remove to a ‘house with no perches and oblige it to roost on a bed of straw. Rumble- foot is easily cured in the early stages if the cause is at once removed. Iron Vessels are Very Poor Things to Water the Chickens In. 5 Duck RalsInc. It has been but a few years since it was thought that ducks were fit for but little else than to swim the ponds and streams and furnish their owners once or twice a year with a poor crop of feathers. Along with the progress of the age, however, the insignifi- cant art of duck-raising has kept steady pace. As the country was first inhabited along the seacoast, duck- raising was principally carried on along the shore, _and the ducks were fed and fattened upon the refuse fish which the fishermen couldn't use. Then, like all tory prices. Now, with a ranch capacity of 10,00c ducks yearly, I cannot fill my orders.” The reason for his success was proper food and care. Thus, if they are fed upon about the same kind of food other fowls of the better grades are fed, there will be no trouble about there always being a ready market for them. But some ask, is it profitable to raise ducks? A pertinent question. Is it profitable to raise anything the people demand? The demand for a thing is Fig. 29.—Pair of Muscovey Ducks. the scrub stock of years ago, the ducks were brought through on as ciean, scanty fare as possible, render- ing their flesh coarse and fishy and wholly unpalata- ble to most people. But later years and proper care and feeding have made the duck more delicious food than either turkey, chicken or goose, while the de- mand is constantly increasing for this splendid bird. A noted duck-raiser’s experience fully proves this statement. He says: “About twelve years ago, when I was growing less than 1,500 ducks a year, I was obliged to visit the city markets personally and tease the dealers to pur- chase my birds in order to get anything like satisfac-- bound to make its production profitable. But that crop which is the most largely produced is not al- ways the most profitable. Crowding the market is one of the most dangerous calamities to producers. If a man raises nothing but cattle and corn, he is sure to go under with all he has if every other man does tlie same. The same with cotton-growing or any other crop. Now, it is very seldom the market is over-crowded with poultry of any kind, much less with ducks. Occasionally the market is full up with chickens; sometimes turkeys are a littie slow selling, but this is seldom, if ever, true of ducks. Why is this? Is it 534 TILLING THE SOIL FOR because there is not sufficient profit in raising ducks? Not at all. I ‘have personally made the rounds of the markets lately, and to my utter astonishment could find but very few ducks on sale. I asked dealers why they had so few of them on their counters with other dressed poultry, and if they were not salable. With- out an exception I was told there was a ready sale or ducks, but they could not get them except in small lots, for there were few to be had, that they would gladly pay 15 cents per pound and pos- sibly more. It is estimated that it costs 5 cents per pound to Early ducks sell readily at from 20 to and raise a duck. 4o cents per pound, but taking the minimum price, 15 cents, will give a profit of 200 per cent. Ducks will lay 130 eggs each, annually. The eggs can be suc- cessfully hatched incubator at small Ducks are less liable to disease by an cost. than other fowls, are 8 fits th Ae aay Ses Gin oa: tof nem sexsi wee aw dy Fig. less trouble to care for, and can be raised at a cost allowing the grower a profit of 200 per cent. Now, we are ready to ask the question: Is there any other industry that will return a profit of 200 per cent. on the capital invested, or that can be made out of so small a capital as it requires in the industry of raising ducks for market? THE GOOSE ON THE FARM. We call the attention of our readers to the advan- tages of having geese on the farm, for there are very few farms that have no waste places, where they can roam and almost pick up a living for themselves. PROFIT AND PLEASURE. They are hardy, the young are easily raised, and the cost of their feed is so insignificant, compared to the many uses to which they may be put, that it is a wonder more of them are not seen throughout our section of the country. They live to a good old age, and as breeders con- tinue to be profitable, one in Scotland said to have reached the clearly ascertained age of eighty-one years, and killed by a sow whilst setting over her eggs. The goose sets from twenty-eight to thirty days, usually covering from thirteen to fifteen eggs. A nest should be prepared for her as soon as she be- gins to carry straw in her mouth, declaring her read- A goose on range will gather the largest portion of its food, and where there are fields that have streams, branches, or unused springs on them, they may be turned to good advantage by making them into goose pastures. The care and attention iness to lay. 30.—Ducks raised without water. necessary for raising geese is small when compared with the returns, and compared with the cost of food used for other birds bred for market, is insignificant. They require only the simplest kind of shelters, in fact, in the lower South they thrive as well sheltered under trees, although any open shed will be a suita- ble place for them. We prefer not to keep ganders for breeders that are over three years old, the young- er birds being more vigorous and active, which in- sures greater fertility of the eggs, and young ganders are less pugnacious than older ones. An important source of revenue are goose-feathers, which find a ready sale at profitable prices. One Chickens Will Appreciate Green Food in Winter. pound of feathers per annum is about the average yield. They should be plucked when there is no blood in the ends of the quills, which is easily ascer- tained, as they will leave the flesh without hard pull- ing. As a rule, they are good setters and attentive mothers, and make their own nests, if not disturbed, and hatch a good percentage of eggs. The eggs may be taken from them and placed under hens, and by breaking them from setting, they will soon lay an- other clutch of eggs, when they may be permitted to set and bring off a hatch. The gander will stand sen- tinel at the chamber door of his wives, and woe be- tide the unfortunate who ventures near, to disturb their quiet. In purchasing stock, one thing should be borne in 535 breaking them of setting they may be forced to lay three settings, upon the last of which they should be permitted to set. After hatching the goslings should be left in nest for twenty-four hours, and when they are four days old they will be able to take care of themselves, but if allowed to roam see that they are cooped at night. Breeds.—There are several standard breeds of geese, among which are Toulouse, White Embden, African, Brown and White Chinese, and Colored Egyptian. The latter are strictly an ornamental breed of beautiful plumage, but very vicious, and not to be kept with other geese. In feeding and dressing young geese for market, it Fig. mind, that is, to buy in the fall, so that they will be- come accustomed to their surroundings, and be ready for business in early spring. Of the many varieties, perhaps none excel the African goose, being the most prolific, quickest to mature, and easiest to handle. If African geese are used, mate two geese to one gander, and you will have strong, fertile eggs. We prefer birds fully two years old, and they may be fed grain through the winter months, and will then be in good breeding condition when spring arrives. In our section geese frequently begin laying in January. By 31—Pair of Cayuga (black) Ducks. These are good layers, and grow off quickly. is admissible to place them in-a pen, not large enough for them to exercise, and feed them all they will eat up clean of the following ration: corn-meai, mixed to a dry crumbly state, with beef scraps added to amount of about twenty per cent. of the bulk of corn-meal. In killing and dressing for market, cut them in the roof of the mouth, or hit them a quick, sharp blow on the head. Pick the feathers carefully, dampening the hands at the finish to remove all the down. Some feathers should be left on the neck, and on the first joint of the wings. In fattening old geese, they should be so penned 536 TILLING THE SOIL FOR that but little if any exercise is attainable, and in this way they lose much of their toughness, and if prop- erly fed are even better than the famed “green goose,” and different from the hard, strong things fresh from the stubble fields. Best Markets.—In marketing geese, ship to mar- kets having a large foreign element, particularly Jews and Germans. The former will use only live geese, but dressed stock will be taken by other buyers at profitable prices. . GOSLINGS. The Epitomist has the following on goslings: “Tf one has the large range necessary for geese to roam about on, it generally pays to grow them, the more so in that there is a fair market for the fowls producers is over good when their usefulness as feather with. Not only do the feathers prices, but the live birds, also, and especially if they be the white China or Toulouse variety. These, on a large range, will so pick up their living as to make the cost of otherwise maintaining them very small. The point in raising geese is to get them rightly started. Rather than giving an exclusive grain diet, composed for the most part of corn, they should have at the beginning vegetables and short clover hay in abundance, that they may not become too fat. Gos- lings hatched early in the season must also be kept On emerging from command from the severe cold, for a while. the shell they should be brought, one by one, into a warm room and wrapped in flannel until all are hatch- ed, with no food given them for twenty-four hours af- ter hatching; in which case the mother and her brood should be confined in a big box in a sunny shed for two or three days, the wraps being removed from the young when they are returned to the hen. The best time to do this is in the evening. Their First Feathers—Until they get their first feathers goslings should be furnished with no more water than they need to drink, and never should they be allowed to go into cold spring water, as swimming in that will cause them to contract cramp, whereupon they are liable to turn over suddenly on their backs and die. Of course, it is not so essential to keep them away from water if the weather is warm and when the later hatches come off they may be allow- ed to run with the mother goose, which, as a matter PROFIT AND PLEASURE. of truth, supplies more oil to the down of goslings than a hen and if used for a mother will thus enable them to shed water better. Nevertheless, it is ad- visable in any case to shield the little things from showers, including wet grass and damp _ floors at night and not let them go near ponds or streams un- til they have shed their down. They should be fed at first on bread and milk, corn-meal, mush and milk, or corn-meal and bran, half and half, moistened with milk and water. Dry cracked corn may be given lat- er, also wheat, cabbage, chopped onions, and apples and boiled vegetables may be omitted, however, if Provided they are kept in yards, grit must be supplied.” they have a run on short new grass. DUCKS AND GEESE. There are few farms that have not sufficient spare land to devote to ducks and geese, more particularly to the latter, which from now on ‘till winter will get the greater part of their living from the range, and as they make a toothsome morsel when properly pre- pared, they make that variety in the diet which is the spice of life. Considering the excellence of the flesh, and the ease with which they are reared, it is strange that more of them are not found on our farms. A mistaken idea prevails that ducks and geese can not i! ive without a pond of water to swim in, but thi. is a mistake, as thousands are raised annually that never ‘have water to swim in. While we admit there are some advantages where swimming-pools abound, it is not of such importance as to make its absence a barrier to breeding them with profit. Some few breeders find it profitable to raise the different breeds in their purity, of which there are the White Pekin, White Aylesbury, Colored Rouen, Black Cayuga, Colored Muscovy, White Muscovy, Gray Call, White Call, Black East Indian and Crest- ed White, all standard varieties. The demand for most of these is not sufficient to justify any extensive production. When it comes to geese, the coot of raising is sO insignificant as to make them a desirable addition to any farm where a pasture or waste land is to be had. The principal demand for them is in the large trade centers with a foreign element, although any native of our country readily becomes their admirer when once a prime, fat green goose is served in the proper style. _ for market Keep The Poultry in a Healthy Condition, and They Will Lay. Among the breeds of standard geese most in de- mand we have the Toulouse, White Embden, African, Brown China, White China, Gray Wild and Colored Egyptian. Of these, the Embden are most in demand purposes, the adult gander weighing about 20 pounds, the young gander 18 pounds, and the adult goose 18 and the young goose 16 pounds. They are not as prolific as the China geese, laying about 20 eggs in a season. 537 As an ornamental bird, the most beautiful of geese are the Colored Egyptian, being bred almost exclu- sively for show-room purposes. Because of their quarrelsome nature, they are not to be raised with other breeds, and males of the same species have to be confined to separate enclosures, or they will fight until they are killed. TURKEYS. CARE AND MANAGEMENT. The constantly increasing demand for turkeys as a holiday feast, more especially around Thanksgiving, and Christmas, has been an important factor in keep- ing prices up, and making this line of poultry culture a profitable one for those adapted to the work. We say adapted to the work, for experience has shown | that there are little details to be taken into consider- / ation, which all breeders of turkeys do not care to bother with, and in consequence we find many peo- ple who get along very well with poultry conspic- ' uous failures as successful breeders of our national bird. The failures of many with turkeys in the past have been through inbreeding, and this applies particular- ly to our section, where the same male birds have been used for years, without any attempt at intro- ducing new blood. While it has been stated by | some authorities that the wild turkey of this coun- try would not breed with our domestic birds, many | of our Southern breeders know better, having intro- duced them to their flocks, always with the best re- | sults, and through so doing succeeded in increasing breeding that caused disaster and loss. their vigor, supplying rich, new, vigorous blood and _ building up stock that ‘had deteriorated through care- lessness and inattention, thereby benefiting the tur- key-raising industry of our country. In many sections of the country the people have become so disheartened, that no attempt is now made to breed turkeys, ascribing the causes of failure to anything but the right one, not realizing that it was due to undermining the breeding of stock through in- If there is anything necessary to emphasize the necessity for the introduction of new blood, we need only to look to the successful breeders, and wherever you find one you will find him or her working carefully after the little details and bringing new blood into the flock either through the purchase regularly of male birds not related, or using birds from eggs of wild stock that have been found and incubated. With the many advantages the South offers for successful turkey- raising, we see little reason why the average breeder of poultry should not succeed with them, if they will follow along the line of advice we shall give. The idea is to raise the best, and with a good demand the past season in the big markets with prices ranging up to thirty cents a pound, you have some idea of the public’s willingness to pay a good price for the best. As regards the profits that can be made per head on turkeys, if we can eliminate the great losses that have hitherto been such a drain upon the industry, you will find that your flocks will average you great- er profit than other poultry. They will, after six weeks of age, gain the greater part of their living in the fields and woods, eating bugs, grasshoppers, and waste grain that they pick up in their wanderings over the range, with little or no cost to the grower. If sufficient range is provided they become almost self-sustaining. The greater and more general the use of the flesh, the greater the chances for profit in raising them. There are few up-to-date restaurants, hotels, etc., that do not use them constantly as cold cuts for sand- wiches and for salads, to say nothing of the great de- mand for roasters, and late hatched poults for broil- ers, 538 The preferred weights for market are from four- An extra large bird is not as The idea is to mature your birds within the shortest pos- teen to twenty pounds. much in demand as those averaging as stated. sible time, which can be done readily if proper care and attention be given. In the selection and treatment of breeding stock there are rules that must be followed if one hopes to succeed. and the one that must be observed above all others. is the introduction of new blood. Without LTILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. The male should be a yearling or over. The large, overgrown birds are not the best. An eye should be had to strength, health and vigor, with well propor- tioned, medium size. In introducing new blood, it would be well to send a long distance off for your new blood, rather than risk the chances of getting a bird already akin, and The bird should be secured in the fall, so that he will be acquainted with his surroundings, and his héalth and condition assured. inbreeding. Fig. 38—A typical Mammoth observing this, you may give every care and attention to a flock without results, while with this precaution observed you will have overcome the greatest obsta- cle in turkey-raising next to that which comes from lice. In selecting breeding stock T. F. McGrew, one of our best authorities, advises the use of turkey hens over one year old, strong, healthy and vigorous, and of good medium size. Small ones must never be se- lected, neither should they be unnaturally large. Bronze Gobler. We would have from four to five hens to one gob- bler, and when we consider that the male is one-half of the flock in the matter of breeding, we do not over- estimate the necessity of careful selection. Plenty of bone, a full round breast and long body are the re- No matter of what stock or breeding the some quisites. hen may be, the male should be selected of If the hens are all of one variety, their purity. Nothing is gained by crossbreeding, but rather a ten- standard variety. procure a male likewise to maintain Laziness and Success in Raising Poultry are Enemies. dency to bring to the surface the weak points of both sides of the cross. _If your intentions are to yard your birds, this is feasible, but the larger the pens the better. Range is preferable and the best results can only be obtain- ed in this way. Care should be taken that the breed- ing stock is not too fat, nor should they be allowed to go hungry and underfed. If they have the run of the farm where any other stock is fed, there will be little danger of their lacking food. They are untir- ing foragers, and there is little danger of them be- coming overfat, if they range freely. They must 539 in the trees, and we prefer to have them there, in preference to a closed house. If the latter becomes necessary, perfect cleanliness should be observed, the quarters should be airy and roomy. The poles should be placed well up from the floor, and special care should be taken to keep the place free of vermin. Some of the most successful Rhode Island breeders keep their turkeys roosting the year round in trees, and in our section we think it advisable at all times. At any rate, no closed ‘houses need be pro- vided, any kind of a shelter providing comfort and increasing the hardiness of the flock. roosting- Fig. 382.