TIMBER.

TE

WILLIAM RIDER & SON, Limited

Office Copies, strongly bound, 30s., by post 31s.
In best calf, limp covers, round corners, for travelling, 35s.,

by post 36s. Od,

THE TIMBER TRADES JOURNAL

Zebra Code 3rd Edition.

Extensively revised, enlarged, and brought up to date
by AND. CARSTENSEN.

It has been found necessary, in order to meet the requirements
of the various branches of the trade, to add very materially to the
contents of the former editions. Some new and important sections
and many useful phrases have therefore been incorporated and

THE CODE now CONTAINS about 20,000 PHRASES, etc.

Experience has shown that whilst some users, for economical
reasons, favour the employment of " Cypher" code words, others
prefer the ordinary dictionary code words. It has been thought
desirable, accordingly, to provide both.

By strictly limiting the sizes, qualities and preparations, etc., to
those generally in use, but at the same time with due regard to the
requirements of this trade, it has been found possible to so arrange
the section that the flooring specifications can be cabled at

HALF THE COST

as compared with any other code in existence.

Telegraphic Code
for the American and Hardwood Trade,

Price 31s. 6d. net, by post 32s. 6d. or $8 in U.S.A.

THE "OKAY" LUMBER CODE. Compiled specially
for Merchants, Shippers, Agents, &c., dealing in
American Hardwood, Logs and Lumber, Pine, Pitch
Pine, Spruce, Mahogany, Teak, etc., etc. By T. W.
RAVMENT.
Effecting a saving of 60% to 70% in Cable expenses.

S Paternoster Row, London, B.C. 4.

TIMBER TECHNICALITIES

Timber Technicalities

BEING DEFINITIONS OF TERMS USED IN THE

HOME AND FOREIGN TIMBER, MAHOGANY
AND HARDWOOD INDUSTRIES,

THE

SAWMILL AND WOOD-WORKING TRADES,

AS WELL AS THOSE EMPLOYED IN CONNECTION WITH

ARCHITECTURE AND BUILDING CONSTRUCTION

Compiled and Edited by

EDWIN HAYNES

Editor of
"The Timber Trades Journal "

lip G V

LI BKftK i

FACULTY OF FORESTRY
UNIVERSITY OF TORONTO

LONDON
WILLIAM RIDER AND SON, LIMITED

8 PATERNOSTER ROW, E.C. 4
NEW YORK : 19 WARREN STREET

PREFACE

THE principal title of this work does not fully convey the scope
of its contents. At first it was intended to confine the defini-
tions to terms in use in the timber trade, but the multifarious
forms in which converted timber is applied in the arts and crafts
opened up a wider field, and as the subject was pursued an
ever-widening circle of interest was presented. The present com-
pilation includes terms applied to wood in the growing tree,
in its manufactured forms as used in the chief consuming in-
dustries, and especially in architecture and building construction.
The ordinary commercial and shipping terms in use in the
timber trade and in general business transactions are also included.

Throughout the work the definitions have been carefully
considered, but the meaning of any word in any circumstances
must always be interpreted by reference to the context and to
the particular trade or port, and to the nature of the goods or
subject matter, and the physical circumstances, and in addition,
to the terms and purpose of the contract between the individual
parties. It cannot be too strongly emphasized that, generally
speaking, the meaning of every word is variable and fluctuating,
and the greatest care is required properly to interpret in any
particular case the exact signification of the expression employed.

The Editor desires to acknowledge the kind assistance he has
received from many friends in the timber trade, and especially for
the collaboration of Mr. William Stevenson, the author of
Wood ; its Use as a Constructive Material and The Trees of
Commerce, who, although in his eighty-ninth year, still takes a
keen interest in scientific subjects connected with the wood
trade.

Great care has been taken to avoid errors and omissions, but
should any be noticed by the reader, a communication on the
subject will be welcomed by the publishers, with a view to future
editions. E. H.

LONDON,

April, 1921.

vn

CONTENTS

PA(

ALPHABETICAL GLOSSARY OF TERMS ....

BIBLIOGRAPHY OF TIMBER ...... 1

CONTRACTIONS AND ABBREVIATIONS IN USE IN COMMERCE 1<

THE GAIN IN FREIGHT ON PLANED WOOD. THE ACTUAL

MEASUREMENT COMPARED WITH THE NOMINAL . 11

APPROXIMATE WEIGHT PER CUBIC FOOT OF HOME TIMBER 1

THE OFFICIAL WEIGHTS OF AMERICAN HARDWOOD LUMBER 1

A GLOSSARY OF TERMS IN ENGLISH, FRENCH, GERMAN,

SPANISH AND SWEDISH ...... 1

TIMBER CALCULATORS . 1

Vlll

Timber Technicalities.

A

@ A symbol meaning "at" or "from."

Abacus. — (1) A counting device ; an office instrument for making
calculations, much used in Russia and on the Continent.
It consists of several wires stretched in a frame, each
wire being strung with ten perforated balls. (2) In
architecture, a table constituting the upper member or
crowning of a column and its capital.

Abbreviations and Contractions in writing. — See Appendix I.

Abele. — The white poplar (Populus alba). The name is descrip-
tive of the whiteness of the bark.

Aboard.— As " aboard of a man-of-war," or a ship, meaning to
step on or enter within a ship, vessel or boat — a term derived
from the deck or floor of a ship being originally of wood.
See "Board."

Acacia (Robinia pseudacacia). — The common acacia is known in
Europe as the false-acacia. Its wood is very tough and
durable, hard and heavy, but it does not grow to large size.
In America it is known as " locust wood."

Acceptance. — A draft or bill of exchange which a party has agreed
to pay when due, by signifying his willingness to do so in
writing across the draft.

Acceptor. — A person who accepts the obligation to pay a bill of
exchange by writing his name transversely across the face
of it.

Accommodation Bill. — A bill voluntarily accepted or endorsed
by one person, without value received, for the accommo-
dation of the drawer.

Accommodation Party. — A person who, without receiving value,
voluntarily signs a bill for another as drawer, acceptor or
endorser.

Account Sales. — A statement rendered by a broker or agent of
goods sold, showing also charges incurred, commission, special
discounts, the net proceeds of such sales, and due date of
same.

Acorn. — The oval nut or fruit of oak trees. In the species Q.
Pedunculata the acorns are on long stalks, but with Q.
Sessiliflora they are almost without stalks. Some species

B

AIL] ( 2 )

are edible, and all more or less food for swine ; also used in
preference to oak-bark for tanning purposes.

Actual Measure. — The measure in full, according to the system of
measurement employed. It is often the opposite of " cus-
tomary measure " (which see}. In the flooring trade the
term is used to distinguish between the nominal measure
before manufacture and the actual width and thickness of
the boards after planing.

Ad valorem. — -A term meaning in proportion to value. An " ad
valorem " duty is a duty at a certain percentage on the value
of the goods.

Address Commission. — A customary charge paid by shipowners for
services rendered in connection with the ship at loading port.

Adze. — A tool used for paring and smoothing the surface of a log
of wood. The head is swung in a circular path, at right angles
to the handle, and it is used as a paring tool for smoothing
work and squaring up round logs.

Adzing and Boring Machines for Sleepers. — These machines adze
the seatings for the chairs or rails across a railway sleeper, and
bore the spike or bolt holes for holding them securely in place.
There are a mimber of designs, some quite automatic in action
and others only semi-automatic.

Adzing Machines for Sleepers. — These machines plane the seatings
for the chairs or rails of railway sleepers. The work is done
by means of revolving cutter blocks, and the sleepers are
carried either over or under these blocks by an endless feed
chain. See also " Adzing and Boring Machines for Sleepers."

Affidavit. — -A written statement in legal proceedings, signed by
the person making the same, and sworn by him to be true
before a Commissioner for Oaths. A declaration to a state-
ment not in legal proceedings, declared to be true before a
Commissioner.

Afforest. — To turn ground into forest.
African Oak.— See " Oak."

After Growth. — Young trees that have sprung up tlirough re-
production, clearances and cuttings. Sometimes called
"second growth" or "stooled," as "stooled ash." Con-
sidered as young wood stronger than wood of mature trees,
although experiments made by forest authorities in America
with Ash and Hickory have proved the fallacy of this idea.

Agenda. — The order of business to be gone tlirough at a meeting.
Agent. — An agent is one who acts as agent on behalf of a principal.
Ailanthus (Ailanthus glandulosa), known as the "Tree of Heaven."

[ 3 ) [AME

— An ornamental tree indigenous in Japan and China, mostly
grown for shade. Its wood is used by cabinet makers.

Air Seasoning. — Drying of wood in the open air.

Alburnum. — The sapwood of exogenous trees, termed " im-
mature wood " compared with heartwood. In many hard
woods — ebony, etc. — the sapwood is dressed off before land
transport and shipment, as being of no value. In most
cases it is of little value, being liable to decay. In a
few others, however, it is esteemed in an equal degree
to the heartwood, or in a greater measure.

Alder (Alnus glutinosa). — A soft, light, tough and (if not exposed
to alternate wet and dry) very durable wood. Not liable to
split or ignite. Used by engineers (for foundation piles and
all kinds of water work), artificial limb makers and cabinet
makers. The bark was formerly used by tanners and the
cordwood for charcoal in the manufacture of gunpowder.
See also " Clog " or " Clog-sole."

Alder Buckthorn (Rhamnus frangula). — A native of the South of
England, but growing freely anywhere. It is a shrub rather
than a tree, usually reaching 8 to 10 ft. in height. Chiefly
valued for charcoal making.

All Over. — A term used to embrace several items. Same as :' All
round " (which see), also " Over all," " Overhead."

All Round. — A term used to express a number of items taken as a
group. Same as " Over all " and " All over," which see.

Alligator. — A boat used in America in handling floating logs. It
can be moved overland from one body of water to another
by its own power, usually applied through drum or cable.

Allround Price. — See " Overhead Price."

Almond (Amygdalus communis). — A hard, compact wood, light,
and owing to its beautiful colour, used for making fancy
ware, but mainly in request in England as an ornamental
flowering tree.

Alongside Delivery. — The custom of the particular port in a
great measure governs the meaning of this phrase. Deli-
very from the vessel as customary at the port is variously
understood to mean landed on the quay or into craft.

Amboyna Wood (Pterocarpus indicus). — A valuable ornamental
wood vised in the form of veneers. It is also used in inlaying
and for snuff-boxes. It ranks very high as a " Burr- wood"
— see " Burr- woods."

American Oaks. — These are numerous, but the only examples
common on the Extropean markets are " White Oak " or
" Quebec Oak " (Quercus alba), and " Red Oak " (Quercus

ANT] ( 4 )

rubra), from the States and Canada. The former, from
colour and texture, is the best. The shipments have under-
gone a change from the crude log form to that of planks and
boards, the latter being artificially dried and ready for con-
sumption in furniture, fittings, flooring, etc. These oaks do
not rank so high as wainscots of European or Japanese origin.
American oak finds a great outlet in the frames of railway
wagons. See " Oaks."

American Yellow Poplar. — -See " Whitewood."

Ammeter. — A meter for measuring the number of amperes of
electricity being used at any particular moment.

Ampere. — Represents the quantity of electric current used irre-
spective of its strength (or voltage). When amperes are
multiplied by the number of volts (representing the strength
of the current) the results are termed watts.

Angle Bar. — The upright bar of wood which stands at the
extremity of each angle of a polygonal window or canopy,
and reaching from the bottom to the top of the window ; also
the angular timbers of a spire, or anything built in a pyra-
midal or prismatic form.

Angle Bead. — A bead fixed vertically upon the exterior or salient
angle of an apartment, to preserve it from injury, and to
serve as a guide to float the plaster. A variant term for the
above is " Staff-bead."

Angle Braces or Angle Ties. — Pieces of wood fastened across
the angles of square and other angular frames in order to
strengthen the joints of those parts and to keep the frames in
proper shape.

Angle Rafter.— A rafter placed in the line of meeting of the in-
clined planes of a hip-roof, sometimes called a Hip Rafter.

Angle Rib. — A curved piece of wood placed at the angles of groined
ceilings.

Angle Staffs. — Staffs, 1 to 1J in. square, grooved or flattened at
one corner and fixed vertically at external angles of windows,
doors, etc., where two surfaces of plaster meet, in order to
render this part stronger, and avoid the liability of the
plaster in such circumstances being broken or damaged.
See " Angle Bead," which serves a like purpose but involves
two quirks in the plaster.

Annual or Annular Layers. — The yearly growth of the tree, defined
by concentric circles in exogens.

Anti-Sap Stain. — A process of dipping timber in a chemical
solution, usually carbonate of soda, to prevent the sapwood
becoming discoloured on exposure to the air.

( 5 ) [ASP

Apple Tree (Pyrus mains). — A heavy, compact and fine-grown
wood, not liable to ignition when exposed to friction. Used
by toolmakers and turners.

Apron Piece. — A piece of timber fixed into the walls of a staircase
and projecting horizontally, to support the carriage pieces
and joisting in the half spaces or landings. It is sometimes
called the Pitching Piece.

AxSiUQ&ti&iAraucariaimbricata). — A coniferous tree indigenous in
South America and Australia. Grown in England for orna-
ment on lawns and known as Monkey Puzzle.

Arbor. — See " Saw Arbor."

Arbor Vitse, or White Cedar (Thuya occidentalis). — A native of the
Northern States of America and Canada. Used largely for
shingles in the States and for telegraph poles in Canada.

Arboretum. — A place in a park in which trees and shrxibs are
cultivated ; extended to a pleasure-park or municipal place
of recreation, as at Derbj^, Nottingham, etc. This is the
root-word of " Arboriculture," " Arborist," and allied forms
or terms.

Arboriculture. — A term literally meaning the cultivation of trees
but is generally used with regard to the planting and manage-
ment of timber trees.

Arbutus (Arbutus unedo). — A hard, nicely veined, durable wood
much used by cabinet makers and turners. Found in Great
Britain and the South of Ireland.

Architrave. — The group of mouldings above and on both sides of
a door or other opening, especially if square in form.

Area. — A term meaning extent of surface.

Arms. — The wooden cross-pieces at the top of telegraph poles
upon which the insulators are placed.

Arris (French Arete). — The edge of a roof, or a stone, or a piece of
wood. " A sharp arris " is a cutting edge.

Arris Fillet. — A triangular piece of wood vised to raise the slates
of a roof when they abut against the shaft of a chimney or
wall, so as to throw off more effectually the rain from the
joining, but more generally to rafse the eave course of
slated or tiled roofs. It is called also the Tilting Fillet.

Arris Gutter. — A wooden gutter in the form of a V in section,
fixed to the eaves of a building, usually called " a V gutter."

Arris Rail. — A rail of triangular section used for fences.

As per advice. — In accordance with a previous or subsequent letter
or wire giving instructions or information.

ASS] ( 6 )

As they fall from the mill.— Another term for " Unassorted "
(which see). This means all grades down to a certain line.
One may be to exclude wane in any part, i.e., all sawn " die
square " (which see) ; another also to admit wane to a
limited extent. See " Wane, or Scant, or Cant," both
excluding rot, taint, or dote.

Ash. — A well-known type of the temperate zone of the Northern
Hemisphere. In 'that of Britain (Fraxinus excelsior) the
wood ranks extremely high for lightness and elasticity, and
is in great demand for exceptional and general purposes,
especially since the introduction of flying machines. It is
the old "wood of war" that furnished the "shield" and
" spear."

Ash Trees Leafing. — The tradition is if the ash precedes the oak
in foliage, we may anticipate a cold summer and unproduc-
tive autumn.

Ashlar. — (1) Freestone roughly squared in the quarry. (2)
Hewn stones used in the facing of walls presenting a surface
varied according to the tooling they receive. Hence dressed
ashlar-facework may be plain or flat, grooved, chiselled,
axe-dressed or rusticated.

Aspen (Populus tremula). — A tree of the poplar family, whose
leaves tremble with the slightest impulse of the air. Aspen
wood is plentiful in Russia, where it is used in the manufac-
ture of 3-ply veneer, and is also imported into Sweden for
making matches.

Aspen Leaf. — A favourite subject for poets, arising out of the
long, thin stalk of the leaf — metaphorically never quiet.

"And tremble like a leaf of aspen green ;"
or, as Sir Walter Scott says —

"And variable as the shade
By the light quivering aspen made."

Asphalte, or Asphaltum. — A smooth, hard, brittle, black or
brown substance. Durable in the air. Used for road
paving or as a damp-proof material for walls, cellars,
pavements, roofs, etc. It is odourless except when heated.

Assorted. — All the merchantable pieces defined in their various
qualities. Known also as " Graded ' or ' Bracked."
Swedish sawn goods formerly were in three qualities—
" Ists," " 2nds," and " 3rds." Later the " Ists " and " 2nds "
were merged into " mixed," and further numbers were
added, which read "mixed," " 3rds," " 4ths," and even
" 5ths." A few years back the classification was again re-
vised, and mixed are now styled " Ists " and the other quali-

( 7 ) [AVE

ties were raised a step. Under " inferiors " and like denomin-
ations, other grades as low as " 7ths " have come on the
market. This means that goods are now shipped in lower
qualities than hitherto known. See " Grade and Graded."
The opposite is "Unassorted " (ivhich see).

Astragal. — A convex moulding of rounded surface, generally
from half to three-quarters of an inch.

At Sight. — These words written on bills of exchange or promissory
notes signify that they are payable on demand and without
allowance of days of grace.

Auger. — A carpenter's tool for boring holes larger than those
made by a gimlet.

Automatic Dovetailing Machine. — Machine in which the dovetails
iii one board and the pins in another are cut at one operation
by a single cutter. The boards are placed on a table, one
vertically and the other horizontally, and atTtomatic illy
traversed past the cutter a distance equal to the pitch re-
quired. The cutter then moves forward 011 to the work, the
dovetail and pin are cut simultaneously, the cutter recedes
and the movements are repeated.

Autumn Shipment. — Usually understood to commence 23rd
September and end 22nd December. For goods shipped
from ports closed during the winter, it is usually taken to
mean from 23rd September to close of season.

Average is of two kinds, Particular and General. Particular
average is partial loss caused by a peril insured against
(whether damage or special charges), attaching particularly
to the commodity insured, e.g., damage by saturation of wool,
dissolving of sugar, etc. Partial average and partial loss
are the same thing, e.g., the position is the same whether
ten bags of sugar be washed out 10 per cent, or whether nine
bags are sound and one empty. Whether an insurance shall
cover partial loss or not, that is, whether an insurance shall
be " with average " or " free of particular average," is merely
a matter of arrangement and premium. General average
is an extraordinary sacrifice made in grave emergency
for the collective benefit of the owners of ship, freight and
cargo, e.g., the cutting away of a mast, the jettison of the
cargo, water poured down the hold to extinguish a fire. In
each case the monetary loss has to be ascertained and dis-
tributed over all the property saved according to the value
of each of these interests. The apportionment of the loss
over all the interests involved is the work of an " average
stater " (which see).

BAG] ( 8 )

Average Measurement. — The mean between several dimensions.
Thus, for example, average length, average thickness, cubic
average.

Average Stater. — A professional expert whose office is to investi-
gate, adjust and award in cases, especially of " General
Average," that is, where a number of persons are affected in
cases of loss, damage, etc., and to issue " Average state-
ments." See " Average " and " Depreciation." Also known
as " Average Adjuster."

Award. — The decision of an arbitrator, umpire, or referee in
cases of disputes.

Axe, or Hatchet, the latter term representing the smallest type. —
A tool for hewing and splitting wood having bevelled cxitt ing
edge acting like a wedge ; when provided with bevel on one
side only, it is called a side hatchet. To " take up the
hatchet " or to " bury the hatchet " are terms used by the
American-Indians for " making war " and " declaring
peace."

B

Back. — The upper or convex part of a saw tooth.

Backboards. — Thin boards used in picture framing for the back
of the frame.

Backed, Bellied, and Jointed. — A prepared turned stave manu-
factured ready to put up with other similar staves to make a
barrel. Fifty years ago the " lags " were not " turned,"
every part was done or carried out by hand.

Back Fillet.— The return of the projection beyond the face of a
wall or jambs of a door.

Back Lining. — The piece of a sash frame parallel to the pulley
stile, and next to the jamb.

Backs. — In carpentry, the principal rafters of a roof. The upper
side of any piece of timber is also termed the back, the
lower side being called the breast or heart side.

Bagac is a heavy construction lumber from the Philippines,
weighing slightly heavier than American oak. It is of very
close texture and great tensile strength. It is very similar
in appearance to teak, but it has not the oily nntxire of that
wood. It has been used in the East for making the cover-
decks of ships and handrails, and it makes an exceptionally
fine hardwood floor.

( 9 ) [BAN

Baguette (Fr.). — A small moulding.

Bale Boards. — A term used for boards swinging from the ceiling of
stables by means of chains, and used instead of stall divisions ;
also the boards used in bales of cloth.

Balk. — A beam, or piece of sawn or hewn timber, 4 to 8 in. square.

Ball Bearings. — Bearings in which steel balls are used to eliminate
friction. The best type for journal bearings consists of a
row, or rows, of balls held in a cage and revolving between
two rings of hardened steel.

Baltic. — Of or appertaining to the sea which separates Norway
and Sweden from Jutland, Denmark and Germany ; situated
on the Baltic Sea.

Baluster or Balustrading. — Small columns or pilasters protecting
the outer ends of stairs and supporting the handrail. Cor-
rupted in common language to " banisters " or " bannisters."
In Tudor and Jacobean work the size or diameter of the
balusters, usually 3 in. to 4 in., gave the widths of the
clear spaces between, hence the screens were half solid. In.
late seventeenth-century staircases balusters were often re-
placed with solid boarding perforated to flowing designs, and
carved on one or both sides. See "Handrail."

Band Resaw. — Band-saws used for resawing planks or flitches
into boards are known by this name ; they are provided
with roller feed.

Band Saw. — A saw in the form of an endless steel belt, with teeth
on roller edge, running over wheels.

Economy of the band saw. — Not the least important point
is the question of the waste of wood, and here the band saw
gives by far the best results. The amount of wood lost in
sawdust by a circular saw, 6 ft. diameter, per cut is -fV in. ;
therefore when producing boards 1 in. thick, the waste is
24 per cent. A band saw wastes at the most | in. per cut,
or, when cutting 1 in. , 1 1 per cent. Again, to make a board
cut by a circular saw, when planed on both sides, hold up
to |- in., it must be cut 1 in. thick, i.e., TV in. nrust be
allowed on each side for planing, while, on the other hand,
owing to the superior cutting of the band saw, it is only
necessary to allow aV in. on each side for planing, showing
an additional saving of ^V in. per cent. This gives a total
saving of £ in. per cut by the use of the band saw.

Baad-Saw Machine, with Self-acting Canting Table. — The tables
of these machines have a self-acting canting motion for con-
veniently cutting sweeps of varying bevel.

Banister or Bannister. — A corruption of " baluster" (ivhich see).

BAT] ( 10 )

Barge Boards. — The raking-boards at the gable of a building to
cover the ends of the roof timbers when they project
beyond the walls. A variant of this is " verge-board."

Bark. — The exterior covering of the trunk and branches of a tree ;
the rind.

Bark Peeling. — Sometimes called "barking," " stripping," or
" flaying." The operation of removing the bark of a tree
when the sap is flowing, usually from the middle of April
to the commencement of June.

Barrel. — A round vessel or cask of greater length than breadth,
bulging in the middle, made of staves bound with hoops and
having flat ends or heads.

Barrel Saw.— See " Cylinder Saw."

Base. — In architecture, the base of a pillar is properly that part
which is between the top of a pedestal and the bottom of
the shaft ; when there is 110 pedestal, it is the part between
the bottom of the column and the plinth.

Base Mouldings. — In architecture, projecting mouldings immedi-
ately above the plinth of a wall, pillar, or pedestal. See
" Base."

Basswood (Tilia Americana) is a native of North America, where
the various varieties are largely used for box making. In
the United States it is known under different names in
different regions. Among these names are linn, lynn, linden,
lime, lime tree, whitewood, bee tree, wahoo, and silverleaf
poplar. The name basswood is a corruption of the word
bast wood, and bast is a reference to the strong inner bark
which was formerly vised in making ropes. This inner bark
may be separated in strands at any season of the year.

Bast Matting. — Strips of the inner bark of the lime tree which
have been separated into layers by steeping in water, woven
together, thus forming the matting. Used to protect plants
from frost and for packing furniture.

Bat. — A term allied to "beat." (1) A heavy stick or club;
(2) a piece of wood, usually willow, with a round handle and
the blade about 3J ft. long and 4J in. Made in the widest part,
used in the game of cricket ; the making of bats has devel-
oped into a fine art ; (3) a portion of or half a brick, i.e., a
" brick-bat,"

Bataan is a species of Philippine mahogany of regular colour and
texture, and takes a high polish. A large percentage of it
comes forward with a fine figure, and it is sold for purposes
for which only high-class mahogany can be used.

( 11 ) [BEE

Batten and Batten Sizes. — 2 in. thick and up sawn goods, formerly
confined to 7 in., but now ranging from 5 in. to 8 in. It
is used to distinguish them from the broader sizes, 9 in.
and up, of " deals " or " planks" (which see}. For freight,
however, 2 in., 3 in., 4 in., 4-£ in. and 5 in. are reckoned
as battens.

Battledore. — A wooden instrument or toy used by hand in playing
shuttlecock ; properly a baton or beetle for washing linen by
striking it to knock out the dirt.

Bavins or Kids are the names given in different parts of the
country to brushwood, fagots, chips of cut wood or wood
refuse.

Bead. — A small moulding semicircular in section, generally used
with a quirk or sinking. When flush with the face of the
work it is called a " quirk-bead " ; when it is raised, a " cock-
bead " ; and when round, or nearly so, a " staff-bead."

Beam. — Originally implied a "tree"; it has long served to
describe the stem of a tree straight in its character. This
straightness is reflected in " sunbeam " and " beam of
light." Usually the term is applied to a hewn log or balk
of timber. A variant form is seen in the Dutch and Danish
" boom," German " baum."

Beamfillings. — Short lengths of logs or deals used for filling up
spaces between the beams of a vessel ; they are necessary
for the close stowing of a ship, and are usually carried at
two-thirds the chartered rate of freight. See " Stowage
Planks."

Beaver Boards. — Boards made of compressed wood fibre.

Bed-Laths or " Slats." — The cross-laths of a bed which support
the mattress.

Bed Moulding. — Properly those members of a cornice which lie
below the corona.

Beech (Fagus Sylvatica). — A tree indigenous in this country, and
found throughout the western, the central, and most of the
southern portions of Europe, also in the Caucasus. The
wood is light brown in colour, hard, moderately heavy, close,
even in texture, with a fine silky grain. It grows to perfec-
tion on chalky soils ; in Buckinghamshire, for instance, where
large quantities are used at High Wycombe in the manufac-
ture of chairs.

Beetle. — A heavy wooden hammer or mallet (see " Mall," " Maul,"
and "Mallet"). Used to drive wedges, stakes and piles;

BIL] ( 12 )

beat or ram the groiind, i.e., the original of the " ram," or
weight in a pile-driving machine. In the Records of Boston,
Lincolnshire, the corporation had a large cast bell-metal
object, used in pile-driving, which they termed a " welkin "
or " welking " —a term still used for a big ungainly man — a
" welkin-fellow."

Bevel. — A term used to describe a sloped or canted surface.
Bevel Siding. — Lap siding ; siding weather board.

Bill of Entry. — A document handed to the Customs authorities
by importers, declaring and describing goods before
landing same.

Bill Oi Exchange.— A written order for payment of money drawn
by one person on another. If drawn on a bank it is called
a cheque.

Bill of Lading is a formal receipt subscribed by the master of a ship
in liis capacity of carrier, acknowledging that he has received
the goods specified in it on board his ship, and binding him-
self (under certain exceptions) to deliver them, in the like
good order as received, at the place, and to the individual
named in the bill, or his assigns, on his or their paying him
the stipulated freight, etc. When goods are sent by a ship
under a charterparty, the bills of lading are delivered by the
master to the merchant by whom the goods are shipped ;
but when they are sent by a general ship — that is, by a ship
not hired by charterparty, but employed as a general carrier
— each individual who sends goods on board receives a bill
of lading for the same. By the joint effect of custom and
statute the bill of lading is a document of title to the goods
and the ownership of the goods on sale may pass by endorse-
ment of the bill of lading. A " through bill of lading " is
a document made for the conveyance of goods from one place
to another by several shipowners or railway companies.
A " clean " bill of lading is a bill of lading which has nothing
in the margin qualifying the terms in the bill of lading
itself.

Bill of Sale. — A document of mortgage or transfer of movable
property, the possession of which is retained by the trans-
ferrer or borrower, such as furniture, ships, etc. To be valid
in England is subject to stringent conditions as to registra-
tion and form.

Billet. — A short round section of a log.

Billian or Borneo Ironwoofl (Eusideroxylon Zwageri). — A heavy,
hard, strong and durable wood from North Borneo. Used
for piles, beams or planks.

( 13 ) [BLO

Binders. — Long pliant shoots of hazel, ash, willow and similar
trees, which have length and elasticity enough to allow them
to be used for binding up bundles of fagots, making hurdles,
etc.

Binding Joists. — Beams in framed floors which support the
bridging joists above and ceilina joists below.

Birch (Betula alba or Common Birch). — Found in almost every
country. The wood is of a light brown colour, moderately
hard, plain and even in grain, and is easily worked ; it is,
however, unfitted for building piirposes. Birch squares are
imported from Finland for bobbin making and other uses.

Bit. — A tooth used in an. inserted tooth saw.

Blackbutt (Eucalyptus pilularis). — An Australian timber, moder-
ately heavy and very strong. Used for sleepers, paving,
telegraph poles and carpentry.

Blackheart. — A serious defect in timber, found especially in ash.

Black Spruce (Picea Nigra). — A North American timber, tough
and strong and only slightly resinous. Imported for making
packing cases, etc.

Blackthorn (Prunus spinosa), " Sloe."— A hard, tough wood
used for walking sticks.

Blanket Rate. — A rate to cover various specified services.

Blanks. — The rough sawed pieces from which spokes, handles,
chair rounds, lasts and other turned goods are made.

Blaze. — (1 ) To mark, by cutting into trees the course of a
boundary, road, trail, etc. ; or trees cut and numbered for
sale by auction or privately ; (2) The chips made by a
mortising chisel when at work; they are also called " cores."

Bled Timber. — Pine trees which have been turpentined.
Blind Lath. — Thin planed laths used in Venetian blinds.
Blind Slat Planing Machine. — Small four-cutter planing machines
specially suitable for planing blind slats or blind laths.

Blind Slat Tenoning Machine. — A machine for forming the round
ends on blind slats. The material is placed in the machine
and caused to revolve slowly while a series of saws cut the
tenon.

Blind Stile Mortising and Boring Machines. — Automatic machines
in which blind stiles are mortised or bored in pairs ; the
distance between the mortises being accurately spaced by a
notched bar, called a spacing bar, to which the stiles are
attached.

Block. — The stem or stump of a tree j a mass of wood or stone ;
the piece of wood upon which criminals were beheaded.

BOA] ( 14 )

Blockhead. — A dullard; a stupid person; one without brains.
Originally a wig-maker's wooden dummy, upon which he
worked and exhibited his wigs.

" Strongly wedged up in a block-head."

— Shakespeare, Coriolanus, ii. 3.

Block-house. — A place of defence made of logs.

" Blue Goods," or Blue Timbers. — Sawn goods which have become
discoloured on the sapwood through stains by fungi. These
are laid aside and occasionally shipped as blue goods,
without warranty.

Blue Gum (E. Saligna). — A heavy, strong Australian timber.

Bluing. — Discoloration of the sapwood by low forms of vegeta-
tion acting as ferments.

Board or Boards. — (1) Thin layers of wood, from i in. to 2 in. in
thickness, when " plank " comes in. In the hardwood
trade boards are classed as of any thickness up to 1J
in. and any width ; over that thickness they are termed
planks. In the softwood trade it is customary to include
as boards any thickness under 2 in. (2) A table, from
having a flat or broad surface made of boards. This word
and broad seems to be allied in origin, as "onboard a ship"
suggests — going over the broadside. See " Table."

Board of Trade Unit. — Generally represented by the initials
" B.T.U." Is the unit by which the amotmt of electric
current used is measured. It is equal to 1,000 watts for
one hour. One B.T.U. is equal to 1 '34 h.p. for one hour.

Board Foot. — The contents of a board 1 ft. square and 1 in.
thick. The common unit of measure for logs and lumber
in the United States and Canada. See " Board Measure."

Board Measure. — The board foot, the unit of measxirement in the
United States and Canada, is an invariable standard 12 in.
square and 1 in. thick, or its equivalent of volume in any
other shape. One thousand feet board measure of £-in.
lumber is, therefore, equivalent to 2,000 ft. face of super-
ficial measure. Lumber 1 in. or thicker is usually sold by
board measure, and lumber under 1 in. is by the custom of the
trade usually sold by face measure, not by board measure.
When applied to inch lumber, this unit may be considered a
measurement of surface, but with lumber of other dimensions
it is a unit of volume containing 1 44 cubic in. A few examples
will explain this more clearly. A board 12 ft. in length, 1 ft.
in width and 1 in. in thickness contains 12 board ft. and its
surface measurement is 12 sq. ft. A board 12 ft. long,
12 in. wide and 2 in. thick contains 24 board ft., while its

( 15 ) [BOL

surface measurement is still only 12 sq. ft. In Holland,
in the days of Dutch wainscot, the standard board was
12ft. x 11 Jin. x 1 in. This " 12 ft." became the standard
of dimensions generally.

Board Rule. — An implement universally used in America for
readily ascertaining the superficial area of boards. It has
been adopted in this country for the measurement of Ameri-
can boards or lumber. It is 3 ft. in length, and consists of
a flat flexible metal-tipped rod usually made of hickory, oil
the flat surface and edges of which are marked the figures by
which the superficial area of the boards is ascertained.

Boathook Shafts. — Called also " Quants." Tapered handles, 14 to
24 ft. in length, according to length of boat-hook. This term
is often shortened to " boathook " ; for instance, " poles,
rickers and boathooks, graded according to size."

Boat Skin. — Thin boarding used for boat-building.

Bobbin or Bobbins. — A small flange or head-ended piece of wood
on which thread or silk is wound, usually bored through to
receive a pivot or spindle. A variant term for this useful
instrument is " spool." See " Bobbin Wood."

Bobbin Sandpapering Machine. — This tool is useful for smoothing
curved and irregular work. The sandpaper is strained round
a small cylinder of wood, or, if very small, the wood is coated
with abrasive material. The cylinder is fitted to a revolving
spindle provided with a reciprocating motion to prevent
scratchy marks on the wood.

Bobbin Squares. — See " Bobbin Wood."

Bobbin Wood. — A close-grown class of soft or semi-hard wood,
non-resiiious in character, suitable for making what is
popularly called " cotton-bobbins." Although small articles
given away with the thread, they form in the aggregate an
important factor in the home and foreign timber trades.
The most popular woods are birch, alder and ash, of small or
medium diameter, cut into lengths called " props." The
first form of conversion is into " bobbin squares."

Bois d'arc. — See "Osage Orange."

Bois-Durci. — A French invention for utilizing the sawdust of hard
woods, such as rosewood, ebony, etc. After the sawdust is
reduced to fine powder, it is mixed with blood into a paste ;
other materials are added, and when pressed into moulds it
receives the most beautiful impression. Used for medallions,
etc.

Bole. — The trunk or stem of a tree, after it has attained the
diameter of 8 in., which constitutes timber.

BOU] ( 16 )

Bolection or Bilection. — That portion of a group of mouldings
which projects beyond the general surface of a panel, or, more
strictly speaking, before the framing round a panel or panels.

Bolection Doors. — Doors with bolection mouldings.

" Bolinder " or " Swedish " Cutters. — A circular cutter having
six or eight cutting teeth, backed off in such a manner that,
as they are reduced in size by sharpening, they still cut the
same profile. Used for beading, tonguing, grooving, etc.

Bolt. — A segment sawed or split from a short log.

Bond Timber. — Timbers placed in horizontal tiers at certain
intervals in the walls of buildings for attaching battens, laths,
and other finishings of wood, and for raising the " grade " or
" seats " for beam and joist ends.

Bone Dry. — Absolutely dry, or brought to the utmost dryness the
atmosphere will admit. Also expressed as " dry stock."

Boom. — Logs or timbers fastened together end to end and used
to hold floating logs. The term sometimes includes the logs
enclosed, as a boom of logs.

Boost. — To lift ; to raise by pushing up ; to push up. A common
word in New England, as in the lumber trade : e.g., " move-
ments are on foot to boost the price of hemlock."

Borer. — See " Boring Machines."

Boring and Mortising Apparatus. — Usually referring to an appara-
tus similar to the boring apparatus, but provided with a
longitudinal slide, so that the material can be given a
reciprocating motion by means of a hand lever. By using a
rotary mortise tool slot mortises with round ends are readily
made in the timber.

Boring Apparatus. — Usually referring to a table for supporting
the wood while under the action of an auger fixed in a saw
bench spindle. The table has a vertical adjustment and also
a cross slide, by means of which the wood is fed into the tool.

Boring Machines. — Consist of one or more rapidly revolving
spindles carrying augers with means of either bringing the
augers to the work or the work to the augers.

Boss. — See " Centre-piece."

Bottom Rail. — Horizontal piece of the frame of a door nearest the
floor, or in post and rail fencing. •

Bought and Sold Notes are notes of sale drawn up by the agent
employed to sell goods and by which the bargain through
him is completed. The bought note goes to the buyer and
the sold note to the seller, and are signed by each party.
Brokers sign their contract notes as agents for both seller and
buyer.

( 17 ) [BOX

Box.— See " Packing Case."

Box, or " Armstrong " Dovetailing Machine. — A machine used
for cutting dovetails on the edge of boards by means of saws.
The saws are fixed to discs set at an angle with the board,
one cutting one taper of the dovetail and part of the end, and
the second saw completing the work. The work is rapid and
automatic. The dovetails are accurate. Armstrong was
the original inventor and patentee. The patent has run out
some years, and the machine is made by most woodworking
engineering firms.

Boxboards, Caseboards or Shooks. — Thin boards cut to sizes for
parts of boxes, imported in bundles.

Sox Board Printing Machines. — Used for printing names, trade
marks, etc., on box boards by means of large rollers driven
by gearing. The type or design is fixed to one of the rollers.
One or more coloured printing inks can be used simul-
taneously.

Box Board Branding Machines. — In which box boards, cask ends
and other goods are branded by heated plates. The brand
may consist of special designs, trade marks, names, etc.

3ox Board Trimming Machines. — Consist of two revolving cutter-
blocks adjusted so as to trim box boards exactly to one
length or width, as the boards are passed between the cutters.

3ox the Heart. — To cut boards from all sides of the heart, leaving
the latter as a piece of timber.

Jox Wood. — ( 1) Deal, batten or board-ends, largely used for cutting
up for making boxes ; a variant term is " Case wood " at
some of the ports. See " Firewood." (2) A valuable and
well-known tree, the Buxus semper virens, of Linnseus, that
produces one of the hardest and most compact woods known
to man. Used by the instrument-maker for pipes, flutes,
wheels, parts of violins ; for combs, knife-handles, shuttles,
etc. ; also used by turners and engravers.

Eoxing. — A system of tapping pine trees in order to obtain
the resin or crude turpentine. (2) The hollow part of t-ho
" stiles " or " jambs " or " sides " of a " sash-frame " (which
see). (3) The recess into which "folding" or "boxing
shutters " (which see) are placed.

•Oxiilg Shutters. — A descriptive term for inside folding window
shutters; when not in use turned into "wall" are kindred
;' boxes." See " Shutter." " Boxing shutters " may
variantly be termed " folding shutters," and consist of many
parts hinged together ; those least seen are " back-folds " or
•_| back-flaps." The latter a common term to such hinges.
Shutters are for other purposes, as cupboards and shops, the
latter often working on the revolving system.

C

BRE] ( 18 )

Brack. — Wood goods below the regular classifications ; other-
wise Culls (which see; also " Wrack").

Bracked. — See " Assorted."

Brake or Actual Horse-power. — The power available for actual
work after deducting the power required to drive the engine
or motor itself. One horse-power is equal to the work of
raising 33,000 foot-pounds per minute. One electric horse-
power is equal to 746 watts.

Brake-block. — A block that is, or may be, used to stop the motion
of a body. Instance, for retarding or arresting the motion
of wheels, as in railway engines, tenders, carriages, wagons,
carts, etc.

Brand and Branded. — As applied to timber and sawn goods, are
terms loosely used in the trade, or whose original meaning
has undergone extension from " brant " or " brent " = burnt,
or branded with a hot iron. A variant term for " branded "
is " marked." See " Quality and Shipping Marks." In-
stance, " marked goods " and " branded goods " are one and
the same thing.

