ae ee ~ ee - Sm ire enero x Be aera a ars te wr ae reer ae . . . . . eee A yi a ae hp e lina ion Nee f ue a vig ie Gale Porihy aaa ae " Da | N AY ; wa | nls ‘ in a ee a ery Thee Ren 5 i iv) ab n Micke alee 4 Ny if KAMEN ih NG a i | i pana Mi id ih) od | yl i t Ns iN ee iy ee hal oa | Le | in i ‘ " i es Ay LAI : sixty a>) Lie Ait EW & sf ie 7 i eu py a 7 i ar by Oniwat. VV thi | ie i My a HTN Ai un Oy i ee : iY i 7 I aS Be on Ly) ‘ i th 5 wih Di } if ry oe in re Ay ee: Mm i} Wo a Wee 7 pail til Mtns | i e a Pt hal "hs if ” ‘ bi PLATE I. ALUSTRIS F a 2 a LONGLE BULLETIN No. 13. Ces OPPART MENT OF AGRICULTURE. DIVISION OF FORESTRY. THE TIMBER PINES OF THE SOUPHERN UMTED STATES By CHARLES MOHR, Ph. D. A DISCUSSION OF THE STRUCTURE OF THEIR WOOD. By FILIBERT ROTH. PREPARED UNDER’ THE DIRECTION OF B, —E. FERNOW, CHIEF OF THE DIVISION OF FORESTRY. WASHINGTON: GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE. 1896. MERTZ LIBRARY NEW YORK The Timber Pines Of The Southern United States Rs riatehen ee ners J dteete @cnldto ties sie GRaIeLeS eon A Discussion Of The Structure Of Their Wood seat Tieteters a There dieseretetecre keane oie ere a Demat, BGToh The White Pine........ Sidhe wiateter: = V. M. Spalding Insect Enemies Of The White Pine......... s Ne AES UGE elie Ge Ont uebenaan The Wood Of The White Pine...Filibert Roth = s+ all 7 Ne a f 2 mo by | : e oe | Aas x eng a oi : a Ate sae i ah SiF Lie, ai i MAY * 7 i ea td : A i ; as | ; ns v iy ri ah + a - a ti vit q in el av yw wv 24 Bas » at ae J (Nighy uit Ria ie i Ay’ Ts ae ae a) = ao ied ’ wy , mi ; a ; : ¢ it, 1 n bee 1 i a hi * 4 ie i Rn ee ci ‘hi a 4 : ae TL 7 er y LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL: UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, DIVISION OF FORESTRY, Washington, D. C., May 26, 1896. Str: I have the honor to submit herewith for publication a series of monographs on the five pines of economic importance in the Southern United States, a result of many years’ study by Dr. Charles Mohr, the well-known euthority on the botany of the Southern States and agent of the Division of Forestry. The first draft of these monographs was prepared several years ago, but it was then found that in order to make them fully satisfactory and useful to the practitioner much additional infor- mation was needed, especially regarding the rate of growth and other sylvicultural as well as technological questions. This information has been gradually accumulated as our facilities have permitted. The extended investigations carried on in this division may be considered quite exhaustive, especially in regard to the mechanical properties of the wood of these pines. An interesting chapter on the wood structure by Mr. Filibert Roth has been added, and a compar- ative study of the economic, sylvicultural, and technical characteristics and value of the pines under consideration—a résumé, as it were, of the contents of the monographs—is to be found in the introduction by the writer. The pineries of the South furnish now, or will in the near future, the most important staples of our lumber industry. According as they are treated, carefully or wastefully, they will continue for a longer or shorter time to be a wealth-producing resource of the South. To aid in securing a true conception of the extent, condition, and value of this resource, and of the nature, development, characteristics (botanical, sylvicultural, and technological) of these pines, these monographs have been written, with the hope of inducing rational forestry methods in their use and reproduction. Respectfully, B. E. FERNow, Chief of Division. Hon. J. STERLING MORTON, Secretary of Agriculture. —" Se : ——. [ t] U 3 é i 7 => 5) 4 4 a ‘. 5 a ‘ ae ° l¢ Re din nie | oe rs cael ye fi ~s ; wee he x ht L eyeeee™ ee yh eee On ‘i fe we ° oft epee ' ye a a MENA ete ay + j 7 i . at 4 8 j i” 9 vi - re | ae Le 7 t Als oo eae anes ») be , r+ yt , SAS 'y ball f J pe! gs i } ’ e . ‘ Z " a i tid of : *, > w? sie a. ee i ea - - TL hs ins |e"be- f a ve ed a) aa Ae Daan ae ee ome ; ‘Nis At ied sicfa wae ye ra ae y oval ieee nb tinntest ri ih eA Ph Al i, Vive oa ee Ge vies ‘ se iv hie. 77 Thee 1a" = 4. oe) ee qe ue ase hn Viawelay: WA wer’ Mis 2 ain May i Ps PND . v4 3" P a 4 ’ @ ds 7 Py jaf —< Pitas a See | | ¥ 7 é a Pi : » ah. ; * iL { i ' ier ar », i bi 9 rn ; F 1 q : j ; : ‘ ru 7 6 > ang rt A CONTENTS. Tn troduction eeb y) Bek gMERNO Whe= oocisee 2 ane om nla eon = oi eee cae ae oa een Botanical diagnosis of the four principal pines occurring in the Southern States.....-.------------------- Nomertclatirevom Souther piness 2s -t- set <9 ame noe eee eae irae ion al ee a Characteristics of the wood of Southern pines. .-.------- ---------- ---2 2225 cnn n oe eer eens anes aes Mochunicalipropoxvies se. occ.sn- 26 22--e-o=-seees tera aos ae oa oe cee Sea ene ene ieee Relationvobamenrblito wight =o = 22 = <0 2—c eee rcs n oo aoe nao ee ne unneay One Mare nelapionbesc. c= 222e2s <2 32-e= oss ce ner ga -" sa a7 ac ee ee ae EN Distribution of weight and strength throughout the tree- EE eon ete an se nae sate tease TOV OO) BET oe oe nce ee anecBeser ear an a nos er pom atcia Bacb ies SOR CARICA Ae ea Range of values for weight and BCH ered See oaee er rises Ban Rec E remccr een HOOKS RCS OOU CEE TEATS Ota EA LOC MIL Gy Meee eee cee al a a le a ATL Wen COO REMOINCUTO Roe oo ee ee ee Se aa ae moe ee ea ea Wisiehtjand moisburees. 4c 2-6 o:2- eet on sence nece ae eecn ro es rhe oe cor Sin Wemyss tee ee acer Seino aw cor enna st EN = eee aa ae Bifectonet box ine tori bleedin pase eee eae ae a ieee ee eT Menroniiliemocdiese oe eee a ete emenee raceme. eoraee =: Creer acmer ner O ArT ars anh eae amar. nieot pcowiive eee tear pea ae ue ees oe ena ane ena ho mea ee ae 9 Re co 2 Rp niueticn andlconclusionsme sos eee =a cen = sien eein sees ene ooo nce a eee eat aaa Oe Longleaf Pine (Pinus palustris Miller). By Cartes Mone, Ph.D -.----------------- 222-77 207 son onsen ones Tere LOL ye ee ee ne eee ark ene nae oe sre ors ogee): ao oe iene i nade ee Sam Te ae Co ee ee Ae eS een cance Sea Reap tO rae Ca ei e a Georrapiicall distribution.<.<5 cc t-s-aner-: “boss nrer oe rae ee Characteristics of distribution in different TOPE LOTS a aac Timber regions—supply and production..---..----------- ----2-0r ser sere erm eann so ne e pin eeAttanitic piney 62 10D see eae ae eae mee oe econ air en UIE The maritime pine belt of the eastern Geta een ea The central pine helt of Alabama .-----..-----------9 22a nm arn eS The forests of Longleaf Pine in north Alabama. --.-~-------- ----== = 2252 n= so The region of Longleaf. Pine west of the Mississippi River... ------- ------------2=--200-- 2505077 -=" yr Le ee ee eee oo ae erase clo orale seer ania ey seni cicyenis Sena ait a cee haar ATR TM GTA lrisea 7 0 GACIO O00 see essere = mers Ste om ae Resinous products of the Longleaf Pine... -.--------+----+ 227-77 s70ttn Fae RE Sect Products obtained from the leaves of Longleaf Pine..--------------------7 055 ros ern n nee Aromianclatare and! clasei fications oa -ce= sence. o-oo ee oS ois aes Sa On ee Botanical description and morpholosy --*2--<-----)--2--- s- namo a tgs ule Racktatem, and) branch: sysbem.2--=—=<-<-:=5<> <9~ereaas sania seas ere eee eeewes Aer GinMOHinCAtiOus cence tec e oct oer cena = ea ciare = onc os ao ean oe ns a lenoci i bedliapecies cue | eee ee ees at ces =e eta sneeoe = eee ao a NG eTN Inemies -- Fungi be bo to =p oo sro oo 2eZugueaF 61 6 CONTENTS. Longleaf Pine (Pinus palustris Miller), By Cuar tes Monr, Ph. D.—Continued. Natural PEpKOd MOMON ae ane mene oom name ne oa aloe iat eeae te ie eels ee Bele Rae ae ee a ee Forest manavemMent.s..s2. es ccce cen cos eee lee anomie eno pine teeter ee eee ale ate ee ee ieee in et ee ee GOnGloRlOM ssc ce wee ore wale ese mo eae ome Ge llega ae ta ee el aes ee ene Appendix:-—Thoe Naval Store Industry... 2 cece nce weal am enna omen ae nna mle = me PMB eeu Tenn Hy eG iee, ey os Se ePR Se Soames Aa SMCa Ose oo SSeS nonce ot 2 ceca ogar st ecasoneo Spirits of turpentine, or oil of turpentine. -~. ooo eee iec see dese alse ab a noo Saneraemamsaete Rosin.of Colophon y: =.5 5225 coc cic wc pee a wee am re a ree a a al ea VC oo eee Be Cer hte = ag SOS SOG ks SEE De GRO nS CSS Re OUEST ESS mS coe oe lefapribenley rth Gl hae gae ea ee te eee Rn eS 565 5 Saest 22659555 odo ode eee aos Tasso eee Historical remarks-<- <<. --.=-<---.- -2-2=- i ee Pee ethno Tae Ue OC TC Sac cia = ei Turpentine orcharding in the forests of Longleaf Pine..-.........--...----..------------ tiers Nom aeiee Distillation Cost/of; establishing a‘plantiand working the crops: ---—52-o 22 so etee ewan lente nes eats sens Sneina= alee Effects of the production of naval stores upon the timber, the life of the tree and the conditions of yA Cf eo I ere SE DEO tr AIS DISC HO OOS ry TOES Sode CES SS FL OID HO EE Cae 9 a SISTA The Cuban Pine (Pinus heterophylla (Ell.) Sudworth). By Cuartes Mour, Ph. D Introd Wotory: fae = aroun ah wae ctw ale Se aa ar nse nena lene oete eA eerie eee eee ee Geographical distribution: 2..-- <=. 222 soj35-3 wassqsigese ssscee ose cate e Ue <2 ea oaaee eee aan eeass aSem cece ees PEOUU GIS) cee ec amen sice = ete ane name eee ee nee eerie alah iertataale eae he eee re eaters Srey erate Description and morphological characters 2240. 22 -< ~-2 0 25-5 san-ce Aesee ace nie a See rer ete Reese eco ene a eee Requirements for development BOR ech Soo ss sitet wicca ecw ecienams tems ae saciae aula ee mae oie meats Seen Ree Cape arte ye ee The Shortleaf Pine (Pinus echinala Miller). By Cuartes Monr, Ph. D Introduction Historical: 2c. ssc saat he seco jas ateersac seme ewes de eae sods a eno mee ee os eien ee eee ee eee ee ees Geographical distribution<: 252 <2y = cies Soe scan caeeecignn sc ean oaee cease a ae eee Soe eee Seer Characteristics of distribution in different regions Products Progress of development) 2.2.12 2 2o2.0 252.2 sack tsoe Saale Soe Sa ae ae Sel See ee Oe eee a eee Conditions of development Soil ‘and climate:.< 25.2255 cees tac che sone mace teseas sh acc ues Sanka a sees Coes Soe ee eee eee ee Relation to light'and associated apecies..3- <<. 5.2.55 ses.ean soe see ose see omen ee cee ae eee eee eees BMIGMHOS a2 sews aatnns acces euke bese casa a coe Be Seem ae eee ee eee eS Forest; managements 23.252 os. .cesanacesos 5 Seats Sameer eee enema cs cae San ae eee ae ee eee ee ee eee The Loblolly Pine (Pinus teda Linn). Introduction Historica). 5. 0820 -< cane sat pede Sadacace Desens a BOE Se, toe ae cee hawt oe CeO e Ee en eee = eee ee eee ee Geographical distribution and economic history Products 7 Resinous products. 22262. 5. 2 Sa sedens chau eeek Cones aes tke Behe pee ee ee Oe ne Soe eee ee ae Nomenclature‘and classification. :.--4.22:=2 8: c=scsaccs saeees cae e ae eee ee ee eee Botanical description and morphology Root, stem, and branch system ThOBVOB = 252 os ooo coe oe nctnins eed sh cease ee ee clons bee eee ae ORO eee en ee ee ee ee Floral organs The W000 2 « sa0 22-5 22s eceeasaccns Stee cove feed 2 eee ee eee Progress of development Rate Of Proweh 222.0282 s cee Seeks testes wee cee eee Oe eee Conditions of development Potliand Climate... oo. loe So eee Co eke eee ee te ce ee ee ee ee Relation to light/and associated spacies.:-- =... -c.2 4 be 7 ae ee on aah "Ae — 1 ot: * el Fe heh OR ‘al pt _ ; 4 - on ay ey, are rN age ih oh nN pal rh adres eu ; ig 2h) Gm 3 sh ai aa = ry Fig. ILLU STRATIONS. PLATES. Page. Plate I. Longleaf Pine (Pinus palustris) ...----.----- +++ -+- +++ 22 22er ere ene rene tenses ceteris Frontispiece. II. Fig. 1.—Longleaf Pine forest in Louisiana flats, virgin, scorched by fire, as usual; Fig. 2.— Longleaf Pine forest after removal of merchantable timber ..-----.----..----.---------------- 27 II. Map showing distribution of Longleaf Pine and Cuban [NG pee eecBer eee ons acct decmesecce 30 IV. Pinus palustris, bud and leaf. --.--.-------------- +----+ -----+ 22-2 2222 none nore renee ene 50 V. Pinus palustris, male and female flowers. ..---- .---------+--+--+- +--+ -----5 cree rrr rrr 52 VI. Pinus palustris, cone and seed.----.---------------- -«---+ --- 222-22 cen seer eerereee cane scenes 52 VI. Pinus palustris, seedlings and young plant ..---.-.----- ---------++---++ -+-20e ree ree ttre ersten 54 VIII. Turpentine orcharding in Louisiana... .---.----------+-+-------+ 222000 erence rts tsetse 69 IX. Cuban pine flatwoods of Florida -......----------- ---- +--+ ---2252errce rere cree cette 73 X. Pinus heterophylla, male and female flowers .-----.----------------+-2+---++ srr rerrr ester tert 78 XI. Pinus heterophylla, cone and seed ..---------. ---------- +--+ 22-222 crescent erent 80 XII. Shortleaf Pine (Pinus echinata), forest grown specimens in Missoutitas-o3s- esse ae 85 XIII. Shortleaf Pine (Pinus echinata), a roadside specimen in North @axoluna ene eee 86 XIV. Map showing distribution of Shortleaf Pine--..-~.~----------------++ +222 0222220 sees tete eo 87 XV. Pinus echinata seedling; male and female flower, and leaf sections -----.----------------------- 94 XVI. Pinus echinata cone, seed, and leaves...--.------------------- ---2 27-2 eer eter rcs nt 96 Rav Wo blollys pines (eins ted) eens cae ees eat ele ee i ae 105 XVIII. Map showing distribution of Loblolly Pine..----.----------------+++-2-+ 22-22 2-r7 oor t oreo 108 XIX. Pinus teda, male flowers and leaves .----.------------ ---+----------25 2205 rer rrr 114 XX. Pinus teda, female flowers, cone, and seed. .------------------- +--+ +--+ ---2 2027-2 r rrr rrtt 116 XXI. Typical cross sections of Pinus tada, heterophylla, and glabra.--..----------------+---+---+------ ltt XXII. Typical cross sections of Pinus palustris and echinata, and radial sections of Pinus palustris and (HIHURO) naaceaeecemin CH OOU DE SRCU SCP EGE SES COE RRA CCR ED EE Sea SGI SIS EC SI SOC SS GSS 146 XXIII. Radial sections of Pinus echinata and heterophylla. ...-------------+-----+----5 27-7202 tr ttt 148 XXIV. Radial sections of Pinus taeda and tangential sections of Pinus palustris and echinata ...--------- 150 XXYV. Tangential sections of Pinus teda, heterophylla and glabra .-.--------- +--+ ----++ +--+ +--+ +--+ ---- 152 XXVI. Tangential sections of Pinus echinata, heterophylla, and glabra, showing number and distribution of pith rays and proportion of pith-ray COlIB! = 22. eae Se ro eae e teens 92 Ss eee amin we ee an 154 XXVII. Transverse resin ducts—tangential views---------------------++---25 2222-22 t cert rts 156 FIGURES. 1. Diagram showing variation of weight with height of tree ....---.------+2++++---+---------2 2222227 7- 16 2. Schematic section through stem of Longleaf Pine, showing variation of specific weight with height, diameter, and age at 20 (aba), 60 (ded), 120 (cece), and 200 (ffff) years.----------------------------- 17 3. Diagram showing variation of compression strength Wit MNOIStULGs 2 see salons ee eee 19 4. Diagram showing loss of water in kiln drying and reabsorption in air, shrinking and swelling. ------ 20 5. Diagram showing comparative progress of height growth in average trees ...------------------------ 22 6. Diagram showing comparative progress of diameter growth in average trees...-.-.------------------- 23 7. Diagram showing comparative progress of volume growth in average trees. ..------------------------ 24 8. Growth of Longleaf Pine in height, diameter, ANG VOMUNG) 222 20 oe cae arate sate alae a ae hee 60 9. Tools used in turpentine orcharding ..--------------------+ -----+ --2222 se rnet tne cer 7 10. Improved method of turpentine orcharding..---- ------------------ +--+ -25eee crt strstr tetera 7 HiperGrowdthvopshortlesf Pine. --2- =. 2sssae 22 sme ace ee see owes om cee ee soe owe ew ie 101 tGrowihvot Woblolly: Pine-s------s---ssec6 <= see aan own mem enema aaw aren ooo Eee oe 121 13. Variation of summerwood per cent from pith to bark ....--------------- -+++ +--+ --2+crrt terete 136 14. Variation of specific gravity with summerwood per cent and age of section. .....--------------------- 137 15. Variation of summerwood per cent with rate of growth (width of ring) -..-..-.---------------------- 138 16. Schematic representation of coniferous wood structure -.---------+---------+++25erte rrr ttre esta 139 AaCeliendinpsyim pinesese sea oe ae ao Se cei i Se sc i r 7 = oe ol > ey - a ; ‘et ’ fl % art 9 a | wo | xo ~ i oa eu NR ‘ae Ni es Pee) wl | fo PP 2eH bat SS PS es S CRUSHING STREWVGTH /N \THOUSAND 16. PER SQUARE /Na 3 4 7 8 9 1/0 Fic, 3.—Diagram showing variation of compression strength with moisture. MOISTURE IP JAE It will be observed that the strength increases by about 50 per cent in ordinary good yard seasoning, and that it can be increased about 30 per cent more by complete seasoning in kiln or house. Large timbers require several years before even the yard-seasoned condition is attained, but 2-inch and lighter material is generally not used with more than 15 per cent of moisture. 20 TIMBER PINES OF THE SOUTHERN UNITED STATES. WEIGHT AND MOISTURE. So far the weight of only the kiln-dry wood has been considered, In fresh as well as all yard and air dried material there is contained a variable amount of water. The amount of water contained in fresh wood of these pines forms more than half the weight of the fresh sapwood, and about one-fifth to one-fourth of the heartwood. In yard-dry wood it falls to about 12 to 18 per cent, while in wood kept in well-ventilated, and especially in heated rooms it is about 5 to 10 per cent, varying with size of piece, part of tree, species, temperature, and humidity of air. Heated to 150° F. (65° ©.), the wood loses all but about 14 to 2 per cent of its moisture, and if the temperature is raised to 175° F. there remains less than 1 per cent, the wood dried at 212° F. being assumed to be (though it is not really) perfectly dry. Of course, large pieces are in practice never left long enough exposed to become truly kiln dry, though in factories this state is often approached. As long as the water in the wood amounts to about 30 per cent or more of the dry weight of the wood there is no shrinkage ' (the water coming from the cell lumen), and the density or specific gravity changes simply in direct proportion to the loss of water. When the moisture per cent falls below about 30, the water comes from the cell wall, and the loss of water and weight is accom- panied by a loss of volume, so that both factors of the frac- tion f ae 34 weight Specific gravity = anti are affected, and the change in the specific gravity no lon- ger is simply proportional to the loss of water or weight. The loss of weight and vyol- ume, however, being unequal and disproportionate, amarked reduction of the specific gray- ity takes place, amounting in these pines to about 8 to 10 per cent of the specific weight of the dry wood. SHRINKAGE, . The behavior of the wood of the Southern pines in shrink- age does not differ materially. Sa eee ae. a Sete Generally the heavier wood Fie. 4.—Diagram showing loss 2 water in kiln oer ing and re: uate in air, eee ef shrinks the most, and sapwood PRR: shrinks about one-fourth more than heartwood of the same specific weight. Very resinous pieces (“light wood”) shrink much less than other wood. In keeping with these general facts, the shrinkage of the wood of the upper logs is usually 15 to 20 per cent less than that of the butt pieces and the shrinkage of the heavy heartwood of old trees is greater than that of the lighter peripheral parts of the same, while the shrinkage of the heavy wood of saplings is greatest of all. On the whole, the wood of these pines shrinks about 10 per cent in its volume—3 to 4 per cent along the radius, and 6 to 7 per cent along the tangent or along the yearly rings. After leaving the kiln the wood at once begins to absorb moisture and to swell. In an experiment with short pieces of loblolly and shortleaf, representing ordinary pia or siding PERCENT OF see ee ANO PER MILLE OF SHRINKAGE AND SWELLING In ordinary lumber and all large size material the exterior parts commonly dry so much sooner fan the bulk of the stick that checking often occurs though the moisture per cent of the whole stick is still far above 30. USE OF THE WOOD. 21 sizes, these regained more than half the water and underwent over half the total swelling during the first ten days after leaving the kiln (see fig. 4). Even in this less than air-dry wood the changes in weight far excel the changes in volume (sum of radial and tangential swelling), and, therefore, the specific gravity even at this low per cent of moisture was decreased by drying and increased by subsequent absorption of moisture. Immersion and, still more readily, boiling cause the wood to return to its original size, but temperatures even above the boiling point do not prevent the wood from “ working,” or shrinking and swelling. In fig. 4 are represented the results of experiments on the rate of loss of water in the dry kiln and the reabsorption of water in the air. The wood used was of Loblolly and Shortleaf Pine kept on a shelf in an ordinary room before and after kiln drying. The measurements were made with caliper. EFFEC! OF “BOXING,” OR “BLEEDING.” “ Bleeding” pine trees for their resin, to which only the Longleaf aud Cuban Pine are subjected, has generally beea regarded as injurious to the timber. Both durability and strength, it was claimed, were impaired by this process, and in the specifications of many architects and large con- sumers, such as railway companies, ‘‘bled” timber was excluded. Since the utilization of resin is one of the leading industries of the South, and since the process affects several millions of dollars’ worth of timber every year, a special investigation involving mechanical tests, physical and chem- ical analyses of the wood of bled and unbled trees from the same locality were carried out by this division. The results prove conclusively (1) that bled timber is as strong as unbled if of the same weight; (2) that the weight and shrinkage of the wood is not affected by bleeding; (3) that bled trees contain practically neither more nor less resin than unbled trees, the loss of resin referring only to the sapwood, and therefore the durability is not affected by the bleeding process. The following table shows the remarkable numerical similarity between the average results for three groups of trees, the higher values of the bled material being readily explained by the difference in weight: Bending | Compression | Number A Specific ; y 4 strength strength Longleaf Pine. tests. a ele jos per square per square CBE PIEEES inch. inch. Per cent. Pounds. | | Wmiboxed trees 2. cena ace nnie ne === 400 0.74 2, 5 Boxed and recently don 390 -79 12, 96 3oxed and abandoned five years. - 535 - 76 12, The amount of resin in the wood varies greatly, and trees growing side by side differ within very wide limits. Sapwood contains but little resin (1 to 4 per cent), even in those trees in which the heartwood contains abundance. In the heartwood the resin forms from 5 to 24 per cent of the dry weight (of which about one-sixth is turpentine), and can not be removed by bleeding, so that its quantity remains unaffected by the process. Bled timber, then, is as useful for all purposes as unbled. USE OF THE WOOD. In its use the wood of all four species is much alike. The coarse grained, heavy, resinous forms are especially suited for timbers and dimension stuff; while the fine-grained wood, whatever species it may belong to, is used for a great variety of purposes. At present distinction is but rarely made in the species and in their use; all four species are used much alike, although differentiation is very desirable on account of the difference in quality. Formerly these pines, except for local use, were mostly cut or hewn into timbers, but especially since the use of dry kilns has become general and the simple oil finish has displaced the unsightly painting and ‘“‘graining” of wood, Southern pine is cut into every form and grade of lumber. Nevertheless, a large proportion of the total cut is still being sawed to order in sizes above 6 by 6 inches and lengths above 20 feet for timbers, for which the Longleaf and Cuban Pine furnish ideal material. The resinous condition of these two pines make them also desirable for railway ties of lasting quality. De, TIMBER PINES OF THE SOUTHERN UNITED STATES. Since the custom of painting and graining woodwork has given way to natural grain with oil finish, the wood of these hard pines is becoming very popular for inside finish. Kiln-drying is successfully practiced with all four species, but especially with the Shortleat and Loblolly pines which, if not artificially seasoned, are liable to “blue.” The wood can be dried without great injury at high temperatures. RATE OF GROWTH. The species naturally develop somewhat differently, according to the soil conditions in which they occur. Without going into a detailed discussion, which will be found in the body of this work under each species, a comparison of the rate of growth of the four species, based on a large number of measurements, gave, for average trees and average conditions, the results shown in the accompanying diagrams (figs. 5 to 7), which permit the determination of the rate of growth at different periods of their life. ERE Fia. 5.—Diagram showing comparative progress of height growth in average trees. From these it appears that the Cuban Pine is by far the most rapid grower, while the Longleaf Pine, which usually grows associated with the former, is the slowest, Loblolly and Shortleaf occupying a position between the two. The Longleaf shows for the first five to seven years hardly any development in height and begins then to grow rapidly and evenly to the fiftieth or seventieth year, and even after that period, though the rate is somewhat diminished, progresses evenly and steadily, giving to the height curve a smooth and persistent character. The diameter growth shows the same even and persistent progress from the start, and the volume growth also progresses evenly after the rapid height-growth rate is passed at seventy years. The Cuban Pine ceases in its maximum rate of height growth at thirty years, starts with its diameter growth at about the rate of the Loblolly, but after the twenty-fifth year leaves the latter STATISTICS AND CONCLUSIONS. 23 behind for the next twenty-five to thirty years, then proceeds at about the same rate, but persisting longer than the Loblolly. At the age of fifty years the Cuban Pine with 46 cubic feet has made nearly twice the amount of the Loblolly and more than four times that of the Longleaf, but at one hundred years the difference is reduced, being then 115, 90, and 55 eubie feet, respectively, for the three species. Both Loblolly and Shortleaf Pine reach their maximum growth sooner than the other two species. While these still show a persistently ascending line at one hundred and twenty to one hundred and forty years, the rate of growth in the Loblolly shows a decline after the one hundredth year, and the Shortleaf has done its best by the eightieth year. These facts give indications as to the rotation under which these various species may be managed. mo mm nm ek TN Ee a a a iz Y al a a Bi E i a i . la ie De ey VY 100 Fia. 6.—Diagram showing comparative progress of diameter growth in average trees. As stated before, the growth of trees, especially in the virgin forest, is quite variable even for the same species and same soil conditions; an average, therefore, like the one presented in the diagrams, however perfect, could apply only when large numbers are considered. Thus there are fast-growing trees of Longleaf and slow-growing of Cuban or Loblolly Pine. Yet the diagrams will fairly well represent the average growth, with the possible exception of the Cuban Pine, for which the number of measurements was too small to furnish reliable data. STATISTICS AND CONCLUSIONS. The greatest difficulty Dr. Mohr has found is in the statistical portions of his work. To deter: mine the amounts of remaining timber supplies of the various species is almost an impossibility without a very elaborate and laborious canvass, which, to be sure, it would appear our duty to 24 TIMBER PINES OF THE SOUTHERN UNITED STATES. “ undertake, but for which the means at the disposal of the Division of Forestry have never been suflicient. Even the amount of annual consumption can only be approximated, partly because the species are not always kept separate and partly because information is not always readily given by the operators or shippers. The statistics for Longleaf Pine can be more nearly approximated, for the majority of the mills engaged in its exploitation cut hardly any other timber; moreover, its geographical limits are more clearly defined, so that even the area of remaining supplies is not entirely beyond our ken. When it comes to using such statistics for a prognostication as regards available supplies, another difliculty arises in the change of standards of material recognized as marketable and the change of demand or use, and hence consumption, of any of the varieties. But we can now safely assume that the standard of size and quality, which was high when the census figures of 1580 were 120 Cr cae! aie E 80 Fic. 7.—Diagram showing comparative progress of volume growth in average trees. estimated and hence made them appear below the truth, has now sunk nearly to the lowest level, any stick that can be placed on the mill down to 10-inch and 8-inch being fit material. There is also no danger of any reduction in the cut for any reason except a temporary one due to such general business depression as that experienced throughout the last two years. Increase of consumption of Southern timber is bound to follow the imminent exhaustion of the pine supplies of the North. And with the exception of Pacific Coast timbers, which, owing to their great distance, have so far made but little competition in Eastern markets, no new undiscovered timber resource will influence the cut of Southern pine. Venturing on the basis of the meager data furnished in this publication to make a guess at the probable supply and demand, we may with due reserve state that the amount of pine timber ready for lumber manufacture standing in the South can not be above 250,000,000,000 feet, and ro) bo STATISTICS AND CONCLUSIONS. more likely will fall far below 200,000,000,000 feet, while the figure for present and lowest future annual consuinption may be approximated at near 7,000,000,000 feet, board measure.! There is nobody who knows or can know the actual condition of supplies, and whoever has an opinion on the subject will have to bring at least as good a basis or a better one for such opinion than the data furnished in the following monographs. There is no attempt to predict from the foregoing figures the absolute exhaustion of the pine supplies of the South within forty or fifty years, although such a result would appear not unlikely. Jompetition of other timbers, and substitutes for the use of wood (which, to be sure, never in the history of the world have reduced wood consumption), and especially changes in present methods of exploitation, may lengthen out supplies for a short time; or, if we begin rational forestry now, these forests may be kept a source of continuous supplies, even though reduced. Those who rely upon the spontaneous natural reproduction of these pines to fill the gaps made in the virgin timber will do well to read the chapters on natural reproduction and the incidental remarks regarding the conditions for renewal and the appearance of the aftergrowth; or, better, tramp through the vast region of culled pine woods and observe what the basis of their reliance is, as the writer of these monographs has done through forty years of his life. If, in addition, they study the chapters on conditions of development, they will realize that the Longleaf Pine is bound to disappear largely even in the regions where it reigned supreme; that the Cuban Pine, no despicable substitute, will take its place in the lower pine belt, if allowed to propagate at all; but on large burnt areas the growth of scrubby oaks and brush will forever exclude this species which aninently needs light. Loblolly aad Shortleaf, better fitted for warfare with other species, will do much in their respective habitats to recuperate, except in the mixed forest, where they are culled and the hard woods are left to shade out the aftergrowth; or where the continuous conflagrations have destroyed the mold and aftergrowth and given over the soil to scrubby brushgrowth, which for ages will either prevent the gradual return of the pines or impede their renewal and growth. Considering that the timber on which we now rely and on which we base our standards comes from trees usually from one hundred and fifty to two hundred years or more old, and that none of these pines makes respectable timber in less than from sixty to one hundred and twenty-five years, the necessity of timely attention to their renewal is further emphasized. The owners of timber land and the operators of mills are the only people who can improve these conditions, and this by a more rational treatment of their property. If they ean be made to realize now that what they own and hold as a temporary speculation will, in a short time, when supplies have visibly decreased, become a first-class investment, and, by its revenues, become a greater source of wealth under competent management with a view to reproduction than that which they have derived from it by the mere robbing of the old timber, they might take steps at least against the unnecessary damage done to it by fire and cattle. Permaneney and continuity of ownership appear to be the first condition to insure such results, and therefore corporations which are not of an ephemeral character and men of large wealth are most desirable forest owners. The monographs here presented will, it is hoped, aid in this realization, and the information regarding the conditions of development of the different species will furnish suggestions as to the forest management which, modified according to local conditions and economic considerations, may be employed to secure the perpetuity of the Southern pineries. B. E. FERNOW. WASHINGTON, D. C., June 5, 1896. 1 The entire region within which these pines occur in merchantable condition comprises about 230,000 square miles or, in round numbers, 147,000,000 acres ; for land in farms, ete., 10,000,000 acres must be deducted, and allowing as much as two-thirds of the remainder as representing pine lands (the other to hardwoods), we would have about 90,000,000 acres on which pine may occur. An average growth of 3,000 feet per acre, an extravagant figure when referred to such an area, would make the possible stand, 270,000,000,000 feet, provided it was in yirgin condition and not mostly culled or cut. Wray ‘feu pt Web . S . i hire ‘hee 2 : ee pw ile tsi if ferar ay ; ee ae ’ By rt , . e.g | ; q * i i 4 | eve »Y rey - . iv Ft ai j Pa’ Y, ; ey 7 , (DLE } (BUT oe d Lt): nv we tam Se | a et" piel wt? pedey : a aa ae - 7 ‘ r., . 7 4 ad) ps si aii igs fd Weis />> i
wpe be - alae 4 sina ooh ee eel Wir ip ein’ 2 sie) ¥ i I Lh. bara pv 4h Wiig: ele hl Bete ap om EAs hI EEE EATS os Ape ok Wee ye " eae ew " sey) Ie 7 Te i py ny - g/ Fi 7s ¥ | i Le ‘ ; thar es ee - rep Par share gat iy = © ' Py ce barrel we ie a) fi, 6 ih r mi ? Pi és AY “ ' i eal ty yh hi cet depen pk UP =, TT de ee Al Nye eee Pa Eh aa) a tie ee Aad? vt (carr ric a (C oe eat oh he Ne enn Wa’ ’ tay, hails, vy - Pe ah hee La ple nin ’ Ho)! e 2% rere LNA ot” ae etal — ae * aS en | , * wr is On ey) < oh Wriv ieee PLATE Ii. + te: EI fee * SCORCHED BY FIRE AS USUAL. BLE TIMBER AL OF MERCHANTA * (2) oo s MMM MEB ge hy. INGLEAF PINE, FOREST AFTER REMOV Le z o & > 9) EF < onl re < z SA 2) = ro) a = kb i) Ww c fe) w WwW Zz jou w <= WwW =) o LON Fic. 1. THE LONGERAP PINE: (PINUS PALUSTRIS Miller.) GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION. PRODUCTS AND USES. BOTANICAL DESCRIPTION. DESCRIPTION OF WOOD. PROGRESS OF DEVELOPMENT. CONDITIONS OF DEVELOPMENT. FOREST MANAGEMENT. APPENDIX: THE NAVAL STORE INDUSTRY. THE LONGLEAF PINE. (Pinus palustris Miller.) Synonyms: Pinus palustris Miller, Gard, Dict. ed, 8, No. 14 (1768). Pinus lutea Walter, Fl. Car. 237 (1788). Pinus australis Michaux f., Hist. Arb. Am. i. 64, t. 6 (1803). Pinus serotina Hort. Cf. Bon Jard. 976 (1837) ex Antoine, Conif. 23 (1840-47), not Michx. (1803). Pinus Palmiensis Fr. Gard. ex Gordon, Pinetum ed, 1, Suppl. 63 (1862). Pinus Palmieri Manetti ex Gord., 1. c. (1862). LOCAL OR COMMON NAMES. Longleaved Pine (Del., N. C.,8.C., Ga., Ala., Fla., Miss., Pitch Pine (Atlantic region). La., Tex.). Longleaved Yellow Pine (Atlantic region. ) Southern Pine (N. C., Ala., Miss., La. ). Longleaved Pitch Pine (Atlantic region). Yellow Pine (Del., N.C.,S.C., Ala., Fla., La., Tex.). Long-straw Pine (Atlantie region). Turpentine Pine (N.C.). North Carolina Pitch Pine (Va., N.C.). Rosemary Pine (N.C.). Georgia Yellow Pine (Atlantic region). Brown Pine (Tenn.). Georgia Pine (general). Hard Pine (Ala., Miss., La.). Georgia Heart Pine (general). Georgia Pine (Del.). Georgia Longleaved Pine (Atlantic region). Fat Pine (Southern States). Georgia Pitch Pine (Atlantic region). Southern Yellow Pine (general). Florida Yellow Pine (Atlantic region). Southern Hard Pine (general). Florida Pine (Atlantic region). Southern Heart Pine (general). Florida Longleaved Pine (Atlantic region). Southern Pitch Pine (general). Texas Yellow Pine (Atlantie region). Heart Pine (N.C. and Southern Atlantic region). Texas Longleaved Pine (Atlantic region). 28 THE LONGLEAF PINE. By CHarves Monr, Ph. D. INTRODUCTORY. The Longleaf Pine is the tree of widest distribution and of greatest commercial importance in the Southern Atlantic forest region of eastern North America, covering, with scarcely any interruption, areas to be measured by tens of thousands of square miles and furnishing useful material. The timber wealth of the forests of Longleaf Pine, much of which is still untouched, has given rise to industries which involve the outlay of vast capital and an extensive employment of labor, thus closely affecting the prosperity of a large part of the Southern States as well as the indus- trial and commercial interests of the whole country. With the impending exhaustion of the pine forests of the North, the lumber interests of the country are steadily tending to center in the South, attracted chiefly by the forests of Longleaf Pine. The Old World, which has heretofore depended almost entirely upon the pine forests of Canada and of the Northern United States for timber for heavy construction, is already importing a large amount of hewn and sawn square timber and of lumber from the Southern pine forests. Most of the lumber used for ordinary building purposes in the West Indies, on the coast of Mexico, and in many of the States of South America is furnished by the mills situated in the Longleaf Pine region. The unprecedented increase, during the last quarter of a century, of the population in the timberless regions of the far West, as well as in the country at large, enormously augment the drafts made upon these forests, threatening their eventual exhaustion and ultimate destruc- tion unless measures are taken by which these supplies may be perpetuated. The solution of the difficult problem of devising such measures can come only as a result of a study of the life history of the Longleaf Pine, of the conditions required for its growth and best development, of the laws regulating its distribution, and of the possibilities for its natural or artificial restoration. HISTORICAL. The economic importance of the Longleaf Pine was well recognized in early times. Bartram,! in the year 1777, in his wanderings along the western shore of Mobile Bay, had his attention attracted by three very large iron pots, or kettles, each with a capacity of several hundred gallons, near the remains of an old fort or settlement, which he was informed were used for the purpose of boiling down the tar to pitch, there being vast forests of pine in the vicinity of this place. ‘In Carolina,” this writer proceeds, “the inhabitants pursue a different method. When they are going to make pitch they dig large holes in the ground, which they line with a thick coat of good clay, into which they conduct a sufficient quantity of tar and set it on fire, suffering it to burn and evaporate for some time, in order to convert it into pitch, and when cool, put it into barrels until they have consumed all the tar and made a sufficient quantity of pitch for their purposes.” Humphrey Marshall, one of the earliest writers on North American forest trees,’ mentions the Longleaf Pine under the name of the “largest three-leaved marsh pine, as accounted equal to any for its resinous products.” In North Carolina crude resin, tar, and pitch figured as important and valuable exports during the later colonial times. During the period from 1766 to 1769, $150,000 1 Bartram’s Travels through North and South Carolina, Philadelphia, 1790. 2?Humphrey Marshall: Arbustum Americanum, or the American Grove, Philadelphia, 1785. 29 30 TIMBER PINES OF THE SOUTHERN UNITED STATES. worth of these stores were exported yearly; among them were 88,111 barrels of crude resin, valued at $11,244.85. F. A. Michaux, in his travels west of the Alleghany Mountains, speaking of the low country of the Carolinas, says:' ““Seven-tenths is covered with pine of one species, Pinus palustris, which, as the soil is drier and lighter, grows loftier; these pines, encumbered with very few branches and which split even, are preferred to other trees for building fences on plantations.” In his subsequent work Michaux gives for the first time an accurate and detailed account of the products of this tree and their industrial and commercial importance, as well as of its distribution and a description of its specifie characters.’ Nore.—In sketching the topographical features of those regions of the Longleaf Pine forests, which did not come under the personal observation of the writer, the physiographical descriptions of the Cotton States on the Atlantic Coast and the Gulf region published in Professor Hilgard’s report on cotton production in the fifth and sixth volumes of the Census of 1880 were freely drawn upon, and these reports were also consulted, together with Table VII in the statistics published in the census report on productions of agriculture in the computation of forest areas. In the statements of the amount of Longleaf Pine standing in the several States in 1880 and of the cut during the same year, the figures given in Prof. Charles 8. Sargent’s report, Vol. IX of the Tenth Census, were introduced, and for those which relate to Alabama and Mississippi the writer is mostly responsible. No efforts have been spared to arrive at a correct estimate of the total amount and value of square timber, lumber, and naval stores produced during the decade ending with the year 1890 and during the business year 1893, in order to place in a proper light the economic importance of the tree and its bearings upon the industrial and commercial interests of the country, and also to show the rapid increase of the industries depending direetly upon the resources of this tree. The state- ments given are, however, of necessity only approximations falling below the limits of truth, as it was impossible to ascertain with any degree of accuracy the quantities entering into home consumption. Thus a factor of no little importance had to be neglected. The thanks of the writer are due to the gentlemen who kindly assisted him by their prompt replies to his inquiries in his search for information, and who in other ways have afforded him aid. GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION. The Longleaf Pine is principally confined to a belt about 125 miles in width in the lower parts of the Southern States which border upon the Atlantic and the Gulf shores. The northern limit of the tree is found on the coast near the southern boundary of Virginia below Norfolk, north latitude 36° 30’.. From here the forests of the Longleaf Pine extend southward along the coast region to Cape Canaveral, across the peninsula of Florida a short distance south of Tampa Bay, westward along the Gulf Coast to the uplands which border upon the alluvial deposits of the Mississippi. West of that river forests of this species continue to the Trinity River in Texas; in that State its northern limit is found to reach hardly 32° north latitude, while in Louisiana and Mississippi it extends hardly more than half a degree farther north, and in Alabama under 34° 30/ the tree is found to ascend the extreme southern spurs of the Appalachian chain to an altitude of between 900 and 1,000 feet. Thus the area of the distribution of the Longleaf Pine extends from 76° to 96° west longitude and from 28° 30/ to 36° 30/ north latitude. (See Pl, III.) With reference to the distribution of this species as depending upon geological formation, it may be said that its forests are chiefly confined to the sandy and gravelly deposits designated by Professor Hilgard as the orange sand, or Lafayette strata of Post-Tertiary formation, which of late isregarded as the most recent member of the Tertiary formation. Thesesiliceous sands and pebbles, which to such vast extent cover the lower part of the Southern States and form also more or less the covering of the surface throughout the older Tertiary region, offer the physical conditions most suitable to the growth of this tree. CHARACTERISTICS OF DISTRIBUTION IN DIFFERENT REGIONS. _ This great maritime pine belt east of the Mississippi River presents such differences in topographical features and such diversity of physical and mechanical conditions of the soil as to permit a distinction of three divisions going from the coast to the interior: 1. The coastal plain, or low pine barrens within the tide-water region, extends from the seashore inland for a distance of from 10 to 30 miles and over. The forests of the Longleaf Pine which ‘Travels West of the Alleghanies, by F. A. Michaux. Paris, 1803. 2P. A. Michaux, Histoire des Arbres forestiers de ’Amer., Sept. Paris, 1811. Philadelphia Edition, 1852, Vol. ILI, p. 106 et seq. Plate III Bulletin No. 13, Division of Forestry. COUKHIETE WET 0 Seo (ANId AVATONOT) STULSATVd SONId juesy ‘How ‘svHg Aq parrdarg (ANId NVANO) SISNHANO SANId anv AO NOILAPTULSIG SNTMOHS | | dVW | | er eumeny Py a Pr a ——— ak ; i wUoyrtAg ViNOHY TI “SYOV Y3d Y3SA0 GNY "Wg 13335 0009 OL O00F AT131A [ Tir | "BYuOV 43d “Wg 1334 000r OL 000% AISIA es a ‘OALSNVHXS ASLSIdWOO YO LSOWIY era “SHOY Y3d "W 'g 13354 000% O1 000! AT3ZIA ete & 3 ‘QSHSLLVOS SHNOOO S3lIOadS 3HL HOIHM NO SV3aY¥Yy » L *«s« vs eae 7214, 4 epee \ ail ae pods *"SISNSSNO SNNId JO LINIT NYBHLYON ae | : uy Freer tao Ce cial é *HLMOYD G3XIIN 4O NOIOSH 40 3NIT ANVaNNOg “S44 yrane = = pe i | “NOILNSINLSIO OINONOOS TWNOIDSYH 40 SANIT ANWONNOG -------- — spuP oust? | “NOILNBIYNLSIO TVYOINVLOS 3O S3N!7 AUVGNNOG ‘aNa937] 56 16 ~~ THs SOUTHEREAS. UNTTED SVATHA intend to noieivid i) ge oh nitollu® eS ee Te TR Ry Preece Sri a Fi Sayan (onthe te aed ai fh (ee of Git ope ca er “ re yeet i i limiter, gure teeny Bee pier Wich bares toly A oi +i ‘ +, Ae CTersl hast Peewee! Piri Orato b> frtiyven Car play tad baits = aah iL a's ; < pi¥od ber the Afeb- gra Rourite worl Metathey) enenun « * he 5 fee Witearpl (hess nctag brig fonte Mop mercial Linpertiiiney ap Well aw wl few Giets Wicem of Ls spor’ epakentors” MieNing (he My ( iged Teatmsne if (hier: wa i ove seiiat of » wthrer, thea phypalpgraply es er, _< hot Pe Uresienet Mpiyer hae ee ~* ‘ , Te psa yey ‘ipim, And 11 ui ‘ sung tropert an preg oes Cs ape yey se i he reettiiabe af the joa eae ete dad sg: b tie yet to ty ‘he gts vt Lede le re oe ee aot (hae eed i" at ob} hIvne CHBERES (unev? pres) the Si i Flol.ahdsttinazatpal Wives & , ofgpthigal gud rok * ied iN wnat Dosage ke. usd E ide vy a TIMBER REGIONS—SUPPLY AND PRODUCTION. 31 oceupy the poorly drained grassy flats of the plain are very open, intersected by numerous inlets of the sea and by brackish marshes, They are also interrupted by swamps densely covered with Cypress White Cedar, White and Red Bay, Water Oak, Live Oak, Magnolia, Tupelo Gum, and Black Gum and again by grassy savannas of greater or less extent. On the higher level, or what might be called the first terrace, with its better drained and more loamy soil, the Longleaf Pine once prevailed, but almost everywhere in the coastal plain the original timber has been removed by man and replaced by the Loblolly Pine and the Cuban Pine. 2. The rolling pine lands, pine hills, or pine barrens proper are the true home of the Long- Leaf Pine. On the Atlantic Coast these uplands rise to hills over 600 feet in height, while in the Gulf region they form broad, gentle undulations rarely exceeding an elevation of 300 feet. Thus spreading out in extensive table-lands, these hills are covered exclusively with the forests of this tree for many hundreds of square miles without interruption. Here it reigns supreme. The monotony of the pine forests on these table-lands is unbroken. 3. The upper division, or region of mixed growth. With the appearance of the strata of the Tertiary formation in the upper part of the pine belt, the pure forests of the Longleaf Pine are con- fined to the ridges capped by the drifted sands and pebbles and to the rocky heights of siliceous chert, alternating with open woods of oak (principally Post Oak), which occupy the richer lands of the calcareous loams and marls. However, where these loams and marls, rich in plant food, mingle with the drifted soils, we find again the Longleaf Pine, but associated with broad-leaved trees and with the Loblolly and Shortleaf Pine. Here the Longleaf Pine attains a larger size and the number of trees of maximum growth per acre is found almost double that on the lower division. TIMBER REGIONS—SUPPLY AND PRODUCTION, The forests of Longleaf Pine can be conveniently discussed by referring to the following geo- graphical and limited areas: The Atlantic pine region; The maritime pine belt of the eastern Gulf States; The central pine belt of Alabama; The forests of Longleaf Pine of north Alabama (Coosa basin, etc.) ; The regions of Longleaf Pine west of the Mississippi River. THE ATLANTIC PINE REGION. The Atlantic pine region in its extent from the southern frontier of eastern Virginia to the peninsula of Florida embraces the oldest and most populous States of the Longleaf Pine district, and here the forests have suffered most severely by lumbering, the production of naval stores, and clearing for purposes of agriculture. Virginia.—The forests of the Longleaf Pine on the southeastern border of Virginia have almost entirely disappeared, and are, to a great extent, replaced by a second growth of Loblolly Pine. North Carolina.—In North Carolina the area over which this tree once prevailed may be estimated at from 14,000 to 15,000 square miles, leaving out of calculation the coastal plain with its extensive swamps, wide estuaries, and numerous inlets. From the northern frontier of the State southward, some distance beyond the Neuse River, in the agricultural district, the forest growth on the level or but slightly undulating pine land is of a mixed character, the Longleaf species being largely superseded by the Loblolly Pine, together with widely scattered Shortleaf Pine and decid- uous trees—White Oak, Red Oak, Post Oak, Black Oak, and more rarely Mockernut and Pignut Hickory, and Dogwood. In this section the lumbering interests are chiefly dependent upon the Loblolly Pine (Pinus tada), better known to the inhabitants as the Shortstraw, or Shortleaf Pine (not to be confounded with the true Shortleaf Pine). The forests of Longleaf Pine begin at Bogue Inlet, extend along the coast to the southern boundary of the State, and inland for a distance varying between 50 and 135 miles. The highly siliceous soil of these pine barrens offers but little inducement for its cultivation; the inhabitants, therefore, from the earliest time of the settlement of the State have chiefly been engaged in pursuits based on the products of the pine forests. Here the production of naval 32 TIMBER PINES OF THE SOUTHERN UNITED STATES. stores was first carried on; rosin, tar, and pitch figured in early colonial times among the most important articles of export. In consequence, the forests of the Longleaf Pine have been, with but slight exceptions, invaded by turpentine orcharding, and at the present time by far the greater part of the timber standing has been tapped for its resin. The forests of the Longleaf Pine in this State cover the largest area in the basin of Cape Fear River, with Wilmington the main port of export for their products, The export from this port had increased from 21,000,000 feet of lumber in 1880, to nearly 40,000,000 annually, on the average, for the years 1887 to 1891, The forests of the Longleaf Pine on the banks of the Neuse River, in Johnston County and in Wayne County, are almost exhausted; about 40 to 50 per cent of the timber sawn at Goldsboro and Dover is Longleaf Pine timber from that section, and is invariably bled. A considerable number of the trees from the old turpentine orchards, with the excoriated surface of the trunk (“chip”) over 25 feet in length and bled again after a lapse of years, show that they have been worked for their resin for twenty to twenty-four years in succession, and after a longer or shorter period of rest have been subjected to the same treatment continually for the same number of years. Such old martyrs of the turpentine orchard are unfit for lumber, but, impregnated as they are with resin, are used for piling and for posts of great durability. Bast of the Neuse River, from the upper part of Johnston County, in an almost southern direction to Newbern, no Longleaf Pine has been observed. Single trees of the Shortleaf Pine (Pinus echinata) have been found scattered among the growth of deciduous trees which cover the ridges between the Trent and Neuse rivers, and isolated tracts of a few acres of the Longleaf species are met with in the low flats of the same section, which were in 1894 almost exclusively occupied by the Loblolly Pine. As reported for the Tenth Census, the amount of Longleaf Pine standing in North Carolina at the beginning of the census year was estimated to be 5,229,000,000 feet, board measure. No reliable information could be obtained as to the amount of timber cut since 1880, consequently no data are at hand from which to compute the amount now standing. The cut for the year 1880 is given in the census report at 108,400,000 feet, board measure. In 1890, eighteen mills were ennmerated as engaged in sawing exclusively Longleaf Pine timber, almost all situated in the basin of Cape Fear River, with a daily aggregate capacity of 475,000 feet, board measure. Such capacity would point to an annual cut of at least 65,000,000 feet, board measure. Statement of the shipments of naval stores from Wilmington, N. C. [From J. L. Cantwell, secretary Wilmington Produce Exchange.] = Spirits of tur- > | Crude resin ™s Near. : pentine. | Rosin. or oon mat Casks. | Barrels. Barrels. Barrels. | 125, 585 663, 967 90, 000 450, 000 | 2, 323 | ae 88, 376 425, 925 3,188 | 56, 113 87, 050 | 31, 966 | 75, 544 85, 230 70, 530 61, 195 68, 143 63, 163 68, 856 = Fos 71, 949 349, 500 16, 900 63, 700 257, 200 15, 500 | 67, 900 274, 800 15, 500 70, 500 189, 900 9, 900 | 45, 500 SROtALS 2+ se -n=e Saves ouude’y 6 sutecate 1, 111, 155. | 5, 560, 051 267, 020 | 868, 323 WsliOqrccecscde cue escen sce sseaseuae $19, 000,000 | $10, 000, 000 $391,500 | $1, 100, 000 Total value, $30,500,000. Statement of shipments of lumber to foreign and domestic ports from Wilmington, N. C. | - : | , Feet, board | AS Feet, board | Fas Feet, board | Year. measure. | Year. measure. | Year. measure. | 21, 000, 000 | 168i ie macae aie == 36, 000, 000 40,066,000 | 45, 498, 480 LOBOS. Ade cn oe 39, 500, 000 29, 580, 160 40, 291, 146 1b: Pe oer Pe ae 41, 000, 000 | 35, 465, 000 SGHG Seseen eee === 36, 680, 000 35, 353, 412 30,000,000 | 1889...........- | 40, 289, 000 | jj + TIMBER REGIONS—SUPPLY AND PRODUCTION. 33 South Carolina.—The forests of Longleaf Pine in this State follow more closely the coast line, with an extension inland averaging 100 miles. The lower parts of the pine belt, or the Savannah region, is low and flat, rising but slowly above the brackish marshes and alluvial lands bordering the sea. Traversed by eight large rivers with wide estuaries and bordered by extensive swamps of Cypress, Magnolia, Red and White Bay, Laurel Oak, ete., its area has been estimated to be 7,000 square miles, 4,500 square miles of which are occupied by swamp lands, including the grassy marshes on the coast. In the low, perfectly level pine barrens, with a soil of fine, compacted, almost impervious sand, covered with the Saw Palmetto, the Pond Pine, and a stunted growth of the Cuban and Loblolly Pine, the Longleaf Pine is rarely seen, and always of dwarfed growth. In the flat woods bordering the alluvial swamps, heavily timbered with Loblolly and Cuban Pine, the Longleaf Pine makes its appearance more frequently, and finally prevails almost exclusively on the broad, dry, sandy ridges, associated with the Barren or Turkey Oak (Quercus catesbwi), stunted Spanish Oak, and Upland Willow Oak (Quercus cinerea), trees of smaller size forming the under- growth. The timber growth on these ridges is rather open and of good quality. As has been observed near Ridgeland, in the counties of Beaufort and Hampton, the forests have to a large extent given way to the plow, and along the railroads they have been destroyed by turpentine orcharding. Upon 1 acre, representing fairly the original timber growth of the forests on these ridges, 48 trees of a diameter of from 12 to 24 inches at breast high, with a height of from 50 to 110 feet, were found. Of these, 4 yielded sticks of clear timber averaging 45 feet in length with mean diameter of 18 inches, equal to 2,000 feet, board measure, of first-class lumber. These trees varied in age from 136 to 145 years; 8 trees yielded sticks of timber free from limbs 40 feet in length with mean diameter of 17 inches, equal to 3,200 feet, board measure, age on the average 140 years; 12 trees yielded 35 feet length of clear timber with mean diameter of 16 inches, equal to 3,600 feet of merchantable lumber, age from 130 to 136 years; 8 trees averaged 12 inches mean diameter, length of timber 30 feet, equal to 950 feet, board measure, age from 110 to 118 years; 4 trees averaged 10 inches mean diameter, length of clear timber 24 feet, wood sappy throughout, yielding 200 feet of Iumber, age from 80 to 85 years. The total yield of merchantable lumber of this acre would be 9,950 feet, board measure, repre- senting the average of the better quality of these timber lands. As in the adjoining States, the forests along the railroad lines for a wide distance have been subjected to turpentine orcharding, and but a small percentage of the timber standing has escaped the ax of the “box” eutter. The receipts of naval stores at Charleston during the ten years from 1880 to 1890 averaged annually 57,570 casks (50 gallons to a cask) of spirits of turpentine and 225,920 barrels of rosin, with the largest receipts in 1880 of 60,000 casks of spirits of turpentine and 259,940 barrels of rosin, and the smallest of 40,253 casks of spirits in 1888, and 170,066 barrels of rosin in 1886. Tabular statement of the shipments of naval stores at Charleston, S. C., from the beginning of 1880 to the close of the year 1894. [From the annual statements of the commerce of Charleston, 8. C., publiched in the Charleston Courier.*] | Spirits of Spirits of | RES turpentine. HG) SEN. | ear | turpentine. | Rosin. Casks. | Barrels. | Casks. | Hb eer pasorcosns | 60, 000 259, 940 43, 127 TSB U* Seems: 8S AN | 51, 386 231, 417 | 49, 232 69, 027 258, 446 || 35, 414 | 65, 914 285, 446 | 25, 969 | | 64, 207 264, 049 | 22, 543 | | } 218, 971 | 14, 415 | | | | 170, 066 | 171, 154 }| Total 22-22-2252 678, 537 | 181, 886 || Valne-.--s----= $11, 874, 397 “The annual receipts on the average equal the exports. The rolling pine hills bordering upon the flat woods, or swamps, reach elevations of 130 to 200 feet above the sea, with a width of from 20 to 40 miles, and, as on the pine ridges of the low pine barrens mentioned before, the upland oaks form the sparse undergrowth in the forests of Longleaf Pine. Nearly one-third of the area (estimated at about 4,500 square miles) has been opened to cultivation. These rolling pine lands rise on their northern borders abruptly to a range of steep hills over 600 feet above sea level, covered with a rather scanty growth of Longleaf 17433—No,. 13——3 34 TIMBER PINES OF THE SOUTHERN UNITED STATES. Pine among the Shortleaf Pine and fine upland oaks, the latter largely prevailing. On the south and west these hills merge into an elevated plateau with a loose soil of coarse white sand. Here the Longleaf Pine is found in its full perfection and furnishes timber of excellent quality.’ About 12 per cent of these pine-clad table-lands are under cultivation, and about 22 per cent of the hills, with their generous red soil, are covered with a mixed growth of pine and oak; both of these divisions cover an area of not less than 4,000 square miles.* The Longleaf Pine timber standing in South Carolina in the census year 1880 was estimated at 5,316,000,000 feet, board measure,’ with an annual cut of 124,000,000 feet. In 1890 forty mills sawing exclusively Longleaf Pine timber have been reported* with an aggregate daily capacity of about 510,000 feet, taken at the lowest figure. This would indicate for that year a cut of 68,000,000 feet, board measure, which may also be considered the average annual cut for the last fifteen years. The exports of lumber from Charleston, the chief port, have since the year 1880 steadily increased, the excess in 1890 over the amount in 1880 reaching over 400 per cent, as is exhibited in the following statement: Statement ef lumber exported from Charleston, S. C.,to foreign and domestic ports from the beginning of 1880 to the close of 1894. [Ineludes considerable Loblolly and Shortleaf Pine.} - Feet, board = Feet, board Year. measure. Sear measure, 1879-80 ieee SV ACH May ECE RE sae Soe oe eae es 45, 270, 000 1880-81 oe 18, 500, 000 || 1888-89.............--...- Ree 50, 532, 000 1881-82.... os 48,000,000 || 1889-90... 02. Cowen “es 68, 400, 000 | 1882-83 = 40, 000, 000 || 1890-91. .......-............ 61, 226, 827 1883-84 35, 589, 000 |} 1891-92. ............-....... 53, 286, 608 1884-85 30;'034,,000)|)| 1882-98; 52... ooo lo cae 61, 093, 344 1885-86 DON O00 | 1808-945 se vo race nant onoaae eee 69, 940, 453 1886-87 82, 672, 000 Georgia.—The great pine State of the South, which has given to the Longleaf Pine the name of Georgia Pine, by which this lumber is known the world over, embraces the largest of the Atlantic pine forests. At a rough estimate, these cover over 19,000 square miles, including the narrow strip of live-oak lands bordering the seashore. The flat woods and savannas of the coast plain are from 10 to 15 miles wide. They are almost entirely stripped of their growth of Longleaf Pine. The upland pine forests, the pine barrens proper, or wire-grass region,°® embrace over 17,000 square miles. This region forms a vast plain, nearly level except on the north, covered exclusively with Longleaf Pine. About 20 per cent of these lands have been cleared for cultivation. Formerly the principal sites of the lumber industry were Darien, Brunswick, and Savannah The logs were rafted hundreds of miles down the Savannah, the Ogeechee, the Altamaha and its large tributaries, the Oconee and Ocmulgee. A limited quantity is carried down the Flint and Chattahoochee rivers to Apalachicola. The railroads, however, supply the mills now to the largest extent. The forests of these pine uplands are in quality, and originally in quantity, of their timber resources equal to any found east of the Mississippi River. The soil is a loose sand, underlaid by a more or less sandy buff-colored or reddish loam, The almost level or gently undulating plain becomes slightly broken along the water courses, and the forests of Longleaf Pine are interrupted by wide, swampy bottoms which inclose the streams and are heavily timbered with the Loblolly Pine, Cuban Pine, Laurel Oak, Water Oak, Magnolia, White and Red Bay, and Cypress. On the better class of the pine-timber lands the amount of marketable timber found varies between 3,009 and 10,000 feet to the acre. The trees yielding lumber and square-sawn timber of the highest ! Kirk Hammond, Census Report, Vol. VI, Cotton production of South Carolina, ° Hammond, 1 c. ‘Report of Tenth Census, Vol. IX. 4Lumber Trade Directory, Northwestern Lumberman, Chicago, July, 1890. ‘From the so-called wire-grass Aristida stricta, the most characteristic plant of the dry, sandy, pine barrens from western Alabama to the Atlantic coast. TIMBER REGIONS—-SUPPLY AND PRODUCTION. 35 grade were found to make sticks of from 40 to 45 feet long, perfectly clear of limb knots, and 18 to 2° inches mean diameter, giving from 450 to 750 feet of lumber, with the sapwood from 14 to 2 inches wide. The following measurements of trees from a small tract of forest untouched by the ax serve as a fair average sample of its timber growth: . Bs AY aes Diameter, | Mean | Length of Total Number of Number of tree. breast high.) diameter. timber. height. rings. Inches. Inches. Feet. Feet. 28 22 45 | 93 | 250 22 18 40 | 106 240 | 19 15 40 96 | 150 18 15 40 | 93 138 214 174 | 414 | 97 | 194 | Along the numerous railroad lines and the navigable streams and their tributaries admitting of the driving of logs, the forests have been completely stripped of their merchantable timber, and the denuded areas to a considerable extent are at present under cultivation. The magnifi- cent forests on the Altahama River and between its tributaries, the Ocmulgee and Oconee rivers, and als» on the Ogeechee River, have been practically exhausted and are utterly devastated by the tapping of the trees for turpentine. In fact, more than two-thirds of all the timber sawn at present has been bled. The timber from the turpentine orchards, abandoned for years past, is being rapidly removed to the mills, and the vast areas occupied by them will, within a short time, be almost completely denuded of the Longleaf Pine, its place being taken by scrubby oaks, dwarf hickories, and Persimmon. The timber is transferred to the mills mostly by steam-equipped tramroads, and the products of the turpentine distilleries in the remoter districts are hauled to the highways of commerce by ox teams for distances of 12 miles and over. Considering the removal for their timber of trees far below medium size and during the best period of their growth, the destruction of still younger trees by turpentine orcharding, and ot the young seedlings by fire, the prospect for the future of the lumber industry and the renewal of the forests of Longleaf Pine in this region are gloomy. Many of the intelligent men practically interested in the timber lands of this State aver that the exhaustion of the forests of the Longleaf Pine is a question of but a short space of time, to be accomplished before another generation has passed. The amount of timber standing at the end of the census year 1880 had been computed at 16,778,000,000 feet, board measure, and the cut at 272,743,000 feet. From the publication quoted, it appears that in the year 1890 there were 88 sawmills in opera- tion in the great pine belt of Georgia, sawing exclusively Longleaf Pine timber. On the basis of lowest figures cited, the daily cut at these establishments during that year would not fall short of 1,667,000 feet. No statistical returns of the lumber trade previous to 1884 could be obtained at Savannah, Darien, or Brunswick. The export from the first of these ports averaged about 73,000,000 feet, board measure, a year, Showing but slight fluctuation during the period beginning with 1884 to the close of 1889, when in the subsequent two years the annual average increased to 118,000,000 feet, board measure. The exports from Darien and Brunswick, averaging 82,000,000 and $5,000,000 feet, respectively, for a similar period of time, show also but small differences from one year toanother. About 30,000,000 to 33,000,000 feet are rafted down the Flint and Chattahoochee rivers, to be sawn at Apalachicola. With the spread of the sawmills along the railroad lines in the upper part of the pine region, the shipments of lumber by rail to distant Northern markets increased steadily, until in 1892 it was found that the production of Longleaf Pine lumber shipped by rail to Northern markets exceeded 60,000,000 feet. 36 TIMBER PINES OF THE SOUTHERN UNITED STATES. Tabular stalement of exports of lumber from Savannah, Darien, Brunswick, and St. Marys to foreign and domestic ports and shipments by railroad to inland markets from 1883-84 to 1893-94, Savannah | Otherwise Railroad. by rail. | | Feet, B. M.| Feet, B. M. | Feet,B.M. | Feet, B.M. | Feet,B.M.| Feet, B.M. | Feet, B. M. 82, 100, 000 90, 100, 000 84, 700, 000 8,500, 000) 15 3..05-.0- 69, 100, 000 72, 900, 000 | 87, 500, 000 S BOD M00) oes ee socwecs kl bo oee eee. 68, 000, 000 83, 000, 000 BO UU O00 gaa ww ccwecadlantecs oaopanmslis rams eg we 68, 400, 000 90, 000, 000 88,000, 000 |. 70,400,000 | 90, 000, 000 88,000, 000 |... Year. Savannah. Darien. Brunswick. | St. Marys. | Flint River. | ‘Yotal. Feet, B. M. 78, 100, 000 85, 000, 000 82, 000, 000 |... ..) 128,600,000 | 70, 000, 00) 84,000,000... 1800-Ols oo seuxk os dacen coe 107, 300, 000 80, 000, 000 UOT TY Pe ea a a EE Ss 3) ioeeeeheedees eee Orel Cerro Faye 160] -02. cna csenncoueeeen=4 138, 300,000 | 85, 000, 000 80, 000, 000 |... 50, 000, 000 16, 900, 000 33, 000, 000 403, 200, 000 1803-08 505% seis en cee eee 116, 100, 090 85, 000, 000 80, 000, 000 |....... a's 50, 000, 000 16; 000) OUD) asopa et aaeesee 347, 000, 000 1806-04) cco sesacecsee nee 77, 400, VOU 85, 000, 000 £0,000, OOD) |= s2- eee eee 50: 000; 000!1- ie. ceeccees eee eeeicke se i 292, 000, 000 GM << sna nnseaere ae 935, 800, 000 833, 000, 000 834, 200, 000 17, 000, 000 150, 000, 000 32, 900, 000 33, 000, 000 | onsesereveccce | This makes a grand total for the ten years ended 1894 of 2,336,000,000 feet, board measure, with an aggregate value, at present export rates ($11 per 1,000 feet), of at least $31,196,000. In the production of naval stores Georgia takes the lead. By the statements of the census of 1870, only 3,208 casks of spirits of turpentine and 13,840 barrels of rosin, valued at $95,970, were produced during that year in the State. In the course of the following ten years this industry progressed steadily and rapidly. In 1888 exports from Savannah, at present the greatest market in the world for these products, had increased to 168,000 casks of spirits of turpentine and 654,000 barrels of rosin, of a total value of $3,880,000, Statement of exports of naval stores from Savannah during the years 1880-1894, | ~ Spirits of pes a Spirits of | . | Year. iuerenitine! | Rosin. Year. caroentaae Rosin. | — — - | | | Casks. | Barrels. Casks. | Barrels. 1879-80......-..-.-- 46, 321 y 159, 931 | 577, 990 1880-81. ...-..-.---- 54, 703 181, 542 i 2 } 77,059 | 196, 227 116, 127 196, 166 129, 835 | 234, 986 121, 028 277, 617 106, 925 261, 081 146, 925 Se ee, TBS7-88: .-2Fteees se 168, 834 | 2,475, 297 9, 637, 830 { i Valued at $49,401,031. The highest prices for these stores in Savannah were obtained in 1880, with $19.50 per cask of 50 gallons for spirits of turpentine and $2.25 per barrel of rosin of 280 pounds gross; and the lowest in 1887-88, with the price of spirits of turpentine at $14.25 per cask and $1.40 per barrel of rosin. On close scrutiny of the prices ruling at Wilmington, for the eleven years after 1880 the price of a cask of spirits of turpentine averaged $15 and of a barrel of rosin $1.90, lowest grades of the latter excluded. Florida.