—Mammoth Bronze Turkeys. The-kind that they breed in Sunny Tennessee. have plenty of fresh water, also grit and shell-form- ing material. _ In mating, it is quite unusual for the male to pair ‘with the female more than once for a clutch of eggs, and hens will wander miles, if necessary, for this pur- pose. It is through this habit that destructive inbreeding i caused, for if breeders who keep only a few turkey hens depend upon one gobbler in a neighborhood to serve, he often pairs with his own descendants, which accounts for the lack of vitality in the pullets, and the failures which too often result. Turkeys are in their natural element when roosting The limited number of eggs which a turkey hen produces makes artificial hatching unnecessary, and we prefer to give them to a hen to hatch (turkey hen.) They make the best mothers and are requir- ed to brood the poults. While hens do very well to brood poults to a certain age, best results are had with turkeys. The eggs from hens over two years of age are considered best for hatching, producing stronger and more vigorous poults. In selecting a nest, a dirt foundation covered with some slaked lime is good. Place some straw or hay upon it. Lice are most destructive to young poults and every precaution should be observed to keep 540 TILLING THE SOIL FOR them in check. Eternal vigilance is the price of suc- cess here. The turkey hen sits twenty-seven to twenty-nine days, and their eggs are usually found very fertile, but we would be careful to give only so many eggs as a hen will cover readily, which will insure better results. She should be supplied regularly with food and water and should be placed where they can be had at will. Wheat and corn are best for this food. In growing poults, nothing in the way of advice can take the place of actual experience. They should not be pampered and fed unnaturally, and should have light, room and air. Exercise is essential, but the ‘hen should be cooped to prevent her wandering away with her young before they are able to stand it. They should not be allowed to run out on wet days, nor while the grass is wet, ’till old enough to wander with the mother and roost out on fences or trees. For the first feed nothing is better than very fine oatmeal or finely cracked wheat or corn, supplement- ed with a little granulated meat scraps and fine grit of some kind. Some of the commercial brands of chick feed are Fresh water should be provided. Gravel makes good grit. Be careful and not over-feed, feed sparingly, yet often. Give them what they will speedily clean up and no more. Bow- el trouble means improper feeding. We say again then, feed the young poults at the start oatmeal, broken wheat and finely cracked corn; very good. as they grow older whole wheat, hulled oats and coarser cracked corn, and still later whole corn. This course of treatment, carefully followed out, will place the beginner on a good footing and enable him to overcome a great many obstacles he would otherwise meet with, if he was compelled to do all his work along experimental lines. As to varieties, there are several, which are treated elsewhere in these columns, and in their selection, attention should be paid to their chief characteristics, so as to secure such as are best adapted to your surroundings. It is claim- ed by some that the White Hollands are less inclined to roam and wander off. and because of having no black pin-feathers are preferred as market birds. TURKEY BRIEFS. The American Bronze Turkey originated from the union of the wild turkey of North America with the domestic turkey of this country. PROFIT AND PLEASURE. One fecundation is sufficient to render fertile all the eggs of one laying. Inbreeding is the source of most failures in tur- key-raising. Texas leads as a turkey-raising State, followed by Missouri, Illinois, Iowa and Ohio. Rhode Island leads in the quality and reputation of her product. The demand for turkeys is constantly increasing. The medium-sized, plump carcass has the prefer- ence. Over-large males to pair with small, weakly hens is not desirable. It is quite as easy to grow the Rhode Island qual- ity as the other kind, but it takes brains to do it. Of all domestic fowls, none show the harm of in- breeding as soon as turkeys. Size and constitutional vigor come largely through the female. : Discard the undersized birds at all times. Length of shank and thigh, if out of proportion, should not be mistaken for size. Full, rounded body and breast indicate value; size and strength of bone indicate constitutional vigor. All these characteristics are of no avail if inbreeding is permitted. Variegated turkeys are of black ground color, each feather ending with a band of steel gray, edged with black. The males of this variety run from 20 to 30 pounds; the females 12 to 18 pounds. True buff color is seldom found in the Buff Varie- ty. Use ‘hens over one year old for breeders. Unnatural size is not desirable or profitable. Large over-grown males are not best. Year-old birds or older are preferable for breeders. Annual introduction of new blood is necessary. Health and vigor in the foundation stock count for most. ; . In all fowls, size is influenced largely by the female, and color and finish by the male. The wise farmer always selects the very best corn or grain for seed. Equal care should be given for se- lecting breeding turkeys. The best raised on the farm should be reserved for producers, and the fact should be kept in mind that turkey hens in their second and third year of laying make the best producers. Trees make good roosting places, and are preferred to close houses. barns, etc. Give the Chickens as Much Room As You Can. The Bronze holds the place of honor, both for mam- moth size and beautiful rich plumage. In inbreeding, much of the richness of color, which the Bronze secured through its wild progenitor, is lost. As the market preference is given to the best grown, and best finished specimens, any variety rais- ed to the desired perfection will command ready sale. When young turkeys are suitably housed, properly fed and kept free from lice, they are quite as easy to grow as young chickens. Varieties——There are six standard varieties of tur- keys grown in the United States, viz.: The Bronze, Narragansett, Buff, Slate, White and Black. The differences are mainly in size and color of plumage. Among the largest we find the Bronze and Narragan- sett, while the Buff and Slate are medium and the Black and White the smallest of all. The latter have been bred up recently to almost third position of size and the Blacks also show great improvement. Turkeys begin laying in the South from February, and in Florida even as early as January. Where hens are unrestrained and no attention paid to protecting their nests, results are not usually prof- itable. To insure fertile eggs a vigorous male bird must be used, as after pairing once the hen devotes her entire time in locating her nest, etc. Never allow but one male to run with a group of breeding hens, as they are apt to disturb each other at the time of pairing, and ruin an entire hatch. Wide range is essential for the best results. Watch the hens in their wanderings, until nests are located. If it is advisable to remove all the eggs, large sized nest eggs should be substituted, oth- their 541 erwise they may become dissatisfied and wander and locate elsewhere to the detriment of the hatch. The hens naturally select their nests in the most con- cealed places, and if you find that it is not well pro- tected, provide a box or coop with a suitable opening to protect her from the weather, and also against “varments.” There are several varieties, all having their al- mirers, but the White Holland and Mammoth Bronze are the prime favorites. It is claimed for the White Holland that they are more domestic, and less inclin- ed to wander away from home, and like all white birds, are easily picked, having no dark pin-feathers, which is some advantage. Trees are the natural roosting-places for turkeys, and are preferred to close houses at any time. Inbreeding, or using birds too closely related in breeding, is one cause of failure with turkeys. The markets prefer a medium-sized plump carcass, and over-grown birds are not much in demand except for show specimens. The Buff varieties are seldom seen in our section, and the true buff color is seldom found in this varie- ty. When young turkeys are suitably housed, properly fed and kept free from lice, they are quite as easily raised as young chicks, provided the foundation stock are healthy, vigorous birds. Turkeys lay from fifteen to tw enty eggs before be- coming broody; if desired they can be broken- up from sitting the first time, when they will commence lay- ing again, and may be allowed to bring off the second lot of eggs. While turkey-eges can be hatched successfully ‘in incubators, the question of brooding them makes us prefer to use the natural methods, LINE BREEDING. So much stress is being laid nowadays on line-bred birds that many who have not given this subject care- ful study are asking “What is a truly line-bred fowl?” and when we speak of “cockerel” and “pullet strains,” our meaning is not at all clearly understood. Now, this question of line-breeding is of such importance and real value, that even the amateur should stop long enough to master enough of its principles to be able to put it into practical operation in his own yard, for whatever success he may happen to have the first year or so that he mates up his birds in “any old way,” there is for him only one end—degenerate stock. Then, when he discovers ‘his error he goes out after fresh blood to restore the vitality of his impoy- erished flock, but alas! after he has gone down into his pocket for a choice bird or so—birds bred in line 542 TILLING THE SOIL FOR for generations, he finds that they do not “nick” with his run-down strain, and with disgust he either quits the business altogether or goes after another breed— perhaps for a like experience. The accompanying charts may prove of benefit to some—some who are seeking a safe route to suc- cess, and by way of explanation—the circles repre- sent the male line, the squares the female line, while the diamonds show the blend of the two—our breed- ing base: The unbroken arrows are males, the dot- ted arrows are females—this explanation enables one to follow the charts easily. FEMALE PULLET LINE oe FEMALE "*7. ca (eg 54] 45| Ig RS FS BM SEA 8™ SEASON | si ys EACH { rere OT SEASON Fig. Now, then, for a start, select a male and female serious de- each other with great care, seeing to it that no same fect appears in both, but let them offset in weak points, bearing in mind that we are aiming at the “standard of perfection;” therefore, if you are breeding Cornish Indians and the standard calls for let both of your selections have heads inclined to nar- “broad heads with over-hanging brows,’ don’t row, or if your breed is Barred Rocks, you are wast- ing your time if you select two birds with faded or 1 \ y Ys 3 @®le SEASON Ale] 5) og” 4. 34—Showing ‘the effect of line breeding as shown in the matter referring to this cut. PROFIT AND PLEASURE. washed-out barring, notwithstanding other excellent traits; exercise a good deal of hard common sense, | and yet the best. Number the male 1—the female 2 —(see chart No. 1)—blend the two and we have in group 3 chicks with half blood of each (1st season.) Take a female from group 3 and mate to her sire and we have in group 4—chicks with three-fourths of the blood of the male. A cockerel from group 3 is mated to his dam, and in group 5 we have chicks with three- fourths the blood of the female (2d season.) j Take a female from group 4 and mate to original | male No. 1 and in 6 we have chicks seven-eighths ‘ blood of original sire, while a cockerel from group 5, | MALE | < 1% SEASON t ' i H 1 7 Ip ‘B82 SEASON < 4" SEASON CKL LINE \ MALE *6 mated to original female, gives us in group-7 chicks with seven-eighths blood of original female No. 2 (3d season.) Now a male from group 6 and female from eroup 7 gives us in group 8 chicks once more with half blood of each original sire and dam (4th season.) but if we ‘have been careful in our selection of breed- ‘| ers the chicks should show a marked improvement | over those that came in group 3, for by the fusion of blood we ought to have eliminated some of the de- fects of the original. pair. | Make The Chickens Scratch. Now for our new strains, cockerel and pullet lines. Up to this time we have closely watched the product of the different matings, and have carefully noted where the finest cockerels came from, as well as the choicest females, say, for illustration, that we have seen that our best cockerels came from matings where there was a predominance of male blood, i. e., groups 4 and 6, and the most desirable females from the oth- er side of the line, where the original female blood was in excess, i. e., groups 5 and 7, why the way is clear. Preserve those dominant forces by two ways. Take a choice male from group 6 and number him 20 in chart 3; select a female from group 8 and num- ber her 21 in same chart. A fusion of these two will form a base for our cockerel line in group 22, which, though not mathematically correct, is to all practical purposes three-fourths the original blood of the male (No. 1,) and one-fourth that of the original dam (No. 2.) A female from group 22, mated to male No. 20 maintains the supremacy of the male line in group 23. From this number on down we get our cockerels and cockerel-breeding females. Please note that in every mating here (except one) in both sides and center the male blood predominates; only once was it allowed to become one-half. In this line all the birds, male and female, should be selected with traits decidedly after the original male, except defects. To establish a pullet line, the same course is pursued, except that here (chart 3) we select the female from group 7 and the male from group 8, the fusion in 42 forming the base of this line, while the line-bred pul- lets and pullet breeding cockerels came from 43 and on down. Here the inverse of chart 2 is seen, for in all these matings, with one exception, the female blood is dominant. All the selections in this should resemble the original female. Now, look at our charts once more. Take a male from 27 and a female from 47, mate them together and what do we get in group 48°? Why, as to blood just what we had in 3, 3-8 and 48, being mathematically the same rat- ings; but after eight seasons’ breeding, if we have used good judgment in our matings, our stock is not only not deteriorated but actually improved, for in groups 25 and 45 we should have better individual specimens, higher scoring birds (weight not except- ed) than we had in Nos. 1 and 2, while the chicks in fusion 48 should outclass those we had in 3. Why? Eecause we have fused the best traits, of two high- grade birds into one, thus attaining nearer the stand- line ‘that laid them. 543 ard. This process should be carried on.in single mat- ings and in no case should more than two females be used and they full sisters and as much alike as “peas in the same pod.” But, says the thrifty, practical breeder, “Am I to lose the revenue from my flock while all this is going on?” By no means; you can have choice birds even from the first matings, and after that as many as you want to make up your large pens and to sell to the man who wants first-class, line-bred stock; but the birds in the chart-pens constitute your vital forces, your cream, your “royal blood,” if you please. Band all of these last with their group numbers and care- fully keep your charts or you'll get all in a muddle, and watch your diamond groups; it is fitting that they should be so designated, for if you any “gems” for the breeding-pen or show-room it will be through these fountains of blood. get THE TRAP NEST AND ITS VALUE TO POUL- TRY-KEEPERS. F. O. Wellcome, of Yarmouth, Maine, inventor of “The Ideal Trap Nest,” wrote the following article on the Trap Nest: For various reasons which need not be discussed here, the great majority of poultry keepers where know nothing whatever of the trap nest sys- tem in its best and most practical form. So my Southern readers need not feel that they are in this respect to any great extent behind the poultry keep- every- ers of New England or elsewhere. The practical trap nest system is as yet a brand new proposition to the majority of the poultry keep- ers, although it has been completely and thoroughly tested for years by many in various parts of the coun- try—especially in California—and they value it so highly that they would hardly know how to get along without it. The best patented trap nest and also the best “free plan” trap are both products of the State of Maine. The most common type of the trap nest is merely a nest box so constructed that any hen