Brands or Shipping Marks on Timber. — The distinguishing marks
used by the shippers for the various grades or qualities of
sawn and planed wood from America, Norway and the Baltic
countries, which are stencilled on the ends, generally in red.
White Sea and other Russian goods are more or less dry
hammer stamped on their ends. See " List of Shipping Marks
on Timber," published by William Rider & Son, Ltd., London.

Bratticing. — Sawn boarding for ventilating passages in mines.

Brazil-wood or Braziletto (Casalpinia brasiliensis). — -A hard, heavy
cabinet or dye wood from tropical America.

Brazing Apparatus for Band Saws. — An apparatus by means of
which the two ends of a band saw are held in position during
the process of joining them together by brazing or hard
soldering.

Brazing Forge for Various Band Saws. — A small forge with
bellows worked by foot, the top of the forge being provided
with separate receptacles for holding water, charcoal, etc.
By means of the bellows the heat is concentrated upon the
joint to be brazed, until the brass brazing wire wrapped
round it is melted and runs between the lapped joint.

Breaking down, in sawing, is dividing the balks or logs into boards
or planks (American = cants) which can be sawed on the
main saw. The operation is called " the falling cut," and
as it involves getting on and off a pit or saw-frame, it is
charged as two cuts.

( 19 ) [BRO

Breast. — The lower side of any piece of timber.

Breast High. — At or having a height of 4| ft. above the ground.

A less height is known as "knee deep," and is applied to

railway wagons to distinguish them from " deep-sided."
Breastsummer (written also " brest summer " and " bressummer."

— A stout beam or lintel spanning an opening in a wall ;

used principally above shop windows. See " Summer."
Bridging. — Pieces of wood placed between two beams or other

pieces to prevent their approaching each other. More

generally called " strutting " or " straining pieces." See

" Struts."

Bright. — Not discoloured ; fresh from the saw ; wood that has
not been exposed to the weather. " Viewly " is an equivalent
term on the North-East Coast.

Bright Deals. — A term applied to Canadian yellow pine deals
passed direct from the saw-mills to craft for shipment, in
contradistinction to others termed " floated," or carried on
rafts, which get a little discoloured in transit.

Bright Floated. — Deals floated in clear water, but remaining over
the water level, and in consequence not discoloured.

Broads. — A term used in the Canadian trade for deals of a width
of 12 in. or upwards.

' Broken Specification." — An original one as imported, with
certain special lengths sold out, otherwise a depreciated
specification of hewn or sawn timber, or sawn deals, battens
or boards. A variant term is " bad specification."

Broken Stowage. — See " Stowage."

Broker. — " An agent employed to make bargains in matters of
trade or navigation for other people in return for a compensa-
tion called brokerage." He is in short a mercantile agent.
A broker is not in possession of the goods which are the
subject of the contract. He cannot as a rule buy or sell in
his own name when acting for other people, and is not liable
to be sued on the contract which he enters into on behalf of
others, unless he appears on the contract to be a principal.
When a broker makes a contract for others he enters the
terms of the contract in his own book, and then sends a
copy of the entry to both parties. The bought note is
sent to the buyer and the sold note to the seller. These
notes should be identical in terms, otherwise there may be
no contract at all, especially, as often happens, when the
broker has not entered the terms in his book.

(From Pannell's Reference Book.)

Browsewood or Brushwood.— (1) Twigs and small branches of

BUR] ( 20 )

trees ; (2) small trees and shrubs of a wood, or a thicket of
small trees ; (3) small round wood for " brush backs " or
" heads."

Buck. — To saw felled trees into logs. An American term.

Buckled. — (1) A term used for a saw blade that is bent ; (2) in
joinery or cabinet making, a panel or veneer which is not flat.

Buckling. — A term applied to saws when they are twisted or
distorted out of truth.

Buckthorn (Hippophea Rhamnoides). — A small growing tree
usually found on sandy soil in an exposed maritime situation ,
A hard, lasting wood, which does not split or shrink in
seasoning, is light yellow in colour, with greyish veining.

Buffing Machine. — Another name for a belt sanding machine, in
which a belt, dressed with abrasive material, runs round two
pulleys. Used for smoothing different articles, more
especially those turned in a copying lathe.

Buhl Work. — A style of cabinet decoration common in France
in the seventeenth century, so called from Andre Charles
Boale ; work being embellished with metal marquetry.
Also written as Baule or Baulle.

Built-up Boards or Stock. — See " Plywood, or Built-up Boards,"
" Three-ply," and " Multiply Boards."

Bunk, Dog Teeth, Log Shoes, Spurs, Chain Bracket. — These are
names meaning one and the same thing, consisting of a dog
attached to the chain of a log jack, provided with spikes or
spurs. These latter dig into the log and so drag it up an
incline.

Burls. — Local defects appearing in the grain of timber, produced
by healing of wounds in the tree, or by knots. Abnormal
growths or excrescences in the tree, known as " sap-burrs "
or " twig-burrs." The latter, which are found at the roots
of the tree, are valuable, but " sap-burrs " are worthless.
See " Burrs."

Burr. — A protuberance common to certain trees, mainly those
which have power to reproduce by " stooling " (see" Stool "),
and those whose trunks or arms are exposed to the action of
the sun, i.e., open-grown or unshaded ; of these there are two
kinds — the " sap-burr," a worthless type, and the " twig-
burr," on the whole a valuable one. See " Walnut Burrs "
and " Burr Woods." When on the ground-level they are
termed " Root-btuTS." See " Excrescence."

Burr Woods. — Varied species which produce or yield merchant-
able or ornamental woods in the form of burrs. Of these an
Indian yellow wood, known as " Amboyna Wood," ranks

( 21 ) [CAN

very high. It was introduced into Europe by the Dutch
when they were lords of that island. See " Amboyna Wood,"
" Walnut Burrs." Poplars and several other woods are
found with burrs, they are of no value. Yew when so
found is an exception.

Bush or Shrub is the name applied to perennial ligneous plants
which do not in their normal state of growth attain a girth of
more than six inches ; otherwise known as " Underwood "
or " Undergrowth."

Butt. — The base of a tree or the big end of a log.

Butt Cut. — The butt log or the log first cut above the stump. In
oak, etc., " butts," it is difficult before cutting open to tell
whether they are 1st, 2nd or 3rd cuts.

c

California!! Redwood (Sequoia sempervirens). — The most valuable
of Calif ornian timber trees, used for building, telegraph
poles, etc. Soft, light, close grained and easily split.

Calling for Orders. — An arrangement made with a vessel to call
at a certain port to receive orders for and to proceed to a
port of discharge.

Callipers or Calipers. — An instrument for measuring the cubical
contents of round and square logs. The kind now in general
use are known as " Hull Calipers," which consist of a
graduated beam to which is attached one fixed and one
sliding arm. Bow calipers are now seldom xised.

Camber. — A piece of timber cut archwise or forming a segment
of a circle. A natural curve in oak or other timber.

Cambium. —A term applied to the layer of mucilaginous viscid
matter, particularly plentiful in spring, interposed between
the woody layers and the bark in exogenous trees.

Camp Sheeting. — A lining of planks or boards for protecting an
embankment .

Canary Whitewcod, or American Whitewood or Poplar. —
The product of the Tulip tree, Liriodendron tulipifera.
A common and much used wood imported from the United
States. Very variable in colour, the most esteemed being
that wood possessing a clear deep yellow shade. The sap
wood is perfectly white, or, at times, slightly grey, and is
generally shipped separately under the term of clear saps.

CAS] ( 22 )

Cant. — Another term for " wane " on a log of timber, implying
that it is not die-square at the corners, or towards the top
end of the tree : it presents itself as a shortened form of
"scant" (which see, and "Wane"). "Cant" has some
reference to the side of a log meaning " turn," as : " Give
that log a cant with the ' cant-dog ' ' (which see). It is
also an American term for a log that has been slabbed on
one or more sides.

Cant-dog or Hook. — A hand-spike with a hinged iron hook at
the lower or heavy end, hooped and pronged; a necessary
tool or instrument where logs of timber are handled or
turned over on land, or floated or rafted on water. It is
allied to the act of turning — instance, " cant over " for
" turn over."

Cant Moulding. — Any moulding with a bevelled face.

Cantilever. — A wooden or iron block framed into the side of a
house under the eaves, to carry a cornice or other moulding.

Capping. — See " Coping."

Capping Rail. — The rail at the top of a fence. Sometimes
called " saddleback."

Capstan. — Machine used for hauling timber into a saw mill.
Consisting of a revolving capstan head round which a rope
is twisted two or three turns, sufficient purchase being
thus obtained for hauling in the log.

Carcase. — The structure of a building before finishing is added.

Cargo. — The general name for all the merchandise carried on
board a trading ship. It means the entire cargo of the ship
usually, but the meaning may vary, according to the con-
tract and circumstances.

Carriage. — (1) The timbering hidden or supporting part of a
staircase ; (2) the timber or iron- work of a gun ; (3) a two-
or four-wheeled vehicle with many parts ; (4) the price or
expense of carrying goods.

Case. — See " Packing Case."

Case Harden. — In seasoning timber a piece is said to be case
hardened when the exterior becomes dry while the interior
remains moist. This is generally due to the application of
a high degree of heat in a short time, i.e., by drying in an
overheated kiln.

Caseboards. — See " Boxboards," also " Shooks."

Casement. — A compartment between the mullions of a window,
but more generally a glazed sash or frame hinged to open
like a door or to slide xip and down in a sash window.

(23 ) [CEI

Cask. — A barrel-shaped vessel made in varying sizes, of staves,
headings and hoops fitted close together, to hold liquid.

Catalpa (Catalpa lignonioides). — A native of India, but introduced
here as an ornamental tree ; especially in towns. Not much
in use here commercially, though valued in India.

Catamaran. — A small raft used in America, carrying a windlass
and grapple, used to recover sunken logs.

Caul. — A piece of wood or zinc, the reverse of any curved surface
that is to be veneered, which is heated and pressed on the
face of the veneer after it is laid, to keep it in position until
dry.

Cedar. — A name no longer confined to the Lebanon cedar (which
see) but applied to other species of the genus as well as
to junipers and other coniferous trees. Various "cedars"
are known to commerce, but that associated with the English
trade is West Indian or Mexican cedar (Cedrela odoraia),
which is a light wood beautifully marked, resembling the
allied mahogany but much softer and easily split. Used
for furniture, but mainly for cigar boxes. Various so-
called cedars are common in the hardwood market, the
principal being several varieties derived from the West
Indies and Central America, while other minor supplies
are obtained from the northern districts of South
America, Southern States of North America, East Africa,
India, Australia and other parts of the world. The
principal uses for this mahogany-like wood are for cigar-
box making, pencil manufacture, boat building and a few
other minor purposes.

Cedar (of Lebanon) (Cedrus Lebani). — The choicest of all orna-
mental trees, though the British variety is inferior to the
Eastern. Of little value commercially, the wood, which
is light and reddish white in colour, being by no means
durable. Used by builders of small boats, and to a limited
extent by cabinet makers and embalmers. The American
variety is imported for lead pencil casings.

Ceiling. — Timber finished on one side only, vised for wainscotting,
ceiling rooms, etc. Literally a " covering " — usually
restricted to something overhead — as " a plaster ceiling,"
" a boarded ceiling," or a " ceiling made of ceiling boards,"
in some cases " vaulted," " arched " or " groined," i.e., not
flab or horizontal. See " Vaulted Ceiling."

Ceiling Boards. — Wrought boards, usually narrow and tongued
and grooved, used for making ceilings. They differ in no
degree from " wall boards," but simply derive their name
from the purpose to which they are applied.

CHE] ( 24 )

Ceiling Joists. — Joists to which the ceiling of a room is attached
— a term derived from the purpose to which the " joists ''
are applied.

Centre-piece. — Usually an imposing ornament of plaster or com-
position fixed (in some cases hung by copper cords) in the
centre of a plaster ceiling. In a " groined ceiling," or the
roof of a " vaulted ceiling," it becomes a " boss."

Centring. — Temporary wooden supports placed under vaults
and arches to sustain them whilst they are in building;
they usually remain in position until the material they
support is properly set. The act of removal is termed
" Striking the centres."

Certificate of Origin. — A Government certificate stating the
country of origin to enable the re-entry of the wood into
the country of production free of duty.

Chamber. — A room or apartment distinguished from a hall,
chapel, etc. A great chamber usually adjoined or was con-
tiguous to a hall, and answered to the modern drawing
room (properly withdrawing room).

Chamfer, Plain or Moulded.— An angle slightly pared off is said
to be " chamfered " : where not continuous the original
angle remains, in which case the work is termed " Stop
chamfered," and the " stops " may be moulded, shaped or
carved. See " Stop-chamfer."

Charcoal and Charcoal Burners. — A class of coal distinguished
from coal won from the earth by mining, the latter known
in the Middle Ages as " sea-coal," from that coal being
largely conveyed from the Tyne district by water to London.
Charcoal is the residue of wood slowly burned or smothered
in piles under coverings of stone, earth, turf, etc., the men
employed being known as " charcoal burners." It is a
superior form of fuel for smelting ores, feeding forges or
warming houses, and an ingredient in the manufacture of
gunpowder. It takes 10 tons of wood to make 2£ tons of
charcoal.

Charterparty. — The name given to a contract in writing, between
the owner or master of a ship and the freighter, by which
the former hires or lets the ship, or a principal part of the ship,
under certain specified conditions, for the conveyance of the
goods of the freighter to some particular place or places.
Generally, however, a charterparty is a contract for the use of
the whole ship.

Check. — A longitudinal crack in timber caused by too rapid
seasoning. To prevent wide boards from season checks

( 25 ) [GIF

they should be " cleat ed." Before seasoning the ends
should be whitewashed, as it does not attract or retain the
heat from the sun's rays. The formula of the United States
Government for whitewash is: To 10 parts of best freshly
slaked lime add one part of hydraulic cement. Mix well
with salt water and apply quite thin.

Checked Sarking.— Sawn boarding for covering roofs under the
slates, usually £ in. in thickness and cut for overlapping.

Cherry (Common = Cerasus vulgaris ; Wild, Black-fruited =
Cerasus sylvestris). — A home-grown fancy wood. Very firm
and close grained when seasoned. Mainly used by cabinet
makers, but also for wooden shoe pegs and the small branches
for pipes.

Chestnut. — See " Horse Chestnut " and " Sweet Chestnut."

Chimney. — A French term which shows the source from which
we obtained those useful constructional features. The
term embraces the " fire-place," and yields as its accessories
" chimney-piece," " chimney-shaft," " chimney-pot," etc.
They were not known in England before the twelfth century,
and then only sparingly in castle building. Instances sur-
vived into the last century of rural chimneys wrought in
wood or clay passages for smoke.

Chip Breaker. — A pressure bar in front of the cutter knives in
a planing machine, which is designed to prevent splinters
from being torn from the face of a board as it passes through
the machine.

Chipped Grain. — A defect in timber caused by the grain of the
wood being torn out in patches by the action of the planer
knives.

Chipping Machines and Chips. — The original form of the " plan-
ing machine " with top, bottom and side chippers, but no
fixed knives, hence not producing shavings in dressing or
preparing boards or flooring — a mode that survives in
" moulding machines," where the work is done on the
principle of " chipping." The Americans favour the " chip-
ping process " to a more pronounced extent than is practised
in Europe.

Chocks. — Pieces of hardwood employed on shipboard to aid in
the support of various articles such as anchor chocks, rudder
chocks, boat chocks, etc.

Christiania Standard. — A measure for timber now seldom used
consisting of 120 pieces 11 ft. 9 in. x 1J in. = 103 |cub. ft.

C.i.f. — A commercial term, " cost, insurance, and freight," mean-
ing that the seller delivers the goods to the carrier and agrees

CLE] (26)

to pay all charges to bill-of-lading destination. On delivery
to buyer of bill of lading with insurance policy attached
the seller's responsibility usually ceases. See also " Cost,
freight and insurance."

CO!.— See " Sill."

Circular Cross-cut Saws with Self-acting Motion. — A machine
for cross-cutting planks or logs in which a circular saw is
used, having a reciprocating motion imparted to it by power,
the plank or log being stationary while under the action
of the saw.

Circular Saw. — A disc of steel with saw teeth on its periphery
revolved on an arbor.

Circular Saw Benches (Plain). — In which the material is fed past
the saw by hand, a fence being used to guide the material.

Circumference or Periphery. — The curve which encloses a plane
figure, as the periphery or circumference of a saw.

City Cut. — A term applied to spruce deals cut in the mills at the
city of St. John, New Brunswick, in contradistinction to
the goods manufactured at the country mills of the province
by circular saws.

City-wood. — A term long applied to the finest growth or
quality of West Indian or true mahogany, now scarce, small
and dear, shipped from the city of San Domingo.

Clamping Machine for Sashes and Doors.— A clamp which secures
doors and sashes in place after they have been glued.

Clap-board. — A quarter-sawed board, 4 to 6 in. wide and 4 to
20 ft. long, tapering to a thin edge on one side, used
for covering the sides of buildings. In England, according
to Bailey, a " clap-board " is also a stave or staff for casks.
For roof covering they appear to have originally been cleft-
boards with a feather edge, similar to those used in close-
boarded riven oak fences, now often sawn and creosoted.

Cleading. — A term used in Scotland for a jacket or outer covering
of wood, to prevent radiation of heat, as from the boiler,
cylinder, etc. Also used to describe the boards of the lining
of carts.

Clear Lumber. — Lumber without specific defects, such as knots,
splits, shakes, etc.

Clearance. — A mercantile marine term denoting permission from
the Customs-house officers for the departure of a ship from
port, denoting that all formalities have been observed,
and all dues, etc., paid.

Clearing Goods Shipped. — Lodging particulars of the goods at
the Customs-house on special forms. Goods shipped must
always be cleared either by shipper or his agents.

( 27 ) [COM

Cleat. — Pieces of wood or iron hooping fastened to the end of a
board or plank to prevent splitting whilst seasoning.

Cleft. — Made by splitting.

Clog or Clog-sole. — The wooden sole of a shoe ; an old form of
footwear common in Lancashire and worn by both sexes.
It is a special branch of the timber trade, nearly wholly
conducted in " alder- wood " and " birch " (which see). With
" clog-soles " are allied " patten-soles." Clog-soles are of
two kinds, one mounted to resemble a boot, the other a
shoe.

Cloth Boards. — Thin boards used in the textile trades in the
centre of a bale of material. Also known as "lapping
boards."

Clump of Trees or Shrubs. — A cluster, formerly written plump.
It is our word lump, with the initial c added.

Coarse Grain. — Applied to the grain of timber which has
wide annual rings.

Cocobolo. — A turnery wood from Central America.

Cocus Wood (Brya ebenus). — A hard, heavy wood from the West
Indies.

Coffer. — A variant term for a " chest," " hutch " or " arke."
It implies a fitment or object larger than a " box " or " cas-
ket," usually of wood.

Coffin. — A case for enclosing a dead body, a term allied to "sar-
cophagus " and " coffer." In the eleventh and twelfth
centuries they were wrought in stone, but only for persons
of distinction. It has been customary, during the last three
or more centimes, to make them of wood, and use them for
all classes of persons.

Collar Beam. — A beam extending between the two opposite
main rafters of a framed principal above the tie beam. In
the instance of a " queen-post " roof it may be termed
" wind-beam." In a " hammer-beam " roof it becomes in
practice, but not in name, a " tie-beam " in an elevated
position. See " Hammer-beam."

Collars. — A term when applied to timber, refers to the limbs,
arms or topwood.

Combined Log and Deal Frame. — A machine with reciprocating
saw frame, with feed rollers which can be used for feeding
forward logs or deals and flitches as required.

Combined Rip and Cross-cut Bench. — In which two saws are
mounted on separate spindles, one with teeth suitable for
cross-cutting, the other for ripping. Either saw is brought
into position for work as required.

CON] (28)

Comb-grain, quarter sawed, edge grain, rift sawn, vertical grain,
are all synonymous terms and refer to wood sawn parallel,
or approximately so, to the medullary rays. Practically,
however, the angle of the annual rings should not exceed
45 degrees from vertical. This method of cutting pitch
pine is especially desirable for flooring, inasmuch as edge
grain is more durable under the wear to which flooring is
subjected.

Common Pitch. — A term applied when the length of the rafters
is equal.

Common Rafter (otherwise "roof-spar"). — The upper part and
sometimes the only timbering of a roof ; the light or scantling
part, placed at intervals as supports for the laths, tiles,
slates, etc., which form the covering. See " Roof Timbers."

Compass Roof.— One in. which the tie from the foot of one rafter
is attached to the opposite rafter at a considerable height
above its foot. " Compass window " is a term for a window
circular in plan.

Compo Boards. — Boards of wood fibre and other substances, used
in the interior of houses in place of lath and plaster. See
" Beaver Boards " and " S.X. " Boards.

Compression. — (1) One of the technical tests applied to wood
to arrive at its power of resisting thrust or pressure longi-
tudinally ; (2) a wood column whose office it is to support
beams and floors overhead, as corn chambers, illustrate
wood as a substance in compression. The like may be said of
the strut, head or upper beam of a queen-post roof, or a
block of wood carrying a smith's anvil : compression is
the opposite of " tension " (which see). Struts, wherever
they occur, as in gates, are considered to be in compression,
but exceptions occur in practice.

Concave Saw. — A circular saw, concave in form.

Concentric Rings. — Woody layers which define the yearly growth
of a tree.

Conifers. — Trees of the order of Conifcree or cone-bearing trees.
See " Conifers."

Coniferse (Lat. cone-bearers). — An important natural order of
exogenous trees, embracing pines, firs, juniper, cypress,
yews, etc., the fruit of which is a cone. Many kinds of
coniferse are productive of turpentine and resins. As the
name suggests, they are cone-bearing trees.

Coniferous. — Belonging to the order of Coniferee.

Conk. — An American term for the decay in the wood of trees
caused by fungus.

( 29 ) [COP

Consignment. — The despatch of goods to a broker or agent for
the purpose of sale.

Consignee. — A person to whom goods are delivered.
Consignor.— The person who sends the goods.

Constantine Measure. — A system of log measurement in the New
York market used in measuring square hewed foreign woods,
chiefly mahogany and cedar logs. From first-class hewed
timber there is deducted 2 in. width from one face and 1 in.
from the other face at right angles to it, this deduction
being made to straighten the log and to remove axe marks.
The face measurements are then used to compute the cubical
contents of the log. If the log is defective the contents are
reduced one-half.

Contorted. — Twisted together.

Contractions and Abbreviations in writing.— See Appendix I.

Conveyor for SlQSpers. — A travelling chain or chains provided
with dogs for conveying sleepers either to or from the various
machines for sawing, adzing or boring them.

Cooliball (Euc. microtheca). — A tree growing in the northern por-
tion of West Australia, the wood of which is claimed to be
harder than lignum vitse.

Cooperage. — The art of making bulging vessels of pieces of wood
bound together by hoops. See " Wet or Tight Cooperage,"
" Dry Cooperage," also " White Cooperage."

Cooper-ware. — The lower end of ash poles, cut in lengths from
16 to 18 ft. for wagon tilts and cooper work.

Coping (in architecture). — The top of a building, or the brow of
a wall made sloping ; its equivalent in wood appears to
be " capping."

Coppice or Copse. — A natural wood or plantation, of which the
trees are cut over from time to time, wichout being allowed
to attain the size of timber trees, sending up new shoots
from their roots or stools. Fir trees are incapable of being
treated in this manner, refusing to send up new shoots ;
but many other trees readily do so. Oak has been much
planted as coppice in consequence of the great demand
which existed at one time for its bark. Chestnut copses are
planted for hop-poles ; ash with a view to its employment
for handles, implements, hoops, etc. ; hazel, for crate making,
etc. ; willow or osier, for basket making.

Copse. See " Coppice."

Copying Lathes. — Sometimes called " Spoke lathes." These lathes
have two or more mandrels geared together so as to revolve

COT] (30 )

in unison. Between one set of centres is fixed the ' dummy '
or copy, the work being fixed between the others ; a roller
bears against the copy and causes a cucter head to act on
the work, forming it into the shape of the model as the
saddle carrying the tools is automatically traversed along
the bed.

Cord. — A cord of wood measures 8 ft. x 4 ft. x 4 ft. and con-
tains 128 cubic feet.

Corduroy Road.— A term applied to roads in the backwoods and
swampy districts of the United States of America, formed
of the halves of trees sawn in two longitudinally and laid
transversely across the track. A road thus laid presents
a ribbed appearance like the cloth called corduroy (French
cordduroy).

Cordwood. — Wood for firing purposes, or for charcoal burning.

Core. — The waste cut out of a mortise, also the base or interior
part of veneered work or the internal core of a billet of wood
in riving lathwood billets, which are used for fuel.

Corner Post. — In " timber " or " half-timber " buildings the
corner posts of the archways or the fabrics were usually
great up-ended oak timbers moulded, carved and panelled,
supporting brackets worked on the same lines.

Cornice. — A horizontal moulding at the top of a pedestal, door,
window or house.

Coromandel or Calamander Wood (Diospyros qucesita). — One
of the most valuable ornamental woods of Ceylon, used for
turnery and veneers.

Cortex. — The rind or bark of a tree.

Cost, Freight and Insurance.— The price charged for goods when
it covers not only the cost but the expense of insuring and
carrying them. Usually abbreviated " C.i.f." In French
"C.a.f.," Cout, assurance, fret, See also " C.i.f."

Cotchel. — A term applied to a small lot or parcel of timber or
other merchandise. Often used to describe timber or other
goods brought in by the captain of a vessel on his own
account.

Cotoneaster frigida. — A tree introduced into England from Nepaul
in 1824. Its wood is in request for ornamental purposes,
but little used commercially except for making golf clubs,
though it is extremely hard, close grained and difficult to
splinter.

( 31 ) [CRO

Cottonwood (Populus deltoides). — A tree found in North America,
where in the Western States it reaches a height of 100 ft.,
with a trunk 6 or 8 ft. in diameter. The wood is light and
soft, and when absolutely dry a cxibic foot weighs 24' 24 Ib.
Used for paper pulp, packing cases and fuel, but owing to
a tendency to warp and difficulty in seasoning, of little use
for timber.

Counter (French, contoir). — A table or board, on which money
is counted and goods are laid ; an essential piece of office
or shop furniture. Lighter in construction than that implied
by the term " bench," but not extending to a " seat."

Counter Tops. — Wood suitable for or used for the tops of tables
or counters in offices or shops.

Cove. — Any kind of concave moulding. The concavity of a
vault ; commonly applied to the curve which is sometimes
used to connect the ceiling with the walls of a room.

Crab. — Sometimes termed a " Log turner." A simple form of
overhead crane which moves in one direction only, usually
across the bed of a large sawing machine. Used for loading
or turning over heavy logs which cannot be dealt with by
hand labour.

Crabark.— See " Krabark."

Cradle. — A term used on the Pacific Coast for the framework
of timbers in which ocean-going rafts are built.

Cramp. — A joiner's appliance for drawing the parts of a frame
together.

Crane. — An apparatus for lifting heavy weights and transporting
them to different positions. Made in many forms and
patterns. See " Jib Cranes," " Overhead Travelling Cranes,"
" Portable Jib Cranes."

Cratewood. — Small strips of timber used for framing or making
an open casing to contain manufactured, articles.

Creosoting. — See " Timber, Preservation of."

Crib. — A term used in the Canadian trade for a raft or boom of
logs, also for a small raft which, with others, makes up a
full raft. A little bedstead.

Crooks. — Sections of crooked timber much prized in wooden
shipbuilding, for ships' bends and knees, and for barge and
boat construction.

Cross-cut Benches. — Working with circular saws and used for
cross-cutting all descriptions of work. Usually the wood
is placed on a table which slides past the saw.

CUR] (32 )

Cross-cut Saws. — Saws arranged for cutting across the fibres of
the wood. ; these require sharp teeth bevelled off to a cutting
point, ar:d iu*ve a scribing action.

Cross-cutting. — To cut a board or timber at right angles to the
general direction 01 the fibres.

Cross Grain. — As applied to the grain of timber, a piece in which
the wood elements or fibres interweave and are not constant
in any one direction, but are spiral or twisted.

Crotch.— See " Curl."

Crowntrees. — Wood used in coal mines as sleepers or as sub-
structure for pit -props.

Croze. — The cross groove in the staves of cooperage in which the
edge of the head is inserted.

Cruisg. — -To estimate the amount and value of standing timber.

Cruiser. — One who cruises or surveys a timber limit.

Cube. — A regular solid body, with six equal square sides.

Cull, Culls and Culler.— Loose terms in the wood-trade (a trads
favourable to distortions or extensions) ; properly a beautiful
flower plucked in its prime is a " cull," and a lady thus
culling is " a culler." (1) The timber merchant, whose imme-
diate ancestor was a " woodmonger," dubs a piece of wood
he views inferior " a cull," as he " culled " it from some-
thing superior, hence " culls " become a distinct class. The
" culler " himself is not a man. connected with low or poor
quality goods, he " culls " all qualities to the very highest.
See ' ' Lathwood Culls. " (2 ) An American term for logs which
are rejected or parts of logs deducted in measurement on
account of defects.

GupShake. — Curved splits in timber which sometimes separate
the annual rings, rendering the timber useless for construc-
tive purposes. Spanish chestnut may be mentioned as a
timber liable to this defect, also Oak, Elm, Lignum Vit;o
and other woods.

Curb. — Circular wood frames used in well-sinking.

Curb Rafters. — The upper rafters of a Mansard roof.

Curb Roof. — Another name for a mansard roof (which see).

Curl,— A curl is that part of the stern of a tree where the heart
of the branches meet. They may occur, in a more or
loss degree, in all trees, but are notable and much sought
after when produced from the mahogany tree. At times,
in the mahogany trade, they are described as '' fans,"
"crutches" or "crotches," the latter being an American term.

(33 ) [CUS

urly Grain. — As applied to the grain of timber, pieces in which
the fibres undulate, but do not cross each other. When
the undulations are large, wood is said to be wavy grained.

urve. — A crooked line that departs gradually from the straight
direction.

ustom. — Long established practice existing from time immemo-
rial. If a general practice in the realm it is part of the
common law. If a local practice its existence must be proved
in Court according to law. For a custom, immemorial exist-
ence is essential, otherwise it may be only Usage (ivhich see)

UStom of Port. — A usage prevailing at a port in question.
See " Custom of Port of London."

iistoin of the Port of London.— As far as overside goods are
concerned the decision in a legal case explains the position.
" The following custom of the Port of London is a rea-
sonable, certain, and valid one — namely, that in the
case of cargoes of goods (including both Baltic and
pitch pine timber) the receiver, instead of being liable to
receive the goods from the ship's tackle alongside
into craft, is liable only to provide sufficient craft
alongside ready to receive the goods, and is under no obli-
gation to have any men thereon to receive the goods from
the ship's tackle or to stow the goods therein, and the ship-
owner is bound to do the whole work of delivering the goods
into barges whether dock company's barges or outside
barges, and of stowing the goods therein in the reasonable
and ordinary manner, so that the goods may not be damaged
or imperilled, and so that the barges may be loaded to the
usual and reasonable extent and may be safely and properly
navigable." (Glasgow Navigation Co. v. W. W. Howard
Bros. & Co., 1920, 26 T.L.R. 247.)

The same custom also applies to goods landed on the
quay.

istom Sawing. — An American expression for the sawing of
timber under contract prices per 1,000 board feet.

istomary Measure.— A form of measure established by cus-
tom or common usage ; it is the opposite of " actual mea-
sure " (which see). It has little application in the wood-
trade beyond log or balk timber, in which latter field — as
in the instance of waney or octagonal logs, measured by
callipers — it is a measure short of actual. The reverse is
the case with round logs measured by string, quarter girth,
144 divisor. See " Hoppus's Measure." In the mahogany
trade " Brokers' measure " —difficult to define — is con-
sidered fully actual.

D

CYL] (34) .

Customary Square. — See " Square."

Customs Measure. — Refers to goods measured by Customs Fund
officials who issue " Blue-Books " of contents. It is the
old working machinery that obtained in the days of duties
on imported wood, kept active for the benefit of the public
and supported by the merchants requiring their services.
When called upon they require instructions, what form of
measure is required — "actual" or "customary," "string"
or " calliper," and what divisor they are to use in or on
square, waney or round timbers. See " Customary,"
"Actual" and " Hoppus's Measure."

Cut. — In timber sawing a longitudinal cut through the width
of the deal is termed a " deep cut " ; through the thickness,
a "flat cut " ; across the grain, a " cross cut " ; sawn into a
triangular section, is said to be cut " arris wise." Also
an American term for a season's output of logs or sawn wood
from a sawmill.

Cut Over. — A district or forest from which all the merchantable
timber has been taken.

Cutter-block. — The revolving portion of a planing or moulding
machine that carries the knives or shaped tools which work
the tongues, grooves and mouldings.

Cutter Grinding Machine. — A machine for sharpening long plane
irons used on wood-planing machines. The cutter is fixed
to a canting plate, which is set to give the required bevel.
The plate is attached to a reciprocating slide, to which
motion is imparted either by hand or power. The cutter
is brought up to a emery wheel or cup which grinds the
cxitter to the required bevel.

Cutter Head.— The shaft of a planing machine on which is mounted
one or more cutting knives.

Cutting. — The act of sawing, understood to imply to the deep
way of the wood, or cutting the faces of boards and planks,
not the edges, in which case the operation is termed " rip-
ping " (which see}. A slip of a tree for grafting.

Cyclone. — A cylindrical receptacle for receiving dust or refuse
from machinery. See " Cyclone Dust Collector."

Cyclone Dust Collector.— A cylindrical drum of galvanized iron
terminating in a long cone. A metal worm extends round
the inner surface. Air laden with dust or shavings is blown
into an opening at the top and passes round the cone with
a spiral motion. The air escapes from an opening in the
top, while the wood refuse falls out at the bottom.

Cylinder Saw. — A steel shaft and a cast-iron head to which is
fastened a steel drum or cylinder, the walls of which are

( 35 ) [DEA

parallel with the mandrel for the entire length. The cutting
edge consists of a toothed steel band attached to the free
end of the drum. Known also as " Barrel Saw."

Recta. — A moulding formed of a curve of a contrary
flexure, deriving its name from its resembling a wave —
hollow above, and swelling below.

Reversa. — A similar moulding to above, but more com-
monly called an Ogee.

ppress (Cupressus). — An evergreen conifer, the best known
species in Europe being the Common Cypress (C. Semper-
virens). It is a very hard, compact and durable wood ;
the ancients considered it indestructible. It is not liable
to the attacks of insects and was formerly much used in
cabinet making. It is supposed to be the ancient Gopher
Wood, and specimens in museums are supposed to be several
thousand years old. The doors of St. Peter's at Rome made
in the time of Constantine are known to have lasted 1,100
years. In recent years the Red or Louisiana Cypress (Taxo-
dium distichum) has been sold in this country.

D

ado. — A framing round a room about breast high.

ado-head Saw. — A grooving saw which can be adjusted to cut
any size groove by the insertion of one or more cutter heads
between two outside saws of special pattern.

apple Figure. — See " Figure in Wood " and " Fleck and Flecked."

ays of Grace. — Bills payable in England (other than bills payable
on demand) are due for payment three days after the time
specified on the face of the bill, which three days are known
as " days of grace." For method and time of presentment
the Bills of Exchange Act should be consulted.

ead-eye, Dead Men's Eyes. — In ships, little blocks usually
bored with three holes, giving them the appearance of
human skulls, hence the name. This is undoubtedly an
older form of block than that fitted with " pulleys " or
"shivers." W. S. Gilbert, in the comic opera of " H.M.S.
Pinafore," makes one of his characters on the ship respond
to the name of "Dick Deadeye."

Bad Freight. — The compensation paid by the merchant who
freights a whole ship to the shipmaster for the space which
he fails to fill with cargo.

DEBJ ( 36 )

Dead Rollers. — Rollers used for the handling of timber, which

are not power driven.
Deadwood. — -The product from dead standing trees, the bark

and the sapwood of which have rotted away.

Deal, Batten and Board Ends. — Merchantable in the trade, com-
mence at 6 ft., and usually end at 8 ft. They are bought
at a lower rate than the full lengths and carried on the ships
at two-thirds the full chartered rates, but only to the extent
required by the captain in stowing his cargo,, in which phase
they are termed " deal ends, etc., for stowage." At some
ports " lath wood billets " are used instead and at the
reduced rates.

Deal (coniferous wood). — A piece of sawn-wood timber, 2 in.
to 4 in. in thickness, by 9 in. and over in width. In London
and the South an old custom has been tc\.rate all above 9 in.
as " planks " ; but in the pitch-pine trade this has become
obsolete. Deals, sawn into twelve or more thin, boards,
are termed " leads " ; in the " picture-frame " trade " back-
boards. ' ' In the pitch-pine export trade the term is applied to
pieces 9 in. and up in width, and 3, 4 or 5 in. in thickness.
A Quebec deal is a piece of any width and 3 in, and up in
thickness.

Deal Frames. — These are similar in principle to a log frame, but
usually have vertical feed rollers instead of horizontal ones
which keep the deal up to a fence and thus obtains straight
cutting.

Deal or Plank Sizes. — Imply sawn goods of 9 in. and upwards ;
but when, exceeding 11 in. in width they are further usually
defined as " broad deals " or " broad planks."

Deal-carrier. — Usually a member of a gang of men whose busi-
ness or calling is to carry deals from his mate, the " hicker "
(see "Hick and Kicking"), to his mate, the " stower "
(which see). This work at some ports and towns is done
on the shoulder — protected by a leather pad — sometimes
transferring a part of the load to the other shoulder by the
aid of a " hand-stick " placed across and tailing under the
piece carried ; which, by pulling down the head-end, brings
weight upon the otherwise unworking shoulder. In the
instance of London, and some other ports, the goods are
carried in a slanting position on the backs of the men.

Debenture is a deed of acknowledgment of debt by a company
and usually contains a charge on the company's property
as security for the debt.

Debenture Timber. — A term used for imported timber used for
mining and similar purposes, and which is more nearly
round than square.

( 37 ) [DEN

leciduous. — A term applied to trees which annually lose and
renew their leaves.

lecimal and Duodecimal (Latin decimus, tenth — from decum =
"ten" — and Latin duodecim == " twelve "). — They form
the bases of the two systems of numerical compiitation,
the latter termed " the Teutonic long hundred " of ten
dozen to the hundred, or twelve hundred to the thousand,
as still used' in " slates " and " staves " (which see). This
" long hundred " was in use at the time of the Norman Con-
quest, and the Latin scribes recorded it in " the Domesday
Survey Book " as " the English mode of computation."
It survives in our " shilling," being of twelve pence.

ieck Cargo. — The part of the cargo of a trading ship which is
carried on the deck of the vessel ; prohibited or restricted
in the winter season.

•eck Planks. — Wood in long lengths ready prepared in narrow
widths for use for ships' decks, which go to prove that
" plank," as implying widths of over 9 in., has trade excep-
tions.

leeping. — Sawing through the deep way of timber or boards,
usually called " deep-cutting," of which the above is possibly
an abbreviation.

legains (Calycophyllum candidissimum). — A wood often confused
with lancewood and difficult to distinguish from this latter.
It is received from the same localities, in the same form —
but in rather better dimensions — and is used for the same
purposes.

icl Credere Commission. — A term used to express the additional
premium charged by an agent or broker, in return for which
he warrants the solvency of the purchaser, and renders him-
self personally liable for the payment of the price of the goods
he may sell according to the terms of the contract.

'emurrage. — Primarily an allowance to the owners or a master
of a ship for staying in a loading or discharging port longer
than the time first agreed. See " Charterparty," " Shipping
Days," "Shipping Documents," and " Shipping Season."

lensity Rule. — An authorized and approved set of specifications
of the Southern Pine Association under which pitch pine
timbers are graded.

(ent and Indent. — Used in the sense of a bruise caused by a
blow forming a cavity, as in damage done to a fine wood
or veneered surface, and is interchangeable with " dint."
Indent, properly, relates to something like a saw, from its
root being a tooth ; but its sharpness becomes a waved
line in parting a dt-od or indenture from its counterpart.

DIS] (38)

Dentels (Lat. denticulus = a little tooth). — Ornaments resembling
teeth, used in the bed-moulding of Ionic, Corinthian and
composite cornices, with which elevated constructional
features they are always associated.

Depreciation. — Diminution in value, as applied to wood-goods
in transit or in stock, may be a serious business matter to
be guarded against by insurance, especially on sea, and
may become subject of " general " or " particular average,"
and adjustment by " average staters," " surveyors " or
" arbitrators." See " Average " and " Average Stater."

Desiccating. — The artificial drying of wood by means of heated air.

Desiccation. — Of wood-goods — the act of making dry ; the state
of being dried. It is an important factor in the wood
trade of the United States, where " artificially dried stock '
is largely used and shipped for builders' and cabinet makers'
consumption. Its use is extending, especially in the instance
of drying " three-ply " and, or, " built-up boards or stock."

Desk. — (1) An inclining table for the use of writers and readers;
an important piece of office furniture, usually constructed
with some under and occasionally over fitment. (2) A part
of a pulpit, a clerk or precentor's " desk," extending as
church furnittu-e to a " rostrum."