—That part of the State between the Suwanee River and the Atlantic Coast, as far south as St. Augustine, can be considered as part of the Atlantic pine region, and covers an area of about 4,700 square miles. In the basin of the St. Johns River a large part of the land has been devoted to the cultivation of the citrus fruits. The principal sites of the manufacture of lumber in this section of the State are Ellaville, in Madison County, on the Suwanee River, and Jacksonville. The supplies once existing along the Cedar Keys and Fernandina Railroad are at present well-nigh exhausted. South of St. Augustine the Longleaf Pine is less common and in general inferior in size. The timber on the extensive flat woods to the Everglades, covered with the Saw Palmetto, is stunted and the forests are very open, and in the more fertile soils Longleaf Pine is largely replaced by Cuban Pine. In the central section of the peninsula, with its numerous lakes, the Longleaf Pine is largely associated with the Sand Pine (Pinus clausa), and hard woods prevail on the upland hummock lands. THE MARITIME PINE BELT OF THE EASTERN GULF REGION. From the banks of the Suwanee River to the uplands bordering the alluvial lands of the Mississippi this pine belt, varying from 90 to 125 miles in width, covers an area roughly estimated TIMBER REGIONS—-SUPPLY AND PRODUCTION. 37 at a little over 40,000 square miles. It presents no material differences from the Atlantic region, of which it is a direct continuation, being similar to it in both soil and climate. This eastern Gulf region is unsurpassed in the advantages it offers for the development of the industries based on the products of the pine forests. Its genial climate throughout the year permits the uninterrupted exploitation of its abundant resources of resinous products and of timber of the best quality. The fine harbors and safe roadsteads on the Gulf Coast are reached by navi- gable rivers, which, with their tributaries, cross the lower division in every direction, and give ready and cheap transportation to its ports, while great railway lines afford easy communication with inland markets. This region thus presents inducements scarcely found elsewhere for the investment of capital and labor in the development of the resources of its forests. It is impossible to arrive at anything like an accurate estimate of the amount of timber standing at present, or of the rate of its consumption, since in the returns of the annual lumber product that needed for home consumption has not been included. Western Florida.—Placing the eastern limit of that part of Florida to be considered as belonging to the Gulf pine region at the lower course of the Suwanee River, the area included comprises about 7,200 square miles, exclusive of the swamps and marshes of the coast. The forests of Longleaf Pine form a narrow strip along the course of the Suwanee River and along the coast to the Appalachicola River, covering about 1,280,000 acres. At their northern limit they merge into the oak and hickory uplands of middle Florida. Along the coast they are sur- rounded by marshes and swamps, rendering them difficult of access, consequently they have remained untouched. The same may be said of the pine forests between the Appalachicola and the Choctawhatchee rivers. These have been invaded to some extent along the banks of the latter river to supply the small mills situated on the bay of the same name. The pine lands of western Florida rise slowly above the coastal plain and form a vast expanse of slightly undulating surface. Those surrounding Perdido, Pensacola, Blackwater, and Mary St. Galves Bay, the oldest sites of active lumber industry in the Gulf region, were stripped of their valuable timber more than thirty years ago, and since that time have been eut over again. The largest tracts of finely timbered virgin forests of Longleaf Pine are found in the undulating uplands from the Perdido and Escambia rivers along the Alabama State line to the banks of the Choctawhatchee River. East of this river, in the same direction, where the younger Tertiary strata make their appearance, Longleaf Pine becomes associated with hard woods, with southern Spruce Pine added in the valleys. Since the opening of the Pensacola and Atlantic Railroad considerable quantities of sawn square timber find their way to Pensacola from these remoter forests. A large portion of the timber supplied to the mills along the coast having been derived from Alabama, it is impossible to arrive at an exact estimate of the products of the forest of western Florida. Statement of export of hewn square timber, sawn square timber, and lumber to foreign and domestic ports from Pensacola, Fla., from 1879-80 to 1892-98. [From Hyer & Bro.’s annual circulars. ] | : ee Square sawn ~ Year. mites hewn Gaia and Total. ds tumber. — 4S Cubic feet. Feet, B. M. keet, B. M. 2,180, 000 | 176, 000, 000 | 202, 000, 000 | 209, 998, 000 264, 000, 000 54, 305, 000 230, 000, 000 59, OOU | 8, 100, 000 211, 386, 000 031, 000 | , 890, 000 219, 286, 000 27, 000 | 76, 000 211, 131, 000 , WOO 5, 750, 600 228, 590, 000 | 36, 000 84, 600 283, 000 , 400 74, 000 | , 000 367, 000 | , 587, 000 1,550, 133 . 125, 000 1, 488, 272 , 081, 000 294, 1, 449, 910 252, 808, 000 | 270, 208, 000 , 534, 352, 300 | In the shipment of these products in 1885, valued at $2,505,500, there were 471 vessels engaged, of 294,595 tons, of which 370 of 95,922 tons cleared for foreign ports. 38 TIMBER PINES OF THE SOUTHERN UNITED STATES. During these fourteen years the price of square timber and lumber taken in the aggregate averaged about $12.50 per 1,000 feet, board measure. On this basis the value of the mill products for these parts of the forests of Longleaf Pine amounted to $3,155,670 a year. For the past forty years, during which the lands of the peninsula part and in middle Florida have passed mostly into possession of small proprietors, no naval stores have been produced in this section. In western Florida, however, in proximity to the Louisville and Nashville and Pensacola railroads, large areas have been subjected to the tapping of the trees, and the forests close to these railroads having been exhausted, the products of the turpentine stills are hauled for a distance often exceeding 10 miles and find their market mostly at Mobile. Alabama.—Owing to the diversity in geological conditions and in topographical features prevailing in this State, the distribution of the Longleaf Pine presents within its borders peculiarities not found elsewhere. It appears in three separate regions—the maritime pine belt, the central pine belt, and the pine forests of the Coosa Basin and other outlying forests in north Alabama. The coast pine belt extends from the Gulf shore inland for a distance of from 90 to 100 miles, and has been estimated to cover about 15,750 square miles, or 8,800,000 acres, outside of the swamps and flatwoods of the coast plain. The latter, perfectly level or rising in gentle swells above the tidewater marshes, is almost completely stripped of its original timber growth. After its removal the Longleaf Pine has largely been replaced by Cuban Pine. The rolling pine uplands rise to a height of from 200 to 350 feet above the lowlands of the coast. In the lower part of this pine belt, where the sandy and gravelly deposits of the latest tertiary strata prevail, the Longleaf Pine forms pure forests, with the exception of the narrow strips of hardwood timber bordering the water courses. This lower division covers about 4,250,000 acres. In the extent and quality of their timber resources these Longleaf Pine forests can be considered equal to those found in the adjoining parts of Florida and in Mississippi, and unsurpassed by those of the most favored sections of the Atlantic pine forest. The following measurements of trees felled near Wallace, Escambia County, in collecting the material for the United States timber tests, will serve to represent fairly the quality of the merchantable timber in conformity with the standard in vogue at the mills in 1880, and the relation of age to growth: Measurements of jive trees. . ——— = —= — ~ 7 5 Length of Diameter, Tots >: Diameter | Mean diam- "5 Number of tree. | breast ee | ee on below eter of ne ns high. ts aah stump. | crown. timber. ir de | | nots. | Tnches. Feet. Tnches. Tnches. Feet. 26 106 216 18 22 50 19 | 111 189 l4 16 60 La spp! 183 12 =| ld 45 | 18 | 113 196 15 17 50 19 118 182 | 13 16 50 AVETAZC.. 220-2 ecnnececeen==-= 19.6 M1 193 14.5 17 51 At alumber camp near Lumberton, in Washington County, 9 timber trees were measured showing on the average a mean diameter of 17 inches, the clear sticks averaging 40 feet in length. Upon 1 acre, selected at random in the untouched forests north of Springhill, Mobile County, very open and free from smaller trees or undergrowth, 16 trees were counted above 16 inches in diameter at breast high, namely, 2 trees 23 inches in diameter at breast high, estimated length of timber, 40 feet; 2 trees 20 inches in diameter at breast high, estimated length of timber, 40 feet; 12 trees 16 to 18 inches in diameter at breast high, estimated length of timber, 35 feet; which in the aggregate would yield about 5,000 feet, board measure. Upon another acre plat of the same quarter section 64 trees above 12 inches in diameter at breast high were found; of these 2 trees measured 20 inches in diameter at breast high, estimated length of timber, 40 feet; 26 trees measured 17 inches in diameter at breast high, estimated length of timber, 36 feet; 36 trees measured 15 inches in diameter at breast high, estimated length of timber, 24 feet. TIMBER REGIONS—SUPPLY AND PRODUCTION. 39 Upon a third plat exceptionally heavily timbered, 45 trees were counted, of which 5 trees were 25 inches in diameter at breast high, the clear timber averaging 50 feet in length; 12 trees 22 inches in diameter at breast high, length of timber 50 feet, and 28 trees 16 to 18 inches in diameter, average length of timber estimated at 30 feet. Such a stand would indicate a yield of merchantable timber of at least 15,000 feet, board measure, to the acre. All over this lower division boggy tracts are eequenale met with, in which he sour, black soil is covered with sphagnum, or bog moss; these support only a few scattered pines. On many of the steeper ridges the soil is pure sand and the pine growth is small and inferior, being largely replaced by Barren Oak, Sparkleberry, and the evergreen heather-like shrub Ceratiola ericoides. In this lower division of the maritime pine belt the manufacture of lumber and the produc- tion of naval stores is carried on most actively. These products find their outlet chiefly at Mobile, while more than one-third of the lumber exported from Pensacola (to the amount of at least 100,- 000,000 feet annually for the past few years) is also derived from this division. In the upper half of the maritime pine belt, with the appearance of the outcrops of limestones and limy marls of the Lower Tertiary (Eocene) formation, the country becomes more broken, with steeper hills and wider valleys, and a change in the character of the flora takes place, particularly manifest in the nature and distribution of the tree growth. In the fertile valleys and on the lower flanks of the hills broad-leaved trees, mostly Post Oak, Black Oak, Mockernut, Bitternut, Pignut, and Magnolia prevail, interspersed with Shortleaf Pine, Loblolly Pine, and Red Cedar—the Longleaf Pine occupying sporadic patches of drifted sands and pebbles. On the steep and frequently wide ridges capped by these deposits, and on the rugged hills of the buhrstone and flinty cherts this tree forms the principal growth, and is in the openings more or less associated with broad-leaved trees. From this commingling of cone-bearing and deciduous trees and the alternations of pine forest and oak woods, this upper division has been designated as the region of mixed growth, which at a rough estimate can be said to cover about 5,000 square miles. In the deep soil of light loam and strong loamy sands the Longleaf Pine attains a splendid growth and the number of large trees on a given area is greater than found in the lower division. The following measurements of 5 trees felled for test logs fairly represent the average dimensions of the timber trom these hills in the vicinity of Thomasville, Clarke County: Measurements of five trees. | | | Diameter «oa j7|Diameter| below Mean ape Total Number of tree. ers in| preast | crown, or| diameter eee height of iE high. | top end |oftimber. , tree. lof timber. (as | ~ = Inches. | Inches. | Inches. Feet. Feet. \ 202 | 20 15 | 18 45 108 163 | 21 14 17 40 115 210 | 98 16 19 40 110 160 26 | 19 22 40 111 110 7 13 15 30 92 171 | 21.2 15.4 18.2 39 106, 2 | Many of the trees of larger size were found affected by wind-shake in the direction of the rings of growth (ring-shake), in many instances impairing greatly the quality of the timber. The forests on these hills are open, with a comparatively small number of young trees. Upon 1 acre selected at random 46 trees were counted; of this number were found 4 trees of a diameter of 25 inches breast high, and the length of timber about 40 feet; 10 trees of a diameter ot 22 inches breast high, and the length of timber about 36 feet; 26 trees of a diameter of 18 inches breast high, and the length of timber about 30 feet; 6 trees of a diameter of 15 inches breast high, and the length of timber about 25 feet. On the average each one of these trees would yield about 400 to 450 feet, board measure. On another acre 44 trees were found differing in their average dimension but slightly from the above, and indicating a yield between 18,000 and 19,000 feet of lumber to the acre. In this upper part of the coast pine belt lumbering and turpentine orcharding have not developed to any great extent, owing to its inaccessibility. However, where railroads traverse the section, the manufacture of THE SOUTHERN UNITED STATES. 40 lumber is carried on extensively, the output going to Northern markets. Much of the heavy hewn timber that is exported from Mobile and Pensacola is furnished by this section. In collecting the statistics on the lumbering interests in the maritime pine belt of Alabama the information kindly furnished by firms engaged in the sawmill business or the lumber trade has chiefly been relied upon. The annual production was arrived at by multiplying the average daily output reported by 200, the assumed number of working days of the year. From these data it appears that during the year 1593 the daily output of the 25 points reported from amounted in the aggregate to about 768,000 feet, or to 192,000,000 feet, board measure, for the year. This figure can be said to represent the average of the annual production for the past three years. To this amount, at a low estimate, 85,000,000 feet of round timber are to be added, cut in Alabama and sawn in western Florida, including the hewn square timber shipped from the State to Pensacola, thus swelling the present annual production of lumber and square timber in the maritime pine belt of Alabama to a total of about 277,000,000 feet, board measure. The statement of the annual exports of these products from Mobile by water and by rail for the past fourteen years will aptly illustrate the steady increase of the lumbering interests during this period. TIMBER PINES OF Statement of exports of square timber, hewn and sawn, and of lumber shipped from Mobile to foreign and domestic ports from the year 1879-80 to the end of the year 1894. Square | Total lumber Year. timber, hewn Lumber. and square Value. | and sawn. limber. | | = = — —|———_—_— = —EE Cubic feet. | Feet, B.M. | Feet, B.M. | 745,000 13,572,000 22,525,000 $280, 825 1, 725, 000 18, 161, 000 | 3 2, 000 400, 348 1,674,000 ¢ i | 53, 350, 000 710, 012 1, 652, 804 | 46, 588, 000 582, 000 3, 810, 714 | 67, 978, 000 801, 699 3, 121, 7 ob, } 59, 945, 000 | 636, 953 2 21, 435, 500 56, 580, 000 588, 148 1, 29, 346, 000 60, 723, UO0 |: 641,215 2, 46 29, 257, 000 59, 740, 000 677, 804 3, 48, 284, 000 100,000,000 | 1, 081, 828 3, 52,879, 000 | = 111,659,810 | 1, 201, 934 | 1890-91.... 3, 50, 892, 000 | 122,000,000 | 1,415, 000 1891-92 5, 61, 865,895 | 141, 793, 700 1, 695, 000 1892-93... 5. i 79, 304,565 | 162,666,700 | 1, 590, 900 1893-94 4, 147, 825 | 67, 209, 745 | 126,684,500 | 1, 270, 000 | ! The first statement of the production of naval stores in Alabama is that reported to the census of 1850, mentioned in that year as of a value of $17,800. In 1870 the production had increased to 8,200 casks of spirits of turpentine and 53,175 barrels of rosin, valued at $280,203. In 1875 the receipts in the market of Mobile had fully doubled, amounting to nearly 20,000 casks of spirits of turpentine and to from 75,000 to 100,000 barrels of rosin, besides 1,000 barrels of tar and pitch, of a total value of $750,000. The largest production was reached in 1875, when the receipts reached a value of $1,200,000, up to the present only approximated in 1883 with 43,870 casks of spirits of turpentine and 200,025 barrels of rosin, valued at $1,109,760. Since 1888 a steady decline in the receipts of these products has taken place, due to the exhaustion of the supplies near the commer- cial highways. Table of exports of naval stores from Mobile during the period of 1880-1894. Spirits Spirits Total . Total Year. turpen- Rosin. ere Year. turpen- | Rosin. vine value, tine. | value. Barrels. | Barrels. 158, 482 |. -|| 1887-88......-. | rey Bh Pan eee 170, 616 | 1888-89. . 106, 129 |.... = 172, 438 |, 1889-90. 95, S0GtICL See ae 200,125 1890-91 89, 872 $535, 690 210, 572 |. 1891-92........ 87,926 | 458,002 | 200, 688 |. 1892-93........ 69, 120 355, 180 175, 817 1893-94........ 85, 619 453, 656 1886-87...... 182, 955 LONGLEAF PINE IN ALABAMA. 41 THE CENTRAL PINE BELT OF ALABAMA. The middle portion of the State is crossed from its eastern boundary nearly to its western, with a decided northern trend along the western border, by a belt of drifted loamy sands, pebbles, and light loams covered in the eastern and central parts with an almost continuous forest of Long- leaf Pine, interrupted only by strips of hardwood which occupy the bottom lands. In its eastern extent the Longleaf Pine becomes associated with upland oaks, hickories, and Shortleaf Pine, the Longleaf Pine being entirely replaced in the northern extension of this belt by the latter species. This region of gravelly hills, as it is designated in the agricultural reports,! is 200 miles in length, 5 to 35 miles in width, and extends oyer about 2,000 square miles. In the sections where the forest consists almost exclusively of Longleaf Pine the stand of timber is heavy and of fine quality. Operators claim for these timber lands a yield of from 5,000 to 6,000 feet of merchantable timber to the acre, excluding all trees under 12 inches diameter. Ever since the opening of the great railroad lines leading to Northern markets the manufacture of lumber in this central pine belt has been carried on with unabated activity. In 1880 not less than 80,000,000 feet, board measure, were transported by the Louisville and Nashville Railroad alone, mostly to the great Northwestern centers of commerce. In 1886 the production declined to 50,000,000 feet. At present most of the older mill sites have been abandoned and a few new ones established in other localities. Colonel Wadsworth reports 12 mills in operation located along the Louisville and Nashville Railroad, with an output of a little over 40,000,000 feet a year on the average of the past few years. To this is to be added the production of the few mills on the Mobile and Birmingham Railroad, which will increase the present production in the central pine belt to about 50,000,000 feet a year. THE FORESTS OF LONGLEAF PINE IN NORTH ALABAMA, Forests of Longleaf Pine prevail with more or less interruption in the basin of the Coosa River, principally on the beds of flinty pebbles and light, sandy loam which follow the upper course of the river from the base of the Lookout Mountain range near Gadsden to a short distance beyond the State line in Floyd County, Ga., where the Longleaf Pine finds its northern limit in about 34° north latitude, at an elevation above the sea of about 600 feet. With the reappearance of the above deposits south of Calhoun County the pine forests extend on the eastern side of the valley south to Childersburg. On the isolated ridges of old Silurian sandstone (Potsdam), and the met- amorphic region adjoining, the Longleaf Pine is scattered and stunted and is not found at a greater height than 1,000 feet above the sea. In proximity to the mineral region the rugged hills and mountain sides have been completely denuded, the pine having been cut for charcoal to supply the blast furnaces. In the valleys the forests of Longleaf Pine are of average density and the timber is considered of excellent quality, particularly in the northern part of the valley in Etowah and Cherokee counties. On the lower hills the timber is less abundant and somewhat inferior in size. The measurements of five trees felled in the hills near Renfroe, Talladega County, can be said to fairly represent the average quality of this pine timber. The undergrowth in the open forest covering the low ridges and the narrow valleys is dense, consisting of Blackjack, Spanish Oak, Pignut, and Bitternut Hickory. Measurements of Jive trees. . . 6 Total r Ete Rings on Diameter Mean Length of ps s Number of tree. stump. breasthigh. diameter. timber. nae of | Ss. Inches. Inches. | Feet. Feet. | 135 12 50 95 165 1 17 35 95 | 170 1 18 45 108 | 215 21 18 45 112 | 206 20 15 0 109 Aiverapees cen nearest cases 178 20 16 | 45 104 ‘E. A. Smith: Agricultural Rescurces of Alabama, Vol. V. Reports of Geological Survey of Alabama. 42 TIMBER PINES OF THE SOUTHERN UNITED STATES. The extinction of Longleaf Pine in the forests of north Alabama, as far as economic value is concerned, appears to becertain. The dense undergrowth of deciduous trees suppresses completely the second growth of the Longleaf Pine in the closed forest as well as in the openings. On the mountain slopes a young pine is rarely seen, no tree being left to serve for the future dissemination of the species, and the few seedlings sporadically springing up are invariably destroyed by the firing of the herbage one year after another. The output of the mills at Gadsden and the mills in Talladega County along the Birmingham and Atlantic Railroad combined appears scarcely to exceed 50,000,000 feet, board measure, on the average per year. seen nae eee eee cen eee cone ene eee eee eer 51, 000, 000 Coosa basin *.... .- Bn Ae OA ames ERO ORR ae Oo ROU EOE SHARC HO aan aeu mae 50, 000, 000 mT rh 4 A ee an ee i SESS be i est at ee sae cigstees enw tae femeeeaceeie 425, 000, 000 Mississippi.—W hat has been said of the forests of the maritime pine belt in Alabama applies in general to the same region in Mississippi. The coastal plain above the extensive grassy inarshes lining the seashore and the wide estuaries of the streams covers a larger area, being from 10 to 20 miles in width and embracing, at a rough estimate, about 728,000 acres of the 16,410 square miles within the limits of the pine belt. The broad, scarcely perceptible swells, with a soil of sandy loam and loamy sand, were originally well timbered, the widely spreading depressions with soil of fine, compacted sand, poorly drained, bearing a sparse and inferior timber growth. The timber produced on these flat woods, or “pine meadows,” as they are aptly called in the adjoining section of Alabama, being of slow growth, is hard and of fine grain, frequently with the fibers of the younger wood contorted and of varied tints of color. ‘This so-called curled pine is susceptible of high finish and is much appreciated for fine cabinet work. There is comparatively little valuable timber left in this coastal plain. The remainder serves largely for the making of charcoal and cord wood for the New Orleans market. The rolling pine lands, rising suddenly above the plain, almost exclusively covered by the Long- leaf Pine, cover (roughly estimated) about 7,712,000 acres. The western limits of these forests are difficult to define, numerous outlying tracts being found to extend into or even beyond the region of the loamy hills. Theregion of mixed growth, characterizing the upper division of the maritime pine belt in Alabama, enters the State in the shape of a triangle, with the base along the Alabama State line from Bucatunna to Lauderdale and its apex near Brandon, in Rankin County. The generous soil of the arable lands in this region is mostly under cultivation. The forests of Longleaf Pine covering the steep hills, rather remote from the high roads of commerce, have been as yet but little exploited. About 12,000,000 feet, board measure, of lumber are shipped annually by the way of the Mobile and Ohio Railroad, mostly to Mobile, from this region of mixed growth. From the information that could be obtained, it appears that the cut of Longleaf Pine timber in this State on the average for the past three years reached between 422,000,000 and 425,000,000 feet. The chief center of the lumbering industry is located above the Pascagoula River, at Scran- ton aud Mosspoint, where it has made great progress during the past thirteen or fourteen years. In 1880, 60,000,000 feet, board measure, were shipped to foreign and domestic ports, which in the ‘Annual statement of commerce of Mobile. Mobile Register, September 1, 1892. Compiled from returns made to the Mobile Board of Trade. ? Production of mills south of Montgomery, ete. ° Production of mills on Louisville and Nashville Railroad, north of Montgomery to Calera, by Colonel Wads- worth. ‘Production of mills on Southern Railway, north of Selma to Stanton, by M. Hanson, LONGLEAF PINE FORESTS OF MISSISSIPPI. 43 year 1892 had increased to 127,000,000. Comparatively much larger increase is noticeable in the shipments by rail to inland markets. By the reports courteously furnished by the auditor of the Illinois Central Railroad in Chicago, in 1880, 12,000,000 feet, board measure, reached Northern markets by this line, which in 1888 had risen to 62,000,000, with a falling off in the succeeding year to 52,000,000, In 1892 the shipments increased again to 78,240,000, and reached in 1893 181,424,000 feet, board measure, With the opening of the New Orleans and Northeastern Railroad, in 1883, the lumbering iudustry took an active start in the virgin pineries. In 1892 fourteen mills are on record, with a daily capacity of not less than 400,000 feet; this amount corresponding fully to the actual output for 1891 as well as 1892. According to Mr. Rich, of Richburg, in consequence of the depression during the year 1893, the output was reduced about one-half. The following table of partial data regarding annual shipments, made during the thirteen years ending with 1893, from the chief centers of production shows clearly the constant increase of the lumbering industry since the close of the year 1880: Tabular statement of lumber shipped annually by water and by rail from the centers of production in Mississippi, 1879-80, 1883-98, | | New Orleans ae 7 Pascagoula | Pearl River | r | Illinois Cen- Year. Serer ae and Northeast-| 2) 3. River. | Basin. aaniat lena tral Railroad. Feet, B.M. | Feet, B. M. Feet, B.M. | Feet, B. M. MOT O-S0 sam innwicacac asain sinninnacenema= 60, 000, 000 35, 000, 000... 12, 000, 000 28, 000, 000 S83 BA Nee oes slam = aia eee = nm 67, 308, 000 35, 000, 000 |... eee noe 36, 000, 000 USS4= 8522 come an cence eee eseeace 67, 839, 000 |.-.- i eo eee ee ea sn oro Scones sccsse spe pecaee - 30, 000, 000 USO ee acemeenssquacioernccarseos 70, 000, 000 |. a me 40, 000, 000 Uae 58 Genaccns erences otetaed sone Bean ton] Pa eee aceh has [nee 62, 000, WOO TTSt oe a ee ee Ssaerecaeos 107, 000, 000 36, 000, 000 5d, 000, 000 52, 000, 000 TB89 =O) Eee seek ya eee eh = aise acne 119, 255, 000 | | 64, 000, 000 UGE EG) lps BER ee ee Se ae TOSCO N O00) 9 Soc QUO QUO hans eee oe eee UCMIUEM PS So eee scossssterecreses ss 127, 002, 000 78, 240, 000 UEUP CURD pp cereore cooen a ceca oncears Scsor jsesccoscc 181, 424, 000 a From 60,000,000 to 90,000,000. RECAPITULATION FOR 1891-92. TEESE VE TENG ees oe PE Or ES On ee oo eer Oonce eSB na temaoes Scie sen 127, 000, 000 Parner DAS Ne see see se se ee een en om eS as erica = Se are 36, 000, 000 ENO COMUrAL UR SILTOARM eae noes en ee coe ie ame aie ook naan 78, 000, 000 New Orleans and Northeastern Railroad ...........-.-...-..-----.----- 60, 000, 000 Mo bileiand! Onx0r kali on Ole eee ate ee oe eter a= coe ee ree ree 12, 000, 000 (OUNCE Samos ceeccOcsceder Go TSS ecn Deb DOOL HUSH OS Sr See ue cee ICere ae eeers 20, 000, CUO GY OS ae oie me i SSS SCO SO EOMCIE AO SEE H erie aaa e CaS ICE tenes 333, 000, 000 From this amount are to be deducted about 18,000,000 feet of lumber received from Mobile to complete cargoes, and 12,000,000 feet of timber cut on the western frontier of Alabama and finding an outlet at Pascagoula by the Escatawpa River, leaving a round 300,000,000 feet, board measure, for the cut in Mississippi in 1892, against 108,000,000, the cut reported to the census in 1880, With the exhaustion of the forests along the Pascagoula and Escatawpa rivers and a few points between these streams and the Pearl River, which had been accomplished before the beginning of 1880, the naval-store industry remained almost dormant in the State until it began to receive a new start by the opening of the New Orleans and Northeastern Railroad. The production of the distilleries along this road can be said to average about 15,000 casks of spirits of turpentine and 75,000 barrels of rosin annually since 1890, which are mostly disposed of in the New Orleans market. Eastern Louisiana.—Forests of Longleaf Pine cover the upper part of eastern Louisiana to the extent of about 3,880 square miles. Their western limit might be said to follow the Amite River, but can not be clearly defined, since these forests toward the west pass gradually into the mixed growth of Shortleaf Pine, oaks, and hickories on the uplands which border the bottom lands of the Mississippi River. Slightly undulating flat woods cover fully one-fifth of the area, and, with a somewhat loamy, porous soil, support a better timber growth than is generally found in the flat pine barrens of the plain. Owing to their proximity to the coast, these forests have been exten- sively invaded. The pine hills embrace about 1,619,200 acres. Their forests have remained almost intact, their resources having been drawn upon only along the Illinois Central Railroad line and the tributaries of the Pearl River. 44 TIMBER PINES OF THE SOUTHERN UNITED STATES. In 1890 seven sawmills were reported, with a daily capacity, in the aggregate, of about 120,000 feet, board measure. It can safely be assumed that their annual output would not exceed 15,000,000 feet, board measure. The products of these mills find their market chiefly at New Orleans. In former years a considerable quantity of naval stores was produced in St. Tammany Parish, while at present only a few turpentine orchards are worked in the upper districts. THE REGION OF LONGLEAF PINE WEST OF THI MISSISSIPPI. The importance of the pine forests in the western Gulf region can not be overestimated, considering the development of the immense timberless area beyond their western limit. The rapidly increasing population of the Western plains depends chietly upon them for the supply of the material needed to build up the homes of civilization. The forests of the Longleaf Pine west of the Mississippi River, as in regions so far considered, are geographically limited to the sands and gravels of the latest Tertiary formation. They make their first appearance in Louisiana above the great alluvial plain in the uplands bordering the valley of the Ouachita and follow its course for 50 miles, then extend west, skirting Lake Catahoula and the alluvial lands of the Red River. These pine forests to the north of this river cover an area estimated at 1,625,000 acres, extending northward for a distance averaging 55 miles. Toward their northern limit the forests pass gradually into a mixed growth of deciduous trees and Shortleaf Pine. In the center of this region the pine ridges alternate with tracts of White Oak and Hickory. Tending toward the Red River, the pure forest of Longleaf Pine which covers the undulating uplands is unbroken and has up to the present been but slightly invaded by the ax. On the low hills of this northern division of the pine belt of northwestern Louisiana the forests are somewhat open, and are composed of trees of the first order as regards their dimensions, the well-drained, warm, and deep soil of sandy loam being highly favorable to their development. This fact is clearly shown in the following statement of the ages and dimensions of six trees felled for test logs: Measurements of six trees. Diameter | x i _ Total : Rings on _ Diameter Mean Length of rpaer Number of tree. = 5 rye below : can height of stump. |breast Wa) ee diameter. timber. ne = = aloes = Inches. Inches. Inches. Feet. Feet. 270 82 22 26 48 123 | 158 27 20 22 50 127 | 155 22 18 19 50 122 | 170 20 15 16 40 117 165 17 13 i4 35 118 112 LG | remem ain aenne| ove near 40 97 171 22 | 17.6 19 44 Mj Upon 1 acre of the same plat, with the timber standing rather above the average, 38 trees were found. Of these there were 14 of 24 inches diameter at breast high, estimated length of timber, 45 feet; 6 of 19 inches diameter at breast high, estimated length of timber, 40 feet; 9 of 17 inches diameter at breast high, estimated length of timber, 55 feet; 9 of 13 inches diameter at breast high, estimated length of timber, 50 feet. In the opinion of experts, the average yield of 1 acre of these pine lands at a fair estimate is not less than 6,000 feet, board measure. According to the statements of Mr. Sues, at Levins Station, 56,000,000 feet, board measure, were shipped, in 1892, from the mills of this section. South of the Red River bottom the forests of Longleaf Pine continue unbroken to the Sabine River and south to the treeless savannas of the coast in Caleasieu Parish, their eastern boundary parallel with the eastern boundary of that parish. Roughly estimated, these forests cover an area of about 2,668,000 acres. From the marshy lowlands of the coast to the upper tributaries of the Caleasieu River, up to Hickory and Beckwith creeks, the country is poorly drained, almost perfectly level, with a highly retentive and somewhat impervious clay subsoil. In consequence, these pine flats are, for the greater part of the year, more or less covered with water. These low, wet pine forests were stripped some years ago of all their merchantable timber, and only a comparatively small number of trees of less than 12 inches in diameter were left standing, On DISTRIBUTION OF LONGLEAF PINE IN LOUISIANA. 45 these abandoned timber lands a young pine is rarely seen, the seeds shed in the fall being apt to rot in the water-soaked soil, or, if they happen to germinate, the seedlings are drowned during the winter rains. On the lands rising gently above the flat woods, with the ridges still low and wide and often more or less imperfectly drained, Longleaf Pine is found of an exceedingly fine growth. The trees in the dense forest ave tall and slender, and their timber is equaled only by the timber of the same class growing in the valley of the Neches River, in Texas. The following measurements of five trees felled for test logs in the forests in the upper part of Caleasieu Parish, between Hickory and Beckwith creeks, will serve as a fair representation of the timber growth on these low, broad ridges: Measurements of five trees. 4 : Diameter | Total . Rings on | Diameter | Mean Length of R Number of tree. 5 a below | a: 2 . - height of stump, breasthigh.) orown. diameter. timber. Pry }= = | | Inches. Inches. | Inches. | Feet. Feet. 196 | 28 23 | 24 | 50 119 195 23 16 | 19 50 | 127 190 21 14 17 40 117 180 19 15 17 40 102 | 167 16 13 | 14 37 127 185 21 | 16 | 18 45 118 Upon 1 aere, selected on the back of a low swell which might be said to represent the average of the timber standing, 44 trees in all were counted. Of these, 3 trees measured 25 inches diameter at breast high, with a length of clear timber estimated at 50 feet; 6 trees measured 2 inches diameter at breast high, with a length of clear timber estimated at 50 feet; 19 trees measured 18 inches diameter at breast high, with a length of clear timber estimated at 40 feet; 14 trees measured 14 inches diameter at breast high, with a length of clear timber estimated at 36 feet, corresponding in the aggregate to somewhat over 15,000 feet, board measure. On another acre considered first class, rather level land, the soil fresh to wet throughout the year, 72 trees were counted. Of this number, 14 were found 27 inches diameter at breast- high, with an estimated length of timber of 50 feet; 5 were found 24 inches diameter at breast high, with an estimated length of timber of 50 feet; 15 were found 25 inches diameter at breast high, with an estimated length of timber of 50 feet; 8 were found 21 inches diameter at breast high, with an estimated length of timber of 40 feet; 10 were found 20 inches diameter at breast high, with an estimated length of timber of 40 feet; 11 were found 18 inches diameter at breast high, with an estimated length of timber of 40 feet; 11 were found 15 inches diameter at breast high, with an estimated length of timber of 36 feet. According to these figures the timber standing on this acre would amount to not less than 35,000 feet, board measure. The chief site of the lumber industry of western Louisiana is at Lake Charles. According to the information furnished by Mr. George Lock, of Lockport, La., the annual output of the sawmills in the vicinity of Lake Charles for the years 1892 and 1893 averaged about 154,000,000 feet, board measure, all shipped West and Northwest. It can be assumed that over one-half of the lumber sawn at Orange, in Texas, is cut on the eastern banks of the Sabine River, which amount has to be credited to the cut of Louisiana. Summary of the production of Longleaf Pine lumber in the State of Louisiana in 1892. Feet, B. M. Parishes east of the Mississippi, about... .----.-----------+------+----+-+70rt roe 25, 000, 000 Parishes north of the Red River. .-.-.--.-------------- +----+ -----+ +720 --2stt ttre 56, 000, 000 To the Sabine River, sawn at Lake Charles ..---- -------- --------------+++++55++>>- 154, 000, 000 Sawn at Orange, Tex., estimated .....-..----------- --------22 -+2- 02 ert er rent 40, 000, 000 Total cut in Louisiana -.....--.------------- ---- e222 222 ene cee er reer 275, 000, 000 Texas.—The forests of Longleaf Pine extend from the Sabine west to the Trinity River and from the grassy savannas of the coast region north to the center of Sabine, San Augustine, and 46 TIMBER PINES OF THE SOUTHERN UNITED STATES. Angelina counties, and include an area of about 2,890,000 acres. In amount and quality of the timber these forests are unsurpassed and are only equaled by the forest of the adjoining region in Louisiana. Toward their southern borders the country, like the pine flats of southwestern Louisiana, is perfectly level and poorly drained, with the soil water-soaked for a greater part of the year. These flats have been almost completely stripped of their merchantable timber. North of Nona the surface rises gradually above the water level in broad, low swells, and, being underlaid by strata of stiff loams, is more or less deficient in drainage. The intervening wide flats are frequently covered with a dense growth of large shrubs and small-sized trees, consisting of various species of hawthorn (Crataegus crus-galli, OC. viridis, C. mollis, O. berberidifolia), the Deciduous Holly (Ilex decidua), Dahoon Holly (Ilex caroliniana), Privet (Adelia acuminata), plane trees, and magnolias. These impenetrable thickets are common, and often cover many square miles, like the so-called Big Thicket in the lower part of Hardin County, said to be from 10 to 15 miles wide, either way. The growth of Longleaf Pine which covers the gentle, wide swells, is dense, of fine proportions, and of remarkably rapid development. The average age of five trees felled northwest of Nona, 15 to 25 inches in diameter, is but little over one hundred and fifty years, as the following measurements show: Measurements of five trees. : 7 . Total 7 ae 2 Rings on | Diameter Mean Length of Fe . Number of tree. stump. breasthigh.| diameter. timber. Beet of Inches. Inches. Feet. Feet. 26 20 40 110 22 19 50 101 18 16 50 113 21 18 45 110 15 12 40 107 20 17 45 104 In this region, owing to the direct communication of several railroad lines with the great centers of trade in the North and with the treeless plains of the far West, the manufacture of lumber has made a wonderful progress during the past twelve years. In 1880 the cut of Longleaf Pine in this State has been estimated at 66,450,000 feet. From information received from parties engaged in the lumber business, the cut during the year 1892 can safely be estimated at 440,000,000 feet. The centers of lumber production are Orange aud Beaumont, but a great amount is cut at the mills along the several lines of railway passing through this region. Output of Longleaf Pine lumber in Texas during the year 1892. Feet, B. M. Orange (inclusive of 40,000,000 of feet derived from Calcasieu)-.--...----.-----.---- 45, 000, 000 Beaumont 520252 actos wots e boc ckrenme Sere Sulstonns b wehi ec. stare sec, sw ola eran sa aioe einer erete ee 75, 000, 000 Sabine Valley, Texas and Northern Railroad...........-..-..---..---.------+---.-- 157, 000, 000 Missouri, Kansas and Texas Railroad): << 22. ooo cae cece cece eee eee eee ee eree ee 143, 000, 000 Houston, Kansas and Texas Railroad oc.) ooo sce ccecce ch vnc cceves voewes elernswesede 20, 000, 000 MD OVAL Se tow ce eiacis nn cece arise ona Ceara s eo mala see selec enon ee me oes one ee es ame TOUR, lor the renewal of the forests of Longleaf Pine in this region there is as little hope under their present management as in the adjoining region in Louisiana. In this cold, wet soil the seeds find but a poor chance for germination, and the surviving plantlets soon succumb to the same cause. In the pine flats seedlings are rarely observed among the tall broom sedge grasses (Andropogon) which, under the influence of light and a damp soil, thrive luxuriantly in the flat woods denuded of their timber growth, imparting to them the aspect of waving meadows or savannas. PRODUCTS. VALUE AND USES OF THE WOOD. The wood of the Longleaf Pine is hardly surpassed by any of our timber trees of economic importance, and is practically unsurpassed by any member of its own order in the qualities which are required for purposes of construction, thus taking the first place among its congeners. VALUE AND USES OF THE WOOD. 47 The timber from the damp flat woods of the coastal plain east of the Mississippi River, with a soil of almost pure, fine, closely compacted sand, is of slow growth and generally of the finest grain, often exhibiting in the sapwood that irregularity known as ‘curly pine.” In the perpetually damp to wet soil of the pine flats in southwestern Louisiana and in Texas, with a deep retentive subsoil richer in nutritive elements, causing «a better and quicker development of the tree, the wood is of a more open grain. Owing to the excellent qualities of the wood of Longleaf Pine, its use in the various mechanical arts and industries is as extensive as it is manifold. Its greatest value rests in its adaptability for heavy constructions—in naval architecture, for masts and spars; in civil engineering, for the building of bridges, viaducts, trestlework, and for supports in the construction of buildings. Large quantities of long and heavy sticks of square timber sawn or hewn fur such purposes are shipped to the British ports and to the dockyards of the European continent, with a constantly increasing demand. In the building of railroad ears, where great strength and elasticity is needed, the timber of Longleaf Pine is preferred to any other. For this purpose sticks from 36 to 42 feet, 10 by 12 inches, are required, free from blemish. Enormous quantities of the younger timber of this tree are cut every year to serve for cross- ties, used by the railroads not only in the pine regions, but in other parts of the country. The demand for these ties forms a constant and increasing draft upon the forest. The ties delivered are, on the average, 84 feet long, 9 inches wide, and 7 inches thick, and must be all heartwood and free from blemish. The trees selected for this purpose are from 15 to 16 inches in diameter, and preferably only the butt cuts are accepted. On an average 10 cross-ties are cut from 1 acre, each tie representing a log which would make at least 75 superficial feet of Inmber. Since such a tie, ready for the roadbed, contains not more than 50 feet, board measure, it will be readily seen what an enormous waste results from this practice. . On the damp, sandy tracts of the lower South, such ties will last five or six years, and 3,000 ties are needed for 1 mile of road. Hence, for the construction of the 3,240 miles of railroad traversing the forest of Longleaf Pine east of the Mississippi River, nearly 10,000,000 ties have been required, which being renewed every six years involves an annual cut of 116,000,000 feet, board measure, to which must be added the amount exported to other regions. In the Southern States, the West Indies, many places on the coast of Mexico, and Central and South America the lumber of the Longleaf Pine forms the chief, if not the only, material in the construction of houses. For similar purposes considerable quantities are of late years shipped to Northern markets, East and West, replacing in many cases, at least in parts of the buildings, the lumber of the White Pine, on account of its increasing scarcity. The fine-grained and “curly” varieties of Longleaf Pine lumber, by their beauty and the high polish of which they are susceptible, begin, of late years, to take a place among the higher-priced kinds of wood for ornamental inside work. ; The importance and value of Longleaf Pine lumber as a material for constructions can not be better evidenced than by the fact that little less than 1,500,000,000 feet, board measure, or about one-third of all the lumber manufactured in the South, is being exported from Southern ports annu- ally to domestic and foreign ports, besides furnishing almost the only material used at home in the construction of dwellings and all kinds of buildings. It also supplies material for furniture, as well as fuel, both in the form of firewood and charcoal, and its exploitation affords the means of subsistence to thousands. Lightwood.—Whenever the sapwood of the tree is laid bare copious exudation of resin takes place and the surrounding wood becomes charged with it. Thus the wood of the trunks of the trees tapped for the extraction of their resin soon becomes charged with this along the searified surface, and, as with the evaporation of water from the dead wood, the resinification proceeds and the wood increases in weight and durability. In low, damp places particularly this process takes place more extensively. This resin-charged wood is termed lightwood. The lightwood timber, con- sidered very durable when exposed to alternating conditions of moisture and dryness, is much preferred for posts, ete. Being highly inflammable, it serves for torches and kindling, and hence its name. Of late years a profitable industry has been started to utilize the resinous stumps of abandoned orchards as kindling material by cutting the same close to the ground and then, yeneer 48 TIMBER PINES OF THE SOUTHERN UNITED STATES. fashion, into long, narrow strips three-fourths of an inch thick, which are subsequently steamed and rolled in small bundles to make a convenient package for shipment. The knots, limbs, roots— particularly “fat,” i. e., highly charged with resin—are used in the making of tar. Charcoal burning.—W here a market is found the trees left standing, after the removal of the larger timber fit for sawlogs, are burned for charcoal. This industry is carried on to a greater or less extent in the mineral regions to supply the blast furnaces operated for the manufacture of charcoal iron. Large areas of the forests of the Longleaf, covering the hills in north Alabama, lave been entirely denuded of their tree covering to meet the demands for such purpose. Fuel value.—The air-dry wood of the Longleaf Pine is much esteemed for fuel; containing but asmall percentage of ash—not over 0.25 per ceut—with a small amount of water, and adense and close fiber, as indicated by its high specific gravity, its fuel value is necessarily high. Being also easily inflammable, it is preferred where quick and intense heat is required, as, for instance, in bakeries, brick kilns, potteries, etc., and in the raising of steam for stationary engines on steam- boats and railroad locomotives throughout the pine region, where mineral coal can not be cheaply obtained. RESINOUS PRODUCTS OF THE LONGLEAF PINE. It can safely be asserted that among the trees of the same order there is found no other equally rich in resin. The manufacture of naval stores from the resin of the Longleaf Pine forms one of the most widely developed industries in the pine forests of the coast pine belt of the South- ern States, and is svarcely less important than the manufacture of its lumber, — i LU = Gi =x Le DEVELOPMENT OF CUBAN PINE. 81 The shrinkage during drying is very considerable for sapwood, and therefore all young timber, but is not as great for old timber as might be expected on account of the great weight of the wood. Young timber shrinks from 12 to 13 per cent of its volume, the wood of old trees (over one hundred and fifty years) only about 11 per cent, and in all trees the amount of shrinkage is greatest in the heaviest disk of the butt and decreases upward very much in proportion of the decrease in weight. In its structure the wood resembles that of the Loblolly in every respect. Summerwood and springwood are sharply defined, giving rise to alternating bands of light-colored, soft and dark-colored hard bands of wood conspicuous in every section. For details of structure see the comparative study by Mr. Roth appended to these monographs. PROGRESS OF DEVELOPMENT. This is the earliest flowering of the Southern pines, ‘The buds of the male flowers make their appearance in the early part of December, and the flowers open during the last days of January and during the first week of February. This species produces abundant crops of cones every year, almost without failure; they ripen in the fall of the second year; the seeds are discharged through the winter of the second year until spring. Germinativg easily, their seedlings are found to come up copiously from early in the spring to the beginning of the summer in old fields and on every opening in the vicinity of the parent trees, wherever the rays of the sun reach the ground. The plantlets bear six to seven seed-leaves (cotyledons). As soon as these have fairly expanded the terminal bud develops rapidly, and the first interno 'e of the stem, increasing quickly in length, is densely covered with the soft, narrow, linear, pointed, primary leaves, which are fully an inch long. Before the end of the second month, in the axils of some of the leaves, the undeveloped branchlets, bearing the fascicle of the foliage leaves, make their appearance. With the further development of the foliage leaves, increasing in number during the growing season, the primary leaves wither away. By the close of the first season the plantlets are from 8 to 9 inches high, with a very slender taproot and many lateral rootlets near its upper end. After the beginning of the second season but few of the primary leaves are found to support the buds of the foliage leaves. The tendency to the production of secondary axes becomes manifest by the appearance of a single branchlet; on having reached the end of their second year the plants are from 12 to 15 inches high, with a taproot not more than 4 inches long; at the end of their third year they average little less than 2 feet in height, with the taproot 6 inches long—the laterals being much longer. The crown trom this period develops in regular whorls for a long succession of years. The Cuban Pine, in its rate of growth and when fully grown, exceeds in its dimensions the Longleaf Pine. The taproot, less powerful than in its allies, is assisted by mighty lateral roots running near the surface of the ground to support the tall, sturdy trunk, rising to a height of 110 or 115 feet, with a diameter of 24, not unfrequently exceeding 3, feet, clear of limbs for a height of from 60 to 70 feet above the ground. The heavy limbs are horizontally spreading, from 22 to 24 feet at their greatest length, somewhat irregularly disposed; they form in the trees of full growth a rather dense crown of rounded outline. Trees of the dimensions mentioned, having passed the fullness of their growth, are found to be from one hundred to one hundred and forty years old, according to the surrounding conditions. The thick bark is of a clear, reddish color, laminated, and exfoliating in thin, broad, purplish flakes. Seedlings of the Longleaf Pine, which those of the Cuban Pine somewhat resemble, can be readily distinguished at this period by the disproportion of height and diameter and absence of branch growth in the former. The rate of growth differs, of course, according to the conditions of soil and exposure. Saplings showing five rings of annual growth were found from 45 to nearly 6 feet in height, with a diameter of from three-fourths to seven-eighths of an inch; between the age of from ten to twelve -years the trees measure from 10 to 18 feet in height, with the stem clear for over half its length—even when grown in the open—and from 2 up to 4 inches in diameter. From this stage on the rate of growth proceeds most rapidly. At eighteen and twenty years heights of 40 to 50 feet and over, and diameters from 9 to 10 inches across the stump, cut close to the ground, are attained. _ 17433 —No. 13——6 82 TIMBER PINES OF THE SOUTHERN UNITED STATES. The trees of the extensive groves of Cuban Pine in the vicinity of Mobile upon the loamy lands of the coast plain, which have sprung up since 1864, when these lands were completely stripped of all arboreal growth, average at present between 50 and 60 feet in height by a diameter of from 14 to 16 inches breast high. Trees of second growth, forming open groves on lands of similar character, and also more or less deficient in drainage, forty-five to sixty-five years old, measure from 65 to 85 feet in height and from 15 to 20 inches in diameter breast high. At the edge of a heavily wooded swamp, in a perpetually wet, sandy, and mucky soil and skirted by large Longleaf Pines occupying the steep slope rising from the bottom, a tree measur ing 114 feet in height, with a diameter of 24 inches breast high, the trunk clear of limbs for a length of fully 60 feet, showed one hundred and thirty-five rings of annual growth. Another tree felled deeper in the same swamp, of lank growth, with a poorly developed crown, rising to a height of 88 feet and towering above the dense growth of black gums, swamp maples, and white bays, was found to measure only 154 inches in diameter, with almost the same number of annual rings. Trees of second growth which have sprung up in clearings with a drier surface soil under- laid by a clayey substratum, with free exposure to sunlight and air, reach in little over half the time the full size of those produced in the forest-coyered swamps. TaBLe I.—Growth of Cuban Pine during first stages of life, from four to twenty years. Ri | Diameter. | Height. | ings ates | |e 5 No. of tree in | ima Locality. Remarks. Breast Across) », | Lofiratl po . stump. high. | stump. | Lotal. | limb. | Crown. Inches. | Inches Feet. | Feet. | 40 al ee d == “ 5 13 |... - Nos. 1 to 5, near Whistler, Ala. 5 uu Wet, sandy, flat soil very poor; open thickets in | | the clearing of the forest. 6 ng tse Bee 8) ig |-----5-- | 9 2 | 23 stler, Ala Exposnre partially free; suppressed soil; slushy. 9 2 22 | 19 10 9 | Ridgeland, 5. C..-.-. | Old field; soil fresh; from midst of dense grove. I) posga =F mnoowiss | 18 | 8 the eee hee otecnec totes | 10 rh BS ease | 18 7) 11 | Whistler, Ala .....- Open edge of swamp, somewhat suppressed. 11 | 3} PE Ne oT 13 | CH ee ae fi (eee ee Partially free; edge of swamp. ll 4 44 | 28 | 14 | 14 | Ridgeland, S.C ...-- Open grove of saplings; soil fresh; old field. 12 Gy 4 | Paste see OT Peete eee en Mobile, Ala......... Grove of young trees; crown covered partially by | | large pines; soil conditions, best. 13 | 6) | -ss25~2. 29 13 16 Ridgeland, $.C...-. 4 4 4h VPN Boseon eres) pee O0\eeesene eee ae Old field. 15) ey ened ! BY fae ee eee ene ace Mobile, Ala......... Midst of dense thicket; in the shade; suppressed: | | | soil conditions, best. Se s05 cacccccce 15 | a eeesoees CU Rennes Me arate meee Jere on (it Se Sse Do. 262. 16 | 6 7 36 | 18 26 | Ridgeland, S.C..... Exposure free; old field; soil black, mucky. 9... 16 | () | paacsee: 46 27 19 | Mobile, Ala......... In the shade of large pines. 10.. 17 do. 232... 17 | Swamp soil; slushy; suppressed. 231... 18 | Exposure free; soil fresh, good. ese 18 | Under cover of large pines; soil conditions, good. 12... 18 Do. IB ecacucveves= 21 Free exposure. DEVELOPMENT OF CUBAN PINE. 83 TABLE II.—Growth of Cuban Pine during middle and last stages of life, from forly to one hundred and forty-five years. Diameter. Height. Rings No. of tree. in Brednell Across leBelow Total engi Length Locality. Remarks. stump high. | stump. | crown. Mean. height. | crown, | of clear. | CTOWn- t | Inches. | Inches. Inches. | Inches. | Feet. Feet. | Feet. 1 PARR RCOERCe 40 2 Beoosued Joseossed||==deonss 60 39 | 24 | Mobile, Ala....... Midst of grove, crowded; damp, sandy | loam; clay subsoil; surface flat. Cd neaneere 43 Tee ose non pSing= 64 Sec aAae 66 34 32 | Ridgeland, S.C ...| Exposure free; edge of swamp; soil per- | vetually damp. 230) sinew = =i 51 ie agence sel ee nonad eebonann 87 HN | segscoce Whistler, Ala..... Bdge swamp; soil fresh todamp; growth | lank; sap, 5 inches. Wee scr 52 7 1176 Rem Se er eraeser el | 83 50 | 36 | Mobile, Ala.....-. Edge of grove. Boe eee. 55 jc. 0) Seen ee ee hen 74 CE rece Stockton, Baldwin) Exposure free; springy hillside; soil County, Ala. coarse, sandy, and gravelly. 82 50 32 | Mobile, Ala-...... | ML in free; open grove. 7 | do. 90 Low pine flat, open; soil moist and black, sour. 83 .-, Exposure free; soil moist and black, sour. 85, ..| Springhill edge of swamp; damp, sandy. 98 Exposure free; near border of swamp; pine flat, badly drained. 90 60 SU) hessoossocaséecences Springhill rich hummock, perpetually damp; magnolia, red bay, spruce gum; Census 1880. 113 71 42 | Whistler, Ala..-.. Exposure free; edge of swamp; soil fresh; stick perfectly clear for 52 feet; sap, 24 inches. 130 78 52) faaaen (UE RR nee Timber perfect for 60 feet. 118 60 {nel eee G0) sesestccasse Exposure free; somewhat suppressed by longleaf pine; edge of swamp. 104 80 bE Se OO?-Gn acts seo e Exposure free; lank, tall; red heart above 54 feet. 119 18) Sconce 6 sony cee dsose Base of hili; a fine-looking tree; timber clear for 50 feet. 116 (BN Rasen se een (We ennccencees Swamp always slushy; free from knots | _ for over 65 feet. 67 Pt Pee eel eRe do .....-...--.| Of suppressed growth; in middle of | swamp; soil pure sand, mostly covered | with water. From Table III the rapid growth of this species is quite apparent. It will be observed that good trees are about 20 feet high at ten, 45 feet at twenty, and over 80 feet high at fifty years of age, when the rapid rate of upward growth comes to a stop. It appears, also, that the greatest mass of wood for any decade is found at the early age of fifty, the growth in volume being nearly 15 cubic feet for these ten years, and that at ninety the growth in volume is only about two-thirds of the maximum; that at one hundred years the average annual growth nearly equals the current growth, thus indicating that the age of proper exploitation has been reached, i. e., that now the tree is ripe for the ax, as far as profitable growth, represented in volume accretion, is concerned. TaBLeE III.—Growth of Cuban Pine. Length Volume. Periodical growth for each decade. Diameter| ° log 7] | . with . | Average C t Age. with bark) 4 er Height Log up to . Area of | annual _- aren 3 area aeercon of tree, Tree. 5 jae Decade. Dian \Height.. cross Volume. accretion. accretion. igh) of 5 = diameter. | section. | inches. | Inches Feet Feet. | Cubic feet. | Cubic feet. Inches.) Feet. | Sq. feet. | Cubic feet. |Oub. feet. Cub. feet. CAE) peer mes 20 D0 esses ena First wssaseeesess.e. 2.1 20 0. 02 0.50 0.05 0.05 5.9 5 45 4.24 2.44 | Second... 2.6 25 .10 3.74 - 21 | .37 9.3 24 66 14.95 13.06 | Third... --- 3.0 21 - 20 10.71 .50 | 1.07 12.3 40 75 29.70 29.23 | Fourth 2.6 9 | 26 14.75 -74 1.47 14.8 50 83 47.01 45.53 | Fifth ..-- 2.5 8 | -3l 17.31 - 94 1,73 16.0 60 89 59. 65 58.35 | Sixth ..-- 1.2 6 | -18 | 12. 64 .99 1.26 17.6 69 93 72, 25 71.17 | Seventh . tee 4] 19 12. 60 1.03 1.26 18.8 76 96 84. 05 83.15 | Eighth -. 1.2 3 | -21 11.80 1.05 1.18 20.0 83 99 95, 03 94.31 | Ninth -.- 1.2 3 22 10. 98 1.05 1.10 21.4 90 101 105, 97 105.48 | Tenth -.. 1.0 2 .20 10. 94 1.06 1.09 22.4 96 103 115. 58 115. 27 | Eleventh 1.0 2 20 9. 61 1.05 - 96 23.4 100 105 125, 18 124,96 | Twelfth ............ 1.0 2 25 | 9. 60 1.04 -96 | 84 TIMBER PINES OF THE SOUTHERN UNITED STATES. REQUIREMENTS FOR DEVELOPMENT. Soil.—For its best development the Cuban Pine requires a light, sandy, but constantly damp soil, which is attained where the sandy surface is underlaid by a loamy subsoil retentive of moisture but sufliciently loose to give the roots unhindered access. Such conditions are found on the lands rising above the perpetually wet swamps. On the flats, with a soil of fine, compact sand, devoid of all drainage and underlaid by a hardpan, where nothing but the Saw Palmetto appears to thrive, the tree remains of low, stunted growth, scarcely ever reaching medium size. In the depth of the swamp, with the soil wet and slushy throughout the year, where the tree is commonly met with, closely surrounded by White Bay, Red Bay, Black Gum, Titi, and White Cedar towering high above it, it is of slow growth and frequently affected by red heart or red rot, particularly near its northern limit. It is never found in alluvial bottoms, and eschews the dry, pine-barren hills, requiring a moderate but sure and even supply of soil moisture. Climate—The range of its distribution coincides with the area of greatest rainfall in the Southern States, which, evenly distributed through all seasons, amounts for the year, in the mean, to 60 and 64 inches. : The Cuban Pine demands a warm climate, free from excesses in the range of temperature, as is afforded by the vicinity of the sea. It is found in greatest abundance and most perfect within the isothermal lines of 64° and 68° F., with a minimum of but a few degrees below the freezing point. The tree, as observed at Mobile, has escaped uninjured the severe and unprecedented long spell of ice and snow during the latter part of January and first week of February, 1895, when the thermometer fell as low as 11° F., the flowers unfolding unimpaired by frost during the succeeding first days of milder weather. In its dependence on light it is less exacting than either the Longleaf Pine or the Loblolly Pine. It appears to thrive, from the earliest stage of its deveiopment, as well when partially shaded as in the open, in this respect resembling the Southern Spruce Pine. It is due to these facts, combined with the rapid progress of its growth from the earliest stage, that the Cuban Pine is gaining the upper hand over the offspring of the light-requiring Longleaf Pine, which, on the damp soil of the coast plain, is soon outstripped and finally almost completely suppressed by the seedlings of this tree. In the inherent capacity for natural reproduction, or in the advantages for the renewal of its forests by man, the Cuban Pine is not surpassed by any other of the species with which it is found associated. This tree commends itself strongly to the tree planter in the coast plain of the lower South. Producing seeds in abundance regularly and with certainty, being less exacting in its demands for direct sunlight, and hence successfully resisting the encroachment of competing species, being less liable to suecumb to the destructive agencies of fire on account of its more rapid development in early life, it has greater promise of success than the others. If to this is added the rapid rate of growth, the great value of its timber, being equal to the Longleaf, if not superior, and the abundant yield of its valuable resinous product, it becomes evident that in the reforestation of the low pine lands of the Southern coast region the Cuban pine is to be preferred to any other, not only within its original boundaries, but as far beyond its range of natural distribution as the climatic requirements of the tree will permit. x wi = < = a SHORTLEAF PINE (PINUS ECHINATA), FOREST-GROWN SPECIMENS IN MISSOURI. ie SHORTLEAF’ PINE. (PINUS ECHINATA Miller.) Economic History AND DISTRIBUTION. BOTANICAL DESCRIPTION. DESCRIPTION OF Woop. PROGRESS OF DEVELOPMENT. CONDITIONS OF DEVELOPMENT. ForEST MANAGEMENT. THE SHORTLEAE PINE: (Pinus echinata Miller.) Synonyms: Pinus echinata Miller, Gard. Dict., ed. 8, No. 12 (1768). Pinus virginiana yar. echinata Du Roi, Harbk., ii, 38 (1772). Pinus tada y variabilis Aiton, Hort. Kew., ed. 1, iii, 368 (1789). Pinus mitis Michaux, F1. Bor. Am., ii, 204 (1803). Pinus variabilis Lambert, Pinus, ed. 1, i, 22, t. 15 (1803). Pinus royleana Jamieson ex Lindley, in Journ. Hort. Soc., ix, 52 (1855). Pinus intermedia Fischer ex Gordon, Pinetum, ed. 1, 170 (1858), not Du Roi (1772). Pinus rigida Porcher, Resources §. States, 504 (1863), not Miller (1768). Pinus lutea Loddiges ex Gordon, Pinetum, ed. 1, 170 (1858), not Walter (1788). Pinus roylei Lindley ex Gord., 1. ¢. COMMON OR LOCAL NAMES. Yellow Pine (N. Y., N.J., Pa., Del., Va., N. C., Ala., Miss., Shortleaved Yellow Pine. La., Ark., Mo., Ill., Ind., Kans. (scarce), Ohio). Yellow Pine (N. C., Va.; Eng. lit.) Shortleaved Pine (N.C., 8. C., Ga., Ala., Miss., Fla., La., Virginia Yellow Pine (Va.) in part. Tex., Ark.). North Carolina Yellow Pine (N. C., Va.) in part. Spruce Pine (Del., Miss., Ark.). North Carolina Pine (N. C., Va.) in part. Bull Pine (Va.). Carolina Pine (N. C., Va.) in part. Short Schat Pine (Del.). Slash Pine (N. C., Va.) in part. Pitch Pine (Mo.). Oldfield Pine (Ala., Miss.). Poor Pine (Vla.). 86 Bulletin No. 13, Division of Forestry PLATE XIII. ——— SHORTLEAF PINE (PINUS ECHINATA), A ROADSIDE SPECIMEN IN NORTH CAROLINA SE = “= x j 7 wget Voie § cot Lol ace SEL |) (bea ee ee rs | “Yitenot ty naelvid a aM ditetly pf . - ~ e J > * o ri i. SHORTLAAY-2 fF. Pea vw i a RR Oe } By ft uaa Tere, j — OO hig ita dy * ee i nate Sn Saas _—— * adi atte j : ¥ a tens of the A Uautit_taregye pias Piste jepeies tle Lapeer Kavita, Fs es Piya Hh Wood lot firhe fale ‘ Py nen wali : pew vf i shaded pr alas tues 'y inter wis, f tl I ‘ en ail’ ys Wey Koo Ly Taga ot fabsedy, “A every le aay gern Mien bias: Pi Lag heritage fp eho bk sk i i> ‘ sgl P hice Ley Pn mwuter ‘eéants ‘y centgry, sp a: ehatacters of ty nue Theg wore first hy (RECT Singtickna Borg bei ’ tule a AOOl atte viv ale? 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GIZIA ‘Gaua31LvOS YO HLMOYD SNONGIOSA GNV 3Nid AV3IONO AT1I01807 HLIM O3SXIW "OBLSNVHXS ASIMHUSHLO 9 ‘S3LVL§ NYSHLNOG JO SONWIdN IWH1LN3O NO 3HOV 43d ‘CW ‘Gg 1334 000! O1 009 GIZIA ‘OSHSLLVOS SHNOOO S3IO3dS BHL HOIHM NO SY3uYy ‘NOILLNSIYNLSIO OINONOOS TYNOIOSY JO S3NIT AYYONNOG - “NOILNGINLSIO TVWOINYLOS 40 S3NIT AYVONNOG ‘aN3937 PAE SE ORTLEAF PINE. By Cuartes Mour, Ph. D. INTRODUCTORY. Among the timber trees of the Atlantic forest region the Shortleaf Pine ranks with the first of those noted for their economic importance. Equally abundant, distributed over a wider area, and in the quality of its wood but little inferior, it takes its place next to the Longleaf Pine. When maintenance of forest and production of timber under a rational system of forestry is to become the rule, this species above all others of southerly distribution will claim attention, for it ean be safely asserted that of the coniferous trees adapted to the climatic conditions of the Southern Atlantic forest, no other can be found of better promise for the production of valuable timber in the shortest time. HISTORICAL, The Shortleaf Pine, besides furnishing to the colonists the supplies of pine timber required for the construction of their dwellings, formed in early colonial times an article of export to the mother country and the West Indies. Michaux, the younger, writing in the first years of this century, speaks of this timber tree as becoming scarce near the ports. It seems that the specific characters of this tree were but imperfectly understood by the earlier investigators of our sylva. They were first accurately defined by Michaux, the father, who described this tree in his Flora Americana Borealis II, 204 (1803), under the name of Pinus mitis. A still more detailed descrip- tion was soon afterwards given by Michaux, the son, in his work on American forest trees (Hist. Arb. Amer., 1, 52, t. 3, 1810), with a full account of its value as a timber tree, the qualities and uses of its wood, and all that was known in those days of its place in the forest. Besides the account given of the tree by the Rey. M. A. Curtis, of North Carolina, in his “Trees of North Carolina,” little has been added to our knowledge of this pine until the publication in Professor Sargent’s report on the Forests of North America,! of the results of the investigation which the writer had carried on in the Gulf States,” and Professor Harvey in Arkansas.’ For valuable information on the occurrence of this pine on the Atlantic Coast and west of the Alleghany Mountains, the writer is indebted to the kindness of correspondents active in the field of botany. In regard to the area over which this species is found distributed in the Southern States, the information contained in the physiographic descriptions of the several counties of the cotton States, in Professor Hilgard’s report on cotton production,‘ were chiefly relied upon. GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION. The Shortleaf Pine is widely distributed from the Atlantic Seaboard to the treeless plains of the Indian Territory under 95° west longitude over 254° from east to west and 10° from south to north, namely, from 31° north latitude to Long Island, New York, or 41° north latitude along the Atlantic Coast, while in the interior it only reaches to 39° in western Virginia. According to F. A. Michaux, the Shortleaf Pine extended originally as far north as Albany, N. Y. The tree is at present not known in New York outside of Long Island, and its existence even in Pennsylvania is considered 1 Forest of North America, Volume IX of Tenth Census. (C, 8. Sargent, 1880.) 2C. Mohr: ‘Forest Trees of the Gulf Region” (Am. Jour. Forestry, Vol. I, 1883). 