that wants to can enter it, but can not get out until released. If she lays an egg while in the box, it necessarily fol- lows that the attendant when visiting the pen will find the eggs in the nests in company with the hens If each hen wears a leg band with a number stamped upon it—a different number for each hen, of course—it will be seen at once that the poul- 544 TILLING THE SOIL FOR try-keeper can keep a record of the product of each hen, just as the practical dairyman keeps account of the product of each one of his cows. Now that I have described in a general way what a trap nest is, I can understand how some ingenious reader with a mechanical trend will set about devis- ing a nest box fitted with a trap door which will al- low a hen to go in but will close after her and pre- vent her escape. He will very naturally do what hundreds of others have done; that is, he will adopt some familiar type of hinged or sliding door to a box of some sort and arrange a string, a spring, or some other contrivance that will cause the trap to admit the hen and close after her. That will be alright enough for a more or less costly experiment; a great many have tried it and learned things that they did not know before. I believe that I am familiar with the results of some two score or more of such experiments and most of them were failures. Although exploited more or less—often gratuitously in the interest of the something-for-nothing schemer—very few if any of them have ever been installed in adequate numbers by practical people and used continuously for busi- ness purposes in business blocks; which is the final and true test of merit. Something like twenty patents have been granted for trap nest devices and among these patented traps are to be found the very best trap nests as well as the worst, the least expensive (worthy of note) as well as the most costly. One of the hardest problems that has confronted the trap nest inventor has been to devise a trap that in practical and general use would allow but one hen to occupy the nest at one time and would surely keep her there until ‘her number and egg were taken. That problem has been satisfactorily solved. An- other problem, that few have considered, has been to so design the trap that a hen would not enter the nest unless she wanted to use it. That also has been thoroughly solved. Another has been to so construct the trap that the hen could lay and remain in the same small nest with- out too much Some seem to think that impossible. It has been done. Another problem that some poultry novices seem to be working at quite persistently is to devise a nest that will automatically record the work of each layer without labor or attention on the part of the poultry- man. Those who are honest in that effort have per- danger of breaking her egg. PROFIT AND PLEASURE. haps been deceived by “gold brick” advertising that has occasionally appeared in very interesting places. Unfortunately, poultry journalism ‘has not yet be- come courageous enough to bar those humbugs that do so much to injure legitimate advertising, and the novices who alone invest in “gold bricks.” Such a nest is inherently impossible, so far as prac- tical results are concerned. Any nest that will mark the hen that occupies it and then passes out will re- quire much more of the time and attention of the eare- taker—even if the desired record could be obtained in that manner—than would any trap nest properly installed. 5 A little knowledge of hen nature and habits, and the details of practical poultry keeping would prevent | much self-delusion in this connection. But I must Fig. 35.—Winner 1st prize Winston, N. C. and Raleigh, N. C. | Owned by Chickadotte Farm, Rural Hall, N. C. not weary the reader with details. Suffice it to 25 | we have some practical trap nests that are designed | for and are used by practical poultry keepers for bus-| iness purposes. In trap nest installation there should be about two-! thirds as many nests as the average number of eggs) laid daily; or about one nest for each three hens that. are actually laying well. The total number of hens) has no ‘bearing aside from that. It is by no means necessary to watch the nests, neither is it desirable, and it is not important that the hens should be released soon after having laid. Do Not Overfeed. The trap nest user who is a practical person and has a practical installation of nests, will so arrange his work with his flock that he will visit them at least four times a day during the time that abundant. laying is in progress. With the “Ideal” system he can collect and record from four to eight eggs per minute after he has gained practical experience in at- tending to them. Mr. Davis Lawtom, of Winstead, Conn., a market poultryman who has kept careful account of the mat- ter, says that it requires about twelve minutes extra time per day to attend the traps for each ‘hundred lens in the flock. M. K. Boyer, whom every “old timer” knows, says that it does not take five minutes to look after fifty hens. Those who only keep a few hens and have no one to visit the pens during the day, can only use the nests as traps at intervals when they can be attended to, using them at other times as self-releasing nests, the hens going and coming at will. In such circum- stances individual egg records that will be continu- ous and accurate are impossible to obtain by any means, unless it be an extremely small flock of hens that are much mixed in blood and lay eggs that dif- fer much in appearance. The office of the trap nest is to identify each layer and her egg at any time or all of the time at the op- tion or convenience of the user. It shows which hen laid the egg. That knowledge enables the poultry ‘keeper to learn which hens pay profitably for him, and which do not, which lay good eggs and which do not. He can convert the non-layers, the poor lay- ers and the layers of imperfect ready money, retaining only those good goods in profitable quantity. He can breed from good layers only, discarding those, which, in his opinion, would not be likely to transmit a persistent laying tendency and other desired qualities to their offspring. He can pedigree his stock if he likes, just as other animals are pedigreed, for he can keep a re- cord of the sire and dam of each and every chick. I would rather know the dam of the 200-eg¢ pullets than to know how many eggs that dam laid. In short, the trap nest assists the poultryman to learn all about each individual hen, her good and her bad qualities for stock purposes, and also her breed- . ing value if desired. The domestic hen when compared with other do- mestic animals, is a fearfully mixed up proposition. There seems to be no stable system of breeding, or eggs into which produce 35 545 feeding or caring for hens and no such thing as uni- formity in production than can be depended year after year. upon A practically universal lack of knowledge of the individual bird and failure to build upon known in- dividual productive ability, combined with the prac- tice of mixing blood without guide or reason, is suf- ficient to account for the condition as it is. The trap nest system is practical. Those who are fortunate enough to own a suitable equipment of good traps, and are practically interested in poultry work, give it their unqualified endorsement. Some widely exploited trap nests have limitations which make them expensive to instal] and also make demands upon the time of the user, but those specific faults should not-be charged the trap-nesting system as a system. excessive against HOW SOON AND LONG ARE EGGS FERTILE? The question, How soon are eggs tertile is often asked during the hatching season and very few can We give below an experiment which certainly throws consid- erable light upon the subject. A number of experi- ments have been made, but one of the most thorough answer it or come anywhere near doing so. of those experiments was that made some years ago by M. C. E. Spires, of Ohio, says the Farmer’s Voice. It was directed to the solutions of the two related questions, how soon after the introduction of the cock in the pen can fertile eggs be expected, and for how long after the remoyal:of the male will the eggs continue fertile? In carrying out the forty Leghorns were divided into three pens, with suitable runs, and males of the same variety were placed in the pens on February 18. They were the first males that had been on the place, so that there had been no opportunity for any previous fertiliza- tion. Twenty-one eggs were secured on the first day, none of which were fertile; eighteen on the sec- ond day, with two fertile; twenty-four were laid on the third day and twenty on the fourth and of these twelve were fertile in each lot; twenty were laid on the fifth day, of which fifteen were fertile; twenty- four on the sixth day, of which nineteen were fertile; fifteen were obtained on the seventh day, of which twelve were fertile; nineteen on the eighth day, of which seventeen were fertile, and nineteen on the ninth day, of which eighteen were fertile. The males were removed on July 1, on that day experiment 546 nine eggs were obtained, of which six were fertile; on the second day thirteen eggs were laid, all of which were fertile; on the fifth day twelve were laid, of which ten were fertile; on the seventh nine were laid, all being fertile; on the eighth thirteen eggs gave twelve fertile; on the ninth day eleven eggs gave nine that were fertile; on the tenth day twelve eggs gave nine that were fertile; on the eleventh day nine eggs gave six that were fertile; on the twelfth day nine eggs gave three that were fertile; on the thirteenth day nine eggs gave three that were fer- tile: on the fourteenth day eight eggs were laid, of which but one was fertile, and on the fifteenth day ten eggs gave two that were fertile. From this experiment it would that breeding stock in good health and vigor eggs may be expected to be fertile after the birds have been mated for a week, and that they will continue to be fertile for about ten days after the male has been removed seem with from the pen. KEEPING POULTRY IN HEALTH. There is no reason why we should not have strains of strictly hardy stock, and yet it seems to be a fact that contagion and a multitude of ailments continue to be the “besetting sins” of poultry in the hands of the farmer. A glance at the “query departments” of the lead- ing poultry journals shows that now, as of yore, there are cases of cholera, roup, liver complaint, ver- tigo, apoplexy, scaly legs, bronchitis, canker, swelled head, diarrhoea, crop bound, indigestion, catarrh, egg soft eggs bound, ges, bumble foot, scurvey and scroful- ous troubles, and so on. We mention them as they come to mind. Now, from past experience, we know that at least two-thirds of these “besetting sins” can be avoided. And we further know that it is possible to have a strain of strictly hardy stock. In the first place, lice cause more trouble than anything else. These mis- erable pests sap the life out of the stock, both old and young. They weaken the body, and any other dis- ease has, in consequence, easy prey. Dyspepsia or indigestion can be avoided by the use of sharp grit. But it must be sharp, or it is not worth anything. Oyster shells will not do for grit, neither will coal ashes. Something harder is requir- ed. Neglected indigestion will lead on to liver trou- bles. Keep the fowls free from indigestion, and liver TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. The combination of life and indigestion is what makes up the average case of so-called “cholera.” Genuine cholera is a very rare article in this country. Over-feeding is the direct cause of vertigo and apoplexy. The blood rushes to the heads of the fowls, the body becomes sort of paralyzed—death suddenly winds up the case. complaint will be more scarce. This getting hens too fat ends in cases of egg- bound and soft-shelled eggs, where it does not reach the vertigo or apoplexy stage. Bronchitis comes from exposure to damp or wet weather, and when neglected results in consumption. Roup, canker, distemper and swelled head have their origin in some neglect by which fowls catch cold. Diarrhoea, too, follows exposure to damp, cold and wet weather; and filthy houses and runs, or too much green food and not enough grain, are also guilty. Sleeping in draught, or in damp places, not only gives swelled head, but also shows itself in dyphtheria or ulcerated throat. confinement Costiveness and constipation are due to continual feeding on dry food, without sufficient green sturf. Also to a want of sufficient supply of pure drinking water, or too close confinement. Rheumatism and cramp come from exposure to cold or wet weather, or roosting in damp and cool houses. Leg weakness is another penalty for over-feeding. Bumble foot comes from flying from high roosts. Too close confinement, damp and muddy runs, and not sufficient meat or green food, are the prime causes for scaly leg. When fowls are sick they should at once be placed in warm, dry quarters. Colds, roup, dyphtheria, diar- thoea, cholera and scaly legs are contagious, and should never be allowed in well flocks. No matter how slight the ailment may seem, the bird should be isolated. Over-crowding is a common evil, and should be avoided. Nothing is gained. It is false economy of space. Lice more rapidly accumulate in crowded quarters. Filth is more sure to present itself only to introduce sickness and death. The vice of feath- er pulling-owes its origin te this condition. Inbreeding —Need we say anything concerning in- breeding? Some fanciers are endeavoring to stretch a point by saying “No harm is done.” Can any wise Naturally it Takes a Chicken All Day to Earn its Food, 547 person be of such an opinion? Can any one who has bred stock of any kind show that new blood is not highly essential to good health? Wara 3ays con- sumption is the disease most carefully to be guarded against. A consumptive strain will be a constant source of care and disappointment. Squirrel tail is sure to be reproduced in many of the young birds. Wry tail is also hereditary. Crooked breasts, thumb marks on combs, or any peculiarity in the spikes of the comb, white face where red is the proper color, is dangerously hereditary; splashed or marked with red where pure white is a point, vultured hock—all these defects will be reproduced. Birds with malformations or anything missing, such as be- ing short a toe, or having any peculiarities, should ear-lobes not be used for breeding. So, in short, to have a good and sound strain of fowls, all deformities and evils in breeding fowls must be noted; the stock must be kept free lice, have clean, warm, dry and roomy quarters; must be compelled to exercise to gain a good appetite— and sharp grit to masticate the food. During cold, wet weather, the birds must not be exposed, and must be equally protected from the hot suns of sum- mer. from Prevention is an art, and if we know the cause of disease, how easy it is to check it before it starts, and how hard to cure it after it has begun to root itself. STICK TO ONE BREED. It is a hard matter to convince the beginner that his chances of success are multiplied when ‘he con- fines himself to one breed, but this fact is admitted by experienced breeders in every section of the coun- try. The uninitiated will put forth what to him ap- pears very good argument against sticking to one variety, but we have noticed that those who began with many breeds, if they succeeded at all, dropped them, one by one, until finally the one breed which paid them best, received their entire time and atten- tion. The selection of the breeds depends a great deal upon the end in view. An egg farm would undoubt- edly get best results from the Leghorns, while a combination broiler and egg plant would prefer the Wyandottes, Plymouth Rocks, or some other similar variety. For the farmer there are few breeds that can beat the Plymouth Rocks and Wyandottes, and no one will make a mistake in selecting either of these va- rieties for their foundation stock, whether buff, bar- red or white, this being merely a matter of prefer- ence. The advantages of one breed over several are many. A man who starts with several breeds, must confine each separately, and to do this requires time and money. It also means denying them the free use of the range, and although confined birds have produced as well as any others, the free range birds always show the greater stamina and vitality. The best breeders may tell you that their birds do equally, well penned, but it is more expensive, and as breeders, their eggs are not usually as fertile, nor are the offspring as vigorous and healthy. Howev- er, the fancy breeder handling several varieties, has usually no other recourse, but why should the farm- er want more than one breed? _ Mixing’ them don’t get him better results, that is sure. If he thinks so, let him select two coops of birds, one to be all of one color, the other the usual coop of farm-yard mongrels. Take them to town, offer them for sale, and we venture it will not take him long to decide which is the most profitable. It is not alone the farmer, would pin down to one however, whom we variety. The beginner, whether he is going in for fancy or utility, should decide on one breed. Look over your poultry jour- nals to-day, select the names of the foremost breeders in the land, and invariably you find them concentrat- ing all their time and energy perfecting one breed, and reaping a golden harvest in consequence. If you think otherwise, write to any breeder who through his success is entitled to speak with author- ity, and we think he will bear us out in our advice, stick to one breed. THE VARIOUS STANDARD BREEDS OF FOWLS. American Class. Plymouth Rocks—Barred, | White, Partridge, Silver Penciled. Javas—Black and Mottled. Domineques—Rose Comb. Rhode Island—Reds, Single Comb. Buckeyes—Pea Comb. Buff, Black, Asiatic Class. Brahmas—Light and Dark. 548 TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. Cochins—Buff, Black, White and Partridge. Langhams—Black and White. MEDITERRANEAN. Leghorns—Single Comb Brown, Rose Comb 3rown, Single Comb White, Rose Comb White, Sin- gle Comb Buff, Double Comb Buff, Silver Duckning. Minorcas—Single Comb Black, Rose Comb Black, Single Comb White. Spanish—White-faced Black. Andalusians—Blue. Anconas—Mottled. ENGLISH. Dorkings—White, Silver Gray, Colored. Red Caps—Rose Comb. Orpingtons—Single Comb White. Buff, Single Comb POLISH. Polish—White Crested Black, Bearded Golden, Bearded Silver, Bearded White, Buff Laced, Non- Bearded Golden, Non-Bearded Silver, Non-Bearded