Die-square. — A term used as a guarantee in a contract, implying
the goods are hewn or sawn square, or square on the edges.
It is the opposite of " waney." See " Wane " and " As
they fall from the mill."

Dimension Timber. — Usually taken to mean logs of from 6 in.
x 6 in. and up, 10 ft. in length and up. In America the
word " dimension " is used for larger pieces of lumber than
inch boards and includes smaller sizes of timbers, from 2x4
up. The general term " timbers and dimension " includes,
of course, both light and heavy timbers. The exact boundary
line between timbers and dimension is not closely defined,
but the word " dimension " is most commonly applied to
sizes from 2 x4to2 x!2 and to 3-in. thickness in the
same range of widths.

Discount. — The interest allowed for settlement of accounts when
due or before due. The due date is usually regulated accord-
ing to the custom of the trade. In the wholesale timber
trade the revised terms of credit are — to builders and other
consumers of wood for spot goods, four month's bill nett,
from the first of the month following delivery, or monthly
account less 2| per cent, discount at end of month following
delivery. Ex ship terms four months' acceptance from date
of ship's arrival, or cash less 2J per cent, discount at one
month from same date.

( 39 ) [DOO

Disforest or Disafforest. — To turn into common land. To return
from the privilege of a forest to the state of common ground,
or to remove the forest laws from the bounds and view of
certain lands. By charter of Henry III many forest areas
were disafforested.

Dishonour oJ a Bill. — When the person on whom a bill is drawn
fails to accept it or pay it when due, he is said to dishonour
it. The act of drawing or of indorsing a bill implies an
obligation to pay it, and the person in whose favour it
is drawn has thus recourse against the drawer and indorsers
should the drawee fail to accept or pay. In order to pre-
serve this recourse it is indispensable that notice of dishonour
shall at once be given to the drawer and indorsers as pre-
scribed by the Bills of Exchange Act.

Dispatch Money. — The amount called for under a charterparty
(where so agreed) when a vessel is loaded in less time than the
charterparty allows. It is a payment for saving the ship's
time.

Divining-rod. — A forked branch of hazel, suspended by the two
prongs between the balls of the thumbs, supposed by its
inclination to indicate the presence of water springs, the
locality of precious metals, buried wealth, etc. This has
the flavour of the Black Art or old days of Witchcraft. See
"Witch Hazel."

Djati Wood. — A kind of teak exported from Java. Djati is the
Malay name for teak.

Dock Warrant. — A document issued by the Dock authorities as
a receipt for goods warehoused. By custom it appears to
represent the goods and is freely transferr-ed accordingly.

)og or Dogs. — A short heavy piece of steel, bent and pointed
at one end and with an eye or ring at the other, or two
similar pieces of bent steel attached and used scissor-
fashion to hoist logs by means of a crane. It is used for
many purposes in logging.

)olphin. — A cluster of piles to which boom logs are secured.

)oor. — The frame or barrier of boards or other material usually
turning on hinges, by which the entrance way into a house
or apartment is closed and opened. The component parts
of an ordinary house frame door are as follows : The horizontal
pieces of the frame, named respectively, the top rail, the
bottom rail and the lock rail (in which the lock is fixed) ;
the outside vertical pieces, known as "stiles"; the inter-
mediate vertical parts termed " munting," and the openings
of the frame, which are filled with thin boards called " panels."

DOW] ( 40 )

Door Casing. — The frame which encloses a door.

Doorway. — An entrance into a building or an apartment in a
building, to which a door-frame, or door, are usually fitted.
Doorways are prime features in the construction of every
country, century, and style of architecture.

Dormer Window. — A window in the sloping side of a roof with
its casing set vertically. When the window lies in the plane
of the roof it is called a skylight.

Dote or Doat. — A disease that spreads from the ends of logs dur-
ing certain times of the year, and which will develop right
through the log if not dealt with. In certain hardwoods
such as birch, maple, hornbeam, ash and beech, the stains of
doat can be traced a few months after foiling as soon as the
ends of the logs are dried by the weather. It is during the
hot summer weather that the disease develops rapidly,
and if the log remains in the round state twelve months,
3 ft. on each end is touched and stained. On certain hard-
woods such as oak, mahogany, rosewood and sycamore, the
ends are marred by a brown stain and much valuable wood
is lost, as often logs of great value are stored for a consider-
able time before conversion. A formula has recently
been introduced, which prevents dote if applied at the right
period. The anti-dote remedy can be obtained of Mr. Wm.
Staddon, 38 Shirfield Road, Grays, Essex. Dote is also
known as Dosey Stain.

Double Cutting Band Mill. — Machines using wide band saws,
having teeth cut on both back and front edges, so as to cut
in both directions of the feed.

Douglas Fir or Pine. — See " Oregon Pine or Fir."

Dovetail. — A word in carpentry, meaning the fitting one board
into another by triangular notches or wedges, which resemble
in shape a dove's tail. Hence it is used metaphorically to
fit on or fit in nicely.

Dovetailing Machines. — These are of various types for cutting
dovetails in the edge of boards for fixing them together
for forming boxes, drawers, etc. See " Automatic Dovetailing
Machines," " Box," " Multiple Spindle."

Dowel. — A cylindrical wooden pin used for securing joints or
tenons, otherwise " oak pins," as seeninframed wainscotting.
" Dowels " are used in the sense of tenons in the manufac-
ture of " panel doors " and " chair frames." In such
instances boring of holes take the place of " sinking mor-
tises " and hardwood dowels of " cutting tenons." Where
this " dowelling " is done " oak pins " do not find a place
in framing. In allied carpentry, see " Drawbore " and

( 41 ) [DRO

" Treenail." A wooden pin used to hold together two
pieces of wood.

Draft. — A name given to a bill of exchange; also an order for
money on a bank (or cheque) or an order by a bank on one of
its branches, or vice versa. Also the first rough copy of a
document.

Drain Tile. — Or " channel tile," mainly used in land drainage.
When roofed in or covered they become "drain-pipes" and
collared or socketed " sanitary-pipes." In no instance have
the variant terms ceased to be interchangeable, the latter
being the newest. See " Tile."

Brammen Standard. — An old-time measure for timber consisting
of 120 pieces

9 ft., 61 in. x 21 in.) 7 b f

13 ft., 9 in. :: 1-1- in. f

Draught or Draft Of Water. — The technical term for the depth
to which a ship sinks in the water when fairly afloat.

Drawbore and Drawbore-pin. — A bored hole through the mor-
tised and tenoned part of a piece of framing — large or small.
The hole through the tenon is slightly larger and so placed
that a " pin " driven into the framing draws the joint up
tight. The " try-pin " is of iron or steel, a foot or more
long, and driven in tight to draw up the joint, or shoulder
of the rail, or muntiiig or post or stud, as the case may be.
It is then knocked out and a " drawbore-pin " or treenail
is finally driven home. In allied joinery-work, see " Dowel."

Drawee. — The party to whom a bill of exchange is addressed.
If he " accepts " the bill he then becomes the acceptor.

Draw-knife or Drawing-knife. — A well-known instrument used
in the working of wood. Otherwise " a shave " (which see).

Dressed and Headed (D and H). — A flooring strip is dressed and
headed when it has been surfaced, tongued and grooved,
and also had a tongue on one end and a groove on the other
so that the board need not join over a rafter.

Dressed and Matched (D and M). — Boards which have been sur-
faced, tongued and grooved.

Dressed Timber. — Timber which has been planed, scraped or
surfaced on one or more sides.

Drive. — A body of logs in process of being floated from the forest
to the mill or shipping point.

Drop Siding. — An American term for a pattern of lumber used
to cover the exterior sides of buildings.

RY]

(42)

Sanding Machines. — Consists of one or more drums covered
with sand-paper. >The wood is hold against the surface of
the drum and passed along either by hand, feed rollers or
a travelling bed.

.'unken Saw. — A term applied to a circular saw which runs
out of the perpendicular when in motion. Used for making
large rough grooves in squared timbers, etc., In America
called a " wobble saw."

•y Cooperage. — Converted hardwood, or softwood, or mixed,
not necessarily " dry " in condition, but allocated to the
making of " tubs," " casks," " barrels," " kits," etc., for
il/'t/ goods, i.e., not for wines, spirits, oils or liquids, but
hardware, crockery, fruit, fish (wet or dry), and the hundrod-
and-one things that come under the term " merchandise."
Like cooperage for liquids, the pails of dry cooperage retain
the old nomenclature of " stave," " lag," " hoop," etc.

ry Emery Grinder (also known as Moulding Iron Grinder).—
A machine in which wheels of emery or other abrasive
material are used for sharpening tools, cutters and moulding
irons. For the latter purpose a number of wheels are pro-
vided, having different widths and shapes on their edges.

ry Floated. — Canadian pine and spruce deals that have dried,
after having been conveyed on rafts, floated above or on
the level of the water.

ry Kiln. — A structure in which wood is dried by artificial heat.

ry Rot. — Decay in timber brought about by animal or insect
action, otherwise the " Furniture Beetle " (which see).
Another form, which should properly speaking be called
" Wet rot," owes its inception to vegetable disintegration.
See " Fungi," " Worm Holed, Wormy or Wormed."

L'y Rot Preventive. — To arrest the progress of dry rot one
authority recommends that the timber be subjected to »
heat of 300°, to destroy all reproduction of fungus. An-
other recommends an ounce of corrosive sublimate (bichloride
of mercury) to a gallon of water laid on hot ; no other metallic
solution should be mixed with it. A solution of sulphate
of copper (commonly called blue vitriol), in the proportion
of about half a pound of sulphate of copper to one gallon
of water, used hot, makes an excellent wash, and is cheaper
than the preceding one. A strong solution of sulphate of
iron is sometimes used, but is not so effectual as that of
copper, and sometimes a mixture of the two solutions has
been used. Coal tar is said to have been found beneficial,
but the strong smell is a great objection to its use. See
" Timber, Preservation of."

( 43 ) [EAV

Dry Stock. — Sawn wood dried to a condition that admits of it
being sold, shipped, etc., in a state for safe travelling or
passing into consumption. The drying may be by exposure
to the atmosphere termed " weather-drying," or by " stov-
ing " or " desiccating" ; the latter system is largely followed
by the merchants and shippers of the United States.

Dublin Standard. — An established measure for timber identical
with the old London standard, now fallen into disuse. It
consisted of 120 pieces, 12 ft. 3 in. x 9 in., or 270 cubic feet.

Duchess Slates. — Those measuring 24 in. x 12 in.

Dunnage. — (1) Wood of a grade below that recognized in market
quotations. Cull lumber. (2) Loose wood laid at the
bottom of the hold of a ship to rest the cargo upon or in
timber yards to pile deals on.

Duodecimal. — See " Decimal."

Duramen. — The heart wood of an exogenous tree.

Dutch Balks. — Square timber, generally of spruce, shipped to
Holland, 16 to 28 ft. in length and 10 in. to 15 in. square.

Dutch Elm (Ulmus suberosa). — -A variety of the elm with large
thick leaves and a fungous bark. Introduced into England
by William III and much used at the time for trimly clipped
hedges. Known also as the Cork-barked Elm.

Dutch Wainscot. — In England it implied imported wood.
The trade formerly was in the hands of the Dutch, who
obtained their supplies from the Upper Rhine and in the
Baltic, from Memel and Riga, See " Wainscot."

E

Eave and Eaves. — That part of a roof which projects beyond the
face of a wall ; the lower border or part of a roof. It is the
base- word of " eavesdropper " — an illicit listener, and
" eavedropping " —an old legal right of an eave projecting
over a neighbour's land, and often the origin of a narrow
space, and even a passage between independent properties.

Eaves Board and Boards. — An arris-fillet nailed across the rafters
at the eaves of a roof, to raise the slates a little. Otherwise
" Tilting-fillet " or " Fillets."

Eaves Gutter and Gutters. — A gutter attached to the eaves ;
variant ly termed " eaves spout." It may be seated on a

[ELM ( 44 )

wall, and not overhang neighbouring properties, which latter
would register the fact that the owner had no " right of
eavedropping " over his neighbour's land or properties.
See " Eave and Eaves."

Ebony . — A hard and durable dark coloured, mostly East Indian,
wood, black, green, brown or red, in which the colours may
be mixed. The black wood is the product of Diospyros
ebenus, and is considered the best, but not the most valuable,
which honour belongs to " coromandel-wood," varied, parti
coloured and veined, rarely seen other than in veneer-form
for high-class work. Fuller says a negro is " God's image
cut in ebony."

Edge Grain. — An American term applied to lumber when it is
sawn along the radius of the annual rings, that is the edge
of the annual rings shown on the face. Principally used
in reference to flooring, which is commonly produced in
this way. Synonymous with Comb Grain and Vertical
grain (which see).

Edger. — A machine used in sawmills to square-edge waney boards.

Edge Tool and Edge Tools. — A steel instrument having a sharp
edge, the manufacture of which is a special or distinct class
of trade. Its headlines are the coarser or commoner class of
tools or instruments, such as " plane-irons," " chisels,"
" axes," " adzes," " gauges," etc.

Edging Benches. — See also " Lumber Trimmer " and " Slashers," in
which two or more saws, the distance between which is easily
adjustable, are used for edging planks and boards, the wood
being fed forward by powerful roller feed.

Egyptian Balks. — Small square timbers 3 in. x 3 in. to 5 in. x 5 in.
Squareness is here a trade-term only ; in practice a 3-in. balk
may have, and usually has, a 3-in. round top. The log may
have had a 6-in. or larger bottom, and when hewn possess a
3-in. square butt and hold its square half length up, the top
part more or less being waney ; larger squares ditto.

Elm. — The English name of the different species of the genus
Ulmus of Linnaeus. There are many species, about a third
of which are natives of Britain. They yield a useful wood
whose durability is most marked in water. Operators who
habitually work upon it do not claim that its odour is pleasing,
as is generally the case with oak. Introduced into England
by the Romans. The common elm is (J. campcstris ; the
Dutch elm, U. suberosa ; the Cornish elm, U. nitens ; and the
wych elm, U. Montana. The last named is mostly found
in the North of England and Scotland.

( 45 ) [ESC

Encaustic Tiles or Floors. — Highly ornamented floors composed
of tiles in which patterns of varied colours are impressed or
bedded in the face of the tiles ; literally they are " enamelled
tiles," in which they differ from self-coloured or tesselated
tiles (ivhich see).

End Grain. — The transverse section of a log or piece of timber.

Endless Chain Feed Benches. — Saw benches in which an endless
travelling chain is used to feed the material past the saw.
A type of bench generally used for splitting sleeper blocks
into sleepers.

EndOgens. — A vegetable class whose substance is formed by suc-
cessive additions from the inside, as in the palm family.

Ends.— Short pieces of sawn wood cut from the long lengths at
the time of assortment and shipment. Firewood, deal and
batten ends run from 1 to 5| ft. ; ends for stowage of cargoes
6 to 8 ft. ; Riga ends, 6 to 9 ft. ; White Sea ends, 1 1 ft. and
under. See also " Deal and Batten Ends."

Eng or In (Dipterocarpus tuberculatus). — A valuable hardwood
timber, the largest forests of which are situated in Burma.
It is used sometimes in place of teak.

Engineer and Engineering. — Properly a person employed on the
larger kind of engines or in the application of them to various
purposes. The trade of the engineer is now specialized ; that
connected wyith " wood " or " timber " is rated " saw-mill
engineering " and " wood- working engineering " ; that of
building, brick-making, cement and plaster, " manufacturing
machinery " ; that of masonry and striking, "stone-sawing
machinery." See " Machine Sawing " and " Machine Saw
or Saws."

English Wainscot. — A term applied to selected Dutch wainscot
as shipped from Riga. It is one created by the English and
their desire to obtain the best of the wood. See " Wains-
cot."

Equilibrium Frames. — Either log or deal frames arranged to deal
with two logs or deals at one time. Provided with two saw-
frames driven by double crankshaft, so that one frame
balances the other, thus permitting the frame to run faster
than would otherwise be possible.

Errors Excepted. — Abbreviated thus : E. E. or E. & O. E. (errors
and omissions excepted). Sometimes written at the foot of
invoices in order that they may be corrected should any error
afterwards be discovered.

Escutcheon. — The metal shield to a keyhole.

EYE] ( 46 )

Evergreen Oak (alias " Holm Oak," which see). — The tendency of
oaks as they travel south or to the sub-tropical climes of the
Northern Hemisphere is to retain their leaves through the
winter or to become evergreens, and to diminish from forest
trees to shrubs.

Ex Quay. — A term signifying that the seller agrees to sell the
goods to the buyer as on the quay at bill-of-lading destina-
tion.

Ex Ship. — The name applied to the system of selling goods de-
livered from ship's side, under which the vendor pays the
freight to the port of discharge and the purchaser the land-
ing and other charges.

Excelsior. — The American term for wood wool.

Excrescence. — A growth on any part of a living tree ; an abnor-
mal enlargement like a wart or tumour. In the instance of
felled or dead trees, or the wood coming into the hands of a
timber-manipulator, it is invariably termed a " Burr "
(which see).

Exfoliate and Exfoliation. — To separate, or separating in itself, as
in laminated or flakey matter scaling off. The outer bark
of birch-trees and plane-trees, periodically shedding the outer
layer of their barks, offer arboreous examples of this
terminology.

Exogens. — A vegetable class which augment their woody matter
by additions to the outside of that which is first formed. In
exogenous trees the medullary rays radiate from the medulla
(the pith or marrow of a tree) to the bark. These rays are
not as a rule apparent to the naked eye and are said there-
fore to be " obscure," the exceptions being mainly oaks,
beeches and planes.

Export. — Allied to " bearing " or " carrying " — to convey or
transport goods from one country to another, the goods them-
selves in a collective sense being " exports."

Exporter. — A person who exports or sends goods away to markets
in distant countries.

Eye Tree or D. — The head of the handle of a spade.

( 47 ) [FAS

F

Face. — The lower concave portion of a saw tooth.

Face and Facing are architectural terms in common use, as " face
of a house," " a brick," " a piece of wood," " a block of
stone," " inner and outer face of a wall," etc. " Facing " is
applied to a substance possessing a face, as " a facing brick,"
" a facing stone," etc., or a piece of wrought-wood used to
face or give a finish to an object it is desirable to hide. A
facing may thus be of " plaster," " brick," " stone " or
" wood." A " veneer " is a facing of superior quality on a
groundwork of ordinary wood.

Face Measure. — See " Surface Measiire."

Face Side.— That side of a board which shows the best quality.

Facings. — Dressed boards with or without mouldings used in
" seen " or exposed places.

Fagot. — A bundle of sticks for fuel ; also applied to a single stick.
Fall, In the Fall. — In the autumn, at the fall of the leaf.

Fall of Timber. — A portion of woodland or area of standing trees
marked out for the axe or ready for leading out of the wood.

Fall Shipment. — An American term for shipment after the leaves
begin to fall, but before the end of the year, i.e., autumn
shipment.

Faller or Feller. — One who fells trees.

" Falling Cut." — This is the first, or " breaking down cut," in a
tree or log, and, out of consideration of the labour of getting
it on and off the pit, was charged for and paid as two cuts.
This custom is still followed with " machine-sawing," but
where only one cut is wanted, i.e., one saw put in the frame,
it is poor business for the mill. See " Machine Sawing."

Falling Moulds. — The two moulds to form the back and under
surface of a handrail to finish the squaring.

Fans (Exhaust). — -Used for exhausting the air in pipes connected
with different machines in a woodworking mill, causing the
refuse from the machine to be drawn, into the pipe and
through the fan, which discharges it into a cyclone or other
receptacle.

F.A.S. — (1) A shipping term, "free alongside," which denotes
that the price includes delivery alongside the vessel without
cost to the buyer. (2) An abbreviation used by American
lumbermen to designate the combined grade of Firsts and
Seconds.

FEN] ( 48 )

Fascia.— A band or fillet, or any flat member with a little pro-
jection, as the band of an architrave.

Fashion in Woods.— The old English fashionable wood, before
the discovery of the great continent of America, was native-
oak, which in furniture was inlayed with black or bog-oak
and white or yellow woods ; walnut gained a place later in
furniture, and then, in the eighteenth century, came the red
cedars and mahoganies of Central America, which, with their
rich warm colour, created a revolution lasting over a century,
the ornament connected therewith being the " roe " and
" feather." The nineteenth century closed with " American
black walnut " being the fashionable wood. See " Figure in
Woods."

Fast. — In saw filing, a saw when raised up is said to be " fast "
in those places that come up to the straight -edge.

Fathom. — A measure of wood containing 216 cubic ft. ; thus,
timber 6 ft. cube, or 12 ft. long, 6 ft. broad and 3 ft. high is a
fathom.

Fault and Faulty. — A building term implying that some substance,
the ground, a roof or a beam of wood, has developed sub-
sidence, disrepair, or weakness, in some part and is rated as
useless, faulty, defective or imperfect either in the plan or
design. Also applied to wood, and faulty pieces are common.

Feather-boarding. — A covering of boards, in which the edge of one
board overlaps a part of the one next it ; and also called
Weather Boarding.

Featheredge.— -A board thinner on one edge than it is on the other.
The term is also used in America to denote an over-sharpened
cutting edge.

Feed. — In sawing timber, the linear length of log, expressed in
inches, which is cut at each revolution of the saw.

Felloe or Felly. — The exterior wooden rim, or a segment of the
rim, of a wheel, supported by the spokes.

Felloe Boring and Spoke Tanging Machine.— The felloe which
forms part of the rim of a wheel is fixed to a little table with
self-centring apparatus which holds the felloe while being
bored. The same machine is used for tanging the spokes of
a wheel after they have been driven in the nave, a tanging
chuck being used in place of the boring tool.

Felly (plural Fellies).— See "Felloe."

Fence, Fencing, and Fencings.— Terms in architecture, trade,
landed estates, the forest and the saw-mill ; a fence, if of
wood, has a terminology all its own, especially so if treated
with some preservatives other than tar or paint, or is

( 49 ) [FIG

" close-boarded," " capped " or otherwise treated archi-
tecturally. The material may be oak, fir, chestnut or less-
used woods, whole, riven, sawn, rough or square ; as a
" ring-fence " it may encircle an estate or consist of a wall
or hedge as a park-fence, or the palisade or fence of a house.
Applied to machinery, it is at once a " guide," as to a saw,
and a " guard " or " defence."

'ender. — A piece of timber or other substance slung over the side
of a vessel to protect it in narrow or confined waters ; a
" fender-pile," used in open or sheet-piling ; to " fend-off '
a floating or moving body ; a " fire-guard," to limit or
counteract the danger or spread of fire in a building.

'enestra (in architecture). — Latin for a window. A term much
used on the European continent. In a building imperfectly
lighted it is correct English to say " the fenestration is
poor," and in the opposite case, " the fenestration is good."

'iddle Back. — A compressed form of figure very pronounced in
sycamore wood, hence its selection for " fiddle-backs." See
" Ram's Horn," an equivalent term.

'igure in Mahogany. — " Roe " is that alternate streak or
flake of light and shade running with the grain, or from end
to end of the log. If the streak be regular in size and un-
broken, it is thought little of ; but if the flakes be broad and
the light and dark parts have a tendency to blend, yet
strongly contrast, and are variedly broken in their progress,
then, it is considered fine. " Mottle " is that mark in the
wood which, in a polished board, at first view appears like
something raised upon the surface, and a person not infre-
quently feels to ascertain if it be smooth. It is varied in
form so much that many names have been used to designate
its several kinds, of which the following are some. " Stop
Mottle " chiefly arises from angular grain, and is in broad
flashes, frequently diverging from a centre like the foot of a
bird, in contradistinction to " Fiddle Mottle," which runs in
nearly even streaks, as on the back of a fiddle; and " Ram
Mottle " is sometimes similar to Fiddle, only it is in larger
and longer marks. Mottle runs even across the grain.
There are also " Plum " and " Peacock " mottle ; this last
resembles the tail of a bird. See also " Mahogany."

'igure in Woods is an interesting detail. The terms are largely
drawn from common objects of a household or familiar
character. Oak has the " silver grain " or " plash " ; maple,
the " bird's-eye " ; ash, the " ram's horn " ; the "American
plane," lacewood, and an Australian tree, "honeysuckle
figure " or " wood " ; Burr-pollard oak, " cat's-paw " and
" fan figure " ; " satin, wood," from its satiny appearance.

FIS { 50)

See " Sawing, Radial and Tangential," and " Silver Grain."
See also " Figure in Mahogany."

Filer. — One who fits saws in a sawmill or other woodworking
plant.

Fillet. — A small moulding, generally rectangular in section, and
having the appearance of a narrow band.

Filing Machine for Small Band Saws. — A machine in which a file
is used for sharpening the teeth of small band saws, generally
used when the teeth are too small to be conveniently
sharpened by means of an emery wheel.

Fine Grain. — Wood is said to have a fine grain when the annual
rings of growth are narrow.

Fir and Firwood. — " Fir " is a North- West of Europe term, its
Italian substitute being " pine." This seems to account for
the latter taking such strong root in America, where the first
white settlers were of Latin stock. In Britain both terms
obtain. Instance, " Scots fir " and " Scots pine " is one
arid the same thing.

" That pine of mountain race,
The fir, the Scotch fir, never out of place." — Scott.

" Firwood " is thus the produce of the " fir " or " pine."
See " Pine."

Flreproofiag Timber. — Various processes and chemicals have been
claimed to render wood uninflammable or to powerfully retard
the action of fire. That most in vogue at present is known
as " Oxylene," in which the chemicals employed are non-
volatile, stable and claimed to be without detrimental effect
on any wood, metal or paint with which it is brought in
contact.

Firewood. — In the import timber trade, by the term firewood is
meant deal, batten, board and planchette ends of from 1 to
5g ft. in. length.

Firewood (alias Cook-wood). — Is often brought over as the pro-
perty of the shipowner, a perquisite of the captain, or as fuel
for the ship's cook, and mostly sold on arrival to -be over-
hauled for box-making, the residue or waste passing into
firewood. Box-making has grown to such large proportions
in the wood trade that entire cargoes are chartered for and
shipped from the foreign saw-mills. See "Box- wood"
and " Packing-case Wood."

Firsts and Seconds. — A grading in quality of hardwoods. Also
termed Prime Quality in the United Kingdom. In America
expressed " Fas " or " F.A.S."

Fissile. — Having the grain in such a direction as to make the wood
suitable for cleaving or splitting.

( 51 ) [FLI

Fitting, Fittings, and Fitter. — A fitting may be of varied material,
viz., house or shop fittings or fixtures of wood ; gas, water
and electric fittings. A cognate word, " fitment " ( = some-
thing adapted to a purpose) is now considered as obsolete.
" Fitter " is a skilled workman much in evidence, whose
particular calling is his prefix, as " shop-fitter," " office-
fitter," " gas-fitter," etc., etc.

?ive-ply Veneer. — A piece of built-up veneer composed of five
pieces glued one to the other, some with the grain crossed.

flakes (see "Fleakes")— Field hurdles.

flatting is the process of sawing through the flat or thinnest way
of boards, usually called flat-cutting or ripping.

ileak, Tray or Hurdle. — With slight exceptions, mean one and
the same thing — a portable " wooden fence " or an " im-
provised gate " ; light constructions of posts, riven rails
and struts, each about 6 ft. long, and when fixed, about
a yard high. This is a special branch of the wood-trade,
relegated to agricultural purposes, one interesting, like the
" clog-sole " trade, inasmuch as the operatives go to the
woods and there perform their labours, and deliver their
finished work. The labour is piece-work.

^leam Tooth. — A tooth of a saw shaped like an isosceles triangle ;
a peg tooth.

leek and Flecked. — A spot, a dapple, or a variation in pattern
or figure, applied to veneers or fancy woods ; thus, maple
may be " flecked " with " bird's-eye figure " and oak with
" mirror " or " ray figure." In the instance of mahogany,
"dapple" is the equivalent (ivhich see; also "Figure in
Wood").

'lexible Arm Sandpapering Machine. — A comparatively small
disc is used, over which sandpaper is tightly strained. The
disc revolves on a spindle carried by hinged arms attached
to a slide. The work is placed on a table and the disc moved
slowly over the surface of the work until a smooth face is
produced on the latter.

light.— " A staircase " springing or rising from one floor to
another without a landing intervening. In the instance of
such a landing the staircase would be in " two flights." See
" Staircase."

litch. — (1) A large piece of a sawed log; commonly applied to
a part of a log of greater thickness than a plank or board. In
the veneer-cutting trade it might be half a log, a third, or
even a quarter ; strictly speaking, it is a superior term to
" slab." (2) In America, a thick piece of timber with wane
on the edge.

FLO] ( 52 )

Flitch Frame. — See " Deal Frames."

Flitterns are young oak trees, the bark of which is richer in tannin
than older trees.

Float. — (1) A small raft of wood; (2) A t imber- wagon ; (3) A
plasterer's tool of wood or steel — that of wood is used to give
a " rough " or " dry face " ; that of steel, a " smooth, glossy
face." See " Trowel."

Floated Deals. — A term applied to Canadian pine and spruce deals
conveyed on rafts for shipment, which are sometimes a little
discoloured in transit.

Floating or Floated. — Architectural terms applied to the second
of three coats of plaster on walls, expressed (1) " rendered,"
(2) "floated," and (3) "set" (see "Rendered" and " Set ").
In the instance of plastering on laths, (1) is expressed by
" pricking up " (ivhich see}.

Floating Policy. — The insurance in a lump sum of goods in
different places.

Flogging. — The two hardest kinds of work a carpenter was called
upon to perform, before machinery in the latter half of the
nineteenth century stepped in to relieve him of the major part
of it, were " flogging floor-boards," taking them from the
saw and preparing them for laying — now done by floor-
board planing or chipping machines — and " sticking mould-
ings," i.e., working them. See " Stick and Sticking."

Floor. — The level ground, brick, stone, wood or other substance
that forms the lower or horizontal face of a covered building,
or an apartment below or above ground.

Floor or Flooring Boards. — Boards of various thickness and
fashion in width. In the eighteenth, and first part of the
nineteenth, century they were broad, the reverse being the
present order of the day. Since machinery has been em-
ployed in the " flogging " or dressing, they are usually
" planed, tongued and grooved."

Flooring and Matchboarding Machines. — High-speed planing
machines for producing tongued and grooved flooring and
matching. Usually provided with a fixed knife to give a
smooth surface to the face side of the board and fitted with
powerful feed gear. The pressures are also different to those
used on a moulding machine.

Flooring, A Square Of. — In a prepared or manufactured form
is 100 superficial feet. The customary square of flooring,
which was for many years followed in the London auction
sales, is now abolished. The following were the number of
lineal feet that were reckoned for the various widths : —

(53)

[FOR

9-inch.

8-inch.

7|-inch.

7-inch.

6f-inch.

6-|-inch.

140-feet.
6i-inch.

160-feet.
6-inch.

170-feet.
5f-inch.

180-feet.
5f-inch.

185-feet.
5 J inch.

190-feet.
5-inch.

195-feet.
4|-inch.

200-feet.
4-inch.

210-feet.
3|-inch.

220-feet.
3-inch.

230-feet.

240-feet .

270-feet, 300-feet. 350-feet. 400-feet.

For comparative table of actual and nominal measure-
ment, showing the gain for freight, see Appendix II.

Floor Joists. — Joists, strong in character, to carry on their upper
edges wood and other floors.

Flume. — (1) An inclined trough in which water runs, used in
transporting logs or timbers. Flumes are in use on the
Pacific coast of North America, Austria, Switzerland, Nor-
way, and other mountainous districts of the world. (2) A
water slide.

FlutingS or Flutes (Lat. fluo). — The hollows or channels cut
perpendicularly in the shafts of columns, etc. They are used
in all the classical kinds of architecture except the Tuscan.
In some instances the hollows or flutes are filled with
" ovalos " in their lower parts, in which case they are termed
" reeds " (which see).

Font Cover. — A wooden lid or cover of a font. By certain
ecclesiastical injunctions in the Middle Ages such covers were
imperative, hence, during the last century of restoration of
old churches or monuments, the custom has been revived,
followed, and elaborated in altitude and design until they
have become important or crowning features.

Foot-power Lathes. — Small lathes worked by foot power.

Fore (in Foreman, Forecourt and Foremast).— As a prefix, implies
priority in time, place, order or importance ; hence a " fore-
man " is the chief servant of a trader or manufacturer,
having charge of men or machinery. " Forecourt " of a
building — the front court, which implies an erection posses-
sing, like certain halls and colleges, more than one court.
Foremast, a mast placed in the forepart or forecastle of a ship.

Forest and Forester. — Appear to be terms that landed in this
country with the Normans. Original form seems to be
preserved in the Italian Foresto = wild, savage, foreign. It
is curious that in England a forest is read to imply a great
tract of woodland, but in Scotland, where a treeless area is
viewed as a forest, the reverse is actually the case. " Fores-
ter " is an officer appointed to watch a forest, preserve the
game, and institute suits for trespasses. See " Forest
Science " and " Afforest,"

FRI] (54 )

Forest Science. — Knowledge of all things appertaining to the
cultivation and management of forests, including the various
trees which may be cultivated to advantage and the uses to
which their woods may be put, with the mode of their pro-
pagation in various soils. See " Forest and Forester."

Poxy. — -A red tinge in the wood of a tree past maturity, the
decay first developing in the butt or root end of the stem,
and the tree becomes " stag-headed."

Frame. — An open structure of 6 x 6 x 6 ft., in which to measure
small pieces of timber in bulk, such as lath wood, firewood,
etc.

Frame Saw. — This machine consists of a fixed horizontal frame,
with rollers at short distances apart, in which the wood or
tree is laid ; at the end of this is another frame in a vertical
position, in which a number of saws are fixed and set as far
apart as the desired thickness of the boards to be cut. A
rapid up-and-down motion is given to these saws by the
machinery, and at the same time the wood is pulled forward
on the rollers. This was a common term before machinery
came in, and is so now where machinery is not present. It
was a large thin-blade pit-saw in a wooden frame, arranged
to be worked by two men. In this case it is distinguished
from the thicker blade, called the " whip saw."

Free on Board. — Goods placed free alongside and free of all shipping
charges or other expenses to the purchasers. Usually con-
tracted to " F.o.b." In French " F.a.b." (Franco a bord).

Freight. — Usually means the price payable for the carriage of
goods by sea or for the use of a ship or part of a ship for such
purpose. The freight is most commonly fixed by the charter-
party or bill of lading ; but in the absence of any formal stipu-
lations on the subject, it would be due according to the cus-
tom or usage of trade.

Fret or Fretwork. — Primarily frieze ornamentation or enrich-
ment ; a favourite form of design having its ground or base
perforated. The characteristic form of " fret "or " fret-
work " in the nineteenth century was that employed for the
fronts of pianos, in which it formed the principal ornament.
It represents the finest or most intricate form of sawn wood.

Fret Saw Machine.— A saw for cutting fretwork. When driven
by power, the machines have a short stroke and run at a very
high speed.

Frieze or Frize. — The middle division of an entablature which lies
between the architrave and the cornice ; it may be plain or
enriched and even sculptured ; sometimes made to swell out
in the middle, when it is said to be " cushioned " or " pulvin-

( 55 ) [FUR

ated." Friezes may, according to situation, be wrought in
stone, brick, wood or plaster.

Frieze Panel. — The upper panel of a door of six or more panels,
or the upper panel in wainscotting.

Frieze Rail. — The rail next below top rail of six or more panels.

Frith, By Frith and Fell. — " By wold and wild, wood and com-
mon." Frith is the Welsh frith or friz, and means a woody
place. Chaucer used the term to connote a wood, which, in
the Saxon tongue, from implying peace, defined a sacred wood
or sanctuary, hence " Frithstool " —a chair of sanctuary.

Frowy Stuff. — A term applied to brittle or soft timber.
Frush. — A term used to describe wood that is short in the grain
and brittle.

Fuel. — Is matter which serves as aliment to fire. Wood in a
crude state or as charcoal plays a large part, especially so
where pit-coal does not obtain. Where wood is plentiful it
is, on. the score of cleanliness, preferred. ' Wood fuel " the
world over is an immense business, and the volume of that
material consumed is beyond all count or tally, and from
" stick " to " yule-log " boasts an extensive vocabulary.

Fungi (the plural of fungus).— Under this name botanists range
the mushroom class of plants, a large number of which are
microscopic, growing upon other plants or substances, with
the appearance of mouldiness and mildew. Instance, the
Merulius lacrymans, or weeping fungus that is mainly
answerable for the destruction of timber placed in damp or
humid situations, where its action is popularly termed
" Dry rot " (which see). The wood in a reduced form has a
dry appearance on the face, not unlike burnt or charred
wood, and to this extent it is entitled to its popular name.

Furniture. — In architecture, the visible brasswork or ironmongery
of doors, windows, shutters, cupboards, etc., in which it is a
compound, as " door-furniture," " cupboard-furniture," etc.,
of a hall, house or building. In a general sense it implies the
goods, utensils, etc., of housekeeping, in which ironmongery
again finds a place, following in the train of wood, as
" drawer," " desk," etc., furniture. Ditto in " coffin furni-
ture."

Furniture Beetle. — Practically a microscopic insect whose larva}
or grub bores in and feeds upon wood ; it is the Annobium
tessalatum of the naturalist, and superstition has endowed it
with the fearsome name of " Death-watch." Its mechanical
action is truly the cause of " Dry rot," where the wood is
bored and ruined, and a dry powder takes its place or is
emitted, tiee " Dry Rot."

GEA] (56 )

Furrings. — Short pieces attached to the feet of rafters of a roof
for carrying the eaves beyond the line of the wall.

G

Gable. — The top of a wall that conforms to the slope of the
roof covering or abutting against it ; consequent terms are
" Gabled-roof," and, in the instance of a house-end so finished,
" Gable-end."

Gambo. — A local term in Mid-Wales and district for a two-
wheeled vehicle, with a stiff axle and stiff body without
sides. Used almost entirely for carting pitprops sawn to
length.

Gang. — A body or batch of men, engaged on time or piece-work
to load or unload cargoes of wood, etc., or to store, yard or
warehouse the goods.

Gang-board.— The board or way for the rowers to pass from
stem to stern, and where the mast was laid when it was
unshipped.

Gang Mill. — The American name for a log frame.

Ganger. — The appointed or nominated head or foreman of a
gang, when, in clearly defined association with a ship or
ships loading or unloading cargo ; he may be variant ly
known as a " Stevedore " (which see).

Gang-plank. — Usually a plank not Jess than 11 in. broad, on
which gangers and members of their gangs run or carry deals,
boards, etc., when piling goods in docks or timber yards.

Gangway. — (1) An alley or way in a timber yard between the
piles of deals, etc., so called from being the runs of the gangs
in yarding or piling the yarded stocks. (2) The board with
cleats or bars of wood by which passengers walk into or
out of a ship or steamer.

Gantry. — A sort of raised tramway working on rails laid along
the top of two parallel beams supported on two rows of
standards.

Gauge. — (1) The thickness of a saw blade. (2) Any instrument to
measure the thickness or dimensions of an object to a
standard size, such as the size of timber, the thickness of,
a saw etc.

Gean. — Another name for the Wild Cherry. See " Cherry."

( 57 ) [GOU

Genoa Prime. — An American classification of pitch pine boards
and planks. The boards vary in size from 1 in. to If in. x
8 and up, the planks from 2 in. to 2 f in. x 8 and up, and
the deals from 3 in. to 5 in. x 8 and up.

Genus, plural Genera. — In Botany, a genus consists of such a
group or assemblage of species as agree both structurally
and physiologically, as respects the organs of fructification,
reproduction, or perpetuation, and at the same time have
a general resemblance in habit. See " Natural Order."

Georgia Pine. — -A trade name for pitch pine from the Atlantic
region.

Gimlet. — A carpenter's tool for boring small holes in wood, as
the diminutive "let " or " et " implies. Its initial syllable
is possibly another form of " wimble," a larger tool of the
kind.

Girder. — A main beam to support the joists of a floor, etc.

Girdling or Ringing. — A method occasionally employed in pre-
paring trees for felling, notably and almost exclusively
taken in the case of Indian Teak. The process is to cut
completely away a ring of the sap wood at the base of the
trunk in order to arrest the upward flow of the life-giving
sap. This effectually kills the tree. In the case of teak, the
tree is afterwards allowed to stand two or more years, and
in the meantime the wood loses much weight and so can be
floated on the watercourses. Otherwise its weight when
green would debar this method of transport.

Glue Heating Apparatus. — An apparatus for heating one or a
number of glue-pots, consisting of a chamber containing
water heated by exhaust steam, gas or electricity.

Gnar and Gnarled.— A knot, or knotted, as in gnarled oak, i.e.,
full of knots ; Chaucer wrote it " gnarre," a form now noted
as obsolete.

Goat or Saugh Willow (Salix caprea).—A native of England.
Non-combustible and not liable to split (a heavy blow
merely causing an indentation) to a high degree. Used for
brake blocks. See " Willow."