3“*Porest Trees of Arkansas.” (Harvey: Am. Jour. of For., Vol. I.) ‘Hilgard: Tenth Census Report, Vols. V and VI. 87 88 TIMBER PINES OF THE SOUTHERN UNITED STATES. at present doubtful. Its northern limit west of the Alleghanies can be described by a line drawn from the lower part of Wood County, in West Virginia, to Menifee County, eastern Kentucky. Beyond the wide gap covered by the deciduous forests of the lower Ohio Valley and the flood plain of the Mississippi the tree appears on the southeastern spur of the Ozark Ilills in Cape Girardeau County, Mo., latitude 37° 30’, and on the opposite side of the river on the blufis in Union and Jackson counties, Ill, the line dropping gradually half a degree southward to the western limit of its range. (PI. XIV.) The Shortleaf Pine is a tree of the plain and the foothills, in the South rarely ascending to an elevation over 2,300 feet, and at its northern confines not over 1,000 feet (in the Ozark Hills). East of the Mississippi River the tree appears sparsely scattered among the hard-wood trees; along the border of the Carolinian and within the Austro-riparian zone it becomes more frequent, and often the predominating tree. West of the Mississippi River the Shortleaf Pine finds its region of greatest profusion, forming forests of vast extent on the uplands of the undulating plain and the table-lands of the hill country, which in their timber wealth and economic importance rival the great lambering regions farther south. CHARACTERISTICS OF DISTRIBUTION IN DIFFERENT REGIONS. On the Atlantic Coast, from southern New York to Virginia, judging from the statements of earlier writers, this tree must have formed originally a considerable part of the forests of coniferous evergreens covering the belt of light silicious soils of the Tertiary strata. A. Michaux mentions this species “as not found beyond certain districts in Connecticut, it being multiplied in the lower part of New Jersey, and still more on the eastern shore of Maryland and the lower part of Virginia.” From the remarks of this writer on the extensive use of the timber of the Yellow Pine (Shortleaf) it appears that at the time of his writing—the beginning of this century—it must have been quite abundant in those parts. This appears clearly by his statement that “in the Northern and Middle States (of the Atlan- tic Seaboard) and in Virginia, where, to a distance of 150 miles from the sea, all houses are built of wood, the floors, casings of doors, wainscots, and sashes are made of this species, as being more solid and lasting than any other indigenous wood. In the upper part of the Carolinas the houses are constructed wholly of Yellow Pine, and are covered with it.” Further on we learn that immense quantities were used in the dockyards of New York, Philadelphia, and Baltimore, and that Yellow Pine lumber formed a considerable part of the exports to Great Britain and the West Indies. Since that time this tree has in the region mentioned not only long ceased to be a source of timber, but has generally become quite scarce. According to the information of Dr. N. L. Britton, “it grows on the coast of New York naturally only on Staten Island, and only about twenty-five trees are to be found in Richmond County. It is fairly abundant in the portion of New Jersey from the Raritan River to Delaware Bay, forming forests, on a tract not more than 8 miles, and it is also found in Delaware on the same formation outcrop of Green Sand.” With the appearance of the Longleaf Pine south of Virginia the Shortleaf Pine recedes from the coast and is found chiefly in the upper (interior) part of the Southern coast pine belt, scattered among the mixed growth of coniferous and deciduous trees. Above the upper limit of the Longleaf Piue belt the Shortleaf Pine extends, in the Southern Atlantic States, throughout the interior to the lower ranges of the mountain region. West of the Alleghany Mountains, in western Virginia and eastern Tennessee, it occurs only widely scattered, and hence is practically of no importance to the lumbering industry. In North Carolina the Shortleaf Pine is found from the coast to the mountains, though in the lower districts enters more rarely into the composition of the upland forests. According to Hale’s report on the woods of North Carolina the tree is found in the majority of counties of the State, but is most abundant in the middle district, where, with upland oaks and hickories, it is the prevailing tree. It is found about Asheville, at an altitude of 2,500 feet. The Shortleaf Pine used to form 25 per cent or more of the forest growth in many places, but such areas are not now frequent anywhere. In the latest report on the forests of North Carolina’ it is stated that there !W.W. Ashe: The Forests, Forest Lands, and Forest Resources of Eastern North Carolina. Bulletin 5, Geol. Survey, N. C., 1894, page 41. DISTRIBUTION OF SHORTLEAF PINE. 89 are possibly 300,000,000 feet, board measure, Shortleaf Pine standing in the counties 1 ordering the oak uplands in the eastern part of the State. In South Carolina this pine is similarly distributed sparingly in the coast region and more frequent in the midland country to the lower mountain ranges. In Georgia, in the lower part of the coast pine belt, the Shortleat’ Pine is rarely met with. On the sandhills in the center of the State, forming the northern border of the pine belt, it occurs mixed with the Longleaf Pine among the inferior hard-wood timber. In the region of crystalline rocks, which embraces the more or less mountainous upper half of the State, covering over 19,000 square miles, at an average elevation of about 2,500 feet, this tree is most frequent, in many parts predominating. In the three States last named the Shortleaf Pine was originally most abundant in the regions now most densely populated, and hence their supplies of timber are more or less exhausted, much of the so-called North Carolina Pine sent to market being Loblolly Pine. Young forests, however, of this tree are seen everywhere on the hills and mountain slopes, where the original timber growth has been removed, and on the worn-out lands abandoned by the cultivator. In Florida the Shortleaf Pine is confined to the uplands along the northern border of the State, scattered among the Longleaf Pine and hard-wood trees. In the northwestern part, it approaches the seashore within a distance of from 25 to 30 miles on the isolated patches of red loam lands, where, together with the Longleaf Pine, it is associated with the Southern Spruce Pine (Pinus glabra). In Alabama and Mississippi the Shortleaf Pine is rarely seen in the lower part of the coast pine belt, but forms « more or less conspicuous part of the forest covering of the uplands in the central and upper sections, and sometimes predominates to such an extent over the hard woods as to impart to the woodlands the somber aspect of a pure pine forest. In the region of crystalline rocks, with its arid ranges in Alabama, covering an area a little over 3,000 square miles, between the Coosa River and the southern tributaries of the Tallapoosa, the tree is less frequent than in the region of the same formation in Georgia, the Longleaf here taking its place. In the northern part of Alabama, on the table-land of the Warrior coal field over an area of fully 5,000 square miles, mostly in forest, the Shortleaf Pine forms a more prominent feature of the growth. This is the case particularly in the eastern part of this area, where the tree occupies mostly the summits and steep declines with a thin, dry soil, while in the deeper and moister soils the Loblolly Pine takes its place. In Cullman County, altitude 800 feet, where numerous acre measurements have been made, rarely over 2,000 feet, board measure, of this timber have been found upon one acre, and it can safely be said that in the localities where it is more frequently met with the average stand does not exceed 1,500 feet to the acre on this table-land. The supplies of Shortleaf Pine timber are rapidly diminishing before the demands of a rapidly increasing population and of the adjacent centers of the mining industry, and their total exhaustion is sure to be effected within a short time. Wherever the original timber growth has been removed on these uplands the young growth of the Shortleaf Pine is rapidly spreading and predominates over the deciduous trees. The timber trees of full growth average on these table-lands about 22 inches in diameter breast high and 95 feet in height, furnishing clear sticks of from 35 to 45 feet in length. Such trees have been found with from 90 to 155 rings of annual growth on the stump. Four trees felled in the vicinity of Cullman showed the following dimensions: Measurements of four trees. | Diameter | Length of Height of | Rings on breasthigh. timber. tree. stump. | Inches. Feet. Feet. | 22 | 42 (| 11 | 109 21 AT 15 | lll | 20 40 a7 | 132 | 24 45 20 | | | On the gravelly hills of the northern extension of the central pine belt in Alabama the Shortleaf Pine becomes frequently the predominating tree in the forest of oak and hickory. In Lamar County, Ala., and in northeastern Mississippi it forms forests which in the latter State give 90 TIMBER PINES OF THE SOUTHERN UNITED STATES. rise to a considerable lumbering industry. These forests are, however, rapidly decimated along the Memphis and Charleston Railroad, where the products of the mill find ready market throughout north Mississippi and at Memphis. Through the northern half of Mississippi, on the divide which separates the waters flowing into the Mississippi River from those of the Tombigbee, extends a region of undulating uplands of oak, hickory, and Shortleaf Pine over an area little short of 5,000 square miles; on this long, narrow belt the Shortleaf Pine can be said to form 12 to 15 per cent of the tree covering. These forests furnish an ample supply of pine lumber for local demands. It appears, however, that in the eastern Gulf States generally the existing supplies of Shortleaf Pine are searcely sufficient to cover home demand. On these uplands the Shortleaf Pine takes rapid possession of the openings in the forest and the old fields. Here, as has been elsewhere observed in the central and northern parts of these States, this tree can truly be considered the timber tree of the future. Since it is rarely found in compact bodies, but associated with other trees widely scattered, any attempt at an estimate of the amount of the timber standing in these States must appear futile. The amount of timber cut can also hardly be approximated, since it forms only a part of the cut of the mills in these States. West of the Mississippi River, north of the region of the Longleaf Pine, the Shortleaf Pine is found most abundant and in fullest perfection. It is in these Western forests that the Short- leaf Pine finds its best development, and forms pure forests, extending over many hundreds of square miles with but little interruption. The forests of Shortleaf Pine in northwestern Louisiana, Arkansas, southern Missouri, and northeastern Texas are scarcely surpassed in their timber wealth. The Tenth Census estimates the amount of merchantable timber of Shortleaf Pine standing in 1880 in these Western forests at 87,000,000,000 feet, board measure, exclusive of the forests in southern Missouri and the Indian Territory. In Louisiana the Shortleaf Pine is unequally distributed over the uplands north of the Longleaf Pine region between the Ouachita River and the eastern boundary of Texas, embracing an area of a little over 8,000 square miles. Along the northern extent of the Louisiana and Texas State line this pine forms pure forests, and also prevails in many localities on the upland along the border of Arkansas. The resources of pine timber in these mixed forests of oaks, hickories, and Shortleaf Pine, removed as they are from the highways of traffic, have been but slightly drawn upon. In Arkansas, in the hilly and mountainous region on both sides of the Arkansas River, over 19,000 square miles in extent, the Shortleaf Pine forms a large part of the tree covering of the siliceous rocky soil and frequently extensive forests on the wide table-lands. On the uplands of yellow loam south of the hills the tree predominates, especially on the low ridges of gravel and, loam, the hard woods encroaching where the soil conditions become more favorable. The low ridges rising above the Loblolly Pine forests of the flood plain of the Ouachita and Little Missouri rivers are covered with open forests almost exclusively of Shortleaf Pine, interspersed with a few White Oaks, Post and Spanish Oaks, rarely above medium size. In the vicinity of Gurdon, in Clark County, upon one acre representing average conditions, 22 Shortleaf Pines have been counted from 12 to 25 inches in diameter, with no pines of smaller growth among the seattered undergrowth of dogwood, huckleberries, serubby oaks, Black Gum, and hickories. Of this number, 8 trees measured from 21 to 25 inches; 6 trees from 18 to 20 inches; 6 trees from 15 to 17 inches and 2 trees 12 to 14 inches in diameter breast high, indicating a stand per acre of about 6,000 feet, board measure. Five trees, representing the average timber growth of the forest selected for timber tests, were found of the following dimensions: Measurements of five trees. Diameter Lengthof Heightof| Rings on Sapwood breasthigh. timber. | tree. | stump. Inches. Feet. Feet. Inches. 20 | 60 110 | 24 | 47 106 19 40 109 18 | 36 95 25 7) 45 717 On the arid hills of flinty sandstone the trees are of inferior growth, as observed in Hot Springs County, in the vicinity of Malvern. On their steep slopes the pines are rarely found to exceed 18 DISTRIBUTION OF SHORTLEAF PINE. 91 inches in diameter breast high and 75 feet in height, clear of limb for the length of about 35 feet. In a number of trees from 120 to 125 rings were counted on the stump. The wood produced on these hills is of a lighter color, less resinous, and of a fine grain. Specimens of finished lumber from such timber resemble somewhat that of the White Pine. The hard-wood trees, mostly Spanish Oak and Post Oak, scattered beneath the pines, are scrubby and of no value for their timber. : Along the railroad lines the forests have become exhausted for a distance of from 5 to 10 miles on either side, and the timber from the virgin forests is conveyed to the mills on steam tramroads. It appears that of late years about 550,000,000 to 560,000,000 feet, board measure, of pine timber are sawn annually in Arkansas south of the Arkansas River. In this amount the Loblolly Pine lumber is included, which is indiscriminately sawn and put with the Shortleaf Pine on the market as Arkansas Yellow Pine. The bulk of the product of the sawmills in this section is shipped by rail to the markets of the Northwest. In the northern part of Texas, east of the prairie region, from the Red River Valley to the northern border of the Longleaf Pine region (under latitude 52° N.), extends an area of oak, hickory, and Shortleaf Pine uplands, stated in the agricultural report as covering 35,000 square miles. In the southern extent of this area the districts where the Shortleaf Pine prevails are popularly known as the “Pineries.” North of the Sabine River, from Longview through Cass and Bowie counties, the Shortleaf Pine forms compact forests over many hundreds of square miles. Near Beyins, in Cass County, where the pine forests were more closely investigated, the moderately dense timber growth covers the undulating country down to the lowlands of the Red River in Louisiana. The sandy gray loam forming the rather compact soil of the surface is underlaid by laminated stiff clayey marls, which at the depth of about 4 feet become quite impervious to water. Blackjack, Spanish Oak, and Post Oak of stunted growth are scattered beneath the pine. The pine appears to be of slower growth; trees of full size—that is, from 20 to 24 inches in diameter—were found to have reached an age of from 195 to 210 years. The upper part of the timber of such old trees is frequently affected by rot, a defect undoubtedly to be ascribed to the cold, impervious subsoil. From 6,000 to 7,000 feet of merchantable timber are claimed as an average stand for these timber lands. Every tree above 10 inches in diameter at breast height is cut for the mills. After the removal of the pine the hard woods gain rapidly in the rate of their growth, soon shading the ground completely. Young pines are rarely seen in the natural openings, the seedlings being too frequently destroyed by fire. In the clearings, where the original tree growth has been completely removed and the pine takes quick possession of the ground, the second growth, if not killed outright by the fires which again and again devour the surrounding tall weeds and broom grasses, becomes too severely injured to be of any promise. Four trees, selected as representing fairly the average merchantable timber of the Shortleaf Pine forests of northeastern Texas, showed the following record: Measurements of fowr trees. Diameter | Length of Height of | Ringsin | Sapwood Dressy en timber. tree. | stump. on stump. | | Inches. Feet. | Feet. Inches. 24 36 120 195 3 23 40 109 205 3 18 45 95 102 54 7 42 | 94 102 5h The forests of Shortleaf Pine near Longview, which was in 1880 thesite of a most active lumber industry, have been nearly exhausted, and with diminished supplies along the New Orleans and Pacific Railway the business has greatly declined. The annual output of the 30 mills situated along this road, and its branch from Carthage to Panola, does not at present in the aggregate exceed 70,000,000 feet, board measure. From the information obtained in 1892 it appears that in 1891-92, 200,000,000 feet, board measure, were handled in Texarkana, the product of the mills at that place and immediate vicinity, and also that the shipments of the mills south of the Red River in the same year reached about 105,000,000 feet, board measure, 92 TIMBER PINES OF THE SOUTHERN UNITED STATES. In Missonri the rugged hills and tablelands of the southern slope of the Ozark Mountains, rising to an elevation of from 800 to 1,000 feet, are covered with forests of Shortleaf Pine, which, roughly estimated, extend over little more than 3,000,000 acres, In the counties bordering on the Arkansas State line (Terry, Ozark, and Douglas counties) the pine is said to yield on the average not over 2,000 feet of timber to the acre. The forests in the basin of the Current and Black rivers are heavily timbered, as observed at Grandin. The density of the timber growth varies, however, on these broken lands with the soil conditions, a fact demonstrated by actual measurements on several plats, upon which the amount per acre varied from 3,000 to 15,000 feet of timber. After years of experience, the average yield of the timber lands of the Grandin Lumber and Mining Company is estimated at 6,000 feet of merchantable timber to the acre, including trees of 10 inches in diameter. The trees felled to serve as material for the United States timber tests, and fairly representing the average timber growth, showed the following record: Measurements of five trees. [ Diameter Length of | Height of | Rings on |breast high. timber. | tree. stump.a@ | Inches. Feet. | Feet. | 31 40 103. } 74 20 50 | 99 150 17 35 | 92 140 22 40 | 88 180 24 50 | 109 218 aSapwood on radius of stump averaging 2} inches. The timber from these most northern of the forests of Shortleaf Pine is remarkably free from resin, of a fine, close grain, almost white, and claimed to be lighter and softer than the timber grown farther south, and like the timber occasionally found on the dry, rocky hills in Hot Spring County, Ark., resembling the wood of the White Pine. In these forests the fine tall pines tower high above the stunted Scarlet, Black, and White Oaks and hickories, but the growth of these hard woods almost completely overpowers the second growth of pine. In close connection with the great markets of the North, and nearest to the timberless region of the Northwest, the manufacture of lumber in this region is fully developed. According to information received at Grandin, the output of the mills located along the Current River Valley Railroad, the Iron Mountain Railway; the Kansas City, Fort Scott and Memphis Railroad, and the Cape Girardeau and Southwestern road amounted for the year 1891-92 to fully 300,000,000 feet, board measure. At such rates the depletion of the timber wealth of this forest is to be expected before another generation has passed away. Under the existing method of exploitation, which involves the almost total destruction of the smaller timber growth, nothing remains to be depended upon for the future. Considering the difficulties in the way of their natural renewal, there is no hope left for their restoration on these kuolls. The deuse undergrowth and brush of deciduous trees and shrubs which completely shade the soil, the rocky surface being hidden by an abundant and inflammable leaf covering, deprives the pine of every possibility of reproduction by natural seeding, even if the seedlings could escape destruction by fire. According to the census of 1880,! extensive bodies of Shortleaf Pine timber exist in the eastern part of the Indian Territory. It occurs mixed among the hard woods on the higher ridges of the timber belt in the Choctaw Nation, 60 miles in length, and considerable bodies of Shortleaf Pine timber in belts of from 10 to 30 miles in length and 2 to 4 miles wide are found on the tributaries of Grand River in the Cherokee Nation, and in a large body of timber extending for 25 miles west of Ream this tree appears to reach its western limit. The great importance of the forests of Shortleaf Pine to the industrial and commercial interests of the country west of the Mississippi River, and to the development of the adjacent timberless States and Territories, is forcibly exhibited by the enormous production of lumber for the past ten years. During the year 1891-92 at a low estimate not less than 1,270,000,000 feet, board measure, ‘Report of Tenth Census, vol. 9, 1884, NOMENCLATURE OF SHORTLEAF PINE. oe have been shipped from points in Texas, Arkansas, and southern Missouri to Northern markets. This amount may be swelled by the production east of the Mississippi to round numbers of 1,500,000,000 feet, board measure. As stated before, an estimate of the timber of this species standing is impossible on account of its scattered distribution and prevalent occurrence in mixed growths. But considering the extent of the areas within which it occurs and the average cut on the same, or comparing with the amounts of Longleaf Pine, which on account of the compact bodies in which it occurs, can be more readily approximated, it is safe to assume that very much less than 100,000,000,000 feet remain available, while the cut can be roughly estimated at 1,500,000,000 feet, board measure. PRODUCTS. Among the coniferous trees of eastern North America the Shortleaf Pine stands next to the Longleaf Pine in importance to the lumber industry and in the value of its timber. Freer from resinous matter, softer, more easily worked, not less susceptible of a good finish, the Jumber of the Shortleaf Pine is often preferred by the cabinetmaker and the house carpenter to that of the Longleaf Pine. Less tenacious, and of less power of resistance under strain, it is principally used for the lighter framework in buildings, for weatherboarding, flooring, ceiling, wainscoting, cases for windows and doors, for frames and sashes of all kinds, and for shingles. Most of the dwellings located within the districts where this tree prevails are built almost entirely of Shortleaf Pine lumber, which bears ample testimony to its wide usefulness. It is also extensively employed in car building, for cross-ties, and in the manufacture of furniture. NOMENCLATURE AND CLASSIFICATION, This species, like all of the same genus of a decidedly Southern distribution in the Atlantie forest, belongs to the section Pinaster as defined by Engelmann, with cones of tough, woody scales their exposed ends thickened by an umbonate swelling (apophysis), which is armed with a weaker or stronger deciduous or persistent prickle or mucro. It was first described by Miller in the year 1768 as Pinus echinata,! and under that name recognized by the earliest writers on North American forest trees;* it was subsequently named by an obscure writer Pinus virginiana, var. echinata, Du Roi.’ Michaux described this tree in his North American Flora‘ under the name of Pinus, mitis, which received general recognition and by which it is known to botanists to the present day. Pinus variabilis, the name under which it was described at about the same time by Lam- bert,° was adopted by Wildenow, and following that author by Pursh, Nuttall, Elliott, and a few others of the writers on the botany of this country. In following strictly the rule of priority, at present most strongly advocated as the only measure to avoid further the confusion arising from an endless number of synonyms, Pinus mitis, the name under which it is generally known, will have to be abandoned, and the more obscure one, Pinus echinata, under which this species was first published, restored. Great confusion is caused by the various appellations this tree has received in the English ver- nacular, being indiscriminately called Shortleaf Pine, Yellow Pine, and Spruce Pine, although most widely known under the first of these names, and in the markets it is now somewhat doubtfully established under the name of North Carolina Pine. In the States of the lower South it is fre- quently confounded with the Loblolly Pine, as the timber of the two is often, if not mostly, mixed. M. A. Curtis, in his “Trees of North Carolina,” selected for this tree the name of Yellow Pine, strongly recommending its general adoption in order to introduce greater uniformity in the desig- nations of our forest trees. Unfortunately the same name is in many of the Southern lumbering districts bestowed upon the Longleaf Pine, particularly when the timber is spoken of. It is often quite impossible to determine to which of the two species the timber is to be referred when under that name it is quoted in the reports of the lumber markets. 1 Miller’s Dictionary, 8th ed., 1768: London. 2 Marshall’s Arboretum Americanum: Philadelphia, 1785. = Du Roi Hb. 4A. Michaux’s Flora Amer. boreal., Paris, 1803. 5 Description of the Genus Pinus: A. B. Lambert, 1803 and 1824. EXPLANATION OF PLATE XV. {Figures natural size, except where otherwise noted.] Fig. a, branch from a lower limb bearing male inflorescence with flowers in a dense cluster (first week of April, southern Alabama); b, c, branch with two subterminal] aments of female flowers below which are two immature cones of one season’s growth; d, detached male flower showing basal involucral scales, magnified 3 diameters; e, germi- nating seed (February); f, same seedling one month later (March) with 7 cotyledons in the midst of which the terminal bud shows the primary leaves appearing; g, seedling about the close of the first season with terminal cluster of true (secondary) leaves, below which are seen the withered primary leaves; /, i, transverse section through base of two and three leafed leaf bundle, magnified 50 diameters, showing outer small hypodermal cells, the stomata appearing as marginal white spots; next a broad band of large in-walled parenchymutous cells bearing chlorophyll, within which, at the angles of the leaf, resin ducts appear as large openings; the dark areas in the center are fibro- vascular bundles surrounded by a single row of thin-walled cells (bundle sheath). 94 Bulletin No, 13, Division of Forestry, PLATE XV. tho y) wy as ype ees Sa OMEIDEMAN SE PINUS ECHINATA: SEEDLING, MALE AND FEMALE FLOWER, AND LEAF SECTIONS. BOTANICAL DESCRIPTION OF SHORTLEAF PINE. 95 Under the name of Spruce Pine, in the extreme Southern districts, it is invariably confounded with the true Southern Spruce Pine (Pinus glabra), the species which in several points it closely resembles and to which it is most closely related. BOTANICAL DESCRIPTION. Leaves mostly 2 (sometimes 3) in a short sheath, 3 to 5 inches long; cones 14 to 2 inches long, oval or somewhat conical; scales with a short, tender, straight, and finally incurved prickle, light brown. Seeds rather small, two-fifths of an inch long, by one-tenth to one-eighth of an inch wide, with dark, scattered or confluent specks; the wings are reddish brown and about one-half of an inch long. The young shoots are of a glaucous violet color. The bark of mature trees is rather thick and broken up in squarish plates. The different general appearance of the tree will almost always serve to quickly distinguish it from the closely related Serub Pine (Pinus virginiana) which is distinguished by its shorter and more rigid leaves. Any doubt can be removed by trying the twigs; those of the Scrub Pine are tough while those of the Shortleaf Pine snap oft readily. The bark is of a light reddish brown color, and on the lower part of the trunk in full-grown trees three-fourths to fully one inch thick crossed by deep furrows, and flaky. The limbs are arranged in more or less regular whorls, under full exposure, forming a crown with the outline of a truncated pyramid, by which the tree can be recognized from a distance and distinguished from kindred species with which it happens to be associated. The oldest and stout- est limbs are rarely over 20 to 25 feet in length, and are somewhat drooping. It is indeed a beautiful tree, with its stately, gently tapering trunk and its finely shaped full crown clothed in an abundance of foliage, bearing the stamp of thrifty and vigorous growth. Leaves.—The secondary or foliage leaves are found mostly 2 in a sheath, and on shoots of vig- orous growth often 3 are found in a bundle; occasionally whole trees are seen with 3 leaves in a sheath and in some rare instances on young trees even 4 have been counted (Pl. XVI, g, h). The leaves vary from 3 to 4 inches and a little over in length; they are slender, about one-eighteenth of an inch wide, strongly concave, slightly twisted, faintly serrulate, and abruptly sharp pointed, while young of a yellowish and later on of a deeper green color. In the cross section (PI. XV, h, i) they present a semicircular outline; examined under the microscope they show on both sides about ten rows of minute stomata (breathing pores) the small epidermal cells underlaid by a single layer of rather thin-walled hypodermal or strengthening cells; in the specimens examined from 3 to 4 peripheral resin ducts were found, the bundle sheath consisting of a single row of cells. The sheath invests the leaves closely and rarely exceeds at any stages of growth three-sixteenths of an inch; the leaves are shed during the latter part of their second year. The bract-like scales (Pl. XV, b. ¢.), modified primary leaves, which densely cover the young shoots and in the axils of which the foliage leaves are produced, are while young of a grayish color, closely appressed, lanceolate, acuminate, and fringed; with the subsequent development of the foliage leaves and the increase of the shoot in length, their tips become dried and are cast off. As the tender shoots become hardened they assume a glaucous purplish color. Flowers.—The flower buds make their appearance during the latter part of the winter and begin, in stations of southern latitudes, to open near the end of March (Baldwin County, Ala., March 26), and farther north from three to four weeks later (Cullman, Ala., April28). The stami- nate flowers are closely sessile, to the number of fifteen to twenty surrounding the terminal bud (Pl. XV, a), which at the time has scarcely grown to the length of an eighth of an inch. The staminal column, of a pale purplish color, does not exceed three-fourths of an inch in length, is less than one-eighth of an inch in thickness, and is surrounded by eight or nine decussate scales, those of the first pair being strongly keeled and scarcely half the size of the others (PI. XV, d). The crest of the anthers is nearly circular and slightly denticulate. The male flowers are shed immediately after the discharge of the pollen. The female flowers are united in an oblong, obtuse, short-stalked catkin of a delicate rose-pink color, about one-fourth of an inch in length. They are rarely single, but mostly from two to four, produced closely below the apex of the youngest shoot (PI. XV, b). The stipe of the catkin, not over three-eighths of an inch in length, is invested by twenty to twenty-four hyaline ianceolate, pointed, involucral scales, those immediately surrounding the flowers being widely spreading. The bracts subtending the carpellary scales cover the latter to the base of their long, subulate, erect tips. EXPLANATION OF PLATE XVI. Fig. a, branch with mature closed cones (October of second season); b, mature cone; ¢, cone scale, outer or dorsal view showing apophysis; d, ventral view of the same with seed in place; e, seed detached from wing; /, seed with wing intact; g, leaf forms, two and three leafed bundles. 96 PLATE XVI, ision of Forestry, Bulletin No. 13, Div 9). Oloxeme ki del PINUS ECHINATA: CONE, SEED, AND LEAVES. DESCRIPTION OF WOOD OF SHORTLEAF PINE. 97 After fertilization has taken place the shoots bearing the fertile flowers increase rapidly in length. Fertile catkins are frequently found on the older branches, produced on branchlets from adventitious buds. The tree begins to produce flowers when from ten to twelve years old, according to exposure; male flowers have been observed one or two seasons earlier. Cones.—Every season cones are produced in great abundance. The conelets of the first year, borne on a short, horizontal stalk, are oval in shape, scarcely one-half an ineh in length, the squarrose tips of the scales giving them the echinate appearance from which the botanical name first given to this species was undoubtedly derived (Pl. XV, c). Fully matured by the end of the second year, the cones are nearly sessile, oval, of dull or leather brown color, 13 to rarely 2 inches long, and when open, nearly as wide; they are frequently smooth (PI. XVI, a,b). The scales are hard, with a slightly swelled apophysis, devoid of or armed with the weak, more or less deciduous prickle (Pl. XVI ¢, d). The cones open early in the fall, and remain, after the discharge of their seeds, for several years on the branches. In consequence, the older trees are covered with them through all seasons. Seed.—The Shortleaf Pine produces seeds in greatest abundance; its crops seem never to fail. The seeds are small, triangular, three-sixteenths of an inch long by one-eighth of an inch wide, the hard, roughish testa marked with three indistinct ridges and more or less with confluent specks; the wing is of a light, reddish brown, half an inch in length and deciduous during germination (PI. XV, e¢,/). The seeds retain their vitality for several years; fresh, they will germinate in from ten to fifteen days. The number of seeds to the ounce is about 5,000; wafted by the wind over wide distances and germinating early during the first days of spring, their offspring are found to take possession of every opening in the forest and of the old fields in localities favorable to their growth. THE WOOD. The wood of Shortleaf Pine resembles that of the Loblolly in almost every respect. ‘The sapwood is clearly defined, being quite broad, and even in very old trees forms fully one-half of the total volume of the trunk. In thirteen trees one hundred to one hundred and fifty years old, the average width of sapwood was found to be about 4 inches, while even in trees over one hundred and fifty years old its average width was 3 inches. In the former case, the sapwood formed 65 to 70 per cent of the volume of the logs; in the latter, 50 to 55 per cent, while in a set of trees fifty to one hundred years old it formed fully 80 per cent of all the wood. The change from sapwood to hardwood proceeds much as in Loblolly Pine. It begins when the tree (or any disk) is about twenty-five to thirty years old, and is retarded more and more with age, so that in old trees as many as eighty or even one hundred rings are counted in the sapwood, while in young and thrifty trees not more than thirty to forty may occur. In keeping with the large amount of sapwood, the weight of green Shortleaf Pine is rather great, varying, for entire logs, from 45 to 55 pounds per cubic foot, commonly approaching 60 pounds in the largely water-filled outer portions of the sapwood. When kiln-dried, the wood of trees one hundred to one handred and fifty years old weighs on the average about 32 pounds per cubie foot. As in other pines, the butt is 15 to 20 per cent heavier than the top, and the wood of the inner forty to fifty rings excels in weight and strength the wood of the outer parts of old logs. As was stated for Loblolly, the sapwood may be light, heavy, weak, or strong, according to the age of the tree from which it is obtained. As might be expected from the great range of distribution of this tree, its wood, like that of Loblolly, varies within very wide limits. Specimens from Missouri (near its northern limits) are generally lighter and less resinous than those from farther south, and frequently resemble the wood of the Norway Pine, while many select specimens from the Gulf and South Atlantic States rival in weight and strength the best grades of Longleaf Pine. In its strength, as in its weight, the Shortleaf follows Loblolly Pine. The average of a large series of tests furnishes the following average values for dry pieces of this species: Lbs. per sq. ineh. IModalue Of GlAShIGLiy: 3. fe ii= so ssc ee we ee ae aie aa are eee 1, 600, 000 (Prams VeErsestren mul =... -s.cccc ss mas a Sees nels oobi ne eeaeee eee een aes 9, 230 WOMPRESEIOMMONU WING Afsana aaa ae se ea memes melee meen acetate ss 5, 900 Sheaningvalong thediber. cc. 5.0.5 os.cecccvenccecwecsesenecs 3 onC 688 17453— No. 13 7 98 TIMBER PINES OF THE SOUTHERN UNITED STATES. As the average weight of this series was 35 pounds per cubie foot, or about 16 per cent heavier than the average weight involving all parts of all the trees, these figures should be reduced by that per cent to represent the true average for the wood of the species. In drying, 100 pounds of wood lose from 40 to 50 pounds of water, the bulk of which comes from the sapwood, which contains 60 per cent and more, while the heartwood, like that of most pines, contains about 25 per cent. The shrinkage in volume consequent on drying amounts to about 11 per cent. It is about 13 per cent in the wood of the butt and about 10 per cent in that of the upper logs, varying in this respect directly as the weight of the dry wood. Of the 11 per cent, about 5 per cent fall to the tangent or occur along the rings and 3 to 5 per cent along the radius. The structure of the wood of Shortleaf Pine is essentially the same as that of Loblolly. Sum- merwood and springwood are sharply defined. The proportion of the former to the wood on the whole varies, as in Loblolly, in the same manner as the weight of the wood, being greater in the butt than top, greater in the wood of the inner rings than in the wood farther out, and greatly reduced in all cases where the growth of the tree is suddenly retarded by unfavorable seasons, but is otherwise quite independent of the width of the rings. For details of structure, consult the comparative study of Mr. Roth, appended to these monographs. PROGRESS OF DEVELOPMENT. The seeds begin to swell and to germinate in the early days of spring. In Mobile County, on the end of the first week of March, the plantlets had their cotyledons fully unfolded, which were found to vary from six to seven in number, with the lower (hypocotyledonary) part of the axis from 14 to 2 inches long, the rootlets being somewhat less in length (Pl. XV, e,g). The development of the upper part of the axis (caulicle) from the terminal budlet and of the primary acerose leaves proceeds now rapidly. These primary leaves succeeding the cotyledons are stiff and spreading, about three-fourths of an inch long and covering the stem densely (Pl. XV, g), remain during the first season, withering from below during the warmer part of the season. By the close of the first season the caulicle or first shoot has attained a length of from 3 to 4 inches. On the shoot of the second season (rarely before) the secondary leaves, which constitute the foliage, make their appearance from the undeveloped branchlets in the axis of the primary leaves (Pl. XV, g). At the end of the second year the plants are 7 to 8 inches high, with a taproot 2 to 3 inches long. During this season adventitious buds appear at the collar of the stem, which bring forth vigorous sprouts, particularly if the stem has sustained the slightest injury. These shoots are covered with primary leaves, which are retained for one season. They are apt to form strong branches before the tree has reached its fourth or fifth year; such branches, which are produced profusely from the stumps of larger trees, scarcely survive another season. It is rarely that branches are produced in the second year, the first branches appearing generally in the third season in whorls of three to four. In the third year foliage leaves alone are produced in the axils of scales with their bases close to the stem. At the close of the third year the plants are from 12 to 18 inches high. Now the development of the root system advances rapidly, the taproot being by this time about 8 or 10 inches long, with strong lateral roots often double that length. Both taproot and lateral roots are finally vigorously developed, penetrating deep into the ground, so that trees of this species are rarely blown down by winds. At the end of the fourth year the plants are from 2 to 3 feet high, with the stem at best from five-eighths to seven-eighths of an inch thick. The branches of the whorls begin now in their turn to develop branchlets in whorls of secondary order, The development of the primary axis and its branch system proceeds henceforth in the regular acropetal order. As in all pines, the shoot of the main axis takes the lead in rapidity and vigor of growth. By a number of measurements made at Cullman, north Alabama, of trees from the openings in the forest, as well as from clearings, it was found that by the end of the fifth year they had attained a height varying between 3 and 5 feet, rarely over, the stem being from five-eighth to seven-eighths of an inch in thickness; by the end of the sixth year, from 6 to 9 feet high and from one-half to 2 inches in diameter; and at the tenth year, from 10 to 16 feet high and from 2 EARLY GROWTH OF SHORTLEAF PINE. ahs, to 24 inches in diameter. At the age of fifteen to twenty years, with a total height of from 20 to 30 feet and a diameter breast high of 4 to 5 inches, the crown of the tree occupies from one-half to five-eighths of its height. Henceforth throughout the period of quickest growth its rate is greatly influenced by conditions of light and soil. At the age of fifty years the height of the trees varies between 40 and 60 feet and the diameter breast high between 10 and 14 inches. About this age, or perhaps a short time before, the height growth begins to decline and the branches become somewhat reclining below and spreading toward the top, and consequently the head of the tree becomes more rounded in outline. Between the ages of sixty and seventy years the trees are from 50 to 70 feet high and from 12 to 15 inches in diameter, with the trunk clear of limbs for 30 to rarely over 40 feet. From this period on the growth proceeds at a slower rate. On reaching its one hundredth year the tree has attained a height between 90 and 95 feet and a diameter of from 16 to 19 inches at most. Having now passed its period of vigorous life, the growth is henceforth insignificant. Between the ages of one hundred and twenty and one hundred and thirty years trees were found 90 to 110 feet high and from 18 to 24 inches in diameter. The oldest tree encountered in the measurements, with two hundred and eight rings of annual growth in the stump, scarcely exceeded 109 feet in height and measured 24 inches in diameter. The largest tree felled was 117 feet high and 25 inches in diameter, with one hundred and forty-three rings in the stump. Occasionally trees are found of a diameter exceeding 3 feet, but such are exceptional. TABLE I.—Growth of Shortleaf Pine (Pinus echinata), from eight to fifty years. wee F Rings pian: Helghe ata Number 0. <= ter a ) otal at Tes ~e tree. tump.| breast | first | height. Locality. Remarks. stump.) high. | limb. Inches.| Feet. Feet. Ueesceecee se scoe 8 2 6 11 Clearing made in 1879 for pasture in dense pine thicket. Pine soceonadoicas 8 ey steele 11 Do. Bee hee ee 9 ae 11 Do. Ae eo 10 | ae 17 Rocky hillside, border of thicket. Dicessce sceekene 10 pot een a aby | | Rocky hillside in dense thicket of vigorous growth; youngest shoot, | 19 inches. li Ber 6ea dooooae 12 | 22 7 11 Exposure free in opening of forest. 138 soso eee ay 2 7 11 | Grandin, Mo-..-......) Rocky table-land; opening in forest. Qe eeee eee ane 12) | BY |iemegease 20 | Cullman, Ala....... Border of thicket; freely exposed. AST een eaee 12 ha ee eee 16 | Grandin, Mo.....-..-. Rocky table-land; partially exposed; in forest. (ESS Ase en 12 | 2 10 19 | Cullman, Ala...-...-. | Exposed; border of woods. Heeceshassasscnc 13 | 23 6 WG [Packe oscacecsenesce Do. Use nina ease 13 | Poy eee nd Wf Weed (UU) ceeneasssne ae In midst of thicket; old clearing. 0 Beene eens 13 BF |Eaeasee4 PAN | (HO raseotoothsced Old dae cleared in 1879; most vigorous growth; young shoot 19 inches. 15 4 12 Pe Nb sac GW -recosesenbeo Do. 15 | 4 10 20 | Grandin, Mo.. - Rocky hills; open forest. 18 | 4 15 36 | Bivins, Tex .- - Open forest. 19 | 4 22 37 | Gurdon, Ark. . | Exposure free; open grove of second growth. 19 4 10 20 | Grandin, Mo.. Oppressed in forest opening by oak scrub. 20 6 14 Ai) senor do ...-- Rocky; open woods. 19% 2k 83 253 Open grove; closely oppressed. 22 | 3 12 25 Open grove of second growth. 27 (| Gh | eee 254 0. 24 3h 22 33 i Do. 25 4 15 34 | Bivins, Tex -- .| Partially free; in forest. 41 ll 51 70 | Gurdon, Ark....... Free ; old field. 100 TIMBER PINES or THE SOUTHERN UNITED STATES. TABLE Il.—Growth of Shortleaf Pine during stage of vigorous growth, from fifty to one hundred and twenty years. Number of tree. Number of of tree. stump. Diameter— Rings ei At Below stump. breast acown high. i Inches. Inches. 52 Ohiinarasn 58 Gh sess 60 DD) lewesanns 73 | 12 102 | 164 102 18 102 19 105 | 15 109 22 GR) RS TE ll4 Ne eer ae 116 22 1 Height to first Total limb or | height. crown. Length f timber. Locality. | Remarks. (Pecee do Gurdon, Ark Cullman, Ala ..... Bivins, lex Cullman, Ala In forest; soil cold, underdrainage deficient; ex- posure free. Exposure free; opening in forest. Coastline; loamy sand, with Cuban Pine; exposure free. Opening in forest; exposure partially free. Oppressed. Exposure free; open forest. .| Partially free on fravely ridge. Exposure partially free; open forest; dry hill; sandy, gravelly loam. Exposure free; gravelly loam. Oppressed on all sides; red heart above 36 feet. eee free; open forest; rocky, and sandy oan, Tasie I1l.—Growth of Shortleaf Pine during stage of slow growth, latest stage of life. | Rin gs | in Diameter— = lreignt "ene |to first | Total | ~ sal ‘elate ae lato wlan! heigkt.| “ setts Locality. Remarks. Wieh ' crown. crown. caer Bu | | ‘ | Inches. Inches.| Feet. | Feet. Feet. | Bee 45 92 42 | Cullman, Ala..-.. Open forest; hills; soil, sandy clay; exposure frev. 20 13 73 110 60 | Gurdon, Ark...... Open forest; gentle declivity; gravelly clay. 20 47 95 | tf Rae oe (lu seae ROAR AE Oe pas 47 106 CES oe Weconcerecsne Do. 20 42 87 40 | Cullman, Ala..... Open forest; clay hill; exposure free. 17 89 | 92 38 | Grandin, Mo...--. Exposure free; rocky tuble-land. 25 46 «17 45 | Gurdon, Ark ..... Exposure free; gravelly hillside. 20 50 | 100 50 | Grandin, Mo.. Rocky table-land; exposure free. 31 46 | 102 PO ee do. Do. 22 42 91 S00 eae domeeate-e ose Rocky table-land; exposure partially free; slightly suppressed. 24 87 119 87 | Bivins, Tex. .....- Cold soil; exposure free. pS Sl Pie Acne 61 108 Ne eRe or One oe eneaael Cold soil; exposure free; affected above 40 feet with red heart. 25 | 22 55 110 50 | Grandin, Mo...--- Exposure free; soil loamy ; deep. From the general table (No. LV) and the corresponding diagram it seems that in the average the tree at twenty is about 30 feet high, reaches 50 feet at the age of forty, and that its growth in height is in the main finished at the early age of 70. In keeping with this, the growth in diameter is quite rapid during the first fifty years, continues at a moderate pace up to 80, when the age of extreme slow growth is entered. RATE OF GROWTH OF SHORTLEAF PINE. 101 TABLE IV.—Rate of growth of Shortleaf Pine. Length Volume. | Periodical growth by decades. | Diameter of log pial - : - ievannoal Acro with bark with up- heivhvor Log up to : iAroavor aaa Current 3 Meni ee Geet Tree. ee | Decade. ee Height. cross Volume. accretion, @°°Teuen- ~~" | Gnches. eter. | eae) Inches. Feet. Feet. Ou. ft. Cu.ft. | Inches. | Feet. | Sq.ft. Cu. ft. Ou. ft. | Ow.ft. 10 CAL Re Seana a ONS2 ieee anne eas First s.sesevscascces 2.2 11 0.03 | 0, 32 | 0.03 0,08 20 Dig | role esteem 27 CPN Ne eins si \eCondias seememnosas 2.3 16 | 07 1,89 ll 19 30 7.4 15 41 7.55 6.3 Whird=.22: Ps 14 4 5. 34 «25 53 40 9.3 26 51 14. 06 12.98 | Fourth 1.6 10 | .13 6.51 .35 65 50 11.0 38 60 22.18 21.18 | Fifth ..... 1.6 9 | ut, 8.12 | 44 81 60 12.7 48 67 31. 97 31.10 | Sixth ....- 1.6 7 | +21 9.79 53 98 70 14.5 56 71 43. 96 43.32 | Seventh -. 1.6 4 21 11.19 | . 62 1,20 80 16.0 61 75 56. 54 55.91 | Eighth ... 1.5 4 23 | 12. 58 | .70 1. 2¢ 90 16,5 64 78 62. 53 61.89 | Ninth ..-- 6 3 | 10 | 5. 99 . 69 60 100 17.0 67 81 67. 68 67:05" Renth socceseneeacee Ab} 3 | 07 5.15 - 68 51 HE|GHT IN FEET. [27-4e- 145-- --16.0--+--165- ---170--4 DIAMETERS IN INCHES. Fic. 11. -Growth of Shortleaf Pine; Height, diameter, and cubic contents of average trees at 10, 20, etc., years of age, CONDITIONS OF DEVELOPMENT. Soil and climate.—The Shortleaf Pine prefers a well-drained, light sandy or gravelly clay soil or warm loam, even if deficient in the elements of plant food. Soils of this charaeter which are found widely prevailing over the undulating or broken uplands, if only of sufficient depth, will produce this tree in greatest perfection. It avoids the Strongly calcareous and the rich alluvial soils, as well as purely silicious, being dependent on the presence of a certain amount of clay by which the mechanical condition of the soil is improved, rendering it more compact and more 102 TIMBER PINES OF THE SOUTHERN UNITED STATES. $ retentive of moisture. That a purely sandy and highly porous soil is not favorable to this tree is shown by the stunted growth of the waifs sometimes found in the openings of the forests of Longleaf Pine on the sandy, arid uplands in the lower part of the coast pine belt. Distributed in its range over 10 degrees of latitude and exposed to wide differences of temperature, it Shows almost the same thrift of growth near its northern limits under the isotherm of 50° F., and in regions where the thermometer falls to near 20° below zero, as in lower latitudes with a mean annual temperature of 64° F. It can, therefore, endure a considerable range of temperature. The conditions of atmospheric moisture evidently exercise a much more decided influence over its distribution, and, without doubt, upon its individual development. The tree is found in greatest abundance and of best growth where, within the limits of its distribution, the annual rainfall varies between 48 to 52 inches, it is less frequent in the districts where the precipitation exceeds 56 inches, still scarcer where the annual rainfall averages below 44 inches, and entirely wanting where this is less than 40 inches. Hence it is found best developed in the upper part of the Gulf States and west of the Mississippi River in adjacent northern districts from the interior of Georgia to northeastern Texas, where the most favorable conditions in regard to atmospheric precipitation prevail. The tree seems to avoid the humid air of the coast along the Gulf, as well as along the seashore of the Southern Atlantic States, nor does it ascend the mountains in these States above an altitude of 2,500 feet. RELATION TO LIGHT AND ASSOCIATED SPECIES. The Shortleaf Pine, like most pines, is a light needing species, being, however, less sensitive to a deficiency in this direction than the Longleaf and Cuban pines, which latter succumb in competition with the Shortleaf Pine. Originally the Shortleaf Pine is found more or less asso- ciated with various oaks (Spanish Oak, Blackjack, Scarlet Oak, Post Oak, and Black Oak), the Mockernut and the Pignut Hickory, and more rarely with the Chestnut, the Mountain Oak, and the Serub Pine. All of these species prefer the warm, lighter soils of the uplands. These companions of the Shortleaf Pine are joined in the lower Southern States by the Loblolly and Longleaf Pine. Wherever in these upland forests an opening is made the Shortleaf Pine gains over its associates, finding its only successful rival in the Loblolly Pine. It is in the Southern States proverbial that in the upland forests “the pine is crowding out the hard-wood timber,” a fact early observed. The displacement is effected either gradually in the course of time, or instantly when the removal of the original timber growth has been sudden. In the upper part of the maritime pine belt, where it is associated with the Longleaf Pine, the latter is sure to be replaced by the Shortleaf species, often joined in the course of such invasion by the Loblolly Pine. ENEMIES. Little is known of the fungoid parasites and of the insects endangering the life of the Shortleaf Pine. From my own observation, it seems that this tree is less affected by the former than the other pines of the same region. In the lumbering districts of Alabama a disease called redheart or redrot, caused by the mycelium of a large species of Polyporus, which is so highly destruetive to the Longleaf Pine, is in this species almost unknown. In northeastern Texas this disease was found to affect the superannuated timber trees, which were over two hundred years old. According to A.S. Packard! the hosts of insects affecting this pine seriously are scarcely less in number than those infesting the Longleat Pine; its enemies belong to the same or very nearly related kinds. Among the borers the Monohamnus confusor and other species of the same genus dig burrows in the timber to the heart; the larvie of numerous Buprestidae, Cerambicida, and Curculionide burrow under the bark, and the Tomicus calligraphus, cacographus, cicelatus, and other species of Scolytida, at certain seasons are in immense numbers carrying on their work of destruction in the cambium layer, leaving in wonderful delineation on the inside of the bark the marks of their pernicious activity and causing the speedy death of the tree. Mr. 8. A. Schwarz, of the Division of Entomology, Department of Agriculture, remarks in this connection that of more than usual interest is the remarkable and disastrous invasion of one of 'A.S. Packard: Insects injurious to forest and shade trees. ENEMIES OF SHORTLEAF PINE. 103 these bark-boring Scolytid beetles (Dendroctonus frontalis), which in former years was universally considered a rare species. This invasion started in 1888 from the mountainous regions of West Virginia and within four years spread throughout the Alleghany Mountains and adjacent lowlands from Pennsylvania to the Carolinas. The amount of damage caused by this beetle within that time to the Shortleaf Pine and other pine trees has been enormous. A contagious disease, probably of a fungoid character, terminated in 1892 this invasion just as suddenly as it had commenced, and in 1893 not a single living beetle could be found throughout the infested region. The white froth hiding the larva of a tree jumper (Aphrophora parallela) is very common on the summits of the twigs, the larvie of the sawflies are seen at the same season to feed on the tender, young foliage, which is also infested by a small white Gelechia depositing its eggs on the leaves, the larve boring into them to provide shelter for their pup; and according to Mr. Schwarz the leaves of the Shortleaf Pine are frequently found completely covered by a scale insect (Mytilaspis pinifolic), causing what is termed in New England the “white malady” of the pine. Of the flat-headed borers, larve of the Buprestida, the most injurious species are Chrysobothris dentipes (Germ.), Calcophora virginiensis (Drury); less common, Calcophora georgiana (Lec.) and Buprestis lineata Fab. (Schwarz). Exposed to the same dangers of destruction by forest fires and by live stock of every kind, which threaten the Longleaf species with extermination, the chances of this pine to resist them and to escape such eventually are more favorable in consequence of the greater facilities for its reproduction and of its rapidity of growth during the earliest stages of its existence. The pernicious influences of the first of these agencies is, however, painfully visible near the settlements where the forest is exposed to its effects one season after another. In such localities the pines are of stunted growth; in the middle stage—their very prime of life—they exhibit signs of decay and early death. But few of the younger trees exposed to fire were found on close examination to be free from defects and marks of impending disease. Confined to the gentle slopes of the low hill country, to rollinguplands, and to broad table-lands, this tree is scarcely exposed to destruction by torrents and floods. Unsought for its resinous juices, it is not subjected to the wholesale destruction caused by the prevalent methods employed in the manufacture of naval stores. No other timber tree found in the southern portion of the Atlantic forest region is more easy of natural reproduction than this species throughout the wide range ofits distribution. This is readily accounted for by its great fecundity, the seeds produced in great abundance almost withont failure every year being profusely spread far and wide, and germinating easily wherever the proper soil and a chance is offered for their reception. By their thrifty growth the seedlings soon gain the upper hand over the contemporary growth of other species, Throughout the interior of the Atlantic and the Gulf States tracts of upland, originally covered with fine oak forests, which had been cleared for cultivation and but little over half a century ago abandoned, are found at present occupied by the Shortleaf Pine, forming dense groves of trees 65 feet and over ini height, with a diameter of 10 to 12 inches, standing 18 to 20 feet apart, with no undergrowth whatever.’ Such young forests, met with in every stage of growth, afford highly instructive lessons of the ways taken by nature in the spontaneous restoration of the forest. In such spontaneous growths of the Shortleaf Pine the saplings form from the first mostly dense thickets. Before having arrived at their tenth year the work of thinning has actively begun by the death and speedy decay of the weakest. Thus favored by the access of light and air, the surviving trees shoot rapidly upward, the most aspiring individuals spreading out their crown, overshadowing those lagging behind, which being thus cut off from the influences above all others required for their existence, one after another die. Before the trees have reached the middle stage of their growth the stand of timber in the young forest appears to be firmly established, and during the following period, embracing less than half a century, they have attained the fullness of their growth, furnishing timber fully matured and of the dimensions and quality required by the present standard. Unchecked by destructive influences the rotation of a crop of timber of the Shortleaf Pine produced without the interference or assistance of man, can be said to be accom- plished within a period of from eighty-five to ninety-five years. ‘Charles Mohr: Proceedings of the Fourth Annual Meeting of the American Forestry Congress, Boston, Sep- tember, 1885. 104 TIMBER PINES OF THE SOUTHERN UNITED STATES. FOREST MANAGEMENT. From the place this species is taking among the second growth it can be safely predicted that it is destined to be the timber tree of the future, as far as the Southern States of the Atlantic forest region north of the Longleaf Pine belt are concerned. It is upon this tree that in this section succeeding generations will have to depend for their supplies of pine timber of superior quality, and in which the nearest substitute is to be found for the supplies furnished at present by the Longleaf Pine. That the resources of the latter under the increasing strain to which it is subjected will be completely exhausted before its restoration can be effected is too evident to admit of any doubt. Among the timber trees of the coniferous order found in the Atlantic forests, there is, then, scarcely a species presenting stronger claims to the attention of the forester than the Shortleaf Pine. As far as its demands upon climate and soil are concerned, it is capable of successfully establishing itself over the immense territory reaching from 30° to 38° north latitude and from the Atlantic Slope to the treeless plains of the West, embracing within these limits areas of wide extent, with all the conditions required for the best development of this species, and in great measure adapted to nothing better than the growth of timber. Of not less importance than its value as a timber tree are its facilities for natural renewal, resulting from the abundant crops of seed produced almost without failure every year and its aggressive behavior toward competing species in the successful struggle for the possession of the soil. From a closer observation of the young forests of spontaneous growth at different stages, it is apparent that in the establishment and rearimg of a forest of Shortleaf Pine, where mother trees exist, nature requires comparatively little assistance from the hands of the forester, and that the efforts of the latter will be chiefly confined to measures of protection against destruction by fire and against the injuries caused by inroads of live stock during the earlier stages of growth. That by thinning out, practiced after the first to the middle or end of the third decade, the forest growth would be benefited, there can be but little doubt. To what extent, by such interference, the production of merchantable timber can be promoted and in quantity and quality improved at the least cost remains a matter of future experiment. In the total absence of facts, based on experiment, no suggestions can be offered on these points other than such as can be deduced from the natural requirements of this species, as already discussed. In conelusion, it can be safely asserted that the Shortleaf Pine is destined to take a prominent place in the forest management of the future throughout the regions favorable to its growth, not only on account of its economic value in the natural forest, but also in holding out better pros- pects to the forest planter for the production of timber of higher quality in the shortest time than any tree of the same order in the Southern Atlantic forest region. That the methods of a rational forest management will have to be resorted to at no distant time can with certainty be predicted, although the timber wealth existing at present in the vast territory of its growth may appear enormous, Of great importance in the reforestation of large areas, this tree is of no less significance to the farmer who is aware of the advantages resulting from the restoration of the tree-covering on his denuded uplands, either originally unfit for profitable tillage or thrown out of cultivation after their exhaustion. By the facility of its natural renewal the Shortleaf Pine affords within a short time a firm protection to the light soil, preventing it from being carried away by wind and rain, providing a shelter for the crops and for insectivorous birds, a lasting income of increasing supplies of timber and fuel on lands that yield no other profit whatever, and to the lands abandoned after their exhaustion a chance for their recuperation while resting under the cover of its shade. PLaTe XVII to ee Sine nw. LOBLOLLY PINE (PINUS TADA). PEE LOBLOLLY PUNE: (PINUS T4£DA Linn.) HIsToRY AND DISTRIBUTION. PRODUCTS. DESCRIPTION, BOTANICAL. DESCRIPTION OF Woop. PROGRESS OF DEVELOPMENT. | CONDITIONS OF DEVELOPMENT. REPRODUCTION. 105 Roe, LOL LOLLY Se INE (Pinus taeda Linn.) Synonyms: Pinus taeda Linniens, Spec. Pl. ed. 1, ii, 1000, excl. habitat ‘‘ Canada paludosis” (1753). Pinus tada var. tenuifolia Aiton, Hort. Kew. ed. 1, iii, 368 (1789). Pinus teda Rafinesque, Flor. Ludovic. 162 (1817), nomen nudum. COMMON OR LOCAL NAMES. Loblolly Pine (Del., Va., N. C., S. C., Ga., Ala., Fla., Bull Pine (Tex. and Gulf region). Miss., La., Tex., Ark.). Virginia Pine. Oldtield Pine (Del., Va., N. C.,S.C., Ga., Ala., Fla., Miss., Sap Pine (Va., N. C.). La., Tex., Ark.). Meadow Pine (Fla.). Torch Pine (Eng. lit.). Cornstalk Pine (Va.). Shortleaf Pine (La.). Black Pine (Va.). Rosemary Pine (Va., N. C.). Foxtail Pine (Va., Md.). Slash Pine (Va., N. C.), in part. Indian Pine (Va., N. C.). Long Schat Pine (Del.). Spruce Pine (Va.), in part. Long Shucks (Md., Va.). Bastard Pine (Va., N. C.). Black Slash Pine (S. C.). Yellow Pine (N. Ala., N. C.). lrankincenuse Pine (lit.). Swamp Pine (Va., N. C). Shortleaf Pine (Va., N. C., S. C.). Longstraw Pine (Va., N. C.), in part. 106 LEE LOB EOE Ys UNE: By CHARLES Mour, Ph. D. INTRODUCTION. Among the trees remarkable for the part they take in the spontaneous renewal of the forests in the Southern Atlantic region after the destructive interference by man, the Loblolly Pine is most prominent. This readiness to occupy the ground lends to it a special economic significance in forest growth, aside from its value as a source of timber and as an abundant source of fuel. There can be no doubt that in the future management of the forests of the lower Southern States the Loblolly Pine will be assigned a highly important place. This view is confirmed by the fact that in the older of the States within the limits of its distribution, where the original timber growth has suffered greatest reduction, as in North Carolina, the second growth of this tree is largely depended upon to furnish the timber supply for the existing lumbering industry. Although known to have contributed to the necessities of the earliest settlers of these coasts, and forming at present a large part of the lumber supplies reaching the markets east and west ot the Mississippi River, the merits of the Loblolly Pine and its economic bearings are generally but little understood, wide differences of opinion about its value as a timber tree prevailing. Such diversity of opinion is in itself a sufficient reason for a fuller investigation of its life history. In the preparation of this monograph the writings of F. A. Michaux! and Rey. M. A. Curtis? and the report of the Tenth Census’ have been consulted. To Prof. Lester Ward and Mr. Canby thanks are due for valuable information on the distribution of the Loblolly Pine toward its northern limits. Much information of practical value was elicited by the Division of Forestry from numerous manufacturers of and dealers in lumber in the lower part of Virginia and in North Carolina, which has been largely quoted. HISTORICAL, The Loblolly Pine was recognized as a timber tree of value by the earliest settlers of lower Virginia and North Carolina. Its timber was largely used in the construction of their dwellings. Michaux states that three fourths of the houses in lower Virginia were built of Loblolly Pine, and that its mighty trunks, furnishing shafts of clear timber of largest size, were in early days held in high esteem for masts by the navies of the world. The distinctive characters of the tree were clearly understood by the earliest writers on North American botany. FF. A. Michaux defined the northern limits of the tree and its distribution in the southern Atlantic States, and first pointed to its economic value. The Rey. M. A. Curtis gives an account of its distribution in North Carolina and recognized the form distinguished in that State as Slash Pine or Rosemary Pine. Investigations of the forest growth by the writer, under the direction of Prof. Charles S. Sargent, for the Tenth Census, and later investigations made in the transmississippi region, under the direction of the Division of Forestry, have led to a more accurate knowledge of the ‘Michaux, F. A. The North American Silva. Philadelphia, 1856. * Curtis, M.A. The Timber Trees of North Carolina. Geol. and Natural History Survey of North Carolina, Part III, Botany. Raieigh, 1860. ‘Volume 9 of the Tenth Census. Charles §. Sargent. 107 108 TIMBER PINES OF THE SOUTHERN UNITED STATES. distribution of this tree in the Southwestern States, to the establishment of its western and northern boundary lines, and to a more general appreciation of its economic importance in its eastern and western range. GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION AND ECONOMIC HISTORY. The Loblolly Pine extends from the Delaware and Maryland peninsula through lower Virginia to Cape Malabar, in Florida, and all over the Gulf States and southern Arkansas to the Colorado River in Texas (see Pl. XVIII). The northern limit of the Loblolly Pine can be described by a line drawn from the lower part of Newcastle County, Del., through the District of Columbia, to Petersburg, Va., thence toward middle North Carolina, following in its western course nearly the thirty fifth degree of north latitude to the southern boundary of Tennessee, through southern Arkansas to the southeastern confines of the Indian Territory. Its most western station is an isolated tract of small extent near Bastrop, Tex., the sole and last representative of the Atlantic pines in the Southwest. Michaux the younger established the northern limit of the Loblolly Pine near Fredericks- burg, Va., between the Rappahannock and Potomac rivers; M. A. Curtis placed it in or close to the District of Columbia. Its occurrence in the District was, however, considered doubtful, or merely accidental, until in 1888 it was confirmed by Dr. George Vasey, who discovered a group of fullgrown trees in the woods near the Reform School. Mr. William Canby states that he found in the lower part of Neweastle County, Del, a good many Loblolly Pines, and from the point meutioned it becomes more and more plentiful and widespread in the Delaware-Maryland peninsula.” On the Atlantic Slope, near its northern limit, the Loblolly Pine occurs most frequently in the flat lands of the tidewater districts, forming rarely continuous forests, more frequently less com- pact bodies of timber, associated with the Shortleaf Pine, oaks, and other hard-wood trees. In Virginia this tree is not found beyond the northern limit of the Tertiary strata of the coast region, and is not met with west of Petersburg and Richmond. In the lower part of this State, as in North Carolina, the Loblolly Pine was formerly found in great perfection and abundance—broad forest belts of Loblolly alternating with forests of Shortleat in Michaux’s time. The original forests have, however, in a great measure disappeared, and their progeny, of second or third growth, is now depended upon as the principal source of lumber. On the lands exhausted by the earlier planters, and which have been abandoned for several generations, the timber of this Sap Pine, or Oldfield Pine, has in many localities attained dimensions and a degree of maturity fitting it for all purposes for which timber of the original growth is employed. This important fact is confirmed by parties engaged in the lumber business in south- eastern Virginia and in eastern North Carolina. From information received it is evident that in these parts the second growth of Lobloily Pine is chiefly depended upon for the manufacture of lumber. It is, however, to be presumed that the Shortleaf Pine contributes not a small part of the timber supply. Both of these trees are kncwn by the inhabitants as Shortleaf, or Shortstraw, Pine, and their timber is sawn indiscriminately ; the proportions of the lumber of either reaching the markets can therefore not be determined. Mr. Joseph Allard, jr., of Richmond, reports that most of the Virginia Pine is Loblolly Pine, and that every fifty years will produce trees large enough for sawlogs, three to each tree, averaging 16 feet in length. Mr. Sparrow, of Brooke, Stafford County, states that the pine of this county, and in Caroline County, is almost entirely of the Oldfield Pine (Loblolly Pine), and that in the latter from thirty to forty sawmills are cutting this pine. Messrs. J. BE. and Edward Rogers, from Suffolk County, each remark that “large quantities of lumber are manufactured from Oldfield Pine, which is fast taking the place of Yellow Pine (Pinus echinata), the latter having been used up by the sawinills in this section.” The young timber is, according to the same accounts, cut into joists, uprights, and other square stuff for framing; the best quality is selected for flooring, ceiling, and other inside finish, the lumber being sold under the name of Virginia Pine in the markets of Washington, Baltimore, and Philadelphia. On the coast of southern Virginia the Loblolly Pine forms about 75 per cent of the timber standing. According to all accounts the original growth is rapidly disappearing, but the exceed- Bulletin No. 13, Division of Forestry. a ——————EE—S———————E—a [SS sary 008 009 00% 008 doz oor re) uesy Plate XVIII. ‘Hoy ‘svug Aq porrdarg (ANId ATIOTAIOT) YOUVE SONId WO NOILOAYUTULSIG DSNIMOHS oruaqupy upg + yp eanasny 2, buvsur209| | opn10105 aumav, hyowom suey i sone + “4 PVUlOYUrTAO | bere reyeu busy lwuw 0-H V uO Le ——| sagaap tater rimenigg ~+{26 preyhasds =a “ONITNIWASYd HLMOXD GNOO3SS "OSLSNVHXS ATHVAN LSAXYOS LOVGWOO 3O HLMOHD IVNIDINO ‘q "LS3H03 LOVdWOD “BHOV Y3d Y3AO GNV ‘W ‘G 1333 000% O1 OODLE AIZIA “eB ‘HLMOUYD SNONGIOSG GNV ANIid 3VSTLYOHS HLIM SGNVIHDIH NO qa "HLMOXD SNONGIOSG HLIM GAXIW 1138 3NIid 3V319NO1 YaddN NI -g "WW ‘§ 1333 000% O1 0001 GI3ZIA “HLMOHXD SNONGIOAG GNV 3Nid 3V37 = be. ie -LYOHS HLIM GaXIW =“SXOV 43d SS31 ONY "Wg 13335 000! ANZIA L =: “L738 SNId 3V379NO1 8Y3MO71 NI SASHNOO -Y3LVM ONOTY G3ea11VOS SYNDOO S3aIO3dS 3H1 HOIHM NO Svaby “NOILNESIYLSIG OINONOOS IWNOID3SY 40 SANIT ANVYONNOG “NOILNSINLSIO TVOINVLOS 3O SANIT AXVONNOg ‘aNa937] 6 56 L6 3 1 . - | ‘ ( ‘ rie MM THAGN COTTE) STATES wt v = = — 2 = a — 1 _— — = = = I ——— ee cma Moe SE Sees ees rs ne Lea Bp pT eee = a 7 ' a é : 1 te . : f oF e ‘ + f harwici. blsritteeiae yA snp & i lane WIETUDY. G “ts Lhe jot ati eal ile from tise Delowar: ijt nt Wary ald taupinsitte Frou! ' igen (Ateneo Molalar in Flonda; Lee all avet*the Gal Statee au 4 meetthone rt akek errene tc ae © os Teésey (noe 31. XV LET). y Wiarehecag_ finns raf the: he Hibhy Pind can OF hile ma Oo Mie bateor Bort of by i rate Chri hey Cap ee es pei oe: Dees a jac De hauge Gitnth eililly ere Garin i i eae, 4 Oe) { oe tines a i. . ee mevin ir neti Mop ii ah ry sudhfab Sol mea way beret « ro) Nude, vie. 8 pines | een a. } i. Batre . 