White. DUTCH. Hamburgs—Golden Spangled, Silver Spangled, Golden Penciled, Silver Penciled, White, Black. FRENCH. Hondams—Mottled. Cuvecoeus—Black. La Fleche—Black. GAMES AND GAME BANTAMS. Games—Black Breasted Red, Brown Red, Golden Duckning, Birchen, Red Pyle, White, Black. Game Bantams—Black Breasted Red, Brown Red, Birchen, Red Golden Duckning, Silver Duckning, Pyle, White, Black. ORIENTAL GAMES AND BANTAMS. Indians—Cornish, White. ‘Sumatras Black. Malays—Black Breasted Red. Malay Bantams—Black Breasted Red. ORNAMENTAL BANTAMS. Seabrights—Golden, Silver. Rose Comb—White Black. Booted—White. Brahma—Light, Dark. Cochin—Buff, Partridge, White, Black. Japanese—Black Tailed, White, Black. Polish—Bearded White, Buff Laced, Non-Bearded. MISCELLANEOUS. Silkers—White. Sultans—W hite. Frizzles—Any Color. TURKEYS. Bronze, Narragansett, Buff, Slate, White, Black. DUCKS. Pekin—White. Aylesburry—White. Rowen—Colored. Cayuga—Black. Call—Gray, White. East India—Black. Crested—W hite. Muscovey—Colored, White. Indian Runner— ’ Swedish—Blue. GEESE. Tonlouse—Gray. White. Fs African—Gray. Chinese—Brown, White. Wild or Canadian—Gray. Egyptian—Colored. Embden WHAT BREED TO SELECT. Many mistakes are made by the beginner in-select- ing breeds that are not suited for the purposes which they are needed. In selecting breeds that are want- ed for egg production we should not make mistake in securing those breeds characteristic. that are needed for -this The same will apply if in want of breeds for the amount of meat we should not secure the smaller breeds. What is wanted is heavy-bodied fowls. Before purchasing fowls to make a start, we should decide what we want and what is expected of the breeds we are going to keep. If we want fowls for egg production we have a large variety to select from, any variety of which will pay a good profit if properly cared for. The Mediterranean class produce large quantities of eggs. These fowls are so strong physically that they will stand much pushing for egg production. They are regular egg machines. They Study Your Incubator and Know Your Brooder. do not stand confinement as well as most other breeds; if given free range their ege production will be doubled. The leading varieties of this class are Black and White Minorcas, White and Brown Leg- horns. The Minorca resembles the Leghorn in shape and style, but This breed can be safely recommended to lay as many or more eggs than other breed eof fowls. They lay large, white eggs. Both as chicks and fowls are very hardy, ma- ture early, and are non-setters. Leghorns, both white and brown, are the most popular of the Leg- horn class, and are wonderful egg producers. They are much smaller than the Minorca. Leghorns are considered to be non-setters, but I have had _ the Brown to set and make good' mothers. If fowls for meat are wanted, select some variety of the Asiatic class. The most popular are Black and White Lang- shangs, Light Brahma and Buff Cochin. Lang- shans should be placed in the middle class; our per- is much larger. sonal experience has taught us to prize them very highly as a general purpose fowl. For eggs and ~broilers they are not surpassed by any breed. They are smaller than other Asiatic varieties, and mature much quicker; they produce more eggs during the winter than any other breed. Light Brahmas stand at the head of all breeds as meat producers, they are the largest of all.other fowls; they are good winter layers and stand confinement better breeds. Buff Cochins are not quite as large as Brahmas, but look much heavier on account of their than other being more fluffy; they are fair layers of large, brown eggs; make good setters and first-class mothers. If you wish to raise fowls for general purposes, that is, meat and eggs, select some variety of the American class. The most popular are White and Barred Ply- mouth Rock, White and Silver Wyandotte. As a utility fowl any of these varieties cannot be surpass- ed. Barred Plymouth Rocks are great favorites; they are adapted to both farmer and fancier; they do well on free range or small runs. They are good egg producers, good setters and good mothers; chicks are hardy and mature rapidly. Silver and White Wyandottes are the ideal farmers’ fowl—have the same qualities as Plymouth Rock, but their chicks mature two to three weeks earlier than any other breed. BREEDS OF FOWLS. There are many popular breeds of fowls. A’s to 549 which breed you should select, that depends upon sey- e1al matters. A great many poultrymen advise that you select the breed that suits your individual taste or fancy the best. But to advise thus is wrong. If you are breeding fancy fowls, that advice may do, but if you are raising eggs or poultry for the market that advice will not do. For instance, if you are raising eggs for the market, you do not want to select a breed that will not produce eggs. For egg producers, you want not the large fowls that are noted for the meat production. Should you want a meat producer, you will not want a small, nervous, active egg pro- ducer. And there are other that will af- fect this matter. We give here the characteristics of the different breeds and you should study this matter with a great deal of care, for many mistakes are made regarding the breed that is selected. There is a medi- um class that is good for both meat and egg produc- ers. These are-not as large as the Asiatic breed, and are not so good for meat producers, but still they grow large enough to be profitably raised. And they afe good when it comes to egg producers. The Wy- andottes and Plymouth Rocks are good specimens of the American class of fowls, and the Leghorns of the Mediterranean. questions It will not be out of place ‘here to insist upon your selecting a pure breed. Many poultrymen make the mistake of selecting anything in the shape of a chick- en. You will find it more profitable to have a pure breed and stick to it. Scrubs do not pay. If you are going to raise poultry for your family use, you can select a pure breed just as well as you can a mixed breed, or a scrub. If you have not the money to start out on a large scale in the pure breed, select just a few and get rid of your scrub stock. You do not need mongrels if you are going to make money out of the poultry business. If you have a pure breed you will take much more pride in them, and secure better results than if vou had a mixed stock.. WHITE GEORGIAN GAMES. This Southern Fowl makes one of the prettiest sights that you can see on a lawn. They are pure white in color, have an elegant carriage, have great courage and intelligence. They are now pure bred in the South, and are popular wherever known. As a farm fowl, they are excellent, producing a goodly number of eggs. They should be pure white all over, with no shade on the neck, breast, hock or tail. The 550 legs have to be white or yellow and the beak should harmonize with the legs. GAME BANTAMS. The Game Bantams are wonderful birds, being but little larger than pigeons, but having wonderful cour- age, brilliant plumage, and carrying themselves erect. They can be kept in the yard with large breeds with- out any danger of intermixture, but at the same time they will be found masters of the yard. They will be found quite profitable in protecting the fowls from in- truders, as they will give due warning of approach of danger. There are other varieties of Bantams, such as the Black, the Cochin, the White, the Brahma, the Sea- bright, and the Japanese. The Seabright is also di- vided into two classes, the Golden and the Silver, The cocks of the Seabright should not weight more than twenty ounces, and the hen more than sixteen ounces. The Japanese variety is the most striking of any vari- ety of Bantams. The variety stand weather, and for that reason are very suitable for the South. cannot cold COCHINS. This is one of the largest of the many breeds of birds, and is quite popular. There are several varie- ties of this breed, and the characteristics for several of these varieties are as follows: The comb of the cock is single, rather fine, upright and straight, stout at the base and tapering to a point; the eye is bright and mild in expression; hackles of the neck full and abundant, reaching well to the shoulders and cape; the back broad with a gentle rise to the middle of the the wings small; the tail small, curved feathers numerous, the tail being carried horizontally rather than upright; the breast deep, broad and full; thighs large and strong, covered with soft feathers. tail, with a great many saddle feathers; This variety still contin- ues to hold a high place in the estimation of the pub- lic, the Buff variety being the most popular. Like the Brahma, they are good winter layers and being of good size make excellent roasters. There are four varieties, the Buff, Partridge, White and Black, the two former having the preference in the estimation of the public. LANGHANS. Another deserving breed, of which there are less TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. shown every year, although one of the best winter layers of all the large varieties; very hardy, easily kept thriving in confinement, and layers of dark shell- ed-eggs of medium size. The Black is the most pop- ular color, the surface of the plumage throughout be- ing close and smooth, very brilliant with greenish re- flections. The standard weights are as follows: Cock 10 pounds, cockerels 8 pounds, hens 7 pounds and pul- lets 6 pounds. : WYANDOTTES. The Wyandottes are another American breed that have sprung into public favor by virtue of their good qualities. They are a fine combination breed, being good layers and a fine table fowl. Under strong specialty club work the Wyandottes have been rap- idly placed in the front ranks, which position they will maintain. Hamburg and Dark Brahma blood runs_ in their veins, and in breeding the white variety it is found to be a hard matter to get them free from creaminess. Their standard weights are: Cock 8 1-2 pounds, Cock- erel 7 1-2 pounds, Hens 6 1-2 pounds, Pullets 5 1-2 pounds. BRAHMAS. This grand breed of birds deserves a place in the houses of more breeders than are at present handling them, but they are not found at the shows in numbers like in former days. They are among the most beau- tiful of all birds, hardy, fine winter layers and larg: est of all the breeds, standard weight of the male be- ing 12 pounds, hen 9 1-2 pounds. There are two va- rieties, the Light and Dark Brahmas, the former be- ing the most popular. PLYMOUTH ROCKS. The Plymouth Rock is an ideal fowl, and probably one of the most popular of all the breeds, being found on nearly all the farms of the country, mak- ing a good combination egg and meat bird. It is somewhat larger than the Wyandotte, not so blocky, and different in all sections. The three varieties of this breed, the Barred, White and Buff are all identical except in color, that of the Barred Rock being extremely hard to describe, and can only be learned by observation. Good specimens are extremely hard to raise, and in the Barred varie- It Requires Intelligence to Raise Poultry. ty the same shade of color should prevail in all sec- tions. and should be barred to the skin. The White Plymouth Rock is fast eclipsing all others, plumage should be clear and white and free from all business, as well as creaminess. The Buff Plymouth Rock plumage should be a rich golden Buff, very light and very dark, being two ex- tremes that are undesirable. The same shade should prevail throughout every section. The cock should weight 9 1-2 pounds, cockerel 8 pounds, hen 7 1-2 pounds, pullet 6 1-2 pounds. 551 LEGHORNS. A breed so well and favorably known as to require very little introduction. They originated in Italy, are somewhat small in size, with yellow legs, white ear lobes and active and sprightly in disposition. They are hardy and prolific, non-setters, few of them ever showing a tendency to broodiness. As producers of good sized eggs in great numbers, they stand unriy- aled and on the egg farm are readily the preferred fowl. Fig. 37—Nomenclature Diagrom of Fowl. 0. Beak, 6. Breast, 12: 1. Comb, 7. Back, 13 2. Hace, 8. Saddle, 1 3. Wattles, 9. Saddle Feathers, 1 4. Ear Lobe, 10. Sickles, 1 5. Hackle, 11. Lesser Sickles, bi 24. Spur, Tail Coverts, 3. Main Tail Feathers, 4. Wing bow, 5. Wing Coverts, 6. Secondaries, wing-bay; 7. Primaries or Flight feathers, 23. Shanks, 18. Flight Coverts, 19. Point of Breast Bone, 19-20. Body and Fluff, 21. Thigh, 22. Knee Joints, 25. Toes or Claws. 552 TILLING THE SOIL FOR There are seven distinct varieties, but the White and Brown are the ones that hold the favor of the breeders everywhere. They are too small to hold a place as broilers, but are the ideal fowl for the man who wishes to produce eggs for the market. MINORCAS. The largest of the Mediterranean class, formerly known as Red Faced, Black Spanish. Like the Leg- horns, they are non-setters, layers of the largest white shelled eggs of any breed and one of the prettiest fowls in the entire list. In the Black variety purple shade in surface color is a distinct detriment, a green brilliant black being the desired color. The single comb variety is the most popular, the Rose Combs not being popular in the South. For cold climates, the latter are preferred, the single comb variety be- ing susceptible to cold, owing to their large comb and wattles, which are easily frozen. Their general appearance is graceful, aggressive and commanding, and as layers they excel many of the other breeds. The White Minorcas resemble the White Leghorn to a considerable extent, and are not very popular here. ORPINGTONS. We now come to one of the English classes that has gained marked popularity throughout the coun- try by virtue of their many qualities. They are the latest importation from England, are meritorious large and stately in appearance, very full in the breast and in the development of the back. They are docile, easily kept in confinement, and a fine combination fowl for their stately appearance and they are rapidly becoming a general favorite with all who breed them. Good specimens are high, but the demand is such that these are readily obtained. HAMBURGS. In the Dutch class, we have the Hamburgs among the prettiest of the entire feathered tribe. There are six varieties, the Golden, Silver Spangled, and Golden and Silver penciled leading in popularity. The White and Black are not seen much at the shows. They are excellent layers of medium sized eggs, and good for- agers. They have been bred to that degree which makes them a general favorite wherever introduced. CORNISH AND WHITE INDIAN GAMES. In the Oriental games we have two that excel and PROFIT AND PLEASURE. have earned their popularity in the estimation of breeders everywhere, these are the Cornish and the White Indian. They are of English origin and pro- duced by crossing a low Derby Black Breasted Red Game with a Red Aseel imported from India, the blood of the-Sumatra Game having also been later in- troduced. They have short thick legs, large thighs and deep and broad breast, great width of back at shoulders, with comparatively short neck. Their plumage is beautiful, that of the Cornish having great lustre, and as layers they rank with the best. JUDGING. In judging any of the Standard Breeds of land and water fowls, the judges either use the Score- card or judge by comparison. The latter system is used al- most entirely at all the large shows, and is gaining advocates even among those who formerly stood fast for the Score-Card system. We append herewith a copy of the Score-Card as now used, which will give the reader an idea as to what sections are considered by the judge in cutting for defects. OFFICIAL SCORE-CARD OF THE ATLANTA (Georgia) POULTRY ASSOCIATION. There are two. ways of judging a chicken, by score card and by comparison, the latter is principally used at early shows and fall fairs, when birds are not in full feather, and is not near so satisfactory as the score card, for under the comparison system if you do not accompany your birds to the fairs, if you are fortunate enough to win a ribbon or two, you have no means of knowing which bird or birds won, as there is no record kept of the particular bird win- ning, and you are only notified of your success with- out telling you which bird was the successful com- petitor, and a breeder, especially if he is just start- ing out, would like to know his best bird, so that he may be able to compare it with others of his flock, and see how many are like it. The score card system is much more exacting, and where a class is well fit- ted as the Rocks, Wyandottes, Leghorns and Minor- cas are at most shows to win in these classes is an honor, especially is this true when the judge is an ex- perienced man and knows his business. The ideal bird should score 100 points, but the ideal ‘has never been attained, 96 points is as near a top notch as com- petent judges go, and a 94 or 95 point bird is a “thing A few Ducks Will Pay On Mest Any Farm. of beauty” in the show room (even if it*is not much of a breeder or egg-layer.) The score is divided in- to sections, and run as follows: weight, symmetry, condition, head shape and color, comb, shape and col- or, wattles and lobes, shape and color, neck shape and color, back shape and color, breast shape and color, body and fluff shape and color, wings shape and col- or, tail shape and color, legs and feet shape and color, so you can see that it would be almost impossible for a bird to be perfect in all these points, and it takes long and hard study for one to be able to pick from a flock of pen or trio to exhibit, in fact, it is almost an impossibility to do so without one has a copy of the Standard at hand, and then to go over each bird sec- tion by section. And at shows where the score card Fig. 38.