Goodwill. — An expression signifying the trade connection and
name of the vendor, when sold along with any profession,
trade or business. In law it appears to mean the proba-
bility of the vendor's customers continuing their custom,
and the vendor may not solicit their business away from the
purchaser.

Gothenburg Standard. — A measurement of pitprops equalling

180 cub. ft.
Gouge. — A carpenter's or woodworker's tool of the " chisel "

GRI] ( 58 )

type, btit half circular or partially in section, used where
hollows or flutes are required — an important instrument in
" wood-carving," or in cutting holes, channels and grooves.

Grace or Days of Grace. — In commerce, a customary number
of days allowed for the payment of a note, or bill of exchange,
other than those payable on demand. In Great Britain
they are three days of grace.

Grade and Graded. — Terms in the wood trade, as " high-grade,"
"low-grade," "poor-grade" and "graded," meaning goods
examined or assorted into " grades " or qualities. They
are not dictionary words in this advanced sense, but there
denote " steps " or " degrees." " Grade " and " Graded " have
their equivalents in " Assortment " and " Assorted " (which
latter see).

Graft. — A small shoot or bud of a tree inserted in a cut or dug
into a " stock " or " young tree " intended to be its future
support.

Grain. — In wood, a term used with reference to the arrangement
or direction of the wood elements and to the relative width
of the growth rings.

Granadillo (Amyris balsamafera). — A red, figured, aromatic,
resinous, hardwood imported from Cuba. Used for turnery.

Gravel Board or Plank. — The horizontal board placed on its
edge upon the ground at the bottom of a pale fence.

Gravel Board Stumps. — Supports to the gravel board driven into
the ground between the posts to support the gravel board.

Green Oak. — Oak which, owing to the action of fungus tinder
certain conditions, turns vivid green. The colour being
permanent the wood is in great request, but attempts to
obtain this colour by artificial means have not been successful.

Greenheart (Nectandra rodicei). — A large and important tree, a
native of Guiana and tropical America, the wood of which
is proof against the action of sea-worms, hence it is largely
used for clock and harbour work and ship-building. See
" Snape or Snape-ended."

Gregorian Tree. — The gallows, so named from three successive
hangmen — the Brandons, whose front names were Gregory.

. . . "And he
Doth fear his fate from the Gregorian tree."

— Mercuitus Pragmaticus, 1041.

Grinding Machines (for Woodworkers). — A name generally
describing the various machines for sharpening saws and
cutting tools in which a revolving wheel of abrasive material
is used — developments of the old hand- or foot-txirned
" grindstones " (ivhich see).

( 59 ) [GUR

Grinding Rest. — A rest attached to a grinding machine for sup-
porting a tool while under the action of a grinding wheel.

Grindstone (hand, foot or machine). — A revolving stone used
for sharpening tools by abrasion. See " Grinding Machines."

Groove. — A long trench or hollow cut or ploughed by a tool,
mostly on one edge of a floor or lining board to receive the
" tongue " (which see) of another board.

Grooving and Rebating Benches. — Saw benches in which the
spindle has a rising and falling adjustment to facilitate the
operations of grooving, rebating, tenoning, etc.

Grooving-plane. — A joiner's instrument for making small grooves,
one of a pair of " tonguing and grooving planes," mostly
employed in making toiigued and grooved joints ; from the
tongues being produced to " match " or fit in the grooves
they are variantly termed " matched- joints " and the tools
" match-planes," hence " match " or " matched boards "
(which see).

Ground-off Saws. — Circular saws bevelled off on one side, and of
greater gauge at the centre than at the circumference.
Straight saws of greater gauge at the front than at the
back.

Growing Timber. — Timber trees are those which serve for build-
ding or reparation of houses (such as oak, ash or elm), and
are of the age of twenty years or upwards. Hedges, bushes ,
willows, osiers, sallows and ornamental shrubs are not
timber, neither are trees which may become timber until
they are of twenty years' growth.

Guaiacum. — Another name for lignum vitse (which see).

Gullet or Throat is the depth of a saw tooth from the point to
the root.

Gum Trees. — See " Satin Walnut."

Gummer. — A tool used to cut out the throats of a saw.

Gumming. — To grind out the throats of a saw.

Gun Stocks. — The " stock " or block from which the finished
article is evolved. Since the introduction of the gun the
chosen wood has been " European walnut," hence in war-
time the destruction of that class of tree has been enormous.
Beech, and other woods, especially American, have been
pressed into that service, but walnut has not been ousted.

Gurjun (Dipterocarpus turbinatus). — A dense hard Indian timber.

HAN] ( 60 )

H

Habitat. — A word used generally by naturalists to express the
nature of the situation or locality in which a tree or plant
grows.

Hacmatack. — See " Tamarack."

Haft and Heft. — Expressive of the handle of a tool. Terms now
practically identical, but which may have had different roots
in the old Saxon tongue.

Half -timbering. — In " half -timber " houses, etc., meaning framed
beams, posts, or studs, with the spaces or panels filled in
with clay, stone-slabs, bricks or two-sided lath and plaster
work ; a primitive or old form of walling, abandoned in
towns after the Great Fire of London in 1666 in favour of
stone, brick, iron or concrete. In walls consist of " post
and pan or panel work." See "Wall" and "Post and
Pan."

Hammer-beam. — A beam, or really two beams, in the principal
of a Gothic roof, occupying the same level as the principal -
beam or tie-beam of a " King " or " Queen-post ' roof.
They represent the latter beam with its central part cut
out, or the tie broken ; constructionally it is a weak roof,
the gain being confined to obtaining a greater idea of height
with the central portion of the tie-beam absent. See " Col-
lar-beam."

Hammer Mark. — Distinguishing marks driven into the wood by
a blow from a hammer. See " Brands."

Hand-barrow. — A barrow or vehicle borne by the hands of men,
and without a wheel.

Hand-feed Planing Machines. — Machines in which the material
is fed past the cutters by hand, generally referring to a
machine with horizontal revolving cutter block and tables
to support the work as it is passed over the cutters.

Hand-hawk. — A poetic term; a tool reserved to the plasterer,
and in a minor degree in the kindred trades of mason and
brick-layer; a square, thin, wood board, held in one hand in
a horizontal position by a perpendicular wood handle ; the
act of using it is figurative of " the hawk in hand."

Hand-hook. — A short " steel-hook " with a wooden handle,
similar to that of a gimlet ; the point is sharp, and when

( 61 ) [HAN

pressed on the end of a plank or deal enables it to be lifted
up, and when on the edge of the piece to be turned over.
See " Hick and Kicking. " Some hand-hooks are entirely
of iron, with two hooks, one near the thumb and the other
the little finger.

Hand-masts. — Round timber and poles from the Baltic used for
masts and other purposes. A technical term applied by
the mast maker to a round spar, of at least 24 in., and
not exceeding 72 in. in circumference. They are measured
by the hand of 4 in.

Handrail. See " Staircase."- -The master craft work of the
staircase-builder, the " geometrical " or " continuous- hand-
rail " being the highest of its class ; like its base, it has an
interesting nomenclature, starting with a " newel " or
"scroll," "twist," "straight-length," "ramp," "swan-
neck," " wreath," " turn," and finishing on a landing. See
" Scroll," " Handrail-sections," " Staircase," " Balusters,"
and " Rail and Railing."

Handrailing. — The science or craftmanship of making handrails,
which embraces the highest reaches of geometiy, and con-
stitutes a special branch to which few workmen attain. It
is a department in woodworking that has called for a number
of learned English and American works or publications ;
but away from the use of newels, features to which the
twentieth-century architects and builders incline, it has not,
as a high-art, been so much followed as was the case in the
preceding century. See " Rail and Railing."

Handrail Punch. — A short steel tool or implement " bull-nosed "
at the active end, used for turning the nuts of handrail
screws by punching, when the " nuts and washers " are in
action, tightening up the handrail-joints in fixing. See
" Handrail."

Handrail Screws. — Short iron rods with threads for iron nuts at
either end nicked on their outer face or pei'iphery to enable
them to be turned with a " handrail punch." Such screws
are used in making " headen- " or " butt- " joints, and came
into use in the eighteenth century to replace " built-up " or
" jointless " handrails. See " Handrail."

Handrail Sections. — Starting from the sixteenth century we find
them of ponderous size, as indeed were the newels and
balusters elaborately moulded, and mostly with a small bead
or roll moulding for " hand-hold " on the top. At the
opening of the nineteenth century the cross sections were
small plain 2| in. rounds or moulded sides, with little of
the Tudor feeling left. They are still usually " ogee," plain
or beaded at the sides, round or double-ogee at the top ; a

HAV] ( 62 )

- — - • - • -

term for the latter being " toad-backed," grooved occa-
underside for balusters.

Handsale or Hansel. — This term was used to indicate a bargain
ratified by shaking of hands. Afterwards it was called
" hansel," and signified earnest money.

Handspike. — A sort of wooden lever for moving heavy things,
not unlike a heavy spoke. A wooden bar used with the
hand as a lever for various purposes, as in raising weights,
heaving about a windlass, etc. The gunner's handspike is
shorter and flatter than the above, and armed with two claws
for managing the artillery.

Hand Vice. — A little spring vice, worked with a screw and
thumb-nut, i.e., a thumb-screw.

Hanse Towns. — The maritime cities of Germany, which belonged
to the Hanseatic League.

Hanseatic League. — The first union of traders, established for
mutual benefit in the thirteenth century by the merchants
of certain cities in Northern Germany, later extending to
the Netherlands and Russia. The League was broken up
in 1630.

Haskinizing. — A patent method of wood preservation.

Hatch. — (1) A square or oblong opening in the deck of a ship,
forming the communication between one deck and another,
also known as " Hatchway." (2) A door or half door with
an opening over it.

Hatchet. — A small axe with a short handle, to be used with one
hand.

Hatchway.— See " Hatch."

Hauling Apparatus. — An apparatus consisting of a chain or rope
drum, round which the rope is coiled by gearing and by
means of which logs are hauled into a saw mill by power.

Haunching Apparatus. — An attachment, sometimes fitted to a
tenoning machine, by means of which the haunch of the
tenon is sawn out usually by means of a drunken saw fitted
to one of the spindles of the machine.

Havana Cedar (Cedrela odorata). — One of the many, so-called
cedars that are derived from the West Indies, Central
America and other countries. This is the Cuban variety
shipped from all parts of that island. It is almost exclusively
utilized with other descriptions for cigar-box making, especi-
ally in the New York and Continental markets, the greater
portion of the supplies being directed to the first-mentioned
port.

( 63 ) [HIC

Hawthorn (Cratcegus oxyacantha). — With the Whitebeam the
hardest and toughest of native woods, but now of very
little commercial value. Used by engineers, millwrights,
turners, and walking stick makers.

Hazel (Corylus avellana). — A soft European wood, very fine and
close grained. Of small size and not durable.

Hazsl Pine. — A term used in the American markets for the sap-
wood of red gum or satin walnut.

Heading. — The pieces of timber from which a keg or barrel head
is cut.

Headings. — The word used for the tops and bottoms of casks
and barrels.

Heartshakes.— Clefts or splits that follow the medullary rays
from the centre outward.

Heartwood. — In Botany, the English term for duramen, the
central part of the trunk of a tree ; the part that is passive
in nature, from having undergone a hardening process (which
often protects it from animal, insect or fungoid attacks) by
the cells and tissues being sealed with secretionary matter
peculiar to the individual species of the " hearted tree."
See " Spine " and " Satin-wood."

Hedge. — Properly a thicket of thorn-bushes or other shrubs or
small trees. Such a thicket planted round a field as an
enclosxue changes its complexion ; it becomes the English
" haw " and yields " hawthorn." It is the French " haie "
that gave the " hays " in our royal forests, and is identical
with the Dutch "hague."

Hedge-carpenter. — A maker of gate-post and rail fences, or
other matters connected with hedges and enclosures of
land. In White's Gazetteer of Notts (1832), ten tradesmen
were bracketed at Worksop, as " English Timber Merchants,
[hand] Sawyers and Hedge-carpenters."

Helve. — The handle of an axe.

Hemlock.— The hemlock spruce or fir (Tsuga Canadensis) is a
useful coniferous wood in general use in Canada. The
Western Hemlock (Tsuga Mertensiana), which grows on
the Pacific Coast, is heavier and harder and is considered
superior to the Eastern variety.

Hewn. — Cut with an axo or adze.

Hick and Kicking. — Are not dictionary words, hence their origin
has not been investigated. " To hick " is to raise one end
of a piece of wood ; " hicking " is the work of one man in
a gang of men unloading a ship or barge of sawn deals or

HOL] ( 64 )

battens ; he has a " hand-hook " (which see) in one hand,
with which he lifts the wood a few inches until he can grasp
the end with both hands, when, with an easy swing, he ele-
vates it as high as he can reach, whereon a " deal-carrier "
(which see) runs his shoulder under and carries the piece
away to the " pile " or " wagon."

Hick-joint Pointing. — In architecture, a term applied to face-
joints in brickwork, which have been. " raked- out " to a
minor depth and repointed with a whiter or superior mortar ;
a variant term is " Tuck pointing " and to some extent
"re-pointing." See "Pointing." "Hick-joint," as above,
is suggestive of being a late or corrupt form of " brick-joint."

Hickory (Carya alba). — An American tree belonging to the walnut
tribe, and yielding the nut called Hickory nut. A hard wood
and coarse grained, used for tools and also as a substitute
for ash, though it is somewhat harder than the latter.

Hip. — The external angle formed by the meeting of the sloping
sides of a roof, which have their wall-plates running in
different directions. See " Hip Roof." The opposite of
"hip" is "valley."

Hip-knob or Pinial. — An ornament, grotesque or pinnacle, fixed
at the apex of a " hip " or " gable." In the latter instance
it may variantly be termed a " gable knob," " finial," etc.

Hip Rafter. — -The rafter which forms the hip of a roof. See
"Hip."

Hip Roof. — A roof, the ends of which rise from the wall-plates
with the same inclination as the other two sides. See " Hip."

Kip Tiles. — A special form of tile made suitable for the pitch of
a roof, and to work in with a given form or make of roof-
tiles. It is not uncommon for " hip-tiles " to be used on
slate-covered roofs.

Hoard and Hoarding. — In architecture, the name given to the
timber enclosure round a building when the latter is in
course of erection, or undergoing repair or alteration.

Hog. — A machine used in America for cutting wood into chips.

Hold of a Ship. — Is between the lowest deck and the keel. In
merchant vessels it holds the main part of the cargo.

Hollow. — (1) Joiner's hand-plane, one of a "set," fellow to its
opposite the " round " — in " a pair of hollow and rounds " ;
(2) a place excavated, as " the hollow of a tree " ; (3) in
architecture, a concave moulding sometimes called a " case-
ment " —usually one-sixth or one-fourth of a circle ; (4)
" Hollow-wall," one built in. two thicknesses, leaving a
cavity between, either for saving materials, or for preserving
a uniform temperature in apartments.

( 65 ) [HOP

Hollow-backed.- — A board is said to be hollow-backed when a
small amount of wood has been removed from the central
part of the back side in order to reduce its shipping weight.

Hollow Chisel Mortising Machines. — A mortising machine which
cuts a mortise by means of a square hollow chisel. An
auger revolves in the centre of the chisel and bores a hole,
while the corners are squared out by the chisel as it is fed
into the wood. For a long mortise several holes are made
one after the other in line.

Hollow Trunk. — Trees decaying in the trunk. Best treated by
cleaning out all decaying matter, and when dry painting
interior with creosote, then filling up with clean gravel and
sand, with a surface coating of cement, adding generally a
coat of tar.

Holly (Ilex Aqmjolium).—A- white and hard wood, extremely
fine grained. Found all over Europe and Western Asia.
Used for engravers' blocks, fancy turnery, etc. It is mainly
an ornamental tree.

Holm Oak (Quercus Ilex) or " Evergreen Oak." — An oak known
but not common in Britain, the wood of which is strong,
hard and heavy. See " Oaks."

Hook. — The angle between the face of a tooth and a line drawn
from the extreme point of the tooth perpendicular to the
back of a band saw, or to the centre of a circular saw. Hook
is stated in terms of inches. On a band saw it is measured
between the two lines prolonged to its back ; on a circular
saw it is measured along the opposite side of the triangle.

Hoppus' Measure. — A method of measuring the cubical contents
of logs and other round timber. In theory it reduces a
round log to its square equivalent.

Hoppus' Measurer, the old standard book of measurement of
timber, is one of " customary measure " (ivhich see), except
in the instance of square logs, when it is " actual measure"
(which see). The method is by string-girth, reducing the
length into one fourth, called " quarter girth," and applying
thereto the 144 divisor ; whereas in round timber the
"actual measure" should be the 113 divisor. See "Cus-
toms Measure."

Hoppus' system of measurement by the 144 divisor gives
the correct cubical contents of square timber, but is inac-
curate in some of the calculations for unequal sided timber,
and for round timber the error amounts to 27 per cent.

To ascertain the true contents of a cylindrical body by
the quarter girth measurement, the divisor employed should
be 113 instead of 144. This gives an exactly correct result

HOR] ( 66 )

if the body measured is absolutely cylindrical, but the trunks
of trees are seldom quite perfect cylinders, and therefore
some allowance must be made for their divergences.

To ascertain the true contents by measurement at the
diameter, the divisor necessary to be used is 183, and the
result will be the same as that obtained by the quarter girth
measurement with the 113 divisor.

The various systems of measurement may be compared
in Mr. Burt's "Round Timber Measurement Tables," as
he publishes complete tables or ready reckoners of measure-
ment by Hoppus by the 144 divisor; by H.M. Customs
quarter girth system, by the 113 divisor ; and by the diam-
eter, vising the 183 divisor.

In the home timber trade the Hoppus system has always
been in universal use, and both buyers and sellers under-
stand that the percentage of error in true measurement
represents 27 per cent., or about the average waste in the
conversion of logs, so that measvirement with the 144 divisor
gives approximately the volume of timber that can be con-
verted out of any given log.

Horizontal Band Saw. — A machine in which the band wheels are
placed so that the saw travels in a horizontal plane when
cutting.

Horizontal Frames. — These have visually only one saw, although
occasionally two are used each on separate slide. The saws
work horizontally, and the log is carried past the saw by
means of a log carriage to which it is fixed. A rack under
the table actuated by a pinion provides the feed motion.

Horizontal Roller Feed Saw Benches. — Saw benches having hori-
zontal rollers driven by power, for feeding the material past
the saw.

Hornbeam (Carpinus betulus). — A fine, compact grained, hard
wood, strong but not very durable. Found in Em-ope and
America. There are four species, the wood of which is
used for cogs, handles of tools, mallets and other purposes
where toughness and hardness are considerations. " Beam,"
in this compound word, is a survival of the old Gothic term
for a tree ; it is high-class wood for fuel and burning into
charcoal.

Horse Chestnut (/Esculus hippocastanum). — Imported into Britain
from Asia. A soft wood of very rapid growth. Possesses
whiteness and lightness, but lacks strength and (unless
placed underground) durability. Used extensively for
temporary buildings and for bobbins ; also for wheelbarrows
at furnaces and kilns, as the wood is difficult to burn.

[ 67 ) [IN

Housing. — A trench in a piece of wood made for the insertion
and security of a second piece. The term is largely applied
in staircase work, especially to the " wall-boards " or " wall-
strings," " housed " for reception of the different members
of the wooden steps.

Hub. — The central part or nave of a wheel, from which the spokes
radiate. See " Spoke " and " Nave." Also a block of
wood which is used to lay to the wheel of a carriage to stop
its motion. See " Brake-block."

Hulk. — An old ship unfit for service. A great broad ship chiefly
in use for setting masts into ships and the like.

Hundred, Long and Ordinary. — The old English or Teutonic
hundred is the duodecimal system of computing by
" twelves," as against the ordinary decimal one of " tens,"
hence a long hundred has ten dozen = 120, against the ordi-
nary ten times ten — 100. Extended to a thousand (or mille)
this gives to the former 1,200 pieces — as in the stave and
slate trades — and to the ordinary hundred 1,000 pieces.
See " Stave " and " Slate " headings or notes.

Hung Up. — Floated logs or other wood prevented from reaching
their destination by want of sufficient water or other causes.

Huon Pine (Dacrydium FranJclinii). — A valuable Australian
timber used for boat building, carving and furniture.

Hurdle. — A temporary agricultural fence of wood. See " Fleak."
Hutch. — A variant term for a large box or chest ; it is best pre-
served in the instance of housing coneys, where it occurs as
" rabbit-hutch."

Imports and Importer. — That which is imported or brought into
one country from another one, the material collectively
being termed " imports." A person who imports, otherwise
a merchant, who, by himself or his agent, brings in goods
from another country. Great Britain being an island
kingdom, all imports are by " sea," or " sea-borne." See
" Export and Exporter."

Impost (Lat. Impositus). — The horizontal mouldings or capitals
on the top of a pilaster, pillar, or pier, from which an arch
springs.

In.— See "Eng."

IRQ] (

Incorruptible Wood. — The cedar-wood of scripture, the pillars of
Solomon's Temple, etc., which has won its name for durability
from being the material chosen for coffins by the ancient
Egyptians. It is an evergreen cone-bearing tree, a fir. The
Pinus cedrus of the botanist, alias Cedrus Libani,

Indemnity. — A letter or document engaging to hold another party
free from loss. Where the bill of lading is not to hand goods
are frequently released from a vessel without the bill of lading
by presentation of an indemnity signed by a banker, such
indemnity being handed back to the importer when the bill
of lading is forthcoming ; and the banker receives the
indemnity from the importer in due course, which ends the
liability of all parties.

Indorsement (or Endorsement). — The term generally used to
denote the writing of the name of the holder on the back of
a bill or promissory note, on transferring it to another person.
The transfer is not complete until the endorsed bill is deli-
vered to the transferee.

Inserted-tooth Circular Saw. — -A circular saw on whose periphery
are sockets, in which removable shanks or bits are inserted.

Insolvency, or bankruptcy, is the state of a person unable to pay
his debts as they become due : but a person does not become
a " bankrupt " in England until so declared by the Court.

Insurance. — A contract by which an insurance company or under-
writer, in return for a payment known as premium, agrees
to bear a contingent loss, during a stated period. Death and
loss by fire are the most common forms of insurance, but a
quotation from insurance companies or brokers can be
obtained against damage from practically any cause.

Interest. — (1) A share in an estate, ship or business ; (2) Amount
paid for the use of money, usually calculated at an annual
rate. Most States formerly had laws fixing the maximum
rate of interest, beyond which it became usury and was irre-
coverable, but in most countries these have been repealed. A
contract to pay a grossly unreasonable and unconscionable
rate of interest can be set aside on application to the Courts,
who will deal with each case on its merits, looking at the risk
involved, without laying down fixed rules.

Inventory. — A list or schedule of goods or property setting forth
the particulars so as to inform parties interested.

Invoice. — A detailed account of goods purchased and their price
delivered by a seller to a buyer.

Iroko is described as the most useful wood in tropical West
Africa. It is sometimes called " African teak " or " African
oak."

( G9 ) [JOG

Jack. — A term implying something common-place or ordinary, as
in "Jack-plane," " Screw Jack," "Roasting Jack," "Boot
Jack," " Jack-tax," etc. Commonly used, in the timber and
other trades for the hand-screw appliance that is used for
lifting or moving trees or timber of any kind.

Jack-raiter. — A short rafter fixed in the hips of a roof ; a piece
of timber in a frame cut short of its usual length often, re-
ceives the name of Jack.

Jag. — To notch ; to cut into notches or teeth like those of a saw.
In Botany, a cleft or division.

Jain. — A stoppage or congestion of logs in a stream, due to an
obstruction or low water.

Jamb (Fr.). — The side of a window, door, chimney, etc.

Janker. — Scotch term for a long pole on two wheels used in
hauling timber.

Japanese Oak. — -A class of wood uniform in grain and colour, of
slow growth and soft texture ; it is the produce of two
species, but no difference can be traced in the converted
wood. Its arrival on the wood-markets of Europe syn-
chronizes with the opening of the twentieth century, and it
finds favour as a companion of, or a substitute for, the
European wainscot-oak. It is shipped in log form, also in
well-converted lumber, cut radially and otherwise. See
other " Oaks."

Jarrah (Eucalyptus marginata). — An Australian timber of open
grain, durable, and one of the hardest and least inflammable
woods, and especially useful for paving or piles.

Jettison. — To throw cargo overboard from a vessel to lighten it
in a storm and prevent it foundering.

Jib Cranes. — Consist of a long jib, which can be raised or lowered,
and swivelled round so as to cover a considerable area. By
means of a rope passing over the end of the jib, loads are
raised or lowered either by a hand or power-driven winch.

Jogged Timber. — Squared logs irregular in their squarage, and
made up of different prismatic sections.

Joggle or Stop. — A method of squaring mahogany logs in sections
which diminish towards the top of the log. The junctions
are termed joggles, and each division requires separate
measurement. This method of manufacture is now prac-
tically confined to mahogany extracted in Mexico, and
principally to wood obtained from the Tobasco districts.

JUN] ( 70 )

Joggle Joints. — In masonry, stones or other bodies fitted together,
especially in arch-work, to prevent them from sliding down-
wards. In carpentry, the struts of a roof are said to be
joggled into the ti-ass-posts and into the rafters.

Joiner. — The man who joins substances together — in a popular
sense, " wood " or " timber." His old name was " House-
wright " or " Tree-wright " ; his fellow, the cabinet-maker,
was the " Chest -wright " or " Ark-wright." "Joiner" is
glossed by " carpenter," an imported term from our Latin
neighbours. In composition, as in " Joiner's bench,"
" Joiner's stool," " Joiner's chest," " Joiner's tools,"
" hammer," " mallet," etc., it has a wide field as a prefix.

Joiner's and Box-maker's Cross-cut Saw Benches are provided
with an easily traversed table, by means of which boards and
planks are moved past a cross-cut saw.

Joiner's Boards. — Specially selected planed boards suitable for
joinery purposes.

Joiner's Deals. — First and second quality sawn deals, specially
selected as suitable for the manufacture of joinery.

Joiner's Saw Benches have a rising and falling motion to the
table, and are used for similar work to that done on a groov-
ing and rebating bench.

Joinery. — The finished hand work of the joiner as an operator
in wood. His labour, light and heavy, is now mostly per-
formed by machinery, which dxiring the last fifty years has
revolutionized his trade, " machine-made joinery '' being
the order of the day in this century, the " joiner " (which see)
being now practically the " fixer."

Joint. — The interstices between the stones or bricks in masonry,
brickwork, and timber work are called joints. The act of
joining timbers or sawn wood together, the main perform-
ance of a joiner, has furnished his trade-name.

Joisting. — Converted wood suitable for joists. In the hard- wood,
or oak days, of the building trade, the sections were usually
squares ; in soft-wood, of less bearing power, the depths,
rouglily speaking, are double or treble the thickness. See
" Joists."

Joists. — The pieces of timber to which the boards of a floor or the
laths of a ceiling are nailed, and which rest on the walls or on
girders, sometimes on both. The wood or timber collec-
tively is known as " joisting " (which see).

Jungle. — In the tropics, land covered with forest trees or less im-
posing objects, from brushwood to creeping plants.

( 71 ) [KID

Juniper. — A coniferous shrub or tree common to the Eastern and
Western Hemispheres. The most notable species is the
Juniperus Virginiana, which exists in North America, but
principally in Florida and the S.E. States. This is the
variety that is so much sought after for the otitside casing
of lead pencils, its qualities for this purpose being unsur-
passed.

Jury Mast. — A corruption of joury mast, i.e., a mast for a day, a
temporary mast, being a spar used for the nonce when the
mast has been carried away.

K

K.D. Sash. — A knocked down window sash.

Kapp Balks (Norwegian).— Made from timber, about 16 ft. and
upwards in length, mostly 20 to 22 in. diameter, free from
bark, hewn on two sides to xiniform thickness, leaving other
sides half round.

Karri (Eucalyptus diver sicolor). — A hard, tough and strong tim-
ber growing in South- West Australia. Sometimes known
as "Blue Gum."

Kauri Pine (Agathis australis). — A very fine-grained wood, found
only in New Zealand ; vised here as a substitute for Quebec
yellow pine.

Kerf. — The groove formed in wood while being sawn.

Key Tapering Machines. — Machines for tapering a railway key.
These machines are made with both hand and automatic
feed, the work being done by means of revolving cutters.

Keyhole Saw. See " Pad-saw." — A small " rat-tail ' saw
adapted to keyhole work, etc., usually secreted or preserved
inside its own handle.

Kick Stamp. — A machine used for splitting up blocks of wood
into convenient size for fuel. Short lengths of logs are placed
on a die having a number of radial knives, and a falling
weight forces the wood on the sharp edges of the knives and
splits it into sections, which fall through the spaces between
the knives.

Kids. — A term used in some districts in England for fagots, or
bundles of heath and furze.

KNI] ( 72 )

Kiln. — A large stove or oven constructed for the purpose of drying
anything. In the instance of drying wood-goods, the term
" stove " is generally used, hence " kiln-dried " and " stove-
dried " are equivalent terms. See " Desiccation " and
" Desiccating."

Kiln-dried Saps. — A term applied in America to flooring boards
and planks cut from the sapwood of pitch pine and dried in.
a kiln before shipment.

Kiln-drying.— Drying or seasoning of wood by artificial heat in
an enclosed room.

Kindling Wood. — -In a popular sense, is another term for
" sticks " or " firewood " —a swift burning class of fuel most
used for starting or inciting a fire.

King Post. — The part which in a truss extends between the apex
of two inclined pieces and the tie beam which unites their
lower ends, as in a king post roof. This implies one post
only in a principal as distinct from the larger constructions
which have two posts and are termed " Queen-posts " (which
see).

KingWOOd. — A species of wood from Guiana and other tropical
countries, of a purple colour, hence it is sometimes called
" Purple-heart " or " Violet wood."

Kinked. — A " buckled " saw, whose surface undulates or is untrue.

Knag. — A knot in wood, or a protuberant knot, having the same
meaning as " Snag " (which see).

Knee. — A piece of timber formed with an angle in the shape
of the human knee when bent.

Knee-rafter or Knee-piece. — A rafter for the principal truss of a
roof, the lower end or foot of which is crooked downwards, so
that it may rest more firmly on the walls. Otherwise an
angular piece of timber to which other pieces of timber are
fastened. Ships have a number of knees — " beam-knees,"
" head-knees," " carling knees," etc.

Knife. — A cutting instrument with a sharp edge, used in almost
every trade ; in that of wood it is somewhat obscured by the
use of the term " iron " —as in " plane-iron ': —but if a like
" iron " is fixed, or forms part of a machine, it comes to its
own, as in " knife-veneer-cutting machines," rotary or hori-
zontal. See " Veneer." The lath-splitter's tools are
" riving-knives," and a " circular-saw-guard," in the rear of
the saw, is adopting the same term.

Knife Veneers. — Veneers cut with a machine knife ; " fixed-knife "
in the instance of the wood moving on a horizontal bed ;
"moving " in the rotary veneer cutting or peeling machines ;

( 73 ) [KNY

i.e., the machines which form the rock-base of the " ply-
board " trade.

Knob, Knobs, and Knobstick. — A hard protuberance, well under-
stood in the above compound form ; in a milder one knobs
f urnish artistic finishes to flag-staffs, poles and map-rollers ;
as handles on drawers, furniture, doors and fittings they are
useful, and form prominent features in wood, brass, and other
siibstances.

Knocked Down. — A machine or article taken apart in order to
facilitate shipping. Abbreviated to " K.D."

Knot. — A portion of a branch of a tree that forms a mass of woody
fibre running at an angle with the grain of the main stock and
making a hard place in the timber. A loose knot is generally
the remains of a dead branch, and its bark covered by later
woody growth. Knots are classified as pin, standard and
large, as to size ; round and spike as to form ; and as
sound, loose, watertight, encased, pith and rotten, as to
quality. In the pitch pine trade in America the various
knots are defined as follows : A watertight knot is one com-
pletely interwoven with surrounding wood, but, if a sound or
tight knot, will be held by the wood encasing it. A pin knot
is sound and not over \ in. in diameter. A standard knot is
sound and not over 1^ in. in diameter. A large knot is one
any size over \\ in. in diameter. A round knot is oval or
circular in form. A spike knot is one sawn in a lengthwise
direction. A sound knot is one solid across its face, is as
hard as the wood it is in, and is so fixed by growth or position
that it will retain its place in the piece. A loose knot is one
not held firmly in place by growth or position. A pith knot
is a sound knot with a pith hole not more than J in. in
diameter. An encased knot is one surrounded wholly or in
part by bark or pitch. Where the encasement is less than
£ of an inch in width on both sides, not exceeding one-half the
circumference of the knot, it is considered a sound knot.
A rotten knot is one not as hard as the wood it is in.

Knotting. — The process of adzing off the knots on rough timber.

Knuckle. — The working or movable part of a folding metal hinge.
In old examples of roofing with stone slabs (from which the
term " stone lath " originated, now better known as " tile
lath or slate lath " ) it is not rare to find the pegs the so-called
" knuckle-bones " obtained from sheep's feet, a favourite
plaything of schoolboys, variantly called " snobs."

Knysna Boxwood. — A species of boxwood from the Knysna
forest, and exported from Knysna, on the southern coast of
Cape Colony.

LAG] ( 74 )

Krabark (sometimes spelt Crabark). — An unidentified hardwood
timber exported from Siam.

Kyanize. — To apply corrosive sublimate to timber in. order to
prevent dry-rot, so called from Mr. Kyan, who invented the
process.

Laburnum. — A tree of the genus Cytisus, the C. laburnum of
Linnaeus, a native of the Alps and much cultivated by
way of ornament. The wood of C. alpinus is said to be
prized by cabinet-makers, but in European commerce it is
not prominent.

Lacewood (otherwise the American plane, Platanus occiden-
tails). — A fancy wood that enters the veneer-field. Its
speciality lies in the "medullary-rays" or "silver-grain,"
being somewhat pronounced or exposed to the eye ; but, as
usual in oak, beech, etc., only brought out as a fancy- wood
when sawn or cut radially or on the quarter. See " Plane
and Plane-tree " and " Figure in Woods."

Lacquer and Lacquering. — A varnish for wood, etc.; a solution of
hard gums of different colours in alcohol. It is an old-time
Eastern invention in its application to wood, and lacquering
is still largely practised in China and Japan. Europe was
made acquainted with it through the Dutch about two cen-
turies ago, when wooden clock-cases, etc., were sent out
plain and returned lacquered and gilded, as part cargoes in
"teaships."

Lacustrine Habitations.— The remains of human dwellings of
great antiquity, constructed on certain lakes in Ireland,
Switzerland, England, etc. They seem to have been villages
built on piles or artificial mounds in shallow waters for de-
fence against wolves, etc.

Ladder Rounds. — The rounded steps of a ladder, variantly called

" staves."

Lading.— See " Bill of Lading."

Lag or Lagging. — ( 1 ) Thin sawn or riven wood or boarding, used as
false floors in buildings to carry plaster, daub, sawdust, etc.,
the object of which is to deaden sound between upper and
lower apartments ; another term is " sound- boarding." See
" Pugging." (2) " Lag," narrow boards laid on the ribs

( 75 ) [LAP

of centring to turn arches upon. (3) Narrow boards,
" lags " or " staves " of casks. (4) Aboard in a fence. See
" Stave."

Laid Yard of Flooring. — A trade term, especially in Yorkshire,
where the buyer only pays for as much tongued and grooved
wood as will actually lay or cover nine square feet ; thus,
5 in. p.t. & g. floor-boards ; this would mean selling them
as 4£ in. boards. See " Square " and " Flooring, a Square
of."

Lamao is a Philippine whitewood, with mahogany stripe. It is
of very close texture, similar to Bataan, but softer. It
can be used for all purposes for which a cheap mahogany
is required, as it takes the stain and polish, and when
polished is hard to distinguish from real mahogany. It is
specially attractive to the furniture trade, where cheap
furniture is turned out, and where it is not desired to use
expensive lumber. It should also appeal to the railway and
shipbuilding trades.

Lamb's Tongue Moulding. — A kind of moulding used principally
in the manufacture of doors, windows and casements of
sashes.

Laminated. — Layers of one, or various woods cemented together.

Laminated Wood. — Boards built up of several thin pieces or layers
of wood glued together ; a variant but not pupular term for
"three-ply" and "multi-ply" boards.

Lancashire Boilers. — A long, cylindrical-shaped boiler having
two flues, side by side, passing through the entire length of
the boiler.

Lancewood (Ducjueliaquitarensis). — A very fine and dense-grained
hardwood imported from the West Indies.

Landing, or Landing-place. — A place on the shore of a sea, lake or
river where persons land or goods are put on shore ; (2) The
first part of a floor at the top of a flight of stairs or steps, also
the " resting-places," which may occur in any part thereof ;
the latter may be called " half -landings " or " quarter-
landings," or " half-spaces " or " quarter-spaces," and the
main one a " top landing."

Landing Account. — A statement compiled by dock companies of
the particulars of goods landed.

Landing Order. — A document authorizing the dock company or
wharfinger to receive goods from a ship.

Lap Milling Machine. — A machine in which a small milling cutter
is used for tapering the ends of a band saw, forming an over-
lapping joint, giving it the proper bevel for making a lap
joint by means of brazing.

LAT] ( 76 )

Lapboards or Lapping Boards. — Thin boards on which bolts of
cloth are wound. Also known as " Clothboards."

Larboard and Starboard. — Larboard (now commonly " port
side ") is the left side of ship as she advances on her course ;
" starboard ':i is the right, or opposite. The latter is a
variant of " steer-board," the board by which a vessel was
guided in the water before the mechanism of the helm
became common. At the root of this latter we have the
"north" or "pole-star" cynosure, otherwise the "lode-
star " or " leadstar," which served the purpose of the com-
pass before that instrument was invented ; hence a " steer-
man " on a ship is properly a " starman."

Larch (Pinus larix or Larix Europa). — Introduced into this coun-
try in the eighteenth century. Flourishes in almost every
kind of soil, in cold climates and the most exposed positions.
Grows faster and contains more gum and resin than any
other home-grown tree. Used by railway contractors (for
fences, posts and sleepers), boatbuiklers and wheelwrights.

Lath and a Half. — Extra stout laths.

Lathe. — A machine for turning concentric-shaped articles which
are caused to revolve while under the action of the cutting
tool.

Latlie, or Lathes, Foot Power.— (1) The oldest form is the "pole-
lathe," with reciprocative action, i.e., a spring-pole over-
head, a cord wrapped round the wood to be turned, and
extended to a floor-treadle ; still used for spindle-ends.
(2) A lathe, rotary action, which receives its motion by means
of a crank and treadle worked by one foot of the operator,
or by additional foot-help. See " Turner."

Lathes, Gauge. — Lathes specially constructed for turning out
a large number of similar articles. One is used for roughing
out the piece to the required shape, and a tool of the exact
profile required for finishing the article to the exact shape
and size.

Lathes, Self-acting. — Lathes provided with a slide rest, which is
automatically traversed along the bed of the machine, in-
stead of the cutting tool being guided by the operator's hands.

Lath-river. — See "Rive and River," "Rend and Render," and
" Split and Splitter."

Laths. — See " Plasterers' Laths " and " Tile Laths."

Lathwood. — Specially selected straight-grained fir-timber suit-
able for being riven. Imported in half or part-round billets,
from which the hearts have been extracted. Sold by the
fathom of 216 cubic ft. (6 ft. x 6 ft. x 6 ft). A fathom.

I 77 ) [LIG

(6 ft. x 6 ft. of wood) contains 3ft, long, 108 ft. ; 3^ ft., 126;
4ft., 144; 4J ft., 162; 5ft., 180; 6ft., 216; 7 ft., 252 ;
8 ft,, 288 cubic ft,

Lathwood-culls. — Culls from riven billets lowered in quality, or
reduced to firewood value, from being coarse or knotty, but
mostly from being twisted in the grain, i.e., interlocked on
the edges, and being old, dry and thus difficult or impossible
to rive. See " Cull, Culls, and Culler."

Lattice and Latticework. — From "latte," a "lath," which, cross-
ing at different angles, form networks or screens. It is a
class of work carried to marvellous perfection in the East,
an apology for which only exists in the West, and that mostly
in fixed or portable plain sheets for garden work.

Lauan. — -A Philippine wood used in naval construction because
it does not split with shot.

Laurel (Cerasus laurocerasus). — An English tree of no commercial
importance, but the wood is hard and of good quality.

Lead is the " rake " or angle to which the teeth of saws incline.
Leads. — Deals sawn into twelve or more thin boards.

Lean-to. — A shed or building annexed to the wall of a larger one,
the roof of which is formed in a single slope with the top
resting against the wall of the principal building. In the
South it is sometimes called a " to-fall." It has much the
same meaning as " pent-house " (which see).

Legal Tender. — The tender of not more than twelve pence in
copper or forty shillings in silver to settle a debt. Gold and
Treasury Notes are the only legal tender for amounts over
£2, and Bank of England notes are a legal tender for amounts
exceeding £5, but the creditor cannot be compelled to give
change, whether for gold or notes.