1 vu elicit thw — Barts emneel wi ty | rt ae ana ry. an thea Gaal etree torneo it | hlowe a aml Am thee b > . bude) =< pidieney pa One pron ANE WLYEDE Corre r Bhide Ayes Sas gee : pa “a cet i if lisar -_ x oe DISTRIBUTION OF LOBLOLLY PINE. 109 ingly large area of exhausted lands abandoned in that section by the cultivators during a long period of time has been taken entire possession of by this tree. In North Carolina the Loblolly is the predominating tree throughout the eastern coast plain and in the lower part of the State, where it forms extensive forests, more or less frequently interspersed with Longleaf Pine. South of Cape Fear River, however, the latter prevails almost exclusively. In the extensive region watered by numerous streams flowing into Albemarle and Pamlico sounds, in the rich, moist soil of the wide swamps above tide water, the Loblolly reaches its best development, attaining dimensions which place this tree among the timber trees of first order. The primeval forests of this pine have, however, almost completely disappeared in this regien, and with them the gigantic trees of this species known by the people as Rosemary Pine, once so highly prized and eagerly sought in shipbuilding. Farther south, in the low pine barrens, this tree is largely superseded by the Longleaf Pine, and is principally confined to the borders of the swamps and to the bottoms along the water courses. Throughout the lower part of the coast pine belt, after the removal of the original timber growth, the progeny of the Loblolly Pine immediately takes possession of every opening, and particularly of the fields thrown out of cultivation. “The principal kinds of Loblolly recognized by the lumbermen under distinct names are: “1. Rosemary Pine, the best kind from the trees of best development, of a fine grain but heavy, hard, durable, with but a small proportion of sapwood. At present scarcely known by name at the mills in the section where half a century ago it abounded. “2. Swamp or Slash Pine, of a coarser grain, with about one-half of the diameter of the tree in sapwood. This kind comprises most of the timber of original growth, and the oldest and best matured second growth. “3. Oldfield Pine, by the rapidity of its growth, is very coarse-grained and for the greater part sap, scarcely one-fourth of the diameter being heart. At present the principal source of the timber supplies in the coast region.” ! At the sawmills at Goldsboro, close to the border of the Longleaf Pine region, over 50 per cent of the lumber sawn is Loblolly Pine. On a trip through the forests between the Neuse and Trent rivers it was observed that the Loblolly Pine forms over two-thirds of the tree covering, almost entirely of second growth, of dimensions to furnish sawlogs of from 10 to 18 inches mean diameter by a length of from 15 to 30 feet. The sandy swells and knolls rising above the flats originally covered with the Longleaf Pine are not infrequently occupied by a young growth of Loblolly. The mills at Newbern and vicinity are almost solely depending for their lumber supplies upon these forests ef second growth. The same conditions are prevailing in Duplin and in Pender County, by the reports of operators. Mr. C. C. Williams, at Teacheys, in Duplin County, states that 66 per cent of the timber sawn is Loblolly Pine, mostly of second growth, furnishing timber for creosoting and lumber for building purposes. Mr. Bauman, at Burgaw, reports that the Oldfield Pine (Loblolly of second growth) is coming more and more into use every year, and the demand for this kind of lumber is greatly increasing. In a number of the Newbern journals of 1891 it is stated that over 60,000,000 feet of lumber, board measure, were produced in 1891 by the mills of that place and the vicinity. In the bulletin quoted the output of the nine mills in operation during 1893 is given at 38,000,000 feet, board meas- ure. The timber delivered at the mills sells for about $5 per 1,000 feet, and the price of rough lumber averages $12. In the latest report on the forests of North Carolina the acreage of the Loblolly Pine, including the land covered with the second growth, and where the Loblolly Pine is taking the place of the Longleaf Pine, is stated as exceeding 4,000,000 acres. The standing merchantable timber ean be said to cover 1,150,000 acres. Allowing 4,000 feet, board measure, to the acre, this will make 4,600,000,000 feet of standing Loblolly Pine in 1893. The total cut of Loblolly Pine for the same year has been reported at 290,000,000 feet, board measure.” In South Carolina and Georgia the Loblolly Pine is confined all over the coast pine belt to the more or less swainpy borders of the pine barrens scattered among the broad-leaf evergreens and _ 1 The Forests, Forest Lands, and Forest Products of Eastern North Carolina, W.W. Ashe, p. 41, Bull. 4, N.C. Geol. Survey. 2W.W. Ashe, Bulletin No. 5, North Carolina Geol. Survey, Raleigh, 1894, p. 41, 110 TIMBER PINES OF THE SOUTHERN UNITED STATES. deciduous trees peculiar to these latitudes—the Magnolia, Sweet and Red Bay, Black Gum, and Titi, associated with the Cuban Pine. The timber of the Loblolly Pine produced in these swamps is of inferior quality, with the sapwood from 4 to 5 inches on a radius of from 8 to 12 inches. It has been noticed that among the original tree-covering Loblolly Pines above 2 feet in diameter were frequently found affected with dry or red rot. On the dry rolling pine uplands of these States to the foot of the mountain ranges, rising to an elevation of 800 to 1,000 feet above sea level, as well as of the Gulf States east of the Mississippi, this pine is found more or less dispersed among the hard-wood timber, but is considered of no value except for fuel; the trees branch a short distance above the ground and the timber is too knotty to be fit for lumber. live trees from the damp, flat pine barrens bordering upon the swamps, felled for test logs in Hampton County, 8. C.., showed the following dimensions: Measurements of five trees. Number of Diameter Diameter Sapwood Height Length of | rings on at breast esha rE below on radius stump. high. of tree. | timber. crown. of butt. | | = pes ; isl Inches. Feet. | Feet. Inches. Inches. | 103 26 | 118 55 17 103 | 4 118 70 | 14 4h 80 | 17 103 66 13 3h | 95 19 112 | 53 | Patna a Ss | 63 14 | 90 | 54 | 9 Shea In peninsular Florida the Loblolly Pine is more rarely found, its place in the old fields being taken either by Cuban Pine or the Florida Oldfield Pine (Pinus clausa). In the eastern Gulf States throughout the coast pine belt the Loblolly Pine is scattered along the swamps bordering the water courses. Until of late years it has been cut only on special orders for low-priced stuff intended for temporary purposes. As an instance, the fact may be cited that the millions of feet of square sawn timber and of lumber required for the buildings of the New Orleans World’s Exposition were mostly Loblolly Pine, sawn at Pearlington, Miss. Since the introduction of the dry-kiln it is extensively used for flooring and inside finish. In the fresh, deep soil of light loam of the coast plain and the valleys in the upper part of the pine belt—the region of mixed growth—this tree is found in great perfection. In these districts it furnishes clear sticks of from 50 to 60 feet and over in length. A considerable proportion of the long and heavy sticks of hewn timber reaching the Mobile market for export as “pitch pine” coming from the upper division of the coast pine belt in Alabama are Loblolly Pine. The timber of the Loblolly Pine from the table-lands of north Alabama is of excellent quality, with but a small proportion of sapwood from 2 to 3 inches on a radius of from 10 to 12 inches, heavy, of a fine close grain and hence of greater durability and strength. The lumber from that region finds a ready market, being used for all the purposes of the house carpenter, and is indiscriminately sold with the product of the Shortleaf Pine. On the table-lands of the Warrior coal field the Loblolly Pine is better developed than in any other part of this or the adjoining State of Mississippi. If not found in compact forests of any considerable expanse, it forms bodies of heavy timber covering the flat and badly drained tracts, from a few to many acres in extent, associated with the hard wood growth peculiar to a moist soil. It might be said that about one-half of the pine timber growth of these highlands consists of the Loblolly Pine. The following measurements haye been taken of trees felled in Cullman County, Ala., from heavily timbered land several acres in extent: Measurements of four trees. Rings on | Diameter | Height of | Length of | stump. breast high.| tree. | timber. =y! ZI Inches. | Feet. Feet. | 78 21 101 41 156 24 | 103 40 | , 100 22 104 45 137 ly 106 57 DISTRIBUTION OF LOBLOLLY PINE. 10 | In Louisiana, west of the Mississippi bottom, the Loblolly Pine is found frequently scattered in the level woods bordering upon the grassy marshes of the coast. North of the region of the Longleaf Pine on the pine flats with a poor, sandy, undrained soil, between Lake Beaudeau and Bayou Dauchitt, extending to the Arkansas State line, this species forms the principal tree covering. The tree is cut only for local consumption in the absence of means of transportation. In Arkansas heavily timbered forests of Loblolly Pine cover the flat woods in the southeastern part of the State and the region of the Tertiary and Post-Tertiary formation. The lower levels in the rolling uplands are covered with heavily timbered forests of the Loblolly Pine. It forms in this State an important factor in the manufacture of lumber. From observations made in the logging camps in connection with the principal points of production along the St. Louis and Iron Mountain Railroad south of Gurdon and on the St. Louis and Southwestern Railroad it can be safely assumed that about one-half of the lumber cut and shipped as “ Yellow Pine” to Northern markets from southwestern Arkansas is Loblolly Pine, the other half being Shortleaf. The flood plain of the Little Missouri River and the Ouachita River is covered with extensive forests of this tree. The deep soil, a stiff sandy loam, flooded after every rainfall, produces a heavy and finely developed timber growth. Upon one acre, representing fairly the average of the merchantable timber standing, 30 trees were counted of from 12 to 45 inches in diameter at breast high; of this number were found: One tree 48 inches in diameter at breast high, length of timber estimated at 40 feet; one tree 36 inches in diameter at breast high, length of timber estimated at 35 feet; three trees 30 inches in diameter at breast high, length of timber estimated at 35 feet; seven trees 23 inches in diameter at breast high, length of timber estimated at 35 feet; three trees 15 inches in diameter at breast high, length of timber estimated at 35 feet; fifteen trees 12 to 15 inches in diameter at breast high, leugth of timber estimated at 24 feet. Measurements of four trees. Diameter | Height of Diameter Length of Rings on | at breast below stump. | high. | tree. crown timber. | | | | | | Inches. | Feet. | Inches. | Feet. | 85 | 17 85 | 12 47 | 150 21 105 14 58 83 | 20 96 | 2 37 110 | 22 109 12 68 The timber of these trees was almost free of any defects; sap from 3 to 4 inches on radius. In Texas this species is distributed in greater or less abundance to the south and southwest of the Shortleaf Pine region over an area exceeding 6,800 square miles. ‘There is even less basis for statistical statements regarding timber standing at present and consumption than for the Shortleaf Pine, since it is not even recognized as a particular species, and always cut together with the latter, especially between the Trinity and the Brazos rivers. No data have lately been obtained of the annual production of lumber derived from the Loblolly Pine forests in this State, but in the light of the statements of the Tenth Census! it must contribute largely to the timber supplies of this State. According to this authority, the merchantable timber of Loblolly standing in 1880 was estimated at 20,907,000,000 feet, board measure, and the cut for the same year at 61,500,000 feet, board measure. PRODUCTS. VALUE AND USES OF THE WOOD. Considered solely as the source of furnishing an abundant and cheap material for purposes where strength and durability are not the first considerations, the Loblolly Pine would be entitled to take its place among the timber trees of greater importance. The average tree of full growth, as it is geuerally found in the original forest on a poorer soil, furnishes timber with a fair proportion of heartwood, with sticks of from 30 to 50 feet and over in length, free from blemish and in some points scarcely inferior to the timber of the Shortleaf and sometimes even of the Longleaf Pine. In fact, the selected lumber of Loblolly classes with the latter in many of the markets for the same 1 Charles 8S. Sargent, report of Tenth Census, Vol. IX, p. 541, 1884. 112 TIMBER PINES OF THE SOUTHERN UNITED STATES. uses by the house carpenter, while the inferior grades are largely consumed for secondary purposes. Of late years the value of the lumber even of lower grades has been much enhanced by the process of kiln-drying, now universally introduced into the mills. After the removal of the water from the sapwood by exposure to a current of heated air, the lumber loses its proneness to get discolored or to “blue” by the rapid development of the mycelium of a fungus and greatly gains in its capability of a good finish, as well as in durability, and is thus rendered suitable for many purposes for which, without such treatment, it would be rejected. The consumption of Loblolly Pine lumber is constantly on the increase in the markets of the North, as the lumber of the White Pine becomes scarce and more expensive. The sappy timber of secoud growth is every year coming more in demand, especially in foreign markets, where this cheap timber is rendered durable by creosoting. In the highest state of perfection, which is only attained in the regions most favorable to its development, no other pine was deemed of higher value or was more eagerly sought after for masts and other heavy spars of ships. Before the use of iron in naval construction for these purposes, the Loblolly Pine timber of largest size was eagerly contracted for in all the Southern ports by every one of the maritime powers of Europe. In consequence, the trees which could furnish timber of the dimensions and qualities required for such purposes have become exceedingly scarce, and can be said to have almost entirely disappeared. The Rey. M. A. Curtis, in his account of the Loblolly Pine,! quotes the following statement on the habitat and the dimensions of this tree, from the pen of Mr. E. Ruffin, of Virginia, which, illustrating a feature of the life of the Southern forest forever past, I can not refrain from intro- ducing here: This (Slash Pine) tree grows only on low, moist lands, and is the better for timber and grows larger in proportion to the richness of the land. Among other gigantic forest trees on the rich and wet Roanoke swamps, mostly of oak, poplar, gum, ete., the few pines which yet remain tower aboye all others; I have visited several standing trees and stumps of others which have been cut down and which measured 5 feet in diameter, and were supposed to have been from 150 to 170 feet high. In evidence of the dimensions of the trees, the writer gives the sizes of the squared sticks cut in Bertie County, made into a raft, and shipped in 1856 by way of the Dismal Swamp Canal to New York. These sticks varied from 50 to 86 feet in length by a mean diameter of from 26 to 31 inches, containing from 547 to 537 cubic feet each. Remarking further: All of these sticks are nearly all heartwood; thence it follows that the proportion of heartwood must have been very large, the timber must haye been resinous or it would not be good, and it inust be durable or it would not serve for masts and other long spars for ships exposed to the alternations of wetting and drying, and for which only the best materials are permitted to be used. The inferior growth of the Loblolly Pine furnishes vast supplies of cordwood. Immense quantities are shipped from the coast of Virginia and North Carolina to the large cities on the Atlantic seaboard. It is chiefly used where a brisk flame with a quick heat is required, viz, in bakeries, brickkilns, and the kilns of potteries. In its fuel value, the wood of this tree ranks with the better class of resinous trees. Large quantities of the wood are also used for the burning of charcoal. RESINOUS PRODUCTS. Regarding the production of resinous products from this pine there has existed a wide divergence of statements. A. I’, Michaux states that this tree affords turpentine in abundance, but of a less fluidity than that of the Longleaf Pine, and suggests that as it contains more sapwood a deeper incision would yield alarger product. Rey. M. A. Curtis follows Michaux in this statement, and the writer, relying upon the information from operators in south Alabama, was also led into the error of supposing this tree to yield an abundance of resin for distilling, similar to the free- flowing resin of the Cuban Pine, and published a statement to the effect that this tree was tapped wherever found. A trial box made at the request of the writer seemed to confirm the opinion as to the character of the resin. It appears now, however, that the tree boxed (not inspected by the writer) could not have been a Loblolly, for lately a number of true Loblolly Pines, tapped accident- ally in a turpentine orchard, were found in Washington County, Ala., and showed that the resin 'M. A, Curtis: Trees and Shrubs of North Carolina, Raleigh, 1860, p. 23. BOTANICAL DESCRIPTION OF LOBLOLLY PINE. 113 of this pine does not flow freely and hardens so rapidly on exposure that it can not be profitably worked. An experienced operator at the place confirmed this to be the experience everywhere with this kind of pine. The statements regarding the use of this tree for its resinous product can therefore only be explained by a confusion of names applied to the different pines, and it was most likely the Cuban Pine to which the operators referred. In a report lately published by the State geologist of North Carolina the remarkis made: “ It is said that the crude turpentine of the Loblolly Pine has so much water in it that it yields only a poor spirits of turpentine.”' This, to be sure, is a misconception; but the statement confirms the fact that this species is not tapped for its resin, which had also been observed by the writer a short time previously in the Loblolly Pine forests of North Carolina as well as South Carolina and Georgia. From an extensive series of analyses of the resin of fresh specimens of both Longleaf and Loblolly Pine collected in Georgia and South Carolina, it appears that the wood of Loblolly contains but little less resin than that of Longleaf; that the distribution of resin in the log is practically the same, and, what seems most remarkable, that the composition of the resin, as far as the relation of spirits of turpentine and rosin is concerned, is nearly the same (being quite variable in both), so that the absence of free ‘ bleeding” or abundant resin exudation can not be due to a lack of liquid oil, but must be caused by other physiological peculiarities. NOMENCLATURE AND CLASSIFICATION, The Loblolly and half a dozen other species, mostly Pacific and Mexican,’ form a natural group of timber trees included in Englemann’s Hutada, which might fitly be designated as the group “torch pines,” and can be characterized as embracing trees, mostly of larger size, with more or less resinous, coarse grained wood, long leaves by threes in a fascicle, and with lateral cones pro- vided with thick, woody scales bearing a stout, sharp prickle. The distinctive characters of this species have been early recognized by Pluckenet, one of the earliest writers on American plants? and Linneus described the tree under the name of Pinus teda* which was adopted subsequently by all botanists. The name given to this pine by Linnzeus in 1753 has never been changed. In 1789 Aitan established a variety, P. Teda var. tenuifolia (Hort. Kew., III, 368), which, however, has not received recognition. BOTANICAL DESCRIPTION AND MORPHOLOGY. Leaves three in the close, elongated sheath, 6 to 9 inches long, slender, stiff, rigidly pointed, channeled, and strongly keeled on the upper side, of a pale green color; cones nearly sessile, single, in twos or threes, roundish-ovate or oyate-oblong, about 3 inches long, with the scales hard and woody, the pyramidal apophysis with a strong, recurved prickle; seeds small, their wing an inch or over long. This species is easily distinguished from its most frequent associates—the Longleaf and Short- leaf Pine—by its slightly glaucous foliage at all seasons, and by its more slender and almost smooth terminal buds; from the former and from the latter by the more robust shoots and buds; and from both the species named, and also from the Cuban Pine, by its characteristic cones. ROOT, STEM, AND BRANCH SYSTEM, The stout taproot of this pine is assisted by powerful laterals which divide into numerous branches and descend into the soil, usually at a short distance from the trunk; but where a hard, compact subsoil is encountered they are often seen to run for a greater or less distance near the surface. In the localities most favorable to its growth, the massive trunk of the Loblolly Pine is in its dimensions not surpassed by any other pine of the Atlantic forest region. In such cases the tree attains a height of 120 to 150 feet and over, with a diameter of from 4 to 5 feet breast high, and with the trunk clear of limbs for a length of from 60 to 80 feet. ‘ The Forests, Forest Lands, and Forest Products of Eastern North Carolina, by W.W. Ashe. Bulletin 5 of the Geological Survey of North Carolina, 1895. 2?Engelmann’s revision of the genus Pinus. Transactions of the St. Louis Academy of Sciences, jvol. iy, p. 177. 3Pluckenet: Amalges tum botanicum. London, 1696. 4Linnieus: Species plantarum, 1000, 1753. 17433—No., 13 8 EXPLANATION OF PLATE XIX. [Figures natural size, except when otherwise noted. ] Fig. a, branch bearing male inflorescence; 6, young fascicle of leaves (spring); ¢, d, forms of mature leaves; e, transverse section of leaf bundle showing structural characters of the leaf (as explained for Pinus echinata, f, f); magnified 20 diameters. 114 Bulletin No. 13, Division of Forestry PLATE XIX. D.OLSTEIVSK). 4-2 PINUS T42DA: MALE FLOWERS AND LEAVES. BOTANICAL DESCRIPTION OF LOBLOLLY PINE. aLales: Such trees, however, have at no time been plentiful and at present are rarely met. In its average growth the diameter of the trunk, breast high, measures from 20 to 24 inches, and the height from 95 to 110 feet. In wet places, somewhat distended at its base, the trunk tapers very gradually to the crown, which covers from one-third to one-half of its height. The lowest limbs are horizontally spreading, and toward the upper part of the tree they become gradually more erect. The largest limbs are rarely found over 20 féet in length. The primary branches dividing in a regular order of ramification into numerous branches and branchlets, the crown becomes full and compact toward the top. The bark of the full-grown tree is, in the lower part of trunk, from 1 to 1$ inches thick, generally rough, of a grayish color, becoming smoother, flaky, and reddish brown as the tree grows older. LEAVES, The leaves are united, to the number of three, in a smooth, close sheath, which in the young foliage is about 1 inch long and in the next season scarcely half that length. (Pl. XIX, ¢, b, d.) In the bushy growth of less than ten years the leaves are scarcely 5 iuches in length, resem- bling closely the foliage of the Shortleaf Pine of equal age. Prof. L. Ward notes this resemblance as a Singular fact, which, as he very pointedly remarks, has the effect of obscuring the gradual appearance of this species among the young growth of the Shortleaf Pine.! In the following years the leaves are from 7 to 9 inches long, less densely crowded on the slender branches than in the Longleaf and Cuban Pine, and persisting to the third year; the foliage is of a more open spray. The leaves are stiff, slightly twisted, roughish on the finely serrulated edges and the prominent midrib, channeled on the upper side, abruptly tipped by a rigid, sharp point (Pl. XIX, ¢, d), and of a pale green color. They are scarcely one-sixteenth of an inch wide, about half as thick, and present in the cross section on the dorsal side a convex and on the ventral side a strongly trian- gular outline. Examined under the microscope they show on both surfaces from 10 to 12 rows of rather large breathing pores (stomata), alternating with rows of numerous hypodermal or strengthening cells, in several layers. The cells of the bundle sheath are thin walled; the fibro- vascular bundles are, on their ventral side, surrounded by a single row of small strengthening cells. The rather large resinous ducts, from 3 to 5 in number, are peripheral, and placed irregu- larly mostly about the angles (Pl. XIX, e¢); sometimes smaller ducts are observed close to the bundle sheath. FLORAL ORGANS. The staminate flowers are crowded, from 18 to 20 in number, below the apex of the youngest shoot. (Pl. XIX,a.) They are from three-fourths to one inch long, of sulphur-yellow color, and surrounded at the base by from 8 to 10 ovate to lanceolate, leathery, involucral seales; the lowest pair is much shorter than the others and strongly keeled; those of the uppermost row are longest, narrow, lanceolate, and reflexed. The anthers are crowned with an erect orbicular crest. After the discharge of the pollen the flowers are gradually shed. The pistillate flowers form an oblong, erect catkin, borne on a short stalk, singly, in pairs, sometimes 3 to 4, below the apex of the shoot (Pl. XX, a) of the season, which by the time of blooming has already reached a length of several inches and is covered with the well-advanced leaf buds. Including their stipe, the female aments are about one-half to three-fourths of an inch long, surrounded by from 15 to 20 involueral scales similar to those of the staminate flower. The carpellary scales are ovate, lanceolate, tapering to a sharp, erect, and somewhat reflexed and twisted point. The small bracts subtending the scales are orbicular, scarcely covering their base. The flowers open, in the coast region of the lower Southern States, about the second week of March (Mobile, Ala., March 15 to 20), and in the interior from four to five weeks later (Cullman, Ala., April 25). Immediately after pollination the female catkins increase rapidly in size; before ten days have passed the carpellary scales have doubled in size, and their tips become stiffly erect, the bracts having remained stationary in their growth, and the fertile shoots having grown to the length of S inches and over. This period passed, the growth of the conelets during the rest of the season proceeds very slowly. 'L. Ward: Botanical Gazette, February, 1886. EXPLANATION OF PLATE XX. Fig. a, branch bearing two subterminal aments of female flowers at end of shoot of the season; b, immature cone of one season’s growth; c, mature closed cone of two seasons’ growth; d, mature open cone after shedding seed; e, cone scale, outer or dorsal side, showing the broad umbonate apophysis end with its sharp transverse ridges and the stout reflexed prickle; f, inner or ventral view of the same with the seed in place; g, seed and wing detached. 116 PLATE XX. f no Bulletin No. 13, Divisi a 3 3 2 © A QHEIDEMAN.5¢. FEMALE FLOWERS, CONE, AND SEED. PINUS TADA: DESCRIPTION OF THE WOOD OF LOBLOLLY PINE. 5 bo At the beginning of the second season the immature cones are scarcely one-half inch wide and less than an inch long (PI. XX, b), and from that time on increase in size and by the following October have reached their maturity. The ripe cones are lateral, almost sessile, broadly conical or ovate in shape, rarely over 3 inches in length (PI. XX, ¢, d), when fully opened 14 to 2 inches wide, and of a light wood-brown color. The pyramidal, swelled, exposed ends (apophyses) of the hard, woody scales with a sharp transversal ridge are armed with a stout, straight, or slightly reflexed prickle. (Pl. XX, e.) Having reached their maturity, the cones open slowly, the seeds being grad- ually discharged during the fall and winter seasons. The cones are apt to remain on the tree till the end of another year, and when they finally separate from the branch by the breaking loose of their very short stalk, leave none of their basal scales behind. The seeds are irregularly truncate or rhomboid in outline, inflated, sharp-edged, with two to three more or less distinct ridges, rough- ish, dark brown to almost black, and surrounded to the base by the narrow border of their delicate wing (Pl. XX, g, /), which is over an inch long and from one-fourth to one-eighth of an inch wide. THE WOOD. Among the pines of the southern Atlantic forests noted for their economic importance the Loblolly is held least in value as a timber tree. This opinion is chiefly founded on the lesser durability of its wood, being more speedily given to decay under the combined influences of dampness and air, and also on the supposition of its being of less strength than the other pine timbers. There is scarcely a timber tree existing that shows wider differences in the quality and value of the timber. This is strikingly demonstrated when the timber of a tree of full average growth, grown on land broken by the plow, is compared with the timber of a tree in its highest perfection taken from the primeval forest. In the former case the wood is crossgrained, sappy, and quick to decay. In the latter it is finer grained, resinous, has less sapwood, and approaches the timber of the Longleaf Pine. Tn general, the well-marked, lighter-colored sapwood is quite broad, and usually about 4 inches, frequently 6 inches and more. It is wider in young, thrifty trees, narrower in old and stunted or slow-grown timber; forms about 60 to 70 per cent of the total volume of stems over one hundred years of age, and 80 to 90 per cent of trees sixty to one hundred years old. The formation of heartwood does not begin before the age of twenty-five, the process being retarded as the tree, or better the particular part of the stem, grows older, so that while the innermost sapwood in a log or disk with twenty-six rings is twenty-five years old, the innermost sap ring is thirty-five years old when the log attains the age of forty-five; it is forty-five years old when the log is sixty-five, and about seventy or even more years old when the log reaches the age of one hundred and fifty or two hundred. It follows that the sapwood is formed of fewer rings in young trees and in the upper part of older stems, but owing to the greater rapidity of growth in these parts the width of the sapwood does not always follow this same law. Since neither width of the ring, nor that of the denser summerwood, the thickness of the cell walls, nor any other important structural feature is changed when the wood of any ring changes from sap to heart wood, the prevalent notions of sapwood being necessarily either coarse or fine grained, light, and weak, are erroneous. The sapwood of a young, well-grown tree is coarse-grained, heavy, and strong; that of an old tree is fine-grained, light, and weak. Since durability on exposure is not to be expected of the sapwood of any pine, the prejudices against the sapwood, and therefore all young timber of this particular kind, are unwarranted. With proper treatment, it will serve all purposes for which any pine wood of its grain and weight can be employed. : Owing to the great amount of water-soaked sapwood the weight of green Loblolly timber is very great, varying chiefly between 50 and 55 pounds to the cubie foot, with the sapwood com- monly approaching 60 pounds to the cubic foot. Kiln-dried, the wood of the entire trunk of trees one hundred to one hundred and fifty years old weighs about 33 pounds per cubic foot. In such trees the wood of the log 50 feet from the ground is about 20 per cent lighter (and weaker) than that of the butt log, and the wood next to the bark in the butt log is 15 to 20 per cent lighter than the wood of the inner fifty to sixty rings. In strength the wood of the Loblolly varies chiefly with weight (the same degree of seasoning always presumed), and keeping this in mind, compares favorably with that of any other conifer. 118 TIMBER PINES OF THE SOUTHERN UNITED STATES. For well-seasoned wood, the following figures represent the average of hundreds of tests on specimens specially collected for this purpose: Lbs. per sq. inch. Modulus of elasticity.c--o- oe aoe teen tne oe eens eee eee bee 1, 950, 000 Transverse atrength joc. 55 Si cec ccs en exes eee ee ene eee 10, 100 Compressl0n GUGWiRGts = ~ 6 oe eae ees ae ae ae ree ee 6, 500 Shearing wi thi vibe Dele cae enn een re eee ere 690 Since the average weight of the test pieces was 40 pounds per cubic foot, being heavier than the average weight of the wood, these figures must be taken about one-sixth lower than given above to represent the true average for the wood of the species. Like the wood of most conifers, that of Loblolly dries easily and rapidly. In doing so the green lumber loses a large amount of water, dependent chiefly on the proportion of sapwood. Though quite variable, the water in fresh sapwood commonly forms 50 to 60 per-cent of the weight, while in heartwood it little exceeds 25 per cent. The shrinkage consequent on drying amounts to 11 to 12 per cent of the volume; is greater in the lumber of the butt than in that from the top logs, varying in this respect from 15 per cent at the butt to about 10 per cent in the top, a difference which appears due to the difference in the weight of the wood of the different sections. As in other pine, about two-thirds or seven-eights per cent of this shrinkage falls to the tangent (i.e., is along the rings) and about 4 to 5 per cent to the radius. In kiln-drying, the wood may be taken fresh from the saw and behaves extremely well, suffering no great injary, a fact which has greatly enhanced its value by facilitating its exploitation. Por the details of wood structure, consult the comparative study by Mr. Roth appended to these monographs. PROGRESS OF DEVELOPMENT. The crops of seed are produced quite abundantly every year and copiously dispersed over the vicinity of the mother trees by the wind, the offspring quickly taking possession of old fields and clearings in the forest. The seeds germinate in the early spring. The ends of the cotyledons remain for a short time after germination inclosed in the endosperm. The number of the germinal leaves (cotyledons) is mostly six, rarely seven. At the time of the unfolding of the cotyledons the lower (hypocotyle- donary) part of the axis of the plant is about 1 inch in length. The rootlets are half that length, and are provided with several acropetal secondary rootlets. The caulicle grows rapidly, and is soon covered with the stiff, needle-shaped, and strongly serrulated primary leaves. Before the spring season has passed the bundles of secondary or foliage leaves make their appearance in the axils of the former. At the close of the summer season the plantlet has attained a height of from 6 to 8 inches, the upper part of the stem covered with foliage leaves, the acerose primary leaves of the lower part having completely withered. In examining a large number of young plants never less than three leaves in a bundle have been found during this or any subsequent stage of the growth. With the second year the primary leaves have all become reduced to the ordinary form of the leaf bract—lanceolate, acuminate, with fimbriate white hyaline edges and tips. In all the specimens examined it was found that the growth of the main axis proceeded Jess rapidly during the second session, but produced a regular whorl of from three to four lateral axes. At the close of the second year the main stem rarely exceeds 10 inches in height. At the end of their third year the plants are from 18 to 20 inches high, the stem being from one-fourth to five-sixteenths of an inch in thickness. The branches, forming regular whorls, are erect and produce in their turn whorls of secondary order. The root system shows a correspond- ing increase, the taproot being from 6 to 8 inches long, with numerous stout lateral roots. RATE OF GROWTH. With the fourth year the Loblolly Pine enters seemingly upon the period of quickest growth. As ascertained by many measurements, the trees at the end of their fourth year average 3 feet in height and from one-half to seven-eighths of an inch in diameter, and at the end of the fifth year measure nearly 5 feet and from 1 to 14 inches in diameter. At the beginning of the seventh year EARLY GROWTH OF LOBLOLLY PINE. 119 the tree attains a height of 10 feet, and with the close of the first decade trees are found 12 to 16 feet high and from 23 to 3 inches in diameter. Some trees begin to mature their first cones by the tenth year. The above measurements were made in 1890 in the vicinity of Cullman, Ala., on trees taken indiscriminately from the midst and near the border of a dense pine thicket covering a field plowed for the last time in 1882, and from an adjoining opening in the forest protected from fire and but rarely used for pasture. According to a number of measurements made of trees in the southern Atlantic States, the Gulf region, and southern Arkansas, the Loblolly Pine reaches at the tenth year, on the average, a height of 20 feet, doubling this height during the succeeding decade. During this period of quickest growth the increase in height proceeds at the rate of 2 feet per annum, and trees twenty years old average 44 inches in diameter breast high. At the age of fifty years the trees are from 65 to 75 feet in heigut (average about 70 feet) and 15 inches in diameter breast high. The annual increase for this period of thirty years is about 1 foot in height and 0.35 inch in diameter. From numerous observations it appears that the Loblolly Pine attains the fullness of its growth at the age of one hundred years, with a height, on the average, of 110 feet and a diameter breast bigh of 2 feet, the length of merchantable timber varying between 50 and 60 feet. The annual rate of height growth during the second half century is about eight-tenths of a foot, and the diameter growth eighteen one-hundredths of an inch. Henceforth the growth in height remains almost stationary. A dozen trees from one hundred to one hundred and fifty years old were found to vary from 99 to 125 feet in height, with a length of trunk free from limbs of from 60 to 68 feet and from 19 to 27 inches in diameter at breast height. From the annexed tabulated records of growth it becomes evident that under similar conditions of soil and exposure the rate of increase for the various stages of growth show but slight differences in localities widely distant from each other. TABLE I.—Growth from five to fifty years. S No. of Diameter |Height to} Total | vals | 7 = No: ofvtres- rings. |(breast high). first limb.) height. | ECOL I Remarks. Inches. Feet. | 5 it} 5,8,, Cullman, Ala ..-| Clearing made for pasture in 1879; dense pine thicket. 5 Ud + d os Do. s 6 2 |. TOM Do. = 6 14 |. ten} Do. 6 13 |- 838,| Whistler. Ala...| Edge of swampy hummock. 7 23 |. 10 | Cullman, Ala...| Clearing, dense pine thicket. 7 3} |. 1 Do. 9 2% |. Do. 9 22 |. Do. 10 23 Do. 11 2 Do. 12 33 Do. 12 3h 72 Do. 12 23 10 .| Edge of hummock,. 13 25 13 19 | Gurdon, Ark.-.-| Open forest; exposure free. 13 24 13 20 Eastman, Ga..-. Do. 14 3 10 25 | Whistler, Ala...| Edge of hummock; slightly oppressed; partially covered. 14 23 8 21 | Eastman, Ga--.-.| Opening in forest; under cover; fresh soil. 14 2 7 21 | Gurdon, Ark....| Opening in forest; exposure free; damp soil. 15 4 12 35 Whistler, Ala-.-| On gentle decline; opening in forest; soil fresh. 16 6 13 SOD eaee GY o = seeesses | Do. 17 6 16 BW) |e sre GW) -Ssckacoae Natural opening near swamp; soil damp. 18 6 17 43) coon GO) AS ercinsiac Do. 20 4 28 SBP essed (Gye sericecnee Oppressed. 21 4 22 45 | Eastman, Ga....| Natural opening in forest; under cover. 26 44 28 33 | Gurdon, Ark....| Natural opening in forest; exposure free. 22 4h 32 43 | Eastman, Ga....; Natural opening in forest; suppressed. 22 8 25 55 = Old field; fresh, deep loam; free. 24 6 17 39 .| Old field; oppressed. 24 44 30 | 47 .| In open forest; exposure free. 32 6 38 55 Open forest; exposure free. =| 32 6 36 56 : Do. | 35 | 12 51 77 ....| Old field; deep, rich loam; fresh, young forest trees of similar | size. Magee osocvess ss | 48 16 30 66 | Gurdon, Ark.-...| Open forest; soil damp. a eee | 44 15 33 68 | Stockton, Ala...| Flat near banksof Tensas River; open forest; exposure free; March 16, 1888, just past flowering. 120 TIMBER PINES OF THE SOUTHERN UNITED STATES. TaBLE Il.—Growth of Loblolly Pine (Pinus tada) from fifty to one hundred and fifty-six years. Diameter. Height Rings | bat Total - eel im Tota sal tier . No. of tree. 1 in ,,| Breast | Across | Below | (len th | height. Locality. Habitat, and other remarks. eee high. | stump. crown. | of tim- | | | ber). | Inches.| Inches.| Inches.| Feet. Feet. | 63 uu 133 94 oA 90 | Ridgeland, S.C...) Low pine barrens, edge of hummock, soil damp, ex- | posure free. 70 | 16 16) 94 57 86 | Eastman, Ga...... Old field, abandoned one hundred years ago; typical | for oldest second growth. 73 22 50 O47 15.222 (Ia asacee | Close to edge of swamp; open forest; soil wet; expo- | sure free; sapwood 44 inches. 74 12 85 80 | Ridgeland, S. C...| Close to edge of swamp; sumewhat suppressed. 80 21 4l 101 | Cullman, Ala...-.. Swampy swale; open forest; exposure tree. 80 | 18 66 103 | Ridgeland, 5. C...) Swampy hummock; exposure partially free. 83 20 87 | 96 | Gurdon, Ark..... Low, wet, piny woods; exposure partially free. 85 17 47 BBY alss.ae 1 Ce cee ee Low, wet, piny woods; exposure free. 87 21 40 105 | Whistler, Ala.... Low, open forest; soil damp; exposure free. 90 | 22 46 104 | Cullman, Ala.-... | Wet swale; sandy loam; open forest; free. 95 | 19 53 112 | Ridgeland, 8. C...| Edgeof swamp; slightly oppressed ; sapwood 5 inches. 100 | 27 De) eee ba PASE C0msveenessees Low, pine barrens; soildamp; near swamp; exposure | | free; sapwood a inches. 101 23 51 111 | Whistler, Ala....| Open forest, on slight decline; soil drained; fresh; | exposure free; sapwood 44 inches. 110 22 68 109 | Gurdon, Ark..... Low, rather dense torest; wet; exposure free. 117 22 69 116 | Kastman, Ga.----- Edge of swamp; soil damp; partially suppressed. 118 19 53 125 | Whistler, Ala. -... Slight declivity; soil well drained ; suppressed. 120 | 22 68 | 99 | Eastman, Ga.-...-.. Near border of Pye soil damp; exposure free. 128 | 23 59 109 | Whistler, Ala..... Open forest; soil fresh; exposure free, 137 19 57 115 | Cullman, Ala..... Open forest; eee} swale; exposure free. 142 | 27 54 Ogi |aeotare i ireaacaa son 4 Edge of swamp, damp to wet; exposure almost free. 150 21 58 108 | Gurdon, Ark ..... Flat, wet, rather dense forest; exposure free; slightly | oppressed on the sides. 156 24 39 103 | Cullman, Ala. ....) Wet swale; sandy loam; exposure free. From Table III and the corresponding diagram, based upon a considerable number of trees, it appears that the Loblolly Pine is nearly 40 feet high when twenty years old; that the length of the merchantable timber (60 feet) is attained at the age of forty; that this shaft has a basal diameter of 20 inches at the age of one hundred years, and that the age of thrifty growth is practically at an end when the tree is one hundred and ten years old. Comparing this table with those for Longleaf and Shortleaf pines, the excellence of the Loblolly becomes apparent. GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT OF LOBLOLLY PINE. 121 TaBLE III.—Rate of growth of Loblolly Pine. | Volume. Periodical accretion or growth per decade. Diameter Length of) Total os Ae) : BrOv l per decad 5 1 ee with bark) 05 W152 sere | | | Average | Current Age (breast |UPPEr di-| height of Log up to | | Area of annual |. Coretion Pan ameterof| tree. Tree. 5 inches Decade. Diameter. Height. | cross sec-| Volume. accretion. ~ ade igh). | 5 inches. | diameter. | , | tion. | | | Yrs. | Inches. Feet. Feet. Ou. ft. Cu. ft. Inches. Feet. Sq. feet. | Cu. ft. | Cu. ft. Cu. ft. 10 Bearcat 18 OKG0) | soe eeetac = Lb i iggacee S-HeOeo 2.4 18 0.03! 0.60} 0.06 0. 06 20 CAFE oem aee 387 Pa0o i eaeeee sans Second ..-.-.....--- 2.3 | 19 08 | 2.45 14 | - 24 30 7.8 | 23 50 8.72 7.49 | Third...- - 2.2 | 13 | 14 5. 67 29 | 57 40 10.0 | 35 61 16, 63 15.45 Fourth -. 2.0 | il 17 7.94 41 79 50 11.8 44 70 25. 30 24,12 | Fifth .-.- 1.8 9 | 19 8. 67 57 87 60 13.3 | . 52 78 35. 65 34.47 | Sixth .---.- ponecese 1.6 8 19 10. 35 -59 | 1.03 70 15.5 | 60 85 49. 02 47.88 | Seventh -...-..----- 1.5 7 21 13. 37 -70 | 1.33 80 17.1 68 90 62. 44 61.44 | Eighth -. 1.4 5 21 13. 42 .78 1.34 90 18.7 76 95 78. 02 77.16 | Ninth-.... ua! 5 19 15. 58 87 1,56 100 19.5 80 98 89. 41 88.59 | Tenth .--. nt) 3 16 11.39 | . 89 | 1.14 110 20. 2 83 100 96, 00 95.23 | Eleventh an .8 2 13 6.59 .87 66 120 20.7 85 102 102. 00 101.23 |} Twelfth -..-.--..--- 5 2 -10 6. 00 ~85 60 | | HEIGHT \ MQary / Af, YY Yy Yi ff Y MMII =-=20.2— 7 --20.7— > DIAMETERS IN INCHES. Fig. 12.—Growth of Loblolly Pine: Height, diameter, and cubic contents of average trees at 10, 20, ete., years of age. CONDITIONS OF DEVELOPMENT. SOIL AND CLIMATE. The Loblolly Pine prefers a moist, cool, sandy or light loamy soil, which, if not always moist, should have a greater retentiveness for moisture than is required by most of the other upland pines. It reaches its greatest perfection in the perpetually moist or fresh forest lands, with a soil of a sandy loam, rich in vegetable mold—the accumulation of ages—which border the swamps of the coast region. The tree is not found on the porous, highly siliceous soils of the more elevated uplands, where the Longleaf Pine almost exclusively prevails; it also avoids heavy clay and calcareous soils of the uplands and the alluvial lands. The Loblolly Pine is a tree of austral regions confined to the humid belt of the Austro-riparian or Louisiana zone and the lower border of the Carolinian life zone, which, on the Atlantic Coast, 122 TIMBER PINES OF THE SOUTHERN UNITED STATES. follows quite closely the isothermal line of 56° F.; westward, in the direction of the Gulf Coast, the isothermal line of 60°, The mean temperature of the winter along the northern limit is about 45°, with the lowest temperature only occasionally falling below 10° F, This tree approaches the Appalachian zone only under the influence of a peninsular clime between the Delaware and Chesapeake bays. The Loblolly appears to be indifferent to the wide differences in the amount of atmospheric precipitation existing within the vast range of its distribution. Extending from Florida (isotherm, 74°) to the 39° of north latitude on the Atlantic Coast (isotherm, 56°), it is found of equal thrift on the Gulf shore, with its damp air and annual rainfall exceeding 64 inches, and in the flat woods of Texas, wheve the mean annual precipitation is only one-half that amount, with a mean of 6 inches during the winter months. In fact, the Loblolly Pine is found most frequently and is more widely distributed in the districts of lesser precipitation. It is certainly more dependent on the supplies of soil moisture than upon atmospheric humidity. RELATION TO LIGHT AND ASSOCIATED SPECIES. This species is less exacting in its demands for direct sunlight than the kindred species within its range. To this relation may be ascribed the success which it achieves in the struggle for the possession of the soil with the Shortleaf Pine. Observing this contest as it is going on between the competing species in the forest, the conditions of the soil being equally favorable, the Loblolly Pine, under the cover of shade, outstrips the Shortleaf Pine under the same conditions; and, on. the other hand, where the sunlight has had unhindered access, it gives way to its competitor, being then subjected to the disadvantage resulting from a speedier desiccation of the soil. Through such influences it is that, under conditions seemingly equally favorable to either one of these pines, now the one and now the other is found to predominate. In the deep forests covering the rich swampy lands of the coast regions, the Loblolly Pine forms comparatively a small part of the rich and varied growth consisting chiefly of deciduous trees, Black Gum, Sweet or Red Gum, Water Oak, and Mockernut, to which in the lower South the Magnolia, Sweet Bay, Red Bay, and Cuban Pine are to be added. Although requiring less sunlight than most pines, in the gloomy impenetrable shade of these dense forests the progeny of the Loblolly Pine has no future, especially as these lands once cleared are devoted to tillage, being of great agricultural value. On the lands of a poorer, more exposed soil in the maritime plain of the southern Atlantic States, in Virginia and North Carolina, and in southwestern Texas, this pine forms more or less compact forests. In these forests the tree is always succeeded by its own progeny, either in the course of nature or after the artificial removal of the original forest growth. On the coast of Georgia, in Florida, and in the coast plain of the eastern Gulf States, the Loblolly Pine is scattered among the Cuban and the Longleaf Pine; there its second growth meets a formidable competitor in the first named of these species. In the flat woods, deprived of drainage, the Cuban Pine is always found to vastly outnumber the Loblolly among the young forest growth. In the upper part of the great maritime pine belt the Loblolly Pine is frequently found among the mixed growth of Magnolia, Spanish, Red, Post, and Blackjack oaks, Mockernut and Pignut Hickory, Shortleaf Pine, and Southern Spruce Pine. Throughout this region the tree takes almost undisputed possession of the old fields. In the interior, on the uplands of oaks and Shortleaf Pine, the Loblolly is sure to gain the upper hand and to retain its hold among the young forest growth, giving way to 1ts most aggressive competitor, the Shortleaf Pine, only when under the disadvantage of a greater exposure and a greater lack of moisture in the soil. ENEMIES. Principally confined to low, damp localities, not easily liable to invasion by the frequent conflagrations which scour the Southern pine forests, the Loblolly Pine suffers less from destruction by fire than any other species. In virtue of the inherent facilities for its natural renewal resulting from its fecundity and from the rapidity of its development from the earliest stages of growth, any damages inflicted by that agency are more easily repaired. The same causes afford it also ENEMIES OF LOBLOLLY PINE. 123 greater protection against incursions of live stock. As also observed in the Shortleaf Pine, the rapidly growing seedlings form, after a few years, thickets of such density as to be avoided by the larger quadrupeds, and by the time such thickets, in the course of natural thinning out have become more open, the trees have reached dimensions which place them beyond the danger of being tramped down or otherwise injured by live stock. The rapid spread and thrift of the second growth, unprotected and uncared for, observed everywhere within the range of the distribution of this pine, are witnesses to its greater immunity from such dangers. Owing to the large amount of sapwood, the timber of the Loblolly is more liable to the attacks of fungi and to the ravages of insects. The mycelium (spawn) of large polyporous fungi is found frequently infesting the woody tissue of the living tree, the hyphie (filaments) of the spawn destroying the walls of the wood cells, causing the wood to assume a reddish color and rendering it brittle in the same way as is observed in the living Longleaf Pine timber affected with the disease called “‘red heart.” It sevms that the destruction caused by this disease in the Loblolly Pine is from the start more rapid in consequence of the larger proportions of sapwood, and perhaps also on account of the broader bands of soft springwood naturally accompanying wood of rapid growth. In a piece of wood examined in north Alabama, the filaments of the spawn of one of these fungi crossing each other in every direction were found to form a dense film interposed between the spring and summer wood, causing its easy separation in the direction of the concentric rings, and, as the destruction of the wood proceeds, forming finally a compact layer of the nature of amadou, or tinder. In the longitudinal section the rays were found full of cavities, caused by the breaking down of the cell walls, and these cavities were filled with the white film of these filaments, which similarly affected the adjoining tracheids of the resinous summerwood. The. felled timber left on the ground is soon infested by a host of fungi of the genera Agaricus, Tramites, Lentinus, Polyporus, and others, the nearer identification of which has not been undertaken. From the very limited observations that have been made it clearly appears that this pine suffers equally as much, if not more than the other pines of Southern growth from insect enemies of various kinds. The larvée of the same capricorn beetles (Cerambicidw) burrow in the body of the timber. Those of the round-headed borers (Caleophora) dig their channels in the sapwood, as is indicated by the occurrence of several species of jumping beetles (Buprestide) which are found clinging to the leaves and branches of this tree. The most fatal injury it sustains is caused by the bark borers (Tomicide); this pest particularly affecting the trees during the formation of the last cambium layer in the later summer months. Trees felled in August are immediately infested by multitudes of these destroyers. Favored by a high temperature and an abundance of nourishment, several generations of them succeed each other before the close of the season, the countless broods soon infesting every tree in the vicinity and carrying their work of destrue- tion over the full expanse of the young forest growth. Under this affliction the forests often present, by their drooping rusty-colored foliage, a sad picture of disease and decay. Weeyils (Curculionidea) deposit their eggs in the youngest tender shoots; the larvie which hatch from them eat their way into these shoots, causing their decay, and thus destroy the symmetry of the tree aud impair the usefulness of the resulting timber. Other species of the same family puncture the older branches, lay their eggs in the exuded resin, their larvie injuring the tree in a similar way. The larvie of spittle insects injure the terminal buds, which are also found infested by the larvee of Pitch-moths (Retiniw), causing them to wither. The foliage seems to be less frequently attacked by sawflies (Lophyrus) than the tender young leaves of the Longleaf Pine, as by the rapidity of their growth the young leaves sooner harden, and are therefore less relished by these depredators. The evidences of the work of the pine-leaf miners (caterpillar of Gelechia) have been freequently observed in Alabama, and everywhere are seen the deformities caused by gall flies and scale insects. NATURAL REPRODUCTION. If the Shortleaf Pine has been spoken of emphatically as the future timber tree of the light rolling uplands of the interior, the Loblolly Pine might be fitly designated as the timber tree of greatest promise in a large part of the coast plain from the middle Atlantic States to the limits of compact forest growth beyond the Mississippi River. The promptness with which it colonizes the 124 TIMBER PINES OF THE SOUTHERN UNITED STATES. old fields and other clearings, and the tenacity with which it retains from one generation to another the ground once taken possession of, clearly point to the important part this tree is to take when the ruthless stripping of timber lands practiced at present gives place to the management of the forests under a system of fostering care, teuding to their future maintenance and to the disposal of their resources on the principle of true economy with an eye to the future welfare of the country. No timber tree will be found better adapted for forest planting in the southern part of the Atlantic forest division. It is only in the narrow belt of flat woods along the shores of Florida, Georgia, and the eastern Gulf region that it is likely to find its superior in the Cuban Pine (Pinus heterophylla). Besides the advantages of adaptability to varied soil and climate, it excels in rapidity of growth during the earliest stages, and the copious production of seeds, which, almost without fail, are plentifully distributed every year over the vicinity of the parent trees. As an evidence of the facility with which the reproduction of a compact forest by this pine is effected, it is only necessary to point out the spontaneous groves near the settlements, representing, as they do, every stage of development. : In the coast region the second growth, if not interfered with under proper soil conditions, yields in fifty to sixty years timber of dimensions rendering it fit to be sawn into lumber well adapted for various uses, as already mentioned. CONCLUSION, In this attempt at a sketch of the life history of this tree, the object was constantly kept in view of placing its value among the products of the Southern forests in the proper light. From the consideration of the structure of the wood and its physical properties it clearly appears that although inferior to the wood of the Longleaf and Cuban pines, the timber of this species fully equals that of Shortleaf Pine, and that the present practice of treating them as equivalent seems therefore justified. As an abundant and cheap source of timber of inferior grades, and especially when the rapidity of its growth is considered, the Loblolly Pine is of no less economic importance than the other timber trees of the same section. At present held in low esteem in the great lumbering districts of the lower South, where the supplies of the superior timber of the Longleaf Pine still abound and receive the preference, the value of the timber of the Loblolly Pine is quickly recog- nized in other districts which, but a short while ago boasting of similar resources, are now stripped of them. Its physiological peculiarities make it an important factor in the future forestry of this section. Its propagation is successful over a vast expanse in the southern section of the Atlantic forest region, and by its productive capacities, mode of development, and behavior toward com- peting species in the struggle for existence, the Loblolly Pine possesses great advantages for its natural and artificial renewal, adapting it particularly for the restoration of the forests on the lowlands of the maritime region. REE SPRUCE PUNE, (PINUS GLABRA Walt.) HISTORICAL. DISTRIBUTION. ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE. BOTANICAL DESCRIPTION. PROGRESS AND DEVELOPMENT. ENEMIES. REQUIREMENTS OF DEVELOPMENT. THE SPRUCE PINE. (Pinus glabra Walt.) Synonyms: Pinus glabra Walter, Fl. Caroliniana, 237 (1788). Pinis mitis 8 (2) paupera Wood, Cl. Book, ed. 41, 660 (1855). COMMON OR LOCAL NAMES. Spruce Pine (S. C., Ala., Fla.). Walter's Pine (S. C.). Cedar Pine (Miss.). Lowland Spruce Pine (Fla.). White Pine (Fla.). Poor Pine (Fla.). 126 fee SPRUCE, PINE: By CHARLES Mone, Ph. D. INTRODUCTORY. The Spruce Pine is the least common of the pines found in the lower Southern States. The tree is frequently confounded by the inhabitants with the Shortleaf Pine, to which it is closely related. Its vernacular names are, in different sections of its range, applied to several other pines; in Florida to the Sand Pine (Pinus clausa), in north Alabama to the Scrub Pine (Pinus virginiana), and in the southern part of this State even to the Cuban Pine. Although never forming extensive bodies of timber, being for the most part widely scattered among the broadleaf evergreens and deciduous trees with which it is associated, and in the quality of its wood of low rank, this little known tree has been given a place here among the monographs of the timber pines of the South Atlantic forest region in order to dispel for the future its confusion with some of these trees, and at the same time to attract the attention of the tree planter to it as the only one of its kind which thrives and propagates in the shade, keeping its ground closely surrounded by the luxuriant and varied tree growth with which it is associated, and soon outstripping the same by the rapidity of its growth. Considering that among all others of its kind in the same region it attains the fuliness of its growth in the shortest time, with dimensions which render it valuable for many of the pur- poses for which the softer and lighter kinds of timber are used, its economic importance can not be ignored. HISTORICAL. The Spruce Pine was first recognized as a distinct species and described as Pinus glabra by Walter, in his Flora Carolinensis in 1788, having since that time been known under this name by the botanists. Hidden in the remote semiswampy dense forests, it escaped the attention of later botanists. Neither the Michauxs, father and son, nor Nuttall were aware of its existence. It was unknown for fully three-fourths of a century until rediscovered by Professor Ravenel in the swamps of Berkeley County, 8. C. Ten years later the tree was described in Chapman’s Flora, 1860. It was recognized by Professor Hilgard in the Pearl River Valley, Mississippi. In 1880 its distribution was traced by the writer through the Gulf region to its western limit in the eastern parishes of Louisiana. DISTRIBUTION. The Spruce Pine is a tree of the southeastern Atlantic forest, confined to the subtropical region or the Louisianian zone of American botanists, within that part of the coastal plain of the southern Atlantic and the Gulf States embraced between the thirty-first and thirty-third degrees of north latitude; from South Carolina through middle and northwestern Florida to Louisiana, with its western limit between the Pearl and Mississippi rivers. This tree is mostly found single or in groups on the low terraces with a fresh or damp soil rich in humus, rising above the swamps subject to frequent overflow. It isseldom seen to form compact bodies of timber; such have only been observed between the Chattahoochee and Choctawhatchee rivers, in northwestern Florida, where, to all appearances, this tree finds its best development on isolated tracts of fertile red loam lands. ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE. Nowhere forming pure forests of any extent, this pine is of little importance to the lumbering interests of the present, and its timber has never become an article of commerce. Although the timber is of inferior quality, it furnishes lumber of dimensions equaling the best of our timber 127 128 TIMBER PINES OF THE SOUTHERN UNITED STATES. pines. It is light, soft, easily worked, and capable of good finish, and is without doubt fit for many uses of the house carpenter and cabinetmaker in the manufacture of furniture and other purposes. Owing to the large percentage of ash and smaller quantity of resinous matter, the actual fuel value of the wood of the Spruce Pine is lower than that of the other Southern pines; for its resinous product the tree is considered of no value, since the resin does not run when it is tapped.' : In its wood the Spruce Pine resembles Loblolly. The sapwood is wide, and even in trees seventy-five to eighty years old it forms more than three-fourths of all the wood. The change from sap to heart wood begins as early as in the pines mentioned, and as in these is retarded with age and also with any suppression of growth, so that in stunted young trees the change begins later, and the sapwood of these, as well as old trees, is always composed of a greater number of rings. While green, the wood is very heavy, weighing 45 to 50 pounds per cubie foot, varying in this respect chiefly with the proportion of sapwood. When kiln-dried, the wood weighs about 27 pounds to the cubic foot; it is heavier at the butt, weighing about 31 pounds to the cubic foot, and lightest near the top, where its weight falls as low as 25 pounds to the cubic foot. As in other pines, the heaviest wood is produced by young trees. The amount of water contained in the fresh wood is quite variable—very great in the sapwood, and consequently in young timber—but falls little below 50 per cent of the weight of green timber on the whole. Its behavior in drying is the same as in light grades of Loblolly; it dries rapidly and without much injury, shrinking, during this process, by about 10 per cent of its volume. The strength of this wood is, as in other conifers, closely related to its weight. Accordingly, the Spruce Pine is inferior to both Shortleaf and Loblolly. From careful experiment it appears that its— Lbs. per sq. inch. Modulus of elasticity is about..--......-.....-.-.--. <2. ---------- 900, 000 Uebel beriseule safer ad te Ae SP ROS Sarl eos Sedo seb cono sep esos 6, 000 Compression endwisers: == 5 s-7023 22 eae eae same ae eee 4, 000 In its structure the wood resembles too closely that of the Loblolly to enable as yet any identification on this feature, and the description for the wood of the Loblolly answers perfectly for the product of this species. As in Loblolly and other hard pines, summerwood and springwood are always well defined, the summerwood forming from 15 up to 40 per cent of the total volume, differing in this respect from the White Pine which it has been claimed to resemble. Thus while decidedly softer on the whole than Loblolly it is by no means to be expected that the Spruce Pine can hope to serve as a general substitute for the true White Pine. BOTANICAL DESCRIPTION. Leaves invariably in pairs, with short and close sheath; soft, slender, 14 to 3 inches long, twisted; cones short-stalked, horizontal or reflexed, the cone scales with a flat apophysis, the depressed umbo unarmed or with a minute weak erect prickle. The Spruce Pine is readily distinguished by the close bark of its trunk which in the crown and the limbs is perfectly smooth and of a light gray color; in foliage and in cones it resembles most closely the Sand Pine (Pinus clausa) of the coast region of Florida and the eastern Gulf States, which however is distinguished by the more prominent apophysis of the cone scales, armed with a short, stout, reflexed prickle. The Shortleaf Pine, to which it is next related, is distinguished by the same characters and further by the fascicles of two and three leaves and the rigid young shoots of the season covered with slender, long, loosely fimbriated bud scales. The leaves are concave, faintly serrulate, short pointed, and are shed during the latter part of the second season or the beginning of the third. In the details of their structure they differ little from the leaves of the Shortleaf Pine; the rows of breathing pores (stomata) are numerous on both surfaces; the strengthening cells of the cortical tissue are smaller and less numerous; the resin ducts, two or three, are parenchyma- tous, the cells of the bundle sheath thin walled. The two fibro-vaseular bundles distant and without strengthening cells. ‘Ravenel: Proceed, of Elliott Society, Charleston, I, 52. GROWTH OF SPRUCE PINE. 129 The male flowers are lateral, sessile, and about one-half to three-fourths of an inch long» slender, surrounded by five to six pairs of short ovate, rather obtuse stiff scales, with a narrow, membranaceous lacerated border. The crest of the anther is elliptical, with fine denticulations. The small female aments are mostly single, short stalked, the carpellary scales lance-shaped with slender tips and subtended by the short infertile bract. The cones are mostly single with a short stalk and of various shapes on the same tree, from round to oblong ovate or more or less cone-shaped, from 1} to 2 inches long, and, on the opening of the scales from three-fourths to one inch wide, of a light tawny color. The scales are softer and more flexible than in the Shortleaf Pine, the apophysis broader, with the umbo depressed, unarmed, or with a minute, weak, erect, and deciduous prickle, the ridge faint, hazel-brown on the inside. The somewhat triangular roughish seeds, black with brown specks, about three- sixteenths of an inch long and one-eighth inch wide, separating easily from the wing which is little over one-half inch long and surrounds the seed to the base. PROGRESS OF DEVELOPMENT. The Spruce Pine begins to flower and to produce perfect seeds at an age of twelve to fifteen years, in greatest abundance between twenty and forty years; the flowers appear during the earliest part of March; shortly after pollination the female aments assume a horizontal position, and finally become more or less reflected. At the end of the first season the conelets are of the size of a large pea. The cones mature in the second year in the month of September; the seeds are freely shed early in the fall. They germinate during the fall and early in the coming spring; the plantlets, with eight to ten slender, soft cotyledons, are over an inch long. The terminal bud develops rapidly, densely covered with the slender, soft primary leaves which are sharp pointed and frequently over an inch in length. Early in April seedlings are found over one-half foot Jong, later in the season fascicles of the foliage leaves appear in the axils of the upper primary leaves, when the lower wither and disappear near the end of the season. At this stage the seedlings are generally a foot high with the root system less developed than in its kindred species at the same age; the taproot scarcely 2 inches in length with a few short lateral roots. With the twentieth year the trees are generally from 30 to 35 feet high and 4 to 44 inches in diameter, the stem clear of limbs for the length of about 12 feet. They attain their full growth at an age of from sixty to seventy-five years. The trees for the United States timber tests from the border of the swamps on the banks of the Tensaw River in Baldwin County, Ala., showed the following dimensions and age: Measurements of jive trees. Rings on | Diameter | Length of | Height of Sap on No: of tree, stump. breasthigh.| timber. tree. radius. Inches. Feet. Feet. 458 78 22 45 120 5k | 459 | 53 17 56 96 54 sectoomescic:! 46 15 40 65 All sap. 460 75 | 22 57 99 5 461 83 23 60 116 5 | From these figures it appears that the two trees forty-six and fifty-three (average forty-nine) years old have an average volume of 63 cubie feet and grew at the rate of about 1.3 cubic feet, while the three trees seventy-five to eighty-three (average seventy-eight) years old have an average volume of about 152 cubic feet and an average yearly growth of about 2 cubic feet. The following represents a typical case: Growth of Spruce Pine. leniamate | Height 4 Diameter | volume of 5 Average yearly growth in— | Rings on without = SAEED? 