—Part of poultry farm is used you receive the score card from the secretary of the show, showing wherein your bird or birds were - defective. The heaviest cut is for weight, for instance the Standard weight of a B. P. Rock cock is 9 1-2 pounds and the specimen shown only weighs 8 1-2 pounds, he is cut two points, one point of every one-- ‘half pound he is short; that would bring his score down to 98 points on the start, and with such handi- cap, the bird could not score over 90 or 91, if that. The comb on any breed is hard to get true, and on most scores a cut of 3-4 to 1 1-2 will generally be found. The comb of a Rock should be medium size, single and straight, with regular serrations or points five in number. Then again, the Standard says Rocks should ‘have yellow legs and bill, and it is almost im- possible to produce them, a little brown or black will crop out on bill, and the shanks are more or less cloudy with blue black scales, and instead of the legs of either sex being yellow, the larger number of them 553 are a yellowish flesh color. A pair of Plymouth Rocks with clean, bright, yellow legs is a rarity, and not often seen, ; In the above I ‘have briefly related one or two of the Standard requirements of the B. P. Rock, another great point is color, which should be grayish white with blue bars across each feather, which should be even on all parts of the plumage, and the male and female should be exactly alike in color, and those who are breeding Rocks know how hard it is to do this, as nine times out of ten the cockerels are light and the pullets dark and, in fact, are sometimes almost black. Such birds would stand no chance in the show room, and the only way to produce such birds is to go “agin” nature, and double mate; that is, all of G. B. Thrasher, Dallas, Tex. the dark hens and dark males to produce cockerels, and all the very lightest hens and light males to pro- duce pullets; the cockerels from the pullet yard are worthless and the pullets from the cockerel yard are only fit for table. THE AMERICAN STANDARD OF PERFECTION No one who raises poultry can expect to do so in- telligently unless he is familiar with the rules which govern the judgment of fowls, as laid down by the American Poultry Association in their work known as the American Standard of Perfection. This work is absolutely necessary, and should be in the hands of every breeder of thoroughbred or rath- er standard-bred fowls. It is a valuable aid to the beginner and an essential to the older breeder, and so far the new edition has already passed fhe 10,600 mark in copies sold. 554 It fully covers the ground which every breeder has to know, in order to breed fowls intelligently, gives a full description of all the breeds recognized in the Standard, and defines and illustrates the various sec- tions of the bird, gives a glossary of technical terms, general disqualifications, etc. A full description, with illustrations of all the breeds are given and with this work in hand any one can soon familiarize himself with the rules, so that he can score his birds with a certainty and satisfac- tion. A STUDY OF THE POINTS OF FOWLS NEC- ESSARY. If you are going to raise poultry, especially fancy poultry, you must:make a close study of the makeup of fowls. You must not only know the physical char- acteristics of fowls, but you must have a close dis- crimination for the various feathers, markings and characteristics, for these are quite important especial- ly with fancy breeders. SEASONABLE HINTS. Do not permit the old fowls to have access to the same inclosure in which brooder chicks are kept, nor mix the chicks reared under hens with those your that come from the incubator, as lice and mites are often thus communicated to the detriment of the entire flock. Chicks hatched in incubators are free from vermin, provided you have kept the machine clean, but all this is of no avail if the chicks from a lousy hen have access to these quarters. The beginner ‘having a lot of breeding stock to pur- chase in getting his foundation stock, is bound to get some birds inferior to others, birds that it would pay him to cull out entirely. It is imperative to start with young stock, preferably pullets headed by vigorous matured males, and by doing so you will ‘have less occasion for losses, and with care and attention your profit will commence the first season. The old notion that old hens would produce better and stronger chicks than a young ‘hen, has long since been exploded. Pullets with a vigorous cock bird is the way to mate for strong healthy offspring. Culling is one of the most important requisites in successful poultry breeding. It takes more to weed be promptly disposed. of TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE out everything in the flock that should go, but it pays im the end. An egg-eating or feather-pulling hen; no matter how fine a bird or how excellent a layer; should be killed and marketed at once. Besides teaching the vice to others she will in a short while eat up more than her worth in eggs. The hen that develops a mania for broodiness is all right in that particular line, but in no other, and should Likewise, the lazy hen that lingers on the roost late in the day, cull out and replace with others or fewer hens, but have them good, which means profit. disappointment. Any other means loss and One of the great secrets of success in profitable poul- try keeping is the prompt isolation of droopy or sick fowls from the flock, and the killing and burning of diseased fowls, as soon as discovered where the case seems beyond cure. The bird must indeed be a valuable one to warrant the breeder in risking the balance of his flock in the attempt to cure. Every well-regulated poultry estab- lishment should have its quarantine and it will many times repay the cost of ‘construction, and insure against spread of contagion from diseased birds. The man who succeeds with poultry is usually a close observer and! critically examines his birds on every occasion. A visit to the hen house at night will eventually impress you with its importance. If you ‘hear any wheezing or sneezing or see any shaking of head, take these Few who make a practice of visiting the houses at night have occasion to complain of spread of conta- gion, as by this process we are enabled to nip in the bud any disease with which the birds became affected. Avoid damaged and musty grain, and feed no carris or tainted meats. The meat scrap should be sweet and fresh, and the grain good and sound. Have the water fresh and clean, cool in summer and not froz- en in winter. Supply grit, also lime in some shape, such as crushed oyster shells, plaster, rubbish or its equivalent, and granulated or broken charcoal contin- uously. Of equal importance are comfortable and _ clean quarters. You may observe all other rules and still fail if you neglect to protect your fowls against lice and mites, tainted ground and draughty houses. One of the villainous practices which are still observed by unscrupulous breeders, is the killing, dressing, and birds in hand at once- The Man That Does Not Feed Chickens Ought Not To Eat Them. 555 marketing of diseased poultry. It is a good rule nevy- er to sell a fowl that you cannot leave the head on, nor buy one with the head off. The offering of dressed poultry so presented that evidence of disease is not discernable, gives opportunity to rascally deal- ers and hucksters which they eagerly grasp. Just as some eggs look best “scrambled” so some birds look best “heads off.” One needs only to look into the throughout tne country to appreciate the luxury of a farm-raised, healthy fowl. The servants entrusted with the buying of the table fowl are often careless of his or her responsibility, and many an unhealthy bird finds its way to the table that one would spurn to eat, were the facts known. The trap nest, while not much in use in our section, has everything to recommend it to our people. Those who use them become their firm advocates and they should be used by every breeder in the land. dealers’ coops Fattening broilers is an art worthy of greater study on the part of those engaged in supplying market de- mands, Free range is neither essential nor desirable. The young chicks put on better growth and develop but fully two a larger frame when given the range, fattened weeks before marketing they can be quicker and to greater advantage by confining, which causes relaxation of any of the muscles that have de- veloped on the range, and makes the fattening process surer and quicker at less expense than otherwise- Forcing food will do very well for broilers, where the but it is a mistake to force For these nothing is freedom profitable age is short, chicks intended for breeders. better than free range, sound, hard from crowding on the roost, and clean, well-ventilated grain, quarters. The practice of feeding chicks under four weeks of age mash feed has its ardent advocates, but we advise our readers to stick to the successful tried methods of ‘hard grain, which eliminates or at least minimizes the chances of bowel trouble, and a hundred other ills which follow the other method when used by inex- perienced people. The number of excellent brooders now on the mar- ket are the result of a demand for less death-traps and more chicken-raisers. Buy the best, regardless of first cost, as it will save you loss of time, worry and ex- pense. In the South much attention must be paid to ventilation in the brooders. Disregard operating in- structions when your own judgment prompts you to do so. It is safe to give plenty ventilation at all times, provided the temperature is kept right. As long as the chicks crowd they are not comfortable and more heat should be given. The brooder should be kept clean by using sand or earth on the floor. Dusty sand is not best, coarse sand is what is needed. By using a coarse comb as a rake, the droppings are easily removable without changing the sand often. As soon as the chicks show an inclination to roost, get them out of the broders into conveniently arranged chick houses, with low roosting poles, and if necessary place them on these a time or two, when they will take to them naturally and teach any of those otherwise inclined to do like- wise. DUCK RAISING FOR PROFIT. This branch of the poultry business holds special in- ducements for those whose yarding space is limited or circuniscribed, for the reason that ducks are quiet creatures. An inclosure twelve inches high suffices for duckling harbors, and a two, and at the most, a three-foot-high fence for large ducks. The fence does not réquire to be so firmly built, es- pecially at the base, as for other birds, ducks having no “scratchers,” but if properly fed and watered are “contented in their lot.” More pounds of ducks may be raised to the square foot than of any other fowl. In three months twenty- five ducks will market between 125 and 150 pounds and produce five pounds of fine feathers and down. Ducks mature more quickly and get out from un- der the mother wing sooner than our other standard varieties of poultry. The ducklings are independent After the first or six weeks they require very little attention from the parent bird. I have tried ducks and found them very satisfacto- ry. Ona quarter of an acre we annually raise between one and two thousand birds. The rest-of the place except along the river, is left at peace. little creatures. month I used hens for incubating the eggs, at first having five female ducks, and a drake and about a dozen good, motherly hens. ‘About four hens were set at a time, nine eggs under each hen. In about ten days the eggs were tested out, the nests doubled up so each still held nine eggs. In this way we secured a good sized flock of the same age, that at about six weeks of age were separated from the hens, yarded and fed to- gether. 556 Ducks need little exercise on an extended especially where preparing for market. But they need clean, dry bedding at night and shade from the sun range, during the day, and they must not be exposed to long, cold rain-storms. They do well in feeding from a V- shaped trough and the same for drinking. There may be a slat running lengthwise through the center, so as to keep the birds, all but their bills out of the trough. They need a pan or box of warm sand or fine grit in the yards, near the feeding troughs. Regarding their housing or shelter. When it is pos- sible, a good roof is a great comfort to the care taker, and a floor space protected from the rains, but they can be raised out-doors in roomy packing boxes quite successfully. Mortality among ducklings is mostly due to over and improper feeding and the chilling of young birds. They can be fed to good advantage four times a day, all that they will eat up clean and quick in about fen minutes. The troughs should be sufficiently roomy to give each bird an equal chance at the food and no danger of the weaker being crowded away and los- ing the nourishment that it specially stands in need of, It is better to water the birds after, not before they are fed. The drinking vessels should be suffici- ently deep to submerge the entire bill so the little water through (and thus Otherwise the nostrils be- are liable fellows can squirt the cleanse out the nostrils). come clogged and the birds to smother. When in this condition they throw back their heads, tumble over on their backs. a few kicks and they are amone the vesterdavs. The same symptoms accom- pany indigestion and sunstroke. Indigestion is due to a forcing diet and overfeed- Also a hot brooder to a cold outer atmosphere, especially at feed- ing time. Ducks require air, and stand more cold than’chicks. It is the sudden changes and the fetid brooder atmosphere that is in- jurious. ing. a sudden chill—the change from more fresh will A good diet for the first week is one-third wheat bran, one-third brown middlings, one-third corn, to which is added a tenth of coarse sand or fine grit all mixed into a creamy mash: For the balance of the first month to the above add 5 per cent. or one-twen- tieth of fine beef scrap or blood meal. During the second month increase the beef to one-tenth (in weight nine parts of grain and one part beef) and add about one-fourth in bulk green stuff, cut clover, TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. lettuce, grass, etc. During the last two weeks of the third month give one part bran, one part mid- dlings, two parts coarse meal and one-seventh of beef with same proportion of green stuff till within a week of marketing, when green must be discontinued. _ Ducks will only stand this last high-forcing diet about two weeks and must be then promptiy market- ed, else they fall back in flesh and it is never possi- ble to get them up to as good weight again, besides the extra expense. During the high-forcing it is very important to watch their feed and keep them a little hungry all the time. THE BEST HATCHING SEASON. Spring is the season of the most rapid growth and quickest development of all the year. It is the wild fowls’ and the birds’ hatching time—nature’s own time. The March winds have ceased, the cold, blowing rains are over, the April showers are giving way to the more settled and calm period that with — May: favorable to the hatching of the chicks and their rapid development. Nearly every egg set now means a chicken at hatch- ing time, for the highest per cent. of fertility is now. comes Indeed, all things are now There is a certain aggressiveness in human nature that makes us try to do things out of season, and to ac” complish that which That is why we study the methods ordinarily is quite impossible. that will make hens lay in winter; and the same natural bent pro- duces the artificial hatcher and brooder. We all love to overcome the seemingly impossible, and to be ahead of the seasons—to circumvent nature, as it were. And so we rush through the hatching process pre- maturely, and then, just settled down to it, we are through. At least, the man with the incubator is well supplied with young chicks when the trees are in full leaf. And yet it is then— the present time, that things have just gotten in good shape for natural hatching, as we have cited in the case of the wild fowl and the songsters of the groves and the fields. In the spring is really the best time for hatching and brooding chickens with hens, because the conditions are so favorable for foraging. The chickens that are hatched now will soon take to the range with their mothers and earn the greater part of their own living. And that which is true in this respect now will hold good for the next six weeks following, for the latter when nature has Keep The Nests Clean. part of April and the first half of May comprise the ideal hatching period; and if kerosene oil should be used freely about the nests and coops the chickens will suffer no setback whatever in growth and development. Let no one who has not yet taken action in regard to getting out some chickens this year hesitate under the impression that it is now too late, for such a con- clusion would be erroneous, for better results and quicker returns could not be obtained at any season for one’s work and money in the hatching than in the spring. This is particuarly true of the smaller varieties of thoroughbreds and of Pit Games which are rapid growers, and which also develop ear- ly. Neither is it too late to hatch the larger breeds successfully. Only to-day we saw a fine young Barred Plymouth Rock cockerel in a breeding yard— a cockere] which was hatched as late as July, and yet he is now well developed anda very fine bird. Pul- jets of the same mating with him are now laying; and yet they are good sized youngthens, too. But not July yet, nor June—not even May, but mid-April, the zenith of the laying and hatching season, and we should utilize it fully by unusual activity among our fowls. young. line it is PINFOLD’S PIN FEATHERS. Sometimes the hens get tired of raw vegetables, no matter whether given to them whole or chopped. Try them with some that have been cooked, drained, and mashed with a little meal. A little salt in the food will render it more appetizing and ‘healthful. Do not forget to put some charcoal in the box with the shell. The hens like it in pieces as fine as cracked corn. If the hens show any disposition to “sour crop,” put a little cooking soda in their drinking water. The best layers should be noted and their eggs re- served for settings. Keep some of them on hand ready for the first old biddy that will set well. It does not hurt a hen—if she has been properly cared for—to hatch out two settings in succession. I have done this a number of times when the hen ‘has proved to be a good, quiet setter, and broody hens have been scarce. The hen has set the six weeks and then has come out in fairly good condition because she had come off the nest every day for food, water and exercise. Freedom from lice as insured by allow- - ing her to dust and by keeping the nest clean. It is 557 never advisable to set two hatches in succession un- less it is absolutely necessary. When hens steal their nests it is a pretty good sign Look them excuse for that the proper nests need investigating. over and see if the biddies have any real deserting them. Allow ten ‘hens 100 square feet of space. The cheap “rolled oats” is the best food for chicks. little CHICKENS AND THEIR CARE. Keep a record of each hatch. Never set a hen with scaly legs. Pullets are unreliable as setters. A wild hen will ‘have