Letter Wood (Amanoa guianensis). — A striped fancy wood im-
ported from Guiana. Called by the French " Lettre rouge."
Also called " Snakewood."

Level. — An instrument by which to find or draw a straight line
parallel to the plane of the horizon, as the " carpenter's
level," " mason's level," etc. The " spirit level " has of
late become the most popular.

Lever. — From the French or Latin tongue "levier" = to raise.
A bar of wood or other substance, turning on a support
called the fulcrum or prop. It is an instrument much in use
as affording one of the mechanical powers. Ash is a favourite
wood for conversion into levers.

Lightning Fixed Knife Planer. — Sometimes called Hazeland
Planer. Consisting of fixed knives, the edges of which

LIV] ( 78 )

slightly project above the table level. The wood is passed
over the knives by means of a large rubber-covered roller.
They are called lightning planers owing to the very high
speed at which the work is performed.

Lignine is the incrusting matter contained within the cellular
tissues, which gives hardness to wood.

Lignum Vitee. — The Ouaiacum officinalis — a tree, native of the
warm latitudes of America and some of the West Indian
islands. The wood is firm, heavy, resinous, the heartwood
blackish. Used in medicine ; wrought into wheels, cogs and
many articles, tools, and turnery.

Lilac (Syringa vulgar-is). — A hard native wood, beautifully
marked, and used by the turner and cabinet-maker, but of
little commercial importance.

Lime (Tilia Euro-pea). — A tree that is common to Europe but
not indigenous to this country. It is plentiful, however, in
the southern counties, being largely used for park and street
planting. It produces a soft, light and close-grained wood,
which in former times was principally used for wood carving.
At the present time, however, its chief employment is for
making boards for the leather cutters, and for action
work in pianoforte making. Much used in Russia for the
manufacture of bast matting. Known also as the Linden.
The wood imported from the United States as Basswood is
produced from a species of lime. — Tilia Americana.

Linden. — See " Lime."

Linings. — Narrow strips of wood dressed with groove and feather,
for the inside boarding of houses, usually J in., f in., fin.,
and | in. in thickness. They vary with their use, as sash-
linings, window-linings, etc.

Lintel. — A horizontal piece cf timber to be placed over an
opening.

Live Rollers. — Rollers which are driven by power, and used to
convey timbers, boards and slabs from one machine to
another in a mill.

Liverpool String Measurement. — A method of measuring the cubic
contents of logs and other round timber. All timber in
the log at present sold on Liverpool string measure is
sold arid measured £ in. in girth, | ft. in length, and
contented out to cubic feet and twelfths, measurers
using either girthing-tape or string. Girth is ascertained
by tape as far as possible, otherwise by string at the option
of the seller. In the case of round timber, if measured over
bark, allowance is made for bark i in. on 11 2- in. and

( 79 ) [LOW

under, 1 in. on 12 to 17 1 in., and an additional \ in. for every
6 ins. or part thereof over. Allowances for defective logs
as customary.

Lloyds. — The headquarters of the underwriters, especially of
marine risks, so called as their original meeting place was
Lloyd's coffee-house. Lloyd's-rooms now form part of the
Royal Exchange, and are under the management of a com-
mittee. See " Underwriter."

Load. — A load of timber unhewn, 40 cubic ft. ; squared softwood
timber, 50 cubic ft. ; 1 in. plank, 600 sq. ft. ; 11 in. plank, 400
sq. ft. ; 2 in. plank, 300 sq. ft. ; 2^ in. plank, 240 sq. ft. ; 3 in.
plank, 200 sq. ft. ; 3i in. plank, 1 70 sq. ft.; 4 in. plank, 1 50 sq. ft.
In the Board of Trade Returns and other Government
statistics timber is always returned by the load and not by
the standard.

Lock. — Anglo-Saxon loc, a fastening. (1) Applied to an instru-
ment for fastening a door, a lid, a trunk, etc., also to fasten
with a lock and key. (2) Among engineers, a place where
the current or stream of a river is stopped, variantly a lock-
pit.

Lock Rail. — The middle or horizontal rail of a door to which the

lock or fastening is fixed.
Locust Tree. — See " Acacia."
Loft. — A room in the roof of a building ; a gallery or small

chamber raised within, a larger apartment, or in a church, or

a music loft (musician's gallery), a singing loft, or a rood-loft.

It is the final syllable in " cock-loft," i.e., the " top-loft."

Log. — An instrument for measuring the rate of a ship's motion.
The trunk of a tree ready for conversion.

Log-board. — A couple of boards shutting like a book on which the
logs are entered. It may be termed the waste-book, and
the log-book the journal.

Log Run. — In softwoods, merchantable lumber of all grades, as
it comes from the saw ; in hardwoods, the full run of the log
with No. 3 common out.

Log Saws are of four classes : band, horizontal and vertical,
reciprocating and rack benches (which see).

Logwood (Hcematoxylon campechianum). — A very hard wood
found in the West Indies and Central America. Used as a
dyewood, but not of much commercial value.

Lorry. — See "Lurry."

Lower Ports. — Shipping places in Canada, broadly speaking which
are situated in the Gaspe Peninsula, New Brunswick and
Nova Scotia.

MAC] ( 80 )

Lumber.— A term used in America for timber sawed or split for
use.

Lumber Gauge. — A tool used to measure the thickness of a board,
or to determine the accuracy of the manufacture of the
tongue and groove which have been cut on a piece of planed
timber.

Lumber Jack. — One who works in a logging camp.

Lumber Trimmers. — A name given to a series of cross-cut saws,
each on a separate hinged carriage, and so arranged that
any one or more of them may be brought into cut and so
trim off the ends of a plank and cut it into the required
lengths.

Lumper and Lumpers. — A " lumper " is a labouring man whose
office it is to load and unload ships in harbour. Lumpers
are a body of men so employed who usually do the work
" in gross," or for a " lump-sum " ; such bodies are called
gangs, their head man " a ganger," but alternatively a
" stevedore" (which see), each of which, as men of business,
may be actual employers of the "lumpers" or "gang-
men."

Lurry. — A timber wagon. Also known as lorry.

M

Machine-saw or Saws. — Consist of thin blades, discs or bands of
steel with teeth cut on their edges. There are three types :
(1) Worked with a reciprocating motion, cutting in one
direction of the stroke only. See " Horizontal Frame,"
"Fretsaw," etc. (2) Circular saws used in a large number
of different machines. See " Rack-bench," " Joiner's
Benches," " Roller-feed Benches." (3) Band-saws : end-
less ribbons of steel running over top and bottom or pairs
of horizontal pulleys. See " Band-saws," " Plain Band-
saws." See " Engineer."

Machine Sawing. — A term used to distinguish it from hand saw-
ing on the pit ; it takes various forms with different machines
from log-frames to fretwork machines, and so embraces the
whole field of sawing, cutting, ripping, etc. See " Falling
Cut." See " Engineer."

Machinist. — An operator of wood-working machines, as distinct
from a " mechanic " — a maker of machines.

( 81 ) [MAH

Magnolia (Magnolia grandiflora). — A tree indigenous to the South-
ern States of America. The wood is used for cabinet work
and interior decoration.

Mahogany is possibly a native Indian " tree-name " that
came to the surface — early fifteenth century — after the
wood was handled by white-men as " cedar," which latter
made its appearance in Britain in the last half of the seven-
teenth century. This old name " cedar " clings to the soft
" Havana cedar." With the opening of the twentieth
century the trade largely changed its ground to West Africa,
where woods, somewhat related to the true Central American
mahoganies, abound : the characteristics are medium and hard
wood, red in colour. See " Havana Cedar " and " Fashion-
able Woods."

The beauty of mahogany arises from its being cross-
grained, or presenting the fibres' endways or obliquely on
the surface — these positions on the fibres, as well as their
different colours, give a clouded and mottled variety to the
surface ; and when some of the parts are partially trans-
parent, they give rise to a variety of lights and shades, as
the observer shifts his place, and reflect them in the most
varied manner, like the surface of a crystal. This overlap-
ping of the fibres, and their varied colours, are the occasion
of the singular appearance which the surface of a dining table
will present to two persons when seated opposite to each
other. From one side of the table portions will seem to
be quite light, but in the same seen from an opposite point
of view the contrary effect of deep shade will be produced ;
and this is the reason why no painter can correctly imitate
mahogany. — (From The Mahogany Tree.) See also " Figure
in Mahogany."

" Expensive Mahogany — Specimen of the finest Honduras
mahogany in regard to figure and quality ever grown.
This single tree contained 390 cubic ft. broker's measure
(i.e., 4,684 ft. of inch), and was bought unopened by Messrs.
Broadwood for the manufacture of pianos at the price of
£1,781, in 1849, supposed to be the most valuable tree in
the world, and after it was opened, £2,000 was offered for it
and refused."

The above inscription is framed in the London office of
Messrs. Broadwood.

Mahogany Measure. — A special measure for mahogany which
allows 1 J in. in 12 in. width and thicknesses, and also makes
allowances in the length for defects in the log. The differ-
ence between Mahogany and Calliper measure usually runs
to from 25 to 30 per cent.

G

MAN] ( 82 )

Maiden Wood is a term principally associated with ash-trees.
One young and fairly endowed with full meed of elasticity
is termed " a maiden ash " : by the side of an older or fully
developed tree it may be said to be in the company of its
mother, for all trees, poetically and otherwise, are of the
feminine gender. See " Ash." See " Stool and Stooled."

Main Tram Pieces. — See " Solebars."

Mall or Maul. — -A wooden hammer, a variant of which is " beetle "
and "mallet" (ivhich see; also "Plank, Deal, or Board
Stower").

Mallet. — A wooden hammer, originally a military weapon of
known but now varied size : it is another term for " beetle "
and " mall " or " maul " (ivhich see}.

Malodorous Woods. — Or woods which in a converted form
emit offensive odours. An example of this class is the round
(so called) mahogany, shipped from Gaboon in West Africa.
A mill-man sawing such wood is apt to endow it with an
Anglicized form of a well-known but unidentified Biblical
wood. The nomenclature of wood, in and belonging to
America, is expressive on this point, instance : " Fetid
Buckeye," " Fetid Yew," " Stinking Ash," " Stinking
Cedar," etc. This, if a shortcoming in Nature, is there
counterbalanced by a number of sweet and " ocloriferus
woods " (which see).

Mandrel.— See " Saw Arbor."

Mangle Rollers. — Maple, sycamore, and lignum vitas, cut to the
desired lengths out of quartered wood and into octagonal
blocks of regulated size, for the wringing machine industry,
an important market for which is Keighley in Yorkshire.

Manifest. — A ship's document, being a detailed statement of a
cargo of goods, imported or laden for export, to be exhibited
at the custom-house by the master of the vessel or the owner
or shipper.

Mansard Roof. — A roof formed with an upper and under set of
rafters on each side, the under set less and the upper more
inclined to the horizon. It is a favourite French form,
taking its name from FraiiQois Mansard, said to be its inven-
tor. It is variantly called a " curb-roof," from the double
inclination of its sides.

Mantel-piece. — A modern " fire-place " fitment that grew out
of the older " mantel-tree " and " mantel-shelf " (ivhich see)
ditto " Over-mantel."

Mantel-shelf. — A domestic shelf of prime importance fixed on
the "mantel-tree" (which see) when those beams wore low,

( 83 ) [MAT

and the articles stored were within easy reach. The old
idea is retained in the modern and less picturesque " mantel-
piece."

Mantel-tree. — A beam that forms the head or front of a fire-place,
reminiscent of the days when fires were heaped on the floors
or hearths. It is a by no means solitary instance of " tree "
being used as a variant of " wood " or " timber." See
" Mantel-shelf."

Maple (Acer). — A hard fine-gvained wood similar, but harder
than sycamore. The tree attains no great size in this
country, and supplies are principally derived from North
America. A great part of the import to this country con-
sists of manufactured flooring, for which purpose it has few
rivals, minor supplies comprising planks and boards in lum-
ber form. Its uses are confined to objects used in the tex-
tile trades, to the manufacture of rollers and in a limited way
to articles employed in the printing trades. From this
American grown tree the beautiful bird's-eye figured wood
is obtained, and quantities of syrup that is afterwards made
into sugar are extracted in Canada and the United States.

Margin. — A variation, mutually allowed by custom or practice in
the precise conditions in a contract, generally expressed by
the word " about." Referring to quantities the margin is
generally understood to mean 5 to 10 per cent, more or 5 to
10 per cent, less than the quantity stated in the contract.
The percentage of margin varies according to the custom of
the particular port of shipment. In f.o.b. and c.i.f. business
the margin is understood to be allowed for convenience of
chartering, and when several vessels are loaded under a
particular contract it only applies to the last vessel loading
under such contract. In present-day contracts for North
European wood goods the margin allowed is expressly de-
fined and limited to a certain quantity irrespective of the
quantity sold.

Marquetry. — The art of inlaying wood with wood of other colours,
or with various other materials, as metal, ivory, shell, etc.

Mast. — (1) A piece of timber elevated perpendicularly on the
keel of a ship, from which comes the term " mast-piece," a
suitable piece for a mast, and " mast-hunter," a pioneer in
a fir- wood forest marking or " blazing " the cream of the
trees. (2) The fruit of certain forest trees : acorns, nuts, etc.

Match. — A splint of wood, capped by a combustible composition :
much reduced in size from the old " brimstone-match " by
the introduction of the Congreve and Lucifer matches in
the first half of the nineteenth century, of which the " safety
match " is an outgrowth.

MET] ( 84 )

Match Boards or Matched Boards. — Boards, variantly called
" matched-linings," grooved and tongued on the edges, the
tongue being formed in the solid, expressed " p.t. & g. " ;
or, if V-jointed, " p.t.g. & V- joint," with the substitu-
tion of ' B " if " beaded " instead of " V-joint " ; others
are rebated instead of tongued and grooved and expressed
" R. "

Match Splints. — Thin wooden sticks for making matches. They
are cut double the length of matches and are crosscut after
the ends have been dipped and supplied with the striking
material.

Matched. — Any form of joint in wood ; usually applied to
tongued and grooved jointing; or " matched in figure," with
fancy or ornamental wood in veneer form.

Matched Linings.— See "Match Boards."

Mattress Scantling. — Wood (generally pitch pine) cut to size,
for making the frame to which mattress wires are attached.

Mauerlatten. — A German word, formerly employed to signify
wood used for the framing of buildings. Small logs, mostly
8 ; 9, 10 x 10, and 11 : 11, exported from the Baltic;
chiefly from Riga and neighbourhood.

Measure and Measurement. — See "Customs Measure," "Cus-
tomary Measure," "Actual Measure " and " Hoppus's
Measure."

Medullary Rays. — Compressed cellular tissues which usually run
continuously from the pith to the bark. They are present
in all exogenous trees, but only become apparent to the
naked eye in a limited number, at the head of which stands
the oak and includes the beech and plane. This constitutes
the beauty of figure termed " Silver-grain " (which see).
In other trees the rays or figtire from this source are said to
be " obscure."

Merblanc. — A special form of charterparty for shipments from
the. White Sea.

Merchantable. — In general commerce a term applied to goods
fit for market ; or such as are usually sold in market ; or
such as will bring the ordinary price. In the timber trade
it is used as a technical designation for a particular kind of
assortment. Oregon fir, for instance, is graded for export
as prime (clear), select and merchantable, and a lower grade
of pitch pine timber, sawn and planed lumber is called mer-
chantable.

Metric Foot. — Tlu's is strictly a facon de parler, as a foot is not
a metrical measure. In many French, Dutch and Belgian

( 85 ) [MOR

contracts a clause is inserted that " Lengths be cut in metric
feet, thicknesses and breadths in English measure." Taking
the metre as 3'2S09 ft., a metric foot is one-third, i.e., a
little over 13 in., and the wood is adjusted accordingly to
comply with Continental demands.

Middle Cuts. — Lengths cut from the middle of the tree or log.

Middling. — A term vised in connection with wood-goods, of middle
rank or quality; for instance, in Danzig timber, "best,"
" good middling " and " common middling."

Mill Culls. — An American expression for the poorest quality of
wood produced, practically refuse.

Mill Run. — The product as classified by the particular mill. In
America all saleable timber which the log makes and which
is sold without being sorted.

Mill Webs. — Straight saws employed in sawing machines with a
reciprocating motion.

Mille (Latin milk, a thousand ).— Used in the " stave " and
" Welsh-slate " trades to imply " twelve hundred " ; those
trades retaining the now nearly obsolete Teutonic " long-
hundred " of six-score, against the more popular five-score.
See " Stave " notes and " Slate " notes.

Millwright. — Properly a wright or artificer in wood, who made
or constructed mills ; the term has of late extended to
" smiths " or " workers in iron," who should, to be exact,
be called "mill-smiths."

Mitre. — A junction, usually at an angle acute or obtuse ; the line
formed by the meeting of mouldings or other surfaces, which
intersect or intercept each other as an angle.

Mitre-block. — A wrought block of wood usually of hard texture,
rebated as the seat of wood to be operated upon or cut into
mitre form — practically a "saw-guide." See ''Mitre-
plane."

Mitre-plane. — A special hand-plane made to traverse on its side,
and true or plane the mitres as they come from the saw.

Monger. — A trader ; a dealer ; chiefly used in composition, as
ironmonger ; cheesemonger ; and fishmonger ; of this type
the wood-dealer was until a century or more back, when he
honoured the call of " wood-monger " (ivhich see).

Monkey. — The hammer of a piledriver. Known also as " Ram."

Montants. — The intermediate stiles in a piece of framing which
are tenoned into the rails. Variantly called mountins.

Mora (Dimorphandra excelsa).—A dense, strong wood imported
from Guiana and Trinidad, chestnut brown or red in colour.

MOU] ( 86) ______^

Mortise or Mortise-hole. — A cut or hollow place made in timber
as the receptacle of a " tenon " (which see).

Mortise-chisel. — A hand-power or machine tool or implement
specially made and shaped for cutting or sinking mortises.

Mortising and Boring Machine. — A machine capable of boring a
hole or of cutting a mortise in a piece of wood. These are
of different types: actuating chisels, chains, hollow chisels,
and revolving bits.

Mottle. — Figure transverse of the fibres, doubtfully caused by the
action of wind upon the tree. Distinctive names are given
to the various forms the figure takes. See "Mahogany
Figure."

Mould. — (1) The short or abbreviate of "moulding "(which
see). (2) A matrix of sand or other substance in which to
found or cast objects in brass, iron, lead, plaster, cement,
etc. See " Stick and Sticking," " Planting Mouldings "
and " Scratch Mouldings."

Moulding. — A general term applied to all the varieties of outline
or contour given to angles of various subordinate parts and
features of buildings. The varieties are legion, the most
popular worked in wood are the stragal or bead, the Ogee,
Reverse Ogee, Ovalo, Scotia, and Torus. In high-class work
they are capable of considerable enrichment ; instance, " Egg
and Tongue " and " Egg and Spear " mouldings.

Moulding Iron Grinder. — See " Dry Emery Grinder."
Moulding Machines. — Machines capable of cutting on four edges
at one time, and with pressures specially designed for dealing
with mouldings. See " Moulding Machines — Single and
Double Spindle."

Moulding Machines — Single and Double Spindle. — In which one
or two vertical spindles are used for planing and moulding
wood. More generally used for wood of irregular form.
The object of two spindles on one machine is to enable
irregular work to be planed as nearly as possible with the
grain. This is achieved by running the spindles in opposite
directions.

Mountain Ash (Sorbus aucuparia or Pyrus aucuparia). — A firm
and fine-grained wood found in Evirope, Asia and N. America,
but more cultivated for underwood than for timber. Thrives
best in mountainous districts even at an altitude of 2,500
ft. Used by wheelwrights, turners, and (when in sufficient
size) for the same purposes as ash ; also for hop poles,
broom and rake handles, bows (for archery) and hoops,
Known as the Rowan Tree, Roan Tree, Wiggen Tree, Quicken
Tree, Roddan, Wichen Tree, Quick Beam, Fowler's Service
Tree and the Wild Sorb.

( 87 ) [NAI

Mounting. — A term used for the intermediate vertical parts of
a door.

Mouse. — A crooked bar of lead about the length of the body of
a mouse, with an eye for a string at one end. In hanging
sashes or replacing broken cords it is an essential tool or
instrument. In use, it is put over the "sash-pulley,"
allowed to fall in the box of the sash-frame and be recovered
at the " sash-pocket." The " sash-cord " is fastened to
the tail-end of the mouse-string and is pulled down into
place after it. See " Sash-pocket."

Mulay Saw. — A long stiff saw which is worked by a pitman
attached to the lower end. The upstroke is accomplished
by means of a spring pole or some similar device.

Mulberry. — An English ornamental tree, with smooth wood
of rich colour and beautiful grain. The wood is durable
and used by cabinet makers. It is probably better known
for its leaves which are used as food for silkworms. Grows
well in towns even when exposed to smoke.

Mulliou. — A vertical division between the lights of windows,
screens, etc.

Multiple Spindle Dovetailing Machine. — In which a number of
spindles are used for cutting all the dovetails required in
the edge of a board at one operation. The cutters used are
dovetail in shape and act on two boards, one laid on a table
horizontally and the other fixed vertically enabling dovetail
and pin to be shaped at the same time.

Multi-ply Boards. — See " Three-ply, Plywood or Built-up
Boards " and " Built-up Boards or Stock."

Muntin. — See " Drawbore."

Myall. — An Australian acacia. The wood is dark brown,
beautifully marked and violet scented. Used for fancy
work and tobacco pipes.

N

Nailing Machines for Boxes. — Machines by means of which boxes
and packing cases are nailed together. The nails are placed
in a hopper and are automatically driven into the wood in
the required positions.

NOS] ( 88 )

Natural Order. — In Botany Linnaeus divided known plants into
two divisions, one of which he divided into twenty-three
classes, or in all twenty-four classes ; those classes he sub-
divided into orders, or " natural " orders, which serve as
the practical working bases in particularizing trees ; instance,
an oak — natural order, " Cupuliferge," or " Corylacese " ;
genera, " Quercus " ; species, " Robur." Since his time
changes in classification have taken place. The English
oak, Q. Robur, embraced a variety which has been advanced
to a species, the two now stand Q. pedunculata and Q. sessili-
flora. See " Genera " and " Species."

Nave. — (1) The block in the centre of a wheel, from which the
spokes radiate and through which the axle passes. Called
also hub or hole and stock. (2) The middle of the church
(excluding the aisles).

Nave Mortising and Boring Machines.— Machines specially con-
structed for mortising the naves of wheels ready to receive
the spokes.

New Style. — The reformed or Gregorian Calendar, adopted in
England in 1753, when eleven days were dropped or left out.

Newel. — A post at the end of a flight of stairs, to carry the hand-
rail or for the steps to work round.

Nib, Lip or Tongue. — A term applied to the upper back part of
an earthenware roof -tile ; it is a projection or lip, a feature
in " hanging tiles," by which the tile is hung on the " tile-
lath." See " Tile " and " Pantile,"

Nick and Notch. — To cut in notches or make indentations on
wood, especially in the instance of " tally-sticks " (which
see). "Notch" is another term for "trench" cut in the
" wall-strings " of staircases to receive and hold the ends
of the wooden steps — hence a " string-board " may variantly
be called a " notch-board."

Nogs. — Wooden bricks, introduced here and there into walls,
for the purpose of fastening internal fittings, window frames,
etc.

Nominal Horse-Power. — A term used to denote the approximate
horse-power of an engine. As the name does not give any
exact rating it has been generally discarded. The actual
power of an engine is generally expected to be 3£ times its
nominal power. See " Brake Horse- Power."

Nominal Measure. — The full measure of a board before it is
planed or dressed.

North Carolina Pine. — See " Pitch Pine."
Nosed. — -Rounded on one edge.

( 89 ) [OAK

Nosing. — The projecting edge of a moulding "step," "tread,"
or " drip." See " Scroll-step."

Notch.— See "Nick."
Notch-board. — See " String-board."

Nursery. — A plantation or group of trees, mechanically trained,
attended, or nursed into regular order until they approach
maturity.

Nursery-man. — A person whose office it is to attend upon a
nursery of plants or young trees, also applied to the pro-
prietor of a business in which such are grown and sold.

Nut Gall. — An excrescence caused by insect action on oak trees,
otherwise called " oak galls," "gall nuts."

Nut-tree. — The hazel tree, Corylus avellana. Linnaeus found
this growing in a wild state in many woods and coppices
in Great Britain. The wood is employed for hoops, fishing-
rods, walking-sticks, crate making, and other purposes.
The nuts are articles of food, and produce oil little inferior
to olive oil.

o

Oak (Quercus). — A genus of trees of the natural order Cupuliferoe,
bearing a round nut called an acorn, natives of temperate
and tropical countries. Europe produces a few species, but
many are found in America. It also grows in mountainous
districts of the torrid zone and at low elevations in the
Himalayas, while some even grow at the level of the sea
in the Malay Peninsula and Indian islands. None are found
in the peninsula of India, Ceylon, tropical Africa, Australia
or South America. See " Japanese Oak,'*" " Evergreen or
Holm Oak," " Red Oak," " Scarlet Oak," " Willow Oak,"
"Turkey Oak " —others, not here noted, as "Austrian
Oak " (Q. Austriaca) ; " Spanish Oak " (Q. Hispanica).
The name " oak " is sometimes popularly applied to trees
of a different genera, as for instance " African Oak," which
is another name for African teak. In like manner the
" Swamp Oak " of Australia is an alias for beef- wood ; the
Stone Oak of Java is specifically the Lithocarpus juvenensis.

Oak Apple.— See " Nut Gall."

ONO] ( 90 )

Oak Tree Leafing. — The tradition is, if the oak gets into leaf
before the ash, we may expect a fine and productive year.
In 1831, 1832, 1839, 1853 and 1860 the two species of trees
came into leaf about the same time. In 1818, '19, '20, '22,
'24, '25, '26, '27, '33, '34, '35, '36, '37, '42, '46, '54, '68 and
'69 the oak displayed its foliage several weeks before the
ash. See "Ash Trees Leafing."

Oaks (noted) in England. — Owen Glendower's oak, Cowthorpe
oak, Fairlop oak, the Bull oak, the Winfarthing oak, William
the Conqueror's oak, Queen's oak, Sir Philip Sydney's oak,
the Ellerslie oak, the Greendale oak, the Swilcar oak, etc.
Vide "Brewer's Phrase and Fable."

Oddments. — A term applied to the remainder of stocks or ship-
ments, otherwise broken specifications. In the Canadian
trade the term is applied to all goods under 12 ft. 3 in. by
11 in.

Odoriferous Woods (from "odour," smell, scent, fragrance, a sweet
or an offensive smell) are numerous. There are few woods
which, in a newly split, sawn, or riven state, fail to emit
some distinctive odour ; instance, the oak, the elm, and the
lime. Amongst those of a specially fragrant type is the
"American pencil-cedar," the Australian "Raspberry-
jam ' ' and ' ' Rio Rosewood. " It may be noted that odoriferous
woods are not favoured as happy hunting grounds by wood-
boring insects. See " Malodoroiis Woods."

Offer.— See "On Offer" and "Offer Off."

Offset Device. — Used to set the log clear of the saw on the back-
ward motion of the carriage. Usually automatic in its
action.

Ogee or O.G. — A moulding of two members, one concave and the
other convex. A contraction of " Old Greek."

Old Style. — The unreformed calendar, still in use in Russia.
There are now thirteen days difference between Old Style and
New Style, eg., Jan. 1st 6.S. = Jan. 14 N.S.

Olive Tree (Olea Europea) and Wood. — Considered the emblem
of prosperity. David says, " I am like a green olive tree
in the house of God " (Ps. lii. 8). The wood is beautifully
veined and works with a pleasing odour. Objects from the
Holy Land are invariably wrought or turned in this wood.
This species is more valued for the fruit and oil it yields
than for its wood.

On Offer, and Offer Off. — Popular terms in the ivood trade, especi-
ally in the import department or section ; they relate to
goods sent out on offer, which, although still unsold, the

( 91 ) [OVE

offer either to sell or to buy for some reason is withdrawn
or declared off.

Order. — In architecture, a column entire ; base, shaft, capital,
and entablature ; usually said to be five : Tuscan, Doric, Ionic,
Corinthian and Composite, the latter called also Roman.
The term is also applied to the divisions, ribs or recesses of
an arch in Gothic architecture.

Oregon Pine or Fir (Pseudotsuga Douglasii), — One of the largest
coniferous trees in existence, reaching 200 to 300 ft. in height
and with a diameter of from 27 to 120 ft. It exists in exten-
sive stands in British Columbia and Vancouver in Canada,
and also in Washington and Oregon in the United States.
The wood is largely used in all parts of the world for ship-
building, piles, sleepers and constructive work of all kinds.
Also known as Columbian and Douglas pine or fir.

Orel Poles. — A local name amongst farmers in the Worcester-
shire district for Alder Poles.

Orham Wood. — This name is probably a corruption of the French
word " orme," a term for elm. It is a species of elm and
imported from Canada. The wood is of a light brown
colour, and has many of the characteristics of the common,
elm of this country. The moderate supplies that come
forward to these markets are principally utilized for coffin
making.

Osage Orange (Madeira aurantiaca). — A tree found in Arkansas
and Texas, formerly used for bows and arrows, now used
for wheelwright work and turnery. Called by the French
"Bois d'arc."

Osier or Crack Willow (Salix fragilis). — An English wood, seldom
allowed to reach the timber stage, but cut while underwood
for basket making and wickerwork. See "Willow."

Out of Wind. — True or free from twist.

Over. — As in " overdraw," " overdue," " over-trade," " over-
board," " overcharge," " overweight," " overfreight," " over-
grown," "overhaul," "overheated," "overladen," "over-
measure," " overplus," " oversold," " overstock," " over-
weight " and " overwork " are understood trade-terms in
daily use, implying excess. See " Under " for their opposites.

Over and Under Planing Machine. — A machine similar to a panel
planer but provided with a top table also, so that the work
may be passed over the cutter by hand, and trued up, taking
out any twist, and afterwards passed under the cutter by
means of a roller feed, and finished to a uniform thickness.

Overhead Price. — A single price for all classes, instead of separate
prices for different sizes, qualities, etc.

PAD] ( 92 )

Overhead Travelling Crane. — Consisting of girders spanning a
building, etc., and provided with wheels to run on rails.
Supported on overhead gantries, along which it travels by
hand or power gear. The lifting is effected by means of a
crab which traverses across the span on the main girders
of the crane. Modern cranes of this type are often provided
with three electric motors, one for lifting, one for cross
traverse, and a third for moving along the gantry.

Over-mantel.- — A special fitment in wood, stone, or plaster, to
which sculpture, carving, and painting may be added, that
occupies the space intervening between the mantel and the
ceiling of an apartment ; it is usually found to be the most
ornate part of an interior dating from the fifteenth to the
nineteenth century. See "Mantle-tree," "Mantel-shelf,"
and " Mantel-piece."

Ovolo. — A moulding, the vertical section of which is in Roman
architecture a quarter of a circle. In Grecian architecture
it is elliptical, or, rather, egg-shaped.

Oxylene. — A process claimed to render wood uninflammable.
See " Fireproofing Timber."

Packing Cases. — Large boxes used for packing goods or mer-
chandise for transit, mostly in the export trade. Those
of small size are usually termed " boxes," or " cases."
Plywood is now playing an active part in this branch of
the wood trade.

Packing-case Wood. — Sawn wood, not of a high class, used in
making " packing-cases." Some large consumers elect
to use "logs" or "square whitewood sleeper-blocks"
and convert them into boards. See " Packing Cases."
See "Firewood."

Packing and Packing Pieces. — Mainly used in sawmills in connec-
tion with " circular saw beds " to pack or steady the saws
when running or cutting. They vary from hempen matter
to wood.

Pad Saw. — A small narrow saw fitted to a handle or pad, into
which it can be telescoped when not in use. See " Keyhole
Saw."

( 93 ) [PAN

Padouk (Pterocarpus indicus}. — A hard wood found in Burmah,
Siam and the Andaman Islands. In use for furniture and
decorative purposes

Pale =a narrow piece of wood. — Otherwise a "lag" (which
see), used in the boarding of fence-rails, open or close order.
It is the Latin " palus " which coincides with the English
" pole " and " pale," giving " palisade," " pale-fencing "
and the plural form " paling."

Paling. — A row of pales, pickets or stakes fastened together.
Also a vertical object or figure, as in heraldry.

Pan. — A piece of timber used in a building, otherwise called a
wall-plate.

Pane. — (1 ) The hewn or sawn surface of the log in sided timber.
(2) Implying a " panel," as in " post and pane " walls,
i.e. timber posts and stone, brick and plaster panels.

Panel. — A piece of board, whose edges are inserted in a frame.
The short of this, especially in old half-timber buildings,
is " pane " and " pan ': —hence " post and pan," a wall
of post and panel.

Panel Planing Machines. — Machines for planing wide boards
and panels, sometimes called Thicknessing Machines as
they reduce the wood to a uniform thickness. The wood
is passed under a revolving cutter head by means of feed
rollers, which are fitted both in front and at the back of
the cutters.

Panel Raising Machines. — A machine for forming raised panels,
generally consisting of a horizontal spindle fitted with suit-
able cutters. The panels are gripped in a carriage working
on a slide extending along the table of the machine, the
slide acting as a guide for the material as it is passed over
the cutters.

Panelling. — In architecture (1) the operation of covering or orna-
menting with panels. (2) Panelled work, i.e. formed with
panels. See " Panel."

Panels. — Thin boards used for filling in strong framing, as in doors,
shutters, etc.

Pantile. — A tile in the form of a parallelogram, straight in the
direction of its length, but with a waved surface trans-
versely, usually about 13| in. X 7 in. x i in. It has a
small tongue or projection to hook to the lath. The ridge
and hips of roofs covered with pan or plain tiles are
finished with large concave tiles, called hip or ridge tiles.
See "Tile."

PEE] ( 94 )

Paper Wood. — Round whitewood timber, cut to short lengths,
for the manufacture of wood pulp for paper making.

Parget and Pargetter. — Obsolete terms in architecture, for which
we may now read "plaster and plasterer"; the latter
obscures the still older English trade names of " daub and
dauber." " Parget " appears to have reached us from
Spanish sources, possibly from art workmen being imported
in Tudor times. " Parget- work " of an ornamental char-
acter for inside and outside decoration, especially of half-
timber buildings, occupied an important position in the
clay of Queen Elizabeth, examples of which remain. It is
only now known as rough-work in chimney-flues.

Parquet. — Flooring made in geometrical designs with coloured
hardwoods.

Parting Bead. — A slip inserted into the centre of the pulley stiles
of a window, to keep apart the upper and lower sashes.
See " Sash Window."

Parting Slip. — Properly a " lath of wood " fixed at its head only
in the box of a sash-frame to keep the " sash- weight " (which
see) apart when the casements are working. See " Sash
Window."

Patten-sole. — A wooden sole mounted on an iron ring to raise
it above the wet ground. It is distinct from the " clog-
sole " (ivhich see], although wrought in the same class of
wood, inasmuch as it is not intended to be used in direct
touch with the ground.

Pavers, Setts or Road-pavers. — Usually the " paving-stones "
or " cubes " of roadways ; occasionally extended as " floor-
pavers," " floor-tiles." The term " paving-setts " seems to
refer more to number of cubes than to their ultimate purpose.
See " Tile."

Paving Block Cross Cut. — A machine having a number of saws
equally spaced. These saws have a rising and falling motion,
cutting the wood blocks into suitable lengths. In some cases
the sliding motion is horizontal, or even the saws are attached
to a swinging arm.

Pear Tree (Pyrus communis). — Its wood is similar in its properties
to the apple tree and used for the same purposes, but some-
times preferred to it, being very slightly superior in quality.

Pedestal. — (1 ) In architecture, the base or foot of a column or
statue on which the upright work stands ; (2) in machinery,
a pillow block.

Peel and Peeling. — In the wood trade to remove the bark or outer
covering of a tree. These terms have of late attached

( 95 ) [PER

themselves to the " rotary-veneer cutting machines,"
formerly " scale-board cutting machines," now in the plywood
trade " peeling machines," as they slice,* slive,* or slash*
thin layers of wood off the round or tangential face of the
tree ; by which, as in " Bird's Eye Maple," the " eye " or
"slash-grain" or "slash-figure" is obtained. * See above
as headings.

Peeled. — Logs from which the bark has been removed.

Pencil or Virginian Cedar. — Otherwise "Red," etc., cedar (Juni-
perus virginiana). Largely a cabinet-maker's wood in
the last century, prized for its durability and its proof against
the worm, possibly from its strong odour or perfume, but
now practically a thing of the past. Its scarcity has pro-
duced a class in the land of its birth, called "pencil-men,"
to hunt and buy up cedar posts, rails or any old-time uses
to which it has been applied, the "pencil factories" of the
world claiming every available stick.

Pendulum Cross Cut Saws. — Consist of an arm with a saw spindle
at bottom running in suitable bearings and hinged on the
same centre as the countershaft which drives the saw.
The saw is fed on to the wood, by swinging the arm pendulum
fashion, hence its name.

Pent Roof. — A roof formed like an inclined plane, the slope being
all on one side. Called also a shed roof. The covering of a
" penthouse."

Pent-liouse. — Old forms " pentee " and " pentice,"an open shed
or projection over a door, window, flight of steps, etc., to
form a protection against the weather ; a shed standing
aslope from the main building. It has much the same
meaning as " lean-to " (ivhich see).

Per Procuration. — The authority given by a merchant, or other
principal, to his manager or agent to sign his name on letters,
etc., is called " power of procuration," and letters and docu-
ments are signed either "per pro. J. Robinson & Co.," or
" p.p. J. Robinson & Co.," with the name of the authorized
person underneath.

Perch or Perk. — (1 ) A pole, as a measure of length or square ;
(2) a staging in a builder's yard for storing on-end boards,
planks, poles or ladders. In this sense it implies something
erect.

Periphery. — See " Circumference."

Persimmon (Diospyros virginiana). — Known as " Date Plum."
A strong and tough wood imported from the Eastern States
of America and used for shuttles, etc.

PIT] I 96 )

Petrograd Standard. — See " St. Petersburg Standard."

Pickets. — Narrow strips of wood used for fencing.

Pilaster. — A debased pillar ; a square pillar projecting from a
pier or a wall to a portion of what would otherwise be its
square. It suggests the place of a detached pillar or column
if the wall was not there.

Pile. — (1) A large stake or piece of timber or " reinforced concrete,"
pointed and driven into the earth, as at the bottom of a
river, or in a harbour, or for a foundation, where the ground
is soft, for the support of a building, a pier, or other super-
structure, or to form a coffer-dam, etc. See " Pile-driver "
and " Beetle." (2) An iron column with a screw at its
point for screwing into the ground, often used in pier work
where the soil is tenacious clay = " a screw-pile."

Pile-driver. — A machine worked in a vertical position, on which
an iron " ram " or " monkey " is hoisted, by steam or hand
power, to a set height, where it is released to fall on the head
of the pile placed in position for driving or sinking into the
ground. In the instance of concrete piles, a block of wood
intervenes between the ram and the head of the pile. See
" Pile " and " Beetle."

Pin Knots. — Small knots not above half an inch in diameter.

Pine and Pinewood. — " Pine " is the Latin pinus, supposed, from
the form of the leaves, to imply " pin " ; a tract of arid
land in America is known as a " pine-barren." ' Pine-
wood " is not such a common term in Britain as " firwood ''
(which see],

Pinetum. — A collection of living pine trees made for ornamental
or scientific purposes.

Pinholes.— Small holes in the wood caused by worms or insects.

Pipe Stave Oak. — A standard stave of a certain size, namely
6 ft. x 3 in. x 6 in., used by coopers. Pviven on the quar-
ter from selected oak, these and other staves of different
dimensions were once largely used in the cabinet trades,
but with the advent of American oak in lumber form a
rapid decline in their use took place. See " Stave (oak)
Standard Stave."

Pit-chocks. — Short square sawn blocks of birch, beech or oak,
used in coal mines.

Pit-saws. — Large two-handled saws worked by two men, one of
whom stands on the log and the other in the pit be-
neath, hence the name. The man who works on the
log is called the " top sawyer " and the man underneath
is called the "pitman" or "bottom sawyer."

( 97 ) [PLA

Pit-sawyer. — Workman who saws timber in a pit.

Pitch. — The angle between the back of a tooth and a line drawn
from the extreme point of the tooth in the back of a band-
saw, or to the centre of a circular saw.

Pitch (of a Roof). — The inclination of the sloping sides of a roof
to the horizon. Its relation to the " span of a roof " is
very important. In a "lean-to" roof, that is where the
apex of the roof leans against another building, " a pitch
of one half " would be the horizontal span, the result a " pitch,"
" rake " or slope of 45 degrees. " One-third pitch " is the
most common one in roofing, i.e. 33£ degrees. See " Roof."