1A bark. wood. | Height. Diameter. Volume. | } Feet. Inches. Cubic ft. Feet. Inches. Cubic ft. | 10 37 5 2. aie 0.5 0.2 20 51 | 8.5 9.5 1.4 .3 : 30 67 12 26 | ati |} .3 | 1.6 45 84 15 51 1Gal 2 1.6 a For age of tree add about three years. 17433—No, 13——9 130 TIMBER PINES OF THE SOUTHERN UNITED STATES. The Spruce Pine attains a height of from 85 to 110 feet and over; the trunk is clear of limbs for a length of from 45 to 60 feet, and it is from 2 to 24 feet in diameter breast high, seldom exceeding 3 feet. The largest trees observed were about 120 feet in height by a girth of fuily 10 feet breast high. The taproot appears to be less strongly developed than in the Shortleaf, the lower lateral roots run for a short distance close to the surface before penetrating the ground; the bark is close, with deep, narrow furrows, separating in narrow thin scales and of a reddish-brown color. The limbs are horizontal, dividing in rectangular spreading branches and branchlets. The leaves also become in the latter part of the season widely spreading, the density of the foliage being reen- forced by the leaves of the short branchlets produced on the older branches from adventitious buds. To this spreading habit of the ultimate division of the branches and of the leaves is due the peculiar spray of the foliage, similar to that of the true cedars. ENEMIES. No observations have been made of the injuries inflicted upon this tree by insects. Trees, after having passed the period of full growth, at the age of about 100 years are very frequently affected with decay in the stump and with redheart in the top. In the damp hummock lands the tree is rarely touched by fire. Where the underbrush and the vegetable matter of the soil covering has been destroyed by repeated conflagrations, however, the trees begin to sicken and soou die. REQUIREMENTS OF DEVELOPMENT. The Spruce Pine requires the warm climate of the subtropical zone, with a mean annual temperature of about 66° F. and a mean temperature of 49° F. in the winter months (in central Alabama the thermometer falls sometimes to an extreme of 5° F°.), and the humid atmosphere of the coastal plain, with a mean annual rainfall of 54 inches, evenly distributed throughout the year. This tree will endure, during the early stages of its growth, more shade than any other of the pines of the Atlantic forest region, perhaps the White Pine (Pinus strobus) excepted. Retarded in its growth under severe oppression, it will finally force its way through its close surroundings, and having gained a freer access to light, it pushes its crown rapidly above the broad-leaved evergreens and deciduous trees which luxuriate on the same ground. It demands a loose soil, rich in humus, fresh to moist but not wet, with a deep porous subsoil, which in these lands is frequently a light, sandy loam. The Spruce Pine is never found in the forest of the alluvial bottoms with their heavy soil, sub- ject to frequent overflow, nor in the dry, sandy pine forests. Where it finds the soil conditions most favorable to its growth, Magnolias, Cucumber trees, Sweet Gum, Mockernut Hickory, and Beech are found of greatest thrift, not infrequently associated with the Shortleaf and the Loblolly pines. The undergrowth on such lands is luxuriant, consisting of Dogwood, Holly, Summer Haw, and a variety of shrubs, Bush Huckleberries ( Vaccinium virgatum), Farkleberries (V. arboreum), Storax Bushes (Styrax grandifolium), Cornals (Cornus sericea), and Blue Palmetto, forming dense brush interlaced by numerous woody climbers ( Vitis, Ampelopsis, Wistaria). As has been observed in northwestern Florida, where it finds the proper soil conditions, the second growth of this pine soon occupies the clearings made in the original forest. Tracts of young forests of much promise have been met with between the Choctawhatchee and Chattahoochee rivers. The hummock land, forming the home of the Spruce Pine, being with the increase of the population rapidly claimed for cultivation, this beautiful pine will soon be solely confined to the most remote and inaccessible localities. Being the only really soft pine of the Southern States, and having by its shade endurance a peculiar forest value, this tree will probably form an important part in the future, when forestry has become an established business. NOTES ON THE STRUCTURE OF THE WOOD OF THE FIVE SOUTHERN PINES. (Pinus palustris, tada, echinata, heterophylla, glabra.) Sap AND HEARTWOOD. ANNUAL RINGS. SPRING AND SUMMER Woop. GRAIN OF THE Woop. MINUTE ANATOMY. 131 “=? = fo Pe , ~~ ; ee ae orn eee oy Bo eR ETIVLRN 1)" ae-8- ra th ORR 7 4.6 > ’ 7 i) ariel v : iy a ee j ot rt oy z Papa eb * LS a ae ce 0 ny ie mai _— fais mA ; Sel en oe a | at ia A at weer 7 tt) rr. a oe rr : ; ° ¥ lercal : ma aA ie Vers a ale i i‘ py rai A ens 7 = 7 i a : 4 oP eS oP hs iad and eee a ee nee heat on ¢. ae irprape : ; .% ms me x ns = =) "9 7 4 hss, Y= was “> Ls ; ii ag f 4 Ld a © 7 ‘ i] 4 is 94 4 a bs te ’ ¢ ryt, « r 4 ra in : >. Ek a ae . SPA, «> | 4) or sp 7 os Ms we he Se) = “a - st agi eagle 7 NOTES ON THE STRUCTURE OF THE WOOD OF THE FIVE SOUTHERN PINES. (Pinus palustris, heterophylla, echinata, tada, glabra.) By FILiBerT Rorn, In charge of Timber Physics, Division of Forestry. The wood of these pines is so much alike in appearance and even in minute structure that it can be discussed largely without distinction of species. The distinctions, as far as there are any, have been pointed out in the introduction. Here it is proposed to give in more detail the char- acteristics of the wood structure. SAP AND HEART WOOD. All five species have a distinct sap and heartwood, the sap being light yellow to whitish, the heart yellowish to reddish or orange brown. The line of demarcation between the two is well defined, without any visible transition stage. The location of this line does not as a rule coincide with the line of any annual ring, so that the wood of the same year’s growth may be sap on one side of the tree and heart on the other. The difference in this condition may amount to ten or twenty rings, which on one side of the same section will be heart, on the other side sap. ; There is considerable variation in the relative width of the two zones as well as the number of rings involved in either and also in the age at which the transition from sap to heartwood begins. This age was rarely found to be below twenty years; as a rule the transformation begins in young trees when the particular section of the tree is between twenty and twenty-five years old, but the progress of heart formation does not keep pace with the annual growth, being more and more retarded as the tree grows older, so that while in a section twenty-five years old twenty-two rings may be sapwood, at thirty-five years the sapwood will comprise only thirty rings; at forty-five years, forty rings; at eighty years, fifty rings; and in sections two hundred years old the outer eighty to one hundred rings will still be sap. A young tree ot Longleaf Pine (No. 22) was, for instance, found to show the following relations: Height | Peareryea ms Age of Rings of SNR stanny. | peu | sap. Feet. Years. | Number. | 1D 0 Pasa 6 46 40 Viena 14 38 | 33 | ise | 22 30 27 18 Spear 30 24 23 OD ees 42 18 17 The change from sap to heart wood begins eariier in young trees than in the younger portions of older trees; in these latter, sections thirty-six and forty years old are quite commonly found still entirely made up of sapwood, while in young trees, as stated above, the change begins before the age of thirty years. The progress of the transformation is somewhat influenced by the rate of growth; it is slower in slow-growing trees and usually also on the slower-growing radius, i. e., there are more rings of 133 134 TIMBER PINES OF THE SOUTHERN UNITED STATES. sapwood. The width of the sapwood, on the other hand, stands in relation to the rate of growth in an epposite manner; it is wider in young and thrifty than in old and stunted trees, and widest along the greatest radius of any section; similarly, it is wider in the faster-growing Loblolly, Cuban, and Spruce pines than in the slow-growing Longleaf. Besides being of a lighter color the sapwood differs from the heartwood in several respects. Its resin is limpid and oozes out of the pores or resin ducts of any fresh cut; that of the heartwood does not flow, except in rare cases, from saturated pieces or “light wood.” The sapwood contains much less rosin—both rosin and turpentine—than the heart wood. Thus in a section of Longleaf the sapwood contained only 0.2 per cent of turpentine and 1 per cent of rosin, while the heart contained from 2 to 4 per cent of turpentine and 12 to 24 per cent of rosin, and though this is an extreme case the heart generally has three to five times as much resinous matter as the sap. The fresh sapwood contains three to five times as much free water as the heartwood and is, even when seasoned, more hygroscopie and subject to relatively greater shrinkage than the heart. This capacity for taking up water readily is probably one of the reasons why sapwood decays more readily. In addition, the parenchyma cells of the medullary rays and resin ducts (see further on) contain, at least in the outer parts of the sapwood, living protoplasm and reserve food materials which are readily seized upon by fungi which cause “‘bluing” and decay. Such living tissue does not exist in the heartwood. The heartwood in old logs generally is heavier than the sapwood. This is not due to any later thickening or growth of its cell walls, after their original formation, but is due chiefly to two causes: 1. The heartwood of old logs was formed when the tree was younger, and made, naturally, heavier wood. . 2. The accumulation of resin in the heart already referred to increases often very considerably the weight of the heartwood. In the same way the sapwood of old logs, such as supply the sawmills, is weaker than the heartwood of the same logs, but this is not because the wood is in the sapwood condition, but because it is lighter and its summerwood per cent smaller, being, as stated before, the product of old age when heavy and strong wood is no longer formed. Chemically the wood substance of sapwood is practically like that of heartwood; the coloring substances which permeate the cell walls in heartwood appear to be infiltrations, i. e., deposited in the walls from solutions; they are insignificant in amount, and their true nature, especially the processes leading to their formation, are not yet fully understood. The most modern views which consider these coloring bodies or heartwood substances as products of oxidation of tannin still require confirmation. ANNUAL RINGS. The layers of growth, known and appearing on any cross section as annual rings, show very distinctly in the wood of these pines. In a section 8 or 10 feet from the ground the rings are widest at the center, of considerable width for the first thirty to fifty rings, the period of most rapid growth in height; then they grow more and more narrow toward the periphery. In the last sixty to one hundred rings of very old logs the decrease is very small, the rings remaining practically of the same width. The same year’s growth is usually wider in the upper part of the stem, both in young and old trees, but the average width of the rings is naturally greater in the upper part only of young trees; in old and also in stunted trees it is smaller, since in these the upper portions do not share in the more rapid growth of the early years. Rings over half an inch wide are frequently seen in Loblolly and occur in Spruce Pine; rings one-fourth of an inch in width occur in very thrifty saplings of ail five species, but the average width of the rings for sapling timber is usually less than one-fourth of an inch, commonly one-eighth. In trees over one hundred years old it drops to one-twelfth of an inch and even below. The average width of the rings is normally smallest in Longleaf Pine, being one-twenty-fifth of an inch and less. (See also tables and diagrams of rate of growth in the introduction, as well as in the several monographs. ) The influence of orientation on the width of the rings is completely obscured by other, more potent influences, so that sometimes the radius on the north side, other times that of some other ANNUAL RINGS. 135 side, is the greatest; and it is a common observation to see this relation vary within wide limits, even in the trunk of the same tree. Stunted trees of Longleaf Pine over one hundred years old with an average width of ring of one-fiftieth of an inch are frequently met with in old timber; of the other species no such trees were observed. The decrease of the width of the rings from center to periphery is never perfectly uniform, Not only do consecutive rings differ within considerable limits, but frequently zones of narrower rings, including thirty or more years’ growth, disturb the general regularity. -Where these zones consist of very narrow rings, one-fiftieth of an inch or less, the wood is of distinctly lighter color and weight. Since the value of this class of wood depends not only on its strength and stiffness but also on the fineness of its rings (grain), in so far as the grain influences both the appearance and the ease of shaping as well as other mechanical properties, the width of the annual ring is of great importance, from a technical point of view, the finer-ringed (grained) wood of the same weight always deserving and mostly receiving preference. The rings of the limbs are narrower than the corresponding rings of the stem. Moreover, they are usually of different widths on the upper and lower side of the same branch, those of the latter excelling in width those of the former. Frequently the wider lower part of a ring of a branch appears like a “lune” on the cross section, quite wide (one-eighth of an inch and more) in its lower median part, and scarcely visible, often entirely fading out, on the upper side. This difference is com- monly accentuated by the appearance of the wood itself. In the upperpart the wood of the ring is normal and light colored, owing to a very small summerwood per cent; on the lower wide part, the “lune,” the wood is commonly of reddish color, either even throughout the entire width of the ring, or else in several varicolored bands, which give the appearance of two or more separate ill-defined rings. Sometimes the earliest formed springwood is included in this unusual colora- tion, at other times only the median portion of the ring. This ‘red wood,” as it has been termed by the French and German writers, is composed of very thick walled cells and increases markedly the weight of the wood, so that the wood of the side containing it is usually much the heaviest. It is of interest that the several ‘‘lunes” in any cross section occur rarely, if ever, exactly one above the other, but commonly the radius passing through the middle of one *‘ lune” makes an angle of 20 to 40 degrees with the radius passing through the middle of another **lune.” Often successive ‘‘ lunes” show considerable deviation in position and commonly differ in width or degree of development. Accepting the most recent explanation of this phenomenon as expressed by Hartig and Cieslar,' it would appear that the formation of these broad “lunes” of especially strong cells is due to pressure-stimulus on the growing cambium, caused by the weight of the limb an its peculiar position, increased at all times by movements of the limb due to the wind. More- over it seems that the formation of one well-developed “lune” relieves for a time the pressure, and with it the necessity for a repetition of this formation. These “lunes” are most conspicuous in the limbs of these pines near the trunk, and disappear at variable distances from the trunk and with them disappears the eccentricity and the difference in appearance and weight of the wood of the limbs. Immediately at the junction of limb and stem the pressure is constant, and the result is the formation of almost uniformly thick-walled tissue in all parts of the ring, giving to the “ knot” its great weight and hardness. Lunes similar to those of the limb are frequently observed in the stems of small trees wherever this has been noted it was found on the underside of a leaning or curyed portion. Oceasionally such a ‘‘lune” extends for 12 and more feet up and down. Quite distinct from this modification of the annual ring is another modification frequently seen, especially in young trees, giving rise to so-called “ false” rings. It consists in the appearance of one or more, rarely two, dark-colored lines, which precede the true summerwood band of the ring. These lines, resembling the summerwood in color and composed like it of thick-walled cells, follow the true springwood of the year and are separated from the summerwood and from each other (if there are more than one), by a light-colored line resembling springwood. While occasionally this is somewhat misleading in counting the rings, a moderate magnification usually suffices to ; 2 ‘A. Cieslar, ‘‘Rotholz d. Fichte,” Centralblatt f. d. g. Forstwesen 1896, p. 149, and Robert Hartig “Das Rothholz der Fichte” in Torstlich-naturwissenschaftliche Zeitschrift, 1896, p. 165. *Cieslar produced them at will by bending young spruce saplings. 136 TIMBER PINES OF THE SOUTHERN UNITED STATES. distinguish the real character of the tissues, as described later on. A more serious difficulty arises in very old, slowly growing trees, where the ring sometimes is represented by only one to three cells (see fig. 18) and occasionally disappears, i. e., is entirely wanting in some parts of the cross section. Generally these cases, due to various causes, are too rare to seriously interfere in the establishment of the age of a tree. SPRING AND SUMMER WOOD. The difference between spring and summer wood is strongly marked in these pines, the transition from the former to the latter being normally abrupt and giving to the annual ring the appearance of two sharply defined bands. (See figs. 13 and 18B.) In wide rings the transition is sometimes gradual. The springwood is light colored, has a specific gravity of about 0.40, and thus weighs somewhat less than half as much as the darker summerwood, with a specifie gravity of about 0.90 to 1.05, so that the weight and with it the strength of the wood is greater, the larger the amount of summerwood. (See diagram, fig. 14.) \ & -LAST 50-4-2N0 50 RINGS —b- — — —- 380 50 RINGS. — = — 2 = — — 4TH SD RINES.— — —7 CENTRAL 28 RINGSA 'RINGS OR 50 | 1YRS. GROWTH. | | | 1SUMMER WOOD! SUMMER wood. | SUMMER WOOD, | SUMMER WOOD, SUMMER WOOD, | B22, | 30% | 45%. 52%. | 46%, | 1 | ! | | t l I ! | = } u Fig. 13.—Variation of summerwood per cent from pith to bark. The absolute width of the summerwood varies generally with the width of the ring (see diagram, fig. 15), i. e., the wider the ring the wider the summerwood band. It decreases in a cross section of an old log from near the pith to the periphery, and in the same layer, from the stump to the top of the tree. Where the growth of the stem is very eccentric, the wood along the greater radius has the greatest proportion of summerwood; thus, in a disk of Longleaf, for instance, there is on the north side a radius of 152 mm. with 27 per cent summerwood; on the south side a radius of 95 mm. and a summerwood per cent of only 20 per cent. In the stump section the great irregularity in the contour of the rings is accompanied by a corresponding irregularity in the outline of the summerwood. The summerwood generally forms less than half of the total volume of the whole log (see fig. 13); it forms a greater part of the coarse-grained wood which was grown while the tree was young than in the fine-ringed outer parts of the log, grown in the old age period. It also forms a greater part in the volume of the butt than of the top log, and thus fully explains the well-known difference in the weight, strength, and value of the various parts of the tree. The following table serves to illustrate this point. The numbers in each line refer to the average values for the same ten annual layers through three sections of the tree at varying height. The figures in italics below refer to specific gravity for the same layer. The values for specific gravity were calculated on the basis of SPRING AND SUMMER WOOD. 137 allowing a specific gravity of 0.40 for springwood and 0.90 for summerwood, the values for the entire disks as actually observed being given below: Summerwood per cent and specific gravity in various parts of a tree of Longleaf Pine. | | | | ‘ 1 | 11} 21] 31 | 41 | 51 | 61 | 71 | 81 | 91 | 101) 111] 121) 131) 141} 151) 161 171 |181 191 | 201 | 211 | 221 | 231 Aver- Rings from periphery. to | to | to | to | to | to | to | to | to | to | to | to | to | to | to | to | to | to | to | to | to | to | to | to | 480 10 | 20 | 30 | 40 | 50 | 60 | 70 | 80 | 90 | 100] 110) 120 | 130/140) 150) 160 170 180 | 190 200 | 210] 220 | 230 | 236) , 50") 56| 48| 46) 48) 43) 47 47 52| 45) 42 a15 45 68 | .64| .63| .64| .61| .63| .63| .66| .62| .61| .47| .626 Section I, 3 feet from ground.| 39} 44| 40| 42] 38) 35| 45) 32| 44) 66) 43) 43) 52 .59 | .62| .G0| .61| .69| .57 | 62) .56| .62| .73| .61| .61| .66 | Section IV, 35 feet from | | round eeencsneecancecicen~ <= 26] 24] 25] 34| 28| 24] 26] 24) 35] 49) 31] 33| 43) 84) 40) 31) 34) 3: 33 68 | 62 57 | .54| .52| 63 | .52| .57| 64] 055 | .56 | 61] .6 Section VII, 70 feet from | PTOUNG cece ceccecncereccs 23| 16) 17] 18| 18} 20} 16] 20) 18] 26] 21} 24) 19 .61| 48) 48| .49| .49| .50| .48| .50| .49| .53| .50| .62 a Six rings next to pith. b Two rings. cOne ring. The observed values of specific gravity for the three sections are 0.700, 0.560, and 0.490, respectively. It will be noticed that the greatest difference between the calculated and the actual value of specific gravity occurs in the section at the stump. This is fully accounted for by the fact that large amounts of resin, not considered: in the values of summerwood per cent, always occur in this portion, adding from 5 to 20 per cent to the weight of the wood. QR as) S$ 8 is v iS : XH iE 8 8 S N x > a y 8 = Be S sty & g 1Oe 1 Ie 18 4 elo 16) ie 1S oO) eOnely nee: Decades of Rings from periphery 6 Fig. 14.—Variation of specific gravity with summerwood per cent and age of section in Longleaf Pine, the solid lines referring to @ section 3 feet from the ground, the dotted lines to one 14 feet from the ground. (Specific gravity as actually observed on pieces of 1 inch radial extent.) In stunted trees the summerwood forms nearly as great a per cent of the total volume for the whole tree as in thrifty trees of the same age, but in the stunted growth, or extremely narrow ringed portion of otherwise normal trees, the per cent of summerwood is markedly decreased, a feature which becomvs conspicuous in the lighter color of the wood of such portions. (See diagram, fig. 15.) Where, on the other hand, the rate of growth in an old tree is suddenly increased by the accessibility of more light, for instance, the summerwood per cent also is disproportionately increased, but this disproportion appears to be more transient, i. e., a decrease in the summerwood per cent sets in sooner than for the rate of growth or the width of the rings. (See fig. 15.) In some of the rapidly grown Loblolly and Spruce Pine the summerwood forms but a small part of the first ten to twenty years’ growth, and in all cases the first few rings about the pith have but little summerwood. In general, the summerwood per cent varies in the several species as well as in the individual with the weight of the wood, which is least in the Spruce Pine, greatest in Cuban and Longleaf Pine, and stands between these in Loblolly and Shortleaf. It furnishes a very useful criterion to distinguish between these groups and especially to select strong timber. 138 TIMBER PINES OF THE SOUTHERN UNITED STATES. In the limb the sammerwood is most abundant in the knot (all wood practically partaking of the character of summerwood, at least as far as the thickness of cell walls is concerned) and in the part next to the stem, decreasing with the distance from the trunk. As might be expected, it also forms a larger per cent of the wood of the underside of limbs and the concave portions of bent trunks. Re HA eS ae : / 8 RS 8 § 8 . aS [| 1 Aaibs S & 100 ie — 8 / V a : x/ g QQ cS a Ry] nm 'S & = / si S ee Seg ea Wea 2 oO PN Le $ 47 Re ‘s < ~~ RS we Se Jess 2s. 6h h7er SO TONITE me 12S nT OT Decades of Rings trom periphery 3 19 2 Fig. 15.—Variation of summerwood per cent with rate of growth (width of ring), in tree No. 3, Longleaf Pine. Norte.—Only the heavy line represents summerwood per cent; the others indicate the actual width of the rings (upper pair) and of the band of summerwood (lower pair). GRAIN OF THE WOOD. Though usually quite straight grained, the wood of these species is by no means always so. Spiral growth leading to “‘ cross-grained” lumber occurs frequently, is usually more pronounced in the basal portions of the tree, and commonly varies from pith to bark in the same log. Wavy grain resembling that of the maple {curly maple) has not been observed, but an irregular wavy grain, due to the fact that the surface of the trunk for many years is covered with small, low eminences, 1 to a few inches across, is frequently seen, especially in Longleaf Pine, and leads to remarkably pretty patterns. Unfortunately the contrast of spring and summer wood being so very pronounced, the figures are somewhat obtrusive and, therefore, not fully appreciated. MINUTE ANATOMY. The minute structure or histology of the wood of the five species under consideration is that of a group whose position in a general classification of the wood of pines is indicated in the follow. ing scheme, suggested by Dr. J. Schroeder, and more completely by Dr. Hl. Mayr,! in which they appear as part of group 2 of Section I. ' Dr. J. Schroeder, Holz der Coniferen, Dresden, 1872, p. 65; Dr. H. Mayr, Waldungen von Nordamerika, Mtin- chen, 1890, p. 426. MICROSCOPICAL STRUCTURE. 139 Section I. Walls of the tracheids of the pith ray with dentate projections. a. One to two large, simple pits to each tracheid on the radial walls of the cells of the pith ray.—Group 1. Represented in this country by P. resinosa. , b. Three to six simple pits to each tracheid on the walls of the cells of the pith ray.—Group 2. I’. tuda, palustris, ete., including most of our ‘‘ hard” and ‘‘ yellow” pines. Section II. Walls of tracheids of pith ray smooth, without dentate projections. a, One or two large pits to each tracheid on the radial walls of each cell of the pith ray.—Group 3. P. strobus, lambertiana, and other true white pines. b. Three to six small pits on the radial walls of each cell of the pith ray.—Group 4. P. parryana, and other nut pines, inelud- ing also P. balfouriana. The general features of structure of coniferous woods are represented in the accompanying cut (fig 16). The structural elements, as in all pine, are few and simple and consist of (a) tracheids, the common wood fibers, forming over 90 per cent of the volume; (/) medul- lary or pith rays, minute cell aggregates composed of two kinds of cells, scarcely visible without magnifier and then only on the radial section, yet forming about 7 to 8 per . cent of the volume and weight of the wood in these spe- “™S-7°— Se ene eee se pa wee cies; (c) resin ducts, small passages of irregular length part of one ring magnified 100 times. The vertical surrounded by resin-secreting cells, seattered through the ae scaneie panes. earnest wood, but forming two more or less connected systems, pith ray; a,b, and c, bordered pits of the tracheids one running in the direction of the fibers, the other at more enlarged. right angles to the first, the individual ducts of the latter system always occupying the middle portion of medullary rays (see Pl. XX VII). The tracheids, or common wood fibers, are alike in all five species, and resemble those of other pines; they are slender tubes, 4.5 to 6 mm. (about one- fourth inch) long, forty to one hundred times as long as thick, usually hexagonal in cross section, with sharp or more or less rounded outlines (see Pl. X XI), flattened in tangen- tial direction at both ends (see Pl. XXI, A /), the diameter in radial direction being 45 to 55 yz. (about 0.002 inch) in the springwood, and about half that, or 21 to 25 4, in the sum- merwood, and in tangential direction about 40 4 on the average in their middle. They are arranged in regular radial rows (see Pl. X XI), which are continuous through an indefinite number of rings, but the number of rows increasing every year to accommodate the increasing circumference of the growing stem. (See Pl. XXI, Cc.) The fibers of the same row are practically conterminous, i. e., they all have about the same length, though at their ends they are often bent, slightly distorted, and usually separated (see Pl. XXI, B e¢; also fig. 17), their neighbors filling out the interspaces. There is no constant difference in the dimensions of these fibers in the different species here considered. In every tree the fibers are shortest and smallest near the pith of any section, rapidly increasing in size from the pith outward, and reaching their full size in about the tenth to twenticth ring from the pith. To illustrate: In a section of Longleaf Pine, 10 feet from the ground, the diameter of tracheids in radial direction is in ~=0.001 mm: Fic. 17.—Cell endings in pine. 140 TIMBER PINES OF THE SOUTHERN UNITED STATES. Number of) .. Ve aot Spring- Summer- rings from ae rope Average. center. | | “ |! pe “ 1 24 15 24 2 34 25 82 3 45 24 40 4 43 26 36 7 50 26 38 10 52 | 28 36 24-33 y2 28 36 44-53 | 52 7 37 As usual in conifers, the tracheids are largest in the roots and smallest in the limbs. In these pines, especially in Longleaf Pine, they are larger in well-grown wood than in that of extremely stunted trees, though very narrow rings in otherwise normal trees do not share this diminutive size of the tracheid. (See fig. 18, A and B, where a few very narrow rings are made up of elements of normal size.) ae ¥, a sey aS : at Fig, 18.—Cross section of normal and stunted growth in Longleaf Pine. The following average figures illustrate the difference between wood from very stunted trees and that of normal trees in Longleaf Pine, of which we give an average from an extensive series examined: | Radial diam- eter of tra- cheids in springwood p= 0,001 mm. Number of ree Average Character of * |widthof ring. Millimeters. | ). 4-0. 5 86 0. 4-0. 31-36 | Stunted. f 60 4 30-36 Do. 5 : 3-2 Do. 68 2.0 52 | Normal. sane a2 - i] oe x DESCRIPTION OF WOODY TISSUES. 141 As soon as the average width of the annual rings gets above 0.5 mm. the dimensions of the elements approach the normal. Thus, in trees Nos. 1 and 2, with average width of annual rings 0.5 to 0.6 mm., the average diameter of the tracheids in radial direction is 35 to 48 pu. Normally, the diameter in radial direction is greatest in the first-formed or inner part of any ring, and decreases even before the summerwood is reached. In narrow rings with an abrupt beginning of the summerwood, so common in these Southern pines, the diameter is quite con- stant throughout the springwood, but changes, together with the thickness of the wall, quite suddenly with the beginning of the summerwood, thus adding to the sharpness of the outlines of the two parts. (See Pl. X XI; also fig.18,B.) In nearly all sections there is an additional marked decrease in radial diameter in the last 3 to 5 cells of each row, which helps to emphasize the limits of the ring. In the so-called “false” rings, mentioned before, the cells of the false summerwood part resemble those of the normal summerwood. ‘The recognition of the false ring as such rests upon the difference in shape and dimensions of the last cell rows in comparison with those adjoin- ing. In the true summerwood the last cells are much flattened, with small lumen and somewhat reduced walls making a sharp definition toward the springwood of the next ring, which is still further accentuated by the wide lumen and thin wall of the cells of the latter. In the “ false” summerwood, on the contrary, the end cells are not flattened, and the cells of the light-colored adjoining zone of wood have but a moderately wide lumen and comparatively thick walls. The fact that the outline is less regular and commonly incomplete—i. e., it does not extend around the entire section—also aids in recognizing the false rings. In the “lunes” of both limb and stem referred to above the fibers are smaller, more rounded in cross section, and commonly exhibit conspicuous intercellular spaces between them. The walls of these are often much thicker than those of the summerwood of the same ring at this point. Since the radial diameter of the fibers of the summerwood is only about half as great as that of the springwood, it is clear that the number of fibers of the summerwood forms a much greater per cent of the total number of fibers than is indicated in the per cent of summerwood given above and based upon its relative width. Thus, in wood having 50 per cent of summerwood there are, in number, twice as many tracheids in the summerwood as in the springwood. The walls of the cells are generally about 3 to 34 « thick in the springwood, while in the summerwood they are 6 to 7 thick on the tangential side and 8 to 11 yw thick on the radial side of the fiber. Generally it may be said that the thickness varies inversely as the extent of the wall, i. e., the greater any diameter the thinner the walls parallel to this diameter, which gives the impression that each cell is furnished an equal quantum of material out of which to construct its house and had the tendency of giving an equal amount to each of its four or six sides. Generally the absolute width of the ring does not affect the thickness of the cell walls, the fibers of wide rings having no thicker walls than those of narrow rings; but when the growth of a tree is unusually suppressed, so that the rings are less than 0.5 mm. (0.02 inch) wide and each row consists of only a few fibers, the walls of the fibers of the summerwood, like those of the last- formed 2 or 3 fibers of ncrmal rings, are thinner, so that in these cases the wood is lighter in color and weight not only because there is relatively less summerwood, but also because the fibers of this summerwood have thinner walls. (See fig. 18, A and B.) In very stunted trees, where the rings are all very narrow, the reduced thickness of the walls is counterbalanced by the smaller size of the cells. All tracheids communicate with each other by means of the characteristic “bordered” pits. the structure of which is shown in fig. 16, These pits occur only on the radial walls of the fibers, They are most abundant near the ends of each fiber, fewest in the middle, form broken rows, single or occasionally double. (Pl. XXIII,C.) As in other pines the pits of the summerwood differ in appearance from those of the springwood. In the latter the pit appears in the cell lumen (radial view) as a perforated saucer-like eminence; in the former as a mere cleft, elongated in the direction of the longer axis of the fiber. (See Pl. XXI,B,dande; Pl. XXIV,D,dand E,a.) In both the essential part of the pit is similar, a circular or oval cavity resembling a double convex lens, with a thin membrane dividing it into two equal plano-conyex parts. (This membrane is shown only in the drawings, Pl. XXIV, D and EH.) In keeping with the small radial diameter of 142 TIMBER PINES OF THE SOUTHERN UNITED STATES. the fibers of the summerwood, these pits are much smaller in the summerwood than springwood, and usually are very much fewer in number. The simple pits are in sets and occur only at the points where the fiber touches the cells of a medullary ray. (See fig. 17, also Pl. XXIV, E, sp., and other figures of this plate and Pl, XXV.) Above and below these simple pits occur very small bordered pits, communicating with those of the short transverse fibers or tracheids which form part of all medullary rays. (See Pl. XXII, D, b. p.) As in all pines, the medullary or pith rays are of two kinds, the one small, 1 cell wide, and 1 to 10—in large averages 5 to 7—cells high; the other large, and each containing in the middle part a transverse resin duct. (See Pls, XXIT, XXIII, XXV, and XXVII.) Of the former there occur about 21 to 27 on each square millimeter (about 15,000 per square inch) of tangential section. The second class are much less abundant and scattered very irregularly, so that sometimes areas of several square millimeters are found without any of these rays. Generally about one of these rays oceurs to every 1.5 or 2 square millimeters, or about 300 to 400 per square inch of tangential section. In all rays the cell rows forming the upper and lower edge (see Pl. XXIII) are composed of short fibers or tracheids (transverse tracheids), while the inner rows contain only parenchyma cells. Occasionally small rays occur which are composed of tracheids only. (See Pl. XXII,C.) Frequently the rows of parenchyma are separated by one, rarely by two, series of tracheids (see Pl. XXIV, D, and Pl. XXV, D), giving rise to “double” or “triple” rays. The number of cell rows in each medullary or pith ray varies from 2 to 10, on an average trom 5 to 7, and of these the rows of tracheids or fibers form more than half. (See Pl. XX VI, where the outer cells or tracheids are marked with dots.) The tracheids of the rays have thick walls covered with point-and bar-like projections, the boldest of which are on the upper and lower walls and surround the bordered pits. (See Pls. XXII and XXIII.) These short tracheids communicate with the common wood fibers, with each other, as well as with the parenchyma cells, by means of small bordered pits, which in this last case are bordered on one side (side of the tracheid) and simple on the other (half-bordered pits), The parenchyma cells occupying the inner rows of each ray communicate in the springwood part of the ring with each neighboring tracheid by 3 to 6, commonly 4 to 5, simple elliptical pits, in the summerwood by a single narrow, elongated slit-like pit (see Pls. XXII and XXIII), and with each other by small, irregular, scattered simple pits. The walls of these cells are generally smooth, but local thickenings, especially on the upper and lower walls and surrounding the pits, oecur quite frequently, though not regularly. The parenchyma cells of the rays are usually somewhat broader and higher than the fibers, the average height for both being about 21 to 27 jy, the average width about 20 y, while the length of each cell and fiber, greater in springwood and least in the summerwood, is from two to ten times as great as the height. Assuming 25 « and 20 « to represent the average height and width, and allowing 25 rays of 6 cell rows each to each square millimeter of tangential section, then the rays form about 7.5 per cent of the total volume and weight of the wood of these species. An attempt to utilize for purposes of identification the difference in the number, size, and distribution of these rays, or the proportion between the number of rows of tracheids and those of parenchyma cells, as was done by Dr. J. Schroeder,' has not been successful, and appears of little promise. The large rays with transverse resin ducts resemble the smaller rays described. On Pl. XXV at A such a ray is seen both in radial and tangential section. Series of transverse tracheids occupy the upper and lower edge, but the interior, unlike that of common rays, is several cells wide, and contains an open duct in its widest portion. (See Pl. XXVII,7.d.) This duet is commonly more or less filled with resin (see P]. XX VII, E); it is surrounded by thin-walled secreting cells, and, in the heart wood, often divided or filled up by thylosis, i. e., by very thin walled, much puffed out cells, growing out of the surrounding secreting cells before the latter perish. The walls of the secreting cells are quite thin, those of the remainder of the parenchyma vary to some extent in the different species. In the Longleaf and Loblolly Pines the walls of the parenchyma composing the principal part of the ray are generally quite thick (see Pl. XX VII, A-5), 1 Dr. Julius Schroeder, Das Holz der Coniferen, Dresden, 1872. RESIN DUCTS. 143 thicker than those of the cells of ordinary rays, and especially thickened near the simple pits by which these cells communicate with each other. In Cuban and Shortleaf this thickening is much less conspicuous, and absent entirely in many cases (see Pl, XX V, A), while in the Spruce Pine it seems wanting altogether. These ducts exist even in the very first ring (next to the pith), are smaller and more numerous near center, but have essentially the same structure in the wood of the fifth and later years. The tracheids of the pith rays are wanting next to the pith, but occur in all rays in the outer part of even the first ring. The rays in this ring are generally lower, composed of fewer cell rows, but the cells are larger than in the rest of the wood. Both shape and size of these medullary rays are very variable; an average of about 0.4 mm. for the height of the ray and 60 , for the width at the resin duct was observed. An attempt to utilize the shape, especially the appearance of the two edges, as a means of separating the wood of these species has so far failed entirely. The large resin ducts running lengthwise in the wood or parallel to the common wood fibers are much larger than the transverse ducts, measuring, inclusive of the secretive cells, on an average about 0.2 mm. (0.008 inch) on their smaller radial diameter and about 0.3 mm. on the tangential. (See Pl. XXI, A, vr. d.) They are usually situated in the sammerwood of each ring, often in narrow rings, causing an irregular outline. They are smaller and more numerous near the pith, here usually forming several series in one annual ring, more numerous in wide rings than in narrow ones, but their number per square inch of cross section as well as their dimensions appear to be independent of the width of the rings. In their structure they resemble those of other pines. They are surrounded by thin-walled resin-secreting parenchyma, part of which often appears as if not directly connected with the duct. (See Pl. XXI, A.) In many cases all the tissue between two neighboring ducts is of this parenchyma. Longitudinal and transverse ducts frequently meet and thus form a continuous network of ducts throughout the wood. PLATE XXI.—CROSS SECTIONS. A, Pinus Txepa, 7. r.d., resin duet; 8. ¢., secreting cells; m.7., medullary rays; a, section of transverse tracheid of ray; b, the ray leaves the plain of the section at this point, small parts of it reappearing further on; c, simple pits connecting parenchyma cells of the ray; d-e, part of a row of tracheids formed during one season; J, flattened terminal part of a tracheid. B, PINUS HETEROPHYLLA, !9°. sp. w., Springwood; su. w., summerwood; a-b, part of a row of tracheids formed , ’ ! ] ? i £ J , ’ , Pp during one season; c, terminal parts of tracheids; d, bordered pit in springwood; e, same in summerwood; other letters as in 4. C, PINUS GLABRA, 14°. c, row of tracheids doubled; other letters as in B. Originals, all #92, 144 Bulletin No. 13, Division of Forestry, A el CII ses se JO! a PLATE XXI. ese ys @; mr sjesenis Or; ge {Ko Wr S SUI foleasniee SOS Or. CSE teatS SISO} ase Be? Ss sapeis S505) Pee = aS StS) | y=tel St Spats) | eleseists Lo (ete) | see eco Saga = ee) | Bisgasset v Sosa oes le Sh Ie \ LILY Ry (2 } 1° | { s[2} “\ ce-7e)h Bas = +" , (— [ = }3 4 o/ {ere t= 5 SIL _ : ‘Oey = je Og, | apieeisps =a NOI) fog e.2 alesse7a _ AION a Dome ea\eee=) a (aCe) aio .02 = CUR u ee) re herS) AVIS aS Se woe eelbeee a PERS Eee | oc O oH 1 ®) Jo} Ul o eh Gi \ 72 CSe@o x ——— oe Q = ort lo! ¢ WS | KD) MOC. SS eee ee = ‘ LI \ | WE C) SCP SS Cn ae: iS Sey SSS J 8 i O WC [ef as - (Gay a —— —— i Al A i see Soosebuues ero cS | ( at tgecle Ss AY Fi \. NN } a @) a ie i aca io jo TYPICAL CROSS SECTIONS OF PINUS TZDA, HETEROPHYLLA, AND GLABRA. PLATE XXII. A, PINUS ECHINATA. Cross section of two rings; sp. w., springwood; su. w., summerwood. ZB, PINUS PALUSTRIS. Cross section of a very narrowring. Of the two medullary rays one is cut through a row of parenchyma, the other through a row of tracheids. : C and D, PINUS GLABRA. Radial sections; m.r., medullary rays; tr., tracheids of the medullary rays; p., parenchyma of the same; s. p., simple pits leading from the parenchyma to the neighboring tracheids or common fibers c. tr.; b. p., bordered pit. The ray at C is made up of tracheids only. £, PINus paLustris. Radial section; lettering as in D. Orivinals magnified: A, */°, the rest 9°; illustrations: 4A, +9, the rest 79°. 146 PLATE XXII. Bulletin No, 13, Division of Forestry, SSsess = S=ee/S° Ke So NaSue els e@a @ Cir (CC ne = See eo CU) Gen ACO gon ec } Ce ee cm jee io eS Se CC 5 “SP. = ee CIC) os CNC OS Yi | = SA ‘OF Sy} @ Vg | S Ok i aN (ees a = 2 ay eee ser |: ORAZ ICC eee SRST) | oa ICAI SIE @ | re A) oe SOT P Se. \2o8 AL map Be See Bese it Sate GSMaleS) § a ASIIG HES) * As poccleen 1a ACS eS | i CNS p |=) | 5 eet (jc avec BS Ss VODA * WW] Pes ii eat i | BIG) © ) Io | he's | Ee | au'8 oat THEO? KS fee] C Wy WO ilo! | 1] CD MALEHEN 2 IIe | a! UB] I ol Hl, ys pcr areas _|| \ ‘ () ! Ba J ea ETN aul : mies ! oY EEO AO TH oy 2 | Es [Fe -ep. ae | est —— Saal [So Ile Ly ie i yh BEG WES ONS oe ¥ =a" = ‘ ab 7 TypicAL Cross SECTIONS OF PINUS PALUSTRIS AND ECHINATA, AND RADIAL SECTIONS OF PINUS PALUSTRIS AND GLABRA. a ree ot hey’ of SY OO ia eae ve aoa spin Pl ihe Mi bee 4 ay 44 bgp na ta ef 1 brides oy ri en ae ha rag pint Heel qeie ae oe Pe eee ee wn Wig PLATE XXIII.—RADIAL SECTIONS. A and B, Pinus ECHINATA. m.r., medullary rays; p., parenchyma of same; tr., transverse tracheids of rays; 8. p., simple pits; b. p., bordered pits; ec. tr., common tracheids. C, PINUS HETEROPHYLLA, su. w., Summerwood; other letters as in 4. Originals magnified “?°; illustrations, */°. 148 Bulletin No, 13, Division of Forestry. el sll Lic ee gee RON ee eee Soe PLATE XXIII. ==———-3 . (SS ae SS ee = Nice Spree SAA a Se AU BEES EIE i 7 \ | ' : iG Ree STP), Serteay PST STS eras —— 0) a ee 2 ISS ISIS =I Ce tri NEE TEC Sa OURO ERG AS Bot GO OC IER | MD SIG WNT Na BRAN ITOY PEASE leoL-Ls RADIAL SECTIONS OF PINUS ECHINATA AND HETEROPHYLLA, oF feecont Caper WATEEE 9) 4 oar. fs Mee Mite SNe fa a mein pane ola: AVA) ao ee ir, vint ae Tei Pada ee igs epAS Catron Sich vee <0 ogy, Sob he: «Saale i eA? CER AMN aaa eee a BAA ae Ma Og oles ek ee ee a Wp tay nn ry mh) : r ; Siu Nee ox na ‘ry ert r f ive wl De Mee Lee, ee cl are Be, AR ut is ; : oy ie e hs tae ae Bysiahaitv i ee Cat «yall iG, BTW FP ea ea nis oan AL ane oh is Ua ve POTTY VA Ryne tery Sahay Hl ss saa ae % tan : ; d bs) ‘Are! PLATE XXIV.—RADIAL AND TANGENTIAL SECTIONS. A and B, Pinus Tapa. Radial sections; m. r., medullary rays; tr., tracheids; p., parenchyma of the rays; 8. p., simple pit; b. p., bordered pit; ¢. t., common tracheids. C-E, tangential sections. C, Prxus paLustris. Left-hand part in springwood, right-hand portion in summerwood. D-E, PINUS ECHINATA. D, Section in springwood; a-c, medullary rays; a, a small ray composed of tracheids only; c, a “triple” ray; d, bordered pit showing the membrane in place. 2, Section in summerwood; a, bordered pit, other letters as in 4 and B. Magnification of originals, *?°; of illustrations: A and B, 79°; C-H, *9°, 150 Bulletin No, 13, Division of Forestry. ma! A ICSAC MIMORSET cs. PISS TOPS = aS SSISSI/ me TSS or ne A r pee Be ISIE RADIAL SECTIONS OF PINUS TA-DA AND TANGENTIAL SECTIONS OF PINUS PALUSTRIS AND ECHINATA, a ane PLATE XXIV. PLATE XXV. A, PINUS HETEROPHYLLA, Radial and tangential sections of a transverse resin duct; ”. d., resin duet; m. r., medul- lary ray; t., tracheids of the medullary ray; p., parenchyma cells of the same; ec. tr., common tracheids or wood fibers. B-G, PrxNus GLABRA. B, tangential section of a transverse resin duct and parts of three fibers; b. p., bordered pit; other letters as above; C-G, tangential sections of medullary rays, of which / is made up of tracheids only, while D is a “‘ triple” ray. H, Pinus tepa. Tangential sections of medullary rays in spring and summer wood. Original magnified 500 times, illustrations about “/°. 152 QQ Ss oO ; Se SSS Sc = ee Ee XN 6 0 S| Se PW AV OW SO i 00 OOo 8 OS a EEE ie eee S| ax ea y as S\N —_ a _—<———— SSS Sot Pees ® Rt pL | } A 4 . | ~ _ ? : see Hh Br | i oT. ne ; ? ; Nie f : mn ae. : : . rie sooo h Ht is ) 7 V 7 = 2 7 “a TP 4 - Pa « ba - , wu : ; : Vs re ; ie A, - lai wi ; “? & aia ‘i ; a of : 2 es a : MAM tis 7 yg ee rans <— ys iin ¥ 4 aowiat . Pay wits Gib Veet ey as Mh opeaes <. heb) pec Midi ge SE Li 4A8 pa Qe Mente I ‘ "4 Pile ae PRD y {hee ee - = Spr yes Nis sod aL Tau. Saiyan ele “ay Pree Oe Ao aaa ate ? . i - 4 ee Ly ote! Th _ i : j . A} . et A Ye (aed ARS Cite ie ta he re > x bet , i oe tes ; on t ips. 5 i im tat ) ary \ ) af “ a a a4) ’ i iy 7 Taye tat) eae Vj * t , ot) is *? | ; re it ’ : a ; a ; . i ‘ i + hs at. -_ 5 vd ina - Dies 4 Fs 4 ‘ | + é ' ( , ; : . a ‘ hid ' — a — ve '9e Ta * i , ' * PLATE XXVI.—TANGENTIAL SECTIONS. A-C and F, PINUS HETEROPHYLLA. D, PINUS ECHINATA. FE, PINUS GLABRA. A--C, sections of medullary rays; ¢., tracheids; p., parenchyma; C is a ‘‘double” ray. In D-F, histological details are omitted; they are camera drawings showing number and distribution of medullary rays, and also the proportion of the tracheids to parenchyma in each ray, the former being indicated by dots; r. d., transverse resin ducts; m. r., medullary rays, Magnification of originals: 4-C, *?°; D-I’, 4°; of illustrations: A4-C, *?°; D-F, *°. 154 PLATE XXVI. PITH RAYS AND PROPORTION OF PITH-RAY CELLS. SS000Sess555= 70 relation of strength to weight....... 14 spirits, amount shipped from Wilmington, N. C., influence of locality 18 and total value, 1880-1894.............--. 32 moisture.....----------- 19 number of casks shipped, and total value BOWINK ALG eo oman cm nosann seme a eee = ‘20 from Charleston, S. C., 1880-1894........ 33 the five Southern pines, article by Filibert Roth.....- 133 number of casks shipped from Mobile, Ala., sap.and heart, remarks ~~ -. 22. <.0< covcwcsascocescecsuass 133 TBBO=1SDS oe = 9-922 one nnn ww enn enn wns onan 57 8. Gnathotrichus materiarius ..---.-----. -2-<-+2----- --=- <0 22 2a 95 == een =o nen non enna eam 57 9. Gallery of Gnathotrichus materiorius ...---------- --------------2-2- 7-22 arr cern nn rrr 58 10. Chalcophora virginiensis...--- ------ <= -- =~ «2-222 22 = coe a a nS 58 AiemPsssodas BINODl: so cee cio nee comes cine ane sae ce eran maieiw ols miatemte ernie ce tei be mt em im hc a 59 12. Larval mines under bark and pupal cells of Pissodes strobi ...----------------++---+ e----+ +7722 rr ree 59 Selon iyrtm GHUObit see ea nee ae ae lm ae a lnm or lew ee ea 60 14. Tubes of pine leaves made by pine tube-builder 60 15. Chionaspis pinifoliew ..-..------------------------- 60 16. Diagram showing specific weight of wood at different cross sections of the stem; also a decrease of weight from the stump upward, and the similarity of the wood of different trees. ...----.---.---- 76 17. Diagram showing specific weight of kiln-dry wood at different points in the stem from ground upward. 76 18. Diagram showing effect of moisture on crushing strength... -....--------+-------- +--+ +--+ +--+ 222+ ---- 80 19. Diagram showing rate of height growth of dominant trees ---------------- +--+ +--+ ++++--- 93 20. Diagram showing rate of height growth of codominant trees --.------------- +--+ +--+ --++ terete se7> 94 21. Diagram showing rate of height growth of oppressed trees --..------------ +--+ +--+ +--+ +222 eer reese 95 22. Diagram showing height growth of dominant, codominant, and oppressed trees throughout range. --- 96 23. Diagram showing volume growth of dominant, codominant, and oppressed.trees throughout range -- - 97 24. Diagram showing height growth of dominant trees, by States ---.---------------+ +--+ +++ 2205 2220->- 100 25. Diagram showing height growth of codominant trees, by States ----.---.---.-------+ +--+ +--+ +++++--- 101 26. Diagram showing height growth of oppressed trees, by States -..----- -------- ---- +--+ +222 +222 ------- 101 27. Diagram showing volume growth of dominant trees, by States. .------.-------- +--+ ---+++ +++ s505---- 102 28. Diagram showing volume growth of codominant trees, by States 22-- <222 22. 28-222 oo nnn ne --e= 103 29. Diagram showing volume growth of oppressed trees, by; States: o <<< 2-02 wo. oe enn ne ww ne nenin- 104 Fig. 36 . Diagram showing average progress of diameter growth (breast high) of dominant trees . Diagram showing diameter os of dominant trees at various heights from ground (average ILLUSTRATIONS. throughout range) .-.. --- Spee cr . Diagram showing diameter gion “th of codanitnant trees at various heights from ground (average throughout range) . Diagram showing diameter growth of oppressed trees at various heights from ground (average throughout range) . Diagram showing diameter growth of dominant trees at various heights from ground in Wiscousin-. 35. 36. 37. 38. 39. 40. Diagram showing diameter growth of oppressed trees at various heights from ground in Wisconsin. - Diagram showing diameter growth of dominant trees at various heights from ground in Pennsylvania. Diagram showing diameter growth of codominant trees at various heights from ground in Pennsylvania Diagram showing diameter growth of dominant trees at various heights from ground in Michigan... Diagram showing diameter growth of codominant trees at various heights from ground in Michigan. Diagram showing diameter growth of oppressed trees at various heights from ground in Michigan. -. 11 111 118 113 115 115 116 SIE WWE I Rye INGE (PINUS STROBUS Linneeus:) SYNONYMS. Pinus strobus Linneus, Spec. Pl. ed. 1, 1001 (1781). Pinus tenuifolia Salisbury, Prodr, 399 (1796). LOCAL OR COMMON NAMES. White Pine (Maine, New Hampshire, Massachusetts, Rhode Island, Connecticut, New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Delaware, Virginia, West Virginia, North Carolina, Georgia, Indiana, Illinois,” Wisconsin, Michigan, Minnesota, Ohio, Ontario, Nebraska). Weymouth Pine (Massachusetts, South Carolina, European literature). Soft Pine (Pennsylvania). Northern Pine (South Carolina). Spruce Pine (Tennessee). \ ’ 2 4 aes a n | - 7 9 ; its is ar _ ; ie s] v - 7 Hag : th ‘bs | i 7 + ~ Pach tan ive Wea on “ta i: - meet Jab » kr a ave Bu ve ip nae ie am pil VE ays apming ae phil : ee na : i bal hwo Seat i ~ Lael nz es ie a 7 2.) Ce i es hed Piet a ) actin "seh pie prs . Sets ye = tli) brrs:.4 ln i eaatea! Gyr): aaloedy AS Wry Wn : ae: 5 oe * eT > ’ a othe bee { py a e ate e <@ le, = = - a : 7 ey = le : ni Pl 7 1 St ieee = a ot a * Laer ts re a U >’ (i PANT : oe of a t ? : - ¥ a | 7 Melt tod 7 — a a % ‘ ; ié ; : ; ,s he 1‘ j a ee Pe 3 - A and fs 5 > : eas a A _ & a i pal A Ale y j ‘ ve i a ee, | Coven ei : ; 7 ¥ BULLETIN No. 22, DIV. OF FORESTRY, U. 8. DEPT. OF AGR. PLATE |. > ERRiITORIES MAP SHOWING THE ORIGINAL DISTRIBUTION OF THE WHITE PINE (Pinus strobus L.) Prepared under the direction of B. E, FERNOW bg Chief of the Division of Forestry | U.S. Department of Agriculture | | LEGEND PINE FOREST WITH OTHER CONIFERS AND HARDWOODS PINERY PROPER ON SANDY SOILS; BEST DEVELOPMENT | IN COMMERCIAL QUANTITIES. Bes IMPORTANT AS AOMIXTURE TO HARDWOODS. EXTENSION OF BOTANICAL RANGE: OCCURRING |!SOLATED OR IN SMALL BODIES, Rely TEE WELLE, PIN Re INTRODUCTION. For two centuries and a half the White Pine has been universally employed for purposes of construction in the Northern United States. Its abundance and the combination of qualities which adapts it to an almost unlimited number of uses have made it the most important and the most highly prized of all the timber trees of the region to which it is indigenous. In several of the Northern States it has been a more constant source of wealth and has yielded larger returns than any other single product. Thus, for instance, in 1879, a fair year for comparison, the natural products of the State of Michigan were estimated by Governor Jerome as follows:! ANgaonl ose MOO MNCL os 56 son soe oo sbeo see ec oeses Seen cess Ueecoe Sooces Steeooeccoss $88, 500, 000 TUN oes ecto eekenss posses Hood shes cetees cosd qacesoudseseroresoctonosgseoe onde 60, 000, 000 (Cay erss ac oc seoce Sess Sase sir abee Sosa taeage Hea Sess SpoSSOe es Gases oc ees Sees SHse 8, 000, 000 IGUINN =e bra codgtes ce souREierSncee Sonos nes6 dooms wd cone gee sso gendsosd sseaossecssene 10, 000, 000 SIE VRE RE repre AN oe She Mere het ee come Seen WNL Ie a eS eel JR CAE Ue npeeainyed 2, 000, 000 BSH gee oetee eee eee satanic Says oe ght SSS aeete shea onis aeince Vase Agee Aheoeye 1, 000, 000 According to this estimate the value of the timber products, chiefly White Pine, was at that time, in round numbers, six times that of the iron, seven and one-half times that of the copper, and thirty times that of the salt product of the State, and amounted to about 35 per cent of all the products of the State combined; and if the value of the entire White Pine product of the present year (1898), some 7 billion to 8 billion feet B. M., be taken into consideration, it will exceed in value at first points of production the entire gold and silver output of the country, which is not much less than $100,000,000. Commercial interests of great magnitude, dependent upon the handling and transportation of the White Pine product, have been built up in Chicago and other northern cities, and the diminu- tion or failure of the supply must inevitably result in the transfer of the capital thus employed to other purposes or to other centers of distribution. In fact, such changes have already been and are now being made with great rapidity, and much of the capital formerly invested in the pine lands and mills of the northern lake region has been transferred to those of the Gulf States and the Pacific coast. A multitude of industries is dependent upon a continued and large production of pine lumber, and its failure, though perhaps not threatening such a collapse of business interests as alarmists have pictured, will nevertheless involve serious if not disastrous consequences to the communities relying upon its continuance. The maintenance of an adequate future supply, especially in view of the well-known fact that the existing forests of White Pine can last but a few years longer, at most, is therefore a matter of great economical importance and can not receive too prompt attention, GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION. The White Pine is a tree mainly of northern distribution, although it occurs along the mountain ranges as far south as northern Georgia. It occupies in this distribution the Boreal and Transition life zones, as defined by Dr. C. Hart Merriam. 1 Michigan and its Resources, Lansing, 1881. 11 14 THE WHITE PINE. The botanical range of the White Pine may be circumscribed as follows: From Newfoundland and the Atlantic coast north of the Gulf of St. Lawrence its northern limit runs in a wavy line between the forty-ninth and fifty-first degree of latitude, its most northern extension occur: ring near its western limit, when, skirting the southeastern end of Lake Winnipeg, it turns southward, following more or less closely the ninety-sixth meridian of longitude, and in a southeastern direction the line which demarcates the boundary between forest and prairie to the Cedar River at the Iowa line, and along the Mississippi River, crossing it near Rock River, when, following this river for some time, it takes an easterly course to the head of Lake Michigan, then in a northeasterly direction through Michigan to the shores of Lake St. Clair and across Ontario, skirting the southern shores of Lake Erie in the two most northeasterly counties of Ohio, then turns southward through the eastern counties of that State, and following into West Virginia near the 1,000-foot contour line along the foothills of the Alleghenies through Kentucky and Tennessee, gradually withdrawing to higher elevations (1,200 feet) into northeastern Georgia; the line then returning northward along the eastern slope and crossing upper Delaware, reaches the Atlantic coast in southern New Jersey. The distribution of commercially valuable timber is, to be sure, very different and much more confined. The northern parts of Minnesota, Wisconsin, and Michigan contained probably the largest amount of White Pine, the broad belt of commercial pine of these States continuing eastward through Ontario, northern New York, and the northern New England States to New Brunswick and Newfoundland, and following the New England coast, while the higher elevations of the New England States showed preponderantly spruce with pine intermixed. The northern counties of western Pennsylvania also contained a large amount of White Pine timber mixed with Hemlock and hardwoods. The character of this distribution is exhibited by general outlines and shadings on the accompanying map (P1.I). The extreme limits of its sporadic occurrence can not be fixed with absolute precision, and from the nature of the case must remain more or less indefinite. Similarly, the limits of greater or less development can only be approximately stated. The occurrence of the White Pine was generally as a component of the mixed hardwood forest of the Atlantic, even in the best developed portions of its range, and under such condi- tions, that is, in mixture with other species, if seems to attain its most perfect development. The finest specimens of the highly esteemed “Cork Pine” of Michigan grew among hard- woods on a better quality of soils than those which produced less valued grades. On the lighter sands true pinery (pure or nearly pure growth of White Pine) occurs. Here its admixtures are most frequently of Red Pine (Pinus resinosa) and in its northern limits of Jack Pine (Pinus divar- icata), while on the better and cooler situations it accompanies the spruces (Picea mariana and P. canadensis) with Balsam Fir (Abies balsamea) and Hemlock ( Tsuga canadensis). CHARACTER OF DISTRIBUTION, BY REGIONS. The character of the occurrence of the White Pine in the forest within its field of distribution will readily appear from the descriptions in the tables of acre yield in the Appendix. In Maine, the lower altitudes, along the coast and some of the river valleys, contained in their hardwood forests the White Pine in fine development, which gave to that State its cognomen of the “Pine Tree State.” Reports of trees 6 to 7 feet and over in diameter and up to 250 feet in height testify to the capacity of the species in this region. The original stand of this pine in the Stateis practically entirely removed, while the young growth furnishes now again small quantities of logging material. The higher altitudes, with their slate and granite soils, are stocked entirely with the spruce and hardwood forest in which the pine occurs only as a scattering mixture and of inferior development. This same manner of distribution applies more or less to. New Hampshire and northern Nevw York. In the Adirondacks the pine, now almost entirely removed, fringes with the Spruce and Balsam Fir the many lakes and water courses and keeps to the lower altitudes; mixed in with the Maples, Birches, Beech, and Spruce, it towers 50 to 60 feet above the general level of the woods, with diameters of 50 to 40 inches. Its reproduction under the shade of its competitors, however, is prevented, young pine being rarely seen except on old abandoned openings in the forest. (See | 4 ho Bulletin No, 22, Div. of Forestry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture PLATE Il. Fic. 2.—OLD WHITE PINE TREE IN MIXED FOREST (YOUNG PINE IN THE FCREGROUND) IN NEW YORK STATE. CHARACTER OF DISTRIBUTION, BY REGIONS. 13 In western New York the White Pine was once quite abundant as a concomitant of the hard- wood forest. Young growth is now creeping into every wood lot, while in Pennsylrania the White Pine occurred undoubtedly in the lower eastern counties in commercial quantities as well as in the adjoining counties of New Jersey, where it bégins to be a tree of the mountains, the higher slopes, ridges, and tops becoming its favorite habitat. It is here largely associated with Hemlock, which often becomes the preponderant tree. Pure pine growth is rare, but the mixed hardwood forest is seldom without an admixture of White Pine to the extent, as a rule, of about 30 per cent numeri- eally, the soils within the range of its occurrence being seemingly everywhere quite favorable to its growth. Besides the Hemlock, the coniferous species with which it is found associated are Pitch Pine (Pinus rigida) and Spruce, while Red Pine (Pinus resinosa), the most successful rival of the White Pine in the lake region, is here rarely met, and then only in single individuals. The hardwoods most frequently represented are Maple, Beech, and Birch, more rarely Oak and Chestnut, with Basswood, Cucumber, Hickory, Cherry, etc., interspersed in single individuals. The best development of the White Pine is usually found along the water courses. Thus, in Pennsylvania, in Luzerne County the White Pine is situated along Bear Creek and its tributaries; in Clinton County the pine is found on both branches of Hyner Run and along Youngwomans Creek; in Clearfield County there were 20,000 acres along Sandy Creek and its tributaries heavily timbered with White Pine, of which about 2,000 acres of primeval timber are left, which would cut about 100 million feet B. M. of White Pine. In Jefferson County a tract of Hemlock and White Pine forest of about 96 square niles, known as the Hay’s tract, is traversed by the North Fork and its tributaries. In Forest County the areas heavily covered with pine were situated along Hickory and Tionesta creeks. There is as yet standing over 100 million feet B. M. of White Pine along Hickory Creek and its tributaries. The heavy cut of pine in Elk County came from Medix Run, Dents Run, and their tributaries. The courses of the streams follow the trend of the ridges, the substrata of whicb are usually of a porous nature, consisting in most cases of slate or laminated shale, a soil very favorable to pine situated on moderately elevated grounds and slopes along the hollows and gorges, which, on account of the pervious substratum, offer most satisfactory soil-moisture conditions. From New Jersey the White Pine has practically vanished long ago as a factor in lumber production, and almost as a tree of common occurrence. With the extension of the distribution southward, the White Pine becomes less frequent and of inferior development; the climate forces it to higher and higher altitudes. It occurs in quantity only in islands or in small bodies on the crests and along the slopes of the Alleghenies, both east and west, usually accompanying water courses in broader or narrower belts. Regarding the manner of occurrence of the White Pine in these southern regions, the remarks of Mr. W. W. Ashe on the distribution in North Carolina (Bulletin No. 6, North Carolina geological survey, 1898) are more or less applicable: The woodland in which White Pine is the dominant coniferous tree is not extensive, but lies in isolated, small bodies along the crest and southern and eastern slopes of the Blue Ridge, or on the low hills on the west, ~*~ ~* extensive forests seldom being found above the higher limit (3,000 feet in Macon and Jackson counties), or perfect individual development attained below the lower (2,800 feet). In a few places on the southern slope of the Blne Ridge * * ~*~ the White Pine is associated with Yellow Pines as well as with deciduous trees, but the trees are generally short-boled, and neither so large nor tall as those growing at a higher elevation to the west of this range. Single specimens or smail groups of trees are locally dispersed in the broad-leaf forests throughout the mountain counties between the limits of altitude given above. It appears from these statements that in these latitudes below the 2,000-foot level this pine can hardly be expected to be of commercial or forestal value for the future. The area of greatest quantitative development is found around the Great Lakes and in the basin of the St. Lawrence and its tributaries, in the very places most perfectly adapted to its ready and economical exploitation and easy shipment to markets, the large number of streams that are capable of carrying logs, the accessibility of natural ports of distribution, and favorable climatic conditions inviting the logger and lumberman. Michigan, Wisconsin, and Minnesota have thus become known as the great lumber region of the United States. 14 THE WHITE PINE. In Michigan the distribution of the species is entirely controlled by the character of the soil, all sandy areas being pinery proper, with large areas of pure growth of several square miles in extent containing only White Pine. Occasionally, and especially on the driest and poorest sandy gravels, the Red Pine (Pinus resinosa) associates and sometimes predominates, the White Pine not representing more than 10 to 20 per cent of the number of trees. In the northern regions Jack Pine (Pinus divaricata) takes the place of the Red Pine. The typical pine forest on fresh sandy soils consists of White Pine (45 to 55 per cent of the dominant growth) mixed with Red Pine (25 to 45 per cent) with scattering Hemlock (10 to 15 per cent) and occasional Fir and hardwoods. The undergrowth, usually moderately dense, consists mainly of small Hemlock, Fir, and young hardwoods. On moister sand with loam or clay subsoil Hemlock and hardwoods replace the pines, the Red Pine vanishing entirely and the White Pine occurring only in large isolated individuals. Into wet or swampy places the White Pine also penetrates in single individuals among Arborvitie, Hackmatack, and Spruce. . As the loam in the composition of the soil increases, the hardwoods inerease numerically, the White Pine occurring only in single individuals and groups, and Red Pine and Hemlock only occasionally. Finally, the heavy clay soils toward the southern range of the species give absolute preponderance or exclusive possession to the hardwoods, mainly Sugar Maple, Yellow Birch, and Beech, although occasionally White Pine appears scattered, or even in smaller or larger groups. Lumbering of White Pine in Michigan began about 1835, and was at its best in 1883, but now the virgin pine is nearly cut out. Reproduction is satisfactory on the sandy areas wherever fires are kept out, which is rare; on the clay-loam areas reproduction under the shade of the hardwoods is practically impossible. In Wisconsin the same dependence on soil conditions in the distribution of the species prevails asin Michigan. The accompanying map of the forest areas of Wisconsin, taken from Bulletin No. 16, of the Division of Forestry, will serve to give an icea of the manner in which this distribution appears within the belt of best development. (See Pl. III.) From this map it will be seen that the distribution is to the largest extent dependent on soil conditions, the sandy soils representing the pinery areas, in which merchantable hardwoods and Hemlocks are wanting; the loam and clay areas are stocked with the hardwood forest, in which both Hemlock and Pine occur scattering or in isolated groves, represented almost entirely by mature old timber. Saplings, bushy young trees, and seedlings are comparatively scarce, an active reproduction of the pine evidently not going on. This condition is found especially on the heaviest soils, where the hardwoods crowd out the pine, while on the sandy or gravelly soils the pine holds its own and forms a fair proportion of the sapling timber. In the true pinery of the sandy soils the hardwoods are scantily represented by small White Birch, Aspen, and Maple. The Hemlock is entirely wanting. On the barrens proper the White Pine is replaced by Jack Pine and Red Pine, one, or both together, forming forests of considerable extent, usually with hardly any undergrowth or admixture save some seattering Scrub Oak. In Minnesota climatic conditions again begin to assert themselves in influencing the distribu- tion of the White Pine. The conifers become preponderant over the hardwoods everywhere. Pines, both Red and White, together with Tamarack (Larix laricina) and Arborvitw (Cedar—Thuja occidentalis) and some admixture of Spruce oceupy those sites, both swamp and dry lands, which elsewhere would be oceupied by hardwoods. With this change in composition goes a decrease in development; the sizes both in diameter and height are reduced. It is an interesting fact that both in Wisconsin and Minnesota the pine area does not, as in the eastern field of distribution, gradually fade out toward the prairie, but the true pine woods cease abruptly within 30 or 40 miles at most from the demarcation line of the prairie, leaving the intervening ground to Birch and Aspen or Serubby Oak and Jack Pine openings. In the Canadian extension of the species pure pinery 1s very rare. The great bulk of the most productive pine country lies northward and westward from the mouth of the Ottawa River to Georgian Bay in mixed growth, which consists mainly of hardwoods, with Hemlock, Spruce, Arborvitie (Cedar), and Balsam, while the lower tiers of Ontario are of the same character of hardwoods, with little scattering pine, as in southern Michigan. 