wild chickens. Neglected chickens will be stunted. Set each hen in an apartment alone. When the chick droops look for lice. Dust the hen well before setting her. Make this the banner vear for chicks. Keep the coops and nests clean. Be sure and set the hen in a warm place. Keep small grit constantly within reach. The fresher the eggs the better the hatch. There are not positive non-setting breeds. Sprinkle insect powder in the nests every week. Leave the hen with her young so long as she clucks. It is not always the fat hen that becomes broody. Covered runs are a protection from hawks, cats or dogs. They should be moved to fresh plots every week. PREPARATORY TREATMENT OF SHOW BIRDS. As it takes some time to prepare a bird for show purposes, and as we hope all our readers who have anything worth exhibiting intend to prove their faith by sending it along to their agricultural fairs, we have captured a few hints for their benefit. These methods are practiced by most experienced exhibitors, and there is no reason why they are not legitimate for the amateur’s use, provided he desires to benefit by the experience of others. It is needless to say select your very finest and most perfect bird to put in trim. The healthiest birds will always win, so it is needless to waste time trying to prepare any other. As your exhibition cock and hen are apt to be moulding now, and as their new 558 feathers will very largely determine their success or defeat, great care must be taken to have them moult correctly, as well as looking to their new feathers. The following tonic fed to those intended for exhibi- tion is highly recommended by one of the most suc- cessful exhibitors in America: One ounce carbonate of iron, pulverized gentian root, black antimony, man- drake, ginger and flowers of sulphur; one ounce bi-car- bonate of soda; fourteen ounces flaxseed meal. Mix level teaspoonful in each quart of soft feed. The ton- ic is to be fed every other morning regularly, from the beginning of the moulting until the bird is completely clothed in its new feathers. Here is the treatment followed by the above mentioned fancier: The birds intended for exhibition are placed to themselves in clean, comfortable quarters, where there is shade enough to prevent the burning of their plumage. (Rain and dampness are likewise bad for the new feathers, which should certainly receive as much attention as a delicately tinted dress). A lit- tle ammonia added to the drinking water is recom- mended to help remove the straw color from plumage, ‘ but it is much easier to prevent by judicious shading, than to remove after the mischief is done. The above tonic is mixed with ground oats, bran and_ shorts, which is thoroughly cooked and fed mornings, the tonic being added only every other morning. (Of course the cocks are kept by themselves). They are on grass runs, but where this is net possible, are fed chopped vegetables, besides receiving regular feeds of hulled oats, wheat, barley, millet, etc., liberally. A month before the date for their exhibition the birds are placed in fitting pens where the weight-forcing is begun. The tonic is then discontinued, after hav- ing given them appetites like hunters. Great care is now exercised in keeping a variety of feeds before the birds, not to get them “off feed.” They still receive the soft food mornings, a moderate supply of raw vege- tables are fed often, a liberal supply of cracked corn every night, and a small feed of lean beef every other night. Once or twice a week they must be dusted with insect powder, and each :pen is kept bedded in clean, soft, cut straw. In putting on the finishing touches, the legs are washed several times a week in warm, soft water, to which a little alcohol is added. They are then dried carefully and greased with a little sweet oil, after which they are thoroughly rubbed with a flannel rag. As redness of the leg is to be avoided, a little oxide of TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE zinc it applied to remove the redness. To give a handsome red face, ten drops of calchicum wine in one teaspoonful of water is administered daily, for ten days before exhibition. For comb and wattles, apply a little glycerine daily, working it in gently, with the fingers and thumb. Towards the end of treatment add a little alcohol to the glycerine. Whites lobes should be ‘handled carefully to avoid reddening. To such as need whitening, bathe in warm milk twice a day, and after drying apply a lit- tle oxide of zint. The following instructions should be strictly ob- served in shipping: On each coop securely fasten a card on which is plainly written, first, the breed of fowl it contains; second. name and address of exhibit- or: third, cock, hen, etc.; fourth, “By Express.” This will insure safe delivery, and avert confusion and mis- takes on the part of the show management. ROOSTER TALK. There is more in this subject than may appear on the surface toethe casual reader: There is much in it, because the subject of roosters has much to do with the prosperity of pullets, and the pullets have a direct bearing on the profits of the poultry yard. The truth is, there are about roosters in every dozen hatched than we need. Because they are consumers and non-producers. And, in ad- in the poultry yard, and tend to run down the whole flock of young eleven more young dition, they soon become a nuisance stock by the crowding, quarreling, etc. It certainly does not pay to keep a number ot them on the place until they reach maturity. They should be disposed of early in the season. We ‘have had this subject up before, but. as it is a seasonable topic, it may not be amiss to consider it again. If we will only stop to think—think what a differ- ence it would make in the appearance of the flock of voung chickens, to have none but pullets, and how mutch easier it would be to force their growth then, and bring them to early development and laying, we would think more then of clearing the yard of the un- profitable half of the flock. Let the rascals be bundled up and marketed just as soon as they are large enough to eat. There is some profit in them then, and the advantage of their absence in the advancement of the pullets will add an addition- al profit to the season’s work. Have You House in a Dry Place. The exception to this plan is where one has pur- chased some fine eggs, with a view of starting a yard or mating of thoroughbreds. Then, of course, it is best to retain all of the roosters until grown, in order to select the best for mating the following season, and for the double purpose of selling the surplus ones to other poultrymen for breeding purposes. The worst specimens in a flock of thoroughbreds may be utilized to advantage in cross‘mating with common _ hens. For, if of the great laying strains, they carry the char- acteristics of their breed with them: and if of the large heavy-weight kind they will produce chicks, when mated with the ordinary stock, that will be superior jn size and usually of quicker growth and earlier ma- turity than the common run. Indeed, it is worth our while to consider the rooster question from several different standpoints. POULTRY POINTERS. Lice cause more trouble to the poultryman than all else. A little oil meal will help your poultry as wel! as other stock. Keep the lice down, or down goes the profits of the poultryman. Season the mash you feed your hens with a little pepper, or ginger, or both. Many so-called poultry powders have but little val- ue except to the seller. Don’t allow your fowls to go thirsty. water, especially the laying hens. They need We advocate pure breeds, because experience has taught us that scrubs and crosses are not profitable. Lime is a very good product about the house. Liberal use of whitewash highly recommended. poultry cannot be too _ Lime is essential in the formation of the shell. See that your layers are provived with a little lime, but not unslaked lime. If fowls have a good range, feeding will be light, as they will gather most of their living and destroy mil- lions of insects. A good mash is made of ground wheat, oats and corn and buckwheat, to which add a little meat scrap, bone meal and pepper. Hens must have exercise. If they have not free range, give their feed in pens littered with straw when 559 they will have to scratch to find it. Scratching is ac- cording to their nature and makes them healthy. The best whitewash for a poultry house is made by slacking the lime with hot water. It should be about the consistency of soft soap, then thin it with coal oil to the proper consistency for applying and your white wash will stick where applied will find it “death to lice.” The infusion of new blood into the flock is of much importance, but be sure that the new blood introduced be of a high grade. and you and cleaned fre- Treated with a good coating of coal oil at The perches should be removed quently. each cleaning will be found the best and quickest way of exterminating lice. It is best to remove the old nest immediately up- on taking the brood off, and so prevent the spread of _ any insects which might have incubated with the hen. Thoroughly grease with melted lard the heads of both hen and chicks on taking off: The hen may need greasing along the under side of the roots of large wing feathers, also. At little pepper in the morning feed will stimulate, and correct bowel trouble in little chicks. Never feed sloppy foods to young chickens nor oth- er poultry. Most foods can be crumply with corn meal. Be sure rain cannot make their sleeping places damp. reaping power. Dampness ranks next to insects in its death- Always keep dry wood ashes or dry dust and lime where the flock can dust at liberty. They are sure to take frequent advantage of this opportunity to bathe. Don’t let the little chicks get damp or chilled. A little care for the first few weeks will save much loss and worry. Don’t be in a hurry to feed the little chicks. Nature has provided them with sufficient food for twentyfour hours. Don’t crowd too many little chicks in one brooder or give too many to one hen. Twelve now and twenty later are sufficient for a brood. Don’t grease the little chicks, especially in cold weather. Insect powder will destroy mites and do no injury. Don’t put too many eges under the setting hen. One too many will often cause half or more not to hatch. in filthy Don’t let the young chicks roost boxes. 560 Move them around every few days and sprinkle lime where they stood. Don't let brooder chicks become grain in litter and make them scratch. Goose, duck, guinea, turkey and chicken eggs that are shipped a great distance will hatch well if they are turned upside down in the basket and left to stand for twenty-four hours and then put under a good hen or in an incubator. lazy. Scatter The hens prefer good nests, and when they refuse to lay in the poultry house and begin to deposit their eggs in the hay loft, the chances are that lice have taken possession of the nests. Let turkevs roost on trees until it gets real cold, as they do better that way than if confined to close quar- Whitewash and clean wp your poultry-houses in in first-class shape and ters. the fall and have everything see to it that your house is warm and then feed right and you can get eggs when they are bringing good prices. Laying hens need extra good care through win- ter. Do not feed too much pepper to make lay. Pepper is a stimulant, not a food, and should be used with great caution. If you do your part by your chickens, your chickens The poultry business is one hens will do their part by you. of give and take: if you give fair treatment to your fowls, they will reciprocate with gold dollars and plen- ty of them. Fresh ground bone is a splendid animal both egg production and growth. Select hens that lay the greatest number of eggs if you want to increase egg food for for your breeding stock, production. Feeding good, healthy feed together with good care, will require less running to the drugstores for chicken medicine. In selecting a male for breeding purposes you will make no mistake in choosing the cock that carries his head highest, that he dances on his tiptoes in strutting around, and who is is so full of nervous energy most gallant and gentlemanly with his hens. Always select your incubator or setting eggs with Pick out the largest, roundest and least chalky Nor should a ege ever be set. They are very apt to prove unsatisfactory, and you will find them unhatched when your hen comes off. Really fresh eges are seldom glossy, you will find. care. eggs. “shiny” No food is better for voung ducks than cornmeal TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE and bran in equal parts, made into a mush with milk. Before being fed to young chickens corn should be crushed or cracked. The whole grains are unmanage- able. In arranging perches it is best to place them on the same level and not, as is often done, with some higher than others. The average farmer will find it the best plan to keep only one breed of poultry, but of course he should see that it is a good one. When ducks get to be two weeks old they must have some green food, or they will begin to pine away and, if they do not die, will not thrive. An ill-ventilated poultry house is sure to become a breeder of disease and debility. Fowls plenty of fresh air or they won’t thrive. Two-year-old hens produce the best eggs for hatch- ing purposes. They possess the necessary feral and all the elements for vigorous offspring. must have Good cornmeal has been found to be one of the best of fatteners. Give the fowls all they will eat up clean, and rapid putting on of flesh will be noticed as a re- sult. In arranging nests, it is important that they should be so placed that the hens in getting in and out, will not break the eggs. Allow plenty avoid crowding. of room, While whole wheat is an excellent food for ‘hens it must not be made an exclusive diet. Variety is de- manded to produce the best results, just as in the case ~ of all animals. Every business requires attention to bring success and poultry raising is no exception to the rule. Fowls> especially the young ones, are silly and helpless things and need constant care. Tf chickens show loss of appetite, and do not eat their food with relish, it is a sign that they need more exercise and a change in thethill of fare. Tt is the busi- ness of the owner to look after these things, To keep both the fowls and their house clean, is the whole law and the pronhets in poultry raising. Oth- er things are essential, but without cleanliness as a basis there will be no permanent success in the busi- ness. The dust bath is where the hen rids herself of ver- min. The roosting perches should be so arranged as to be movable. The Poultry Yard Ought To Be In a Shady Place. Chickens and “chinck” are certain results of good care of the flocks. A gpod dusting place for chickens is as necessary as anything about the poultry vard. Keep on good terms with your hens, for wiid hens that are afraid of you are not desirable. Early hatched chicks are the best. Select breeders from early hatches as they are more vigorous. Always aim to make your poultry better. There is much room for improvement in the poultry flocks yet. Good shape. graceful carriage and general symmetry should be well considered in selecting your breeding stock. Remember that overfat ‘hens will not lay, and are li- able to leg weakness and suddent death. If your hens are overfat, shorten the feed, espciallvy corn, force ex- ercise and you'll see a change for the better. Do not cease to guard against insects in your flock. Kerosene and crude carbolic acid are cheap, and time is money where poultry are concerned. We are told on good authority, that perfectly healthy, properly fed poultry are never troubled by insects. The poison thrown out of the fowl’s system breeds the parasites as scavengers. Never try rushing the hens with patent “egg stim- ulants,” whose eggs vou expect to set. Egg-producing “foods” are very apt to weaken the vitality of the evos, if they stimulate the production. Where they do not thev are evidently useless. A flock of hens are disturbed by moving from one lo- cality to another and will quit laying for a few days unon such a change. Jl shaped eges should never be set. They are often infertile and those which do hatch never bring forth the best of chicks. Poultry raising is not an experiment. It has been proven to be profitable either as an exclusive business, or as a side line. Cheap food and cheap remedies should be given the go-by. Better be sure you are right, than to feed something unreliable. Poultry raising on the farm requires but little capi- tal and less attention because of the free range. Where the fowls ‘have free range, less feed is required because they gather so much food stuff and what they gather is best. Poultry culture, if properly conducted is a source of revenue every day in the year. A poultry plant that is properly managed should afford eggs all the year 561 round, and if broilers are wanted they too, can be had at any season if the poultryman desires to have them. Build poultry houses in the South with curtain Our winters, unlike those in the North, are never so severe as to require artificial- front made of burlaps. ly heated poultry houses. Do not coddle your fowls to death. Cleanliness and watchfulness are the secrets of suc- cess in poultry raising. Keep the houses, roosts, watertroughs, and nests in clean and sanitary condition and vou will not be bothered by diseases among your fowls. Watch out for unfavorable symptoms and re- member that prompt action has saved many a fine chicken’s life. See that your poultry has a regular feed of ground bone and a plentiful supply of green vegetation, and vou will materially increase the number and fertility of eggs. Feed plenty of green food to your fowl and they will pay you with full egg baskets. Clean water, clean, wholesome food and judicious- ly administered insures healthy, vigorous, active and profitable poultry. Many Poultry Associations in the Eastern and Western States hold experience meetings at stated in- tervals, to which the general public is invited. A’ timely lecture on the proper methods of poultry rais- ing for profit is also provided. These meetings are not only popular, but educational and profitable, and Southern Poultry Associations could do no better than follow the practice of their tions. Milk, whether sweet or sour, skimmed or not., and even buttermilk, all make excellent food for chickens. Keep down the lice and mites in your chicken hous- es. This can be done by cleaning the house thorough- contemporary