Pitch Pine, a species of trees, is known in America as yellow pine.
A wood reddish in colour resembling Scots fir, but heavier
and more resinous. The Gulf Coast classification comprises
the following : Loblolly Pine (Pinus talda), Longleaf Pine
(Pinus palustris), Cuban or Slash Pine (Pinus heterophylla)
and Short Leaf Pine (Pinus echinata). The last named is
known in commerce as " North Carolina Pine."

Pitch Pockets are openings between the grain of the wood in
pitchpine containing more or less pitch or bark, and are
classified as small, standard and large pitch pockets. A
small pitch pocket is one not over J of an inch wide. A
standard pitch pocket is one not over f of an inch wide or
3 inches in length. A large pitch pocket is one over f
of an inch wide or over 3 inches in length.

Pitch Streaks in pitchpine are well defined accumulations of
pitch at one point, and when not sufficient to develop a
well defined streak, or where fibre between grains is not
saturated with pitch, it is not considered a defect.

Pith or Medulla. — The cellular tissues in the centre of a tree stem,
which rarely runs perfectly straight, but usually snake-
like along its entire length, only a portion continuous with
the bark.

Pit-props. — Small round timber used in coal mines. Long props
are from 10 ft. up in length or 15 to 16 ft. with 3 in. tops.
Short props are from 2| ft. up to 7 and 8 with 2| in. and up
tops.

Pixpinus. — A special form of charterparty used in chartering
for cargoes of pitch pine.

Plain Band-Saw. — A name given to the smaller type of band-
saws, used for cutting sweeps and other work which can be
fed on to the saw by hand.

Plain Sawed. — All timber which is not quarter sawed, such as
flat grain, bastard grain, slash grain.

PLA] ( 98 )

Plain Tiles are simple parallelograms, generally about 10 J in. x
6J in. x f in., and weigh about 2 lb. 5 oz. Each tile
has a hole at one end to receive the wooden pins to secure
it to the lath. In England they are usually termed flat-
tiles or Staffordshire tiles, and have " nibs " or " tips "
to hang them on the roof laths — they are two colours, " red "
and "brindled."

Planchettes. — Narrow boards under 6 in. in width, and from 1
to 1| in. in thickness.

Plane. — A joiner's and carpenter's hand-tool. Of prime import-
ance, the working of which reduces rough or uneven surfaces
to plain, level or smooth faces ; planes are of different
lengths, forms and sizes, their number, especially " mould-
ing planes " and " match planes," has of late years been
reduced by the intrusion of machinery. See " Shot,"
" Shooting Plane," " Trenching Plane " and " Toothing
Plane." Planes of iron or steel are now finding favour in
working high-class woods.

Plane or Plane-tree. — A tree of the genus Platanus, two of the
best known of which are the " oriental " and the " occiden-
tal." The former is known as an introduced tree into
England, that can thrive in the heart of London town, and
is a favourite tree in our streets, but is strange in shedding
its bark in patches. The wood is white, like that of its
false offspring, the sycamore. The wood of the Western
or American plane has a browner cast, partly produced by
the medullary rays or silver grain, somewhat prominently
displayed, being darker than the ground or field of the wood.
See " Lacewood " and " Figure in Woods."

Plane-stocks. — Beechwood blocks, quarter sawn, the radial
face being the near side of the plane when in work, the wear-
ing face, unlike that of pitchpine flooring boards, being the
unfigured or tangential one. The blocks are usually steamed
to aid seasoning, a process that gives the wood a warmer
tint in colour.

Plank, or Planks. — In London and the South implying sawn
wood 10 inches and over in breadth. In the North " deal,"
as distinguished from "batten," covers 9 inches and up.
This word has many front names to distinguish it in various
trades, as "gang-plank," " running- plank," "deck-planks,"
" scaffold-planks " (ivliich see).

Plank-, Deal- or Board-stower. — Usually a member of a gang
employed to " stow " goods in a ship, or in stocking a
timber-yard ; a man who is something of an artist, if not
an expert, for his finished work in piling deals, etc., with

( 99 ) [PLU

no assistance further than a " hand-hook " (which see)
and a " mall " or " mallet " (which see) is a wonderful per-
formance.

Plant. — The equipment of a mill or factory, specially applied
to the machinery necessary for the trade carried on therein.

Plantation. — A piece of ground planted with trees or shrubs
for the purpose of producing timber or coppice wood.

Planting-mouldings. — The opposite of " stuck-moul dings."
See " Stick and Sticking " and " Scratch Moulding." These
terms a centuiy ago had more meaning in the joinery depart-
ment of the wood trade than they have to-day, the prin-
cipal field of their application being " panel-framing " ;
if the moulds were " stuck " on the framing, as in old wains-
cotting, they were described as being " stuck on the solid."
The modern system of " planting " loose mouldings in or
around the panels gave the name of "planting moulds or
mouldings."

Plasterers' Laths. — Thin and narrow riven strips of wood, nailed
to the rafters, studs or floor beams, in order to sustain the
covering or plastering. Of late years machine-sawn laths
have come into very general use. The usual dimensions
of laths are 1J in. x & in., 1 in. x J in., 1 in. x & in.,
in lengths of 2|-, 3, 3£, 4 and 4J ft. Sawn laths are sold
per bundle of 500 running feet, and hand-split laths per
bundle of 360 running feet.

Plate. — A general term applied to almost all horizontal timbers
which are laid upon walls, etc., to receive other timber- work,
hence " wall-plate," etc.

Platter or Platter-board. — An ancient article of domestic use, a
large shallow dish of turned sycamore or maple-wood, the
use of which is now retained on the table as a dish or stand
for bread and cheese, or other dry food substances. The
term is allied to the wood-plate or " Trencher " (which see).

Plinth. — (1 ) A member serving as the base of a column or wall,
or collectively members which serve as a base (which see).
(2) A board running round a room next the floor, known
also as " Washboard."

Plough. — A joiner's instrument for grooving or trenching, worked
after the manner of a plane. Its finished work is a " plough-
groove " — a groove invariably larger than that wrought
by a " grooving-plane " (which see).

Plugs. — Pieces of wood driven into the log to hide defects. Large
pegs driven into logs for making some attachment for hauling
or rafting.

POL] ( 100 )

Plywood or Built-up Boards. — Terms for a new trade — one not
possible until powerful " peeling machines " could be pressed
into its service. They cover the now ubiquitous " Three-
ply-boards," and those of higher number or count. See
"Three-ply" and "Multi-ply Boards."

Pneumatic Apparatus for Wood Refuse. — An apparatus consist-
ing of an exhaust fan connected by piping with the various
machines in a mill, and by exhausting the air in the pipes
draws off the chips and shavings with it, which after passing
through the fan are blown into a cyclone, where the refuse
drops from an opening in the bottom and the air escapes
from an opening in the top,

Pointing. — In architecture, the finish given to the mortar-joint
in bricklaying, " Towel pointing," ' Tuck pointing," etc.
See " Hick-joint pointing." The " raking-out ' of the
mortar from between the joints of a stone or brick wall
and replacing the same with new mortar. This latter, in
new work, is usually termed " tuck pointing," and is carried
out with raised joints, made specially prominent in church
restorations, where the original plaster, inside or out, is
removed and the stone or " rubble- work " is left exposed.

Points. — Small saw teeth are reckoned by the mimber of teeth
points to the inch.

Pole. — (1) In forestry a tree from 4 to 12 in. in diameter breast
high. A " small pole " is a tree from 4 to 8 in. in diameter
breast high. A "large pole," a tree from 8 to 12 in. in
diameter breast high. (2) A measure of 5| yds. long
or 30 J yds. square.

Pole-lathe. — An early form of lathe worked by a pole under-
foot, and a cord wrapped round the wood or object to be
turned, the cord attached to a spring pole above — on the
reciprocative action of the bow-drill ; such lathes are still
in use by chair-makers in turning spindles, especially so
at their ends. They antedated the rotary foot-lathe of the
late eighteenth century.

Pole-plate. — A small kind of wall-plate used in modern roofs
to receive the feet of the rafters.

Pole-wagon. — A four-wheeled pair-horse or ox wagon worked
with a pole instead of a pair of shafts after the manner cus-
tomary with coaches and large or family or state carriages.

Policy of Insurance or Assurance. — A document evidencing a

contract of " Insurance," which see.

Poling Boards. — Short boards used to line the insides of tunnels
during construction, and the sides of trenches for sewer-

( 101 ) [POS

laying, etc. ; they are held up against the soil or loose or
doubtful ground by horizontal lines of trees, poles, planks,
deals, or battens, as the case demands. The latter are
termed " whalings " (or " wale " — as in gunwale of a ship).

Pollard Oak. — Alias "Red" or "Brown Oak." The former
from " polled " or maimed oaks deepening in colour by age
or incipient decay to brown, red and even partially black ;
hence a tree never polled, if it takes on colour, is termed " a
pollard." Occasionally protuberances, or " Burrs " (which
see), form or swell on or from the stem or near the roots,
which, if coloured, yield pollard-oak veneers of value, should
the taste or fashion in wood incline that way, as it did in
the latter half of the nineteenth century. See " Pollards."

Pollards. — Trees which admit the crowns being cut off, leaving
them to send out new branches from the top of the stem,
By constant cutting the heads swell and become deformed
features known as a '' Todds " or " Old Todds," possibly
from "Tod," an obsolete term for "a bush." See "Pol-
lard Oak."

Polled Trees.— See " Pollai-ds."

Pontoon. — A flat-bottomed or shallow draught boat whose
primary purpose was a temporary bridge, or part of a " pon-
toon " bridge, as the Latin name "pens" =a bridge,
implies. Originally of wood or plank construction ; of late
buoyant cylinders of iron have taken their place in con-
structing floating landing-stages, etc., otherwise " pon-
toons."

Poplar (Populus). — Introduced into Britain by the Romans,
and many species are known here, though only three (the
White Poplar or Abele, the Black Poplar and the Lombardy
Poplar) are of commercial value. A very soft, light wood,
which does not easily splinter or ignite by friction. Used
by clogmakers, wheelwrights and hurdlemakers.

Poppy Heads. — -The tops of seat ends in churches, etc. Some of
these made in the Middle Ages are extremely ornamental.

Portable Jib Cranes. — Consist of a jib crane mounted on a car-
riage and capable of motion along a railway track. These
are usually driven by steam power, with engine and boiler
mounted on the carriage, which not only propel the crane
along the track, but also lift the load.

Port Orford Cedar (Cupressus lawsoniana). — A fine wood exported
from the Pacific Coast of America.

Post. — An upright timber in a building. Those used in modern
roofs are called king-posts or queen-posts, according to their

PEI] ( 102 )

number and position. It is a term coupled, with " rail,"
to form a fence or defence. Posts were used in thorough-
fares and seized upon as bill-posting stations, hence " bill-
posting," etc. See " Post and Pan."

Post and Pan. — Another and popular term for a " half-timbered "
building. It consists of upright grooved posts placed at inter-
vals, the spaces or " panels " between being filled with
slabs of stone, brick, clay, or other like material. The
" pan " is the horizontal head or lintel. See " Half -timber-
ing."

Post and Pane. — A term implying " post and panel," allied to
" post and pan " (which see).

Post and Petrail. — A term implying " post and stone panels,"
hence " petrean "; allied to "post and pan" (which see).

Premium. — ( 1 ) The annual or other payment for keeping up a
policy of insurance ; (2) a lump sum present payment for a
lease or other benefit.

Prepared Boards. — Boards that have been passed through a
planer or other finishing machine.

Presentation of a Bill. — Presentation of a Bill for Acceptance
signifies the handing of a bill to the drawee for pay-
ment. A bill rrrust be presented on the day it is due, and
during the usual business hours ; otherwise the previous
indorsers, if any, are not responsible should it be dis-
honoured.

Pricking Up. — An architectural term — the first coating of plaster
in work of three coats upon laths of wood, etc. See " Float-
ing or Floated" and " Rendered and Rendering."

Prick Post. — An intervening post of light scantling in " post
and rail " fencing, deriving its name from being pointed at
its lower end and " pricked " or driven into the ground to
give strength to the rails.

Prima Vera. — A Central American timber resembling mahogany
but of a lighter colour. Much used in the United
States for cabinet work and sometimes called " White
Mahogany. ' '

Prime. — The " first " or " best " part ; a superior classification.

Prime Cost. — The full or total cost of goods with every charge
added.

Prime Quality. — A United Kingdom term for the grading of a
quality in hardwoods, generally known as " Firsts and
Seconds."

( 103 ) [QUA

Principals. — ( 1) The framework supporting the purlins, which again
carry the common rafters, and thus the whole weight of
the roof is sustained by the principals. See " Roof -timber
Terms." (2) Also the partners in a firm.

Progressive Kiln. — A drying arrangement with openings at
both ends, and in which the material enters at one end and
is discharged at the other.

Pugging. — In architecture, any composition, generally a coarse
kind of mortar, laid on "lagging" or "sound-boarding '
under the boards of an upper floor, to prevent the transmis-
sion of sound.

Pulley Block. — A block fitted with a pulley or shiver, or a sheaf
of pulleys or shivers, to distinguish it from a block without
pulleys known as " a Dead-eye " (which see).

Pulley Stiles. — The inner sides of a " sash-frame " (which see).
They derive their name from carrying the "sash-pulleys"
(which see, and "Sash-window").

Pulpwood. — -Short lengths of whitewood or spruce 3 in. and
upwards in diameter, used for grinding into pulp to make
paper.

Punky. — A term applied to wood affected by rot, arising from a
large fungus of the genus polydorus.

Purlin. — A piece of timber laid horizontally, resting on the prin-
cipals of a roof to support the common rafters. Purlins
are sometimes called ribs.

Putlog Holes.— Holes in the wall for one end of the putlog to
rest, the other resting on the ledger of the scaffold.

Putlogs. — Short pieces of timber, generally about 7 feet long
used in scaffolds to carry the floor. They are placed at
right angles to the wall, one end resting on the ledgers of
the scaffold, and the other in holes left in the wall, called
put! og holes. Birch putlogs are largely imported from
Finland.

Pyroligneus Acid or Wood Vinegar. — A form of acetic acid made
by the destructive distillation of wood.

Q

Quality and Shipping Marks. — Floated timber or wood in the log
is usually hand-marked by " screeve " or scribe or
stamp, i.e. " hammer mark." Archangel, Petersburg,

QUE] ( 104 )

(now Petrograd) and Canadian sawn goods are " chalk-
marked " on the side or edge, the exceptions being " hammer-
marked." Swedish, Norwegian and Finnish goods are
largely stencilled in red or blue with shipper's marks of
quality on the ends. Certain known marks, as " BSSC,"
indicate the names of the ports from which they are shipped
and become their trade names. See " Quality or Qualities "
and "Brand and Branded." See "List of Shipping Marks
on Timber," published by William Rider & Son, Ltd.

Quality or Qualities. — In sawn goods, timber and lathwood.
(a) Merc hant able — the commercial standard, (b) Unmer-
chantable— the wrack, culls or inferior qualities, now largely
imported and traded in. Riga wainscot oak is classified
(a) English crown ; (6) Dutch crown ; (c) wrack ; now
but little, observed; the Riga, Austrian and Odessa ship-
ments being understood as " crown " only. See " Quality
and Shipping Marks."

Quants.— See " Boathook Shafts."

Quarter Sawn Lumber. — A term, implying wood sawn in a
direction transverse to the annual rings, or in an approx-
imately radial direction ; a log is appro ximately quar-
tered as the first step in the sawing process. Where figxire,
as in oak, is only obtained by quarter-sawing it follows
that in other woods, such as the pines or firs, their figure,
known as " slash-grain," is won by cutting on the line
of the annual rings, i.e. tangentially.

Quartered. — Cut into four parts across the grain, same as quarter
sawn ; radially, as distinct from tangentially.

Quartering. — Square timber of small scantling, from 3 in. X
3 in. to 44 in. x 4 in.

Quarters. — The upright posts of timber partitions, etc., need
for lathing upon.

Quebec Standard.— An established measure for timber consist-
ing of 100 pieces 12 ft. 11 in. x 2^ in. = 229£ cub. ft.

Queen-post. — The suspending posts in the framed principal of
a roof, or in a trussed partition. A principal with two posts,
as distinct from " King-post " which implies one post only.
See " King-post."

Quei'CUS (see "Oak"). — Quercus, the botanical equivalent of
" oak," is the old Latin classic term for that tree, and where
it occurs in old writing's is translated " oak." The domina-
ting British oaks are Quercus pedunculata and Q. sessili-
flora, the former only having " stalks "to their flowers or
fruit, the wood produced by each species being practically
the same.

( 105 ) [RAF

Quicken Tree. — Another name for Mountain Ash.

Quilting. — Ridgy marks sometimes seen on the sawn surface of
wood. The ridges are generally shallow and do not follow
the line of the cut, but zigzag across it in rather a mysterious
manner. Reciprocating saws are more liable to " quilt "
than circular saws.

Quirk. — A deep indentation, the hollow under the abacus of a
column.

Qairk Mouldings. — Mouldings whose apparent projection is
increased by the addition of a quicker curve.

R

Rabbet.— See " Rebate."

Rack-benches. — Circular saws, usually of large diameter, with
travelling tables, each consisting of two plates, one on each
side of the saw, resting on rollers and actuated by pinions
and racks fixed under the tables. In some cases, instead
of the plain tables, " carriages and dogs " are provided ;
the logs then overhang the carriages, which are traversed
by racks and pinions.

Radial Arm Feed or Roller Feed, for Saw Benches. — Usually
fitted to circular saw benches, consisting of a feed roller
driven by gearing and carried in an arm pivoted at the back
end of the machine. The arm can be turned out of the
way when automatic feed is not required.

Raff Merchant. — An obsolete or variant term for an importer
of foreign timber, whose goods, far more so than in this
century, were " floated " or rafted, hence they were called
" raff." See " Timber Merchant," " Monger " and " Wood-
monger," also "Raft,"

R,a£t. — A float of timber passing down a river from a forest to
a saw-mill or a shipping station, from which is derived
" raff " and the merchant dealing with rafted goods a " raff
merchant " (which see). When rafts are carrying other
goods or hardwoods which will not readily float of their
own accord they are apt to become " floats."

Raiters. — Pieces of timber which form the framework of the
slopes of a roof. Common rafters are those to which the
slate boarding, or lathing is attached, a variant term for
which is " spar " or " roof-spar." See " Spar."

REB] ( 106 )

Rail and Railing. — Usually a horizontal bar of wood attached
at either end to a post in the ground by way of forming a
fence ; further, in playing an important part in wood framing
of doors, shutters and panelling. As handrailing to a stair-
case it becomes an art work, fixed on a wall as a substance
to hold by, or forming the baluster capping to the open end
of a step or stair ; it there freely departs from the hori-
zontal plane. See notes headed "Handrail."

Rails. — The horizontal bars in panelled wood-work, such as
doors, shutters, etc., which enclose the panels (the iipright
pieces being termed "stiles"), and horizontal bars in wood
gates and fences.

Railway Keys. — Hardwood wedges mostly of oak or teak, made
to special designs, bevel edges one side and rounded edges
the other, to fit between the steel chair and the rail.

Railway Timber. — A general term for all woods purchased whole-
sale for railway work.

Rake, in saws, is the angle or " lead " to which the teeth are
inclined. A variant term is " set."

Rake or Raking. — Anything that inclines from the perpendicular,
as a mast rakes aft.

Raking Mouldings. — Those which are inclined from the horizontal
line, as in the sides of a pediment.

Ram.— See "Monkey."

Ram's Horn. — A lateral grain or figure, peculiar to European
ash, the result of compression or contortion of the vertical
fibres, known as " ram's horn " or " fiddle back " from its
resemblance to the ram's horn, or the figured sycamore
used in the backs of fiddles. This contorted grain is best
seen in the Austrian and Hungarian billets imported for
ornamental purposes, sometimes in wainscot oak logs.

Ramp. — Literally a spring or bound, any sudden rising internipt-
ing the continuity of a sloping line, commonly used to denote
a sudden upward curve in the handrail of a stair.

Raze Knife. — A sharp instrument for scribing the contents on
timber. See " Scribe."

Rebate (or Rabbet). — A longitudinal channel, groove or recess
cut out of the edge or face of any body, especially one
intended to receive another member, so as to cover the joint,
or more easily to hold the members in place ; thus the
groove cut for a panel, or for a door, is a " rabbet " or
rebate. See " Shiplap Joint."

Rebate Plane. — In a technical sense to " rebate " is to reduce,
hence the rebating of a door-casing is a sensible reduction

( 107 ) [REG

made for " housing " the edge of a door. Like all planes
in Europe, except it may be a " cooper' s-stave-plane," it is,
unlike the Asiatic or Japanese plane, worked by a push
action. See " Rebate " and " Shiplap Joint."

Reciprocating Cross-cutting Machine. — A machine used for cross-
cutting logs into lengths by means of a saw blade having a
reciprocating motion, impelled either by a connecting rod
and crank, or by means of steam acting directly on to a
piston, the rod of which is attached to the slide carrying the
saw.

Reciprocating Saw. — A saw moving alternately backward and
forward or up and down.

Red Cedar.— See " Pencil Cedar."

Red Gum or Gum-WOOd. — A term now practically confined to
America, but represented in Europe by " satin- walnut "
and " hazel-pine " (which see). The name is also given to
a Western Australia wood.

Red Heart in pitchpine is the result of a fungous disease which
in a certain stage of progress affects the quality of fibre of
the wood and its strength.

Red Oak. — The red oak (Q. rubra) is a native of the States and
Canada ; remarkably porous in its character, so much so
that it is the favourite wood of " spile-peg " makers. Known
also as brown oak. See " American Oaks."

Red Pine, Canadian (Pinus resinosa). — Called in Canada and
the States " Norway Pine." A hard resinous wood not
unlike Scots fir.

Red -rot. — A defect in the heartwood of a tree, which may be
sometimes discovered by the presence of fungi at the base,
or by tapping the trunk, when a hollow sound is emitted.

Redwood (Sequoia). — See " Californian Redwood."
Reed or Reeding. — Small convex moulding. A " reed- moulding "
is half a circle in section, and such mouldings when worked
in the flutes of columns become ovolos; such "reeds" are
occasionally placed side by side until a broad space is formed,
instance in sets of architraves, in which case they are said to
be " reeded- architraves " or to be " reeded." See " Flutings."

Refinery Poles. — Oak poles of small girth which are burnt in
furnaces for refining copper and other metals.

Reglet. — A small moulding rectangular in its section, a fillet or
lintel.

Regulars. — A Canadian term, applied to pine 12-16 ft. long,
3 in. x 11 in., and to spruce 12 ft. and upwards long, 7, 9
and 11 in.

RIN] ( 108 )

Rejects. — Wood thrown out of a parcel as not equal to the classi-
fication or description required. In some cases a distinct
classification of itself.

Rend and Render (as Lath-render). — See " Rive, River and Rived "
and " Split and Splitter."

Rendered and Rendering. — Architectural terms. " Rendered
and set " is a term applied to two coats of plaster on walls,
" rendered " being the act of laying the first coat of plaster
on walls, but not on lathwork, where it takes the form or
title of " pricking- up " (which see}.

Resaw. — A circular or band mill that is used to resaw boards
and other wood products.

R3-sawn Timber. — Timber sawn on all four sides, as distin-
guished from rough-edged timber.

Reticulated Moulding. — In architecture a member composed of
a fillet interlaced in varioxis ways like network.

Return Bead. — One which shows the same appearance on the
face and edge of a perpendicular piece of stuff forming a
double quirk.

Return Moulds. — A moulding on the end of a step continued
from the front ; in like manner a mould on a square cap of
a pillar or column, mantel-shelf, etc.

Reveals. — The sides of an opening for a door or window between
the framework and the face of the walls.

Ribs. — In carpentry and joinery are curved pieces of timber to
which the laths are fastened, in forming domes, vaults,
arches, etc. ; another name for purlins (ivhich see).

Ridge. — -The highest part of a roof of a building; as a substan-
tive— a " ridge board " or a " ridge- tree."

Ridge Piece. — A piece of timber against which the top of the
common rafters or spars abut; otherwise, ridge-board or
ridge-tree.

Ridge Tile. — A convex tile made for covering the ridge of a roof.
Rift-sawed Wood. — Practically means " quarter-sawed," the

latter being more expressively applied to quarter-sawed

oak.

Riga Last.— A measure of timber consisting of 80 cub. ft. of
sawn deals or square timber or of 65 cub. ft. of round
timber.

Rimu (Dacrydium cupressinum). — A New Zealand timber used
in building construction.

Rindgall. — A defect in a tree caused by a blow or concussion,
which may penetrate no farther than the bark, but the con-

( 109 ) [ROL

centric layers at the part affected are not solidified on each
other. There is usually no decay of the fibre.

Ring Rot. — Decay in a log, which follows the annual rings more
or less closely.

Rio Deals. — An American classification of pitch pine lumber cut
to deal sizes, 3 and 4 in. x 9 to 12 in.

Rip. — To cut a board lengthwise, that is parallel to the fibres.

Ripping. — A term applied to sawing with the grain of the wood,
i.e., lengthwise, but usually to " fiat-cutting " of deals and
boards ; the act of cutting wood the shallow way. See
" Cutting." The number of " rips " and " cuts " is thus
defined in a saw-mill.

Riser or Raiser. — The vertical surface of a step, where the hori-
zontal is the " tread."

Rive, River and Rived. — As in "lath- river " = a " splitter " or
" render " of laths (which see) ; "to rive," " to split " and
" to rend " meaning one and the same operation ; they
are thus variant or interchangeable terms, and

" The scolding winds
Have rived the knotty oaks." — Shakespeare.

Riving Knife. — An attachment to open the cut in timber after
it has passed the saw, to prevent it jamming the saw; but
as a hand instrument, a form of axe used by " lath-rivers."

Robur. — Robur is an old specific term used to define the British
oaks, Q. pedunculata and Q. sessiliflora, under one heading,
when, as in the time of Linnaeus, they were viewed as
" varieties " and not " separate species," as Q. robur, i.e.,
English or European oak. In the Middle Ages the Latin
scribes used this term to imply dead or leafless oak trees —
gifts of the kings from their forests.

Rock-laths.— A variant term for a strong slate or tile-lath. The
name is drawn from the custom of roofing or covering build-
ings in some districts with " rock " or " stone-slabs " or
" slates."

Roe Figure. — A pecxiliar figure caused by the contortion of the
woody fibres, and takes a wavy line parallel to them. See
" Figure in Wood," also " Figure in Mahogany."

Roll Moulding. — A round moulding divided longitudinally along
the middle, the upper half of which projects over the lower.

Roller Blocks for Wringing Machines. — The dual office of the
" wringing and mangling machine " brought to the front a
new branch of the wood-trade, that of " roller blocks " or
" mangle rollers," made of English and foreign sycamore,
until other woods not so suitable in whiteness had to be

ROOT ( no )

brought on the market. It is an ever expanding line of
business, one largely supplied in the twentieth century by
Canadian birch. In instances where one of a pair is hard-
wood " lignum vitae " is used. See "Wringing Machine
Rollers."

Roller Bearings. — Bearings in which steel rollers are used to
reduce the friction. In some cases the rollers are hollow,
but the best types have short rollers of hardened steel,
accurately ground to size and running between two hardened
steel concentric rings.

Roller-feed Benches. — Circular saw benches fitted with power
rollers to grip the wood being operated upon and force it
to the saw. They have largely replaced the earlier " rope-
feed benches."

Rolling Machine for Band Saws. — A machine in which the saws
are squeezed between hardened steel rollers, so as to expand
the steel in the centre, and to put into the saw what is
known as tension.

Rood-beam. — A horizontal beam, usually the capping of a church-
screen, on which the holy-rood is fixed, where a stage or
gallery is formed at its level. The term is merged into
" rood-loft," of which it forms part.

Roof. — In architecture, the cover of a building, irrespective of
the material of which it is composed. The forms are numer-
ous : amongst them are house, barn, shed, gable, hip, conical,
ogee, curb, wagon, pent-house (ivhich see), span, saddle,
hammer-beam (which see), also mansard (which see) and
' Pitch (of a Roof)."

Roof-tile. — Roof covering of earthenware tiles varied in form,
;'flat" or "concave," and in colour "buff," "red" or
" black," " glazed " or otherwise. A mixed colour is termed
" brindled." See "Tile."

Roof-timbers.- — Consist of the main and minor parts ; the former
being " the principals," each of which, as frames, is called
"a pair." The most common is the "king-post" form,
with one central post ; the less common and usually the
largest span is the " queen-post " form, with two posts and
" a loft " or space between.

Roof-timber Terms. — Tie-beam, hammer-beam, king-post, queen-
post, principal rafters, braces or struts, ridge piece, tree or
board, purlins, collar beams or collars, common rafters, pole
plates, wall plates, hammer brace, side-post, straining-
beam, etc. See " Hammer-beam," " Collar-beam," " Bang-
post," " Queen-post," " Principals," " Struts," " Ridge-
piece," " Purlin," " Common Rafter," " Pole Plate,"
"Roof" and "Roof Timbers."

{ 111 ) RUB

Rooky Wood.— Not the wood where rooks do congregate, but
the misty or dark wood. " Wallace " speaks of the " rooky
mist."

" The crow
Makes wing to the rooky wood." — Shakespeare, " Macbeth," iii. 2.

Rope-feed Benches. — Circular saw benches fitted with power
rope and grips to force the wood being operated upon to
the saw. This invention followed on the " man-fed benches,"
but is now largely superseded by the "roller-feed benches."

Rosewood (Dalbergia). — A very hard and durable wood, in great
request for high-class furniture and formerly for pianos.
Many species are in commercial use. Found in India,
West Indies, Brazil, etc.

Ross. — Local terms in parts of England and the United States
for the accumulation of matter on the bark of trees.

Rosser. — -One who removes the bark from logs.
Rossing. — Taking off the bark.

Rotary Veneer Machine. — A machine that cuts or peels a thin
endless sheet of wood from a round log.

Rough and Rough-hew. — Wood goods from the saw having
small inequalities on the surface, not smooth or planed, as
a " rough " board. To hew coarsely without smoothing,
as to " rough-hew timber."

" There is a divinity that shapes our ends
Rough-hew them how we will."

Round (of a Ladder). — A rundle, the little cylindrical step of a
ladder, otherwise " a rung."

Round Shake.— See " Shake."

Round Timber. — A term applied to timber in its natural state.

Rounding Machines. — Employed for turning round rods such as
broom handles, cvirtain poles, etc. The headstock has a
hollow mandril, and the cutter revolves at a high speed.
The wood does not revolve, and is fed through the machine
by means of feed rollers or by hand power.

Rounds or Rundles. — See " Staves."

Roup. — A Scotch term synonymous with auction.

Rowan Tree. — Another name for the mountain ash (which see).

Rubble and Rubble work. — Stones of irregular shapes and dimen-
sions, walls built of rubble stones ; when coiirsed the stones
are roughly dressed and laid in courses, but random in the
height of the courses ; when uncoursed the stones are used
as they occur, the interstices between the larger stones
being filled in with smaller pieces. See "Pointing."

SAN] ( 112)

Bundle. — A round ; a step of a ladder ; the drum of a capstan.
See " Round."

Eundlet or Eunlet. — From "Round." (1) A unit of capacity
equal to about 18 gallons. (2) A small cask barrel of no
certain dimensions, it may contain from 3 to 20 gallons.

Rung. — A floor timber in a ship ; one of the rounds of a ladder ;
one of the stakes of a cart ; a round heavy staff ; a cudgel.
See " Round."

Runners. — Deals, etc., drawn out from the ends of piles of yarded
stocks, 011 which to rest the ends of " gang-planks " or
" running planks," used on the occasion of goods being
yarded. This is also a cabinet-maker's term, runners
being the guides and supports of the drawers in " nests of
drawers," " chests of drawers," etc.

Running Flank. — A variant term for "gang-plank" (ivhich see).

Russpi'USS. — A special form of charterparty for shipments
from the Baltic and Russia.

s

SabiCU. — An extremely hard wood found in the West Indies.
The wood was used to construct the stairs of the Crystal
Palace in Hyde Park in 1851, and after six months' use the
steps hardly exhibited any signs of wear.

Sabot. — A kind of wooden shoe much used in France and Belgium.

Saddleback. — Rail at the top of a fence. Generally known as
" capping rail."

St. (Saint) Petersburg Standard (or Petrograd Standard). — The
most generally used measure for timber, consisting of 120
pieces—

12 ft. 11 in. x 14 in. ) , f,

r tt. TI o ^ = 165 Cub. ft.

or 6 ft. 1 1 in. x 3 in. j

Sal (Shorea robusla). — A heavy, tough, hard timber in general
use in India.

Sandalwood (Sanlalum album). — An extremely fine-grained wood,
found in India and Malaysia. Of little commercial use here.

Sanders-wood, Red (Pterocarpus santalinus}. — A tree growing in
India, Ceylon, China, Java, etc. Used for images, turnery,
etc., also as a red dye soluble in alcohol, but not in water.

( 113 ) [SAS

Sandpapering Machines. — Machines for sanding wood to save
hand labour. They are made in several types. See
" Flexible Arm " and " Bobbin Sandpapering Machines."

Sap Stain. — A discoloration of the sapwood which cannot be
removed by a reasonable amount of dressing.

Sapling. — In forestry, a tree 3 ft. or over in height. A " small
sapling" from 3 to 10 ft. in height. A "large sapling"
10 ft. or over in height.

Saps. — A term used in the American, hardwood trade for pieces
containing all or part sapwood withotit any limit.

Sarking-boards. — An old term from the Saxon " sark '' —a shirt.
Covering board of a roof fixed under the slates, often wrought
and seen underneath where the timbering is wrought or
exposed. A Scotch term for thin sawn boards, usually f in.
thick, used as roofing boards.

Sash. — The framed casement part of a window in which the
glass is fixed. See " Sash Window."

Sash Cord. — A twisted or plaited hempen-cord, used for hanging
sashes or casements in a sash frame ; in large " sash win-
dows " copper cords or chains of metal are used as superior
articles. See " Sash Window."

Sash Fastener. — A piece of mechanism in brass or iron, the sub-
ject of many patents, to fasten and unfasten the casements
of a " sash window " (which see).

Sash Frame. — The outer frame with sill, in which the sliding
sashes or casements are suspended. See " Sash Window."

Sash-head. — The top horizontal part of a sash frame in an ordi-
nary building ; but in superior work often " circular-headed "
and" even circular in plan. See " Sash Window."

Sash Linings. — The inner and outer facings of a sash frame
(which see) affixed to the "pulley stiles" (which see), and
the "heads" of these are the "inside lining" and the
" outside lining," the latter the broadest, as it projects
about two-thirds of an inch, and is generally beaded on
one edge on the face. See " Sash Window."

Sash Pockets. — Portable openings in the lower parts of "sash
stiles" to admit the insertion or removal of "sash weights "
(ivhich see) ; the piece cut out is usually made to cover the
same hole, and to be secured in place with a screw. See
" Sash Window " and " Mouse."

Sash Pulley. — Formerly, or in the seventeenth century, a block
of oak mortised for and receiving a turned boxwood pulley
or sheaf. They were inserted but not screwed or fastened

I

SAW] ( 114 )

in their places, fitted to the bottom casements only, the
top ones being " fast." Modern examples are of iron" rising
to brass and are variantly termed "frame pulleys." See
" Sash Window."

Sash Sill. — The bottom horizontal part of a sash frame, properly
of hardwood (oak), grooved on the underside for an iron-
tongue, weathered and rebated on the upper side. See
" Sash Window."

Sash Weights. — " Balancing weights " in the cavity of the sash
frame, usually of cast iron, but formerly of lead ; in section
round or square, the former working the best on twisted
" sash line " (which see). In the top glazed sash the pair
of weights are heavier in proportion to or in compai'ison
with the bottom sash. See " Sash Window."

Sash Window. — Is sluice window ; a window that moves up
and down like a sluice (Dutch, sas = a sasse, or sluice). The
" sash " (which see) is the moveable portion ; the other
is the " sash frame " (which see ; also " Sash Cord,"
"Lining," "Pocket," "Sill," "Stiles" and "Weights"
headed "Sash").

Satin Walnut. — The European name for American red gum, the
product of the Liquidamber styraciflua of Linnaeus. The
sapwood has become known in England as Hazel-pine (which
see).

Satin-wood (Chloroxylon Su'ietenia, natural order Cedrelacece,
latterly re-named). — A light orange-coloured wood, a native
of the mountainous parts of the East Indies. As in
the instance of other valuable woods brought from far-off
and mostly inaccessible lands, we only trade in " the heart-
wood " or "duramen," the " sapwood " or "alburnum"
being dressed off and left behind as worthless. See " Spine "
and " Heartwood."

Saugh Tree. — The Scottish name for the willow tree. Sometimes
spelt " sough."

Saw. — A joiner's tool or working instrument operated by hand.
Varies in size and shape, denned by rip (as rip-saw), hand,
panel, sash or frame, dovetail, keyhole, bow, fret-saw, rat-
tail, etc. See " Machine Saw."

Saw or Saws (Variety of). — European " hand-saws " —the original
form — are worked by the " push-action," those of Asia or
Japan by the " pull-action." Those of the former are prin-
cipally " pit-saw," " frame-saw," " whip-saw," " cross-cut-
saw," " rip-saw," " hand-saw," " panel-saw," " sash-saw,"
" dovetail-saw," " bow-saw," " pad- or keyhole-saw," " rat-
tail-saw," " fret-saw," etc. The modern machine-saws,

( 115 ) [SAW

although varied in size and form, do not range much beyond
the " web-saw," " jigger- saw," " veneer-saw," " circular-
saw," " swage- saw," " drunken- saw " and " band-saw."

Saw (Inventor of). — Dsedalos, a Greek, who formed the Cretan
labyrinth, etc., is said to have invented the saw, the axe,
the gimlet, and other carpenter's tools.

Saw (in Christian art). — The saw is an attribute of St. Simon
and St. James the Less, in allusion to the tradition of their
being sawn to death in martyrdom.

Saw Arbor. — The shaft and bearings in which a circular saw is
mounted. Also called " Mandrel."

Saw Doctor. — A mechanic skilled in the care, repair, and manage-
ment of saws.

Saw Falling. — The sizes and quality cut from the log according
to the judgment of the sawyer. Without selection ; unclassi-
fied.

Saw Guide. — A device for steadying a circular or band log saw.
Saw Kerf. — The width of cut made by a saw.

Saw Logs. — Logs after they have been cut down and before they
reach the mill to be sawn up.

Saw Pit.— An excavation in the ground used for sawing purposes,
in which the under-sawyer stands.

Saw-sharpening Machines. — Used for sharpening saws, working
either automatically or only partially so. It is usual to
use an emery-wheel for grinding the teeth ; a file when very
fine saw-teeth have to be dealt with.

Saw through and through. — To make all cuts on the log parallel.

Saw Timber. — Logs suitable in size and length for the production
of merchantable lumber. In America all trees which would
make a log 8 in. and iipwards in diameter and 8 ft. in length.

Sawing, Radial and Tangential. — Details of prime consideration
in certain woods, and their behaviour in seasoning, etc.,
independent of the question which plane is the best to
develop the figure or beauty of wood. " Radial " is the
line followed in " quartering " wood (instance oak, to obtain
" facial figure "), or to saw on lines suggested by the radia-
tion of spokes in a wheel ; oak- veneers, other than pollard
are "radially-cut." "Tangential" is cutting at an angle
of 90 degrees from the radial plane, on which line the
" bird's-eye figure " in sugar- maple is found or won. Ve-
neers from a " rotary-cutting " machine are tangential,
the tangent there being a circular line, hence " three-ply "
and " multi-ply " boards are " tangentially cut." See
" Figure in Wood."

SCA] _ ( H6 )

Sawn. — Cut by a saw, but not otherwise manufactured.

Scaffold. — A term applied to a temporary wooden stage used in
the operation of building, or as an instrument of execution.

Scaffold Boards. — Stout boards, bound at the ends with hoop
iron and used to form platforms on a scaffold.

Scaffold Plank or Planks. — Planks If x 11 in. and 9 in., used
as floors or stages of scaffolds or as " walking planks." This
term is occasionally extended to 2 in. x 7 in. , which properly
are " batten size." See " Plank."

Scaffold Poles. — Perpendicular, horizontal and other poles, used
in scaffolding. The white, or spruce poles of the Baltic
are principally used for this purpose in England and in
Europe.

Scaffolding. — Material (mostly wood) of which scaffolds are
erected. In London small square timbers are largely used
on important buildings.

Scale-boards. — Thin soft-wood boards, " scaled " off with a
knife, used for making "match," "hat" and other light
boxes, and as a substitute for pasteboard, especially so
when a duty obtained on paper ; knife-cut veneers are of
this class, so are " 3-ply " and " multi-ply " boards, built up
of sheets, not cut by the scale-board machine but by the
"rotary peeler." See "Rotary Veneer Machine."

Scalper. — An American term for one who sells, for a commission,
lumber in which he has no direct financial interest. -

Scanfin. — A special form of charterparty, applying to Scandina-
vian and Finnish wood goods.