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NOTES ON GENERAL DISTRIBUTION. 15 field of commercial pine in Canada followed mainly the St. Lawrence River as far as Quebec. On Newfoundland the species is indigenous to nearly the whole of the island, and in some parts pro- duces considerable quantities of merchantable timber. At its northwestern limit the forest fades out into prairie, the White Pine gradually disappearing, while at the northern limit the change is into Spruce forest. NOTES ON GENERAL DISTRIBUTION. Dr. N. L. Britton, for some years connected with the geological survey of New Jersey, writes of the occurrence of White Pine in that State as follows: Pine Brook Station and sparingly northward along the Southern Railroad of New Jersey (Britton); sparingly 3 miles south of Woodbury, Gloucester County (Canby), and frequent in the middle and northern portions of the State. There are no White Pine forests in New Jersey, and the largest grove known to me is of but a few acres in extent. It evidently prefers a heavier soil than does P. rigida, which forms the forests of the pine barrens. On Staten Island, New York, there are a few scattered trees of P. strobus. Mr. William M. Canby, of Wilmington, Del., reports the existence of a grove of White Pine trees in upper Delaware, and Mr. Thomas Meehan, of Germantown, Pa., states that White Pine grows (or did recently) at the Soapstone quarry, on the east side of the Schuylkill, some 8 or 10 miles above Philadeiphia. Mr. Canby adds: ‘It is a very difficult thing to define the limit of a species that is being so rapidly destroyed, and doubtless the southern line is being rapidly effaced.” Prof. Lester F. Ward, of Washington, D. C., is of the opinion that Pinus strobus is not indigenous around Washington, and that the few trees met with in wild situations in its vicinity grew from seeds blown from planted trees. He has never met it in his botanical excursions into southeastern Maryland and Virginia. Mr. F. E. Boynton writes from Highlands, N. C.: I have seen some very fine specimens growing in Pickens and Oconee counties, S. C., but I have never seen it in this part of the country except in high altitudes, say from 2,500 to 3,000 feet usually. I have never seen or heard of its forming forests here. I have seen groves of a few acres where it might be said to predominate. As arule, itis found scattered among other forest trees. It nearly always grows in or quite near Rhododendron and Mountain Laurel thickets, which indicate a moist soil. It often grows to be a very large tree here I measured a log in the mill yard near here Jast night that was 37 inches through. Considerable lumber is cut from White Pine in this mountain region, but, as a rule, the lumber is of inferior quality, being very knotty and often shaky. Cultivated specimens thrive and grow very fast. It is usually found most common on southern exposures. The rock formation is granite, and soil usually a sandy or gravelly loam wherever I have observed the White Pine in this region. The following has been furnished by Prof. W.R. Lazenby, of the State agricultural experiment station at Columbus, Ohio: From all the data in my possession, I should say that White Pine is rarely met with in Ohio outside the borders of two of our northeastern counties, viz, Ashtabula and Lake. Occasionally asporadie patch has been noted along the banks of streams in some of the eastern counties. I have never heard of its spontaneous occurrence any where throughout the central or southern portions of the State. It appears to thrive well here at Columbus and submits kindly to change of soil. Wherever I have seen it in Ohio under artificial cultivation it has presented a thrifty appearance, although the young plants do not make a very rapid growth for the first few years. Concerning the occurrence of White Pine near the head of Lake Michigan, Prof. E. J. Hill, of Normal Park, IIL, writes: It begins at Whiting Station, on the Michigan Southern Railroad, and extends eastward to Michigan City. I came across a clump of White Pine once, about a mile north of Otis, where the Michigan Southern Railroad crosses the New Albany road. ~ ~*~ * Youwould be pretty safe in taking the Calumet River as the southern boundary. * * * T do not know of a single native tree in Cook County, Ill. Mr. M.S. Bebb, of Rockford, Ill., communicates the following concerning the occurrence of White Pine in the northern portion of that State: In a few localities on Kents Creek and Rays Creek, in Winnebago County, and giving the name to Pine Creek in Ogle, the county immediately north of this, the White Pine is certainly indigenous, but occurring only as a sparse growth, cresting precipitous banks, where it seems to have found a favorable environment. To this Mr. 8. B. Wadsworth, of Oregon, Ill., adds: The White Pine in Ogle County grows in some cases to a height of 40 or 50 feet. *~ * * Nearly all the small streams in Pine Rock township have some pines near the mouths of the streams if there are any rocks along the banks. * * * The White Pine prefers the St. Peters sandstone, but in some cases grows on limestone rocks. Mr. R. Williams, of Streator, Ill., says: White Pine is without doubt a native of La Salle County. It occurs on the Vermilion and its little tributaries wherever there is an exposure of carboniferous sandstone, and more frequently is seen close to the edge of the highest bluffs, where the soil is largely composed of the disintegrated rock. ‘lo find one beyond the influence of the sand rock would be almost phenomenal. The number is very small and their situation does not permit them to attain much size. I think that 40 feet is about the limit of height. Small thrifty plants from one to a few feet in height occur here and there, and are sometimes transplanted to the prairie soil, where they make a vigorous growth, outstripping Norway Spruce, Scotch and Austrian Pine, Hemlock, and White Cedar, Pines planted here in 1854 or 1855 are now (1886) about 40 feet high. The limiting line of the White Pine beyond the Mississippi northwestward is traced substantially as indicated by Mr. Warren Upham in the Geological and Natural History Survey of Minnesota. Mr. Upham sends the following: The White Pine, wherever I have seen it in New Hampshire and other parts of New England and in the North- west, prefers somewhat clayey land. It does not thrive on wholly sandy plains (‘‘moditied drift” of glacialists), 16 THE WHITE PINE. which are denominated ‘pine barrens,” the congenial dwelling place in the East for the Pitch Pine (P. rigida), and in the Northwest for the Banksian or Jack Pine (P. divaricata); nor does the White Pine in either region grow plentifully and of largest size on very clayey land, which is the favorite location for Maples, Basswood, Elms, and other deciduous trees. The White Pine in this matter of its choice of soil follows the injunction, Medio tutissimus ibis. The Red Pine (P. resinosa), so far as I have observed, can thrive better on the very sandy plains and ‘ bar- rens” than the White Pine, being intermediate in this between the White Pine and the Pitch and Jack pines, Prof. T. H. Macbride, of the State University of Iowa, says: I have collected White Pine in the following counties in this State: Mitchell, Howard, Winneshiek, Allamakee, Clayton, Dubuque, Delaware, Jackson, and Museatine. It is, by others, reported from Scott. It ought to be found also in Fayette, but I have never run across it there. (This would confine the White Pine in Iowa to the counties bordering the Mississippi River and the Minnesota State line as far west as the Cedar River Valley. ] CONCLUSIONS REGARDING NATURAL DISTRIBUTION. The leading conclusions to be drawn from what has been stated regarding the natural distri- bution of White Pine seem to be the following: (1) Leaving out of consideration all the outlying portions of the region under discussion, there is left an area of not less than 400,000 square miles in the United States and Dominion of Canada within which the White Pine is in its home and surrounded by the conditions of its own choice, throughout which its successful cultivation is fully assured. (2) A much larger territory than this is included within the limits of extreme distribution as defined above, and there is abundant evidence to show that over nearly the whole of this wide area, and in some directions far beyond it, this species makes under cultivation a healthy and rapid growth. There is apparently no species of equal value indigenous to eastern North America that is at the same time adapted to so wide an area. (3) The habits of this species near the western limit of its natural occurrence, as well as experimental planting, indicate plainly that its successful growth can not be depended upon much beyond this limit. THE WHITE PINE LUMBER INDUSTRY. No species of American timber has been so much used for lumber as the White Pine, and the development of the lumber industry in this country is coincident with the exploitation of the White Pine forests. The commercial use of White Pine began with the first settlement of New England. The first sawmills were established in the seventeenth century, and numerous small sawmills, which were usually an attachment of the neighborhood gristmill, were in operation early in the eighteenth century. Timber was exchanged for merchandise, and the collections thus made were floated to ports of shipment, whence they were exported. This primitive industry, confined largely to White Pine, was continued well into the third decade of the present century. In 1850, J. S. Springer, of Maine, wrote: ‘“*Thirty years ago it was unnecessary to search for a locality for a lumber camp on the Penobscot, for a man could step from his house to his day’s work, the pine, that forest king, abounding on every side. Fifty years hence the vast pine forests through which the Penobscot flows will be on the eve of destruetion.” This prophecy has long since been verified, for the Spruce has practically taken the place of the White Pine in the lumber output of Maine. This early trade in White Pine, though involving small capital and limited operations on the part of each dealer, was by no means unimportant in the aggregate, lumber being a leading industry in New England from the first. The Bangor Weekly Register of March 2, 1816, noted that between 300 and 400 sleigh loads of lumber, ete., came into Belfast in one day. The Gazette of July 10, 1822, says that 136,086 feet of tumber and 35,000 shingles were hauled in on one Saturday by teams. In 1825 twenty-five vessels were engaged in the lumber trade from Bangor to the West Indies. The mills of those days were all small affairs, generally single-sash saws, driven by water power, with a capacity of 1,000 to 3,000 feet per day. About 1830 the construction of larger mills began, and in 1890 a capital of nearly $12,000,000 was invested in the sawmilling industry in the State of Maine alone. Iu general, it may be said that the White Pine of New England was cut by numerous small concerns, and that the bulk of the supplies was cut before modern sawmilling began. THE LUMBER INDUSTRY. i Although the great forests of White Pine in Maine have disappeared, a small amount of this material is still ent in the State every year, so that since 1831, on the Penobscot, for instance, out of a total cut of about 150 million feet per year between 24 and’30 million feet have been pine, the pine thus generally forming 15 to 20 per cent of the entire output. In Pennsylvania the exploitation of White Pine likewise began quite early. Pittsburg furnished pine lumber to points along the Ohio and even to St. Louis, Mo. As late as 1850 Philadelphia received its 150 million feet of lumber, largely White Pine, from the State, importing but very little from New England and the South. At Williamsport, the center of White Pine lumbering in Pennsylvania, the first large mills were erected about 1838, and the bulk of the pine was cut prior to 1870. , In the forties the White Pine product marketed at Williamsport excelled in quantity all other points of production. The highest production was reached in 1873, with nearly 300 million feet B. M.in logs boomed, which in 1893 had sunk to a little over one-tenth of that amount. While in 1875 the amount of timber standing was estimated as 3,300 million feet B. M.,in 1896 the State commissioner of forests places the remainder at 500 million feet B. M. The only uncut White Pine forests of Pennsylvania now standing are isolated bodies in the more inaccessible parts of Clearfield, Lycoming, and Tioga counties. In the State of New York, too, which in the Adirondacks and in the western counties con- tained considerable quantities of White Pine, the species is largely cut out. Hardly more than 5 per cent of the cut is now of White Pine, the output from the Adirondack mills being in the neighborhood of 25 million feet B. M. » The exploitation of White Pine in the Lake region began during the thirties, when small mills were erected at various points, both in Michigan and Wisconsin. The first steam sawmill at Saginaw was built in 1834, and the first mill at Alpena was built two years later. Nevertheless the lumber industry of both Michigan and Wisconsin remained insignificant until toward the close of the fifties, when most of the present sites of manufacture had been established. Ten years later (1870) the annual cut of White Pine in Michigan and Wisconsin amounted to nearly 4 billion feet; Minnesota had scareely begun to contribute to the output; and in the marketing the rail- way was fast displacing the older method of rafting. The progress of lumbering is well illus- trated in the following figures from the Northwestern Lumberman, representing the annual cut of lumber alone from 1875 to 1897: Annual cut of lumber (exclusive of shingles and laths) of the three Lake States, Michigan, Wisconsin, and Minnesota, 1873-1897. Feet B. M. Feet B. M. LOTS swsss ceed ot] caease sees: SHOda ATOUTOOURPIPEOO sclera k es sees ee luis cee a 7, 425, 368, 443 1c ( See Se ee et SOs DOO IOUOS EL SOU xase oat a cease Sac co oeees 7, 757, 916, 784 STD esos Slas.e ces See Seescee DOS ODS O00 ISSO saree sees ae csecunenen seme 8, 388, 716, 460 NST Ope rs felons tees ero eee ees BAO CLG OOO 1B8O escee ame oce asco cc seen ox bere 8, 305, 833, 277 LO ilpeate aoe. = eos nae dace eee 0/595) Sodn4901| SoMa assetaeeesccecn sesectees 8, 664, 504, 715 LSS Pe Somers tia st She SAG 8 Oe 3) 699; 4725759) | ARGS tos en ams cee sce wad enemce 7, 943, 137, 012 USTO} se esss eee Saeed a4 C007 043. O00) |IB99 och san Seioes) cas Src bee eS 8, 903, 748, 423 TRSO Re oe oe oor onic Sue ooenieces BRE PEE MUI Sy GRR) es ae ee eee 7, 599, 748, 458 ARS Leese. cese cece ose se een GOSS BDO MAG SO aes secn ee es noo. anes sand 6, 763, 110, 649 PS BZT ecm wean isioe starcueeeas fe Doe cit an NOLS O Di amas wee sats Soc a eSave oases 7, 093, 398, 598 BBS ase sconces neceskes ces oak PGZA TOO BONES Ol en sceenie caeare cma acce es nee (Os too Oa sUpe SSL Ns cease consteoselseean asa eeee TOSS. Odor Oak WrlS Ota aan sects ae acte e castor aenee 6, 233, 454, 000 SRG ie Soe oas cece wecw en Seas os bo Sc 7, 053, 094, 555 Or, dividing the time into periods of five years each, the figures are as follows: Cut of lumber (exclusive of shingles and laths) in Michigan, Wisconsin, and Minnesota, by periods of Jive years. Feet. TG 180) eee ees Meee tee Nemes rae ce RUPEE Ln eee Aer ost old ope pecetene 21, 562, 090, 361 ess oat AL) Mees SE ere eer ee te tances See eae 2eioa << loca aoe Sa aya ebeeeielaes 36, 933, 924, 888 INSIST RSS) ee eS eee ie aa ce i, eens Se ae Sane ee mere onan ree 40, 542, 339, 679 USO sk ROD pon eee een ee Nn mare wiottaicrale caicc- ee ee tes, V2) eas b abate Nan Sls lh tabu r alk y $24, 000 LBYB*1S5 Loose o occ. scala ee eS Ce ede eee Ee eee ene eee ne 82, 000 LSSD-ASBT. cee ee ae ee Seas cee ane eee a Rie et leas 122, 000 1858-1866: o0< on === —— — = (_—<— <= ———_—— S = ———S Wee > : = — = =—= = VN ff NS SS = EZ ge x ES i. SSS 4 Af (A | \ } D> 0) ays AA up Z, / =e We V/A , hj 4 i ) f { PLaTe VI. Div. of Forestry, U. S. Dept. of Agnculture CONES, SEEDS, ETC., OF THE WHITE PINE. SEEDS AND SEED SUPPLY. 23 Mich.) between the middle and the end of the month, The staminate flowers are borne laterally on the shoots of the season (PI. VI, 7). They are extremely simple in structure, consisting of numerous pollen sacs borne in pairs on the outer face of the scale-like staminal leaves. The pollen is produced in great abundance and is carried by the wind to great distances. Fertilization, however, notwithstanding the profuse production of pollen, often fails to take place. In fact, failure appears to be rather the rule than the exception, if we consider the frequeney of “ off years,” in which little, if any, good seed is produced. But doubtless other causes often combine to prevent the production of a full crop of seeds. The pistillate flowers occupy the apex of the young shoot (P1. VI, 2), finally forming a bunch of cones pendent from the ends of the branches. At the time of pollination they are about one- fourth of an inch in length and have the appearance of minute fleshy cones, which by the end of the first summer’s growth have attained the length of three-fourths of an inch to an ineh, and have the appearance represented in Pl, VI, 3. They are not ripe until the fall of the succeeding year, when the cones, having now attained their full size, as shown in PI. VI, 5 and 6, open and allow the winged seeds to escape. In order to prevent loss of seeds it is necessary to gather the cones a little before they ripen, which occurs during early September in most localities of the natural range. Afterwards, if kept in a dry place, they will open readily themselves and allow the seeds to fall out. The ripening is signalized by the change of color to a yellow brown and the forming of a resin coat. SEEDS. The seeds are one-fourth of an inch in length by about half that measure in breadth, of an oval form, grayish-brown in color, sprinkled with darker spots, and provided with a thin, delicate wing, by means of which they are disseminated through the agency of the wind (Pl. VI, 8). The seed coats consist of a hard outer shell, or testa, inside of which is a thinner membrane, the endopleura, Inside of the seed coats is the whitish endosperm, constituting the food of the germinating plant, within which, occupying the center of the seed, is the small, straight embryo, the three parts of which, stem, radicle, and cotyledons, are plainly distinguishable. To get 1 pound of seed from 2 to 24 bushels of cones are necessary. Concerning the production of seed, the experience in this country is but fragmentary. The individual tree begins to bear quite early. Isolated specimens, or trees in open groves, bear cones before they are twenty years old, and even trees in the dense forest seem to bear generally before they are forty years of age. The capacity to bear abundantly is retained to old age, the oldest trees seen still bearing heavily, and even mutilation by fire or otherwise does not prevent the trees from bearing. EXPLANATION OF PLATE VI. . Staminate flowers of Pinus strobus just before shedding of pollen. . Pistillate flowers, terminating young shoot. Young cones in autumn of first year. Young cones early in summer of second year. Cones at close of second year’s growth before opening of scales, . Mature cone, the scales separated to admit of dissemination of seeds. . Single seale, showing outer surface. . Single scale, showing inner surface with seeds in place. CoN GK Se tN SEED SUPPLY. A full crop of seeds is usually produced by the same tree only at intervals of several years. Cones may be formed year after year, but upon examination it is often found that many of the seeds are abortive. Of a large number of cones gathered at Ann Arbor, Mich., in 1886, not a single one showed a perfect seed. Mr. John E. Hobbs states that the same year (1886) was a good seed year in Maine, and that trees had not produced so largely before since 1879. According to Mr. J. Dawson, of the Arnold Arboretum, a crop of seed may be looked for about once in five years, though others make intervals between seed years shorter. The frequency of seed years has not been sufficiently noted as yet to warrant any general statement, but it is known that during certain seasons the seed production is perfectly general over large areas, while in other years it is not. Thus, in 1897 the White Pine bore heavily in every pine county in northern Wisconsin. 24 THE WHITE PINE. The frequency of seed years varies of course not only on account of more or less favorable seasons, but according to locality and climatie conditions. In Europe the White Pine is regarded as a frequent and heavy seecer, one year out of three being generally productive. A grove of 8 acres near Frankfort on the Main produced during twenty years, on an average, $100 worth of seed, with a maximum yield of 3500, and with but three “off” or fail years in the twenty. Similarly an area of about 40 acres in the Palatinate furnishes as high as 1,700 bushels of cones, or about 1,300 pounds of seed, supplying all the nurseries of the Palatinate State forests with seed. THE WOOD. The structure and development of the wood of the White Pine may be studied to the best advantage by beginning with a young shoot cut from a vigorous tree in early summer. A cross section of such a shoot in the first season of its growth (PJ. VII, 7) shows three plainly marked zones—the pith (m) surrounded by the wood (.c) and the inner bark (ph), which together form the conspicuous zone crossed by radiating bands, the so-called medullary rays, and outside of the parts just described, a broad zone of cellular tissue, constituting the middle bark, which is bounded externally by the epidermis. The pith, medullary rays, and middle bark consist of simple cells, originally of an irregularly rounded form. Together they constitute the so-called ground tissue of the stem, as distinguished from the fibro-vascular portion, which includes the wood and inner bark. Within the cortical portion of the ground tissue numerous large openings (Pl. VII, 7, rd) are seen, of different sizes and apparently without definite arrangement. These are the resin ducts. Each duct runs longitudinally through the stem, and consists of a central cavity filled with resin, around which is a single layer of secreting cells, easily distinguished by the nature of their con- tents from the surrounding cells of the cortex, At this stage of development the resin ducts are confined to the cortical parenchyma, none having yet been formed in the woody portion of the stem; but later in the season, as may be seen in older sections, a number of ducts are formed, arranged in a circle near the periphery of the wood. These have essentially the same structure as those of the cortex, but are of smaller size and are surrounded by fewer secreting cells. In cross sections of older stems the resin duets are seen, arranged in an irregular circle, in each annual ring. Their physiological significance is not fully understood, though there can be little doubt that De Vries is correct in assuming that the abundant resin is of service to the growing tree, when wounded, in preventing decay of the wood, and that its preservative influence is con- tinued after the tree has been cut into lumber. In such a young shoot as has been described the cells are vitally active, and are filled with granular protoplasm, in addition to which several other substances are either produced or stored up in them, particularly in the cells belonging to the ground tissue. Chlorophyll oceurs in the pith and medullary rays as well as in the cortical portion. It is most abundant in the cells of the cortical parenchyma, occurring in the form of minute grains, irregular in shape and size. Starch, in rounded granules, oceurs abundantly throughout the ground tissue, the cells of the cortex con- taining a larger proportion than those of the pith. Resin, as already stated, fills the resin ducts and the secreting cells around them, though starch is often found in the latter. Passing now to the woody portion immediately surrounding the pith, two characteristic fea- tures at once attract attention. The elements composing the wood, x ( Pl. VII, 7 and 3), have a much narrower lumen than those of the pith, and are regularly disposed in radiating rows. These elements, the tracheids, are elongated thick-walled cells, four to six sided, according to the number of tracheids by which they are surrounded. Their walls are lignified and are marked by the peculiar structures called bordered pits. Their structure, when fully developed, is shown in PI. VIII, 7,2,and 4. In the economy of the tree the wood fulfills the funetion of mechanical support, and serves as the conducting tissue through which the water, evaporated from the leaves, is carried up from the roots. The medullary rays are composed of cells so flattened by the pressure of the tracheids that on longitudinal sections they appear as represented in P]. VIII, 3. They contain a conspicuous nucleus, are closely packed with granular food substances, and serve collectively as a storehouse THE WOOD. 25 of reserve materials. Communication between these and the tracheids is effected by means of simple pits on their radial walls. The inner bark, or phloem, ph (Pl. VII, 7 and 3), closely resembles the young wood on cross section, its elements being arranged in radiating rows and traversed in like manner by the medullary rays. The cells composing it differ, however, in various important particulars from those of the wood. Their walls are of cellulose, and although important as conducting tissue, they contribute comparatively little to the rigidity of the stem. Between the wood and inner bark is the cambium or formative tissue, represented in Pl. VII, 7, as a light band of extremely small and delicate cells, and in the same plate as a zone of cells with thin walls and large lumen, contrasting strongly with the wood elements and those of the inner bark between which they lie. Itis from the cells of the cambium that those of the wood are formed on the one hand and those of the bark on the other. The process isa gradual one, and no absolute line of demarcation can be drawn between the cambium and the tissues derived from it. The cells of the cambium multiply by tangential division. The essential features of this process, as regards the position of the cell walls, are represented in Pl. VIII, 4, in which the lightest lines represent the youngest walls and the heavier ones those of greater age, successively. It is by the constant repetition of this process of tangential division and the subsequent thicken- ing of the walls of the cells thus formed that the wood and inuer bark make their yearly increase in thickness. In the spring the cells of the cambium are large and vigorous, and a rapid forma- tion of wood elements with relatively thin walls and large cavities takes place, while later in the season much smaller tracheids with thicker walls are formed. This results in the strong contrast between the wood last produced in any given year and that formed at the beginning of the next season’s growth, giving rise to the sharp distinction of annual rings so clearly brought out in TENG, WA aie The histological characters thus briefly summarized hold true, in a general way, for other conifers as well as the White Pine. This species, however, presents a number of peculiarities that are of both physiological and economical interest. The resin ducts of the White Pine are larger and more numerous in the cortex than in the wood, an arrangement well adapted to secure the protective action of the resin contained in them without introducing an element of weakness into the wood. Comparisons with other species bring out this fact in a striking manner. Thus, upon comparing the distribution of the resin ducts in stems of the White and Scotch pines, as nearly alike as possible, it was found that in the cortex of White Pine stems of one year’s growth the number of resin passages ranged from 20 to 47, the average being about 33. The number in the wood was more uniform and averaged about 13. In the Scotch Pine the average for the wood was found to be 33 and for the cortex 10. Taking the second year’s growth in the same way, the average number for cortex of White Pine in the specimens examined was 28 and for wood 27; in Scotch Pine, tor cortex 9 and for wood 37.) The small size of the resin ducts in the wood contrasts strongly with the very large ones of Scotch Pine, which seriously interfere with the continuity of the wood and tend both to weaken it and to give it an uneven texture. The extremely small number of -thick-walled tracheids constituting the summer wood of the White Pine is in marked contrast with the broad band of summer wood formed in various other species. Comparing the annual rings of White Pine with those of Longleaf Pine, for example, it is seen that while the thick-walled tracheids of the former make hardly more than the mere outer edge of each ring, those of the latter constitute one-third or more of its entire width. Moreover, the gradual, almost imperceptible, transition from spring to summer wood in the White Pine contrasts strongly with the abrupt line of demarcation seen in Longleaf Pine and all other Yellow Pines. It is to this very gradual transition that the uniform texture of the wood of White Pine is chiefly due. The medullary rays of the different groups of pines show certain structural peculiarities that appear to be constant for the group of species in which they occur. The writer is indebted to Mr. Filibert Roth for the following notes in regard to this feature: In all pines the medullary ray is made up of two kinds of cells which differ in their general form, and still more in the configuration of the cell wall and pits. The one kind occupies the upper and lower rows of each ray, ’ Etta L. Knowles, in Botanical Gazette, August, 1886. 26 THE WHITE PINE. and are therefore termed the outer cells; the other kind makes up the intermediate rows and are known as the inner cells. In the appearance of both outer and inner cells there is » marked and constant difference in different groups of pines. While the interior of the wall of the outer cells (transverse tracheids) is smooth in some groups, it is beset with numerous bold projections in others. Similarly the inner cells (parenchyma) of the spring wood of each ray in some groups have but a single large pit communicating with the neighboring tracheid, while in other groups this is brought about by three to six smaller pits. Based upon these differences, the following classification of the wood of different species of pines is proposed by Dr. J. Schroeder:! Section I. Walls of the tracheids of the pith ray with dentate projections. a. One to two large, simple pits to each tracheid on the radial walls of the cells of the pith ray.—Group 1. Represented in this country only by P. resinosa. b. Three to six simple pits to each tracheid, on the walls of the cells of the pith ray.—Group 2. P. taeda, palustris, ete., including most of our “hard” and ‘yellow’ pines. Section II. Walls of tracheids of pith ray smooth, without dentate projections. a. One or two large pits to each tracheid on the radial walls of each cell of the pith ray.—Group 3, P, strobus, lambertiana, and other true White Pines. b. Three to six small pits on the radial walls of each cell of the pith ray.—Group 4. P. parryana, and other nut pines, including also P. balfouriana. Returning to the medullary ray of the White Pine, it is observed that the walls of the outer cells are thin (1.5 4 to 2 2); the round pits quite variable in number and size, but always as small, and often smaller, than the pits of the tracheids in the summer wood; also that the walls of the inner cells are thin (1.5 « to 3 ), for the most part very thin, being largely oceupied by pits; that the pits are large ovals on the radial walls of the cells in the spring wood, small erect ovals in the summer wood, and small and irregular in outline above and below where the inner cells communicate with each other. The length of these cells varies, even in the same ray, between 50 « and 300 1; the width was found to be about 7 « for the outer and 12 4 for the inner cells; the height, more variable in the outer than in the inner cells, and less variable than either width or length, may be set at about 23 ~ for outer and inner cells. The average number of cell rows in one medullary ray, for the specimens studied, is 7.5, whereof 2.6 fall to the outer cells and 4.9 to the inner cells, The limits of the total number of cell rows were 2 and 16; the height of the ray, therefore, 46 to 368 jz, dimensions scarcely appreciable to the unaided eye. What is lost in size is gained in number; on an average 21.3 medullary rays were counted on 1 square millimeter, or 13,312 to 1 square inch of tangential section. A study of the wood in its physical and mechanical properties, by Mr. Filibert Roth, will be found further on in this monograph. EXPLANATION OF PLATE YII. 1. Transverse section of fresh shoot, cut in summer of first year x 25. The zone of small cells surrounding the pith ineludes the wood and inner bark, both of which are traversed radially by the medullary rays. The thick cortical parenchyma outside of these is marked by the presence of a number of large resin ducts, 2, Portion of epidermis, with appendages. Beneath the epidermis a few cells of the cortical parenchyma containing starch. 5, Highly magnified view of a part of the transverse section, showing the structure of wood and inner bark, with the thin-walled cells composing the cambium lying between them. (Figs. 2 and 3 were drawn with great care with the camera, but unfortunately no statement of the magnification was preserved with them. ] EXPLANATION OF PLATE VIII. 7. Cross section of wood 175. The section includes parts of three medullary rays, the middle one of which is ent partly through the inner cells and partly through the cross tracheids. The gradual transition from spring to summer wood is clearly shown. Part of a resin duct is seen on the right. 2. Radial longitudinal section of wood x 200, showing a few of the thick-walled tracheids of the summer wood followed by the large thin-walled ones of the succeeding spring, both crossed by a medullary ray. The bordered pits of the outer cells of the ray, shown both in section and surface view, are in strong contrast with the simple pits of the inner cells. 8. Tangential section of wood x 200. 4, Cross section of part of twig collected May 20, 1886, x 175, showing cambium and development of wood and bark. The woody ring is about one-third its final thickness. GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT. The seeds of the White Pine retain their vitality for a long period. Trustworthy observers state that a fair percentage will grow after being kept five years or more. The conditions of germination and successful growth are, in general, the same as for other pines, namely, a suitable ‘Dr. J. Schroeder, Das Holz der Coniferen, 1872. PLaTe VII. OCS ee CAN IIE, Bulletin No. 22, Div. of Forestry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. . => a ian SECTIONS OF YOUNG SHOOT OF WHITE PINE. PLATE VIII. Bulletin No, 22, Div. of Forestry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. oe (———_ a = — AS w ——- x “of —< — ———— Se SSS ES a i ——— i = = : — es) CSS = ti =e SECTIONS OF Woop OF WHITE PINE. PLaTE IX. SEEDLINGS OF WHITE PINE. RATE OF GROWTH. 27 soil, moderately warm and moist (not wet), in which the seeds are covered at a depth not exceeding twice their own diameter, and, further, protection of the young seedlings against the hot sun and drying winds. Special attention is required in the nursery to avoid undue moisture when the seedlings appear above the ground, as they are often attacked by a destructive disease very common in propagating beds, known as ‘‘damping off.” If, however, no adverse influences have interfered with its normal development, the young plant presents itself after some months’ growth as a slender shoot, crowned by the persistent seed leaves, in the midst of which is the terminal bud, the latter having already formed numerous short foliage leaves. No branches have appeared, and the foliage leaves arise singly instead of in groups of five. The whole plant, as it appears at this time, with its slender stem and long taproot, is represented, natural size, in Pl. IX, drawn from a specimen obtained in the pine woods of Michigan, in September, 1886, Earlier and later stages of development of the seedlings are shown in the same plate (1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6) drawn from nursery specimens. For the first two or three years the growth of the seedling is slow, and is so greatly influenced by its surroundings as to make it impossible to give averages that will fairly represent the yearly increase in height and diameter. Thus, a healthy seedling, three years old, from the nursery row, measured 4.6 inches, while a self-sown specimen from Maine, four years old, measured only 2.7 inches in height. But, if the circumstances are favorable, after the third year a growth of one to several inches is made each year, and from this time on the yearly increase in height is clearly defined by alternating nodes and internodes, a whorl of branches being formed at each node. The leading shoot is from the first the most conspicuous and the most important part of the plant, branches being manifestly subordinate, dying off in later years as in other conifers. ‘The rate of growth being of most important practical interest, much space has been devoted to this part of the developmental history. The tree rarely reaches-a height of more than 160 feet and diameters of more than 40 inches, more usually 30 inches. Occasionally these dimensions are exceeded; trees of 200 feet in height and of 60 inches in diameter have been reported. The largest actually measured by the Division ot Forestry was 48 inches in diameter breast high and 170 feet in height, with an age of about four hundred and sixty years, containing 738 cubic feet of wood, standing in a group of similarly old and large pines in Michigan. Another tree of this group, with 47 inches diameter and 162 feet in height, contained 855 cubic feet, being less tapered. EXPLANATION OF PLATE IX, . Seedling as it first appears with seed coat attached to seed leaves. . Seedling with seed coat detached. . Seedling with seed leaves and primary foliage leaves disposed singly on stem; five months old. . Seedling in its second year, showing primary leaves and secondary leaves (mature form), the latter in clusters of five. 5 and 6. Seedlings three to five years old, Ht TN RATE OF GROWTH. The following statements regarding the progress and rate of growth of White Pine are based mainly upon the very comprehensive data collected by the Division of Forestry in Maine, New Hampshire, Massachusetts, Pennsylvania, Michigan, and Wisconsin. These data, involving meas- urements and detailed analyses of over seven hundred trees grown under varying conditions, together with records of the conditions under which they grew, and the amounts of timber which were produced under such conditions per acre, are presented fully in the tables, with accompanying notes, in the Appendix to this monograph. It appeared, however, desirable to present in the text not only the generalizations and conclusions, but also some typical cases. Some other measure- ments, made before this comprehensive investigation and recorded by the writer in his original manuscript, are also produced. HEIGHT GROWTH. SEEDLING STAGE. The growth of the seedling is variable, according to the conditions under which it grows. In the forest it is much slower than under cultivation, as would naturally be expected. The common 28 THE WHITE PINE. practice of nurserymen is to sow the seed broadcast in carefully prepared beds, where the seed- lings stand from two to four years before transplanting. Standing very close, the trees do not make as stocky growth as they otherwise would. Under these conditions the average growth of untransplanted seedlings, according to statements by the well-known nurserymen, Thomas Meehan & Sons, is as follows: One-year seedlings, 2 to 3 inches high; two years, 4 to 6 inches; three years, 12 to 15 inches; four years, 24 to 36 inches. The late Mr. Robert Douglas, the veteran nurseryman, of Waukegan, Ill., wrote: White Pine seedlings one year old are 1 to 2 inches high and altogether too small and tender for transplanting. At two years old they are much stronger, from 3 to 5 inches high, with fine fibrous roots and in fine condition for transplanting. At three years old they are 6 to 9 inches high and should not be allowed to stand another year, as they would add about 10 inches to their height during the next year and would not be suitable for planting. The first season after transplanting, the White Pine (like other trees) will not increase much in height, but will establish itself, extending its roots and forming a strong terminal bud, so that when it is six years old it will exceed in weight and bulk over one hundred times its proportions when transplanted, and thereafter will increase in growth from 18 to 30 inches in height annually in good soil for many years. Gardner & Sons, whose nursery is about 90 miles west of the Mississippi River, in Iowa, and therefore outside of the natural range of the species, Subinit the following measurements, coincid- ing with the above, as representing average growths at their nurseries before and after trans- planting: One-year-old seedling, 14 inches high; two-year-old seedling, 4 inches high; three-year- old seedling, 7 inches high. The trees are transplanted at three years of age and thereafter the average height for the three following seasons are: Four years old, 12 inches high; five years old, 16 inches high; six years old, 53 inches high. Another establishment reports as the average height of two-year-old trees in seed bed, 34 inches; of three-year seedlings, 7 inches. Casual observations and measurements of some forty-five seedlings in the forest permit the following as to the height growth of seedlings in the forest: Height growth of White Pine in the forest for the first six years. ] Height of stem. Current | Age of seedlings. Ss] annual ac- From— To— Average. cretion. Inches. Inches. Inches. Inches. 1 year 1 2 Ld once sc eee 2 years .. 2 4 3 2 | 3 years ... 3 7h 5 2 4 years ... 6 10 8 3 5 years --- ses 10 12 114 3h .VORTS iota da sane nanan enon ee 30 34 314 20 These measurements show that the rapid height growth begins with the sixth year, when the total growth of the first five years is almost doubled in one season. This, to be sure, holds only for seedlings favorably situated. In those less favored the rapid stage of development comes more gradually. This slow progress in younger years is naturally reflected in a retardation of the year of maximum height growth, which in dominant trees occurs about the twentieth year, while in oppressed trees it may not come before the fortieth year. DEVELOPMENT IN OPEN STAND. Trees on lawns and in pastures, which grow up in full enjoyment of light, are somewhat dif- ferent from trees in the forest. The slow seedling stage is followed by a very rapid increase in the rate, which attains its maximum before the twentieth year and then declines gradually. Table I, on the next page, presents a complete record from year to year of the growth of eight trees planted on a lawn at Ann Arbor, Mich., which were measured in 1886, the annual increase being measured between the whorls of branches. These measurements also exhibit the great variability of growth from season to season and from tree to tree, even under otherwise similar conditions. In some of the trees, evidently, injuries or accidents retarded development. Such apparent deficiencies have been left out of consideration in averaging the data. HEIGHT GROWTH. 29 TABLE I.—Height growth of White Pine planted in lawn at Ann Arbor, Mich., by years, in inches. | i = Diame.| Height, by years. Number of tree. Age.| 1 pee ¢|Height) |_| eT ey | | rae ae 1to6)7 8/9/10 1112/13/14 15/16/17 18 19 20/21 22 23 24/25\26 27 28 29 30 | | Z eae 5 Pal f Yre. | Inches.| Feet. | In. In. In. In. In In. In. In, In In. In In| In. In, In. In. In In| In Tn. In, In In In. In. | | esl He QO OEQQUSE EA SOC RAMEICSOSEOS 17} 5.1| 30.5) 26 | 15) 22 21] 23, 28) 39) 37] 39) 39] 39) 39 | Da wins OOOO! SE SSO SE ae AIEEE 19 3.8] 23.5] 20 | 3) 5) 11) 16 11! 19} 24) 33) 32) 35] 28/2 alee pale oonosaocpa ssoaouceeocnocsenbe 19 6 30.5) 25 | 10) 4/ 14) 32 24) 23) 23! 32) 35) 32! ABA bat Radle Oe conesBe ce ac erencecos oCEne 21) 6 | 26.6) 41 | 6) 12) 24) 23 18) 26) 23) 5) 20) : | 20] 25] 19)..-}...| Gad ecgopscocceecoboogstescecce 23 2} 34.5) 33 | 12) 14) 14) 20 40) 29) 20] 37) 30} ; 2 | 15]. (ep Sacnae sabocostcosnoooanose 29} 12.8) 44.5] 50 | 7/| 16) 17) 24 28) 20) 30| 21 27 34] 25] 23] 25 EAtverapes backs nace saueeeeies | seauee eee rey aie eee | 32.5] 9 24 25) 26 26] 32) 32) 2 7} 80H Vo |)" asi 1) 4) 22 | 13) 18) 38) 27] 3] 28 36) 2 * 30) 13.5) 47.5] 39. | 22) | 14) 18) 24) 31| 1822 36] 2 31] 24) 22) 17 Average by 6-year periods. |...... ie Fale se e[ee sae lee | es PAO) eae Nore.—Trees Nos. 1 to 6 stood in shallow soil on gravel subsoil; Nos.7 and 8 in deep loam. From this table it appears that these eight trees grew on an average hardly more than 6 inches during the first six years, more than three times as fast during the next six years, and reached a maximum rate of over 27 inches per year during the third period of six years, the decline beginning after the twentieth year and the rate decreasing until it has fallen to about 15 inches near the thirtieth year. To show how, under less favorable conditions, the progress of self-sown trees is very nearly the same, the following measurements may serve, from which it appears that natural seedlings on pastures, standing more or less crowded, reach at ten years a height of 10 feet; at the age of twenty years about 25 feet, and trees thirty-five to forty years of age, with diameters of 6 to 9 inches, attained and even passed the height of 60 feet, showing an average growth for that period of 15 to 18 inches per year: TaBLE II.— Measurements of self-sown White Pine on pasture. {Furnished by Mr. J. E. Hobbs, of North Berwick, Me.; altitude, 250 feet.) | Number of | Number of 5: 8 | Length of Length of Number of tree rings on rings 1 foot Peeene. Diameter 4) Height of eat | leader for a stump cut| above pea | feet high. tree. aaa last five at ground. | ground. = | ment. years. | | | Inches. Inches. | Ft. in Inches. Ft. in. 10 | | 2 1y; | 8 10 23 it OAL 10 2 13.°~«*G 32 9 il 10 2 12 9 P42 Beccconenc cece 10 2, | 12 9 28 | 6 3 11 13 | Wes 294 | 8 5 12 25 | 13° (9 16 Rees 12 Gh | te sige Sooance 22 10 10 13 Qn | 15° 9 | 21 D7 13 Z 13 9 25 9 0 14 2 13 «(9 24 8 0 1t 3 14 4 14 3 15 4} 15 43 18 5k 18 103 18 44 20 44 22 a4 26 4 36 74 38 6y 39 9 39 64 40 94 NOTES TO TABLE II. No. 1. From old pasture after one year's tillage; 5 feet from No. 6; bore cones. No, 2. With Nos. 1 and 3, and from similar trees. 3. Old pasture, soil shallow, gravelly loam on compact subsoil of sand; pine mixed with Hemlock, Oak, and Maple. 4. Level ground, soil heavy loam, somewhat shaded. 5. From old pasture after one year's tillage; 5 feet from No.6; bore cones. No. 6. From old pasture after one year’s tillage; 5 feet from No.1; bore cones. 7. From old pasture after one year's tillage; 5 feet from No.6; bore cones; distant from neighbors 8, 34, and 19 inches. 8. From old pasture after one year’s tillage; 5 feet from No.6; bore cones; touched another 4-inch diameter. 30 THE WHITE PINE. No. 9. Level ground, soil heavy loam, somewhat shaded. No. 10. From old pasture after one year's tillage; 5 feet from No.6; bore cones. No. 11. Old pasture, soil shallow, gravelly loam on compact subsoil of sand; pine mixed with Hemlock, Oak, and Maple. No. 12. On slight incline to north; soil nearly 3 inches from similar tree, with others quite near; crowded. No. 13. Level ground, soil heavy loam, somewhat shaded. Nos. 14-16. Old pasture, soil shallow, gravelly loam on compact subsoil of sand; pine mixed with Hemlock, Oak, and Maple. No. 17. Isolated; lost leader six years previous, apparently through leader worm. No. 18. Level ground, soil heavy loam, somewhat shaded. No, 19. With No. 12; lost leader five years previous by leader worm; nearest neighbors 2, 5, and 10 feet, respectively. No. 20. Level ground, soil heavy loam, somewhat shaded. Nos. 21-26. Old pasture, soil shallow, gravelly loam on compact subsoil of sand; pine mixed with Hemlock, Oak, and Maple; ground slopes to west; all six trees, besides four others, within cirele of 24 feet diameter; crown about 20 feet long. Concerning trees 1, 2, 5, 6, 7, 8, and 10 (Table II), Mr. Hobbs sent the following interesting communication, under date of January 11, 1887: All these trees were found in an old pasture adjoining my land on the north and having similar aspect and soil. A fringe of tall White Pine timber surrounds it on three sides, north, east, and sonth. The distance across this open land from north to sonth is about 60 rods. This land has been in pasture from fifty to one hundred years. It was formerly thickly covered with moss, sweet fern, and other low-growing bushes, in the shade of which animals found some grass. Although thus surrounded by tall pines their seeds seldom sprung up. Not many years before these trees started a portion of this land was plowed and planted with potatoes one year, and then turned out to pasture again, whereupon young pines immediately sprung up. These were cut down first, but they continued to come up so abundantly that they were allowed to grow, and now the patch that was planted with potatoes is quite thickly covered, in many places too thickly, with trees like those measured. This fact shows the importance of turning up the soil so that the seeds that fall upon it may have a chance to take root. Only here and there a seed will find lodgment on land that is covered with moss and low-growing bushes, no matter how abundantly seeds may be sown upon it. How such trees continue to grow is shown in Table III, From the measurements it appears that a steady growth continues, which, by the hundredth year has brought the tree to a height of near 100 feet. TABLE III.—Measurements of White Pine, grown on abandoned fields. [Furnished by Mr. J. E, Hobbs, of North Berwick, Me.} Length Height at— Diam- Diam- | yp onoth of | 2 Number of, 4... | eter | eter of | Jeader| Total 7 ; ; care 5 pj | — | breast below | crown, |forlast| height.) 19 | 20 | 80 | 40 | 560 | 60 | 70 | 80 | 90 | 100) 110) 120 ety eee | Sane | yrs. | yrs. | yre. | yrs. | yrs. | yrs. | yrs. | yrs. | yrs. | yrs. | yrs. | yrs. | | | | Years. Inches. Inches. Ft. In. Inches.| Ft. In. Feet. Feet.| Feet.| Feet.| Feet. Feet.| Feet. Feet.| Feet. Feet. Feet. Feet. 58 16 133; 50 0 G6} 80 10] 15 | 2 res Veal Paige bea |e SE ES [Se Mee ae 59 4 103 30.0 69 67 6) 10 20; 31) 45 Bi |ewenas Jone w=. 61 HH it 33° =O 48) 78 3) 12 25 87 | 47 62) 77 |... ane 64) 154 10 28 «6 56) 70 2) 11 24 36 47 58| 68 |... E ae 70 15) 1144 43° «O«O6 50 84 6) 143 30 46 60 68 | 763 ra = evrecleccecs 82 11} 8} 38 (0 7 Siw are one log cut; height at fifty-eight years, 64 feet 10 inches. a 203 13 38 8 | 40} 100 8 9 2 39 ot 71 2) ol OO cee }. | 85 23 163) 45 6 66 91 «6 9 19 28 41 52) 63 75 aS ee ae ee ae 85 18 123; 39 4/ 62 92 7 8 16 26 39 52 | 64 76 87 87 25 | 18 | 49 10} 36 | 104 10 8 16 28 47 66 | 77 87 97 87 194 124; 40 4| 72| 100 2 9 |} 21 35) 48 60 | 70 81 93 108 32 214 52.06 28 112 9] 138 | 25 39 53 66 | 79 86 92 109 31 21 CLs 40; 112 9 Not cut into sections. 117 29 23 i fe Us PRA 101 10 14 27 40 48 55 | 62 69 | 76} 83] 90 (al VES 122 23 | 16 550 30, 107 5 8 16 25 36 49/ 62 | 70 | 77) 84 92 99 | 1064 123 28 19 | 50 0} 24 97 «4 | 10 | 21 35 | 52 58) 63 69 74 | 80 | 85 | 90) 96 \ \ | | | NOTES TO TABLE Il. No. 1. North Berwick, Me.; near foot of hill sloping to north; growth, dense; apparently abandoned farm land; shallow, sandy soil. No. 2. South Berwick, Me.; thrifty second growth, in valley of Great Works River; exhausted farm land on granitic formation, sand over 20 feet deep, well stocked with White Pine. No.3, North Berwick, Me.; near foot of hill sloping to north; growth, dense; apparently abandoned farm land; shallow, sandy soil. No. 4. North Berwick, Me.; near foot of hill sloping to north; growth, dense; apparently abandoned farm land; shallow, sandy soil. No.5. South Berwick, Me.; thrifty second growth, ia valley of Great Works River; exhausted farm land on granitic formation; sand over 20 feet deep, well stocked with White Pine. Nos. 6-16. North Berwick, Me.; near foot of hill sloping to north; growth, dense; apparently abandoned farm land; shallow, sandy soil. DEVELOPMENT IN THE FOREST. In the dense forest the same general law of development, namely, of slow and rapid stages, prevails for dominant trees as is exemplified by the foregoing measurements of trees grown in the field, although the quantitative progress varies somewhat. According to the relative amount HEIGHT GROWTH. 31 of light at the disposal of the crown the rate of growth differs, and there is found, therefore, in the forest trees, though very nearly the same age, trees of difterent heights, according to the success of the struggle for light which they have had with their neighbors. At every stage of the devel- opment of a forest growth, after its juvenile. period, the trees can be classified into dominant, the tallest, which grow with their entire crown in full enjoyment of light and space, overtopping their neighbors; codominant, which, although of same height, have their crowns narrowed in, but still unimpeded at the top; while others (oppressed) are pressed in from sides and top, and finally are entirely suppressed and die. This relationship of individuals changes from time to time, some of the codominant gradually falling into the class of oppressed, and of these a large number become suppressed. Occasionally a codominant becomes dominant, or an oppressed one, by liberation of its oppressors, through storms or accident, finds opportunity to push forward and make up for lost time. Thus, a natural growth may start with a hundred thousand seedlings per acre; by the twentieth year these will have been reduced by death to 6,000, and by the hundredth year hardly 300 may be left, the rest having succumbed under the shade of the survivors. It is owing to these changes that in analyzing tree growth we find great, often unaccountable, variation in the rate of growth of even the same individual, and hence, in order to recognize the average, a very large number must be measured to even out the deviations from the law. For the same reason it is desirable to classify the trees as indicated above and ascertain the rate of growth of trees grown under different light conditions. To be sure trees behave also somewhat differently under varying conditions of soil, climate, and exposure; hence, a further classification is necessary if it is desired to establish more than the mere general law of progress and also to ascertain the influence of these variable conditions. ; In a general way, we find, as in the trees grown in the open, the slow seedling stage followed by a very rapid increase in the annual rate of growth, beginning with the sixth year and reaching a maximum of 16 inches with the tenth year in dominant trees. With trees which have not enjoyed access to light to the same extent the maximum occurs later; hence, in codominant trees it is reached, with 13 inches, in the twentieth year, while the oppressed trees reach their maximum current accretion still later, namely at forty years, with less than 12 inches for the year. As soon as this highest rate is reached decline takes place gradually in all classes, much faster in the dominant trees than in the less-favored ones, which decline in the rate of annual height growth much more slowly. By the one hundreth year the annual height growth is reduced to from:6 to 7 inches, the dominant trees showing the lower rate, which continues to decline until about the one hundred and sixtieth to one hundred and seventieth year, when all tree classes have come to a rate of about 2 inches, at which they continue to grow, slowly but evenly, for another century. This persistence of the height growth, which makes old trees tower 40 to 50 feet above their broad-leafed neighbors, influences also the shape of the crown, which does not flatten, as is the case with most pines. Very old trees, four hundred years and over, rarely exceed a height of 160 feet, although exceptional individuals have been found of the unusual height of 200 feet. It will thus appear that the principal height growth is made during the first century, the second century noting a persistent but only slow progress. If we take the average of all the yearly accretions at any one year of the life of the tree (the average annual accretion at that year), the influences which have been at work during the whole lifetime are of course reflected; therefore, since the juvenile period shows a slow growth, the average accretion attains its maximum much later. This culmination of the average annual accretion takes place much earlier in the more fayored tree classes, namely, at about the twentieth to fortieth year, after that declining, while in the oppressed it does not occur until the seventieth year, maintaining itself afterwards for a long period. This difference would also ‘appear if we compared better and poorer sites. In other words, when the annual rate of growth is slow it remains more persistent than when it is rapid. The persistence noted in oppressed trees indicates also the shade endurance of the species. From Table IV, which gives the accretions from decade to decade (periodic accretion), we see the capacity of the species to thrive in spite of the shade, even in later stages of its life. Even after ninety years of oppression, when the tree is given opportunity by increase of light, it is still able 32 THE WHITE PINE. to make as good an annual height growth as its more-favored neighbors, and can continue the same to the second century. From the table of heights at various ages it is learned that the success in the juvenile stages after all tells on the total height growth. TaBLeE LV.—Periodic height growth, by decades, of dominant, codominant, and oppressed pine. Decades. Class. 21/8;4;56/6/)7)8 | 0 (10/11) 12/18 14) 15 16) 17/18/19 | 80) 21 | 22 | 23) 84 | 25 Ft. Ft.| Ft.| Ft.) Ft.| Ft.) Ft.| Ft.| Ft. Ft.| Ft.| Ft.| Ft. Ft.| Ft.) Ft.| Ft. Ft.| Ft.) Ft.| Ft.| Ft.| Fe. 13}39) (18 [0 110) 8 IT 6} 8 ee eee) Sey Re Bs 1 eB VS cee eee 12} 10-]°10/} 125) 6) 81:8) 7). 6) Sy) ai a) Bi 68)] a 2a) Bi), 2] 24 2 2 1 Be By 88! 8 8 CCB by BT a ae es Bl heat can ae Effect of composition of forest upon height growth. The height development of White Pine seems to progress more rapidly when it grows mixed with other species. ab | | | | 36 THE WHITE PINE AREA ACCRETION, While the diameter accretion decreases in rate continuously after the juvenile stage, the growth of the areas or layer of wood corresponding to the diameter increments follows by no means the same course. f After the juvenile stage, which is determined by the formation of a definite crown, and when the diameter has attained at least 6 inches the cross-section area begins to increase in arithmetical progression; a constantly increasing rate prevails until a maximum is attained, which comes between the sixtieth and one hundred and twentieth year, and then continues remarkably uniform for along period. No decline is noticeable until after the second century has begun. In codominant and oppressed trees the area as well as the diameter accretion move somewhat differently, the maximum rate coming later and lasting a shorter time, the decline foliowing soon after the maximum, FORM DEVELOPMENT, OR TAPER, Since size of crown and light conditions regulate the amount of diameter growth, it is evident that trees with well-developed free crowns form more wood than those crowded, the dominant more than the oppressed, and those on lawns more than those in the dense forest. Moreover, in these latter the wood is differently disposed along the trunk than in the former. Not only do trees grown in the open throw their energy into branch growth, but the accretion on the bole is laid on in layers, increasing in width from top to base. The result is a more rapid taper than in forest- grown trees, in which each annual layer is wider at the top than at the base of the tree, producing thereby a more cylindrical form. The following table exhibits in the measurements of six trees this variation in the width of the same annual rings at different heights, and also in general the mode of diameter growth in these trees. More elaborate tables, showing the diameter growth of White Pine at various heights trom the ground for dominant, codominant, and oppressed trees in various parts of its range, together with diagrams, will be found in the Appendix: Diameter growth of foreet-grown trees at various heights from ground. Width of rings, in millimeters. Height pee sie of sec- tion | from ground. Single groups of ten rings, beginning Accumulative, by groups of ten rings, beginning at | Age of at periphery. periphery. tree. 1.)2)8 | 4); 5.| 6) 7] 8 | 9 | 10) 20) 30) 40 | 50 | GO From such tabulations the taper, factor of shape, or form factor, may be derived (see Tables II and V in Appendix), which denotes the deviation of the shape of the tree from a cylinder. This factor varies between 0.40 for the older trees and larger diameters to 0.50 for younger and GROWTH IN VOLUME. 37 more slender trees, a factor of 0.45 being about the average for centenarians—that means the volume of a hundred-year-old tree is forty-five one-hundredths of a cylinder of the diameter, measured at breast height and the height of the tree. This factor varies, of course, according to the ratio between diameter and height, and since in codominant and oppressed trees this ratio is a different one from that of dominant trees, as we have seen, their factor of shape is also different from that for dominant trees, that is, their taper differs, the former being more cylindrical than the latter. This will appear from a comparison of the taper of trees as recorded in Table II of the Appendix, in which small diameters with compara- tively long shafts indicate the codominant and suppressed trees. Those with short lengths and large diameters are trees grown in open stand. From Table II, Appendix, we also see that the taper varies within wide limits from less than 1 inch to 5 inches for every 16 feet, although in the majority of cases it lies between 2 and 3 inches. The tops taper, to be sure, much faster than the middle portion; and, again, in older trees espe- cially, the butt logs much faster than the upper portions, which are outside of the influence of the root swelling. In young trees which make three log lengths of 16 feet, it will be safe to allow 14 inches for the first two logs and 2 inches for the last one as the average taper. In medium-sized trees, making four to five log lengths, an allowance of 2 inches on the whole will fairly represent the aver- age taper, or one-eighth of an inch for every foot in length. In old trees which furnish five and six or more logs, an allowance of 4 to 5 and even 7 to 8 inches must be made for the first log and 3 to 4 inches for the two top logs, while the middle portions show a more regular and less variable taper of about 2 inches, or one-eighth of an inch per foot. GROWTH IN VOLUME. During the juvenile stages the volume growth of the White Pine, as of most trees, is insig- nificant, a dominant tree of twenty years measuring not more than 0.5 cubic foot, which means an average accretion of 0.025 cubic foot per year. For the third decade the amount of wood formed is over three times what it was during the first two decades, and at fifty years the bole of a domi- nant tree may contain from 10 to 14 cubic feet and over, the average annual accretion having come up to one-fourth of a cubic foot, or ten times what it was at twenty years. Now, after the rapid height-growth period, with fully developed crowns, a rapid rate of volume growth sets in, increasing with each year, in arithmetical progression, until at sixty to seventy years the current accretion has become 1 cubic foot and over, and at one hundred years as much as 14 cubic feet is attained. After the one hundred aud twenty-fifth year the increase in the rate abates, yet before the second century it has become 2 cubie feet, and remains then practically stationary for another century at least. Some of the oldest trees (four hundred and fifty years and over) measured contained 600 to 800 cubic feet of wood in the stem alone, the largest, with 855 cubic feet, indicating an average annual accretion for this long life of over 1.8 cubic feet. While the current annual accretion after the fiftieth year is rapidly increasing, the average annual accretion, affected by the earlier stages of slow growth, increases naturally more slowly. For the first one hundred years the average is about two-thirds to three-fourths of a eubie foot for dominant pine, making the volume about 70 cubic feet. It increases to 1 cubie foot at one hundred and fifty years and 14 cubic feet at two hundred years, and, as shown above, gains gradually until old age. The progress in volume growth naturally varies under different soil conditions and with tree classes. In a general way, the oppressed trees and those on poorer sites do not begin the period of rapid volume growth as early as the dominant classes, but just as in the height growth, which is similarly delayed, the rate when once at its maximum persists with great uniformity until about the one hundred and fortieth to one hundred and sixtieth year, when a decrease becomes noticeable. The tables and diagrams in the Appendix show, by figures and graphically, the progress of diameter, height, and volume accretion for dominant, codominant, and oppressed trees throughout the range of the species. Comparing the growth from the several localities represented, a striking 38 THE WHITE PINE. difference is not observed. It would appear that in similar soils the White Pine grows at about the same rate, with similar persistence, and to the same dimensions in all parts of its range. In Europe, too, as appears from a table on page 69, its growth as well as its general behavior, at least in the forests of Germany, is fully as favorable as at home. Besides differences as result of soils, an influence of the composition of the forest is noticeable. White Pine mixed with Hemlock (Pennsylvania stations) shows a more rapid growth for the first one hundred and thirty years, while among hardwoods (Wisconsin stations) the next one hundred years seem to produce the thriftiest growth. This is perhaps explained by the fact that in the latter mixture the White Pine has after the first one hundred years its entire crown above the shorter hardwoods, and hence is in full enjoyment of light. The so-called “second growth” pine develops somewhat differently, because, as a rule, it does not start in a dense growth, enjoying the light conditions of the open stand, the single individuals make a more rapid volume growth, until they have closed up, and forest conditions prevail. This is fully exhibited in the measurements of young groves in Massachusetts and New Hampshire, tabulated in the Appendix. In managed woods, where the number of trees allowed to grow per acre is under control, the volume accretion may also be accelerated; the growth energy of the site being then exerted on fewer individuals, each one deposits larger amounts. What this increase can be may be inferred from the table on page 69, which records the growth of White Pine in Germany. CUBIC CONTENTS OF TREES, Having ascertained by a large number of measurements the diameters, heights, and factors of shape possessed by trees under all sorts of conditions, the cubic contents of such trees can be calculated and recorded in a table for further use, by reference, in measuring contents of trees. Such table for White Pine of different diameters and heights will be found in the Appendix, from which the contents in cubie feet of the bole of a tree whose diameter at breast height has been measured and whose height has been estimated or measured can at once be read oft. LUMBER CONTENTS OF TREES. The total cubic contents, being based on mathematical considerations alone, is the only rational measure of the volume. By stating contents in board measure we introduce at once a number of uncertain factors, which are variable in the practice, such as the lowest-size diameter to which logs are taken; the size of the lumber that is eut, from one-half-inch boards to square beams; the saw used, which determines the loss in kerf, and the skill of the sawyer, who can waste a large proportion in slabs and incousiderate use of the logs.' In these losses there is no allowance made for crooks or rot, which would reduce the results still further, so that hardly one-third of the total volume of the tree would seem to reappear in the shape of Itmber, provided the log scales used are correct, which anticipate a loss of 44 per cent (Seribner) to 50 per cent (Doyle) in sawdust, slabs, and edgings for 14-inch logs, the average size of logs in the northern pineries. As a iatter of fact, in good modern mill practice, not only does no such waste occur as is indicated in these Jog scales, even if all logs were cut into inch boards, but in addition small logs are worked into dimension material 2 by 4, 2 by 6, 4 by 4, ete., in which the loss is reduced to a minimum; thus an 8-inch log may be cut to 6 by 6 inches. It then would make, if 16 feet long, not 16 to 25 feet B. M., but 48 feet. Since the bulk of our pine material is now obtained from small logs (over one-half below 14 inches diameter), these differences are of considerable practical importance. A careful examination and measurement of one hundred trees of White Pine was made by Mr. Filibert Roth to ascertain what rational allowance should be made on the cubic contents of trees when converted into lumber. The average diameter of the trees measured was 28 inches, breast high with bark, and the height 100 feet, the factor of shape 0.43, that is to say, they were old trees with a moderate taper. They averaged 4.2 logs of 16 feet per tree, which represented 76 per cent of the total volume of the bole with bark, 24 per cent being lost in the top and stump and in the bark. The lumber contents of these logs, calculated by Scribner's log rule, represented only 39.5 per cent of the total volume of the tree, that is to say, over 60 per cent of the whole tree is supposed not to reappear in the lumber, the saw waste representing 48 per cent of the log volume and 36 per cent of the total volume of the tree. CONDITIONS OF DEVELOPMENT. 39 Based upon a proper consideration of these practices, it will appear that an average allowance of 30 per cent in saw waste on the volume of logs of all sizes is more than ample, and that the lumber yield given in the following table and computed on this assumption of waste, although being for same sizes even 100 per cent above the log scales in use, remains still below the practically obtainable results: Lumber contents in 16-foot logs. Diameter | (ec) ted | VASES amete Fe Syd Somputed | at small pudecnis Doyle rule. Sepibner for 30 per | BR. Sorip- end. ‘ | cent waste. aware 3y Doyle. | = = a2} 4 Inches. Feet B. M.| Feet B M. Feet B. M.| Feet B. M.