associa- ly every week and spraying with any of the advertised lice-killers, or you may use kerosene oil mixed with a small quantity of crude carbolic acid. Whitewash everything in sight, and do it at least four times a vear. Keep incubators at work—there’s where the profit lies. Early hatched chicks produce gold dollars in a few weeks. Don’t neglect your incubator. Women make most successful poultry raisers, be- cause they are satisfied to start with a small business and increase as profits and knowledge are acquired. They are painstaking, cleanly and energetic, ‘hence are 562 admirably adapted by nature to reap success. Drinking water in winter if tepid, not cold, will in- crease the health and egg-laying propensities of the Water must be both fresh and clean at all sea- sons of the year. A writer in the American Poultry Journal tells of feeding Spanish peanuts to show poultry, with the re- sult that the fowls’ plumage “fairly shone.” He also claims it to be an excellent egg-producer. No amateur should begin poultry raising on a large scale, unless he can afford to throw away his invest- ment. One year’s actual experience in rearing poul- try will be worth more to such a person than his in- vestment would amount to. It is simply wonderful how much finer poultry will thrive for those who really like them, than for only hens. the mercenary owner. If vou haven’t bought an incuhator, we would ad- vise you to begin investigating the merits of the vari- ous makes at once. Poultry can stand extremes of cold weather as well as human beings, but they cannot live in close, damp houses winter or summer without getting the roup. Hens that lack the energy to hustle might as well be killed at once to save the expense of food they will consume if allowed to continue their useless lives. There are only three real essentials for the breeder to labor for, and they all add to the value and utility of the fowl; they are egg production, size and early de- velopment. It is possible to breed up a flock of fowls to a better ego production and a larger size just the same as it is to take a dairy herd and breed it to an increased flow of milk. One hen always comes off the perch before any of retires last at night. save her the others in the morning, and She is the best layer in your flock. Better eggs for hatching. Setting hens like a dark place in which to cuddle their brood. A piece of old burlap hung up around the nest boxes where they sit will make them more contented during the last few days of their sitting. Have your miller crack two bushels of corn, one bushel of wheat. one bushel of oats, and a half bushel of peas, sift out the fine meal to avoid waste, and screen out the oat and pea hulls for safety, and add twenty pounds of ground beef scraps. Use this as a drv feed for all young chicks. The careful selecting of the better layers year after roup and other fall diseases. TILLING THE SOIL FOR PROFIT AND PLEASURE. year, and the use of them only mated to males as care- fully selected from the largest egg producers, has in- creased the egg yield, until to-day many flocks of hens average over 150 eggs each, and individual flocks or pens have gone as high as 180 per year. The nest box of a sitting hen should be large enough for her to move about easily when turning her eggs. It is claimed that a sod of grass cut to fit the bottom of the box and slightly hollowed in the middle, makes the most comfortable nest, and keeps the eggs at a more uniform temperature, while it neither encour- ages or harbors vermin. Formerly the average ege production of 100 hens was about 12 doz. per week; to-day it is about 20 doz. per week or a little better, and those that do not aver- age so many or its proportion from their hens can feel assured they are not getting what they should, while those who use the most approved methods get as many as 25 dozen per week from each 100 ‘hens. This is only three eggs per week from or 156 eggs per year from each hen, not an unusual number at the present time. each hen, With cool nights and heavy dew prepare to prevent Furnish decently com- fortable and cleanly quarters—if you have fine breeds, especially—keep clean drinking water, and a good sup- ply, where they can get it. Be sure there are no in- sects tormenting your fowls if you are expecting them to be healthy and profitable. The following is highly recommended as an egg preservative: A solution of ten parts water to one part water glass. Put mixture in stone jar and keep in cool, dark place. Put your clean, fresh eggs in this solution and keep immersed. An inverted saucer can be used to keep eggs under water, for it is necessary that they do not come in contact with the air. The wa- ter glass will cost from 40 to 60 cents per gallon at your druggist’s, and the solution can be used repeated- ly. : We are assured by distinguished poultrymen that the color of the meat of poultry can be regulated by the food. When we wish yellow meat, confine the fowl, and fatten principally, or exclusively on corn. When we desire white meat—which he claims is finm- er and of a more delicate flavor,—we have only to confine the diets to cereals and milk. Remember corn is a heat producer and cold weather food. Vegetables and green foods are good at all seasons. Keep At Work Around The Poultry Yard. Whole wheat placed twice a day in the little chicks’ feed coop, will pay. Beware of air-tight poultry houses here in the South, if you do not wish to encourage roup. In ex- treely cold weather, the danger of coming from such an artificial atmosphere out into the frosty air, where the greater part of their lives is lived, is much greater than from even leaving them to find their own lodg- ings under sheds and in cedars. Neither compel them to roost in strong draughts or damp places. To have them roost between two open- ings is bad. If one, ortwo adjoining sides of the house are of lattice-work that is another matter. In the latter case they will have the benefit of fresh air— which seems to keep them hearty—without direct draughts; and there will be no great change of tem- perature to chill them when they run out.in the morn- ing. If they are kept warm on the inside, by plenty of good food, you need not fear our winters for the ma- jority of poultry. If the comb and wattles of poultry are not of a healthy color is a sure sign that something is wrong; either in feeding, or insects. Dust nests, roosts and house well with wood ashes, by throwing it about with a short-handled shovel. Al- so sprinkle a liberal quantity in their dusting places. It is death to mites and is so powdery that it will pen- etrate everything. Where this treatment is not con- venient coal tar thinned with kerosene and applied with paint brush to roosts and crevices, once or twice a year, has proven very satisfactory. A small piece of logwood—procurable at drug stores—placed in their drinking vessels, is said to pre- vent cholera in chickens. A little turpentine in corn meal douch has always cured it, for the writer. Where an individual fowl only is affected, catch it, and after putting a drop or two on a breadcrumb, open its bill and place far down the throat. Repeat this every day until cured. The flock affected should have two or three feeds a week. Place all newly purchased fowls in coops by them- selves until sure they have neither ‘disease or insects. Never force your poultry te fly from high roosts un- less you court bumblefoot or other leg or foot ail- ments. This is especially trying on heavy breeds. Remember oats are muscle and bone\ feed, and is fine for growing chicks. Do not feed the husks on, however, if procurable in any other form. Select your best two-year-old hens for eggs to set. 563 Never set pullet eggs if you desire fine, large, healthy chicks. Where one has no incubator, the older len makes the most sensible mother, and is more easily handled and managed during incubation. Gather eggs every evening, and take a pencil—if you have no stamp—marking the day and month, on eaci One as you gather it.. Be careful to keep these setting eges where they will not become chilled during freez- ing weather. Where children or servants are allowed to collect the eggs, see that they do not shake or jolt them, as many an embryo prize fowl never material- izes-from just such causes. We find it best to feed setters on their nests in win- ter. They do not remain off so long, thus allowing the eggs to chill. Cotton seed hulls make draft-proof foundations on which to place straw for winter setting. We find a liberal sprinkling of ashes in the nest before setting very objectionable to all insects. Keep an eye on the nest when a hen begins to hatch, Twice a day is not too often to investigate operations and keep the nest clear of old shells, Many a chick has had its life crushed out by another chick’s shell. Remember it is your spring hatched pullets that are your profitable winter layers. Amateurs should be sure the floor on which their incubator rests is non-shakable and solid. Careful people succeed with incubators where care- less persons do not. Very ofter mature incubator chicks die in the shell for lack of moisture. Looseness of bowels in chicks is a sure sign of lack of heat in the brooder. Weak legs may be caused by either insects, dampness, or lack of well-balanced foud. A successful poultryman feeds his incubator chicks the following: Bread made of flour, meal, ground meat, milk and soda, baked until cooked thoroughly. To this he adds some green food, and always keeps fresh, clean water for them. That reminds me, in winter be sure to melt the ice and dump it from the fowl’s drinking vessels early every morning and refill with fresh water from the well. Early in the morning and late in the afternoon is when they drink most. If your hens are not laying well, an open corn-crib or hog-pen is apt to be the cause. Too fat. Nail up the cracks and keep fowls shut in until after hogs have eaten their breakfast. A Page. PAB LON Lam. Acuinmenausiate apa) \ocswchicn nner tare 125 dehy WGN 5 o Oho a ooco ode 211 PAT CEINOMLVCOSIS mieten ist =) (aiisitialts! (olloiisieitc 461 eM Wii 6 Ga as oo plo oD orc 491 INTs Ce Sei Gls ooomluto uo oo oo 309 A CVACU IM et ge) kas wie! vs) alernce) fe! TelvotrelRe tel lool 120 Agriculture “as a Scieuce’ 2.2 2 2s 3 FUG DE Che VO AaNY Ay SoG oro aod 11 PV CIIY Bo nh Saag lol omen 0D, 6 oo 125 JNO ENT ANS 5 BG Aco a ao oko Ge oS 126 JNHEMIROSIS G gy GF gkole 6 0 0 Osos biolac 388 American Merino Sheep ........ 447 American Tent-Caterpillars . . ....199 Ammonical Copper Carbonate Solution, 242 Anaem.a So Dio cote so o.p0' OSs 462 Analysis of Feed Stuffs ........ 484 PAN PONE Ma OMGalehs Mwoltenie cs) en CAA cbc 212 Beetle: Colorado Potato ..... 221, 251 Beetles Cucumber wa ap eeictcaencteiiens 221 Beetles Hila eran to hes ste ce epee) Corea 222 letidKos AMS we ag oro obo 6 Oo) a OU6 229 Beetle!:! Grape: Wlea 5 Lomatoesi., <<) eens ete welt Black “Rot: "Grapes <0...) eenene Bee tale" Black ISpottlyceqc ies at cee ee Geosoakial Watts) ot 2 oe var tenes ee eee 112 Bladder: Inflammation of ..... . .469 ‘Bladder’: Stone/ini ithe #.) yee 356 Blanket Hower, = je). cuemenene a (earns Blight: Apple’ Leal.) 40). one 244 an. Cantaloupe. ts v, erieu-ee ee ee 246 fu MCCLET YH sun Sa, He etc eee 246 eS CHELLY,~sipig yaslecs ted cede cat Sao ee 247 Si DS POMS ImOLAOa's 6 6b o 111 Te Pear. 272.) Sete: ioe teehee 250 pais) 0 -: 0 Cane eens MAMA ATS OIG" 5 5 0c 84 Ss “DBeat Quince:.-...2 < « cl 235 OGRE) 6:6. (O° -g) akoscnao)O Ono: OltorG 26 (CoRROWS eo cde 16.8 abo BOmn oun eno 71 PES CCOMReECUINCC mr uicliieronels tel fe 252 GEeLeN GIA DPIC Meta h fa: fo) eile) elke 0/1 o> 244 Page. Cauliflower: Seed Required ...... 85 VLSI 6 oho Sb ogodoo bad 65 245 Cedar Apple Funzous 20.) ~ «sme «ete 110 COCs aS 6) Sd ood Oona 6000 4 69 eae SDPO as) ecient ene oo» . 246 ee ELEDISA TION OLS casoumla) eecmcmameneneneme 262 semeed eRequired: cu viemewe tel chops) re 85 Cerebo-Spinal Meningitis .. ..... . 360 Charbont Cow ten.) suse eae encrke 455 Cherry sence eica nc on ein cn ieee 92 eee Vu Os tn ohoudae clic. ono G.g loc 246 SSB lackwiKno tai.) yrcneenomscereticuens 247 * Curculio mold 06 dic ono PE Sweat IS DOte cmon Weim irriciem ete 247 so SBLOW DH RO ois merene ci cectoaute . . 246 bet SoM CNC Genin ts! ~ nish Scr oro. o 183 “S TSan’ Jose Scale irae dicw emote ey one 247 PES IU ss PO Hie Slo no ao 0 ono CEE Chestntitomepin, ceca Scene hoes 92 Ghinch (Bugis) Corny se.) ce, sch ewes 247 Chlorophyll een ciuercitonc inthe oiee eel oete 6 Chestnut Weevillie. aliens cts 475 Mepehe Ole OLAS were Merah. ner etst einen 265 AAP obeihe was S| Wale 8 odo ono 0 o-o.6 131 Ew DELIVer sie cian delis iopialleMecp 6) eis) etielionisils 92 SSMPATUCN TS CHONG Ii. ayers Mile imelieyie its) rst tel (efie 257 SeROTAUPC RUS Meise! sietelictiona) ots) oun coe KEUROSCU IS CALES shve.| Whe! lelieieiietisriene tate ke Dewberry San Jose Scaie ....... 251 Ce IDS 5 5 5. oloe.6 ole Wn eo ood 6 251 IDJEMMAE. oO 4s Boone oe ooo Sol 130 (DiarnhoeaysiyHOrse ween enn Uite unc ienia T= 349 Diarrhoea: Cows and Caives ..... 468 Digestive. Organs: Diseases of ... .512 Diseases Associated with Lamenss .317 Diseases of Digestive Organs ..... 343 Diseases of Hip Region ........ 335 Disease of the Large Vessels at Shoul- der qo e@o Goo uco0 6 ola od 334 Diseases Producing Lameness at Shoul- CSS Gus. caninsd.o tm 6D poydio 5-0 333 Diseases of Tendons and Ligaments . 329 Diseases of Brooder Chicks ...... 512 Diseases of Digestive Organs: Chick- Geo o Geir beno1 0, Onuio ay cyoea) ot 512 Dieases of Respiratory Organs ... .350 Wiseases) of) the vHye te. srs) «ees oie 374 Disease: of the: “Haws 2 .us5 ws 6 376 Diseases of the Conjunctiva ...... 377 Diseasesion theuG@ornediany .) sac) serene 380 Diseases Of etne) LEIS are mertemousierel ele 384 Diseases of the Tear Apparatus .. .377 Diaphragm: Spasm of the ...... sot D.seases of the Urinary Organs .. .3856 D.stance' between Drains ....... 265 Downy Mildew: Grape ...... 113, 248 Downy Mildew c.s-cacmcnememee-Men cis: suede 85 IDEM EIE INS SS. oO ei Slo mod oo DO Os 263 Dropsied Condition of Synov.al Sacs, 331 VOTES his Cc nce a Or cechey oo deer dab 429 1Dyay MIs RS Glo 4 ceo. Go o.oo 466 Dutchman's webIper ym. s- eMel ee ley onions 136 Duck PRAISING ew cl ome ayemeneiee cnt 5338, 555 IDI OYON Atay leks Gh Gola fo o olo lo 436 Dy sen terya:i COW ss: eters) ict «lie leentoms 468 Dy SDeDSlalsm COWeactiet-de. omamo = ttrelrstanice 467 E Marly Cabbage ici wersteie) otras] siete) 6 ite IMP UIENE CCON FG fhe Guosd ood Tic. oO Gem Ono 470 comme] OS rej anes) tuctre ter cemen sie) pen etacutsi 8 . 443 Of MEER A Oo old bo 6 de Oooo feo (at Do obs G Go og GO U0 oO Ovo 520 SSmUCE LEMS DO Lave mtcteeReitall 2? -cedeaontomeet 154 Potash: (21% leper ue.cotte i ieeetiohsekl Momence 155 Mertilizer Wormulas) <).) <= ce ses cette: ole 162 Wescue:) Meadow .. =... 5-066 moo ett May Crs. Ib As koko ayo Go. 9 Siro Lt/! “S\ Potechial’ =) <7" -1ce--u we ale te boat ERO SE SPIENetlcuns mar toe La ketene 3 helbs tat soo COHG Nik ne aens eres Ganeaee DOC! oo . . 456 Wield! Grops ecm hws ee ene . .11-55 OES be ‘oeofaaye pee Teccmenltieeltente . 93 “ Mealeys Bog) ceciucn-asmomente Po A ior Fire) Blight’ 0. scm-uscsiioies smemonontomteatd 111 ‘SSPeAT) Aieue Peunwenemodi neha 2% oom Firming Soil About Seed ...... o = LO Kish asa. Wertilizery’ 2s enemenenen sien 161 Fistulous Withers Flat-Headed Borer PIPSMPSCCELES! 6.) fe ees 222, 251 Flea Beetles: Cantaloupe ....... 246 BETO ANE) sha sc) «avis oS es) fore 248 GIO ta Sid G90. OEE ERC Ion 248 SMMESISEELLOMGiye! salutes Wsly.siyeo =. “«, s.su eerie) a 251 ~: THAT 5 G25) GUGmOnCSD Ur OLCMDEEmceS 253 AC heNElows to get ridof.. 5... .. 237 Vloral Department ......... 122-147 A plea for more Flowers ..... 124 About Seed Buying ......:=.. .4388 Ava MO ED, 6 fd Sp Ged ae Grobe amo. o 125 ANE NNT oh Og Gao ro ho Ouonomawold 125 AISI gah 6.6 oF 6 ode Ge Be oer co 125 PAIS TAUTIEM US es Nats eh sisi ies 0) «este co 126 PANIPEGBHIMUM pene seeiei cis verse, 10: fen - 127 Aristolochia or Dutchman’s Pipe, 136 ASI 6 bo Go o8tbo re bo apo6 126 ESE OOW SAVANE meen laine tieiien «ie fel ee) «1 re 136 LAUREN GG G28 MESES OnOa NO mEn ae 127 PSH LS INA DLO mralat-waretcetiaylsi 4s) i joist rar ls 136 IBGHINSPERenmiSiye: teen wets. cies eo s\je,.6 127 Bulbs for Spring Planting .....142 Bulbs—Pot and Water Culture . .141 (CROARID % sag” alacdo ealoLa Suptdeana 128 CCENENS UTES GE a eu ato GReNCND peIe) Goer 143 SERTAS 6 Ss Ged 5. a obo oO Demo 6 128 MUST AGL ONS Meets Mansi. 2) yt amet ioe 127 Chrysanthemum site el rca 3) roa cei alee 129 Worbea) scandens! =) 2). 2/5 52s) 2 3 137 Cosmos . 59 oS ahotd-ovo Gio ond 129 Climbers for Porches and Trellis, 136 COMETS = os vo quote ale a ols 6 6 BlD 128 COREG o old peas sk alorateolotaso 140 ONT ELVATLOM IS a ol ee ieviedienioliciee ies, si 0 146 COOKERS: “Wahi Gig? Ga ordi aeced wen 136 LOAM AS co SoA o, eroentovta se, clotara 130 Mela hintum Wayre oe le) feo ed =) rues ache eit’ 131 Dianthus or Garden Vinks ..... 130 HISCHBCHOMEZ As wrcus ecu tee Mouay +! ios 131 Flowers from Bulbs ........ 139 Mlowers from Seeds ......... 124 Morget-me-Nots! ey. sis. se bos are 131 Nenillandinweentmicnemens (mn chcmerreinel 131 eT AML OMA y fop (ote Melee) i) O10. loro 93 Bruit VNOLES er sass) is ues renee ns 120 rut ion! them Manmy co.0 cutest ceieete 119 Fungus Diseases ........ 110-114 Grapesy west che crear isl inciieu si memewe 95 Increasing the size of the Fruit, 120 Japanese Persimmon ........ 104 PRT SONE GC Bost ottaancl ood 6.0-A°OhO 97 OrangesWoseuch cones cucnen once eichomslts OLAS INES 6 S oe ooo do ole & - 98 Pear . Sthodceabaognoo 5 103 Pecan Oo bores G6 Boies ic'S.0.6 104 IMSS oh Oo oa Doo ooo 6 105 IDM. Ges eS oO d.aoloTa GO 0 0lalD. BIO 106 CTS GS DBS OO Ob Gon Gicd o 117 LIAN MR A, GG) Giob oa bo O86 oD 107 RIMEWANSEAy oun Ge Oo ooos oaoD 107 (ANNO G SN Ooo oo moo CO OG 106 Fungus Diseases of Garden Plants . 82-85 AMITHTA CHOSE!) cite) | 0) al ol eileiettel io ofr 83 ASDATA SUS MUSE emt lcveita lane renicus .- 82 Black Rot of Cabbage .). :.... 83 ClubiHootem westcucneuensien-ren eens 84 Damping Oye ess) epic «teal neliens 85 Down ya Mildewarewten reject a) oct si cites 85 Meats Blightwarcsimect cle che eee 84 Pow deryeeMildewa, cr icn en atemelereae 85 eS ceo va Bo Hla bo oo a Ob oF 83 Tomato Bueht src ek-lkew aioe) (ocd oes 85, Tomato BlackeeROt + -Wierecral ene 835 Bruit Tree Bark’ Beetle 2). 2.2%. co. 190 Kriit, worm: Cranberry, cle 1) < fencer 246 Seth ubley Glog wad oto DG soso 6 253 uncicides cee ere -monicttecucwey chat eee 239 Fungus Diseases of Fruits and Nuts, eo mao 5.0 Sao Op ao S15 110-114 AMNtHTA CHOSE. tht) cicinel sareh clientes 112 FAVA SEIN Gg Goo 6 ho Hac ooo a5 110 Blackie KNOt, tc cetictonlblemenen ements 112 Black Roti wie: cre Browh) ROthey i ceneic isliaketistelichatowentt kt Cane Rust . oD oo Goon coe 567 Page. Cedar Apple Fungus ........ 