Scant. — A verbal term for wanting in size or substance, applied
to wood goods sawn bare, narrow or thin in measure or
gauge ; it is sometimes extended to waney goods, as " scant
at the corners." See "Cant" and "Wane."

Scantlings. — "Scant" or "small" sizes, often applied to any-
thing under 2 in. x 6 in. The following sizes of sawn wood
are really regarded as scantlings : 2x3, 3x3 and 3 \,
3J x 3J in. Sometimes 2 x 3, 4, 4£, 5 and 5-|- in. are styled
scantlings or " two-inch."

ScarL— To join two pieces of wood together longitudinally,
usually with a slanting transverse cut at the join.

Scarfed Lengths. — Two or more pieces of wood fastened together
to make the aggregate length required.

Scarlet Oak (Q. coccinea). — A native of the States and Canada,
which derives its name from the beauty of its autumnal
foliage.

( 117 ) [SCR

Schedule. — As " of prices," a form or an appendix to a contract
for work or material : thus (a) a contractor may agree to
do certain work on a "prime-cost" basis, the work on
completion to be measured and priced according to the
schedule of prices given, and an agreed trade profit added ;
(6) a contract may be arranged and a schedule of prices
made a part of it, the object of which is to adjust a final
settlement — a reduction for what may be left out, and an
addition for what is extra or over that covered by the
contract amount.

Scoots. — An American term for culls thrown out from mill run
in hardwoods.

Scotia. — The hollow moulding in the attic base between the
fillets of the Tori. It takes its name from the shadow formed
by it, which seems to envelop it in darkness. It is some-
times called a casement, and often from its resemblance to
a common pulley " Trochilus."

Scots Fir (Pinus sylvestris}. — A quick- growing British conifer,
thriving on the poorest soils. Used for pit-props, tem-
porary sleepers and building construction.

Scraper. — A " hand-tool " for putting a finished face upon hard-
wood, especially with cabinet-makers on veneer-work ; it
is iisually an oblong plate of steel about the size of a post-
card, the sharp edges of the metal being dexterously turned
over in " setting " to produce a keen edge.

Scraper Grinding Machine. — A machine for sharpening scraper
knives. Emery discs of small diameter hollow grind the
cutter, while it is automatically passed to and fro in front
of it. The edge of the cutter is also turned over by a special
tool and thus forms a scraping edge.

Scraping Machine. — This machine is used for scraping boards
after planing, which have to be highly polished. The boards
are fed through the machine by powerful roller feed gear
and scraped by means of a cutter, having a turned edge
like a hand-scraping tool.

Scratch-moulding. — A moulding worked on the stiles of early
wainscot panelling with a " scratch," a piece of steel, shaped
for the moulding stick in a block of wood, and worked by
hand after the manner of a " spokeshave " or " draw-knife,"
so worked that the moulding ran out on the surface before
the point of a rail was arrived at. Such moulding can only
be " scratched " on hardwood like oak. In some degree
they resemble the " stop-chamfer " (which see ; also the
later "planting mouldings").

SCR I

(118)

Screed. — (1) A long thin narrow strip of board, such as are used
by plasterers in running moulded plaster cornices. They
are temporarily nailed on the walls, ceilings, angles, etc., as
" runners " or " guide-rails " for their " moulds " ; (2)
narrow edgings in a saw-mill.

Screen. — (1) A partition; an enclosure, separating a portion of a
room ; usually fixtures, but folding ones of minor impor-
tance are common. (2) A riddle or sieve for sifting sand,
lime, gravel, etc. ; sometimes large rectangular wooden
frames with longitudinal and transverse wires. In working
position it is propped up at one end to an angle of about
70 degrees ; the sifting is done by casting the material against
it, when the finer particles pass through the wires.

Screeve. — See " Scribe."

Scribe. — An iron-cutting instrument or knife for marking or
scoring timbers, commonly termed " scribing iron '; or
" scribing knife." The chases of the tool are " screeve-
marks " (which see).

Scribe or Screeve Marks, denoting cubic contents on log timber.
See " Timber Measure." It is customary in the timber
trade in London to mark the solid and superficial con-
tents of masts, trees, spars, timber, and planks of all
descriptions with Roman characters ; but this is not gen-
erally adopted at all the outports. A table of those
characters is subjoined, commencing at unity, and ending
at 100 ; all higher contents are usually marked in common
figures.

TABLE OF NUMBERS RAZED ON TIMBER, ETC.,
DENOTING CONTENTS.

'O

mi

A
//>

//A

////A

Jl_

M

x//
X///
X////

3*

Mil

id

///&

*L

%/

///

J7

{,0

M4
tfjf

////$(

°

%/ff

To

^

/////&

— From " The Standard Timber Measurer," by Mr. E. A. P.
Burt, published by Wm. Rider & Son, Ltd., London.
85. in cloth.

( 119 ) [SEL

Scroll. — (1) An initial feature in a handrail starting on a newel
and balusters. Eighteenth-century examples were imposing
features in mansions, taking turn after turn. See " Hand-
rail." (2) A name given to a large class of ornaments
characterized generally by their resembling a narrow band
arranged in convolutions or undulations. They are promi-
nent features in the capitals of Corinthian and other columns,
where they are termed "volutes." See "Scroll-step."

Scroll-step. — The first or bottom step in a staircase intended to
have a scroll handrail base ; the step has a " scroll-end,"
formed of a built-up " scroll- block," round which the riser,
thinned to the consistency of a veneer, is wound and glued
round it ; a board, or boards, forming the " tread " and
" nosing " covering or completing the step. See " Scroll ''
and " Baluster."

Season. — To dry timber, either in the open or in a dry kiln.

Season Checks. — Cracks which appear on the exterior faces of
timber during the seasoning process.

Season's Cut. — The output of a sawmill plant for that portion
of the year the mill is operated.

Second Growth. — The term " second growth " is applied to
certain trees which have grown from the stumps of felled
trees, such as hickory or ash. It is also applied to trees
of a new growth which have grown up from seeds where
the older forest has been cut or otherwise destroyed. The
trees produced from shoots of the stumps of older hickory
trees grow rapidly, and are held to produce tougher and
more pliable wood.

Secret Nailing. — Nailing boards through thin edges where the
nail holes are not seen.

Selections, Selected, and Unselected are terms in the wood-trade
closely associated with " sorting," " sorted," and " un-
sorted," and apply to goods that are "graded," or "un-
graded." See " Graded." Selection may apply to a por-
tion of any known quality or grade of goods where a buyer,
paying an extra price, may have the pick of the stock.
Unselected means shipments of goods capable of being
selected or graded which are dealt with in trade without
sorting being resorted to.

Self-acting Cross-cut Saws.— In which either the saw, or the
material, has a self-acting feed motion actuated by power.

Self Log, or Cut Log. — Logs, usually mahogany, put aside and sold
separately.

SHA] ( 120 )

Semi-portable Engines.- — Engines of the locomotive or portable

type, but without road wheels for transporting them from

place to place.
Sequoia or Californian Redwood (Sequoia sempervirens). — See

" Calif ornian Redwood."
Serayah. — A 'Borneo timber resembling mahogany, strong, tough

and easily worked.
Serrated (or Toothed). — From the Latin serra, a saw ; a term

in various forms that enters the technological field of Botany,

as descriptive of leaf forms that clothe certain plants and

trees.
Set. — The deflection of the teeth of saws which causes the saw

to cut a kerf wider than the thickness of the blade. See

" Set and Setting."

Set and Setting. — The word "set" is used in various connections,
as (1 ) " To set " or place a house- wall, etc. ; (2) " to set up "
in business; (3) "to plant," as a shrub or tree; (4) "to
set straight " or in " decent order " ; (5) " to fix," as " to
set a machine, a door-frame, step, stone, or brick " ; (6)
"a set-time" for completing a contract; (7) "number,"
as " a set of carving tools " ; (8) " to set a fine edge " on
cutting or shaving tools ; (9) a tool, a " saw-set " ; (10)
to "set-straight," to hammer out a bend, etc.; (11) in
navigation, "to set the compass"; (12) "set-off" (which
see) ; (1 3) " setting a saw " (which see) • (14) in architecture,
the equality of hardening in plaster or cement ; (15) " setting-
coat " (ivhich see). The term " set," like " Joseph's coat,"
has many colours.

Set Gauge. — A tool used by a cross-cut saw filer to regulate the
amount of set given to each tooth.

Set-off. — The part of a wall, etc., which is exposed horizontally
when a portion above it is reduced in thickness ; its variant
name is "off-set." In a legal sense '' set-off " represents
a counterclaim.

Setting a Saw.- — The process of bending saw teeth alternately
to the right and left, to give clearance to the sawdust or
to cause the saw to run cool and free. See ' ' Set and Setting. ' '

Setting-coat. — The third or finishing coat of " three-coat plaster-
work," otherwise called the " skimming " (which see).

Shaft. — (1) The body of a column or pillar; the part between
the capital and base ; " a shaft," from the instance of an
arrow shaft, is understood to be light in character, hence
they may, as in Gothic architecture, be attached, detached,
or clustered ; (2) a wooden handle of a hammer, spade or
other tool ; (3) the " shafts " of a cart, wagon or carriage ;
(4) " iron shaft " of an engine, or for conveying power.

( 121 ) [SHE

Shakes are distinguished from checks in having been caused
within the tree while standing, by frost, wind or other obscure
causes, while checks are a cracking of the timber in the
seasoning process, due to the fact that all woods shrink in
a larger, though varying, proporton in a transverse than
in a radial direction. Round shake is a separation of the
wood along the entire line of an annual ring, usually rather
close to the heart, so that a round core of wood enclosing
the heart is loose from the rest of the tree. By through
shake is understood a shake that extends throughout the
tree from heart to circumference, although it might be
applied to manufactured product and here would merely
mean a shake extending through from face to face of the
stick. Boxed shake is applied only to manufactxired product
and indicates that the interior shake is entirely enclosed
within the piece and nowhere reaches the surface of any
side or edge. Growth or heart shake is sometimes referred
to as star shake and refers to cracks extending outwardly
in one or more directions from the heart. These cracks
tend to close rather than open in the seasoning process,
because as this process produces tension at the circumference
of the piece it must produce compression in the centre.

Shave. — An instrument with a long blade and a handle at each
end for shaving hoops, a variant term for a " drawing knife "
— used in dressing telegraph poles — (which see, also " Spoke-
shave.")

Shavings (of wood, etc.). — Thin slices pared, peeled, scaled, or
shaved off with a shave, a knife, a plane, or other cutting
instrument.

Shaw. — A provincial term for small wood or plantation.

Sheathing, Open and Matched. — Tongued and grooved boarding
for roof covering under slates, tiles or shingles. " Open "
stands for square-edged boards; "matched" may be vari-
antly expressed by " tight sheathing." This terminology
is American. " Sheath " is an old Saxon word for " a
covering," as of a sword, and is not common to wood, instance
" metal " or " copper sheathing " to a ship's bottom ; " ar-
mour plates " to a ship's side ; or ship's planking fixed to
the ribs.

Shed, Shedding, and Shedded. — Popular terms in the sawn-wood
trade which embrace important subjects and need little
descriptive text, their office being to protect goods from
damage by sun and rain.

Sheeting. — A lining of planks or boards for protecting an embank-
ment and trenching for culverts, otherwise termed sheet-
piling ; in working in sand the planks are often tongued

SHOj ( 122 )

and grooved on their edges ; (2) " sheeting " is covering
wrought wood-goods with waterproof sheets when travelling
on rail in open wagons.

Shelving. — Broad boards suitable for making shelves.

Shinier Cutter Heads. — A form of cutter head usually employed
for tongueing and grooving the edge of boards. This is
an American product, although much used in this country.

Shingles. — Flat, thin, oblong pieces of wood with one end thinner
than the other in order to lap lengthwise, used in covering
roofs and outer walls of buildings. A straight-grained,
readily splitable wood is cut into blocks, the longitudinal
faces of which are of the size intended for the shingles, which
are then regularly split off in thicknesses of about a quarter
of an inch.

Shiplap and Shiplap- joint. — An overlapping joint in boardings,
mouldings, floorings, etc. This may be instanced in " cover-
ing boards " of houses, etc., where one board " cloaks,"
;' hides," or " overlaps " another at the joint, the lower edge
of the upper board being rebated for that purpose. See
'Rebate" and "Rebate-plane."

Shipping Culls. — A grade of wood above mill culls.

Shipping Days. — The number of days agreed upon by the owners
and engagers of the vessel to be devoted to loading, beyond
which " Demurrage " is reckoned (which see}.

Shipping Documents. — All necessary documents appertaining to
the shipment of a parcel or cargo of goods to enable the
receiver to deal with it.

Shipping Marks.— See " Quality and Shipping Marks," also
" Brands."

Shipping Season. — That period of the year during which it is
customary to make shipments from a specified district.

Shives (Cooper's). — Pieces of wood used by coopers as bungs to
casks.

Shooks. — A bundle or set of staves sufficient in number for a
cask or barrel ; a set of boards for a box. Also called Box-
boards, or Caseboards.

Shooting Plane. — A joiner's " hand-plane " of extra length in the
stock, used for jointing boards together for tables, counter-
tops, etc. It works on the edge of the boards, its extra
length over other like planes enabling it to make truer or
finer joints ; of late years the stocks have been shortened
and the planes adapted to run on their side like mitre-planes.
See "Plane."

( 123 ) [SIL

Short Leaf Pine. — See " Pitch Pine."

Shortness of Grain. — May be illustrated by a charge brought
against Calif ornian redwood, that when jointed in dovetailing
the " pins " break or snap off with a touch ; an allied term-
not a dictionary word — is " crapply," applied to " soft-
woods " in like circumstances, or where the wood is dry
and " breaks off short."

Short Bills. — Bills with less than ten days to run before maturity.

Shorts. — An American term for small sizes in mahogany 4 in. and
over, 2 to 5 ft. long.

Shot, Shoot and Shooting. — Terms in working or handling wood
the carpenter and joiner has preserved from a remote past,
but which are now obsolete or beyond the reach of modern
lexicographers. " Shot " here means a piece of wood, as a
door stile, planed and finished straight on the edges, i.e.,
" shot straight " ; to " shoot " is to straighten, hence a
jointing or long shooting-plane, a tool now rarely seen, is the
instrument of " shooting " ; it is reflected in a good sports-
man, " shooting straight, "j

Shutter.— A board or framed and panelled piece of wood whose
purpose, like that of a door, is to close a hole in a wall, or
assist to that end where a window is concerned. For other
purposes see " Boxing Shutters."

Shuttering. — A term used to describe the boards for making the
moulds and shapes used in reinforced concrete construction.

Shuttle. — An instrument used in weaving cloth, with a backward
and forward movement.

Shuttle Blocks. — Hardwoods cut to sizes ready for turning to
make shuttles.

Siding and Drop-siding. — Siding is a new term little known out-
side the Canadian " white " or " yellow pine " trade, which
literally means " boards." It was not in use with importers
when logs, balks and deal sizes of 3 in. in thickness held
the European market. It follows that to-day the " pine-
sidings " from 1 to 2 in. in thickness are important
factors. In the United States this term extends to " pre-
pared feather-edged rebated boards " vised for outside board-
ing of houses, etc. In the broadest of such covering boards
the term " Drop-siding " is used.

Sidings. — Boards sawed from the outer portion of a log when the
central part is made into timber.

Sight Bills. — Bills payable at sight, or on demand or presentation.

Silky Oak (Stenocarpus salignus). — A fine cabinet wood from New
Guinea and North-East Australia.

SLA] ( 124 )

Sill, Sills or Cills. — The base of a door, window or sash, or pieces
of timber on which anything rests ; its variants are " syle,"
" sole " and " sule." That on the lowest level is often
termed the " groundsel " or " groundsel. "

Silo or Silos. — Term applied to a collection of bins for storing in
bulk uncleaned or partially cleaned wheat. Made of (1)
timber (see 'Timber Silos"); (2) reinforced or ferro-
concrete ; (3) steel cylinders.

Silver Fir (Abies pectinata), or Swiss pine. — A resonant wood.
Imported chiefly for making the sounding boards for pianos.

Silver Grain. — The medullary rays of the botanists, being com-
pressed cellular tissues, which usually run continuously from
the pith to the bark. This figure has other names, as
"mirrors" (American), "pith-rays" (ditto), "flecks"
(ditto), " patches of silvery-wood " (ditto), " figure."

Silver-grained. — Quarter sawed timber with conspicuous medul-
lary rays.

Silver Spruce. — See " Sitka Spruce."

Sitka Spruce (P. Sitchensis), known also as " Tideland Spruce"
and " Silver Spruce." —A Pacific Coast timber, extensively
used during the late war in the manufacture of air-craft.
Its wood is clear and of a silky texture and yields large
sizes.

Skid. — An American term signifying the drawing of logs from the
stump to the skidway, landing or mill.

Skidway. — The prepared road along which logs after being cut
are passed to a special point in the forest.

Skimming. — (1) Correctly speaking, the " third " or " setting-coat "
(which see), the last or finishing coat of " three-coat plaster-
work." In " two-coat work " it may not obtain, as the
second or finishing coat may be " trowelled- off," that is,
given a " smooth or a steel-face " to otherwise rough floated-
work, i.e., work " tooled " with a wood-float. (2) Fine plastic
material, otherwise " putty."

Skin-dried. — Surface dried onlv.

f

Skirting. — The board, usually moulded, running round a room
next the floor. Also known as " plinth " or " washboard."

Slab. — The cut taken first from a log in process of reducing it to
square form for the sawing from it of lumber with square
edges. A slab has one flat surface, while the other surface
is the bark or outside of the log. See "Flitch."

Slab Edging. — Taking the outside cuts off the log.

( 125 ) [SLA

Slack Cooperage. — Packages or cases consisting of two round
heads and a body composed of one or more staves held to-
gether with hoops, which are used as containers for non-
liquid products.

Slash. — -An American term for the debris left after logging, wind,
or fire.

Slash and Slashing. — Implies " cut at random or cut into long
strips or slits." It has come to mean parting one annual
ring, zone or layer of wood from another, a process finely
illustrated by the " rotary veneer " or " peeling machines " ;
hence the figure shown on the face of such veneers is called
" slash grain," and should not be confused with the " silver
grain " of oak obtained by radial sawing. See " Peel and
Peeling," " Slash Grain or Slash Figure," "Sliveand Sliver-
ing."

Slash Grain or Slash Figure. — Terms in the veneer trade not yet
fixed as dictionary words. To be correct, they should not
be applied to figure such as the " silver grain " or " mirror
figure " of oak obtained by " quarter " or " radial sawing,"
but be confined to figure yielded by rotary knife cutting, or
peeling veneers off the round or tangential face of the tree,
the figure being the play of the knife in the hard and soft
light and dark parts, ergo the spring and summer wood (which
see}.

Slashers. — An American name for " trimmers " or edging saws.
The term is usually employed to describe a number of
saws on one spindle which cannot be quickly placed in and
out of action independently, as is the case with the trimming
machine.

Slat and Slats. — (1 ) A narrow piece or pieces of timber, whose
meaning is well defined in " bed slats ' —strong narrow
spaced boards notched into and reaching from side to side
of a bed- frame, to form a floor or stage for the mattress and
the bed proper. " Slat " appears as a close relation to
" lath." (2) In America a term for a sawed piece of wood
1\ x 2J x \ in., used in pencil manufacture.

Slate or Slates. — As roof covering, an argillaceous stone, highly
crystallized, but not cleaving on the line of its bedding as
originally ; a sedimentary deposit ; it varies in colour from a
bluish-grey to a greenish-black. See "Welsh Slates," and
" Slate-slabs," produced by splitting in thicknesses like the
" school-boy's slate," to " 3-in. slabs," and from a few inches
in length to about 7 ft.

Slate-slab or Slabs. — An important branch of the Welsh slate-
trade, being slabs from J in. to 3 in. in thickness, wrought

SLI] ( 126 )

for sills, steps, troughs, billiard-table beds, sinks, lavatory
tops, tanks, urinals, mangers, chimney pieces, shelves,
tombstones, cisterns with galvanized bolts and nuts, ridge
rolls, ridge wings, etc. The slabs are sold random sizes, or
cut to specified dimensions. See " Slate or Slates."

Slates. — The various sizes of slates are thus named : —

Doubles . . . . . . .. 1 3 X 7 in.

Ladies . . . . . . . . ..16x8,,

Countesses . . . . . . 20 x 10 ,,

Duchesses . . . . . . . . 24 x 12 ,,

Imperials . . . . . . 27 x 36 „

Queens 27 x 36 „

The mode of trading in this century inclines to work upon
sizes, and not titles or state-names. See " Westmorland
Slates" and "Welsh Slates."

Slating Battens or Slate Laths. — Small strips of wood upon which

the slates are fastened. See " Rock Laths."

Sleepers or Sleeper Blocks. — In railway construction, one of the
pieces of timber placed across the permanent way, to
which the rails are fastened in order to keep them in
position.

Sleeper Joists. — The joists used on the ground floor of houses.

Sleeper Saw Benches. — Powerful endless-chain feed benches, in
which sleeper blocks are fed forward by strong chains having
dogs at intervals, usually sawing the block down the centre,
forming two sleepers at each cut.

Slice and Slicing. — Implies " a thin broad piece " and " to cut or
to divide." It is curious that these terms have not attached
themselves to rotary veneer-cutting, where " peel and peel-
ing " have found lodgment. See " Slive and Slivering,"
" Slash and Slashing," and " Peel and Peeling."

Slide Rule. — A mathematical instrument consisting of two parts,
one of which slides into the other, for the mechanical per-
formance of addition and subtraction, and, by means of long
arithmetic scales, for multiplication and division.

Slings. — The material for transporting wood from ship to shore or
from one point to another.

Slive and Slivering. — Terms related to " slash and slashing," or
" slice and slicing," and imply long, thin riven shreds of
wood. Their meaning is plainly seen in " firwood flooring-
boards " unquartered in the sawing, or cut tangentially
where the hard part of the grain (the summer wood) wears
into long splinters. Where the edge of the grain is presented
to wear, the flooring wears without slivering and more evenly.
See " Peel and Peeling " and " Yellow Pine Flooring."

( 127 ) [SOF

Sloates. — The narrow pieces of wood which hold a framework
together, as the slats or sloates of a gate or cart.

Slot Mortising Machine. — A machine which cuts out mortises by
means of a revolving tool. This leaves the ends of the
mortise circular in form. Gate and fence posts are visually
mortised in this manner.

Smoked Beech. — Used in the manufacture of sabots or wooden
shoes in Germany ; to render it proof against decay, it is first
converted to the smallest sizes required for practical pur-
poses, and then steamed and smoked over branches and chips
of beechwood, or, in other words, charged by fumigation with
the pyroligneous acid common to the beech.

Snag. — A rough piece of timber. The term is generally used for
pieces floating or accidentally fixed in water. It has the
same meaning as " knag " (which see).

Snake. — In sawing, to make a wavy cut in a log. It is & sign of
poor saw fitting.

Snape or Snape-ended. — A term applied to square or partially
squared logs, especially of mahogany, which have been
dragged overland before shipment, and, to ease their motion,
have had their front lower sides somewhat rounded, sledge
fashion ; such ends, as in Greenheart, become special lines
in the timber trade, where they pass into various trades ;
one is in connection with " hydraulic oil-presses." They are
invariably bored for pegs, for hali rig-ropes, or chains. See
" Snipe-ended."

Snath.— See " Sued."

Sned or Snath (variously written "snead," "sneed," " sneath"). —
The handle of a scythe.

Snedding. — Dressing a tree.

Sneeze-wood (Pteroxylonutile). — One of the most valuable woods
of South Africa for engineering work, furniture and carpen-
try. It is difficult to work, as its dust provokes violent
sneezing.

Snigging. — Dragging the logs on the ground. Called locally
" tushing."

Snipe-ended or Snake-ended. — Hewn logs tapered at the butt end
in felling for the purpose of facilitating being drawn through
the bush. See " Snape-ended."

Soffit. — The under side of the lintel or ceiling of an opening, also
the under horizontal surface of an architrave between the
column and the under surface of the corona of a cornice.

Softwood. — A term applied to the produce of needle-leafed or
coniferous trees.

SPI ( 128 )

Sole Bars. — Longitudinal pieces of oak used in the framing of
railway wagons. Also known as " Main Tram Pieces."

Solignum. — A timber preservative, brown in colour, much used
for preserving timber from decay and insects.

Sorting. — Dividing lumber into its various qualities and dimen-
sions.

Sound Merchantable. — A loose general term more often applied
to logs than to sawn wood, and intended to include all logs
that it will pay to saw.

Sound Wormy. — Wood affected by worm holes, but otherwise
sound. Used in America as ground for veneering upon.

Spade Tree. — The handle of a spade.

Spall or Spale. — A term seldom met with. Applied to a shaving
or chip of wood wedgelike in shape.

Spandrel. — The irregular triangular space comprehended between
the outer curve or extrados of an arch, a horizontal line
drawn from its apex and a perpendicular line from its
springing.

Spanish Chestnut.— See " Sweet Chestnut."

Spars. — Mainly used as masts for ships. Also a small beam or

rafter. In architecture, spars are the common rafters of a roof,

as distinguished from the principal rafters. See "Rafters."

Species (in Botany). — Usually defined as a collection of indivi-
duals that are precisely alike in every character, not capable
of change by any accidental circumstance, and capable of
uniform, invariable and permanent continuance by natural
propagation. See " Genus " and " Natural Order." All
species have a tendency to form " varieties " (which see).

Specification. — (1 ) The document stating the sizes and particu-
lars of a number of pieces or cargo of wood. (2) The state-
ment of what is required, prepared by an architect .for the
guidance of a builder.

Specific Gravity.— The weight of wood is sometimes expressed
by a comparison of the weight of a given volume with that
of an equal volume of water, or by what is known as " speci-
fic gravity." If the specific gravity of a certain kind of
wood is stated to be '300, it means that a given volume of
this wood weighs '300 times as much as an equal volume of
water. Since a cubic foot of water weighs 6:2 '5 or 1,000
ounces, a cubic foot of wood of specific gravity of '300
weighs '300 x 62 '5 or 18*75 pounds.

Spigots.— See " Spiles."

( 129 ) [SPL

Spile Boards. — Boards used in mines for shoring up passage-ways.

Spiles or Spigots. — Wooden pegs for casks containing fermenting
liquid. Usually made of American red or porous oak and
termed " Spile-pegs."

Spindle Machine. — A vertical moulding and shaping machine,
so called because the cutter spindle is visible for a greater
portion of its length than in. other machines.

Spine. — A trade-term, especially amongst ship-carpenters, for
the heart -wood of oak, as distinct from the sapwood. See
" Satin-wood " and " Heart-wood."

Spinney or Spinny. — A small thicket or grove with undergrowth ;
a clump of trees.

Spiral. — Implies a round or cylindrical substance, associated
with the sense of a twist. This is a form observable in
certain plants and the stems of forest trees. See " Spiral
Grain." In architecture it is an ancient form of staircase
twisting round a newel, the latter in modern instances being
deleted and its place taken by an open " well " or " well-
hole." See " Staircase."

Spiral Grain. — A rounded, twisted grain. This may often be
seen on the outside of a round bole of a tree, or on the crown
of a wainscot log or billet, possibly traceable on the outer
bark also. See " Spiral."

Splay. — A large chamfer.

Splice and Spliced. — Refers largely to wood, beams, etc., joined
or married in lengths, instance " tie-beams " or " principal
beams " in roofs of abnormal span, " crane-beams," etc. ; in
a lesser but more popular degree splicing is pursued in fixing
handles to " cricket bats," where the art is brought to great
perfection.

Splint and Splinter.— (1 ) To split or rend wood into long thin
pieces ; (2) a piece of wood split off, or broken away from
a saw, or wrought into serviceable form as a surgical appli-
ance. In the instance of a tree struck by lightning the
pieces may be " splinters " or " shivers," the latter remini-
scent of the sailor's term, " Shiver my timbers."

Split and Splitter, as Lath-splitter. — See "Rive and River."

Splits. — Ordinary pit-props split in the middle. By splits and
back is meant ordinary splits from which a thin slab has
been sawn off the back, thus being an intermediary between
sleepers and splits.

K

SPR] ( 130 )

Spokes (of a wheel). — The rays of a wheel ; small bars inserted in
the hub or nave of a wheel ; the round of a ladder ; a hand-
spike. See " Hub," " Round," and " Handspike."

Spokeshave. — A finer or superior tool to the " draw-knife "
(which see); a two-handled instrument of hardwood with
a cutting iron inserted, to work after the manner of a plane.

Spool. — A wooden cylinder or reel used to wind thread or yarn
upon.

Spool Bar. — Small squares of timber from which spools are turned.

Spoolwood. — Hardwood imported in small squares for turning
into spools and similar material.

Spout or Spouting. — Horizontal wooden, leaden, or iron gutters
running along the eaves of buildings to carry off rain-water ;
spouts fixed perpendicular are called " wall-spouts," " fall-
spouts," or " down- spouts." The latter are now rarely
made of wood ; the metal ones (iron and zinc) are called
" wall-pipes," " stack-pipes," etc.

Spout Adze. — An adze shaped like a gouge, to chase the hollow
or trough of the spoilt in hand-made wooden spouts, which
instruments have been practically obsolete since the intro-
duction of machinery for spout-making.

Spout- head or Heads. — Head or heads of " wall-spouts," " fall-
spouts," or " down-spouts." In the case of wood they are
made square in plan, but " hopper-shape " on the front
• and sides ; where of lead, variant in size and pattern, often
highly ornamented, bearing dates, initials, heraldic signs,
etc. Those of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries are
prized and collected as art objects for museums. The
modern cast-iron heads are occasionally ornamented and
dated.

Sprag. — A billet of wood used to check the motion of a carriage
on a gradient. Used also in shunting operations on the
railways.

Spring-set. — A saw is spring-set when one tooth is sprung slightly
to the right and the next one to the left, and so on alternately
throughout the saw.

Spring-wood. — Formed in the spring of the year, and is the
inner, lighter coloured and most porous part of an annual
ring, layer or zone of wood in an exogenous tree, as the
outer, darker and less porous part is the summer-wood
(which see ; also " Slash Grain "). It is the joint growth of
the " spring " and " summer " woods, and knives, as in
rotary veneer-cutting machines, slicing through them that
produce the figure known as " bird's-eye " in the sugar

( 131 ) [STA

maple, and " feathery figures " from other woods, features
so largely worked upon in American veneered stock. See
" Slash Grain."

Spruce Fir (Abies excelsa) or Common Spruce. — A soft wood, but
the English variety is of little commercial value, owing to
competition with the foreign variety which is imported from
the North of Europe cut into convenient sizes. Used for
temporary sleepers and temporary fences. See also " Black
Spruce " and " Sitka Spruce."

Spunk. — -Rotten wood ; touchwood ; wood decomposed by vege-
table action, the work of fungi.

Spur or Spurs. — (1) The principal root of a tree. (2) A post
used to strengthen a rafter. A variant of this is " sper."

Square. — One hundred superficial (or surface) feet of wood,
irrespective of thickness.

Square-edged. — A piece of wood in which all the edges are prac-
tically square. Sometimes loosely taken (if not described
as absolutely square-edged) as admitting some wane.

Square Frame. — In joinery, a work is said to be square-framed
or framed-square when the framing has all the angles of
its stiles, rails and moiintings square without being moulded
or chamfered.

Square-jointed. — Cut sqxiare at the ends and on the sides, as in
flooring-boards, to distinguish from " tongued and grooved."

Square Staff. — A square fillet used as an angle staff in place of a
bead moulding.

Stack. — A stack of wood measures 12 ft. x 3 ft. x 3 ft. and
contains 108 cubic ft., being exactly half a fathom.

Staff and Staff Bead. — " Staff," in a primary sense, is a hand-
staff to ease or assist in walking.

"A staff his right hand bore,
And blue the colour of the frock he wore."

For staff bead see " Angle Bead."
Stage. — (1) A slung platform at the bow porthole of a ship,

on which men stand when discharging goods from a ship.

(2) The part in a theatre on which stage-plays are

performed.
Stagheaded. — A tree past its maturity, the topmost branches

and branchlets of which are dead.
Staircase. — Or " flight of stairs," a " storey " of which may be

in one or more parts broken by " landings." Being a fitment

of many parts it has an interesting nomenclature ; instance,

" riser," * " tread," * " nosing," * " step," * " winder," *

STA] ( 132 )

" flyer," " half -landing," " quarter-landing " or " space "
or " pace," "newel " * (if omitted, "a well " or " well-hole," )
" string-board," * " cut-string," " carriage " (which see) ;
also the above terms marked *, " Scroll Step," " Handrail,"
and " Spiral."

Stand.— (1) All the growing trees of a forest ; (2) a construction
or stage, to stand upon — instance " band-stand," " race-
stand," " procession stand," etc.

Standard Dozen. — In Russia sawn timber is calculated by the
standard dozen or 1 2 pieces 12 ft. 11 in. x 1 1 in.

Standard Hundred. — An established measure for timber consisting
of 120 pieces (the Long Hundred or 10 dozen), except the
Quebec Standard, which contains 100, of a certain size. The
Petrograd or St. Petersburg Standard is the one most generally
used in this country. In the early days of timber importing,
each of the principal ports had its own standard, but most
of these have fallen into disuse, as have the London and
Dublin Standards. The following are the principal stan-
dards : —
Christiania :

120 pieces 11 ft. 9 in. x 1J in. == 103i cub. ft.
Drammen (Dram) :

120 pieces 9 ft. 64- in. x 24- in.) ,, 7

IS H Q • v ll in I = 121* cub- ft"
i o it. y in. x i y in. /

St. Petersburg (or Petrograd) :

120 pieces 12 ft. 11 in. x 1£ in. =165 cub. ft.
Quebec :

100 pieces 12 ft. 11 in. x 2| in. = 229£ cub. ft,

Standard Lengths. — An American term for lengths into which
rough lumber is cut for general use. The standard lengths
in pitch pine are multiples of 2 ft., from 4 to 24 ft. inclusive.
Hardwood standard lengths run from 4 to 16 ft. inclusive.
In Quebec the standard lengths are 12 and 13 ft.

Standard Stave. — See " Stave (Oak)," and other " Stave "
notes.

Stave (Oak) "Standard-stave." — The unit of computation is
understood to be 5$ ft. long, 5 in. broad or wide, and 14;
in. thick. All other sizes traded upon are brought up, or
reduced down to that one standard-stave. A mille of staves
is 1 ,200 pieces (based on the old Teutonic " long-hundred " of
"six score") and those " pieces " the "computed standard-
staves." See " Pipe-stave Oak " and other " Stave "notes.

Stave (Oak) "Standard-stave " in Computations. — 175 standard-
staves are equal to 50 cubic ft. 1 in., 6f parts, practically

( 133 ) [STA

one load of 50 cubic ft. Hence 1,200 "standard staves,"
owing to the variations in the breadths, are viewed or con-
sidered equal to 13 loads. See "Standard-stave" and
"Pipe-stave Oak" and other "Stave" headings.

Stave-trade. — A complex department of the wood-trade, now
largely conducted as a separate branch. The small con-
sumer, or home brewer, has dropped out in the face of the
brewing trade being specialized and centred in certain dis-
tricts, a movement that has led to the " stave-trade " being
conducted on wholesale lines, or in the hands of a few
operators.

Staves. — ( 1 ) Narrow pieces of wood, of oak or fir, birch and beech,
from which casks, tubs, etc., are made. Largely used in the
manufacture of cement casks, in the chemical and china clay
trade and for making herring boxes. Large quantities of fir
staves are shipped from Sweden, Finland and Russia. (2)
Little cvlindrical staves in a ladder or hayrick are known as
" Rounds " or " Rundles."

Staves, Freight of. — A mille standard of oak-staves is taken at
six times the rate charged for timber per load. See " Stave
(Oak) 'Standard-stave."

Staves (Oak), Customary Lengths and Names (about).

EUROPEAN.
Ft. In. Ft. In.
Memel Pipe ..56 6

Brandy Pipe . . 4 6 to 5

The longer lengths, 5
in. or more broad,
the shorter descend-

Hogshead . . . . 4 3 ,, 4

Brandy Hogshead .. 3 7 „ 4 * , .

Long Barrel .. 3 2 „ 3 9 f

Short Barrel ..210 31 ^cknesses (°n the

Long Heading ..24 29 fm **&*\ ^^

Short Heading .. 1 6,, 2 l) from 1 in. to 3 in.

AMERICAN OR QUEBEC.
Ft. In. In.

Pipe . . 56 long 5 broad.

Hogshead . . 4 6 „ 4i

Barrpl 4 0 (From 1 in. to 3 in. thick

J_>dllt7l .. , , y: , . ). , , i • T

, 2 Q % (on the thin edge.

Heading . . |j g j- „ 5 „ j

Staves 5 ft. 1 in. long, and all heart-wood, if only 4J in.
broad, shall pass in the trade as 5 in., or as being of merchant-
able size.

i

Staves for Dry ;tau Slack Casks.— Hav.

or rek - vvn by

rays -• : .- •

• any way.

- : :
_ _ - 5 " - ~ -

- - •"••->-- .....

Staves for Liquid ,di« Tig I:' Cisis.— These &- -

... - .. - ' - - - " -" •• " •-

radial-lir. - : :r.e woe tangential

lines. They are the most valued and
trade

note*. 1 - -

28 and L .nd from Bosr.

In carpentry. a

- - - - -

applied.

; - \m

power in a similar man:

L of lo?

; •- am Feed for Los Carriages.— A ver

n rod acts dir

log carria_ _ - r ^hich

reasoc. - - - xnown - ah tgun :red.

Jump Saw. — Dannstx circular saw fitted to the top

rtical v . - "d immediately under

h to 1 - -i i^to the

wor - - ehed to

:eam, causing it to :

fffa^m Higger. — ^Known under variou- feher names, such as
I. - - - - :

oiston, which are thrust against a L: ^ ; m
: - 31 power, cat- - - required

position, or to roll c - whefi

desired ma log c

Step or Stair. — A bio; -xxL, of a uniform

: : - ._ ::.m ; ' stairwt i ^g^t

- TV : being buflt-iqi of boara-

u#«icA see).

beeomes ;

— -1. - -

—.- - . -

rr. - •

-

; : ..r

. v

. :

- - . upping ports, and there con-
- . - :tor for

:..-. .- - . - : :.r^ :

or head man ~-i ^ : I'inpanv or

( i:m ) ISTO

of mon undertaking uch work. II ri ii. eorruplion of
(ho iSpa,ni,',h i';iti rnil»i •, n \\oolpad.cr, from I lie I ,a I m tili/ntir.
lo pro;;;i I ore! hnr.

Stick. A I hin ulrip of wood placed hoi. ween hoard;1, when pil« d

10 facilitate ,",ea:',oiim/'. The. ;lrai/-lil. I run!', ol a, tree; a.
I Of/ ; ll piece of wood ; n, piece ol I i nd h n;' ; or I ho "' i.l ick '
or '" Hplinl, " of u match. ,SW " Tally ; I id . '

"Stick" and "Sticking," ("/ /A/ ".•//;. Term: used in working
'wood mouldings " by hand • n 1* another term for " worh

in/' mouldin;'., ,' hence ' sticking mouldm;'1;" or "head:,.'

11 wa,", not uncommon, hdore machinery wa:: adapted lo
HUM work, for a (milder lo < mploy a loan lo do nolliin," < I -
hnl, Stick mouldm" \< ho, \\ilh heavy mouldm;' ,
would have a ."Iron1- youth in front, piillin," tin hand plane,
uilhacord: : I ue| mould;1, ' ' now lit •! I'- u; ,«'d . /'" I'l.ml
in;/ Mouldin;1

Stile or Slylo. (Ij The \.rlieid or npri/dil piece of a ;.a: h or
door ; (1!) the verl jcid parl of a piece 0) tramm;', into vvhidi
I i in her I he i-nd;; of I In- raj la are h e<| |,y tnOftiSI :"id I i-nori!1,
HomolimoH written '' : I , !< . ; (3) a Contrivance for alloy un-
people to pa; : o\-er or Ihronidi |enc(-'! wifhoul permillin-'
animal r,t oek t.o tollov, I hem.

StinkWGOd (Oro/m Ixillnln). A i'.oulh African tree, it:-, WOO&
HOmewlial, r<; einhlin;' '.'.alnut, I'l.in;/ off a. Strong p'diliar
odour u hen vvorked. It i : valued for it ' r< n.-'t h and dm a

bility,

Stobs. Koiif/h uprivlil u::ed in fcfif-in,".

Stock, or Stocks. N j The ::lem or main hody of a tree t,r ol hor
plant ; flij the ;(<•/,, of a tree HI v, hid, a j/rafl i;-; m: cried;

(3) a post, a log, something fixed solid, as in •. ilia;" utocks,

instruments for puni: hm;- ti.nr;'i« or, ; M) Hie hand!'- oi
a tool; (T>) t ho wood' n portion of a mu !•( (gee '-un
Btock"); Hi) caj,jlal, or the mom y invested m Irade, in
iriKiiranco, «-tc. ; (7) the, •.><>< I<\H on hand of a me/e|,;ij,t or
trading.' company; fS) a tool, a:i in d drill" and

"Ktock and di< -:'''' for tapping or fulling thica-l , " StOCk

and bit " or " brace and bit." If i:; the root word of " stock

StOCk Sizes. Si/'::; for v/lneh f h' j e i;; a r-o/r-.lant demand
which aro u.sualJy kf:pt on hand.