| Per cent. Per cent. | 82 to 48 | 8 22 | 16 25 = 61 76 | | 46 | | 60 to 85 ‘ 10 ST 36 49 7 0 65 ~ 100 to 130 Bs | 12 64 64 79 —05 7 57 | 05 14 95 | 100 114 44 | 51 16 142 144 159 41 46 19 197 | 196 213 37 42 20 248 256 280 33 39 j 22 B24 324 33: 34 36 24 392 400 404 33 33 26 | 476 484 500 0 32 28 562 576 582 29 30 In estimating the cut of lumber that may be obtained from a given area, there must, to be sure, an allowance bé made in addition for unserviceable, crooked, knotty, rotten material, which may reach from 15 to 20 per cent, and, furthermore, an allowance for the loggers’ risk in breakages and other losses, which may be figured at 10 to 12 per cent. To give, however, an approximate idea of the lumber contents of trees of various diameters and heights, these have been calculated for a number of trees and recorded in Table HI, p. 87, in the Appendix. From these measurements, which are based upon Doyle’s log scale, the following tabulation is made, showing approximately the increase of lumber contents with diameter growth and age. From this it would appear that the greatest per cent of increase occurs during the period from the fortieth to seventieth year, while in the fortieth year the average annual growth in voiume has been about one-third of a cubic foot, in the seventieth year it is nearly 2 cubic feet, sr six times as great, and by the one hundredth year this rate is doubled, centenarians containing about 400 feet B. M. During the next century the trees make twice as much lumber wood, for now all wood deposited makes lumber: Increase in lumber contents with size. | | Per cent of| Diameter . Average sodi ancneane z a Approxi- S Ps ©~ |Periodic ac-| per year eels Height. mate age. | Lumber. eunnaliac: cretion. | during pre- Si) Saal i ceding period. Inches. | Feet. Years. Feet B.M. Cubic feet. Feet B. M. | Per cent. 7Tto 9 50 to 70 40 14 ONG] 9 saSsks esses |e ners 10 to 12 50 to 80 | 55 50 9 36 | 17 | | 13 to15 55 to 115 70 130 1.8 80 17 | 16 to 18 75 to 125 385 260 3 130 7 19to21 | 80 to 135 110 440 4 180 3 22to24 | 85 to 140 140 650 4.6 210 1.7 25 to 27 85 to 150 185 940 5. 290 | 1 28 to 30 85 to 150 230 1, 200 5 260 .6 — Ee | CONDITIONS OF DEVELOPMENT. DEMANDS UPON CLIMATE AND SOIL. The wide field of its natural distribution and the thriftiness with which the White Pine develops in climates outside of its native home show that it is quite adaptive as far as climatic con- ditions are concerned. Yet, from the manner of its development within the climatic range of its 40 THE WHITE PINE. oceurrence, its use for forestal purposes would seem to be circumscribed by conditions of humid and cool atmospheres, such as are found in northern latitudes and high altitudes, Its distribution is manifestly more dependent on humidity than on temperature, or rather, on a low transpiration factor, that is, such a relation of heat and moisture, both at the foot and at the top, that the thin foliage can readily perform its functions; hence, its failure in cultivation in the trans-Missouri States, the contraction of its southern field to the high altitudes, and its best development in quantity if not in quality within the influence of the Great Lakes and to the northward and eastward. While adapting itself readily to almost any variety of soil, the White Pine manifestly prefers one with a fair admixture of sand, insuring a moderately rapid drainage. The pine tribe in general oceupies the sandy soils, to which it is better adapted than most of the deciduous tree species; but the White Pine is capable of disputing possession with its competitors even of the fresh medium-heay y loam and clay soils, making here the best individual growth. Its shallow root system, in which it resembles, as in many other respects, the spruces, permits it to accompany the latter to the thinner soils of the rocky slopes in the Adirondacks and New England States, although here its development is naturally less thrifty. Its growth on the rocky hills of Massachusetts within the hardwoods of that region is, however, at least for the first sixty to eighty years not much less thrifty than in the better soils in the valleys. It does not shun even the wetter and occasionally overflowed and swampy ground, and is here found, together with the Fir, Arborvite, and even Tamarack; yet, on the dry, light sandy, coarse, and gravelly soil the Red Pine and Jack Pine seem to be able to outdo it. ASSOCIATED SPECIES. The White Pine is less gregarious than any other pines of the Eastern United States. Although it occurs in pure growths as true pinery on the red clays and moister gravels, it more frequently is an admixture in the hardwoods, sharing with them the compacter, heavier soils from which the other pines are excluded. Spruce, Hemlock, and Arborvitie (Cedar) are most frequent concomitants of the White Pine in Canada; various species of Birch and Maple with Beech and Spruce form the composition of the forest in the Adirondacks, overtowered by the pines, and there is hardly any species of the Northern Atlantic forest which in one or the other region of its distribution may not be found in association with the White Pine. Owing to the fact that the hardwoods as a rule oceupy the better soils, the best individual development of the White Pine is also found in these mixtures. In the pinery of the northwest Red Pine and Jack Pine are the associates, while the Pitch Pine (P. rigida), and, in the southern field, the Shortleaf Pine (P. echinata) are not unfrequently found in its company. The samples of “acre yields” following will serve to illustrate more in detail the manner of distribution, the associations, and the capacity of White Pine in the native forests in different parts of its range. More extensive tabulation will be found in the Appendix. CONDITIONS OF DEVELOPMENT. 41 TABLE VI.—dere yield of White Pine on sites in Wisconsin, Michigan, Pennsylvania, and Maine. WISCONSIN. Srre a: Washburn County. White Pine. | Basswood. | Fir. | Elm. Yellow Birch. Butternut. | Hornbeam. oa oa fess - | Sree ; 3 2 | | Volume. 3| 2 3 | 2 3 2 s | | eat 5 | s =| & = Description or site. Sy ats (SE Ge ees es || eee lf |e gigel;| | S82 |3| 82) 515] =) $2 )5)5 : ales) ; 25 |2| 34 |ais Es = = a\8 | a | © eS |e! 8 | |" = eH i cs eS ae re SM et (S\= = [Se ] I4iQ || A Aa |I4jaQ Inia Zz Ble re | | | | | | \In.| Fe: \Cu,ft.|Ft. B.M.| | In. \Ft. In. | Ft. In, KG) | \. In. Fe. In. |Ft. In. Ft. Sample area, 1 acre, 1,200 feet | 1,14) | (¢ 55 - 93 to 6 40) 5)3to6 40 1 3to6) 40 12 3to10) 40 13to 6 40 53to 6 40 Beye Soa. oar of ene. A 1a is ae a 6167010) (60 Soa eee les laceoe Saale ie Hl 60, 16to10 60 16to10 60 200 to 220 years. umber 0 tal : : 210to 14) 80... ...... 5 trees, 132: White Pine, 52) 2 20; $) 210. 314 to 18| 80 - ; per cent; hardwoods 48 per 1 21) > 114. shee - 1 19 80 - : cent. Classificationfor White | 2 22), 280). Aes pecs S| Sale eo Bag Cee Bod hed) eee e = ee 2 Pine: Dominant, 75per cent; 6 23), 918 _ oppressed, 22 per cent; sup- | 9 24 | 1,440 : pressed, 3 per cent, | 3} 25]| | 534 3 Two-story stand, upper story 6) 26 { 1,152 “ formed by White Pine, the 5 27 | 1,035 lower story by hardwoods 5, 28 | 1,155). (Yellow Birch mixed with 6 29] S,} 1,482. Basswood with scattering | 3} 30|| 3 780). Hornbeam and Fir and oceca- 231) ¢ 560 sional Elm). Scanty under- 1 33) = 315}. is growth of the young hard- | 1) 34] & 347). woods and Fir. Soil, clay, 3 35 1,101 . underlaid by a hardpan of 3 36 | 1,161. clay and stones,4-inch mold | 1, 37 408). on top, with a surface cover 1 38 429). of leaves. 1) 39 485 3 0 z 69 Average annual accretion: White Pine, 75 cubie feet. 452 feet B M. MICHIGAN. Sire d: Montmorency County. | White Pine. Red Pine. Hemlock. | = — | = | : 2S Volume. . = 5) ieeleg al’ “hic a eae te 18 | Bb aa Lise: lee Description of site. Wes =s Pen || Ss age = ea, | Br eee eee eee lee x 2 += c — = = = ; Knee Vase g | : a (yhoe du aot aes lege sD a | aii iS at limes S Z (=) ra) Zz a ie Z A | | | | Inches.| Feet. | Cu.ft. Ft. B. M. Inches. Feet. | Inches. Feet. Sample area, 1 acre. Age of pine, 250 to 270 2 10 ) HW \ioceneeces 2 13 (| 2 3 to 6) 40 years. Number of trees, 113: White Pine, 54 | 1 12 | 38 1 14 1 9f per cent; Red Pine, 35 per cent; Hemlock, 11 3 13 159 3 15 1 11 per cent. Locality damaged by fire twelve | 1 14 60 1 16 2 12| 50 to 80 years before; 15 per cent dead trees and 20 per 3 15 207 3 17 6 15 = cent injured by fire. | 3 16 231 3 18 1 20) White Pine mixed with Red Pine and inter- 1 17 86 6 19 mixed with Hemlock. Soil, fresh, loose sand | 1 18 96 5 20 of a gray color, turning brown and red under- 3 Wi} s 315 4 = neath, with a surface cover of brakes, checker- 2 21 = 280 8 4 berry. The subsoilisa brown sand, sometimes 6 22 es 906 1 > 2s loamy and in spots clayey. Density of crown 5 23 = 855 1 BS cover, 0.5. 9 24 ng 1, 611 1 ww 4 25 800 1 26 216 3 27 UAT 55 “aged ane 2 28 CO Beene aes 7 29 TEER Pee Sees Bee 2 30 Wd Beep Mas 1 2 | CUA Baaapa ee ee . 1 33 340 (iN) eae Be seeces 10, 154 60, 900 | Ooh) Penernas BEB cer, aN SRE AS | Total yield : 86,100 feet B. M., of which White Pine 66 per cent. Volume of led Pine: Boles, 5,256 cubic feet; merchantable timber, 25,200 feet B. M. Average annual accretion: White Pine, 59 cubie feet. 331 feet B. M, 42 THE WHITE PINE. TasLe VI.—dAeore yield of White Pine on sites in Wisconsin, Michigan, Pennsylvania, and Maine—Continned. PENNSYLVANIA. Sire f: Dubois, Clearfield County. White Pine. 313 Volume |= | |Z Description of site. | +i >s) sj le | se! | 23 }2 | 34] = | Boles. | £2 e = oo a 5/8 3o Eh | AB = = | Ft. | | In, Feet.| Cu. ft. B.M. Sample area, 1 acre, 1,200 to 1,500 | 2 15) 120 | feat above sea. Ageofpine,240to 2 17} 120 \ 360 | 1,360 | 260 years. Number of trees, 132: | 2 18 | 130 | White Pine, 37; Hemlock, 84; Ma- > 1 19 | 130 | | ple.5; Beech, 3; Birch, 3. jap 20) 130 }> 1,370 | 6,420 Hemlock mixed with White Pine, 4 21) 130 with oceasional Maple, Beech,and 2, 22 130 Birch, on a hill sloping towards | 2} 23) 130 |) 570 3,000 southwest, where it is bounded by | 1 24) 130 /f |b the left-hand branch of the Nar- | 3 25) 135 651 | 3,690 row Creek. The undergrowth, | 1 26) 135 257 | 1, 390 moderately dense, consists of very | 2 27 | 135 young Beech, Hemlock, and ocea- | 1, 28) 135 } 1,140 6, 600 sional Birch and Cucumber. Soil, | 1) 29) 135 | yellow clayey loam of a medium | 2 30) 145 610 3,900 grain (fine shalesinit),deep, fresh, | 4 31) 145 1,220 7,800 well drained, with 2 to 3 inches | 1 32) 145 390 | 2.300 inold on top, with surface cover of | 2 34 145 800 4, 800 scanty leaves, fern, teaberries,and | 1 40) 145 | 511 3,300 scattering dogwood (laurel, north- | 1 41 145 511 3, 300 east corner and north side). Sub- | 1 45) 145 638 4.400 soil, laminated shale ofanindefinite — ——— ——-- ———— depth. Density of crown cover, | 87 |..---.|------ 9,028 52, 260 0.7 (in places 0.8). | | Total yield: 90,103 feet B. M. . Average annual accretion: White pine, 36 cubic feet. 209 feet B. M. MAINE. Sire a: York County. White Pine. a te Description of site. = Ds = =z \= 2 a - | | | In. | Feet. |\Cu ft. Sample area, one-half acre. Age of pine, 90 to | 2 10 75 42 100 years. Numberof trees: White Pine,| 8 11) 75 192 118; Red Oak, 6: Norway Pine,2. Classi-| 8) 12, 75 233 fication for White Pine: Dominant, 26 per | 4 | 12 85 120 cent; codominant, 40 percent; oppressed, | 6 13 85 222 18 per cent; suppressed, 16 per cent. 4 4 75 | 154 White Pine with scattering Red and White 8 14) 85 332 Oak and oceasional Norway Pine, onalevel | 8 15 | 85 384 site. The undergrowth, moderately dense, | 8 16 85 | 408 consists of small Hemlock and Beech, small | 8 17 85 528 Maple and Oaks numerous. Soil, a fine |10 18) 85 690 loamy sand, gray or brown in color, deep, | 18 \ 19 85 | 1,323 fresh, with 2 or 3 inches mold ontop,and | 2 20 85 152 leafy surface cover; olay lies probably | 4 21| 8 320 some feet below surface. Density of crown | 6 22 85 534 cover, 0.5. 6 23 85 660 2 2%) 95 250 2 25| 95 280 4 26 95 560 N18 [aoe nc) sawawe 7, 384 Average annual accretion: White Pine, 77 enbic feet. Current accretion: White Pine, 160 cubic feet. MAINE. Site b; York County. White Pine. Hien [im 03 | ow oS |\32 i i & Slo SU : : Description of site. is z = 32 = 23 BSieac| + 22 im A Sees es | Sample area, one-fourth acre. Age of pine, | | In. | Feet. Cuft. 50 to 60 years. Number of trees: Mature 4 6 45 20 White Pine, 328; young White Pine, 160; 32 7| 55| 256 mature Hemlock, 20; young Hemlock, 20. | 60 7 45 | 330 Classification tor White Pine: Dominant, 84 _ 8 55 840 9 per cent; codominant, 45 per cent; op-| 8. 8| 45 72 pressed, 23 per cent; suppressed, 23 per | 36_ 9| 55 4i4 cent. | 8| 10] 65| 144 White Pine, with scattering Hemlock and 52 10 55 780 occasional Spruce and Fir, ona plainand 8 ll 55 | 144 level site. Scanty undergrowth of Hazel 12 12 65 306 and young Hemlock. Soil, a gray sand, 12) 12) 55 240 sometimes brown or loamy, witha vegeta- | 4) 13 65 116 ble mold of 3 inches, deep, fresh, with a| 8 17) 75 408 leafy surface cover. Clayey subsoil, prob- —-————- —— ably 4 or 5 feet below surface. Density of 328 |......)...-.- 4, 070 crown cover, 0.7. ’ inet Average annual accretion: White Pine, 74 cubic feet. Current accretion: White Pine, 133 cubic feet. MAINE. Site c: York County. White Pine. pes % 32 Description of site. is 3 ates |e IS (gzlezs) m | BS SP? la=4| oS |S a A aie | | | In. | Feet. Cu ft. Sample area, one-fourth acre. Age of pine, * 4 6 65 28 50 to 60 years. Number of trees: Mature | 28 6 55 168 White Pine, 396, Classification for White | 20 7 65 190 Pine: Dominant, 18 per cent; codominant, | 20 7) 55 160 27 per cent; oppressed, 24 per cent; sup- 54 8) 65 | 1,008 pressed, 31 per cent. 24 8 55 240 hite Pine, with occasional Norway Pine, 36 9) 65 522 on a slope to north 5° to 10°, Seanty | 32 WwW) 65 576 undergrowth of Hemlock, Oak, and Fir. | 8 10 75 168 Soil, a sandy loam, with little pebbles init, | 40 11 65 880 of a brown color, deep and fresh, with) 4 11) 75 100 black soil and mold of 3 inches on top and | 16 12; 65 408 leafy surface cover; clay probably 8 tol2) 24, 12) 75, 696 feet down. Density of crown cover, 0.8. 8 13 65 | 232 16; 13) 75) 552 4 l4 65 132 12] 14] 75| 462 8} 15) 65 292 4} 16 75 184 4; Wy] 7 204 898) [i seecctes cose) 7,202 Average annual accretion: White Pine, 131 cubic feet. CONDITIONS OF DEVELOPMENT. 43 LIGHT REQUIREMENTS. The capacity of the White Pine to keep its place in mixture with the hardwoods is probably mainly due toits shade endurance. In this respect it excels all pines with which we are acquainted, Pines are, asa rule, rather light-needing species, and are usually at a disadvantage in the mixed forest, unless compensating influences are in their favor. The White Pine is an exception. As a consequence, it is capable of forming dense thickets, supporting a larger number of trees per acre and producing a larger amount of material than the more light-needing species. Also, as a con- sequence of 1ts shade endurance, it does not clean itself of its branches as readily as other pines; not only do the lower branches remain green for a long period in spite of the shade of the superior tiers of foliage, but they persist after they are dead for many years. As this shade endurance is, however, only relative, and as many of the associates possess it in greater degree, the additional advantage of rapid height growth alone saves the pine from being after all suppressed by its shadier companions. Yet, these succeed in keeping the young progeny of the pine subdued, and hence the observation that in the dense virgin forest of hard- woods the reproduction of White Pine is scanty. The difficulty of cleaning itself of dead branches seems to be overcome by association with shadier companions, for, as a rule, the best quality, cleaner boles, and absence of black knots, which denotes eartier cleaning, are found in such association. Yet, in these mixtures the trees are apt to be shorter bodied, since the hardwood companions are shorter bodied and the stimulus to height growth ceases sooner. In the pinery proper the stimulus to height growth exerted by the neighbors continues longer; hence, longer shafts are found here, other conditions being the same, although the boles are less clean and less free of knots. Its shade endurance is decidedly less than that of the Spruce, which maintains itself, but not thriving under the dense shade of Maple, Birch, and Beech, where White Pine seedlings and saplings are not to be found, although they sustain perfectly the shade of oaks. To be sure, this shade endurance is to some extent dependent on moisture conditions of soil, being less on the drier than on the fresher soils. This relatively high shade endurance permits ready natural reproduction of the pine, espe- cially where the hardwoods have been thinned out to some extent, or where, after clearing, all species start their race for reoccupation of the soil with equal chance. The pine then appears in the young hardwood growth in single individuals at first, somewhat behind in height, but finally, when it enters upon the period of rapid height growth, it outgrows its competitors and is assured of its place. More frequently does the reproduction take place in groups, smaller or larger, the many areas of ‘second growth” of several acres in extent, which are found throughout the hardwood coppice of Massachusetts, showing that tendency toward gregariousness so characteristic of the conifers. A further discussion of the conditions of reproduction and the yield occurs in the portion devoted to the discussion of forest management and of forest yield. In these natural reproductions the trees grow close together, that is, close for unaided nat- ural reproduction, as is apparent from the following table of acre yields of young growth taken at various places in New England: TaBLe VII.—dAecre yield of young pine groves. White Pine. Species intermixed. State. Soil. Diameter Tale Age. | Number.| (breast Length of log. | of jogs, | Number. Name and remarks. high). eal | | = ‘ | Years. Inches. | Maz Min. Cu. feet. | : Massachusetts... ... Fresh, well-drained loam 35 2] 14to18 40 35 54 147 | Oak. and sandy loam. Q 2 | Chestnut. Maple. All other. MOualee asrice= eer eens Ate All small. New Hampshire.../ Dry, well-drained sandy 35 3 | 18 to 24 E r Maple loam. 13 |} 14to18 | Gray Birch. | 79 | 10tol4 9 | Pitch Pine. | 231 6 to 10 6 | All other. | 181 8:to) 6 |... 5 3 Motal j= secee licmewe sepewacmenecacwnecstcces|scaseeamcs 127 |e cients 44 THE WHITE PINE. TabLe VII.—dAere yield of young pine groves—Continued. White Pine. Species’ intermixed, State. Soil. Diameter = . | Age. Number. (breast Length of log. Volume ip TRS Number. Nameand remarks. igh). a | | Years. * | Inches. Maz. Min. Cu. feet. Massachusetts ..... Fresh, well-drained sandy 40 14) 14 to 18 40 25 815.9 | 133 | Oak. loam. 136 Wtol4 Maple. 77 6 to 10 Chestnut. Gray Bireh. | Cherry. All other. Wn es s3 er fae ee eeaclocboascic- cceceseGer Leccecuice: 362 2 . Allless than 3-inch diameter. New Hampshire... Dry, well-drained loamy 40 46 | 14to18 Hemlock. sand. Y 65 10tol4 Red Pine. 184 6 to 10 Gray Birch. 615 tO eos 150 Pa Bes POU See dtretnatue esata mama te elaiateew ate mel atta in rove o 1,060 || - 0-0 - aime e]a=no ep stn |e == omnes Small. aie = = : =| Massachusetts..... Fresh, well-drained sandy | 48 11 | 14 to 18 | | loam. 158 | 10 to 14 | 277 6tol0 . None. | 18 3to 6. Hy Nigicee aces caueane ae case a eee aaah oo eee Cra ae Massachusetts - Dry, well-drained loamy 50 to 55 1) 18 to 24 | HOY) bac Gore seas | 102 19 Representing seven | sand. species. Bl) ey okey | Ree CODE COED Soo Mace RIS or It would be possible to increase the number of trees that could grow per acre and deyelop satisfactorily by attention of the forester, as will appear from the statements regarding the White Pine forest plantations in Germany, where pure White Pine growths showed at sixty-eight years still over six hundred and seventy trees, and in another place at eighty-two years seven hundred and twenty-three trees, and at one hundred and four years over two hundred and fifty trees per acre. Even in such close stand the crown of living branches remains long, occupying one-third of the bole, and dry branches persist down to over half the length. The stems are straight and cylindrical, in this respect also reminding one of the Norway Spruce, although the tendency to fork seems more frequently developed. YIELD OF WHITE PINE. The question as to the amount of material which the White Pine is capable of producing per acre is difficult to answer. It can not, of course, be deduced from a knowledge of the development of the individual tree, since there remains one factor unknown, namely, the number of trees of different classes that can occupy an acre. Nor can the capacity of production, as a rule, be ascer- tained from the actual production or acre yield of natural virgin growths, for these usually not only do not occur in pure growths, but also are usually not developed under most advantageous conditions, and do not, therefore, represent the possible or normal yield which could be secured. Only by selecting smaller, seemingly normally and favorably developed groups in the forest at different ages and in various localities and measuring the same may we arrive at an approximation of what the species is capable of producing by itself. Such measurements have not been attempted, but the yield of virgin acres under varying conditions has been ascertained to give at least a forecast of the possibilities, although not repre- senting the normal or possible yield of fully stocked acres of White Pine. In addition we may utilize the results recorded from Germany (page 69) of a number of plantations, which have had the advantage of at least the partial care of forest management. From these indications, we are justified in the assertion that the White Pine produces per acre as well as any species with which we are acquainted in our northeastern woods, and at a rate which is not excelled by any of the lumber trees within its range. In this respect, again, it approaches the German Spruce, though it probably excels this species in persistency, as it does in the dimensions which it can produce. We can, therefore, for the first YIELD. 45 hundred years at least, approximate the capacity of our White Pine by reference to experience tables of the German Spruce. As with all conifers, the rate of production at first is very slow, not more than 40 to 70 eubie feet in the average per year for the first twenty years. With the better development of crowns and the assertion of individual superiority in the struggle of neighbors, which leads to the estab- lishment ef domiuant classes, the production increases rapidly, and by the fiftieth year, in fully stocked areas, the average rate of 140 to 160 cubie feet per acre may be attained, so that at that age we may, with five hundred to six hundred trees to the acre, find 7,000 to 8,000 cubie feet of wood stored up in the boles of the trees. The current annual accretion, then, may readily be at the rate of 160 to 180 cubic feet, keeping the average annual accretion of fully stocked acres very nearly to those figures, so that at one hundred years we should find, under favorable conditions, as much as 15,000 cubic feet of wood, of which at least 80,000 to 90,000 feet B. M. is saw material. The persistency of growth seems to continue beyond that age, and the indications are that the decrease of the current as well as average accretion per acre during the next century takes place so gradually that at one hundred and fifty years it may still be over 100 cubic feet, and not much below at two hundred years, when the burden of the acre may be near 20,000 cubic feet, with over 120,000 feet B. M., and double the amount in the oldest growths of two hundred and fifty or more years, which may possibly be the limit of production. While these figures, which differ very materially from those proposed in the tables by Messrs. Pinchot and Graves, may stand for the better soils, as ideally possible, practically, perhaps, rarely attainable, especially in older stands, poorer soil sites will vary from them by from 20 to 40 per cent, . Sothat a yield of 9,000 cubic feet at a hundred years, or 50,000 feet of lumber, would still be quite reasonable to expect on the poorest soils on which White Pine can be satisfactorily grown. On the sandy soils of Wisconsin whole forties are found to average 50,000 feet per acre of naturally grown unattended forests of one hundred and fifty years of age. Table VIIL summarizes the measurements of sample areas, which are given in detail in the Appendix.’ It will serve to show what our native woods, without attention, stocked with partly useless trees and in open stand, exhibiting much wastage in unoccupied ground, are capable of producing, If we assume that the areas might have been stocked with pine alone, that they would have produced at only the same rate as they have under their present conditions, even though the acres had been fully stocked and not in the fractional manner which is indicated by the decimal givy- ing density of cover (all assumptions), and if in connection with the density factor we consider the number of all trees per acre and the percentage which the pine represents, we may, as a mere matter of judgment not fit for tabulation, arrive at an indication as to what the acre might possibly have produced. Such indication of possibility has been attempted in the last column of the table, and has served in the above discussion in connection with all other data presented. This is all that can be done in the absence of the measurements above indicated. These figures are of no direct practical application except to give a general notion of the productivity of White Pine and the variability of yields. An inspection of the table of yield in Germany, on page 69, will show that these approxi- mations are not unreasonable. The lumber contents in board feet may be approximated by multiplying these figures by 4 or 5 in the younger growths and by 6 or 7 in the older, Assuming a moderately careful practice of logger and sawyer, by no means mathematically tenable, the above tentative propositions for normal yields might be even increased. To assume, as is done by certain authorities, that tables of normal yield could be constructed by using the density indicated by a decimal as a mathematical factor, using that factor as a divisor of the actually measured yield in order to arrive at the normal, is to mistake the value of the density factor. Not only would trees and whole acres have developed very differently when grown under different density conditions during their life, but the estimate of the density is such a vague and uncertain one, a mere opinion, that even if the greatest care were exercised, its use as a mathe- matical factor would not be admissible. It is a mere indication of the present condition of the growth, and its meaning at different periods of life is very different in its physiological effects as expressed in volume accretion. 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It may be of interest to record more especially the data of a small clump of young White Pine sprung up naturally on an abandoned field of less than three-fourths of an acre in extent, situated near Farmington, N. H., which its owner (Mr. J. D. Lyman, of Exeter) had from time to time thinned out for the last twenty-two years, with a view of accelerating the growth of the trees. Unfortunately, no record of previous conditions and frequency and extent of operations was attainable, but the present condition (three or four years ago) is exhibited in the following table: Data of a clump of naturally grown young White Pine. (Age: Forty-six to fifty-six years; average, fifty-one years. Height: 70 to80 feet. Area: 108 square rods.] Number of trees. Pts ed Volume. Ss | | Inches. Cubic feet. } A 22 85 204 B4 16 to 1 600 14 to 16 1,169 13 to 14 875 11 to 12 806 10 to Il 360 | 9 to 10 96 | 7 20 1 Re en ee 9 er moO Sec anno se ores ssey Se 4, 095 This would indicate a yield per acre of about 6,000 cubie feet, from which, with the dimensions attained under careful mill practice, some 36,000 feet of lumber might be cut. To be sure, with such open stand much of this must be knotty, even though the trees were pruned as far as possible. By comparison with the measurements of naturally grown unthinned acres, we find that two to three times the number of trees of the age indicated in the above table might stand on an acre and make as much total product (see Massachusetts, site c, which, with 324 trees, produced 6,188 cubie feet); and although a few trees in the thinned grove had reached larger dimensions, the total product of trees over 12 inches in diameter is almost the same, the difference in favor of the thinned part being only 100 cubie feet. From this comparison it would appear that the thinning was too severe to secure the most desirable results. Pl. X shows the condition of the grove when the measurements were taken. Allowance, however, should be made for the amount utilized in thinnings. Whether this inferior material would pay in most cases the cost of its removal is questionable. A very uncertain estimate by the man who performed the thiunings places the amount of wood removed equal to that now standing, among which is 5,000 shingles. The following table shows the measurements of one of the largest trees in the grove: Measurements of tree. [Age: Fifty-six years. Height: 80 feet.] Number of Height of section, in feet. Diameter, in inches. rings on sec- tion. 194 Of 14 | 46 12; 42 | 12 87 | 103 32 | 84 24 | 5} 15 | 3 8 | | This tree, when felled and cut into waney-edged boards, made lumber to the amount of 364 feet. Div of Forestry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture Bulletin No, 22 PLATE X LSS and) “7. 186 TO THE ACRE). 1.—A THINNED PINE GROVE IN NEW HAMPSHIRE (TREES 51 YEARS OLD Fic. Fic. 2.—YOuNG PINE IN NEW HAmpSHiRE (TREES 20 YEARS OLD). “te DANGERS AND DISEASES. 49 DANGERS AND DISEASES. The White Pine is subject to a considerable number of destructive influences even when growing spontaneously, but a large proportion.of these might be avoided if properly understood and guarded against, since they are in great part due to human agency. INJURIES BY HUMAN AGENCY. The subject of forest fires has been so fully discussed that it is unnecessary here to treat it in detail, although the pine forests of the Northern States have suffered more irreparable injury from this than from all other destructive agencies combined. From the numerous suggestions that have been made respecting protection from fire and from unnecessary injuries in general, the most important appear to be: (t) That a well-digested code of laws, capable of prompt enforcement, based upon the recommendation of a nonpolitical forest commission, is of primary importance Fic, 4.—Girdled White Pine continuing to grow. (2) That a correct public sentiment, encouraged by a wider dissemination of information concerning the value of forest products and the time required for their growth, will haye more influence than all other means together in preventing unnecessary destruction. Unlike the Loblolly Pine of the Southern States, or the Red Pine with which it is commonly associated, White Pine has a thin bark during the first thirty to fifty years, which affords but slight protection from fire. Consequently, the species suffers much in young growths from surface fires, which do little or no harm to the thick-barked pines and hardwoods. In the mature trees the growing layer is much better protected, as the bark with age becomes proportionately thicker than that of Red Pine. Related to the foregoing, and properly placed under the head of injuries to be charged to human responsibility, are wounds occasioned by cattle. A pine forest is less liable to injury from the browsing of cattle than one composed of deciduous trees, and in the Eastern States old pastures commonly grow up to pine, the deciduous species being kept down by the cattle. But in 20233—No, 22——4 50 THE WHITE PINE. any case, when the growth of timber is the primary object, domestic animals should be rigorously excluded, as they are certain to do more or less injury to the growing trees. alta, | with bark Total | Factorof Volume | Group, location, and description of site. eel SES (breast | height. | shape. Kee of boles.| Current | Average re high). | of the _ annual. | annual. tree. | os: aol oa Wl a a as | = GROUP A. | | ] Massachusetts and New Hampshire. | | | | Yrs.| Inches. Feet. Cubic ft. Oubie ft. Oubie fr. White Pine mixed with hardwoods on a bill. Soil,| 21) 33 6.5 51.3 0. 57 | 0. 37 6.7 |..-.5..--- leaps brown or yellowish sandy loam, medium-sized grain, 33 42 8.6 65.3 51 | - light, loose, fresh, and well drained, with a leafy sur- 2 48 8.5 60.0 58 | face cover. ‘Trees, 400-500 to the acre. 19 39 9.2] 55.2 | -58 | 3{ 48 | 9.2 62.5 57 81 41 9.5 63.0 57 27| 47 9.1 64.0 56 | 25 47 10.0 yey 50) 20 36 11.2 53.0 | 202 32 44 10.3 70.0 | - 50 1 55 13,0 71.5 | -50 26 47 12.8 69.5 .22"} AVOTAZC. ...- 2 ccc cccccccceccccnne ences assess ecen|scseee 44 9.8 62.3 53 | “38° GROUP B. } | Massachusetts and New Hampshire. | | | White Pine ona level plain site. Soil,a brown oryel-| 28 41) 6.8 43.8 | 0.47 | 0. 42 5.6 |..secccees|cocsscsees low-brown loamy sand, underlaid by sand or sand with 29 41 Bal 51.8 51 251 8.0 gravel in medium or sometimes coarse grain, shallow, 7 39 8.3 52.0 43 -40 8.8 porous, light, moderately loose, fresh, and welldrained, 30 40 8.2 55.0 51 51 9.9 with an abundant leafy surface cover. Trees,300-400 8 40 9.1 58.2 51 | 36 13.0 to the acre. 6 49 9.5 63.7 51 43 16.3 } 12 49 10.2 68.0 43 | 47 16.6 ll 50 10.3 63.0 | -50 | . 46 19.0 4 54 11.2 59.0 51 -30 19.7 9 89 | 12.0 59.1 48 51 22.4 10} 51) 12.5 69.9 | 252 41 31.3 | 5 52 13.7 71.5 | ol -42 36.3 re SO Average ....--.--2+ : ee eee eneey ae 45; 9.9 60.0 50 44 17.0 Pennsylvania, | | | White Pine intermixed with hardwoods and occasional 3} 46 12.0 60.0 0.43 | 0. 62 20.2 | Hemlock. Soil, clayey loam, with yellow-brown shales 12 44 11.5 58.5 47 a 20.0 in it, deep, fresh, and well drained. 2 44 12.5 55.0 4) 67 19.4 8 47 11.0 59.0 48 Bt] 18.7 16 47 11.5 56.0 45 50 | 18.3 9) 45 11.0 58.5 49 52 | 17.9 5| 47 10.5 60.0 45 43] 17.8 6 47 10.0 59.0 51 46 16.4 21 48 10.5 58.0 46 48 | 16.3 19 47 11.0 55.0 42 49 15.4 z Average oo tea ee es aa 46 11.0 BG,0if) sab 152 18.0, 0.70) +039 GROUP C. | Maine. | White Pine with scattering Hemlock, occasional Spruce 9 50 14.5 64 0.45 0.55 | and Fir, ona level plain site; scanty undergrowth of 4 59 13.3 60 | 44 -98 | Hazel and young Hemlock. Soil, gray sand, some- 8 55 12.8 61 45 - 38 times brown or loamy, with 3 inches vegetable mold, 3 50 11.8 58 -52 41 sey, fresh, leafy surface cover; clayey subsoil 16} 59 10.2 | 65 59 35 probably 4 or 5 feet below surface. Density ofcrown | 12 50 11.0 62 -50 35 cover, 0.7. Trees, 370 to the acre. | | Average: £15 co See eee ee Fees 5d 12.3 62 | 49 44 24.7| 0.04 | 0.46 Pennsylvania. | | From a young White Pine grove mixed with mature | Tey | 64. 14.5 54 0.46 0.66 — 98.7 |. cesscascsleosenscann Spruce, Hemlock, and scattering hardwoods. Soil, 2 5 | : 4 |. fresh sand, well drained. 3 5 5 |. 5 3: 6 idl Jay bet 8 1 9 . Average ........ ts eseccercanecersesceswcosancecvus . GROUP D. Wisconsin. An open grove of hardwoods, in which White Pine is scattered in varying proportions, on broken land, with frequent swamps in the hollows; undergrowth, of young hardwoods, Fir, few Hemlock, and Hornbeam. Soil, light-brown sandy loam, medium fine grain, loose, deep, fresh, and well drained, with an abundant | leafy surface cover. | AW OFaNG< 3653 -Gen cp cite seu ate as Se ae 824 16.0 | 85 48 .40 58.91 2.16 0.71 ‘ TABLES OF MEASUREMENTS. 89 TABLE IIT.— Measurements of White Pine grown under similar conditions, grouped in age classes for averaging—Continued. Group, location, and description of site. GROUP E. Maine. White Pine with scattering Red and White Oak, and | occasional Norway Pine, on a level; undergrowth, moderately dense, of small Hemlock and Beech, with numerous small Maple and Oak. Soil, gray or brown, fine, loamy sand, fresh, with 2 or 3 inches mold on top, and leafy surface cover; clay probably some feet below surface. Density of crown, 0.7. Trees, 126 to the acre. PANT BTOE Baie eee ieee seen aes eae a alana eee GROUP F. Maine. White Pine with scattering Red and White Oak, and | occasional Norway Pine, on a level; undergrowth, moderately dense, of small Hemlock and Beech, with numerous small Maple and Oak. Soil, gray or brown, fine, loamy sand, fresh, with 2 or 3 inches mold on top, and leafy surface cover; clay probably some feet below spate Density of crown cover, 0.7. Trees, 126 to e acre. Jo OMEY Sere ime ee sae Se Conon cic ae necodeseaes GROUP G. Michigan. Open grove on a level plain, along the banks of a river, of mixed Whité and Norway Pine, with scattering White Birch, and occasionally Oak, Hackmatack, an Banksian Pine; undergrowth scanty, of young Fir, Cedar (Thuja occidentalis), and few small Oaks. Soil, gray or light brown, sand,, medium fine-grained, orous, light, loose, dry (in places fresh), with a | leafy surface cover. GROUP H. Michigan. Open grove on a level plain, slong he banks of a river, of mixed White and Norway Pine, with scattering White Birch, and occasionally Oak, Hackmatack. and Banksian Pine; undergrowth scanty, of young Fir, Cedar (Thuja occidentalis), and a few small Oaks. Soil, gray or i ht brown, sandy, medium, fine- grained, porous, light, loose, dry (in places fresh), with a leafy surface cover. PASV ONE Greeters ato a alo ator Spats naaecteme cents | GROUP I. Michigan. Norway Pine (67 per cent), mixed with White Pine (32 per cent), and occasional Rock Sours a ona level | lain. Soil, yellow or gray sand, fresh, moderately oose. with a surface cover of brakes; subsoil, sandy. Density of crown cover, 0.7. Trees, 182 to the acre. ETON hee ebce See coe CEOS ODT CCH SEEae ities GROUP K. Wisconsin. An open grove of hardwoods, in which White Pine is scattered in varying proportions, on broken land, with frequent exreaps in the hollows; undergrowth, of oung hardwoods, Fir, few Hemlock, and Hornbeam. oil, light-brown sandy loam, medium fine grain, loose, deep, fresh, and well drained, with an abundant leafy surface cover. JER OES) nist peso er be 9c SSB O DO Ja PREroo ase Saner Tree . num-| Age. ber. | | ¥rs 7 98 12 92 13} 98 17 92 18; 92 23 97 21 97 16 90 9} 102 20 100 anode 96 | 4 101 8 98 22 98 10 89 144/ 93 28 | 93 19| 89 15 99 11 89 ncReeS 95 | 1 | 100 24 96 18 82 9 99 Pasa 94 5 109 23 | 112 22 109 15) 106 7 110 6 109 20} 112 4; 112 19 108 21 109 rae 1094 1} 123 22 101 48 105 47 104 =s-55- | 108 14} 121 28) 125 15 125 16 125 7 119 scree 123 | | | Ratic of Accretion, Diameter psa = with bark) Total | Factor of | (i0¥0| Volume (breast | height. shape. tal heicht of boles. Current Average high). \ of the | annual. annual. | tree. | | | | .| Inches. Feet. | Cubic ft. Cubic ft. | Cubic ft. | 28.0 100 0.41 0. 60 175.3 28.0 103 .36 61 161.0 - 25.0 92 246 48} 140.3 25.5 91 42 56| 136.3]. i 25.0 88 44 46 131.7 |- 22.0 98 46 | 49 119.4}. 20.6 102 35 45 118.1 22.5 91 46 52 115.1 |. 20.0 100 47 43 104.0 20.3 103 41 40 98.8 23.7 97 42 50 130.0 | 20.5 95 0.43} 0.40 19.5 99 43 33 19.0 96 45 | .35 16.8 99 46 | ~40 18.5 92 .41 252 18.5 80 48 41 18.7 79 45 .48 Ao 7 49 246 17.2 89 43 .38 18.5 | 91 .45 | 41 | | 13.5 94 0.44 0.57 14.4 90 | 47 (2) 16.5 94 147 .53 20.0 100 | 41] 46 | | 16.0 943 45 51 61.5 2.13 0. 65 | | 13.0 | 943 . 52 | 0.51 ADT. leeaters ace n| anes 14.0 | 96 47 | 47] 50.2 |. 14.8 | 93 45 | 47 51.4 15.3 | 85 147 | .37 53.3 |. 16.5 | 104 41 = 30 64.3. 17.0 | 101 42 | .59 67.6 |. 17.0 | 100 45] (2) 72.4 |. 18.3 | 103 .44 56 85.3 |. 20.5 105 41 49 99.1 |. 20.8 105 .39 | 42 99.8 16.7 984 44 46| 68.9 | | 20.0 102 0. 40 0.54 89.7 20.8 90 42 51 92.7 20.5 99 .42 44 96.7 22.7 94 239 59 103.0 21.0 96 | -41 51 95.5 1.81 0. 89 | | | 20.2 | 91 | 0.45} 0.50 24.5 89 .45 | 58 26.5 96 39 46 26.3 105 47 | 53 29, 0 97 | 42 | 57 |_ 25.3 95 | 44 53| 145.5 2,92 1.19 90 THE WHITE PINE. TABLE III.— Measurements of White Pine grown under similar conditions, grouped in age classes for averaging—Continued, | | Ratio of Accretion. . | thelength Diameter! Tree : of crown . nate inti ; } with bark Total Factorof Volume Group, location, and description of site. eon: Age. (breast | height. | shape. othe to, ‘of Boles! Gisranteecerara high). of tite annual. | annual. | tree, —— — CROUP L. | : Michigan. | Irs.| Inches. Feet. | Cuvic ft. | Cubic ft. | Oubie ft. White Pine (70 percent) intermixed with Norway Pine | 34, 140 19.5 124 0.42 0,34 109. 8 j....... wos|eoccene ees (14 per cent) and Hemlock (15 percent), with scatterin 9) 136 19.7 14 49 31 115.1 |. Cedar (Thuja occidentalis) and Rock Maple, an 83 | 135 20.0 115 48 82 221. 5.5. occasional ch and White Birch, on a level plain; 37134 22.0 113 Br) a 7i 123, 5 |. undergrowth, dense, of Rie Fir. Soil, gray sand, 36 «136 22.5 123 39 380 130.1}... fresh and deep, light and loose, with a surface cover 35 135 21.7 122 Ad 82 136.4 |... of scanty leaves; subsoil, sandy loam, underlaid by 2) 138 22.8 119 40 30 188.5 |... clay. Density of crown, 0.8. Trees, 156to the acre. 22) 133 23.2 | 116 -42 - 38 141.1 }.-- 4) 130 24.0) 106 43 40 143.5 |. 3) 135 24.0 | 108 42 -35 nO fd 1) 138 23.5 113 AB +26 146.5 16) 139 25.0 122 | odd 50 187.3 Pen Oe Mae, a eee ea eA Pee | 136 22.3| 116 42 34| 136.0 GROUP M. | Michigan. A two-roof grove, upper roof formed of White Pine, 32 | 133 15.2 under roof of Beech, Maple, Fir, and occasionally 87 | 141 15.5 White Birch and Hemlock ; ape gta moderately 12| 132 16.3 dense, of young hardwoods and Fir. Soil, brown 40) 145 18.6 loamy sand, fresh, moderately loose, with a surface 25 | 128 20.5 cover of brakes and grass; subsoil, sand with stones. H | ed a 26) 148 23.0 | 31) 153 23.0 11} 136 24.6 | ASBTERG boone osname nees was acena se aoa enee acorns ese 140 19.8 GROUP N. | Michigan. | ‘ | Norway Pine (67 per cent) mixed with White Pine 5| 149 20.2 105 0. 39 | 0.50 (32 per cent), and occasional Rock Maple, on a level 6} 135 21.1 1l4 .39 .57 lain. Soil, yellow or gray sand, fresh, moderately 35 (185 22.0 121 40 43 oose, With a surface cover of brakes; subsoil, sandy. Density of crown cover, 0.7. Trees, 182 to the acre. | : A VOTE ZO. ccc cn nen cceccncecncnraascnececcensesnnccnn's | anaene 140 21.0 | 113 39 . 50 Wi21 2. 08 0.80 | GROUP 0. } | Michigan. | | | : White Pine (70 per cent) intermixed with Norway Pine 27) 142 23,0 | 117 | 0.41 0, 30 138.9 (14 per cent) and Hemlock (15 per cent), with scatter- 26) 142 24.0 110 | 41 . 39 140. 6 |. ing Cedar (Thuja occidentalis) and Rock Maple, and 11} 142 23.5 14 | 43 36 148. 0 |. occasional Beech and White Birch, on a level plain; 20| 142 22.0 119 | 49 26 157.3]. undergrowth dense, of young Fir. Soil, gray sand, 30 «143 24,2 116 | 45 - 38 164.3 fresh and deep, light and loose, with a surface cover 24 | 149 25. 0 118 46 34 168.8 of scanty leaves; subsoil, sandy loam, underlaid by 5 | 148 26.3 115 46 39 205.4 |. clay. Density of crown cover, 0.8. Trees, 156 to the acre, | / AVEOLAZO. cnn oo nanan ccc cn nn ences nnn nnn cccecenranes|encces | 1424] 24.0) 115 | dt od 160.5 2. 20 1.10 | | GROUP P. | | | Wisconsin. | | White Pine mixed more or less with Yellow Bireh,| 3) 160| 23.5 104 0.40 0.40 127 |. Rock Maple, Norway Pine, and occasional Bass, Pop- 4) 170) 24.0 119 46 41 172 lar, and Elm, on uneven land, fai of drift ridges and 5| 178 24,2 lid .48 38 176 |. hollows, frequently full of water. Soil, a mixture 6) 170 25.7 | 111 45 41 181 |. of loam, sand, and stones, with 2 to 3 inches black 7| 175) 27.3 | 122 43 46 217 |. mold on top, and fairly covered with leaves. 8 168 80.5 114 -44 42 256 |. 15 | 185 | 28.2 | 110 42] ~ 34 138 |. 9} 173} 26.0 112 465 28 190 Average £-, * acere ! aiholone Total Nelane volume. | eel Reema n | Average Current Age, [of aifect| Height | ritueut | oar Amal See acc ee ae ( bark). © | bark). aati Sapwood. Bark. | Decade. | Height. | Volume. * SU RCORe EOL, | | | | | Years.| Inches. Feet. | Cubic ft. | Per cent.| Per cent.| Per cent. Feet. | Cubic ft. | Cubic ft. Cubic ft. 10 0.9 4.0 () | 4.0 (2?) (2) (?) 0 11.0 0.4 2 TO" (2) 0. 02 (?) | 7 18.0 0.7 3 7.0 | 0.4 - 02 0.04 | Ar 26.0 17 4 8.0 1.0 04 .10 haf 34.5 3.6 5 8.5 | 1.9 . 07 .19 20 43.5 6.5 6 9.0 | 2.9 epi 29 BP} 51.5 10.3 Ty ail 8.0 3.8 15 . 38 . 6 59.5 15.1 ny | 8.0 4.8 19 48 9 66.5 26.5 9 7.0 6.5 «24 65 3 73.0 29.0 10 6.5 7.5 | “20 | 7 bel 79.0 37.5 11 6.0 8.5 | . 35 85 a9 84.5 | 46.8 2 5.5 9.3 | 39 «93 vd 89.0 | 57.0 13 4.5 10.3 44 | 1.08 a) 93.5 68.5 14 4.5 1.5 | 49 1.15 3 97.0 79.5 15 3.5 11.0 | 54 1,10 . 3 100.5 90.8 16 3.5 11.3 | oT 1.13 “2 103.5 102.3 17 3.0 11.5 - 60 1.15 ae 106.5 114.0 18 3.0 11.8 | . 64 1.18 2 109. 0 125. 0 19 25 11.0 - 66 1.10 3.9 111.5 136.0 | 60 28 12 20 2.5 11.0 - 68 1.10 Average annual accretion Current » 120 180 200 AGE Fig. 21.—Diagram showing rate of height growth of oppressed trees. 96 THE WHITE PINE. a EGRESS > i480 eee foscses esses seesceanstee ro a eee SEaSee SooUnGeecceeeese aUSLGasenuepLaesensne ed 28 SS. dee Cee Reese go, 40g R0 RS GCESEGEeEeeeeeeeoReeeenae pitiii anne: + HEIGHT /N FEET Seamer ar. épraan saan Cre eee eee Pit bs Ps a | oe an HH HH HEH sO Hs a om 4 20 40 60 &0 /00 =120 a0 160. /8O 2a eae AGE Fic. 22.—Diagram showing height growth of dominant, codominant, and oppressed trees throughont range. TABLES OF MEASUREMENTS. 260 A Pp tthe potent St 4 220} aa! 200 180} 8 & Ht XN Ss) rrr AH nA Attra eee VOLUIVIE IN CUBIC FEET AoA EEE EEE EERE EEE eee Pr SESSSSS 22 SE eeS Ue See ee Fig. 23.—Diagram showing volume growth of dominant, codominant, and oppressed trees throughout range. 20253—No, 22 97 98 THE WHITE PINE. TABLE IV.—Dimensions, volume, and rate of growth, by decades, ete.—Continued. (A) OLD-GROWTH PINE—Continued. (4) DOMINANT TREES. {Average in Wisconsin.]} (68 trees.) | . | i | Relative per cent of total Fee A aout Total thea | volume. Pere REeer ae | Average | Current Age. | of 24 feet height (eithout ears —_— annual annual (without of tree. eart- | c, ; at , aceretion. accretion, | park). | bark). seaail Sapwood. Bark Decade. Height. Volume | | a | | \ Years. Inches. Feet. Cubic st. Per cent. Per cent.| Per cent. | Feet. Cubic ft.| Cubic ft. | Cubie st. 10 1.0 | 9 () 1 9 (2) (4) @) 20 | 29 | 22 0.5 2 e A ae () 80 | 3.8 34 1.9 2 . e 40 5.3 | 46 3.5 4 12 1.6 02 50 6.6 | 57 7.6 o 11 4.1 15 60 | 8.0 66 13.2 6 9 5.6 i) 70 | 18:8 | 74 21.0 7 8 7.8 a) 80 11.0 | 80 30.0 8 6 9.0 . 38 90 13.0 | 86 41.5 9 6 11.5 46 Fe} 91 58.0 10 5 16.5 58 4 95 78.0 ll 4 20,0 Aryl .6 | 100 100.5 12 5 22.5 84 8 | 104 124.0 13 4 23.5 95 0 108 147.5 14 4 23.5 | 1.05 Bi lll 169.0 15 8 21.5 1.13 4 1l4 190.5 16 3 21.5 1.19 0 7 212.5 17 3 22.0 1,25 . 5 120 234.5 18 3 22.0 1,30 0 122 256.0 19 2 21.5 1.35 3 124 277.0 20 2 21.0 1.38 (5) OPPRESSED TREES. [Average in Wisconsin.] (55 trees.) 1.0 4 (@) 1 AO (3) () () 2.2 10 0.4 2 Galena 0.02 (2) 4.0 16 aT 3 § 0.3 02 0. 03 5.4 24 1.6 4 8 9 . 04 . 09 6.8 82 | 3.2 5 8 1.6 . 06 16 8.0 40 6.0 6 8 2.8 10 28 9.2 | 47 9.5 7 7 3.5 13 35, 10.6 | 55. | 19.5 8 | 8 4.0 17 40 | 12.0 62 20.0 9 | 7 6.5 22 -65 | 13.4 69 28.0 10 7 8.0 28 . 80 14.7 75 28.0 11 6 10.0 35 1.00 16.0 81 48.5 12 6 10.5 40 1.05 17.2 86 60.0 13 5 11.5 46 1.15 18.3 90 73.0 14 4 13.0 52 1.30 19.5 | 94 85. 0 15 4 12.0 57 1.20 20.6 98 97.5 16 4 12.5 .61 1.25 21.6 101 109.5 17 3 12.0 . 64 1.20 22.7 104 122.0 18 3 12.5 . 68 1,25 23.7 107 | 134.0 | 19 3 12.0 70 1.20 24.6 110 146.0 20 3 12.0 73 . 20 | (6) DOMINANT TREES. [Average in Michigan.] (75 trees.) 0.8 | 7 1 7 (”) (2) () 556\-4 20 2 13 ) 0. 02 (?) 5.2 32 3 12 1.5 07 0.15 74 43 4 il 3.5 16 35 9.4 | 53 5 10 5.0 21 50 60 11.3 63 6 10 7.1 29 71 70 13.1 72 7 9 9.4 39 94 80 14.8 80 | 8 8 11.2 48 1.12 90 16.4 88 9 8 13.4 | 287 1.34 100 17.9 4 10 6 13.9 6 | 1.39 110 19.3 98 ll 4 13.9 72 1,39 120 20.6 103 12 5 14.2 | af 1.42 8 107 13 4 14.4 | 83 1.44 0 110 14 3 15.5 | 88 1,55 0 113 15 3 16.5 93 1.65 i 116 16 3 18.5 99 1.85 OL 120 17 4 16.5 1,03 1,65 .0 123 18 3 17.5 1,07 1.75 9 126 19 Biull” eli 1.10 1.75 i 129 20 3 16.5 1.13 1.65 5 132 | 21 Bi] 17.5 1.16 1,75 V3 135 99 eG 1.19 1.75 31.0 138 | 23 | 3 17.5 121 | 1.76 | Se Th ae | TABLES OF MEASUREMENTS. TaBLe LV.—Dimensions, volume, and rate of growth, by decades, ete.—Continued, (A) OLD-GROWTH PINE—Continuea. (7) CODOMINANT TREES. [Average in Michigan. | (28 trees.) Diameter Relative per cent of total Partodicanaratl jatheight| Total eed volume. mua sotre aa Average | Current | Age. |of 24 feet| height (without = | annua annual | ne of tree. | ° park). Be Sapwood. | Bark. | Decade. | Height. Volume. jaceretion.jaccretion. | | | Years., Inches. Feet. | Cubic ft. | Per cent.| Per cent. | Per cent. | Feet. | Cubieft.| Cubic ft.| Cubic st. | Ww 0.7 Me |) CAR f-2aemn =<] enn snmeiene \easaeosce 1 | 7 (2) (?) (?) 20 2.2 16 0.4 | 2 9 () 0. 02 (?) 30 4.0 29 | 3 13 0.9 04 0,09 40 5.7 37 | 4 8 2.7 +10 27 50 7.3 47 5 10 | 3.6 -15 . 36 60 8.8 57 6 10 | 3.9 19 39 Th 10,1 65 if 8 6.5 26 65 80 11.7 74 8 9 8.4 33 84 90 13. 2 83 9 9 | 11.6 42 1.16 100 14.6 89 | 10 6 12.0 +50 1.20 110 15.9 94 11 5 13.0 57 1.30 120 17.2 99 | 12 5 14.0 64 1.40 130 18.5 104 13 5 15.0 71 1.50 140 19,8 108 | 14 4 14.0 7 1.40 150 20.9 112 15 4 13.0 79 1.30 160 22.1 116 16 4 11.0 81 1.10 170 23. 2 119 17 3 10.0 | 82 1.00 180 24.1 123 18 4 190 25.1 126 19 3 200 26.0 129 (?) 20 3 210 26.7 132 (2) | 21 3 220 27.4 135 (2) 63 24 | 13 22 3 230 28. 0 138 () | 23 3 (8) OPPRESSED TREES. {Average in Michigan.] (36 trees.) 0.7 4 @) 1 4 @) 1.8 12 0.3 2 8 (2) 3.3 20 nfl 3 8 0.4 5.0 28 1.8 4 8 1.1 6.6 37 4.0 5 9 2.2 5 8.0 47 7.0 6 10 3.0 «12 9.2 56 11.0 7 9 4.0 . 10.5 64 16.6 8 8 5.6 5 11.8 71 23.0 9 7 6.4 s 13.2 77 30, 0 10 6 7.0 2 C 14.6 83 37.0 11 6 7.0 : 3 15.8 88 45.0 12 5 8.0 : : 17.0 92 54.0 13 4 9.0 . a 18.0 7 64.0 14 5 10.0 46 : 19.0 100 74.0 15 3 10.0 50 1.00 20.0 103 84.0 16 3 10.0 52 1. 00 20.8 106 95. 0 17 3 11.0 56 1.10 21.6 109 106. 0 18 3 11.0 60 1.10 22.4 111 116.0 19 2 10.0 - 61 1.00 23. 2 113 126.0 20 2 10.0 - 63 1.00 23.8 115 137.0 21 2 11.0 . 65 1.10 24.4 117 147.0 22 2 10.0 67 1.00 24.9 119 157.0 23 2 10.0 - 68 1.00 | | (9) DOMINANT TREES. [Average in Pennsylvania.] (81 trees.) 10 1.0 7 | () 1 i (?) (2) (2) 20 2.8 21 0.5 2 14 (?) 0. 02 (?) 30 5.5 35 | 2.6 3 1k 21 -09 0.2 40 8.0 49 | 7.8 4 14 5.2 .20 ot 50 10, 2 60 | 14.4 5 ll 6.6 29 4 60 12.2 70 | 24.9 6 10) 10.5 41 a 70 14.0 78 36.1 % 8 11.2 .02 i 80 15. 6 86 48.3 8 8 1222 - 60 1. 22 90 17.1 93 59.6 9 7 11.3 . 66 ab } 100 18.6 99 | 74.6 10 6 15.0 | -75 us 110 | 20.0 104 | 90.7 11 5 16.1 . 82 ub 120 21.5 108 | 106.9 12 4 16.2 .89 1. 130 | 22.9 112 123.6 13 4 16.7 95 1. 140 | 24.1 116 | 140.9 14 4 23 1.00 ri hy 119 | 158.2 15 3 17.3 1. 06 ale | 4 122 | 176.9 16 3 18.7 1.10 1.87 | -5 125 196. 2 17 3 19.3 | 1.15 ie 6 128 217.4 18 3 21.2 1,21 2. . 6 131 238. 0 19 3 20.6 1.25 2. .8 134 260.5 20 3 22.5. | 1.30 2. 9 137 | 284.2 2 3 23.7 1.35 2. 0 140 309.7 22 3 25.5 1.41 2. 0 143 | 335.4 23 3 25.7 1.46 2. | 100 THE WHITE PINE. TABLE 1V.—Dimensions, volume, and rate of growth, by decades, ete.—Continued, (A) OLD-GROWTH PINE—Continued. — (10) CODOMINANT TREES. {Average in Pennsylvania. } (78 trees.) | . Diameter| \ | Relative per cent of total > : at height! Total Name volume. Banus saarerion: Average Current Age. of 2k feet) height (without - _ i annu annual ) i il of tree. |" park). | il Sapwood. Bark. | Decade. | Height. Volume. accretion./accretion. | ; Years.| Inches. | Feet. Cubic ft.| Per cent. Per cent. Per cent. | | Feet. | Cubic ft. Cubie ft. Cubic ft. 10 | 0.9 | 5 () Bal 5 (1) (@) (h) | 40] | ial: a. |. Veaa |) ew] OR eo are boll: eat] otha he eae |: B |! eceal| -aco | eed ‘ . le i. . . | 60 9.3 56 pb 6 8 | 3.3 18 - 33 | 70 10.8 63 16.7 |. ay 7 5.6 4 56 80 12.0 69 23.3 | 8 | 6 6.6 +29 . 66 90 13.4 75 30.7 9 6 7.4 .B4 74 100 14.7 80 39.0 |. 10 5 8.3 -39 - 83 110 16.0 85 47.9 |. 11 5 8.9 43 9 120 17.3 90 57.9 |. 12 5 10.0 130 18.6 4 65.2 | 13 4 7.3 140 19.7 98 76.9 4 4 11.7 150 20.7 102 88.9 | 1 4 12.0 160 21.8 106 101.8 | 16 4 12.9 170 22.7 109 115.3 ivi 8 | 13.5 180 23.5 112 | 129.2 | 18 | 3 | 13.9 190 24.3 114 | 142.9 19 2 | 13.7 200 25.1 116 | 152.7 20 2 9.8 8 : 2 12.8 . 5 7 2 13.8 3 2 15.7 rig SEGEEEDERERE o7. POC Oe oe SAE eee o GEEEnE i] A a eee Poesia rrr SHIT Hiratessteosetosite Anne Toceeea nape ati rit peaaas eee of eet Lit] HEIGHT IN FEET. 100 120° 14 70 aii 200 220 Fic. 24.—Diagram showing height growth of dominant trees, by States. TABLES OF MEASUREMENTS. 101 Fenpsy|val1a——— Niachigan —-—-— Wiscornsit — LO 40 CO 700 120 40 160 180 00 L0 40 L500 AGE Pia. 25.—Biagram showing height growth of codominant trees, by States. im Tho T T T ra t it T r r T n (SEER ER ED! i Corertt Tritt T Tt TT r Tit t T } 4 a t i t i TH TT =< — T cot am! ; SeEEESees Euan i : eae ss n Pennsylvania — Fore ceeeeeteeee ae Micon —— | eee nena Sete cess saeecna = ————— = 4 St Geeta Ses ey eee ie : Hiieuiiiissauniinunerootasieasae HRESSEEEE aeeessanietessseeetcaiis == sieeeataitat gescotcbesessetats Ssdeusautasesssantatestasezserestosentensstessanastatosez Henini secenseeeneaitat deaasestiatossesstositastesttoest SSeisy Hesiestees cor cou anseettan fosteneeste Bseesetrat itasttastisntasttastiee asi se Soot eeeeee J eae Tr a 1 (20, 8 160 160 200 220 240 260 Fic. 26.—Diagram showing height growth of oppressed trees, by States. THE WHITE PINE. PEE sities Senn ieeeeieaa Hate /00 ne 777 /G0 /80 200 Fic. 27.—Diazram showing volume growth of dominant trees, by States. 220 TABLES OF MEASUREMENTS. 240 Michigan —— eau 160 5 N Sj S S VOLUME IN CUBIC FEET S 40 20 O 20 40 60 8&0 /00 120 /40 /60 AGF Fic. 28.—Diagram showing volume growth of codominant trees, by States. ~ 180 200 103 104 THE WHITE PINE. VOLUME /N CUBIC FEET : 8 NO iS eB IYI) ea — = = SUS), i aa ssaqnig Aq ‘sa0a} passarddo yo TIMOIT onNOA FaeMogs weRaseKT— Es “OWL TABLES OF MEASUREMENTS. 105 TaBLe IV.—Dimensions, volume, and rate of growth, by decades, etc.—Continued. (B) SECOND-GROWTH PINE. (11) Stre a; York County, Mr. DOMINANT TREES. * . (11 trees.) Diameter Relative per cent of total Periodi : atheight| Total iyelame volume. OBEROI OO Average) Current Age. | of 24 feet) height (without | 7 ; —| annual | annual Wi ees bark). Bos Sapwood. Bark, | Decade. | Height. Volume. |#¢cretion.jaccretion,| Hy - | | Years.| Inches Feet. Cubic ft. Per cent.| Per cent.| Per cent. Feet. | Cubic ft. | Cubie ft. | Cubie ft. 10 oe 7h 0.5 1 vey 0.9 0.05 0.05 20 5.7 21 eal 2 134 1.6 .10 16 30 10.2 37 6.5 3 16 4.4 ec, 44 40 14.2 494 17.0 4 124 10.5 42 1.05 50 18.6 604 34.0 5 11 17.0 . 68 1.70 60 22.1 69 60.3 6 8} 26.3 1.00 2. 63 70 24.6 7 82.2 7 8 | 21.9 ale ld 2.19 80 26. 2 85 100. 0 8 8 | 17.8 1.25 1.78 OF sere 90 (2) 9 | Bid | eseewareed eee meee oceans \ | | | . (33 trees.) | lisse 1.8 7 0.2 1 7 0.2 0.02 | 0. 02 20 1 174 7 2 104 ag 08 | 05 30 | 6.2 30 2.4 3 124 ray 08 | oe 40 | 8.6 43 | 6.4 4 13 4.0 16 40 50 11.7 56 | 14.6 5 13 8.2 29 oh: 2) 60 14.8 663 ined ieiicon oss BocsencyAd Esssaiccer 6 104 | 11.6 44 1.16 70 17.3 75 39.6 47 B4 ti 7 84 13.4 -56 | 1.34 80 UP al 814 54.0 } to to to | 8 64 14.4 . 67 1.44 90 21.0 87 70.0 53 41 12 | 9 5 16.0 -78 1, 60 OPPRESSED TREES. (12 trees.) 10 1.5 6 1 | 6 | (Duele ae ares 20 4.5 18 2 | IY SO (GA WEN RUEE | 103) 30 7.2. 30 3 12, | pile | -09 | 0.21 40 9.5 414 4 4s 3.8 -16 | . 38 50 11.2 53 5 11h 5.7 ae) .9o7 60 12.8 664 6 134 | 6.7 31 .67 70 14.0 | 754 7 OF | 7.0 . 36 Sid 80 15.0 79% 8 4 6.4 40 . 64 90 15.4 834 9 4 | 6.6 | 143 66 (12) Sire e: York County, Mer. DOMINANT TREES. (10 trees.) | 10 1.9 7.5 0.5 1 7.5 0.5 0.05 0. 05 20 6.1 19.0 1.2 2 11.5 “itt - 06 07 30 9.4 32.0 5.0 3 13.0 3.8 | li | 38 40 12.1 45.0 2.0 4 13.0 7.0 | 30 70 50 13.9 58. 0 21.4 5 13.0 9.4 | 43 | 4 DOMINANT TREES. (8 trees.) | | 10 | 2.2 9.7 0.2 | 4} 9.7 | 0.2 0. 02 0, 02 20 5.6 21.3 1.0 2 11.6 — -8 05 08 30 7.7 33.4 3.8 | 3 12:1 | 2.8 -13 28 40 9.0 43.0 BzS Ns 4 | 9.6 4.6 aol 46 50 10.3 56.0 13.0 | 5 13.0 4.6 .26 46 (18) MassSACHUSETTS AND NEW HAMPSHIRE. DOMINANT TREES. (12 trees.) lesaal | | | | 10 PER) 9 0 9 | 0.1 0.01 | 0,01 20 | 4.7 25 1 2 | 16 TSU fe Ove)| .B 30 | 7.5 39 | 4 3 | l4 | 2.9 | -l4 -29 | 40 | 9.6 53 | 9 4 14 5.0 | 23 | 150 | | | (Average in Massachusetts and New Hampshire of 12 trees.‘ —— 10 2.5 10 | 0. 1 10 0.5 0.05 0.05 | 20 5.4 83 2. 2 23 1.5 | .10 15 30 7.8 48 | 6. | 15 4.5 22 45 40 94 58 5 by 10 6.0 31 60 106 THE WHITE PINE. TABLE 1V.—Dimensions, volume, and rate of growth, by decades, ete.—Continued, (B) SECOND-GROWTH PINE—Continued. (14) Sive g: CLEARFIELD County, PA. DOMINANT TREES. (4 trees.) | Diameter! | Relative per cent of total ; : Volume | rol " Periodic accretion. ‘ ‘>. see SAR ARM, ———|_______ Aisa aaa ith (wit i af tren (without) Peart. | | } anexehtont peréifo | bark). "| bark). | Wood. ii Bark. Decade. | Height. Volume. ») fees ba | Years.| Inches. | Feet. peer ci [ee cent.| Per cent.| Per cent. Feet. Cubie ft. Cubic ft. | Onie atte 10 2.6 | bY (i Ae | PER seeee] Seeing fczsuaee 1 9 | 0.1 0.01 | 20 7.3 | 27 / sense masse llnenta cers abeawaee as 2 18 | 2.9 15 | ° oe 30 13.2 41h) 13.5 | 37 | 55 8 3 144 | 10.5 45 | 1.05 | | | | CODOMINANT TREES. (5 trees.) OPPRESSED TREES. (3 trees.) 10 1.6 i 1 7 | 0.04 | 0.004 | 0.004 20 am 25 2 | 18 156 03 °056 | 30 6.3 35 3 10 | 2.30 | sto ‘230 if | SUPPRESSED TREES. (3 trees.) (15) Site i: Forest County, Pa. DOMINANT TREES. (2 trees.) 1.8 9 (@)) 20 6.9 294 2.5 30 10.4 41} 9.7 40 12.9 524 19.0 DOMINANT TREES. (10 trees.) ee 21 9 20 5.9 27 30 8.7 41h | 40 11.0 53 CODOMINANT TREES. (10 trees.) OPPRESSED TREES. (5 trees.) | 10 2.1 7) (| | 2 42 23 1.0 30 5.7 | 36 2.7 6.6 “4 4.8 (16) SITE c:; LuzerRNeE County, Pa. DOMINANT TREES. (9 trees.) 10 1.0 6 (?) | 20 3.2 19 0.4 30 5.9 83 2.6 40 8.7 444 9.2 | 5O 11.5 $1 14.0 107 M EASUREMENTS. DIAMETER OF SECTION, IN INCHES, AT AGE (YEARS) OF— TABLES OF (1) AVERAGE THROUGHOUT THE RANGE. TaBLeE V.—Growth of diameter and cross-section area at various heights from the ground, Height Te) a al 2 J = re > Po) be a . oO Ge) a ae] mo) C2) =] i] s —) s a . = a = a nN * = —— = ——— — coin co wn eye ae ba = Tine : _ e | 33 ete e a | 4s Ss = a | 3 3 a re} oo Ne) —) a oN an n _ -_- —S =. nN = ~- ane coo L-) pee meee ” e bans now Be m sss occ S bn 2 Le = ace Roo 8 o —) * seers io = rsa: woe = 2 OO chars i) Qin oo cate tH 00 Wes, ot ae o Ses hat ae = Saag Ase as — + ee eC me) - oT nose ooo os Cy ~ + . . Ss aidis oad zs Ss x pata dS ey i one aH 3 = ee—s—Nr) mMoac oo mire oo oa = oo + o ras coon om o Sy Rrces Sieheses ates o> Dol asad aS a Ssas wenn ro = = al Ss ” ONNA AANA aa — i a Se ree — : ——— — N00 i= 10 auwes is of aonmon ORs] Now = ane paar Dn RAS Aaa Aas S SaaS pacts eRe 2 ricsds soscs occ PS SER eaGust 2 | sdasia anas aac ie 2 3 cz = Ss n= cong noae Rr oaies Sees atee Se a . Baas SPER] ADSA i) ern Te Aa en = nssss recss docs = AE | | ees ae | ed antes =) asase PELE : 8 S is. 3 ef 7 =t~ - ~~ a wre nawine Ch hc) | Cerri. Ee Cee Stace a o Bammet PEATE AS A |S Rae UL Pee a =. riscsscs roscsa nosso 2 2) eSNichie teakeNe ae rs eh Tak Sabre = qisas BEER i S = — = i _ i) == ole -t- eaKros Eoaoo a ES eae Neer : 3 Saas Asana Sans Silt sseceuntme ne Sh reteeereee | Mepieiere Tabi a Ro) nossss fasooss dssoscs iI Sara |b Uapac€ ete: yautante . ° gd ape pe CMC J ON or =O 0000 r ot orin = Q So = ANAAAG AnrAane Aaa a = 5 es Q Se oe 19 S00 00 = t= 0 cee or mom ow & ASG HON ewe oS gic 6 ae EAR HoONS SoHAAnS Aa HS & Cte S| PF reste rs reer soe Ame cece oe Erica ty ~ MARRS Anes NaS > Siva ghee) Carre! Die npealam ere: (Se lations sete ° Ds noossso msoscsos nassso a na gi se oe baoe i aoretad Thee | Ae eo aa o ”~ ra Dare SCMMDOIO AOt~t-6 & 2 o - ANNA aR Argaan meane 2 $ ee. FI = ——— on SCS Anm-an > Bis oe So al Od NOr 1818 pal ER a es aeons Ames Se S es ee eee an Wana ooner m | 3 Bosssss) Adsdds Hodsds meine? Bt aleeece Sh) eke bet Se | sSseanen Srerens 6S Sh o ba! = @ = S = ee ineishy Sees fable x = ee =o 6} moro O12 00001 2 DN OMIA -Catse S =F 09 83 ID = 7 — = ia CARIBOO NO +*S oO e a e 15 = < = ~ ~ S ~ c) a PA eRe ||! Weeiatre emery) esate stay ese 9 ue Bete Rare! ( Daon 8 massac Pelt ec Mec Ras 2 md Samana an |) TOF AN CASON HO oO HIS 1h y o ONT areas! ee oeey coe eae 5 — HAAR Atta SoS Aneaso el Beata eee mm ra co Peary emer SR TS ee, 5 = rdinsceasss Fnasssss nrncscscs =| = aoe DOr Rp te OEM ES eh ip Te aust Geen cia —} Dt Om IDA IN IH HAS AH AHHH O = ee aenaAe iba eae allies Lis wt 8 Se Seg ns es i 2s ers = A “= ————— —_—_— rr = a oemooano 4 DADANASIAN TOMAODDS IONNASt HH a di ea | Rais oN 92 60 > a tea EO ie Rate Glee aa he eS res Serta oe ° FdidisdnSsS aridcSsSS HHSHoss ° Betas te adceece ban atanmiaeaay owe Tele oh gare = CcornHcocmaine bc ns st cS Rep SOS Roica aN s Q a (on hamien iene lon ion aed th ce oon Noel el on ol = ee - a _ —— 5 = CMMARSOSH MHOSCHaR Nea oarnw o MSSSRUAS Soxaznss poh pot | Dene OOS Ae ra Awo SOON ECON OO RA al eked enl en le tel ula e tah rate ial in a pepMatet eM bee! isleruies: et ae: PA ANN Se hol Lond SEATS TSE, BOTS ea SOG Miner ET ben eae Ee ts n FAdiddidenn AeA HSSH dandascss S| n POMPOM PE Oe Cat as xiv are iar S tess 4aadS ATRIA SS Fett CY G1. G1. C2 00 4 a FRA Soe rs 2 Stl ER pel De seg gies oe iz) i E =a = j — = — = ——— Aa COmMAMAG OO THAROSOSOSA ATARTNACH fo} Pe a COS eee Ro Se MSE Se Ee Be Siar ees Dine eeReSye Eet ine ame eae aera t Rdddntae aaa aHS FSdddSS |] B |] ek Reigns DAMEELE, for oes Bepy NON soba = DH ha ae es AA bas obi: Meta) Clete tesa CO) ra} ‘" AAAS aae mae: < : . ate ——— ~- 2 —— ——, a - —— WI oo HOM AAD THAAD etre AAA ONO e SN CIT pO eS FS Fae Oya SS ee at el ere Rte ee oie meee 2 PAS lehcishehel Seki See etySet Il © Baht pec oik Rema ige elias’. curate ve) ike cotTs ae ON SoaAw SS eS ls Ne SSNS is) BaaeeeR sane ee Ses ee a Se Se — ae : ee | RSSSSHRH SHABAATHS Hota BRQOSNee® aAaeasss seacqss CIS ee GOI Sar 1 Se idee: See ped |e asec es al ab ae grin Pee kad ele fo acrnroane 00.29 15> S00 ESE -DAAGr-S i) er) = ae. E ads wel Z police wig Pee ms #2. — = —_— 7 SHOAHHINAN FOOMMANT OMEINIRAD CORO ets, icy Ma BID) OB cor cl RG Ca eee aA OE eater Cy “+ Addddiddd Addddddd ddd ~ ilies tee WehiaBisimees bit Suede eee Re ecw gol aif ce,"* DAAAGI~ Oi ~-oomer~onn Ore row —— ee — = % HANES HDOAOHNAR MOMArON Baweron~ STntoges Seas Bee Pe uppers hor ee ey ON herent Ge * Nadidididdd Fada Gadd Py SeaipRe Daria acer ear enee arom Toe aay coe orrrronot IN OI © O18 HOD us 1H 15 : = —— ———— x — | NSSHOSMSNH ABHNMAANS MANN OD EBANGoESs escepssa Feewess CLEP Upon et wader pee Sue Sma Seen Grom a” aicidicicidi dd Aticicidi ddd doicininidd a Stern ne teas Soe acral se geen eee Rr tie Bork.) OD HID HH OO NOD OO St si st sit Ht oD 4 — a ee | SOE OnN as OKSDONASS AAAI wWsisaas Sets ssas sssesas ee ee AS Re a peas ~ moaincicidinds FaididinNe nda Foidiadiad =~ EST Dp) Sea eon » NONI C e RANANN ae BANANA ees et BNNAAANS SS = = id 7 = m cal —_ af oy oY a ay oi of Be. AonoDNSoH Awatoonax Awortoone Bip ie. cS DADH NAoroDNS “ AOoKSONSH Awowmoowon Aotoons ey a0 2 yas L2S5SBRSS NWASRERSA WASESRBS $2.3 moron od ARS as mm SaS as ae so ISR ewor 0K OO AMRoOKS sha |e a4 =A mA weee is ar Sia (|S os = S 2 x 268 | 5 SeEe | ky Sere |e Zs ns eo Ei fa Eb oe nae 89 S 3 — > aaa ee = =e f == a E ——— : SS SE oeEEs ee Sard Se chee ore dex : = = e: aS (8991) $22) *(899.19 90T) *(s99.19 FOT) RCE *(8091} $27) *(s90I4 90T) “(80019 FOT) ELE (soot) F723) (s9eq} 90T) (sso 700) E39 QuRUuLogy quPolo1opop possoadd¢, Ase quvoru0 gd: queULMoO pop possorddg, ase Que MUO” querarmopoy pass: oO ~ < — on” & Ob or & 108 THE WHITE PINE. QWAUYUETER (NV (NCOKES og aoxeo Aro 2) ws prerecwas arypnes a i FAN Cl icici see a = & = s = SANg Asa -) th Fae : ed be a ae = > = 621 A oD +o = “AAD” SOM FJ seit Se See 7 = BSAaace Ana (— ed A eee cp ° as aacsss ass eB =| Bt eOrey . . a @nnaa Sas = 8 Lat | a —- — a ~——— - — = a air atcoot wmoct0 g oo | Bios Tee 5 o BSARAR Ana so 6 1b) we . aAant=—o - “‘Pecoe_ i = Saas Saaqa eye la Ss Ga\pcoln Ss = snoanne Sane || & —- Se ERAS Z n SRagae aaa = Cee ees + SUIS z tie} ainsascs FASS ¥ —) Pore oie eee i ASAARA ARS a z = s “athe awe — —_ Ss BONSDH ORs aoor-re onset z = Cel peta Boers = ej SARASE ASAtS [a auaaee soi 2) = addaAssS Fac = =| SORT ote CED = baal pi leke al nba see a T-) coo a Dignon soto = —ewoano aaews | 2 o bbe eer Rear S 8 o SRARASS ASASS ae a PT Te ee Anta SO Ceheeienien ho Or,ar Or oo me as ae le SSrHOet FONT o - 4 = ¢ = Reeder amas g = 4 5 = RNaeonan oarow | es hele ba a SASASR ARSSA oF) O Saeertset acaletarves = = didapeaaS FAAS & (eel ee oe ti mee PIs & | #88585 acdsee | & ¢ 3 = Omi: ONAN as 7 PT HON a en | STS Saree) £ Racage sieees A) ites eerste at are es 4 ca pdddds Bases =| oy |||" cena ease whe takes ade 2 | a8eaed deray | 3 a 3 a ee WeonNta NAAtS & — SaNnSm Cannot ~ 7 = a . 2 SSanas Ssaaa ol CE ees 3 oes ~ daiddaead aoe & | oe aaa eenrs 2 : =. |) @asaadveease ig zs ‘ne - —. Te 8 00 I < MOK VNAT SCanNHs Daaonn ~mONor ROM POS eee EA Cie oe cs ReNNeK Re SB SeeR a it te dea se ey eileen C-) pdepaaH BHR i} i= Yo (eae ate gota ey saa S| SSneae sees 8 |: s > one 2 Stang BOnmSoS SHOM Ce Shr Beaane SSaae ae NC te aimee Ste a eeen = Renae BORA BD | eo Sarvevie) aster wl) . site el lat EOSeRS See wae = 3 eae 7 oa ~ DSOSRD | 2282~ == MAOR SOM WMA ane Wa GX ape 0 et | | Fr ene at iar Ts oe iy Tf CmmaeR SS = re | Nae Sh ieee ees ~*~ BR RNAR Fea ES, ok Aceves pide iba aaminle,7 ep ikarie 4 Sraaare sscon s ee. + See WOSSAAM Win wa - sSeqe~e seseq ote Fe cecal) ie alee ee Sane ecooce > Leas Secor: ° Fpdaiaaid Aaa Co) Paka ® ieermer her he 4 WSSers BHHHS s | FANS SHwOMOs WR WOAH WIN w Pere oe RI AO SSSnmsS SoSsscs R ara adap paarpeie sr io! RANNCIN SNe a ear aSeR™ TS. jelts Seal Ts - a “SAANtHO NDoN wae KeeS BAAS 5 | QHawwe Geawmonm || | _ | «we 5. ee Soeososs ssesos a hs Se deler Serre - RNANNA Nein Lon] - Cay ore - moo mNe-o | J 7 Eee T. a pa er a a ee a (I a aero : E¥'sc0 Sz “Stes vey 2 Nowooc Nows ae | eRe Nene 23 se S aaBe aAeRS es Pie yw 2se8 2 es ny Moss 4 £5 “J S35 & Ch =a) oy ae wR v= Poa iss] bolt =) Sb be = & . | a er] ee * . ———_ ——_—~— a ™ See ssa 5 5 E “(80013 R89) «*(ROQNT CC) | 5 } E “(890.13 99) “(#0019 CG) 5 = E *(s0049 89) {eoen a5) 2 queanmog posseaddg age quvurmoedg posseddg =3=5 yuvarmog pesseaddg¢ bo On & oO” be TABLES OF MEASUREMENTS. ie feet tram ground DIAMETER IN INCHES 12 20 40 GO 80 100 120 140 160 180 AGE OF DISK Fic. 34.—Diagram showing diameter growth of dominant trees at various heights from ground in Wisconsin. z (2 teet trom ground. ? ” ” ” ” ” OIAMETER IN INCHES Me ATE GE 80. 100" $e 160 180 AGE OF DISK Fic. 35.—Diagram showing diameter growth of oppressed trees at various heights frota ground in Wisconsin. 200 112 THE WHITE PINE. PaBLe V.—Growth of diameter and cross-section area at various heights from the ground—Continued. Height of (3) AVERAGE FOR PENNSYLVANIA. DIAMETER OF SECTION, IN INCHES, AT AGE (YEARS) OF— Charac- wap spain — ———— - — | growth. cround. 10) 20 30 40 70 | 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 150 160 170 180 190 200) 210 220 280 | | } | | | an oe} es Pod Ved Pee — jn | yd ee) ee Feet / 24) 2.0) 4.4) 7.1] 9.5) 11.5 15.0) 16.5) 18.0) 19.5) 21.0) 22.4) 23,6] 24.9) 26.0 28.2 29.3) 30.4) 31.5) 32.7) 33.9 34.9 ai 18 3.4) 6.4) 8.5 10.3) 11.8 | 14.1) 15.2) 16.2) 17.2) 18.2] 19.1) 20.0] 20.8) 21.5 23.0, 23.8] 24.6) 25.4) 25.9) 26, Era 34 3.2] 6.1) 8.3) 9.9) 11.3 13.6 14.7, 15.7, 16.7) 17.6 18.4) 19.3) 20.1) 20.9 22.3 23.1) 24.0 24.7] 25.3 Bs 50 2.7| 5.6 7.8 9.4) 10.7 13. i| 14.2) 15.2] 16.0) 16.7] 17.4) 18.2) 18.9] 19.7 21.2 21.9) 22.6 23. 25) 66 | 2.5} 5.0, 7.0) 8.7] 10.3 12.8) 13.9) 14.9] 15.8) 16.7, 17.5) 18.3) 19.1] 19.9 21.3 21.8 Es]! 82} 2.2] 44) 6.2) 7.8) 9.2 11.6) 12.7| 13.7] 14.5) 15.3] 16.1) 16.9) 17.7] 18.4 Pane AS] 100 | 1.8) 3.7) 5.3 68) 8.1 10. 4| 11.6) 12.6) 13.6, 14.6 15.5) 16.4) 17.2 115 | 1.4) %9| 4.4) 5.6) 6.9 9.3} 10.4) 11.3 sph / / 24] 1.6) 3.5) 5.4) 7.2) 8.7 11.6) 12.9) 14.2) 15.5, 16.8 18.2) 19.3] 20.3) 21.3 28.2 24.0 24.8 25.5) 26.2 27.0] 27.8 oh 182.4) 4.8 6.5) 80) 9.1 11.2} 12.3} 13.2 14.1) 14.9 15.8) 16.5| 17.2) 17.8 19.1 19.7) 20.3, 21.0) 21.6) 22.2 =z 34 | 23) 46 6.4) 7.8 9.0 11.1) 12.0] 12.8) 13.6 14.4 15.1| 15.8) 16.5) 17.1 18.4 19.1 19.7 20.4 21.0 <3 50 | 2.3) 4.4) 6.2 7.9) 9.3 11.5) 12.5] 13.4 14.2 14.9 15.6) 16.3 16.9) 17.6 18.9 19.5 20.1 EE 66 | 2.1) 43) 5.8 7.2) 8.5 10.6) 11.5) 12.3, 13.1 13.9 14.6) 15.3 15.9) 16.6 17.8) =2 82/16) 31 45 57 68 8.7| 9.6) 10.4| 11.2) 11.8 12.4] 13.0) 13.7 la 5 981.4] 2.5) 3.8] 5.0) 6.1 8.0 114 | 1.0) 2.0 aa 4.2) 5.2 ! Height of DIAMETER ACCRETION, IN INCHES, FOR DECADES— bere section : ~. rom | | growth. round. | 1 | 2 | $)} 4) 5 | Z| 8 | 0-10: 18") 18189) 346 17 | 18 | 19] 20 | 21 | 22 | 23 ree ees ee | | Feet | | : | 23) 2.0} 2.4) 2.7] 2.4) 20] 1.9] 1.6 1.5) 1.5) 1.5, 1.5) 1.4) 1.2] 1.3 11 1-1) 1.1} 1.1] 1.3] 1.1) 1.3) 1.2110 ae 1B | 84) 8:0) 24) 408) 1.5). 1.2} 1.1) 2.1) 1.0) 20) 1.0). 9)) 9) Be By ie] ey eae ar Gee z2| 34] 3.2) 20) 29) Le) 14] 1.9] Ui! 1.1) 1:0] 10) 19] .8) .9]° <8) 8 | 968) ee aINeeT| hs 2: 50] 27) 29] 22! 16) 3-3] 12) Tet La] 10} 8 oa 37-8] ea 8) | Aerie (eee ci z= 66) 25) 2.5) 2.0) 3.7] 1.6) 1.3] 1.2] 1.1) 10) .9) ,.9] <8} 8} .8) 8! “| 65 Sa gz) 22 22 1.8 16 La) 1.3) 1.1) 1.1) 10 pater Oleh ase ne Bees AS too} 1.8) 1.9] 1.6) 1.5) 1.3) 1.2 1.1) 1.2) 10) 1-0) 1.0) .9. .9) 18 : 0 Wu OF | fer B+ ies emir > fey Ee) Wb Did ne Rs is Ui La | 23} 1.6) 1.9] 1.9) 1.8] 1.5] 1.5] 1.4] 1:8] 1.3] 1.3) 1.3) 1.4) 1.3] 1.0} 10 0.9 0.8) 0.8) 0.7) 0.7) 0.8 0.8 = CH ee A eae I i Pees ts Tp Pea EQ err Po P| | eae LR A Lemay) Se: ia) 8) 6) 7] Cw 2a Bk | 22.3) 253) a8] | a2) a3] a0] 929) seth cs] Bh say. coal. 7) 028 Bt Home lob epee | =: 50] 2.8) 2.3) 1.8) 3.7] 1.41 1.2] 10} Lo} .9} 8) 7] 7] 8] Pr tS 6 E& 68 [aed 20] elev eat eA, Wed 50) 7 0) eS ee Slee ere Tee] eee +6) se Md bees EC Pe Ps | | a | a | | | st 98| 1.4) 1.1] 1.3] 1.2) 1.1] 1.0] 9 | | | a} eo} 0} 2a] 2a) no | | aa | | / i | | i L pa Pad 8 | Chea Height of. CORRESPONDING AREA ACCRETION, IN SQUARE FEET, FOR DECADES— ter of rc rom | | growth) jround.| 1 | 2| 8 | 4 cell ayy Hrs at BEB 12 | 14 | 15 17 | 18 19 20 21 22 33 | _ ——_" | | |—— —| ——S «| —| —— | —_— | _ —_ Feet, eae } 24) 0.02) 0.08 0.17 0.22! 25] 0.26) 0.29) 0.30 0.33) 0.34) 0.30) 0.34 0.31) 0.31] 0.34 0.34) 0.86 0.37 0.42 0.4410.37 18 | .06} .16| .17| .19 16) 18) 17) 218.20) 18] 19.18.16) 17] 19-21) 21) 22.14) 14 34] 105] .15| .17| .16 -16| 17] .16] .18| .17| .16 2a) 518) -17| . 20) .281 419) .16 50 | .04) .13| 16) 15) 116] .17) .16| 14) 212) . 13) es :16; 116] .17| .16 66} .03| .11) .18) 214 716] .16) 116) .15, .16) .15 316) .17 -13) a2) | 82} 103) .07] .11) .12) Ba (| Poe Vesey | Pens 3 mee a | 115) 214) 100 | 102} .05| 208) 210 212} 214) 213) 215, 15] .15 ‘14 115 | :01| .03| .07; .07 82) 2.3) 4.2) 5.9) 7.4 8.7 9.7 10.7) 11.6 12.7) 14.4) 15.1) 15. 8) 16.4) 17.1, | 100 | 2.1) oy 6.5, 7.0, 8.2 9.4) 10.3] 11.1) 11.9} 13.3, | | | | | | | | | : + 24) 1.5) 3.4) 5.1 6.7 8.3) 9.0) 11.0) 12.6 14. / 20.5 21.8 22.8 23.8 24.7 25.6 26.4 27.1 27.7 28.3 ae 18/2.3 4.9 6.8 84 9.8 11.2 12.4 13.5) 19.2) 19.9 20.6, 21.3) 21.9 22.4) 22.9 23.4 23.9 £¢ | 34) 2.8) 5.5) 7.4) 9.1) 10,6) 11.9) 13,1) 14.2) 19.1) 19.7) 20.3) 20.9) 21.4 21.8 | BES 56 | 2.9) 5.3! 7.5) 9.2) 10.7] 12.0! 13.0) 14.0) 18. 8! 19.4, 19.9) 20.5) 21.0 | ise 66 | 2.2) 4.3 6.2 7.7) 9.0) 10.0 11.0 11.8 15.9 16.4 16.9 : | d=| 822.2 44 6.0 7.5 8.8 9.9 10.9 11.8 15.7 100 | 4 3.2° 4.5) 5.6 a 7.8 a7 hi | | } | | | | | | | | | 24,1,2) 2.6 4.4) 6.1) 7.5 8.8) 10.1) 11.3) 12. le | 18.7) 19.7, 20.6 21.4) 22,1) 22.0) 23.6, 24.2 24.7 25.2 Sai!) 18 | 2.0) 4.0) 5.6) 7.0) 8.1) 9.2) 10.0) 11.0) 12. ci 16,2) 16.8, 17.3 17.8) 18.3 18.7, 19.1 zz 34 | 2.5) 5.1) 7.2) 9.0 10.3, 11. 4) 12.4 13.3 14.0 » 16.9 17.4 17.8 18.2 18.5 AS 50 | 2.5) 5.0 6.9) 8.3 9.5) 10.6 11.6 12.4 7 5. 16.4 16.8 17.2 17.7 } eS 66} 2.5) 4.7) 6.3) 7.6) 8.7 9.7) 10.6) 11.4) 12, o: 14.8) 15.2 Coe 82) 2:3) 4.1) 5.7 6.9) 7.8) 8.4) 9.1) 9.8 os) E 100- et 3. 8 5. 9 5. >| 6.7) 7. “ 81 8.6 9 | | = cube Height of DIAMETER ACCRETION, IN INCHES, FOR DECADES— teat pe | x rom growth. ground. | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 5 | 6 7 8 9 | 10 | 11 | 12] 13 | 14 | 15 16 | 17 | 18 ED | 20 | 21 | 22 | 23 ! i eras ales a Rahs, Feet. | | } | | | | | 24) 2.0) 2.4) 2.2) 2.1) 1.9) 1,8) 1.6) 1.6) 1,6, 155) 1.8 1.2) 1.1) £2 10 1.0 10) 10) 0.9 0.7 0:7 0.808 ee 18| 2.8 2.8 2.1) 1.9) 1.7) 1.5) 1.4) 13) 1.2 1.0) 1.0) 1.0) 0.9) 0.9 0.9 0.8 0.7) 0.7) 0.6 0.6 0.5 0.5 2¢ 34] 2.8) 2.8) 2.3) 1.9 1.6 1.4) 1.4) 1.1) 1.0) 1.0) 1,2) 0.9) 0.8 0.8 0.7 0.7) 0.7 0.6 0.6 0.5 #E 50] 2.8) 2.9) 2.38) 2.1) 1.7) 1.5) 1.2) 3.0) 1.0) 0.9) 0.9) 0:9) 0.9) O08 0.7% 0. 6 0. 6 0.6 0.5, Er] 66) 2.5) 2.7) 21) 1.5) 13) 1.2) 1.1) 1.1) 10 1.0] 1.0] 0.9] 0.7) 0.7] 0.6) 0.5] 0.5 | | a= 82/ 2.3) 2.9 1.7 1.5) 1.8) 1.0) 1.0) 0.9) 1.1) 0.9) 0.8 0.7) 0.7) 0.6 0.7 | | 100 | 2.1) Sy 1.5) 1.5) 1.2} 1.2) 0.9) 0.8 0.8) 0.7, 0.7, | | | | | | | | | | | < 2 1.529) 17) 156) Lo 13) 14) TG) 15) 128 13 14! 