110 Downy Mildew ty tc: 1/-i1s\veils re noared oale 113 Leaf Blight , O/ sip Roo aeomO. Dats 2111 soley WN Re eyo pb. ce cus iole) at 111 iG Ey ho cde cépeeiancc escucnoeaG 114 PeachyScabregec: heft aetot i ccrone 111 PeacheCurletarou ce etciesk cette sie ene 112 seiee CLOW Shops A cc) oh t's) Yoiray (SES ioe cee 112 ROSCDLRSH eta uses? s. steepeiteus 112 UTM RO CKE Eira uanarct caremte sisi ei ce toh, eile 112 Powderye Mildew. stares sy ove 113 Shot Hole Fungus ... weed EORG (o 112 Strawberry Leaf Blight ...... 1i4 G Gadiy gee rey esos otek ers . . 449 Galllardintyamecu ee apse ee tet. ok 1381 Galle iCrown Applet. vs cachet oie none, > 264 Gallis) Nematode; jai. Goa ea cea ee 198 Gamee antamsyuecutuiel eel ieeenonee 550 Gapesivss =. esa 86 Gooseberry: Leaf Spot ..2.:.... 248 SOY Aikthutiling oti dete pe pep acl obosoEn ,G- 3.5 248 Grainesrors-Cactlewe sss crete teenie =k 490 Grain Moths breyten nsec neal Mano Te 227 Graini weevils isan) crinieits (on planicetd-it=ti- 226 Grafting’ Drees. iw 2s) erro, ete ker eile 114 (eieN solo droto Go" ohdo ono O00 5 0 95 “ Anthracnose Ge coobolo pb clere 0 248 Grape: Downy, Mildew) %3 <0) cu.) =" 248 ec lea Beetles macy: wre 1c wes tol femleate) cteente 248 OG alain ooo toc dono ovo oo of 248 Chagas RIWSs5 v6 6 5 Bo go 6 Hot oes 248 (OPO S85 Glo 6 J Ove bo 8 QO obra 25-27 Bermuda Grassiee cess erties aires 25 @arpet \Grass wine! ce cer folbes vodtay eitesian jefe 26 CrabMGrass eee jk scmelremelen cuter. 26 Al CBT io 5 Dadou oso 26 Kentucky—Blue’ Grass) > >. 5% <1. 27 Meadow; Rescue: .) ay era cece tot ey st eit 2 Grass Insects: Army Worms ... . .248 KC GrasshOppersin-) aie beecdie) Geom ene 248 Grasshopperswi-a- gic cmch sits) loa ate een 248 Grass: Seed Required .......... 86 GrassiiStaggensiecyec: gen teiceres: tecbsemen eile 466 (Crablanye | Jalopy Gf Nai 6 8 io Glo ol dee ae 6 348 Ds (Oo) So] pepto 0 Ob Of om onto 470 CO SG) Gadi o otpkoe! Oo Oold. oo so"d 449 (hEwOlS Iw AS oe on 00 ood 356 HW (COM hota a oO ola bo dic sb uke oO 469 Gumbo fe tedot Lan ete bop ones! c 75 Sess SCeden Requires eyireais.oteiten saeus 86 H Elaematunlatva con's) catet eaiclaceroneeins 462 LEE WT AZ ASO Bale lo ie younia o8o ooo da 53 Halter Puller: How to Break ..... 404 Hamburgsy Chickens sta5 <)ejcseses eine 552 Hampshire Down Sheep ........ 447 Harlequin Bug: Cabbage ........ 245 Paras Milken ater. Mey (sleet at oa eons 472 Harvesting, Corn) nic cals sue caee em elneeres 20 Hatching? |Seasont fy 22.) sueiees omen 556 BEN OR Asoye Ty LOUIS 43 Aa oS obo A oo 24 VE CNOWRY VE ks do GOho co-op otold nop 364 Healthy of -Loultry (peach sent enon 546 ead wots the; HLOLse yoeck sissy siete laters 296 BENG Gea og “on mb o ne oOo Sa ond 354 Heliotrope sien ste eee eee ee 131 ISK GOW 5 alg ic Ama oom ooo Go oS 241 Hemp: Seed Required ......... 86 ISS UNA olp pl Oso OOo bob ob 531 SKIS age G ao anNONGRD ORtHO a Gd Gloom o 468 Hessian Hly: Wheat 2.2.) 5%) 25). 253 Hip Joint Disease ..........-5 336 Hipped Animal . . .....5.....-. 336 Jathyech tyo stash. 6 Goo Oo qd Olono oso 286 Hog Department... .-.....-. 431-444 Lage. INNA? 6 G6 5 mS o Go > a 441 Jeyqacky Cag LRG) 5 BiG pac ows ooo 435 CON 6 Go Ob a oo ool ono 440 Destroying Vermin’ <) 5 2s 570 oe 336 “Deep Seated Abscesses ...... .335 Diseases of the Hip Region 335 Disease of Large Blood Vesse!s at Shoulder . 5 Disease of the Tendons Dropsical Condition of vial Sac Fractures... Fistulous Withers Feeding Horses . Glanders . Hip Joint Disease Horny Tumor . .Horses’ Teeth . . Halter Puller i cvs agae-peest enous Inflammation of the K doers Irritable Condition of the Bladder, 355 the Syno- Infectious, Diseases) ¥ chi. ea. sts ees 357 ICEL ol Gave to ep alos o/c too 358 Inflammation of an Articulation .3382 Inflammation of Shoulder Muscle, 335 Indigestion and Colic ........ 344 568 Page. Inflammation of the Bowels - . 349 Kicking and Pawing in Stall .. .405 Lice . 2, aiscch eee . 319 Navicular Disease . . Novel Methods of Hitching Horses, 408 Outward Dislocation of Patella . .337 Poll) yi es, Oe 5 ie 342 Pneumonia or Lung Fever ..... 351 Pleurigy «2. .° 5s. eis eee . 303 Potechial’ ever! . >) %5 5. 2.0 eee 360 Punctures! of the Woot). 2... 317 Paralysis of the Nerves of the Shoulder .)..°... - |. -ewalcg eee 333 Paralyss of Rad’al Nerve ... Paralysis of Nerves Quittar) 2.6. 24.0 SNe ete 321 Rabies cia +: 3) ots ee 359 Ring) ‘Bone’ }., . \ 2) .o hee eeear eee 326 Shoeing- the) Horse =e eee 307 Side Bones . . 3 Splints...) . he 3 eee 327 Shoe’ ‘Bolls) 3.) 2)». see 337 Snake Bites). .a.0 enna . . 342 Spasmodic’ ‘Colic,...:) -)... eee 345, Spasm of the Diaphragm 354 Skin Disease*.” . 1) 120 Seo ene 365 Skin’ Tumors... svc, hace Ree 366 Shoeing Horses’ ...° - -seneeee 421 Thrush”... 5 hea ee 318 Wounds)... 5°20). 4 een 340 Worse: Js.d0) Gome'cc or a 347 Horse ::) ‘Controlling, the.) 5) s0seae 402 => Beecher, on) ithem.sysesy eae - « » 410 S Seeding: 3)... <. ....assedeee eee 412 “ Horse! ‘in ‘the ‘Stalll-)-)> aes 403 Oe Weethies oo cacy en levi eed 411 Horny "Tumor =50> .. 9 ae ee 323 Houses for (Chickens) 5 2293-0) 509 Hoyvenve) ci. 465 Hot House: Plant Lice. .).) eae 248 vy ted) Spider: .y., «<2 shee 248 Hot. Bed)... 55 Oh. hee 59 How to Keep the Boys on the Farm , 3 Humus Definition of =... 25 ene 5 How, Plants" Need 5 54 .. G eee 6 So SGLO Wo '5)i5) Ga vel on Coe ee ee 6 Humulus Japonicus <7. . 21. | nee 137 Hydropthalmus)= |.) see . 389 | Tberlsy si "so vas,bee a eile hee . « oe Impact-on of the Th-rd Scomach 466 Imperfect) Klower .°5 <. ..3 S)enee 11 Improved Farm Machisery ... . 274-280 Incubators) 5 3... 2 iene eee 504 Indian Games . . . 502 Indian Peach Scale: West ......184 Indigestion! jy-- <<) -cuaicl oh ee nee . 467 Indigestion in Chickens ...... oae eek Indigestion in Horses ........ . . 344 Ind:gestion):) ‘Ghronicy--a ee 7» oat Indistinct ‘Vision: of)... geese . . 391 Infectious) Disensesi, .s- .saseseee . . 385T Infectious Conjunctivitis . . Ree col El Inflammation of the Articulation .. .332 Inflammation of the DBiadder . 469 Inflammation of the Brain ....,. .469 Inflammation of the Bowels ..,.. .349 Inflammation of the Kidney .... .356 Ee Se a REA, . Lae | Page. Inflammation of the Eyelids ...... 374 Inflammation of the Lungs: Chickens, 512 Inflammation of the Muscle ...... 335 Inflammation of the Tongue ..... 465 Inflammation of the Udder ...... 471 PERCH Ziiereitey tetedients: ra) ells ne tel lel! if follia « 358 Ineculated Seed .. ........... 12 Imsect Department... ....... 174-253 Acorn and Chestnut Weevil ... .211 Anple, Drees Borersn)% 3s)... - < - 201 Applem@urculionme-eie so... ", .204 Black =heach-Aph-s) “5... 20. 3 3 198 Veievol, TEES) SG losghse) Gon ies ea cco 234 Blood Weed Weevil ......... 212 STIGMA OLS etiiemmeitol clisiier shel /= fe! (o's 225 Gappaee syVOlMmce Gets) = ie leis- ic. =e 222 (Chia ONIN, 5. 6! Song oo) Ooeo oud 205 @arpetmOecetlemem mie cae ete vou) -«| 235 (CHTCK DUIS So! 6 B95 Bhosond 199, 204 Cherry Scaleman veri = yc © i 183 Click Beetlews ve cerns. <0 s 0 © 212 Codling yMothwe cpeccr sis) eels) se 202 Colorado Potato Beetle ....... 221 Worn ROOL) AWOTI =) ce ter ec), (oh =) « 218 Corny Stalkie borers. cies lek. - 217 CWurculion mam es -uiem= i aiy-.csiceke «= 194 Cotton, Boll” Weevil® =.=... . .. 205 ‘Cottons Boll Worm.) no =~ 213 Cotton Caterpillars) = 216 CottonwCushionyScasewrs 7 5 s.6 =< 233 Cotton Sharpshooter ........ 212 Cow bea bod aWeevslers ccs cine! « 211 (CMUAUETE 6. Gogo oo dun) Seoud becuoncEd 220 Cucumber Beetle .. ........221 Hlat Headed Borers -.-..-..... 202 Wea Beetler. tjvsi ie) cel c <) sells ene 222 Fleas . Solo Dt old oo 6 oti 62BE! Grain Weevils . . Horn Worms Insecticides and Fungicides ... .239 News blumieAphis? iis) 2.2.5... . 44 CEN aunts? GG iblGio a oa cole aloe 461 JONSON! (Grassiise.s jesse 26 ~ ‘How, {toy Destroye s.-nencsete ieee 273 Joints ie Stiles. gos epee se ea oa 532 K ISA) sarNie, is oo Waco vist to: “aqyalvei_ se tla, tay a 2 Kallejs) (‘Seed Required! fa. 2 asvsaeu sete 86 Kentucky, Blue) (Grass) = 4 2). .*2) oon 27 Kerosene Emulsion .. ...... 182, 240 Keratitis yer oo) o-oo sc.'s,100 6. tere 380 Kicking; siny the ‘Stally 295 -y-ucee emcees 405 Kicker: How to Break the’ . 52.2% 424 Kidneys: Inflammation of eos poss Kidney (Worms): Hog: --) <2 eaeae eee 444 Kind) ofeDraing, 20.2 sce: « tenerecoey eee 265 RnotmROOb: s) facts. = Tascrra, SR oe 198 Kohn Rabi: Seed Required ...... 86 c Lady Slipper’ 2: < o- G6 boo 6 Oo Ol 0 Ot 202 “ Codling Pea OO Ne OF On DEG be ATO RIOUT esis) kolceelnitole) em! toile) =| ne 228 (elimi 5 5 GF pod oo mo como OG 227 a6 Meal caver ol) ie) olied elie! volts! ol tr! Ie) (esos 228 Mulberry. cs o) ee) sie eee ee oe 8 97 Murrain: Dry .. --+--++-++sse:s 426 Muskmelon ....-+++-+++2seeee% 74 Muskmelon: Seed Required ....--- 86 MMuSHrOOM) joie fe eu we ee oe es 73 Mustard Weyenet ere) sl et-teuey me 9) ore ra) N WarcisSuS «6. 200+ et ee tw ee oe 140 Nasturtiums'. . 4. +s s+ + e+e ees 132 Nasturtium: Seed Required .....--. 86 Navicular Disease .. --..--+-+e+s 324 Nematode Gall ..°..--++-+++++> 193 INGsS Ahh sy Ao o oeulorodme oO OO o 543 New Plum Aphis ....-++++-+-+> 197 INIEROBEN NS Ta (el plone oie 6: (ol 0) je, ce) ce) (9))'0) 153 Obese OULU tit. Ger el sel eo) ge) enej ton 120 Wegetable 2. ec ee wee vite 8s 63 Nursery Stock Leaf D.sease ....--- 249 10) (fn) He Gyo. GeO Ocho (oO) oa) bec Oo) 0) Groat 28 Oaces: Seed Required ......-.--- 86 (Oke Nyotide A ee > osiGecee O) Gr clOsO lo AD! o 249 (Se) 5 oo cool ol OsG UlalO GO OsULbed (O16 i) “ Secd Required .. ...+-++-+-- 86 Omit 5 co: 8 O60 oho cenMeet wednonc OUD 76 “ Seed Required .. ..-...+- 4+. 86 “ Jrrigation of . .- »..- see ees 262 Opthalmia: Veriodic . . ....+-+: 392 Opacities of the Cornea .....--+- 383 ONAN ESI etch oleh ers! larleuGyie) ives) pie 97 Orange Insects .. -.-----:- 232, 249 Orange Rust: Blackberry ......-- 252 ANY Seas on Oo of bo D G,Od OO Oe 252 CO NRASDDELEYe hie eel) War eiientei le =i)'=1tsiteliel = 252 Orpington Chickens... 0. . +e eee 552 Oyster: Vegetable ..- ....4-- e TY P Packing Soil Around Seed .......- 10 Packing Vegetables .. ....-...2+-- 62 RENAE o G, dioldo U. OUD OW od o)O'o 133 Ports! of a: Wlower) .0.) 1) ii = 3) 5) = 2 = oe 10 PALS y GTCEM Ei york tenietie elie osMelsalie Lelie 240 Yaris Green-Bordeaux Mixture .. . .240 Parsnip: Seed Required ........ 86 Parsley: Seed Required ........-. 86 Paralysis, OL SHOSS) ee «ele feet“) «home 441 Paralysis of the Tongue ........ 465 Paralysis of Nerves of the Shoulder .333 Paralysis of the Nerves ........ 335 Paralysis of the Radlal Nerve ... .334 Patella: Dislocation of the ...... 336 Pawing in; the: Stall) <0 c.0-) eee: ts 405 VEY) oa) GemONcE OED! OLD Ic Oso Us) OG 2 coe SCCOMILCOUITCEY «ten seuiclisusitcmonio cite 86 CAM TOUBCH ccs Ao. 0.5 «© 10) ere oieile iene 249 SWGGAL SBA Bolo carta co oud.ato oo 249 JES Ge Gea bo cuiO lg O S80 co Oops 98 Sera phis |e B1a CK ve to orl: ] «elie 198, 249 Snipa y AO Boo eco 198, 249 OS “Jetyeel aghe culoke os dead oH uore ore 249 Page. Peach (Curculio). 4% 06 © «1.» LO4, 249 COMES toh Gao On eo moO U das 112 “ Lecanium . aime reir syhodia: tlre We 185, 250 ae nS 5 Boo ao odo 6 197 Colina goto omoacaoo0a do 112 RAS AG. oS 6 64 old SH os aD 111 eopseale; Insectsic. 2 ens) 5) ci lelle 176, 250 Ate steno dey Bg 5 ooo Goes 192, 250 Peachtree: BOLel ge te smemel ecient) tales 186 leery MN 5 bo Boa ooo a Oo oe oO 3 112 1h oo) ty Go Bo de HIG 6 bab can Do 28 lhe Go to GIO O ool dic O00 Dono. Bre 103 Heil Mii Gos ch oon aoot od 250 CO oLeyohbhergr awed SSG go boo 6 250 WOE NaS 6. Bo oo oe os oo 0 250 be WIFE Oo Go ag boao boo oO 250 OO anysnechidha G6 sacocpoas soo 5 250 “eo Sani (JosevScale 104 Petals of a Flower .....------ 10 Petunias ... .. Phosphorus .. .- Phlox Drummondl Pickling Meat .. Pine Apple... . Pink: Garden Pistils of a Flower ........---; 10 Plague's “Swine” 6 3 “) 1 353 SDithaWey Gero Ganoro o aq Oecd old ao 4 106 Plum Aphis: The New .......-.-- 197 CMH re hon oo on oma co 112 CARA) mG fo ceo oO Olin cos Oo OLO 250 KVP OCKEUSNs couiet to) ce) lke) =) =a 112, 250 DOMME oho oo ao nic OPO a0 oc 186 “« Shot hole Fungous ........- 250 Plymouth Rock Chickens .......- 550 Pneumonia: Chicken. .......-. 530 Pneumonia: Contagious-Pleuro . . . .454 ONO? Gg colo GginooDmooadono° 464 CO Oh o5 4 poo oo oo og oao5 351 Poland-China /HOgse .mieue ston coset cilionten» 436 INNS Gig Dooonu eu od h ao O00 Pollination . .. LOANS Gh Gechonola OO) 0: ova Seno dd Poor Land... Ij jo oloGoio OO COObo dodo ou Poppy: California . lee geoig=.o 5 CS RSDLAY: te tles ie Potatoes ire: rt 1h wlleiel tattle fied (el eieiieliel 29 “4) Seed mequired! 22 cn ls) cote e/a SO Potato: Blacks Mot eet et tle) ete relhelce 251 Rota tomBlight. aes) wien! Weal eltetenh . 2.) s jameash eee . 028 Coldstand) Roupe#. seecsneuene Gao SUPE) GOODS! osu ee hey ee eae 504 Disease of Digestive Organs .. .512 Dack Raising Duck Raising for Profit ..... .555 Egg Farming in the South ... .520 Exercise’ "3-2 3) 2... .. 202 ESTO 6 Ala 6 tea ono io) oho eaoes 107 BeCATICMTACNOSE) 6 (ce, al sine) lie!) « «0's 251 “Orange Rust . Sees) 218 IROROES 6. 6) Gio hid Wa olen d O86 cuss a 143 POR Cheney 4 Bao ancopn ol bs 252 TMG O\" TESIICe tag igs AG Loouoha to oud.4i4 a 252 CU IDNR SS Oein Gd ou Ota tat) Ohoscstes can 252 OY Sal UGS RENO A aS 5 6 oo Bao 6 252 SESS CHICO sacha Gehisitel«siieh sis cree 251, 252 TSS SG: “On 2006 dh Seo sto) po pa oec 252 ROSELLE swe es CIitcit el rereciell a: feel emraul/aiee 112 EaGS) TEROGO, Si5 | Gapreuea, GEnnosord 111, 250 SMEBIELED CAD UIES .7-)) isc asiis fel is 244 pemees aCkes CADDAL Cay cos silane res steer fe 83 ce LOMO aay coy hal'eyra cis ven) © 85 GINO 3G fo Go Udo sou Gro bao oan 248 SE OLatOmBlaCK =) 5, eh s s slene woe 251 Rotation of Garden Crops ....... 61 © iil Cheyskt Gag? fd ool 60 oc eeeein 8 iRound-Headeds Borer! tie) 026 6 «6s 201 ROOD: G7. 6. BOLD MONS thee G Inco earn se cmeione 529 ELTA GUNG Wepre ie niere folie incie olla) feie-Wopied syvrennsscs.= 468 Uap a eam hUTMl DM ee altel sifesc) ie) 5.2) 78 LETEETE. 9: 1a TEWy.6 AL Oto gous TeMOPc ae aon 83, 110 pee BIC Some cAlolir sf tenyte| vo) tc, \o,0s: (=, ehiea's.s- 245 OF ARTERETEE! (GBB) oo Gee oeamouenS 82, 245 See CLLETISCLAOM aiatvagieens) a) sic. -=/ ie) /e) «a < 246 SQTISNICE ME ci cikshek sich! spiete. ious. 2.22 251 (S RVSYACAIGBA? Grp G, | Uag Eocene 252 POONA GIGS iS rd Sen onomrane 253 LER Good oo luc ADB ODE eae oe ae 38 “Seed Required 4. ghee Bo eae oe 86 Ss BELCLVAPETIGIOMetISn cc) «0 evs lelens-« a S15 Page Sagesin (sehkcrigty sos ears ae eee St) EMA oc 5 Baa bm & ga0o oo Do . 9 sya Seeds Required tse a een nee . &6 Salvia iSplendeus’ 3 20 = sheen 134 Salt formHorsi-neeene Od Ooraue' co o6 435 Sand! ‘Soll! 3 cs eet ton one eee 5 San Jose Scale: Apple ......... 244 “e-Blackberryie se eae eet eee 251 o. (CRELEYs yes. Al hae one ee 245 SS Dewberry. po sma once nee eee 251 SO Orangery 2) ae ver ieoey cece ee 233, 249 £5) “Pea Ch thy ange ce eee 176, 250 SOA REBT ash oy lel shel oe, ee eT 250 +; MASDDEETY A A on i Sec oa eee 251 $80 ROS criss tne caaten ioe shee ht eee Ce 252 Seabi “Apple! 2709.5 oO 475 Tumor of the Wall of the Foot O20 MT wIGIM oy Gobo a op aso dos 117 UMbiheg Go tooo p de Dano bao OD 81 is “SeediRequireduce ww emer oi) artes 86 sc (CapbazersvWieDeiVaOLlmh: ss) sueene eeu 252 Nurkey:Sicaeeeremtenieneien ete) ten sean mt mata 5387 Twigs Borersmeeachimrerc tieusc ens 192, 250 Blight ye earmemis weme eh eeltemel iaw 250 Tr phanitisigartwseh Weltene = 383 Umbrella Behind a Horse ....... 417 Vv Waccinae: Variola........-2-«- 455 Variola Vaccinge’< 2° 2%. ws). - «5 « 455 Verbena: Land or California ..... 25 WG th Peon gio oo clown oO Gib co 6 135 Vegetable Cut Worms .........253 Vegetable Notes . . 2.225.542. 63 Vegetable Oyster. 3: si. 2-3 = = 79 Vegetables: Packing and Shipping - 62 Velvet, BCaNSi ry ee esi reel ee elel sion tetne: 52 Vermin Lom GeStroya wesmean ssi -een mei 444 A\cindil=re Bg bo. O oO Ore doo-0 OD Op 53 Mokekeiutl J8Wy: 5G 6 Gos Giolla mo OG oad 436 NAGE! Short oo otoc Oo DO bo ooo Oo 6 Bo NO CICIS nines SGTGEGNOG ObOn Dy bytsDlo ones 2 135 VioletbeafssRust: Qencr crs tennessee 253 WwW Warts Black 50a: co satelite neieieirel loi tee 112 Warts’ on \Cows: . 22. co 3 2s sey ss 474 Wasps SLINGS) 5520 eel sense) - otro) olor rice 236 Water: The Soil and ........-- 6 Watermelon! fie coe enteseinel ie) ie) eerie ie 2 Water Melon: Seed Required ..... 86 CPF KOMAKIN A GO Oop Oo OG Glo o 6 504 CMS E So Goaonooooou a oo 435 ste ti So io oa clo oo orn bo 449 “ Supply for Irrigation ....... 258 Watermelon Blight © .°... 6-2 s.56- 246 CWO 6 Ah Sooo Gacorooon 246 5 Squash) OBUL cy see eis! oyce ore nia) 246 “ Striped Beetles .. ....2++--- 246 Weevil: Blood weed ........--- 212 SS COWMDER DOG.) leksitetisl «evo! (merce Pabst Se (Grain! Soe cies (elie oo G0 ao oe 572 Wad slag 64 Weevil, Pea . a“ pe LOLRUO emcee aieWemes’si\c) (6) 0! (wire S% DRACO, i: ci) Zo olsen ee ae West Indian Peach Scale .. ‘ Whale Oil Soap Becurin’ oho > c.7 open Wheati! 5 <2 -solee-seene “Seed Required . . “ Chinch Bug. . “Hessian Fly Senet 00 Ue White. Grubs: White Fly . Whip Grafting White Georgian Games Witti:: Cotton. ; = LOomaton.. .- Corn Wind Colic . . arent an Wire Worms!: ‘Corn, J. 3). < Oro oad Withers: Fistulous . roid o.oo Wolves: Cow Woolly Aphis... < 7qioeeeeee “Aphis: Apple... Worm: Apple “Apple Bud . “Bud Pear... .; :)20see * ‘Bud; ‘Tobacco: -.. =\ceaeen nee “ sGabbage.! :. vapanear Mo: a eeP} we wCankerin Canker Apple . “ Collard Beomceo cect) O..0. a Be! “Corn Root)... +42 eee é = (Cotton Boll. 3 va.s eee 213, < “Cut ‘Tobacco ~ 3) pee 3 © Pall! Web: “Apples 2 assis 2 @Prult 3 2 ee “ Fruit, Cranberry, :, eee 2 = Horn, Tobacco! ees Meal: «2 ). «soci eee eens 2 “ (Serew « F .) 7. Glee 2: Stomach: * < ..) einen 3: “Tobacco... : ’ - rar t. 7 - ot “wi - 14 ' L : hy cae - b 4 U i _ i i i ai t , 7 a : om t i , re _ ee 7 ° a = - = n a 7 *; - _ a Th ™ 1 z 7 ’ a W - ; a t 7 i _ ivi a rt, , 7 7 ; 8 - ea an « i a . > - ~ a re eee x - 1, ' = a ‘ 7 1 Une ‘ t . i |. ; © fl i wi i 7 ? —— - : ff v 7 : \ i : on ( 7 i =, . in : a ty ‘ a5 7 ie ‘ ne ; ‘i: a 7 a aD 7 _ i : - > : Le » 7 7 2 7 - a . > Tr "5 4 » a See nd : ‘ au t. = i ’ OD ‘ rn a, 7 Pye ro _y>. Ode ae Sa] a ae oii ae - _ oo a - “ , { —_ we | , i ' : VE 7 i) 4 t 2 t ’ ai , i a 7 + aj : a ‘vy _ — ‘ vm FY 7F ' i + ; ‘ Ls . » i , / 7 i ta) 7 4 i i ——— + 0 * a) ; 7 Oia q , ‘ve + 1 : a a gg Ove 7 ’ q - o - 7 7 _ : 7 - e oe - : ae P ce , Ze . ar ere) 2 7 _ fn - a) a , _ ay , “Os , y ‘ ii gers fy; hee ‘ i - / 7 oe G wun T &4