18] 1.4) 11 1,2) 1.0 0.9°°0.9; 0.8) ° 0:7 0.6) 0:6 == 18'| 253) 2:6) 2.9) 1.6) 1.4) Wark) 2a) dil 2.0) 1.0) 1.0 0.9) 0.7 0.7; 07 0.7 06 05 0.6 05 O18 Eg 34) 2.8) 2.7) 1.9) L7 1.5) 1.3) 1.2) 1.1) 1.0, 0.9) 0.8 0.8 0.7) 0.7) 06 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.4 Ee 50} 2.9) 2.41 (2.2) 1.7) 1.5) 1.3) 1.0, 1.0) 0.9) 0.9) .0.8 0.8! 0.7) 0.7) 0.6, O51 016 0.5 BoE 66) 2:2) 2.1) 1.9) 1.5) 1.8) 1.0) 1.0 0.8) 0.7 0.8 0.8 0.7) 0.6) 0:5) 0:5 0.5) 0:4 | | oat 82)) 259) (252) 1.6) 1.5) 1/8) 1a} 150, 0.9) 0/8) 0.7) 0.7] (0.6 0.5) 0.6 | | cS 100} 4:7) 1-5] 1:3) 2:3)° 4.3) 1.1) 0.9 8 0.8 0.7 0.7 | | | | | { | | ] | | Oh 152) Lid 18) 1 Weal TB) ded) e152] 155) © 12) 168) 2) a2) a oy 150) 079) 080.7, 0. 8) 0:7) OLS, Obs ris 18} 2.0 2.0; 1.6 1.4) 1.1) 1.1) 0.8 1.0) 1.1) 1.0 0.9) 0.7 0.8] 0.7) .0.6 0.6) 0:5 0.5) 0.4) 0.4 Z 34) 25 26 21 18 1.3 1.1 1.0 0.9 07 06 0.6 0.6 0.6 05 05 04 0.4 0.3 zi 50| 2.5) 2.5) 1.9 1.4) 1.2) 11) 1.0 0.8) 0.8 0.7 0.7) 0.6} 0.6) O76) 0.4 0.4) 0.5 a> 66} 2.5) 2.2) 1.6) 1.3) 1.1)) 1.0) 0.9) 0.8) 0.7) 0.6 0.6 0.5) 0.5) 0.5) O.4 | 52 82| 2.3 1.8 1.6 1.2 0.9) 0.6 0.7 0.7 0.4 0.4 0.4) 0.4 0.5) | 100 | 1.9) 1.9) 1.2 0.9 0:8) 0.7} 0.7) 0. 5 0.4 | i | { j 7 = ~ = Chatae: Height of | CORRESPONDING AREA ACCRETION, !N SQUARE FEET, FOR DECADES— ter of | Section = ale % from | | | } | growth.) ground. | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 6 | 0 i s | 9/10 12 | 18 M4 | 15 | 16/47) 18 | 19 20 | 21 | 22 | 23 } | / | | / | | = | 5) | ae a es a es ae eee TE, a oie Perstridde okt] tscok teenage ea eH 24 0.02, 0.08 0.14 0.17, 0.20 0.23 0.23 0.26 0.28 6.30 0.27) 0,27 0.26 0.30 0.26 0.28 0.28 0.29 0.28 0.22 0.22) 0.270.27 18] .04) -18) 235) 218) 220) 7.19) 620.21). 2u) 1) 20). 22h. 2B) S18) 592; 230) JB) OG) ct ot 6 34 04 218)" 07] 108) 10) 18 S20 PB) e217], IS} 2a IB) SOS IBY” S17) S17 th) ee) 28) / 50 O04) 14] 217] 221) -.20) .20 19 .16 1 ene (ies | ers) Oj eae Ls ten ea pe gull SBT pes pe | 66 | -03; .12) .14 138, .14 .14) 214) .15 16), LBP lh AS) dha 1D) TU a dD | | | 2} 608) 207} 09) 221) SUE S10) dT 5) ote) 02/7 a 12 Up de | | | | | 100 | .02 .07; .07) .11) .09) .12, .10, .09| .10) .10) .09] .08 | | | | | ! 2} .01; -05) .08) .10, 18) «18, .16) 120; /S2)- Bi <528 37) 20). Bar .98) 229 26, J2d) 2k) 528) °.20), 187.19 18 203) <10) 612) 18) 1d) 10, 1G) 6) 1) 17+ 217, 18) 218) 14) 210). 18, CIS eid) 1S) pier se 3 e048) 202) 1a 505. 6) GP 17 GL eG) 9) 5 Sb) 1a) (cd 1S) Sen pea Ae) 60 | .05) .10) 16) 295) 18) .16) 28) 0b) J Td nisi ca Sabb eat Sa 3) yaya] ein | | 66) .03) .07 .11) .11 2 210 12} 210) .08) .11} .12 .11} .10) .00) 209) .09 | | | 82 708). 50%) <.20) cTn) Sint Gat 12) .11) «11] 09) .11 208) .08) 510 100.02 6.04 05). 06 7; .09 +.08}) .08) .09)' .08) 09 | } 2 -01; .03 06, .10) .1R)-.11)- sls) 204) 10) 18) 21 20) 2820) ott 228) 2G} 16) gi ie 15, .14 .18 18} .02) .07 .08) .10, .09 .10 .08) .12) .14) 1d) .18 211) .18) 212) .11) .09) .10) .10) 108) 208} | | 34 -O3) .22) .14) 118) 14) 113) .12)- .18) 211) .09) 210 10) .11) 09) .09) .08) 208) 706 | 50 O8 U0 0S) 12) UN 2 ed a) Ss a a SD) say 07.07) «WwW / } 66; .05 .09 .10 .09 .10 .10° .10) .10 .09) .08) .08 .08' .07 .08 .07 / 82 03, .06 .09 .08) .07; .05) 207) 107) 205 O4 05 .05) .06 / 100 02) .06 .06, .05 05 06 .06 (04 04 DIAMETER I INCHES DIAMETER 1lV INCHES ~ N & TABLES OF MEASUREMENTS. 115 2/2 feet fram ground. Ovations 54» 50» 6& » 62 » 100 __». Pt AD aan Ellin Ve SU MnI/GO GA WISORARIZD UG, TGQ” 11 (GREE 200 240 AGE OF DISK Fic. 38.—Diagram showing diameter growth of dominant trees at various heights from ground in Michigan. 2 feet fromground / »” 54 ; Su erie eats De as yee ape eee 66 Beas. hit in ees /00 2040. +60 87 +100 120 143 160 220 2Za0 AGE OF DISK Fig. 39.—Diagram showing diameter growth of codominant trees at various heights from ground in Michigan. 116 THE WHITE PINE. 20 eee! Scceuecceone pa iaauescase, Sasscaneoa SRSSERSCRSRSGERET cane ara SEeeeoeeee SSSSERS EAP IE aF APH BUSeeasei DIAMETER 1M INCHES Atri iegeuensy /o°s) to ||] White Birch. Yellow Birch. 16 14 90 300 2 14 80 | 11 15 to 2 638 | 3 16 | | ul 16 |f £0 9] 704 1 18 | 6 | 6to10 | 2 | 6to10 13 17 936 1 20 | 4 10 40 |} 8 18 640 2 23 | 2 i4 to | 5 19 435 1 1 60 | 4 20 | 384 2 17 i} 3 21 309 | | i 1 23 122 | | 1 25 43 | 173 trees: 83 trees: | 71 trees. 37 trees. Total cubic feet... 5 Total cubie ft.. 1,230 Total feet B. M .. Total feet B. M~. 4,780 Total yield: White Pine and Hemlock, 33,430 feet B. M., of which White Pine 87 per cent. Average annual accretion: White Pine, 71 cubic feet. 286 feet B. M. 124 Table VI.—dere yields of White Pine and measurements of sample trees—Continued. A.—MICHIGAN—Continu ed. THE WHITE PINE. MEASUREMENTS OF SAMPLE TREES. DOMINANT GROWTH. Ratio of a, | | r Rings le length Average Tre he Aces oy bec Height. Pet inch Volume | Factor | oferown| Current annual | annual waz WV 6 <7 sy) hist Ba on of tree. | shane, |,to total accretion. acere- ee stump. | Pe | height of tion. | | | tree. —— | | Feet. No. Cu. ft. | Percent. Cu. ft. | Cu. ft. 98 (4%) | 64.5 0.44 0.45 1.7 1.10 | 0, 64 106 (?) | 68.4 243 40 2.2 1.50 .70 104 | 5.3 | iphire 43 45 1.5 1.07 | -70 100 4.9 | 94.6 — 45 () Leg 1.61 95 109 | 4.8 | 95.9 | e 2.1 5 - 103 5.0 | 79.0 iB Average ... () Srrej: Crawtord County. Soil: Gray or light sand, medium fine grain, porous, light, loose, dry (in places fresh), with a moderately leafy surface cover. Forest conditions: Open stand of mixed White Pine and Norway Pine with scattering White Birch and occasional Oak, Hackmatack, and Banksian Pine ona level plain along the banks of a river; undergrowth scanty, of young Fir, Cedar (Thuja occidentalis), and a few small Oaks. MEASUREMENTS OF SAMPLE TREES. Age class: 90 to 110 years. DOMINANT GROWTH. ——e i = ae _ ‘ Diameter elcah | ee Factor | length omen : per inch Volume ofcrown, Currentannual | annua Tree number. Age. | = Height. on of tree. an to total accretion. acere- gh). stump. Be height of tion. ! tree. Inches Feet. No. Cu. ft. Percent. Cu. ft. Cu. ft. 13.0 94.0 7.6 45.7 0.52 0.51 3.2 1.46 0.42 14.0 96.0 7.3 50.2 47 47 3.5 1.75 44 14.8 93.0 6.7 51.4 45 AT 2.2 1.14 47 15.3 85.0 6.5 53.3 AT .37 2.5 1.33 -50 16.5 104.0 | 6.5 64.3 -41 .30 2.2 1.41 - 58 17.0 101.0 | 6.3 | 67.6 42 -59 1.8 1. 22 . 62 17.0 100.0 6.1 | 12.4 45 (?) 3.4 2.46 65 18.3 103.0 | 5.8 | 85.5 44 56 2.5 2.13 76 20.5 105.0 4.8 99.1 | 41 .49 1.9 1.88 91 20.8 105.0 | 5.0 99.8 .39 42 1.6 1.60 .91 16.7 | 986 [ 63 | a0 [4 46 2.5 164 | .63 | CODOMINANT GROWTH. ; al 13.5 94.0 7.0 41.0 C.44 | 0.57 2.0 0.82 | 0.41 | 44 90. 0 6.6 48.7 47 (7) 4.3 | 2.08 50 16.5 94.0 4.8 } 65.7 47 . 53 4.0 | 2. 63 . 80 20.0 100.0 4.4 | 90.9 | 41 46 8.38 | 8.00 91 16.1 94.5 6.7 | 61.6 45 ia me el ee 65 | | | Age class: 150 to 160 years. DOMINANT GROWTH. | | | } | 6.6 124.9 0.40 0.36 | 2.4 3.00 | 0. 80 | 7.0 121.1 | -40 . 58 Le | 1.45 | 80 | 6.8 123, 0 40] 47 | 2.8 | 2,98 | -80 | ee ee Oe ee TABLES OF MEASUREMENTS. 125 TABLE VI.—dAcre yields of White Pine and measurements of sample trees—Continued. A.—MICHIGAN—Continued. (10) SITE k: toscommon County. [About 1,000 feet above sea level.) Half acre No. 1. Soil: Brown, loamy sand, deep, fine (for sand), porous, loose, tresh, and well drained (water stands in low ground), with a moderately leafy surtace cover; subsoil, same as soil. Forest conditions: Vwo-story stand on a gentle slope, upper story of White Pine (80 per cent) and Red Pine (20 per cent), lower story of fine tall Hemlock; undergrowth scanty, of young Hemlock, Beech, and dwart Maple. Sample area: 1 acre. Age of pine: 230 to 240 years. Density of crown cover: 0.8 to 0.9. ” Number of trees: 186. Classification : White Pine. DOUG Centon as Sean cue sm aseiatan vecenel-sceeaide haters aaa rene neeeeeaaes per cent.. 63 Oppressed... So OBES 21 SIU PCOS SON eee ase eae ooo ne np ee lan aria aan eee ne eee aeen ater eee semenee sditthese ly HALF-ACRE YIELD. — White Pine. Red Pine. Hemlock. } Volume. 7 Diameter | S Diameter + Diameter pyamber (breast Height. | Mer- Number (breast | Height. ralnac (breast | Height. | high). Bole. chantable| °* "€®S: high). * high). timber. | | | Inches. | Feet. Cu. feet. Feet B.M. | Inches. Feet. || Inches. | Feet. 6 itt 192 2 | i4 . 32 6tol0 | 60 2 15 | 80 116 | 2 16 4 10 70 2 16 6 123 | 4 | 18 80 6 Il | nr, 4 17 195 288 | 14 | 19 os 2 2 |f 2 18 160 6 | 21 150 6 14 | 6 19 528 2 23 . 8 15 2 20 250 2 24 2 17 4 21 , 5.0 2 25 2 | 18 8 22 1, 216 | a) 19 100 12 24 130 2, 076 2 20 to 8 25 to 1, 544 2 | 21 120 6 27 150 1,344 2 29 3 28 1, 920 2| 3 | Z 30 | 540 | 2 | 24 4 33 | 1, 312 | | = 76 trees: 34 trees: 76 trees: Motal cubic tee 2--ceens cc enneneree === 12,174 | Total cubic feet. 4, 270 Total cubic feet. 3, 616 ROtAlOR elena ene a men atene ete 58, 400 Total feet B. M . 20,500 Total feet B. M - 13,000 [= Total yield: All species 20,060 cubic feet, of which White Pine was 61 per cent. Average aunual accretion: White Pine, 5? cubic feet. 248 feet B. M. MEASUREMENTS OF SAMPLE TREES. Age class: 230 to 250 years. DOMINANT GROWTH. _ | Ratio of is ings ength Average Tiree near bar ice Pay Heicht. | Pet inch | Volume actor of crown} Current annual annual ‘ Be. hich ght. on | of tree. | shape, | to total accretion. accre- | 60). stump. Pp height of tion. | | tree. Years. | Inches. | Feet. No. Cu. feet. Per cent.| Cu.feet. Cu. feet. | 234 23.2 137 10.0 59. 0 0. 43 0. 39 0.8 1.35 | 0.72 236 | 23.8 142 9.6 3 44 48 aia 1.38 | - 83 235 24.5 142 9.2 pal 43 43 Si! 1,39 | ~ 4 DEY AAS SPLES 140 9.6 | 6 46 = 36 8 1. 62 - 86 237 24.5 145 9.0 4 -43 40 =o 1.03 . 86 232 24.7 145 () .0 48 AT 1.0 2. 07 -89 | 233 25.5 143 8.4 6 42 -42 -5 1.06 -91 | 237 25.5 145 9.1 | .3 44 44 -9 2.04 - 96 235 26.0 143 9.0 mi -43 -23 “iy! 1. 62 -98 | 245 | 30.0 122 (2) | 3.9 -39 35 .8 1. 87 -95 | 236 | 26.2 145 9.0 2 44 42 .3 0. 72 1.01 | 236 | 27.0 150 8.5 | 5 45 -41 -8 2.17 1.15 238 | 29.0 140 7.8 | all 43 40 6 1. 69 1.18 244 34.0 130 7.0 | wal 42 -62 | =) 1.74 1.42 233 32.0 144 7.0 6 43 -39 | 1.0 3. 50 1.50 | 251 27.0 | 120 9.1 206.8 AS 36 | 5 1. 03 . 82 237 26.6 140 8.7 236.4 | 43 -41 7 1. 64 99 OPPRESSED GROWTH I ] ] } | Me aann vowncecen= | 237 | 21 136 11.0 133.8 0.41 0, 51 0.7 0. 94 0.56 | SUPPRESSED GROWTH. | = 7 | z {Mero geme ote 235 | 13.0 120 17.7 61.1 | 0.55 0.31 0.6 0. 37 0.26 Cae eS eH Sos ood 229 15.3 126 15. 2 86.7 | .52 41 -6 52 - 37 | Average... | 232 14.1 123 16.4 73.9 53 36 16 5 31 126 THE WHITE PINE. TABLE VI.—Aere yields of White Pine and measurements of sample trees—Continued, .—MICHIG AN—Continued. ‘ me Half acre No. 2. Soil: Moist, low ground, near swamp. Age of pine: 230 to 240 years. Forest conditions: White Pine (51 per cent) and Hemlock (49 per cent). Density of crown cover: 0.5. Classification : White Pine. Number of trees: 118. DOTA Bassas ccc cpu adele orm noes wvecee see seban san =ssaee sheen ane aden eons per cent.. 0 Oppressed. .. 10 Suppressed ... 10 HALF-ACRE YIELD. White Pine. Hemlock. | Volume. Diameter | Diameter Number | ; | Number ‘ (breast Height. Mer- (breast Height. of trees. | high). | Bole. chantable| ° tTees- | “jigh), 2 | | _ timber. | | = = | Inches. | Feet. | Cu. feet, \Feet BM. Inches. | Feet. 2 15 |) 80 116 6 | 6to10 | 60 4 18 } to 320 6 iM |) 9 2 19 125 176 4 12 | rs 2 22 =+4) B04 | 4 13 80 2 24 360 | 4 14 | 2 25 400 6 | 15 | 4 | 26 *| 864 i 6 | 16 10D 2 | 28 498 6 | 17 to 4 | 29 1, 064 2 19 30 6 | 30 130 1, 680 | 10 | 20 7 2 | 31 to } 604 2.) au 4 32 150 1, 280 Wl 2 25 12 33 4, 080 | 2 Od 720 | 2 35 762 } 4 36 1, 604 2 37 846 2 38 | 890 60 trees: 58 trees: ‘Total cubic feet ..-.-- eowsmoeae cee eae 16, 586 Total cubie feet. 4,490 Total feet B. M -.---..-.-.,---........ 99,400) | Total feet B. M.- 16,160 . | Total yield ; White Pine and Hemlock 21,076 cubic feet, of which White Pine 71 per cent. Averaye annual accretion: White Pine, 70 cubic feet. 423 feet B. M. (11) Sive /: Roscom:uon County. Sample area: 1 acre. Soil: Light-brown, dry sand, loose, light, very deep, well drained (?), with Linch mold on top and Age of pine: (1!) surface cover of leaves. Density of crown cover: (?) Forest conditions: Red Pine (84 per cent) intermixed with White Pine (16 per cent), with occa- sional Beech on a gentle slope (angle 5°); no undergrowth. Number of trees: 136. Classification : White Pine. Red Pine. Momiisign fencaca se ash ate ena aeaw es vane cesta een per cent.. 57 62 Oppressec atlQoace 31 Suppressed ........... eset seece eee ae -do.... 19 7 ACRE YIELD. White Pine. | Red Pine. | Beech. } | | Volume. o Diameter _————— ee Diameter Hl spy. Diameter, j Number “(breast | Height. | || Mer. . Aeamber 1 cireatal Selene Number | “(breast | Height. ; *| high). Bole. chantable "| high). | jj Ox trees. | high). ] | | timber. | | | a = | || —ae S| Inches. ‘eet. Cubic feet. Feet B.M. | Inches. Feet. . | Inches. Feet. 2 10 36 | 1 6tol0 1 8to6 | 40 1 11 32 | | 2 10 1 | 6tol0 i 1 12 33 | 3 | 1 2 13 96 | ce 4 12 1 14 55 | | 13 13 oot nt | 2 15 100 126 | 26 4 t | } | 2 TOR = tapes 142 16 15 100 | | | 3 18 120 261 18 16 | 1 19 96 16 17 | | 2 21 228 18 / | | } 2 22 246 5 19 | 1 23 134 1 20 | | 1 <7 199 | | 21 trees: 113 trees: 2 trees. | Total cubic feat.....-ca-+encesceteces 1,689 Total enbiec feet. 6, 207 ( Total feet B: M .... 522s ats ence aae 7, 090 Total feet B. M. 26. 060 | Total yield: Pine 7,896 cubic feet, of which White Pine 21 per cent. TABLES OF MEASUREMENTS. Lag TABLE VJ.—dere yields of White Pine and measurements of sample trees—Continued. A.—MICHIG AN—Continued. (12) SITE m: Roscommon County. Sample area: 4dacres. [900 to 1,000 teet above sea level.] Acre No. 1. Soil: Dry, light-brown sand, medium fine, deep, well drained, with moderately leafy surface cover, Age of pine: 160 to 200 years. Forest conditions: Red Pine (53 per cent) with White Pine (39 per cent) antk hardwoods (8 per Density of crown cover: (1). cent) on uneven ground; stand open, and open places with Red Oak and Maple. Number of trees: 91. Olassification : White Pine. Red Pine. ID DEAN ae ag pees EDS ee adoe teccon Cound ahaa ae per cent. . 73 87 Oppressed ... e high). Bole. chantable| 0! T€€8-| high). | | timber. | | | i r Inches. | Feet. Cubiefeet. Feet B. M. Inches. Feet. 3 | 6tol0 30 22 | 3to 6 40 ey ll 238. | 11 | 6to10 60 1 | 13. | 39 5 i 80 2 | 1 1 to ul 7 | 100 715 al) Hornbeam. 3 18 | 360 7 19 | 553 6 20 |) 516 | 3 Sto6 40 } 4 21 | 496 | 4 22 536 = | oe Tasswood. , 5 25 | 855 7 Bs 5 Fd aa a 4 | 3to 6 40 4 28 130 852 2 | Sto10 60 1 29 228 5 30 1,200 2 31 | 518 Fir. Ts 32 | 274 1 34 | 360 } x 4 ae 5 3to6 40 1 38 He 445 1 40 | 490 85 trees: | 49 trees. Motaleubic tedts-s-csas6see= spo saee 11, 795 ‘Total feet B. M ee Average annual accretion: White Pine, 62 cubic feet. 298 feet B. M. TABLES OF MEASUREMENTS. 139 TabLe V1I.—Acre yields of White Pine and measurements of sample trees—Continued. B.—WISCONSIN—Continued. MEASUREMENTS OF SAMPLE TREES. Age clags: 200 to 220 years. Mie ie wa ] eet of | ie Diameter lise Factor | ength MeLBES, Tree number. Age. (breast Height. V ae of cr Ebel ts high). pa easnee. shape. OOO SRI ACE Ne | heightof tion. | ‘| tree. | Inches. Feet. Cu. ft. | | Cu. ft. thee 27.3 | 123.0 219 0.44 0.59 | 1.07 Pals 25. 2 137.0 227 4 +40 1.08 os 81,0 | 127.5 246 37 35 1.19 Aae 29.5 116.0 239 243 -ol 1.20 ove 29.2 | 130.5 282 46 29 1.37 6.. 30.0 133.0 284 43 52 | 1.38 Use 34.0 118.5 202 . 39 37 1.40 5 36.0 113.5 312 39 38 1.46 9 39.0 130.0 | 415 . 38 49 1.98 ya fee Se 8 | es ee o1.0 | 125.0} 280 | 42 43 1.35 | | | 116.0 132 | . 51 64 . 63 113.0 | 148 | 43 42 | 65 12).0 | 153 45 45 .70 107.5 200 46 +28 «97 121.0 204 | -42 43 1.00 122.0 210 43 | 5 ial ie 1e02 104.5 180 41 51 +85 112.0 186 41 41 91 Average...| 211 25.0 114.0 1i7 44 42 . 84 a : oe oe SE Age class; 160 to 180 years. | 30.0 121.5 206 0.35 | 0.49 1.22 |e 2822: 120.0 224 | 41 | -50 1.36 28.4 127.0 257 46 .35 1.49 17.8 91.5 72 | 46 234 44 | 23.0 101.0 130 46 oF - 80 28.0 108.5 167 . 36 a! - 96 | 25.4 104.0 166 | 45 .o2 1.00 | =e | uso | va 42 AT 1. 04 140 THE WHITE PINE. TABLE VI.— high). | timber. | | Inches. Feet. Cubic feet, Feet B. M. | Inches. | Feet. | | Inches. Feet. 1 18 130 137 G42 1 %to6 |) | 16 | 6to10 30to 40 1 20 130 137 G42 2 7 1 21 130 137 642 2 8 | 9 V2 » : a ty in| ee | e Black Bireh. 1 24 130 } 380 | 2,000 | i 16 2 26 135 514 2, 780 4 17 i} | 2 28 135 570 3, 300 1 18 80 1 | 6to10 40 3 31 145 915 5, 850 2 19 to | 1 |10to14 J 4 32 145 1, 560 9, 200 Pa 20 100 = 34 a 800 4, 800 3 an 1 35 14 2 23 | | “ 4 ize } 960 | 6,400 3 zr 1 40 145 1 5 | 1 41 Tis f 1022 | 6,600 4 26 | 1 27 3 28 | 1 33 23 trees: | 55 trees: Wotalicnvictectq-2-.esmeen erence 7, 269 MGtaliaubDicle@lioe-- o> exe ower suena seen eee 11, 224 Motel t6ebibes, Mano .e sea e ee 43, 490 PROTA ROO Utes mt ete 5 icant eee ere 66, 900 Average annual accretion: All species, 45 cubic feet. 268 feet B. M. (4) SITE i: Jefferson County. Sample area: 1 acre. {1,500 to 1,800 feet above sea level.] Soil: Reddish-brown clayey loam, deep, fresh, well drained, with 2 to 3 inches mold on topand Age of pine: 230 to 240 years. a eee ren of abunéant leaves and ground Hemlock; subsoil, laminated shale of indeti- nite depth. Forest conditions: Hardwoods (71 per cent)—mainly Beech, White Oak, and Maple—mixed with Hemlock (22 per cent) and scattering White Pine (7 per cent) on ridge; undergrowth, moder- ately dense, of very young Beech and some Maple. ACRE YIELD. Density of crown cover: 0.7; in places 0.8. Number of trees: 155, White Pine. | Beech. | Maple. | Hemlock. Di Volume. | Num aber Num- Diameter | Num- | Diameter Num- | Diameter ber of ficeast Height. Mer- berof (breast Height. berot| (breast Height. berof | (breast Height. trees. ‘hic | Bole. chantable| trees. high). trees. | high). | | trees. | high). | gh). | | timber. | | | | a : as } | | J | Inches. Feet. Ou. feet. Feet B.M Inches. Feet. | | Inches. Feet. Inches. | Feet | 1 12 90 30.0 120 | 37 | Sto 6 40 5 | 6 to 10 ) 50 | 5 3to 6 17 99 i 236 | 14 6 to 10 to: 9 10tol4 6 15 6 to 10 60 | 1 19 102 . 3 386 17: 10tol4 60 2 lito 18 60 4 |10told to 1 23 122 .3 656 1 |18to24 | 3 | 18 to 24 3 | 14tols 80 1 244 126 9 820. | ——_—_——— —— — —_———— 7 18to2 q ¢ o a , aif te . 1, Hee White Oak. Chestnut. | 3° | over 80 | 100 1 354 140 2, 605 ero } 2 ar | ar 5755 | 4 |14tolA | ey | 1 49 138 3,056 || 7 18to24 } 80 2 3to 6 to ) 6 24to 30 30 | | | — = — i = L | 11 trees: | 144 trees: | Total cubic feet... ......... 2,933 | Totalicubio feet:..-ccasesotaubstdevesanessie'aasacundecee sae usabashde 5, 526 Total Teet Bont }.coee- sees 16, 741 A i Z taf S | Average annual accretion : White Pine, 12 cubic feet. 71 feet B. M. TABLES OF MEASUREMENTS. TaBLE VI.—dAere yields of White Pine and measurements of sample trees—Continued. C.—PENNSYLY ANIA— Continued. MEASUREMENTS OF SAMPLE TREES. DOMINANT GROWTH, | | Volume. | | Lumber | | product | | Ratio e under . lta: Rings > lengt yresent Diameter Height to = Factor Reap ' Tree number. Age. | (breast | Height. | base of bensiich Mer- of | enoroen Le high). | crown. stump. Tree. chantable shape. height of REEdiOE | timber. tree. | total | volume | of stem). | es ee | a ee Years. | Inches. Feet. | Feet. | No. Cubic feet, Feet B. M. 228 30.5 136 | 80 5.6 800.0 | 1,682 | 0.43 0. 41 47 239 40.0 | 138 80 | 5.6 487.1 | 3,056 | 40 =42 52 234 37.0 |= 146 72 =| 5.4 482.8 2, 626 44 51 45 | 240 31.5 140 86 9.6 278.2 1, 425 37 39 42 | 239 | 37.0 148 96 6.1 466.6 3,129 42 35 56 239 35.5 140 80 | 6.1 401.2 2, 605 42 43 o4 Average... 236 35.0 141 82 6.4 403.0 2, 420 41 A2 49 | ! =| OPPRESSED GROWTH. | | 152.3 656 0.43 0.29 | 35 a5 174.9 820 42 ment 36 163. 0 738 42 le 35 | l = | Sie eaeee= || 230) tof} 19 102 50 () «| ~—(90.3 386 0.44 35 MQG24 seesoegoecese \f 240 1 7 99 80 (OPN Che 236 44 28 Average ...|.....--- | 18 100 65 sescesses 80.0 31L na 31 (5) Sive k: Jefferson County. [1,500 to 1,600 feet above sea level.] Soil: Reddish-brown clayey loam, deep, fresh, and drained by Windfall Run. Forest conditions: White Pine, with Hemlock and occasional hardwoods; Hemlock comparatively small, acting as an underwood, giving ample shade to the stems of the White Pine. MEASUREMENTS OF SAMPLE TREES. Volume. Lumber | | | | product ; | ] | | | tee | under | ln; - | Rings | | | length | present 1 | | Diameter jHeight to) (= | | Factor Siena bales | bye tobe) Tree number. Age (breast Height. base of ae | Mer- | of oeCroNT pata) high). | crown. | | Tree. ‘chantable shape. “ | (P' sled | stump. | Ngan height of used of | | | | aA tree. total | | | | volume | | | | of stem). - > | | | | 3 | Inches. | Feet. Feet. No. \ouute pect Feet BM. | 32.5 | 146 96 | 6.3 398. 0 2,221 | 0.47 0. 34 46 | 39.0 176 90 7.3 r 3. 003 242 49 50 32.5 142 96 6.2 053 4 .32 48 32.5 158 96 8.2 244 “40 45 34.0 148 96 6.2 , 236 35 49 30.0 143 96 8.0 Be 33 47 | | 31.0 145 90 6.5 38 63 | 29.5 142 88 6.6 .38 45 32.0 153 100 The 134 46 | 35.0 158 112 6.2 ~29 48 34.5 152 90 6.2 -4l 49 32.5 158 92 5.8 41 48 Average.... 238 32.5 152 ra i 37 | 49 147 148 THE WHITE PINE. YIELD OF SECOND-GROWTH WHITE PINE, WITH MEASUREMENTS OF YOUNG PINE TAKEN FOR ANALYSIS. The yield of second-growth White Pine on selected sample areas in the States named is shown in the following notes and tabulations, which also give, for illustration, the number of trees, volume, and average annual accretion of pine, the soil, forest conditions, acre yields, and measure- ments of sample young pines taken for analysis: A.—PENNSYLVANTIA: (1) SITE ec: Luzerne County. {1,400 to 1,500 feet above sea level.) Half acre No. 1. TanLe VII.—| ‘stump. || Tree. chantable shape height of} used of | | | eee Rae ah a | | | of stem). Years.| Inches. | Feet. | Feet. No. | Cubic feet.| Feet BM. 29.0 84 | 34 3.5 | 140.6 627 0. 36 0. 60 37 20.0 81 20 5.7 78.1 369 odd .75 a3g 22.0 81 16 5.7 | 81.6 369 -38 -80 a38 | 31.0 90 | 20 3. } 193.8 935 41 -17 40 Average...| 129 25.5 84 22 4.7 | 194.0 575 40 73 38. | | | a Oppressed for the last forty years. 1 Intermixed species: Maple, 36; Hemlock, 16; Beech, 18; Spruce, 8. Undergrowth: Young Hemlock, 200; Beech, 66; Maple, 24. 150 THE WHITE PINE. Taste VIL.—dAecre yields of second-qrowth White Pine, with measurements of young pine taken for analysis—Continued. A.—PENNSYLVANIA—Continued. Soil: Reddish-brown sandy loam, medium loose, fresh, deep, and well drained, with surface cover of abundant leaves. Forest conditions: Hardwoods—mainly Beech, Oak, Maple, Chestnut, and Bireh—mixed with White Pine, Pitch Pine, Hemlock, and occasional Spruce. MEASUREMENTS OF SAMPLE YOUNG PINE TREES. DOMINANT GROWTH. Volume. | Lumber ! | | el } product ( | a under ] | : ings — | lengt present | Diameter Height to ; | Factor | .¢, : | Treonumber, | Age. (breast Height. | base of ater F | Mer- of jorcrows pecapesh: | | high). crown. stump. | Tree. cave shape. | heightof| used of | " : | tree. total | | volume | . of stem). | | ae | j | | Years.| Inches. | Feet. Feet. | No. Cubicfeet. Feet B.M. } 163 29 | 6 50 5.0 114 947 | 0.36 | 0.57 40 98 | 25.0 84 32 3.5 121.2 530 +42 «62 36 96 20,0 73 32 4.3 76.1 260 Yagi |) 256 40 92 31.0 97 32 2.5 210.0 976 -41 | . 67 40 97 19.5 76 26 4.3 67.0 | 363 -d2 | 66 45 | | Average.... 96 | 24.0 82 | 30 3.5 | 118.0 557 | ie 40 | ' | Soil: Fresh sand, well drained. Forest conditions: A young White Pine grove mixed with mature Spruce, Hemlock, and seatter- ing hardwoods. | Volume. | | Lumber | eee | product | eee Me under in; : . Rings engt present Diameter Height to rho Factor . Tree number. Age. | (breast | Height. ee of jecdnes ate of ay cro ae cent | high). | EN stump. Tree. ichantable shape. height of| used of | timber. | tree. total volume | | | of stem). Yeurs. | Inches. | Feet. | Feet. No. Oubic,feet.| Feet B. M. 1 64 | 14.5 | of 18 4.0 28.7 110 0.46 0. 66 81 2. ST © theo 58 20 27 | 31.4 144 AT . 66 38 3 50] 85 50 | 20 48 | 95 “43 48 - 60 36 4. 47 8.0 | 46 18 5.0 | 7.3 32 | 45 -61 37 | 5. 52 11.0 | 50 20 3.7 14 2 54 43 60 31 | 6. 49 11.5 46 18 | 3.6 15.7 59 AT - 61 31 ie 52 9.5 53 18 | 4.0 12:3 48 46 - 66 33 8 o4 8.0 54 18 5.7 10.1 34 53 - 66 27 Qiccscceanensceces| 04 10.0 58 18 4.3 14.7 | 59 48 -68 | 33 Average... 53 10.5 52 19 4.2 16.0 | 64 | | (2) SITE e: Clinton County. Sample area: 1 acre. {1,500 to 1,600 feet above sea level.] Soil: Loamy sand with rocks on face of slope, the brown-yellowish coarse grain full of shales, Age of pine: 120 to 130 years surface cover of 2 to 3 inches mold and abundant leaves. Density of crown cover: 0.2 Forest conditions: Brush of very young White, Red, and Chestnut Oak, with scattering White (scattered). Pine (14). and occasional Chestnut Oak (6), Jack Pine (3), and Norway Pine (2), on a steep hill 300 feet above station, facing south; undergrowth, dense, of young hardwoods of same species as above. Number of trees: 25. ACRE YIELD. White Pine. Volume. lo Diameter ag (breast | Height. Mer- | high). Bole. chantable timber. | o- _ = _ ns Inches. Feet. Cubic feet. Feet B.M. 1 10 70 Ht BSS eer 1 15 | 76 46 i6i 1 19 | 4 66 370 | 3 21 85 270 1, 245 1 22 87 99 432 | 3 oy 85 345 | 1,449 | 3 25 | 85 372 | 2,004 | 1 29 85 151 760 } 14 trees: Total cubic fect. <.s-.c J. scecec once oon | Total feet B.M.. Average annual aceretion: White Pine, 11 eubic feet. 57 feet B. M. TABLES OF MEASUREMENTS. 151 TaBLE VII.—Acre yields of second-growth White Pine, with measurements of young pine taken for analysis—Continued A.—PENNSYLVANIA—Continved. MEASUREMENTS OF SAMPLE YOUNG PINE TREES. Clearfield County. [1,200 to 1,500 feet above sea level.] (3) SITE g: Yellow clayey loam, medium grain, deep, fresh, well drained (three small streams cross the hollow in different directions), with 2 to 3 inches mold on top, surface cover of leaves, Fern, Ground Pine, Wintergreen, Elderberry, Blackberry, and Dogwood; subsoil laminated shale of indefinite depth. Forest conditions : Young White Pine intermixed with Ly oung hardwoods in hollow extending north and south, and bounded on the west by hill over 2 feet ‘above station: undergrowth dense, of very small and various hardwoods, mainly Black Birch, Maple, and Beech, and few White Birch and Hemlock. Soil: ACRE YIELD. i | White Pine. Volume. Number Diameter Ils eal (breast | Height. | Mer- “| high). | Bole. chantable timber. | Inches. | Feet. Oubic feet. Feet B. M. do< eFUnder3) Wes 4.5 41 3to5 | 16 to 37 61.5 54 6to10 |40to47 | 432.0 34. 10told | 42 to 50 612.0 | Ze LAT tOULR ae hectare 42.0 ; | 285 trees: Total cubic feet 1, 152 Average annual accretion: White Pine, 38 cubic feet. Volume. | Lumber | \ Laapael eee | . atioo 4 under | \ Diameter Height to Binge Factor Jength of |: present | Tree number. Age. | (breast | Height. | base of | Per ineh Mer- ot DrC WT PrAChEes | high). crown. on ‘Tree. chantable shape, ,t@ total | (per cent) stump. eiabar height of used of | | ey tree. total | | volume | of stem). | | | | Years. | Inches. Feet. Feet. | No. Cubic feet. Feet B.M. Mada 21.0 78 40 | 4.8 88. 6 404 0. 47 0.48 39 124 | 24.0 86 28 5.4 115.8 483 | 42 67 34 124 22.0 87 34 5.5 99.0 432 43 61 36 116 | 18.5 79 36 6.2 63.9 280 AS 54 36 122 | 19.5 85 40 | 5.9 79.7 864 45 BLY) 38 (%) | 24.5 83 36 (?) 124.5 668 46 56 44 120 | 21.0 89 | 38 5.4 | 94.5 429 | 44 | O71 37 128 19.0 84 40 6.4 66.2 370 -40 -52 46 127 9} 19:50) 88 40 5.7 92.0 446 | 50 | 54 40 122 | 15.0 | 76 36 Tad 46.2 161 Ad -52 30 | 125% 17.0 84 Be 6.9 1.4 267 46 OF 36 (ii maemeOs aaa 76 SE pete a(i2) 78.0 293 | 45 50 | 31 Average... 123 | 20 | 83 37 6.0 84.0 383 45 55 37 | Sample area: 1 acre. Age of pine: 25 to 35 years. Density of crown cover: 0.5 to 0.6. Number of trees: (?) White Pine, 1314154 small; Aspen, 12+54 small; Beech, 1+137 small; Black C herry, 2+77 small; Black Birch, 17+415 small; small; Willow, 10 small; Hemlock, 50 small. 1 Intermixed species : Ash, 3+21 small; Cucumber, 6+90 small; Tulip, 13 small; ‘Tronwood, 2 small; Chestnut, 2 Maple, 6+254 small; Hamamelis, 4 small; Oak, 5+12 small; White Basswood, 6 small; 152 THE WHITE PINE. Taste VII.—Aere yields of second-growth White Pine, with measurements of young pine taken for analysis—Continued. A.—PENNSYLVANIA—Continued. MEASUREMEN TS OF SAMPLE YOUNG PINE TREES. DOMINANT GROWTH. } fe cg | : Rings * engt Diameter Height to So ~ | Factor = Tree number. Age. | (breast | Height. Dae ot | de a h Volume of | to total, | high). crown. | stump. | shape height of | tree. | | | Years.| Inches. Feet Feet. No. Cubic ft. 33 13.5 43.8 11.0 1.6 21.0 0.48 | 0.75 36 14.0 47.0 14.0 1.9 20.9 | 41 -70 | 35 12.5 49.0 18.5 2.1 18.8 45 - 62 B4 13.5 43.0 12.0 1.9 18.1 42 12 34 13.4 | 46.0 [and emma ON | esr 44 70 | CODOMINANT GROWTH. 82 11.2 | 42.5 19.5 el 12.6 0.45 0. 54 31 5) 4-0 | 28.0 2.5 10. 9 AT -40 34 8.0 45.0 | 28.0 | 3.1 cult 48 - 38 34 | 8.0 | 41.8 22.5 | 3.5 6.7 45 46 34 7.2 | 41.5 | 14.8 | 3.9 5.2 47 - 64 2.9 46 48 | 0.51 | 0.87 do | -42 2480 57 | 51 | 45 SUPPRESSED GROWTH. 3.0 | 27.0 13.0 | 7.0 0.7 0.53 0.51 | 3.3 23.5 | 9.0 7.9 .7 odd 61 Bay 827.8" |) 1420 7.4 6 | 47 49 3.1 26.0 12.0 7.4 a7 | pee as 54 | 3.0 16.0 16.0 4.8 | -4 59 1.00 2.5 24.0 7.0 5.9 | 3 41 | ___Avernge...[ 23 | 27 | 20.0 | 1.0 | 5.3 | a ee ee (4) Site j: Forest County. Sample area: 1 acre. * [1,100 to 1,200 feet above sea level.) Soil: Yellowish-brown clayey loam, with shales, deep, fresh, drained on south by Beaver Creek Age of pine: 40 to 50 years. and on the west b Y, H and Fern; subsoil, lam ickory Creek, 3 to 4 inches mold on top, and surface cover of leaves inated shale of indefinite depth. Forest conditions: Young White Pine intermixed with hardwoods and occasional Hemlock on slope acing southwest; undergrowth dense, of very young Hemlock, Birch, Beech, some Maple and Ironwood, and a few other hardwoods.! ACRE YIELD. White Pine. | Volume. 7 Diameter —— eel (breast | Height. | Mer- *| high). Bole. chantable timber. Inches. | Feet. Cubic feet. Feet B. M. | wa f Band | | \ under jo to 40 53 41 4 49 5 46 34 6 46 } 572 =| 23 7 46 24 8 54 28 9 | o4 } 839 | 21 10 | 54 | 12 af | 58 4 | 12 58 } 306 | 1 13 | 58 | 1 14 61 | 1 15 igiiew, coal 383 trees: Total cubic feet 1, 826 Average annual accretion: White Pine, 40 cubic feet. Density of crown cover: 0.8 (in places thick and crowded, and in other places open- ings). Number of trees: (7). ' Intermized species: White Pine, 2394-144 small; Hemlock, 78+248 small; Red), 20+12 small; Ash, 16+9 small; Black Birch, 73+76 smal 15+-2 small; Hickory, 2; Cucumber, 2; Juneberry, 50; few small Aspen, Butternut, and Waterbeech. Beech, 50+160 small; Maple, 464108 small; Oak (White and Yellow Birch, 594-189 small; Ironwood, 134100 small; Black Cherry, TABLES OF MEASUREMENTS. 153 TABLE VII.— 1 18 70 56 al 19 70 61 1 22 70 78 517 trees: Total cubic feet .-.------------------ 4, 396 Average annual accretion: White Pine, 15 cubie feet. (6) SITE q: Hillsboro County. Sample area: 1 acre. [About 700 feet above sea level.) Soil: Brown loam, fine grain, deep, moist, well drained, with 2 to 4 inches mold on top and abund- Age of pine: 40 to 45 years. ant leafy surface cover; subsoil, compact, clayey sand. Density of crown cover: In Forest conditions: White Pine with scattering Maple and Hemlock on hill; undergrowth dense, clusters. of Maple, Oak, Chestnut mainly, and few other scattering hardwoods.? Number of trees: 371. ACRE YIELD. White Pine. | Volume. |» _ Diameter Prete | (breast | Height. | | Mer- OATEOS: high). | Bole. chantable | timber. Inches. Feet. Cubicfeet. Feet B.M.) 76 3 to6 AQ jo -cecennne | 153 6to10 | 50 1,377 36 10 60 576 | 40 11 60 760 31 | 12 | 60 713 | 17) | 13 60 442 | 2 14 60 240 6 15 65 222 3 16 65 126 | 1 17 65 47 | 371 trees: | Total cubic feet..--.-----.-----+------ 4,503 | Average annual accretion: White Pine, 107 cubic feet. = 1Intermixed species: Gray Birch, 1 over 3 inches diameter and over 40 feet high; 1 over $ inches diameter and under 40 feet high. Maple, 1 over 6 inches diameter and under 60 feet high; 1 over 3 inches diameter and over 40 feet high; 2 over 3 inches diameter and under 40 feet high. Pitch Pine, 1 over 10 inches diameter and over 80 feet high; 9 from 10 to 14 inches diameter and under 80 feet high. Undergrowth: Maple, 9; Gray Birch, 8; Cherry, 1; Oak, 4; Spruce, 1; numerous small Oaks and Poplars. ; 2 Intermixed species: Hemlock, 12 from 6 to 10 inches diameter and under 60 feet high; 8 from 3 to 6 inches diameter and under 40 feet high. Maple, 1 over 10 inches diameter and under 80 feet high; 2 from 6 to 10 inches diameter and over 60 feet high; 21 from 6 to 10 inches diameter and under 60 feet high; 26 from 3 to 6 inches diameter and over 40 feet high; 11 from 310 6inches diameter and under 40 feet high. White Oak, 5 from 3 to 6 inches diameter and over 40 feet high; 3 from 3 to 6 inches diameter and under 40 feet high. Cherry, l over 10 inches diameter and under 80 feet high; 1 over 6 inches diameter and under 60 feet high; 2 from 3 to 6 inches diameter and over 40 feet high. Undergrowth: Chestnut, 202; Cherry, 8; Maple, 492; Black Birch, 3; Ash, 21; White Oak, 229; Hemlock, 20; Elm,9; Thorn, 1. 168 THE WHITE PINE. Tasie VII.—dAecre yields of second-growth White Pine, with measurements of young pine taken for analysis—Continued. D.—NEW HAMPSHIRE-—Continued. (7) Sire r: Milford, Hillsboro County. Sample area: 2 acres. [300 to 400 feet above sea level.) Acre No. 1. Soil: Dark-brown sandy loam, fine grain, shallow, dry, well drained, with 1 to 2 inches mold on Avge of pine: 35 to 40 years. top and surface cover of abundant leaves; subsoil, light colored and powdery, 6 to 10 inches Density of crown cover: Full. deep, probably sandy lower down. \ Forest conditions: White Pine on slope; undergrowth, dense, of Oak mixed with Maple, Chestnut, and other scattering hardwoods. Number of trees: 794. ACRE YIELD, White Pine, | | | Volume. | Diameter === pee (breast Height. Mer- ‘| high). | Bole. chantable | | | umber. | | Inches. Feet. Cubic feet. Feet B. M. 339 3to 6 UE eens 323 Gto 8 50 2, 261 108 8 to 10 50 1,188 nb ey 10 50 143 9 ib 50 144 | 2 12 50 38 | 2. | 13 50 | 44 794 trees: | Totalicuble fet=----..-c-ssw-eare es 3,818 Average annual accretion: White Pine, 109 cubic feet. Acre No. 2. Age of pine: 35 to 40 years. Soil: Brown sandy loam, medium grain, loose, fresh, 1 foot deep, with 2 inches mold on top anda Density of crown cover: 0.6 moderately leafy surface cover. to 0.7. Forest conditions: White Pine with scattering Maple on north slope of hill; undergrowth, in va moderately dense, of Ash, Maple, and few other hardwoods, and in denser parts very little undergrowth.? : Number of trees: 503. ACRE YIELD. White Pine. Volume. Diameter S| | sca (breast | Height. | Mer. | Iegeees aii enTe = | Bole. chantable) | | timber. Inches. Feet. Oubic feet. Feet B.M. 151 3to 6 ee RE estan. 236 6 to 10 50 2,124 44 10 55 660 21 | ll 55 378 7 12 55 357 | 10 13 | 55 240 ll 14 60 330 5 15 60 175 on) 16 60 17 2 | 17 60 86 1 19 60 57 ig] 20 70 72 1 21 70 vi 503 trees : Total cubic feet............. Perc os 4, 674 Average annual accretion: White Pine, 123 eubie feet. ' Intermixed species: Oak, 1 over 10 inches diameter and over 50 feet high; 1 over 8 inches diameter and under 50 feet high; 3 from 3 to 6 inches diameter and over 40 feet high. Undergrowth: Oak, 381; Maple, 64; Chestnut, 41; Gray Birch, 4; Yellow Birch, 1; Hemlock, 1; Cherry, 14, with numerous small trees. * Intermizxed species: Maple, Lover 10 inches diameter and under 80 feet high; 5 from 6 to 10 inches diameter and under 60 feet high; 4 from 3 to 6 inches diameter and over 40 feet high; 2 from 3 to 6 inches diameter and under 40 feet high. Cherry, 1 over 6 inches diameter and under 60 feet high; 2 from 3 to 6 inches diameter and under 40 feet high. Apple, 1 over 6 inches diameter and under 60 feet high; 1 over S inches diameter and under 40 fect high. Pitch Pine, 2 from 6 to 10 inches diameter and under 60 feet high. White Birch, 1 over 6 inches diameter and over 60 feet high. Undergrowth: Ash, 45; Maple, 8; Cherry, 3; Oak, 5; Hamamelis, 10; Chestnut, 1; Elm, 2. TABLES OF MEASUREMENTS. 169 TABLE VII.—Aere yields of second-growth White Pine, with measurements of young pine taken for analysis—Continued, D.—NEW HAMPSHIRE-— Continued. MEASUREMENTS OF SAMPLE YOUNG PINE TREES. Age class» Under 50 years. SITE l. : | | : Ratioof Diameter, Rings | _ Factor. | length | AVerane 2 i io | per inch | Volume ° ofcrown Current annual annua Tree number. Age. Gree Height. on | of tree. aon e. |.t0 total | accretion. acere- es stump. eaere: ‘height of tion. | tree. Years. | Inches. Feet. No. | Cubic ft. Per cent. Cubie ft. Cubic ft. i] | 41 6.8 44 |... Bec 5.6 0.51 OPES it | Sa create eee etataes 0, 30 iB Ge 20 24 Average... ae DUNE poeeral tener ~25 | | Average -.. SITE 0. SITE r. —— He emnogccasccosond 81 17 73 4 48.2 0. 42 0.53 4.6 5 stones berets | 7 v7 74 4 52.4 44 -55 3.0 : 17 73.5 4 50.3 43 54 3.8 1.89 | 63 | Average -.. 79 SCHEDULES AND SAMPLE RECORDS: SCHEDULES AND SAMPLE RECORDS. FORMS USED IN THE INVESTIGATION. FORM NO. 1. United States Department of Agriculture. DIVISION OF FORESTRY. RECORDS OF TREE MEASUREMENTS. Name of collector: N. Species: White Pine. Year: 1897. GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF STATION, [Denoted by capital letter. ] State: Pennsylvania. County: Clearfield, Town: Dubois. Longitude: 78° 45’. Latitude: 41° 3’. Altitude: 1,200 to 1,500 feet. General configuration: Plains hills plateau mountainous. General trend of valleys or hills: (Not noted.) Climatic features: (Meteorological tables furnished. ) General forest conditions of the region: This region in 1876 extended over 20,000 acres. The lumber operation carried on for twenty years by Mr. Du Bois left for the present only from 1,500 to 2,000 acres standing timber in a primeval condition. Three typical forms of forest conditions are suggested to the observer: (1) Hemlock and White Pine forest, with an admixture of mature hardwoods and a number of young bard- woods and young Hemlock, which form the undergrowth. (2) Hemlock mixed with White Pine, with scattering hardwoods; the undergrowth usually moderately dense, consists mainly of young Hemlock with the admixture of young hardwoods. (8) Hardwoods intermixed with White Pine and scattering Hemlock. The undergrowth here consists mainry of young hardwoods. ; Among the hardwoods, the Oak, Birch, and Maple form the staple of the hardwood forest, while the Beech, Chestnut, Hickory, Cucumber, Ash, Cherry, and Basswood are comparatively few in number. The region has a uniform soil and subsoil as it may be judged by the sample areas NN. 5, 6, and 7, and is well provided with moisture by the many streams crossing it all over in different directions. 173 174 with THE WHITE PINE. DESCRIPTION OF SITE. {Denoted by small letter.] Sample area, No. 5: (One acre.) Contormation of surface: Hill sloping toward southwest, where it is bordered by the left-hand branch of Irish Narrow Creek. ; Soil and drainage conditions: Yellow clay loam of a medium grain (fine shale in it), deep, fresh, well drained, 2 to 3 inches mold on top. Subsoil: Laminated giale of an indefinite depth. Soil cover: Scanty leaves, fern, and teaberries. Origin of stand: Natural regeneration. Form: Uniform; storied. White Pine forms first and Hemlock the second. Composition: Astanc of Hemlock mixe: with White Pine, intermixed with scattering Maple, Beech, and Birch. Undergrowth: Absent; dense; moderately dense; scanty; consists of very young Beech, Hemlock, and occa- sional Bireh, Cucumber, and Dogwood (Laurel in northeast corner). Density of stand: 0.7 (in epee 0.8). ReMaRKs.—Crowns of White Pine generally well developed; clear and straight stems. Age of White Pine 230 to 260 years. Age of Hemlock almost the same as that of White Pine. ACRE. YIELD MEASUREMENTS. (in inches). Diameter at breast height Name of species. Undergrowth. White Pine. Maple. & = S ° = & 5 5 ix) -leze loze late loos [ge leez lesz Ieee jolz Ir22 lore sz '11@ L0G |c6r “*7l-*" gup [OOF [gor (cor |r \oer [cer loge £08 €8z 19% 08 6 SFE ise 608 (68% LEG GCG 6eG 0g & 698 gee ore LO8 TFS (Gee (0ze isk |e 868 |068 (ase igre 06% (eta 19% or & sore]ssesiese-l-=*sloop liege ieze loge [Tee Le OSE OSE [ser eg ig ] FLE loos loge 11g TG O1G (06T oF Ss cee (ge 608 ore £0% 98 SLT oF & E. Lee eae ots LLP aoe cle (ore aad = LIF \268 [Foe 11g ZES 21S |66L 0g 5 FOP [Lop EFF oe 9% gc% {10s og & 5 618 [ols coe 89% 00% ‘981 SLI oe iz srotlssss[sseel-="slonp leap IGTE \80F (868 0c 92a [Len |S¥% ZEP [cer lock LIP |LOF 698 Foe [94% 9¢% gee exe lege lice lere Ie 822 604 GOT 62F ISLF [ROP [268 ose bed £1z |O8E £91 fd s--l---"\018 loor |aoe jose joze |Loe eos 628 TG (81a 861 I ad ey 0 | i) | [tie “% 2a\S4 re si =e ise A = | 008 067 | 08) 022 | 092 | 09e | OFZ | OF OG6T | OST |OLT| O91 | OST | OFT |O8T | OZT OTT ONT) 06 | 08 | OL 09 | OS | OF | of (02/0) 45) = SE ak lawns = a = | i Jeon | he aed | ee i | ao - = < = Aa es a> Fs —Jjo oFn qu snrpey o| tea: E “lug = 176 “OULD OLUP AL 2 SoLOctag ———_ ISsv1) “Dy ay Ss “dung : NOLO “LNAUWdIOTH ASIC (WOLD VIC LO SUN SUINORT ‘+ ON WHOd 177 SCHEDULES AND SAMPLE RECORDS. 3 SPL \OFT fae 66 |t6 \68 |f8 |6L OL aad Ee) €L0 \691 fae rae ai \og (68 ied LOG |FOG GLI CPL OL jog |88 9 LOL |g90 Sel tea fT loc [Lz ega lcza loca eta lute \20 \86L Z6r [L8T oct Or gr hoe Lit "1086 |O1G \66T \68T \6LT jB9T SCT |9PL GET seeels==-l17Z [FOG [GGT JOSE |GLT \69T |T9T 806 Sor (eal St jog jot 9G vel GOL jet joc \Fe 802 SCT sal GL \oe |8t 018 L8T UL 0% jog |IT teas 808 col ST joc ae @L1 Gal “jUvUIMOpoD 181 jot lace 08 \os jet |sp 083 061 srl ze joe |g |Lt os | 863 2st el loge jee |eh |gt jog |s aid LT OFT gee le [0G |St joc [Lr Us 120 181 20% \Le \eh |SI jos 2a ee LeL 101 £60 [9c 9% [2t joo |r aaa 9G HST gal [OF |0G jst jog “joa r0% LOL zz \62 |89 \2t log |g 693 Zee B01 1 FF Zr |o! 861 801 $8 Lf Ly ct Jo 961 LOL 8h |8F ge jst {0 tie 06L 28 |SF iy |st_ |o 061 ver Le | |c0a Sr st 0 oo aia (eae a £91 19 0G (HOG OF ist |o Deo area Fae 11@ B01 69 Be \20a oF jot |og ---- goe Izog ice |LFS lOFE |Fee [Loe \0cE \ELE 908 £2089 G16 69% “‘queara1oqd POae| Fos, jpcice| fei Ac |TF% ogee |LTG cor Lo lof 60% 68 (02 {0 seeejecee|ee ee] ind \OLT #9 Gh £26 Ir (6 0g wig ; C08 691 OL 9% (82a cg j@l 0 Scie 82@ |L1G \ene 96L \e8T 08 ZF OIG jog FI ees 3 { 826 GIG [OG \00G jB8t FL OF 0G 0g I vee-l--=-|-=--lgga |ogg POT NGL (Rl \OLT |FOL ZL ay LP LT Ge art eae oe s}roesl"2"* #88 [LTE (LOS. Tk T0Z@ S6L 691 9 ce ich ilt | 135 ol i Bae ea a vretiseesle== "1186 G8 IGLG 1696 0S |€60 |OSt yd c& |6F ist ULL UU et . | | 24/84 3 5 | | si aie] AQ Z| 008 | 062 | 08% | 02a | 092 | 82 | OFG | 0FG | 026 | OTS | 006 061 | o8T| OLT| O9T |OSE| OFE| OST | OE] OFL| OOT| 06 | 08 | OL | 09 | OS | OF | OF OB) OL) 4 5 =) peice Lan “Sy IVUIOYy ¢ | | \e o = is E ae S ape ee = ae = a > aa Ve ge S| — uv 4e Snipey }) sei “A E Jo onu ye SNIpLrL | o) dug 2 a “OUld OFA 2 SHIOdag VID HOV f MLIg "e ‘ON NOWOAS 20233-——No *ponunuoj9—t ‘ON WHOL 178 THE WHITE PINE. FORM NO. 5. SITE: f. AGE CLASS: 240 to 260 years. Species: White Pine. | Volume. aes | s |$a | | s (EF | g aa | ia a | S E ES\owe = = - | -= S| |818| || \es(ees = pan es ject te || ets |? oo Location. Description of site. = }o}|so}] = g |eliens : g 1 een cel aioe ‘== ae 5 | 2 | a | = | Ss |Z /bo20'S = 2 | = = GS S | 2 |§siec8 i] +] essa et) | = |3 e7|Fse z z e\zlale|.|2isle eeal 2 o|s|8|m|]m| &|] ¢s |} = |} = eee e F/@|2/Sis\/f)/ 2) 8 | sis |geas8! & a\4/A|m flee Ss iae m4 | | | | Feet. | | Yrs|In. Ft | No. Cuft.|B. M.) | Dubois, Clear-| Hemlock, mixed | 1 260 354 158 90, 7.6 435.4 3, 0300. 400, 43 58 | field County, with White Pine, | 2) 260 36 | 157 90) 7.0) 481.3) 3,401) .43) .42 59 Pa; lati-| with seattering | 3 259 32 | 152 84) 7,8) 396.0 2,637.46 .44 55 | tude, 4193’; Maple, Beech,and | 4 241 32) 150 62) 6.6 347.7 2,079 .41 .59 50 longitude, —_Bireh, on a hill | 10 244 33 146 96, 6.8) 365.9 2,384 -A2 34 54 78° 45'; alti- sloping toward | 12 262 28 | 156 88) 9.0) 285.8 1,648 43) .43 47] os tude, 1,200 to southwest, where | 18 265 39 | 153) 88) 6.0) 511.1, 3,318 .40 .42 54] 1,400 feet. it is bordered by | 19 250 34 | 150 78 6. 3) 402.4, 2,897 .42 .48 49,5 | the left-hand | 20 266 44 | 144 100) 5.7 638.4 4,388 .42 .30 7 A | branch of Narrow | 21 245! 34 | 146) 92) 7.1) 366.7, 2,248 140) .37) 51 | 5 Creek. The mod- | 23 248) 34 | 142. 90) 7.2) 373.4 2,318 .42) .37, 511A erately dense un- | 33 259) 33 | 133, 91) 8.0) 304.5 1,770 .40 .31) 48 dergrowth con- | 34 262 33 | 144 90) 7.4) 369.2 2,220.42) .38 50 sistsofvery young | 35 263 31 | 144 82) 8.5) 275.2) 1,458 36) 43) 44 Beech, Hemlock, | 36 241 314 134) 88) 7.1| 307.7) 1,853, .42) .34) 50 and occasional 37 261 37 | 146, 106 6.7) 482.9) 2,970) 44.27) 59 Birch and Cucum- |—- ———/—_|_—__.____| ____ —_ — ber. | | Average .......|... 255 34 | 147) 88 7.0) 390.0 2,507) .41 .39 52 | | | | Soil: Yellow clay | 28 262 284 138) 75) 9.8 264. 3 1,551.43 .45 49 loam of a medium 25 244 284 138) 107 7.7 298.1) 1,954) .49 . 22 54 rain (fing shales | 24 245 25 | 130) 84) 9.3) 192.1) 1,102) .43) .35 48 in it), deep, fresh, | 22 246 31 | 130) 82) 7.3) 310.3) 1,731) .45) .37 46 well drained, with | 5 264 29 | 140) 100) 8.4| 300.4 1,905.47) .28) 52, 2to3inches mold | 6 264 29 | 140) 110) 8.5) 291.4) 1,631) .45) .21 47 on top,and with a | 7 262 29 | 152) 112 9.5, 302.8 1,854) .46 . 26 S1]} . surface cover of ; 8 235; 29 | 142 86)....| 248.6 1,3180.380.39 41 scanty leaves,| 9 7 1,648) .36) .41 48 g fern, teaberries, 31,947) 44.42 53-5 and scattering 0) 1,048) .48 . 37 42 8 Dogwood (Laurel 1 1,233| 46.30 47, | 2 in northeast cor- 2 1,389 61 28) 4515 ner and on north 8) 815) . 40) . 25 41 } side). 4) 1,183) .49 16 46 Subsoil: Laminated 2) 1,021) .40) .28) 47 shale of an indefi- 6 1,336.44, .32 48, nite depth. 5 1,577, .46, .40 47 8 863) .41 .33 37 9) 1,322) .46) .30 46 i — — —— A verage...... ->-| 253) 27 138) 93) 9.0) 250.0 1,421) .44 .32 47 | / | | 27, 259) 19 | 132) 9411.6) 138.8 683) .53 .29 41 3 38, 260) 23 | 137 9613.1 189.6 987) .48 .30 43 (22 39) 258 203 123 10913.0 130.9 558) .46 .11 35 Os 40 261, 164 120 82 13.7, 89.6 339) 50 .31 31 & Average...... as lt 259) | 128 9512.3 137.0 642) .49 .25 37 { ! { | | | { ! 179 AND SAMPLE RECORDS, Ps} SCHEDULI “mory toon orpotied ynaaing F00 Gi) “HONO1998 [BNA ADBIOA @) *yoal | jaa | joaf M) 929ND 2199 | | OUUN[LO A | | | Cie | TSN ae |) ie ET ee cae | Pe Teel eye 8'T |_8 DOGO rE 6) ral Boa tl Dota} OL Om lal echo | Cn Caiea bien | ence poten eet eG be hOlna lea nem oad 1% |f8 "7" YJWOAGG Joo" *)-7 => Det COS iaak Peles onkn Pee iam li eon | Uace Sten eale Ola near 6°T ¥6 ee IS | Pera oem Lol MODS Pala rake eae eben ver Cal P kale: Cale an Peake Ola e aD 6° | er meee ULI CL BO Sab | ES SPE Seb ee Ok Bb cate ODs Oat Ie | &f “TANT DL | 80° | 9°L | It’ | £2) 9f° | S°% | LT | Le | 9° [0's | St} 0% €° | St ~* PANG, G1) G0" | LT | 80° | GG | OL’ | FS | ST’ | 6% | ST | FE) OT 16% 8°3 | SI ~ paooes FL | 10°O] LT | €0°0! F°% | FOO) L°G | C00) 3S | SOO) T'S | 90'0 FE SES MB al ea oe a a Aang (ee ee eae | 48400 uy | qaaf| “uy | jaaf| ur | -qaaf| uz |*qaef| uy | jaaf| uy | gaaf| uy | *gaaf) ey | 17 “hy “Dy hy Dy “by by “by cD] beled) ple DS bled bled Plo bled ble {=| Mas o=| FP | a= aS ao! FP |Se) Pas as) & is S6| 8 |86| 8 |38| ¢ |fe) $ |88| & |F8| 2/78) 8 |B la A tae eas sb) (sal Saas 7 7 7 7 5] tee g 499} 6ZLIO/"292J FLL JO, “IF GG JO |"909F BE JO | “JO} 99 JO | "goat OG JO |-J90 FE JO| “JOT BT FO| Jooq Fz JO ‘oproacy 3 WDOy Fe | PSroy ye | AGsey Ie | Ay SLoy ye | gysLeY ye |IQSIoY Av | Ay Stor ye | IBDIeY Iv | yqo1oY 4v : ‘6 MOMoS | ‘g WOLQOaS |‘) MOTIONS | ‘9 MOTJOOS | ‘g MOTQDAS | ‘fF MOTOS | ‘g TOIQ0—S | ‘Z MOTOS | ‘| WOTZDAS 8801() sso1g sso1p sso.1Q sso1p sso1p sso1p ss01p ssolp ‘vole Surpuodsei109 pur agjoweny -emnjoa 18101 J0 7090 *MOTo190R [BOIPOLeg jad aatqulayy *seor} W00YXIG :HLMOUD LNVNIWOC ‘OUI OFT AL :SMIOWAG ‘ug ‘Agunop ppeyare,y :NOIMLVOO'T “f SHLIS ‘9 ‘ON WHOS “(req JNO([JLA) W9}S JO VOINO | *eor} JO WSLOY [POT quoqiEa) Joos fey 4B Jaq MELT $ *(1RC ¥z jo. 90, ry i: 7 ff * l i ' i 5 { i ul { ‘ f é i a i : ’ - ; Ny ' s ‘ ' 2 , é ( = | ' ' ‘ ‘ j ‘ 1 i a ad gers ea E eT =i : aaa ents zr a at bee ~ INDEX. Page. Abbot's white-pine sawfly, note..........-------.---.- eacsee ess 60 ACOVOULOM ATES IN ay IL IMO creme a cen oe ena onan aicenieenre 36 average annual, for old trees 37 Page. Buprestid, species injurious to pine; description ............- 58 Cambium of pine, characteristics. s 25 Canada, field of commercial pine ...-........ pceercescecse soteic 15 occurrence:of Wiite/Pine os 54 | Laths and pickets, use of White Pine...............---++2-02- 81 Fungi, various species, cause of ‘‘ punky pine 54 Laws against injuries to forests, suggestion.......-....--- poems 49 Fungus, Agaricus melleus, injury to White Pine ....... 51 Lazenby, W. R., note on White Pine in Ohio .....--....---.--++ 15 Coleosporium senecionis, cause of disease in pine 53 Leaf-feeding insects injurious to pine, discussion ............-- 60 Polyporus annosus, injury to coniferous trees ......... 52 | Leaves of White Pine, description ...........0.....e0cccccscee 2 Furniture men, use of White Pine ...........-- Hoss te eck oe 81 Leonard, Spencer, practice in setting out pine............ oaaene 65 Gardner & Sons, measurements of height growth of pine...... 2: Life zones of White Pine 11 German Spruce, use of tables for finding yield of White Pine.. 44 Light requirements of White Pine 43 Germany, injury to pine by heat and drought.................- 51 Lime and Paris green, used against pine bark-beetle 56 plantations\of ‘pitte) =. 2... % 065 vc obs komav—ve aba Weeeces 63 Lincoln, Nebr.. comparative failure in growing White Pine.... 67 statements regardin ield of pine under forester 44 | Loam and clay lands, reproduction of White Pine........ 62 White Pine as forest tree, discussion . 67 effect on growth of hardwoods. ... iu Germination of pine seeds, conditions. . - 26 prairie, growth of pine in Illinois......... 67 Girdling of young pine, effect......... Sth dues oes 50 stiffclay, growth of pine at Windom, Minn.........-...- 67 Gnathotrichus materiarius, form; protection for pine 57 | Loamy and sandy soils, reproduction of White Pine ........-.-. 62 Graves and Pinchot, Messrs., figures for yield of pine per acre. 45 | Locality, effect on height growth of trees ...............--0+0-+ 33 Growth and development of White Pine....................... 26-48 | Loggers’ risis in breakages, etc., allowance. ..... 5 eo 39 height of White Pine in forest, first six years ......... 28 «Logging railway, note on effect on lumbering....... sneccsswce a's 19 INDEX. Page. Logs, small, reduction of loss .......--- 38 Long-horned beetles, enemies of pine 2 57 Longleaf Pine, comparison of annual rings with White Pine. -. 25 specific weight for crown part of stem..-.-..... 7 Lumber contents in 16-foot logs .-- 39 of trees ..... 5 38 cut in Lake region, by districts, 1873 to 189 18 industry, White Pine, discussion markets, influence of White Pine GL ALOM OL GLEE; TECKODING. .< 2 cic sacs fc cemtcas se cas se 85 pine, importance of production. 11 ratio to total volume of pine tree. 38 Lumbering districts for White Pine in Caniadastacce sn aeceoses 18,19 of White Pine, change of methods.-..........--..--- 19 in Michigan; note-.---.--..--...<.- 1k | wast 18, 19 Lumbermen, name for disease of pine tree ......--.....---.---- 54 Lyman, J. D., record of growth of White Pine...-......----.--- 48 Macbride, T. H., note on White Pine in Iowa.-.-.........-.----- 16 Maine;‘acre yieldiof White:Pine-- ---.--..----..- 2.2.2... saee 42 character of White Pine growth 12 second-growth pine, note. .-..+...----....----..--------- 63 trade in. White Pine, and supply.--..--....-...-..------ 16 Wisconsin and Michigan, comparison of growth of pine. 33 Maple, Birch, and Beech, effect of shade on White Pine.--....-. 43 with Beech and pine in Adirondacks .....-.--.- 40 Market for second-growth pine in Massachusetts.-....-..----- 65 White Pine, change in Germany ----..-------------- 68 Markets for lumber, influence of White Pine............--..--. 80 Maryland, occurrence of White Pine.-----.-...---.--------..--- 15 Massachusetts, market for second-growth pine-..- 65 note on groves of pine set fifty years ago ...--.- 64 second-growth pine, note .....-----...-.-------- 63 soil of pine groves and value of young pine growth 65 table of annual gain in circumference. - 35 | Measurements, detail, of annual gain in circumference of pine- 35 diameter, Of trees. =.= -5-5=-cae-s-m- ese ==cee ssa 34 of sample trees and acre yields of White Pine. 116-147 WihitewPine taples.snnseesecersaa~6 Saoan eles 85-179 Medullary rays in pine, notes 24, 25 Meehan, Thomas, & Sons, statements as to growth of seedling Ip Secge coc ons ooo oe sooeescec geen. Gore 28 note on occurrence of White Pine in Venn- sylwaniavseae- ee ne een eee tee ceases ees 15 Mice, spread of fungus disease. .-..-..-.- 52 Michigan, acre yield of White Pine, table mis 41 yields of White Pine and measurements of sam- pleitrees | —.2222--2= atisctgtonpasaceoedeeoone 116-131 destruction of young pine growth by fire .-..-.. -.- 63 Maine, and Wisconsin, comparison of growth of pine. 33 need of seed for reforesting bare pine lands ......--. 63 OCCUINONCO)OfmVVIN tO newnG atte tesa lees tala eee = 14 original stand and present supply of White Pine .-. 19 value of pine and other products in 1879 ...--.-..--- 11 Wisconsin, and Minnesota, annual cut of White PETG yO a LOO fae ele ei etaais tartans ote le ieee am 17 yield of White Pine, per acre-- 20 Mill construction use of White Pine 81 Minnesota, beginning of pine lumbering......------------.---- 18 destruction of young pine growth by fire Michigan, and Wiscc=sin, annual ent of W UNG RG i S80 tere ee tance eee eee eae 17 occurrence of White Pine 14 original stand and present supplies. 19 Windom, growth of White Pine. -. 67 Missouri (river) bottoms, growth of White Pine 67 growing specimens of White Pine at Columbia -..--- 67 Mixed growth, advantages for pine 61 Mlodziansky, A. K., measurements and calculations of White Trin odcal- aging, citc daikon SEU Oe Se ap eo cee aes 85 Model makers, use of White Pine.............----.2-+--- mPa SA 81 Modulus of elasticity of White Pine 17 Moisture content of White Pine, table--- WW Monohammus, beetles most destructive to pine ........-.-....- 57 confusor and other species injurious to pine 58 Morpbological characters of White Pine ...-..... aagsopcoccoce = 21 | Penobscot, White Pine trade and supply..--..- 7 | Pinipestis zimmermanni, enemy of pine, note Page. Morton, J. Sterling, note on White Pine trees at home.........- Nathaniel, experience in trimming pines .......-...... Moth caterpillars and plant-lice on trunks and limbs ....-.... s Moths, species injurious to: pine. ..........eceesseee-ceweccennee Names synonymous with White Pine Natural history of White Pine... reproduction of White Pine, discussion... Nebraska, White Pine at Arbor Lodge..............-.---++-..- New England, condition as to reproduction of White Pine ..-.- early commercial use of White Pine....-. emeena planting of pine ... present supply of White Pine .- Newfoundland, occurrence of White Pine..........--..---... = New Hampshire, distribution of White Pine .........-........ New Jersey, occurrence of White Pine .......-.---......-----+ New York and Pennsylvania, present supply of White Pine... distribution of White Pine Occurrence of White Ping--.. oos-s.s-+-me ease snes trade in White Pine; present supply -.--..---..---- Nomenclature, synonyms of White Pine .....-..-.- Foci ec aoe | North Carolina, occurrence of White Pine -.-.-- Middleboro, Mass., notes on pine groves of forty years’ fet tbseecens a4 Pine ogeeSateos sn sceanao suede se Northwestern Lumberman, figures for annual cut of lumber in Lake States, 1893-1897 Norway Pine, growth in mixture with White Pine Spruce, growth in forty-five years at Princeton, Ill... Nurse crop of trees, cheap method of use ......-...-...-------- Nursery, growth of White Pine.........- ln sictia a aie Sule = Waive ane Nurserymen, practice in sowing pine seeds .-----.-..------.. so Ohio, occurrence of White Pine oo Old-growth pine, tables of measurements and diagrams .....-. Ontario and Qnebec, average annual dues on crown timber... -. Orientation, relation to specific weight of pine wood ........... Pacific coast timbers, barrier to substitution for White Pine on Eastern markets . --- | Palatinate, report on growth of pine and fir...........-..--.--- supply of cones for seed Parasitic diseases of White Pine......-.... organisms, cause of ‘‘damping off” in pines.......-.- Paris green and lime, use against pine bark-beetle use against pine weevil ....-... 5 en ccse sawfly, larve, caterpillars, and beetles - Pennsylvania, acre yield of second-growth White Pine, with measurements of young pine.. 148-169 White Pine -.- and New York, present supply of White Pine... conditions as to reproduction of White Pine.... occnrrence of White Pine. --.---.----5 3-2... trade in White Pine; present supply..---.-.-.-- Peridermium strobi, cause of disease in White Pine Phloem of pine, characteristies..---- 2... - 225s. ose eee em ewan ane Physical properties and character of White Pine wood. .... pee Pickets and laths, use of White Pine..-...................+..-- Pinchot and Graves, Messrs., figures for yield of pine per acre. Pine bark-beetle, destructive, discussion of injuries...-......-. blight, note blister disease caused by Coleosporium senecionis. .. leaf scale insect, manner of injury to pine ................ number of sced to ounce; of ounces to 100 feet of drill percentage of heartwood in several kinds........--......- sawyers and other borers, discussion. .....-..-----.---..-- value per acre of tifty years’ growth, note.......---.....- Pines, comparison weight and strength, table note as to shrinkage... Pinus nana, variety of White Pine, description..............-- nivea, viridis, aurea, brevifolia, ete., varieties of White Pissodes strobi, enemy of White Pine, discussion; description. Pistillate flowers of White Pine, deseription..................- Pitch Pine, associate of White Pine value for planting on Atlant Pits in pine wood, location, number, and size -.-- Pittsburg, trade in White Pine... a2 Pityophthorus, species injurious to pine.......--. =. wy 184 INDEX. Page. Page. Plains, reason for slight success un cultivation of pine.....-... 51 | Second-growth pine, market and use in Massachusetts......... 65 Plank, boards, and ‘* dimension stuff’ of White Pine, sizes... 81 tables of measurement and diagram..... 100-106 Planting notes for White Pine..........6...secccsccweccosccecs 64 White Pine, acre yield, with measurements of of pine, comparison of nursery-grown seedlings with YOUN Mine sas ek anaes eee wen oa eee eae eke 148-169 sowing seed.........- z 64 | Seeding of White Pine in Germany, note......... dewameald sewee 68 distance between trees . m 64 | Seedling stage of pine, height growth............-....------0-- 27 TIGGER sana ct aa 63 Seedlings of pine, growth; destruction by fire ....-..- hsbc 62 White Pine, note on e€ | ProvectlOneacse ae s-sceey lees epee 27 versity 66 | Seed, number to the ounce for pine; to 100 feet of drill. . 63 time for White Pine, note 65 | of pine, method of sowing. ........2.22..22.eeseeee es 63 Plant-lice, and moth caterpillars, on trunks and limbs..-......- 59 | White Pine, effect of exposure upon vitality . 62 kerosene emulsion as remedy .....-.--.........--+-- 60 production, discussion... ..<.....sswsscsssc'eseos 23 louse, attacks on pine, note ..-..........-..-.------.---- 66 Seeds of pine, conditions for germination ..............- 27 Pollen, ripening, and pollination. ............--+-e+-:-e2se00-- 22 | percentage germinating............ arewee = 64 Pollination of White Pine, notes .................--.....--.--- 23 retention of vitality......2....0222.ccccceeennees 26 Polyporus annosus, injary to coniferous trees.......--..--.---- 52 White Pine, deacriptiont.< aie. oc.-5- 222s sense ncsenes= 23 Poplar, growth on pine slashings .......---.---...----- 62 Tipenin fesse eens cece easneeeaeone se 23 Presque Isle County, Mich., height growth of trees... ay 32 | Shade endurance of White Pine, note..........2...0...002---0- 43 Princeton, Ill., pine of forty-five years’ growth... a 67 for seed beds of pine 63 Protective washes against pine bark-beetle ..-.... 56 Shape, factor, in White Pine 37 Public sentiment, value in preservation of forests : 49 use in finding cubie and board contents of tree.. 85 * Punky pine” disease of trunk of pine tree - E 54 Shingles, laths, ete., note on output in litke States. 18 Pythium de baryanum, cause of * damping off" § in young “pines 53 of White Pine, durability ....--...-.. 80 Quebee and Ontario, average annual dues on crown timber... -- 18 | use of White Pine...-..... al Rate of growth and volume of White Pine, tables ....-....... 93-106 Shipbuilding, use of White Pine ..-........ 81 CO) OVAL UES EES Se Ee 8 a Soe 27“ Shipping case of White Pine, advantages 82 Records of tree measurements, forms ........---..--..--+..-- 173-179 | Shortleaf Pine, associate of White Pine 40 Red Pine, admixture with White Pine................-........ 12 | Shrinkage of White Pine, discussion ................-.---.---- virk associateof Wiite Pine .sacv-tenseonmataseeeeanccaes 40 HAUG Stet tobe ape aa. een eae ee 74 mixture with White Pine ....-.....-...---5---..26-- Dee) Sizeob Wiiitelc ine eae pe eeeae een ene ele ead ee anne taiaee 20 Reforesting with White Pine, ease ......---......---..2522----- 62 | Soap, fish-oil, use against pine weevil. ........--...--2.-2.220005 59 Remedies for pine bark-beetle............ 56 soft, use against pine-bark beetle..........--..-.-.--. eae 906 teproduction, artiticial, of pine, discussion ...-.... Z 63 | Soda, washing, use against pine-bark beetle..................-- 56 of White Pine, natural, discussion - 3 62) Soil and climate demands for development of White Pine - 39 Reseeding, importance in reforesting with pine . 63 | influence on height growth of trees . 33 Resin ducts, discussion.........-.-.....-------+ 24 black loam, growth of pine -......--.---------20-- 66 in cortex of pine - . 25 | character for use against ‘damping off” 53 of pine, effect of fungus diseases . - 52,53 for White Pine, notes,.......--..-4-2------ 15 Rhizomorphs, action in fungus disease of White Pine Heecehcec, 51 | of Palatinate, character for growth of pine.-....... 68 Rings, annual, comparison for varieties of pine ..-......-.----- 25 | Soils and soil conditions for White Pine tocky Mountains, note on White Pine........-...-.-........-. 21 light, advisability of sowing seed of pine broadcast --.--- 64 Root, stem, and branch of White Pine....................------ 21 | South Carolina, occurrence of White Pine......-.......-------- 15 system of White Pine, relation to place of growth ......-. 40 Dakota, failure of plantings of White Pine at Brookings. 67 Roots, seat of fungus disease of pines ......-....-.--------..-+ 52 | Specific weight of pine, notes ..........-.---seee-eeeeneseceeeee 73, 74 © Rossing" protection against pine bark-borer.............-... 56 Spores of Polyporus annosus, spread of disease in pines ...-..-. 52 Rotation of trees in forest management-.-.-.......--.------..+- 61 | Springer, J.S., note on White Pine..........-.......5..-......- 16 Roru, FILivert, article on ‘‘ Wood of the White Pine” ........ 73 Spruce, concomitant of White Pine .-. 40 conclusions as to allowance for waste in saw- forest of Canada, note....--- 15 1 se oe ee 5 oo ose Seas 38 liability to being uprooted 50 Saginaw, Mich., first sawmill os 7 mixture with White Pine ...........- 14 St. Lawrence River, oceurrence of White 15 Norway, record of growth in German 69 St. Lonis, growth of White Pine trade -....... 18 Spruces, admixture with White Pine ..--- 12 Sand, loamy, growth of White Pine...... 68 Staminate flowers of White Pine, description 23 preference of White Pine ................ 40 Stem, root, and branch system of White Pine .....-. a 21 spread of fungus in causing ‘‘damping off" of pines.... 63 || (Storms, injuries todoreste soo eee sac aececs=vsson~ eam 50 Sandy and loamy soils, reproduction of White Pine .........- 62 Strength and weight of pines, comparison 81 soils, relation to specific weight of pine wood........... 74 of pine, variation with location of wood in tree .-..-- 78 Sapwood of tree, variation of moisture................--.-.---- i7 Wihite Pine discussion]... .se--se-saseeceee eens 7-79 White Pine, note on change to heartwood.......... 78) || ‘Structure of White Pine; notesie-2<- -+-—- 5 2p =-\--asease =e eaeae 73 Sawtlices, enemies of pine, notes.............-2.2..-ceeeee serene 60 | Subsoil, stiff, effect on young pine ..........--------.+---- +--+ 66 Sawing of lumber from White Pine, notes...................-. 81 Sugar Maple, usefulness for planting with pine .......-...--.-. 64 Sawyer, possible waste of pine..-.....---- 5- 38 Pine, relationship to White Pine ......... 21 Sawyers, pine, and other borers, discussion. z 57 Sunlight, value against ‘‘damping off" in pines......... 54 Scale insects, kerosene emulsion as remedy. : 61 | Supplies of White Pine, original and present, discussion. - 19 Schedules and sample records, forms -.. z 173-179 | Swamp trees, note on specific weight. ........--...-..-.. 7A Schizoneura pinicola, enemy of White Pine, note . 60 | Swiss Stone Pine, relationship to White Pine 21 Schroeder, J., proposed classification of wood of pine 26 | Synonyms of White Pine... 0. 3.2. 6. seese tenses essmnsiansen= 9 Scolytidw, enemies of White Pine 65 | Tamarack, mixture with White Pine. .....2..- 22. cccecnsenceees 14 other, timber beetles........ 57 ‘Taper of pine tree, relation to conditions of growth .....--.... 36 Scotch Pine, comparison of resin ducts with White Pine ...... 25 White ine variations). sso. 0c. hep aasls ssenm= 37 growth in forty-five years at Princeton, Ill........ 67 Temperature, relation to development of White Pine .......... 40 (Cy TS oe SAE Or ae eas 68 to;prevent' damping off" ».....:...s00ss--sse05- 54 result of planting with White Pine............... 66 Tennessee and West Virginia, present supply of White Pine .. 19 Seasoning and drying, effect on strength of White Pine........ 79 Thecla niphon, injury to pine 60 of White Pine, comparison with other pines. 77 | Thinning of pine, note... ..... 2... 25... esses cnncsoccnnsnes : 66 note . 81 White Pine, conclusion from record at Farming: Second-growth pine, development ...............02-seeseeeseene 38 ton, NE ose aces kaw oo eee ae ee 48 185. INDEX. Page. Page. Timber beetles and other Scolytide, discussion ........-...-.-- 57 | Weight, specific, and strength of pines, comparison.....-..-.-. al commercially valuable, distribution of White Pine .... 12 of White Pine timber, diagramns.............-.. 76 of White Pine, diagrams on weight -. : 76 wood of White Pine, discussion ......-..--- 73 variation in strength with location in West Virginia and Tennessce, present supply of White Pine... 19 UGA Ber emonere ane oCCe cacceSnBee rar 78 | Western prairies, establishment of pine groves.......--.-..--- 63 products of Michigan, comparison for 1879 with other White Pine, advantage over other pines in reproduction from PMMA) ces Foote Seo D BNE Soe BEE oSc oem ec Oesececae= 11 Er eo SS eae 61 Tomicus cacographus, injury to pines, description . < 56 trees in wird storm .....-.. 50 pint and other species, injury to pine......-...---. cise 57 burning of wilting terminal as protection against Tortricid moths, enemies of pine, remedies. -.-.--.... 59 Lake Ena | eas SRE SaaS At ase Sse nto: 59 Tracheids in pine, notes 25 insect enemies, general statement. 55 Trametes radiciperda, injury to coniferous trees -. 52 weevil, discussion...........--..- = 58 Transplanting pine seedlings, notes sai 8 | Whiting, A. H., growth of White Pine at home 67 Tree, largest pine actually measured. S eRe Williams, R., note on White Pine in Illinois. .............-.-..- 15 measurements and calculation for determination of volume Williamsport, Pa., trade in White Pinc...........-...---.----- W Trees, cubic and lumber contents, note. ..-.-..------.----.--- Ac Wind, immunity of White Pine from injury 50 deformed, damaged by White Pine weevil..-.....-...... Windom, Minn., growth of White Pine in thirteen years --- 7 forest-grown, diameter growth at various heights. = Winds, drying, injurious consequences to pine. - . 50 living, danger of attacks from bark beetles .....--...--. 57 | Wisconsin, acre yield of White Pine, table........--.--.--..--- 4 of different ages, table showing average weight, moist- yields of White Pine and measurements of ure content, and shrinkage............-...-....-...... 74,75 sample trees..--..----- nnene Socata Bocce 131-li7 young, average taper.---.---.-------------e nee enone 37 | destruction of young pine growth by fire 63 Trunks and limbs of pine, moth caterpillars and plant-lice -.-. 59 first logs taken to St. Louis ---- 18 (See also Stems and Boles.) heavy production of pine seed -..-....-..-.--- =s5 23 Tube-builder, pine, manner of injury...........-.-.-..--------. 61 Maine and Michigan, comparison of growthof pine 33 Turpentine flow from holes made by bark beetle......-..-..--- 55 Michigan and Minnesota, annual cut of White Twig beetles, genera injurious to pine 57 | PineviSi8-2180 thesec ase tae denen a oe ator oh ee 17 Upham, Warren, note on soil for White Pine. 2 15 occurrence of White Pine 5 14 Upland trees, note on specific weight. .-.-.-.----..-..-.-------- 7 original stand and present supply of White Pine-. 19 Uprooting, danger of White Pine-...........-------...-------- 50 yield of White Pine, per acre -..--..----...--.--.-. 20 Uses of White Pine, discussion.--........- wen ee ete we ee ceeer nee 81 Wood, amount formed in pine in different decades of growth .. 37 Walrieties OfsWinitesbinOfe sa cne= 22 —-nceresa-s iw one nens ees 20 | function in economy of tree 24 Virginia, occurrence of White Pine... 15 green, variation in weight 7 Volume and rate of growth of White Pine, tables-.-.......----. 93-106 | kiln-dry, variation in specific 73 growth of pine, variation with soil ............--....-- 37 | note on change in White Pine 70 of tree, measurements and caleulation.-..--..-----.--. 85 of White Pine, character and physical properties. . 73 Wadsworth, S. B., note on White Pine in Illinois ..-...---..--- 15 | aiuonneion Wappes, L., Bavarian forester, reporton White Pine -.---..-.-- 68 | aan ee Ward, Lester F., noteon occurrence of White Pine in Maryland | f peta 1 Vircini : 15 Woods, other, comparison with White Pine and Virginia Pa ee Wash, composition for use against bark beetles..-.....-..-.--. 56 Wurtemburg, BOS th oF White Pine. ..-- +2 2---erneneenan tonne for protection against White Pine weevil............--. 39 | Yield, acre, of White Pine in natural forest Washes, protective, against pine bark-beetle........-... ae ay eG ETSY SEN EOE Ree OSES ooo 43 Washington City, first spring visitation of White Pine weevil. 59 of White Pine, discussion ..- 44 Watering, method for prevention of ‘damping off"’.-...------- 54 per acre 20 Weather, relation to shading of pine secdlings-..---....---.--. 63 | second-growth White Pine with measurements of Weed growth, drawback to reproduction of pine. = 63 young pine taken for analysis .....---.----------- 148-169 Weevil, White Pine, discussion .----...--...----..---.----.---- 58 | Yields, acre, of White Pine and measurements of sample measures for protection of pine .-----.--- 59 iNees epee “33 eet - 116-147 time of appearance --.-...--......-...-... 59 York County, Me., statement as to reproduction of pine...-... 62 20233—No, 22——13 it rw dag ee in ai BD oo Tee ee TA a A Sinas ol pee pea - i c\a Pr he. i Lee eee 4 - = » ria lat wy, i es = } - Pd a + aa . = ey» ice or 7. af 7 ¥ - = a degen " 4 Oe See ba ’ ere, Wi cs @! any vee 11 or re, ne oP ape ew io ~~ % We ey ~ @ oe igre re ae ee a? «> ee At ai we an ; ’ oe, ta a “sy The oy ae ad re Lens ae Ba oe ts 24 . - oe tae Lain ® ee) ee *ti t » ¥ * ‘ (arse S ‘ as f a a) ore i, i Wes ‘s ~ 4\fvo ™ ie « ¥ i aes cla r : 2 eho Mel’ ae aly» ; Moir Se (Ey | a - eS No. 13. : U.S, DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. \, < (DIVISION OF FORESTRY. F At DEES TIMBER PINES OF THE SOUTHERN UNITED STATES, By CHARLES MOHR, Ph. D. WOK Sdn pf — Yo Pali, A DISCUSSION OF THE STRUCTURE OF THEIR WOOD. By FILIBERT ROTH. » PREPARED UNDER THE DIRECTION OF RB, FB. FERNOW, CHIEF OF THE DIVISION OF FORESTRY. WASHINGTON: GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE. 1896, . rh; TE ‘DIVISION OF FORESTRY. ‘ “REVISED AND ENLARGED BY —~ 7 : 2B. & FERNOW, 4 E WHITE PINE. ne By BR H. CHITTENDEN, Divisiow: of. Hatieabica> THLE Woop oF THE wuine PINE. oot ee By PUMIBERT ROTH, Division of Forestry. : ae WASHINGTON : GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE, hE 819 9% an fo ny ’ y a a Ne mia Dany LAA Woe ( aaa Ye te pial Hi Nuh ] m } Ny / 1% | Ne) FA iy jour ty Vie c ‘TR ey (i! mL ip ey J Cre i ‘Ae 7 , o ae eae, reas, See Son rs aS SS eo mer SE ‘ ree BY Ta Put NHSta id Gann shi Soc SES aes “te st wre! eit Hatt NCS an hr ‘yj ja rt 4 ‘ fee ws ey eity TNT? §, “ — << La ab ae gh iad st ye cea) AA a