Stool, and Stooled.- " Stool " i- another term for " r.t ump "

fort fhat remain-: in or on 1 Fie //round when a tr<:<; ifi f';)led,
wh'Tfav " StOOled " inifjlie-; thai, it lia.;-; not <:<>iuin'-ii'-<->\ to

STR] ( 136 )

decay, but has put forward new life in the form of one or
more shoots seated between the wood and the bark, and
may again produce its like in a forest-tree or trees.

Stooled-Ash. — Second growth from the original roots. There
are other species than that of ash endowed by nature with
this gift of reproduction. See " Ash."

Stop. — A projection or point where the girth measurement of a
log suddenly alters.

Stop or Stop-chamfer. — An elaboration of " chamfer " (which see).
A chamfer is a narrow face cut back at an angle of 45 de-
grees from each face of a corner at right-angles. It is a
common mode of treatment of the edges of panelled framing,
but capable of great elaboration in larger works in wrought
wood, stone or plaster.

Storey. — A horizontal division in a building. The cellar or
basement is sometimes so-called, but invariably the ground
(level) storey, followed by the higher in mimber or chamber
stories. In important buildings there are occasionally
intermediate stories termed " entresols " or " mezzanine."

Stow, and Stower. — See " Plank, or Deal, or Board Stower."

Stowage. — All kinds of goods that make up the cargo of a
ship ; but in thus loading or stowing vacant places occur,
caused by cross-beams, masts, pumps, etc., which for the
benefit of the ship-owner is filled up with goods supplied
by the merchants or bought at the ports of loading by the
captains; such goods are termed "broken stowage," and
where wood is shipped may consist of log-ends, " deal,
batten and board ends " (tvhich see), or " firewood, alias
cook-wood" (which see).

Stowage Planks. — A poor quality or classification of planks for
stowing wood or other goods in vessels. In cargoes of
hewn pitchpine timber they filled vacant places in ships'
holds and were usually common in quality.

Straight Grain. — The wood of a tree or log is said to be straight
grained when the principal wood cells are parallel to the
axis of growth. A piece of lumber is said to be straight
grained when the principal wood cells are parallel to its
length, that is with the grain running from end to end of
the piece and parallel, not twisted, with its length.

Straps. — Small pieces used and fastened internally on stone walls
on which to nail laths for plaster, otherwise termed " screeds."

Strickle or Strike. — A piece of straight wood, variantly termed
" a straightedge," used to " strike " grain to the level of
a measure j other uses for like instruments are (a) with

( 137 ) [STU

plumbers to gauge the thickness when casting sheet-lead ;
(6) with plasterers in getting even- faces on wall, etc., when
" rendering " or " floating " their work.

Striking Gear. — An attachment of levers to regulate the starting
or stopping of machinery, by throwing the driving belt on
or off the pulley.

String-board or String- piece. — Another term for the " wall-
board " of a staircase, " housed " or prepared to receive
the ends of the " steps." It extends to, or embraces, the
" box " or " boxed " string at the opposite end of the step
(if no wall is there present) ; a variant form of the latter
is " cut-string," which means that part is cut away for the
step-ends to run over. In one case the balusters stand on
the " string " ; in the other on the exposed " step-en'ds."
See "Staircase" and "Nick and Notch."

Stringcourse. — A projecting horizontal band or line of moulding
in or on a building, used to denote floor-lines, or continued
sill-lines. In some periods of Gothic architecture they
were developed into chaste and beautiful features. In later
brickwork it is often a flat band.

String Measure. — A measure of timber taken to half-inches by
a string round the centre of a log and doubled twice to
quarter girth ; lengths are taken to feet only and allow-
ances for defects are made in the length. See " Liverpool
String Measurement."

Stringers. — Pieces of wood into which other pieces are fitted and
which hold the whole together, as, for instance, the side
pieces of a ladder.

Stringy Bark is a name given to various Eucalypts growing in
South Australia and Tasmania.

Structural Timbers. — Timbers used for a framework or for the
essential parts of a whole structure.

Struts. — In carpentry, any piece that keeps two others from
approaching, and is therefore in itself in a state of com-
pression, the opposite of "tie." In flooring, short pieces of
timber about Ij in. thick, and 3 to 4 in. wide, inserted
between flooring joists, sometimes diagonally to stiffen
them. In roofing larger and varied in size. See " Bridging."

Stub, and Stubbing. — A stock, a stem, a log, a block, usually
applied to a stump with a root, such as are grubbed up,
or " stubbed up." Its diminutive is " stubble."

StudjOr Studs. — (1) The intermediate posts in partitions of wood-
work. They are also called uprigJils or quarters. In this
position they are modern representatives of the older and

SUM] ( 138 )

larger " posts " in " post and pan " (which see) or " half-
timbering " (ivhich see). Allied, or consequent terms, are
" studding " and " stud-partition." (2) A nail with a large
head inserted in work chiefly for ornament ; an ornamental
knob.

Stuff, Thick and Thin. — Common terms in the converted wood-
trade, which extend to the carpenter, joiner and cabinet
maker, and even to the makers of wood- working machinery,
for the moulding machines. Lightning-planers, etc., are
not constructed to deal with " thick stuff." Timber trees,
standing, felled, or en route to the sawmills, have not taken
on these terms, hence, this heading presents itself as the
English equivalent of the mysterious American term—
" Lumber." See " Thick Stuff " and " Thin Stuff."

Stump. — (1) The stub or part of a tree remaining in the earth
after the tree is cut down. (2) 'One of three round pegs,
2J ft. long, three of which form the wicket in the game of
cricket.

Stump Orator. — In America, a person who harangues the people
from the stump of a tree or other chance elevation ; a mob
orator.

Stumpage, and Stumpage Prices. — American terms which relate
to the current values of standing or felled timber or timber-
trees. They are variant terms for " timber " and " timber
values," and are distinct from the ubiquitous one of " lum-
ber " which only comes on the scene when the timber trees
in the hands of the millmen pass into converted stock. See
" Lumber."

Styles.— Upright pieces in panelled work. See "Rail."

Sugar Pine (Pinus Lnmbertiana). — A tree growing on the Pacific
Coast of North America, known also as Pumpkin Pine.
Wood resembles Canadian yellow pine.

Summer, or Sommer-fceam. — A horizontal beam or girder, other-
wise " summer-tree," usually a beam mortised for joists.
It is one and the same with " Brest-sommer," and implies
a beam above the ground level, otherwise its proper name
would be a sill.

Summer Shipment. — Shipments during the summer, which, in
the United Kingdom, is regarded as extending from 21st
June to 22nd September.

Summer Wood. — The outer, darker coloured and least porous
part of an annual ring, layer or zone of wood in an exogenous
tree, as the inner, lighter coloured and most porous part is
the " spring wood ' (which see). The annual rings or

( 139 ) [SWE

accretions are faintly marked by colour lines in lime trees
and sycamores. They are on the other hand pronounced
in the firs and pines; instance, the "pitchpine, or "yellow-
pine " of America. See " Slash Grain."

Surbase. — The crowning, moulding or cornice of a pedestal, a
border, or moulding above the base as the mouldings immedi-
ately above the base of a room.

Surface Measure. — The area in square feet on one face of a board.
When boards are 1 in. in thickness the term is synonymous
with board feet.

Surfaced. — A board or other piece of timber planed on one or
more sides.

Survey and Surveyor. — A " survey " is an attentive view, a look,
or a careful examination of an object, usually made in con-
nection with fixing or assessing its value. A " surveyor " is
a qualified and experienced person, who views and examines
for the purpose of ascertaining the condition, quality or
quantity. This work, and the expert asso'ciated with it,
form an important detail in the timber and wood trades
touching the forest growth, the felled trees, the floating
rafts, the mill-stocks, and the converted goods through
their every phase ; wood being a damageable class of goods,
and a prey to fire, Surveyors, Lloyds-marine, and others,
are established at most ports and centres of trade.

Swage. — A tool used to spread the points of teeth of a band or
circular saw.

Swage-set. — A saw is swage-set when the ends of the teeth are
spread to a width greater than the thickness of the saw.

Sweet (or Spanish) Chestnut (Castanea vesca). — Introduced into
Britain by the Romans. A hard durable wood, much
resembling oak. but can be distinguished from it by the eye
not detecting the medullary rays. The wood is more diu-able
young than old and diminishes in value after reaching the
age of sixty, though it may live for centuries. Used by
cabinet makers, undertakers and turners, and when young
as a substitute for oak. Its failing is ring or heartshake
when approaching maturity.

Sweet-woods. — Embrace trees that produce edible fruits ; they
are mostly hardwoods inclined in colour to brown and even
darker shades. They rank as perishable woods from being
prone to the attack of the worm, or larvce of the furniture-
beetle, after the wood is seasoned and placed in work.
' Walnut " and " pear-tree wood " may be taken as exam-
ples ; exceptions, with regard to the fruit, are offered by
the ash and the lime, but the sweetness of the latter is
noticeable in the odour of its blossom.

TAL] ( 140 )

S.X. Board. — A wallboard with a white mat surface, consisting
of wood and vegetable fibres compressed into layers.

Sycamore (Acer pseudo platinus). — A fairly hard, close-grained
white wood, valuable artistically as well as commercially.
Used for printing and mangle rollers, also by manufacturers
of dairy utensils, toymakers, brushmakers, bobbin turners,
also for musical instruments (especially violins).

Table. — An article of furniture consisting of a flat surface raised
on legs. It is a term endowed with an extensive application,
not restricted to a horizontal plane or position, as " altar
table," " table of the laws," etc. Its most common use is
" dining table," " kitchen table," " dressing table," e.g.,
where it is allied to " board " ; instance, H.M. " Board of
green cloth," primarily a table covered with that material.
See " Board " and " Abacus." This term has travelled to
machinery, instance " saw-table."

Taint. — (1) To imbue or impregnate, as with some extraneous
matter which alters the sensible qualities of the substance.
(2) To be infected or corrupted, or to be touched with some-
thing corrupted ; a term often used in connection with
sawn-wood goods out of condition, spotted, damaged with
rot or decayed, often engendered in the hold of a ship or by
close piling.

Tally (French, tallier ; Spanish, tallar). — To cut ; its equivalent in
the Teutonic languages is nick and notch. Throughout its
ramifications as a verb, active or neuter, it is associated with
wood ; primarily it is a cut or incision on a piece of wood, but
in the timber-trade, especially the heavy part connected with
shipping and handling cargoes, the lead-pencil takes the
place of the knife. See " Tally-stick," " board," and
" man."

Tally-board. — A piece of soft white board, about 2 ft. long, 9 in. to
11 in. broad, and 1 in. thick (when new), on which tally-men
mark the various sizes, etc., of the goods to be tallied, indi-
cating them in fives, made by five pencil strokes, thus : \\\\ ;
or in tens — X, or twenties — XX ; working and counting on
fives being the most practised. Such tallies are only kept a
short time in the offices, when the boards are re-planed and
re-used or worn thinner.

( 141 ) [TEN

Tally-man.— One who records or tallies the measurement of logs
or the number of pieces in each sling as they are discharged
from the ship ; one who keeps the " tally " or marks or cuts
the numbers on a "tally-stick" (ivhich see, also "Tally" and
"Tally-board").

Tally-Stick. — A piece of round or square wood on which notches
or marks of number and value were or are cut ; the latter,
usually hazel, and which had writing added on the uncut
sides. The principal form, after the notches were made,
was to split the stick into two parts, the buyer and seller or
the borrower and lender each retaining half, one the counter-
part of the other. A notch for £100 was the breadth of a
thumb ; for £1, the breadth of a barleycorn ; a penny was
indicated by a slight slit. This clumsy contrivance was
effectual in preventing forgery, and survived in the Ex-
chequer until 1 834, when several cart-loads of old "tally-
sticks " and " counters " in the cellars of the Houses of
Parliament were destroyed in the fire which consumed that
national building.

Tamarack (Larix Americana). — A species of larch found in Canada
and the United States. Its wood is reddish grey in colour,
moderately heavy, strong and durable as oak. Crooked
pieces are used for knees in shipbuilding. Sometimes
called " Haematack " (which see).

Tapped Trees. — Trees that have been boxed for resin.

Teak Wood (Tectona grandis).—A tree of the East or East Indies,
which furnishes an abundance of high-class durable timber
for ship building, railway rolling stock, etc. Its habitat
extends to Burmah and the islands from Ceylon to the
Moluccas.

Tellar, Tillar or Tellow. — A sapling or selected coppice shoot
left to stand for a timber tree when the underwood is cleared.

Tenon. — The end of a piece of timber so formed as to be fitted
into a mortise (which see).

Tenoning Machines. — Machines for forming tenons. These are
of various designs, and are sometimes provided with auto-
matic feed. Others are arranged to cut a tenon at both ends
of a board at the same time. The smaller patterns are used
for cabinet and joinery work and the larger for railway
wagon construction.

Tension, or Strain. — To make a circular or band saw more loose in
the centre than on the cutting edge. One of the technical
tests applied to wood to arrive at its power of resistance to
strain or stretch longitudinally. A tie-beam, whose office it
is to keep the feet of rafters from spreading out, illustrates

THO] f 142 )

wood as a substance in tension. See " Tie Beam." In
the instance of iron it is clearly expressed by " tie-rod."
" Tension " is the opposite of " compression " (which see),
and both are distinct in action from " transverse strain "
(ivhich see).

Tessslated Tiles or Floors. — Highly ornamented floors, composed
of self-coloured tiles or tesserce worked into geometrical
patterns. The tesserce, not always cubical in form, may be
marble, precious stones, ivory, glass, wood or mother-of-
pearl. The mosaic floors, etc., of the ancients were of the
above materials, and they are still being wrought of the
highest artistic order ; instance, the chapels, etc., of West-
minster Cathedral. See " Encaustic Tiles."

Tewart or Tuart (Eucalyptus gomphocephala), or ' "White
Gum."— A West Australian strong and heavy wood.

Thack-tile or tiles. — An old term, the origin of which is worn on
its sleeve, and came to be applied to their substitutes or
successors—" tiles " and " slates." See " Thatch," " Thatch-
peg," " Tiles," " Slates."

Tliatch or Thack. — A primitive covering or protection against the
weather. "Straw," "rushes," ''reeds," "heath," etc.,
used for roofing or covering buildings, or stacks of hay or
grain ; a form of roof-covering not allowed in towns, and
disappearing in rural districts from the difficulty of insuring
such property against fire. 'See " Thack-tile " and " Thatch-
peg."

Thatch or Thack-peg or pegs. — Small stems or branches of trees
riven or entire, used in connection with thatch cord— usually
tarred for pegging down thatch as security against the action
of wind. See " Thatch " and " Thack-tile."

Thicket. — A wood or collection of trees or shrubs closely set or
crowded with trees, implying a thick wood or, in a larger sense,
a thick forest.

Thick Stuff. — Converted timber 4i in. and upwards in thickness.
See " Stuff, Thick and Thin," and " Thin Stuff."

Thin Stuff. — Converted wood not exceeding 4 in. in thickness.
See " Thick Stuff "and" Stuff, Thick and Thin."

Thorn. — A tree or shrub armed with sharp ligneous shoots, as the
black-thorn, white-thorn, sallow-thorn, buck-thorn, etc.
Some districts — Lincolnshire, for instance — have place-
names beginning or ending with " wood," and well endowed
with those of " thorn." It is presumed they register a time,
now forgotten, when " wood " and " thorn " were inter-
changeable terms.

( 143 ) [TIL

Three-ply. — Three scale-boards, peeling-boards, veneers or thin
boards glued together, the grain of the centre board being at
right angles to that of the other two. In instances of more
than " three " the stock is termed " multi-ply." See " Ply-
wood or Built-up Boards " and " Multi-ply Boards."

Throat. — On a saw, the rounded cavity in which sawdust accumu-
lates and is carried from the cut.

Throwing. — (1) The operation of felling timber. (2) Throwing,
connected with wood is an old term for " turning of balusters,
spindles and parts of turned chairs," still properly termed
" throwan chairs," as distinct from " throne chair." The
term is still popular in the textile trade, where it inclines to
" twisting," as in " thrown silk." See " Thrown or Throwan-
chair."

Thrown or Throw an-Chair. — A chair made by a wood-turner, of
turned legs, rails, spindles, etc., " thrown " being the old
trade- or craft-term for a wood-turner. See " Throwing."

Thunder Shake. — A crude term for a rupture of the fibres of th e
tree across the grain, which in some woods does not alway s
break through the new or latest layers of wood.

Tideland Spruce. — See " Sitka Spruce."

Tie Beam. — The beam which connects the feet of a pair of princi-
pal rafters and prevents them from thrusting out the wall,
otherwise " principal beam," as distinct from " hammer-
beam " (which see, also " Tension ").

Ties. — An American and Canadian term for railway sleepers.

Tight Cooperage. — Packages, consisting of two round heads and
a body composed of numerous staves held together with
hoops, which are used as containers for liquids.

Tight Cooperage Stock. — Staves for making barrels intended to
hold liquids.

Tile (the old or obsolete name for "ftricfc"). — A plate or form of
baked or burnt clay, otherwise " earthenware," vised in
various forms for roof-covering, " roofing-tiles," paving or
" floor-tiles," and for drainage or sewage purposes — " drain-
tiles," etc. See " Pantile," " Floor-tile," " Drain-tile,"
" Wall-tile," " Encaustic-tile," " Roof-tile," and " Pavers."

Tile-lath or Rock-lath. — Wood strips or laths, nailed on the spars
or common rafters of a roof after the manner of " slate laths."
They take their names, not from their own ligneous sub-
stance, but from the class of material they are converted for,
or destined to carry, as roof -covering.

•mn\

i -ii. i i... • i Board

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( 145 ) [TIM

the head note. For railway purposes in England, reference
should be made to the Railway Classification of goods.

(~2 } Used as part of a compound word, the word has a much
wider and varying meaning, e.g.. Timber-trade, Timber-
merchant, Timber-yard, etc. .Stv al*o noic* irith ihin prefix.

Timber (used as a compound word). — Besides the instances
given in these notes, the following may. in passing, be men-
tioned : " Timber-brick," a variant of " wood-brick '' (tchich
M •( •) ; " Timber-head," on a ship ; " Timber-trade," a trade
or occupation; "Timber-tree,"' "Timber-work." a con-
struction in timber; "Timber-yard" or store; " Timber-
boe," a facetious term for a '• wooden leg " ; " Timber-saw."
etc., etc.

Timber Broker. -See " Broker."

Timber Clips or Dogs. — Clips t'or gripping logs \\hon hauled along
a track or lifted by a crane, generally so arranged that the
more power exerted the tighter they grip the wood.

Timber Dryers (Automatic).— In which moist air is circulated in a
specially constructed building to dry and season timber.
Sieam is generally used in the process to keep the air moist.
The air is circulated either by natural draught or by a fan.

Timber Measure or Measurer. — The "standard measure" be-
tween shipper and importer, importer and merchant or con-
sumer in England, is the " Customs measuring department "
at the ports. Those of Scotland vary in detail in more
minute parts of inches, being \\orked upon and recorded in
the " timber measure " or " blue books." ore " Scribe or
Seree\o Marks" and reference there to "The Standard
Timber Measurer."

Timber Merchant.— One who deals in or " handles " wood or
timber (English or foreign). The latter was, until a cen-
tury ago, known as a "Raff merchant." See "Monger,"
" Woodmonger " and- " Raff Merchant."

Timber, Preservation of.- -Wood is usually prevented from decay
through damp, atmospheric action or the destructive opera-
tions of animals or parasitic plants by injecting into the
vessels of the wood some mineral material, which, by com-
bining with the woody tissue, prevents its decomposition.
Creosoting ^inject ing creosote or dead oil of tar under pressure)
is the usual method adopted for treating railway sleepers,
telegraph poles and wood paving blocks. la the Rupeing
process compressed air is forced into the cells and pores of
the wood, which lias previously been air-seasoned or steamed
in a retort, and at a higher pressure creosote oil is also forced
in ; in the Kyani/.ing process the wood is soaked in a solution

L

TOO] ( 146 )

of corrosive sublimate ; in the Burnettizing process the
tendency to decay is destroyed by subjecting the wood to the
action of chloride of zinc ; in the Powellizing process the
timber is placed in a tank, covered with a patent solution
mainly of sugar, which is boiled and cooled, after which the
timber is dried ; in the Boucherie process a solution of
sulphate of copper in water is introduced into the tree by
means of a crosscut, and expelling the sap tubes takes their
place. Various preparations are also used either as a paint
or for immersion, the best known being Carbolieum, Petro-
lineum, Solignum, Jodelite, Smearoleum, Microleum, Sidero-
leum, etc.

Timber Sword. — A flexible steel sword-shaped instrument, with
handle and slot at the point, in which to place a tape or line
in order to draw it under trees or logs of timber for measuring
purposes.

Time Charter. — A form of charter party, under which a vessel is
fixed for a stated length of time. Owners usually supply crew
and provisions and charterers pay port charges and supply
coal. Other varying special conditions are made.

Tire. — That part of a band saw blade, extending an inch or so
back from the throats, which has not been stretched to con-
form to the segment to which the balance of the blade is
tensioned. This leaves the saw lighter at the tire than it is
in the middle. The width of the tire varies with the width
of the saw blade and the amount of tension carried.

Ton. — A ton of shipping is 42 cubic ft.

Forty cubic ft. of square or 50 cubic ft. of round oak, ash,
elm or beech timber, and 50 cubic ft. of fir, or deal, poplar or
birch, not cut into scantlings, and 60 cubic ft. of light goods,
is deemed and estimated as 1 ton.

Tongue (as in "tongue and groove'''). — (1) A projection on the
edge of a board which fits into a groove. (2) The name given
to the ornament in the Echinus moulding which alternates
with the egg-shaped figure ; hence the name Egg and Tongue
moulding. See " Groove."

Tonguing and Grooving Machines. — Machines used for tonguing
and grooving boards, staves, etc., sometimes provided with
automatic feed and at others with hand-feed only.

Toothing and Toothing-plane. — (1) In architecture, bricks or
stones left projecting at the end of walls, that they may be
bonded into later extensions. (2) A plane, the iron of which
is finely " V " fluted, fixed but slightly inclined in the wood-
stock, and offering a number of points projecting beyond the
plane-face. Its use is to " tooth " the ground for veneering

( H7 ) [TEA

and the " glue-side " of veneers, the better to hold glue.

(3) To prepare wood intended to be covered with cloth.

(4) To face hardwood, or work in advance of the " scraper "
(which see).

Top Cutting. — A term used for the operation of running out or
cutting up of the tops of trees into cordwood, stackwood or
faggots, and the top cutting of a log or tree to distinguish it
from the " bottom cutting " or " butt."

Top Rail. — Horizontal piece of the frame of a door or fence or any
framing nearest the top of same.

Top Sawyer. — One who stands above the log and aids in operating
a pit saw from the top of the sawpit. Known also as " Top-
man."

Tornado Shake.— See " Thunder Shake."

Torrak. — A Swedish term to denote wood sawn from dead trees
or trees which have died at the roots.

Torriuru. — Deadwood, synonymous with "Torrak."

" Torroba " Box. — Boxes of which each part is one piece and each
piece made of small lumber joined by double- wedge-dovetail-
glue- joints.

Torus.— A large moulding used in the bases of columns. Its
section is semi-circular, and it differs from the astragal only
in size, the astragal being much smaller. It gives name to
" Torus-skirting," in which it is a popular moulding on that
•wrought stock.

Totara (Podocarpus tobira). — A native of New Zealand, producing
a valuable wood second only in importance to Kauri pine.

Touchwood. — The wood of willows and some other trees softened
by decay.

Tow. — A raft or rafts of floated wood all towed simultaneously by
the same means.

Tracery. — (1 ) The ornamental stone or wood- work in the upper
part of Gothic windows, screens, etc., formed by the ramifi-
cations of the mullioris. The term, drawn from the old
French Tracer, is not ancient. (2) The subdivision of
groined vaults, or any ornamental design of the same charac-
ter, for doors, panelling or ceilings.

Trams. — Short sleepers used in coal mines.

Transom, Transommer or Cross-beam. — (1) A horizontal mullion
or cross-bar in a window, etc. (2) In ships, transoms are
beams or timbers fixed across the stern post to strengthen the
after-part, variantly known as " Main transom," " Half-
transoms" and " Transom- knees.''

TRE] ( 148 )

Transverse Strain. — Side pressure ; instance, a beam carrying a
floor ; if that breaks by being overloaded the fracture has
been caused by " transverse strain," which is distinct from
" tension " and " compression " (which see). " Joists," in
the timbering of floors, being deeper than they are thick is
provision against " transverse strain," whereas compressive
and tensive strains suggest that their sections be square or
equal-sided.

Tray. — A temporary agricultural fence. See " Fleak."
Tread. — The horizontal surface of a step.

Treadle Plank Cross Cut. — In which a circular saw is carried on a
swinging arm and brought into and out of cut by means of a
foot treadle, the plank or board being stationary during the
process.

Treads. — Wood in the steps of staircases.

Tree.— A plant of considerable height, growing with a single
trunk. The oldest trees in the world are four in number :
the Baobab or Bo-tree of Senegal ; the Dragon-tree of Orotava,
in Teneriffe ; the deciduous Cypress of Chapultepee in
Mexico ; the Chestnut trees on Mount Etna. See Brewer's
Phrase and Fable.

Tree. — As a piece of converted wood, occupies a strange
position in the wood and other trades. As a noun, it was
clearly in old times a variant of " timber " and " wood " ;
instance, roof-tree, cross-tree, mantle-tree, ridge-tree, axle-
tree, saddle-tree, boot-tree, stocking-tree, heel-tree, spade-
tree, single-tree, whiffle-tree, etc.

Tree-felling Machines. — A machine in which a cross-cut saw is
used for cutting through the trunk of a tree by power. A
steam cylinder is fitted on a swivel with guide bars attached
to carry a slide actuated by a piston rod attached to a piston
working in the cylinder. The saws are fitted to the slide and
a reciprocating motion is imparted to it by steam. The saw
lies in a horizontal plane close to the ground, and is fed into
the trunk by a quadrant and handwheel.

Treenail (i.e., a nail of wood). — (1) Used as a "nail" in the
instance of securing wooden planks or sheathing to the ribs
and timbers of a ship. (2) A strong wooden " pin " or
" peg " used in timber- framing to secure and draw close the
mortised and tenoned joints, as in " half- timber work,"
" roofing-timbers," " bell-frames," etc. The smaller ex-
amples in old wainscots and furniture are termed " pins."
" Treenails " are used in fixing railway-chairs to wooden or
stone sleepers. See " Dowel " and " Drawbore."

( 149 ) [TRU

Trellis or Trellice. — Open grating or lattice-work, either of metal
or wood ; the name is usually confined to such as are formed
of straight bars crossing each other. In architecture its use
is mainly for screens, doors and windows. The usual term
is " Trellis- work."

Trench. — In carpentry, a cut or channel wrought for use or orna-
ment ; a term largely applied to " wall " or " string-boards "
in staircase- work or building, where they are "trenched" to
receive the step-ends, i.e., the "treads," "risers" and
" nosings." In other instances trenching is resorted to in
producing circular work, door- and window-casings, the
thickness being reduced in parts to admit of bending on the
centring.

Trencher or Platter. — A "trencher plate" or "platter-board,"
usually a turned piece of maple or sycamore, which served
until recent times the purpose of the earthenware plate,
pewter and silver or even gold plates serving at higher tables.

Trenching Plane. — One of a set of carpenter's hand-tools, retaining
a place in that number diminished by the introduction or
adoption of machinery. This plane is largely used for
cutting trenches across the grain of the wood to weaken it
for bending, as in the instance of circular casings to doors
and windows. See " Plane."

Trimmer. — -A flat brick arch for the support of a hearth in an
upper floor.

Trimmer Joist. — The joist against which the trimmer abuts.

Trimmer's Wood. — Consisting of a knife fitted into a frame. The
knife is bevelled to give a shearing cut. It is used to trim
off the end of a piece of wood by moving the knife by a hand
lever or self-acting motion across the wood. By means of
swivelling fences, mitres and angles may be truly cut.

Trowel and Trowelling-off.- — •" Trowels " are tools of varied form
and size used by plasterers, masons, bricklayers, etc.
" Trowelling-off " is putting a smooth face upon the last or
finishing coat of plaster on walls, ceilings, etc. See " Skim-
ming " and " Float,"

Trug Basket. — A shallow trough or tray basket made of wood,
used in gardening operations.

Truss, Trussed, or Tied Together. — The collection of timbers form-
ing one of the principal supports of a roof, framed together,
so as to give mutual support to each other ; common terms
are " Trussed beam " (ivhich see), " Trussed roof," and
" Trussed partition."

TWI] ( 150 )

Trussed Beam. — A compound beam, composed of two beams,
secured together side by side with a truss, generally of iron,
between them.

Trying-up Machines. — Machines used for trueing up warped and
twisted timbers. Consisting of an adzing block revolving at
high speed, and a travelling table to which the work is
securely cramped. The table is made to travel backwards
and forwards under the block by self-acting gear.

Tucking and Tuck-pointing. — The sense of this is a " push-action,"
as in tucking up a bed. It is here plaster or fine putty
"tucked" into a "raked-out" or "gaping" joint. See
" Pointing " and " Hick- joint Pointing."

Tulip Tree (Liriodendron tulipifera). — An American tree, whose
flowers resemble the tulip ; it produces the yellow poplar
wood of commerce.

Tulip Wood (Physocalymma scaberrimum). — This high-class fancy
wood obtains its name from its roe figure, red and dia-
gonal, or yellow, which resembles the tulip in flower, dis-
playing its striped colours. As a wood, used for banding and
inlaying, it is somewhat at a discount, inasmuch as the bright
colours are wont to fade.

Tult (or dozen). — A Norwegian measure consisting of 12 logs of
18 ft. in length, or 216 running ft.

Tupelo or Tupelo Gum (Nyssa aquatica). — This tree is a member
of the dogwood family. It grows in the Southern States of
U.S.A. The wood resembles yellow poplar in colour and
general appearance, and often passes for that wood. In the
American market it is known as " Bay poplar."

Turkey Oak or Adriatic Oak (Q. cerris). — A tree common in
south-east Europe as well as in Asia, but not one whose wood
figures generally in commerce. Its bark and fruit are rich in
tanning qualities.

Turner (of wood, iron, etc.). — One who turns substances in a lathe.
It is fairly clear that these operatives worked with " recipro-
cating-lathes " till about the middle of the eighteenth century,
when they were practically replaced by the rotary foot-lathe,
which held the field for fully a century ; the " treadle " in
both cases was mainly a long pole, one end resting on the
floor, the other in a rising and falling state from the pressure
of one foot of the operator. See " Lathe."

Tushing. — See " Snigging."

Twisted Fibre. — A defect in timber caused by the fibre or thread-
like portion of the tissue being deposited in a twisted form.

[VAL

U

Unassorted or Unsorted. — All the merchantable pieces together
without selection ; the opposite is " assorted " (which see).

Under. — As in" underclerk," "underpin," "underprop," "under-
pate," "undergrowth," " undershrub," "undersign,"
"undersold," "undertaker," "undervaluation," "under-
wood," "underwrite," "undersized," are understood trade-
terms in daily use, the meaning of which is suggested by
their names. See " Over " for their opposites.

Undercut. — The notch cut in a tree to determine the direction in
which the tree is to fall, and to prevent splitting.

Underwood. — Generally small trees and bushes that grow under
large trees ; coppice, underbrush. Legally in England
underwood has been called a species of wood which grows
quickly and sends many shoots on one stool, the root remain-
ing and producing a succession of new shoots from time to
time.

Underwriter. — An Underwriter at Lloyd's, one who insures to a
stated amount, so called because he writes his name under
the policy. See " Policy of Insurance."

Universal Moulding Machine. — A moulding machine having a top
and bottom revolving spindle, the top spindle being fitted
into a vertical slide for forming irregular shaped and orna-
mental recesses.

Universal Saw Benches. — Saw benches fitted with two spindles
with a rip saw on one spindle and a cross-cut on the other.
Sometimes called "a combined rip and cross-cut bench."
Those known as Universal Benches have canting tables.

Unmerchantable. — Not saleable ; below the commercial standard
of quality. See " Merchantable Quality."

Upsets. — Fibres crippled by compression. This is a variant for
" Thunder Shakes " (which see).

Usage. — A practice for the time being, as opposed to Custom
(which see).

V

Valley Rafter. — The rafter in the re-entrant angle of a roof.

VOL] ( 152 )

Variety, or Varieties. — In Botany, " variety " differs from
" species " in points of structure, which are developed only
under certain circumstances, arising from climate, cultiva-
tion and other influences, and which are not essential to the
species. " Varieties " are liable to return to the original
form or species or to deviate into others, so that a variety
cannot be preserved without much care. " Variety " in a
tree, if not apparent in its progeny, may be viewed as an
arbor ical " freak " or " sport," figuratively a truant that has
returned home. See " Species," " Genera," and " Natural
Order."

Vaulted Ceiling or Ground Ceiling. — A ceiling arched or domed
in character, a form distinct from the ordinary flat or hori-
zontal " ceiling " (which see).

Vegetable Substances are subject to three fundamental laws :

(1 ) If they contain more hydrogen than water, they are acid ;

(2) If less, they are resinous, oily or spirituous; (3) If an
equal quantity, they are saccharine, mucilaginous or analo-
gous to woody fibre or starch. These laws were discovered
by O. Thenard and Gay-Lussac, French chemists.

Veined Wood, or Marble. — Full of veins or veined, streaked, or
variegated in pat tern or colour; as a descriptive term, especi-
ally in association with wood, it is another or variant term
for " figured."

Veneer. — A thin leaf or layer of choice or expensive wood to over-
lay an inferior or cheaper kind ; a veneer may be of sawn
wood from a " veneer saw " or a knife-cut production from
a " rotary" or a moveable bed machine. See " Toothing-
plane " and " Knife." Circular saws are used for cutting
veneers of sawn wood, and rotary (peeling) scale boards for
knife-cut veneers.

Ventilators. — Boards or planks of teak or other indigenous woods,
used for making air passages in rice and other grain cargoes
exported from BurmpJi.

Vertical Band Saw. — In which the band-wheels are placed over
each other so that the saw travels in a vertical direction.

Viewly. — A term occasionally used by importers of wood goods
which are well manufactured and in good, bright condition ;
one such " is a viewly stock." Dr. Ogilvie in his Imperial
Dictionary says it means " lightly, striking to the view,
handsome (obsolete or local)."

Voltmeter. — A meter for indicating the strength of an electric
current, which is known as the voltage of the current.

( 153 ) [WAI

Volts. — Represents the pressure or intensity of electric current ;
thus the same quantity of current of 400-volt strength is
equal to double the same quantity of 200-volt strength.

w

Wagon Scantling. — A set of the large and small scantling necessary
for framing the whole of the woodwork of which a wagon is
built.

Wainscot. — A Dutch or Low Country term which has been in use
in England for many centuries, but now imperfectly under-
stood. Its original form was Wandschote (from wand, a wall,
and schotte, to defend or preserve). The preserving agent
was here wood in the form of boards (literally wall-boards).

Wainscot Oak. — Oak suitable for being wrought into wainscoting,
the panels being procured from riven slabs sawn into pairs,
the saw exposing the radial figure which, before the eight-
eenth century (or " the painted age ") was rated as a point
of beauty in the wood, as it is now for first-class fittings
in this hardwood.

Wainscot Oak, Varieties Of. — At the opening of this century
Austrian wainscot oak held the field in England, " Russian
oak " from Riga having declined or receded from its old
leading position. In the last century Odessa and American
white-oak wainscots were put on the English market, but are
not seen now. The still older- fashioned " Dutch wainscot "
is a thing of the past, and " English wainscot " nearly so.
The term " wainscot " is not yet (1921) extended to Japanese
oak.

Wainscot Oak, English. — It is fairly well understood that all
wainscot oak is foreign or imported, but occasionally we see
English-grown wood sawn up into planks and boards from
the half tree or log. It is generally believed that as late as
the close of Elizabeth's reign (1603) wainscot panelling and
oak-work was wrought in English-grown oak.

Wainscot Oak " Billet." — This is an old term for the wainscot oak
log, now in large measure sawn on the sole and sides, an
innovation in the trade during the last half century ; when
riven and hewn it fell into the category of the billet of wood
so produced from a larger body ; 1 8 cubic ft. was the stan-
dard contents and were marketed by the billet or piece. See
" English," "Dutch" and "Wrack Wainscot."

WAL] ( 154 )

Wainscot Oak Boards. — Correctly speaking, are boards cut on the
quarter and figured on the face. Centuries ago this was a
large branch of business in Holland, the wood coming down
the Rhine to be sawn at the windmills about Amsterdam and
Rotterdam. Sir Christopher Wren and William III, our
Dutch king, largely extended its use in England. During
the last century wainscot oak boards became a special branch
of trade in London and, to a less degree, in other ports.

Wainscot Oak Logs.— As understood in the trade, are half logs
from the boles or stems of large grown trees, riven or sawn on
the soles, and chopped or sawn at the sides, as imported from
Riga in the Baltic, and, of recent years, from Trieste, the
latter being called " Austrian wainscot." One of the four
sides (the crown or top) is a segment of the outer face or
circumference of the original tree that yielded two logs.

Wainscot Oak " Stick." —Is another and variant term for wains-
cot oak " log " or " billet " (which see). " Stick " is often
applied to a tree of timber size, e.g., "a clean bole or stick,"
and is quite in order with a wainscot oak log or billet, but not
with a " plank " or " board."

Wainscot Wood. — Any species of wood suitable for wall boarding
or framed and panelled lining or covering work. In England
in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries the wood was oak ; in
the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, oak, fir or deal.
In America a favourite wainscot-wood is that of the "Tulip
tree " (Liriodendron tulipifera), otherwise " Yellow poplar,"
or " Canary whitewood," etc.

Wainscoted. — As in the instance of a " wainscoted hall or room "
lined with plain wall-boards or sheets of panelled-framing,
which served the purpose of covering or finishing the rough
or bare walls, after the manner of drapery, curtains, uphol-
stery, tapestry of Arras, etc., another and possibly an older
form of wall-covering suspended, or hanging.

Wainscoting. — Literally " lining with boards," extended to
;' lining with boards and panels," later " lining with framed
panels." In the eighteenth century, when the panels became
large in size, some of them were composed of silvered glass,
hence "wainscoted with looking-glass "—Addison. "Wains-
coting " is now understood to refer to " wall-panelling."

Walings. — Small perpendicular pilings, chiefly 10 in. x5 in.

Wall (Latin vallum). — A work or structure of stone, brick, wood
or other material raised to some height, serving to enclose a
space and afford defence, shelter or security. " Dry-walls,"
used for fences or boundaries, are of stone, etc., built without
being bedded in mortar. " Half-timber walls " derive their

( 155 ) [WAL

names from being built of posts at intervals of about their
own widths, the spaces or panels being made of other partly
plastic material. See " Half-timbering " and " Post and
Pan."

Wallboard.— See " Beaver Board " and " S.X. Board."

Wall Boards. — Wrought boards, usually narrow and tongued and
grooved, used for covering or giving a finished face to walls
inside or out ; in the former they are akin to " wainscots "
or "wainscoting," plain or panelled, the one being English,
the other Dutch or Flemish.

Wall Handrails (of stone or brick). — Occur on or in the walls of
" winding " or " corkscrew " staircases ; instance, Tatter-
sail castle (stone) and Wainfleet school towers (brick), Lin-
colnshire. They consist of large mouldings with small upper
beads or rolls, designed for hand- grasp. " Wall handrails
of wood " occur commonly attached by " bearers " or
" brackets." See " Handrail."

Wall Plate. — A general term applied to nearly all horizontal tim-
bers placed in walls as bonds, pads, etc., to receive other
timber work.

Wall-tile or Tiles. — A modern form of wall-lining or sanitary facing
for bath-rooms, dairies, closets, sculleries, passages, station or
refreshment rooms, etc. They are thinner and finer earthen-
ware than floor-tiles, if indeed they do not extend to porce-
lain. Their quality runs high in flat or raised ornament, colour
and glaze, which extends to panels in house-furniture. The
higher-class are termed " Fa'ience-ware," from Faenza, in
Pvomagna, where it is said to have been invented in 1299.
See " Tile."

Walnut, Black American (Juglans nigra). — A favourite but rapidly
diminishing wood, used for fittings and furniture. As its name
implies, it is, in the heartwood only, black, or nearly so. In
the firsfe half of the nineteenth century it played a sxibordinate
part in making- up European walnut furniture ; later, as the
fashion of figure or ornament in the wood itself declined, the
black walnut came to the front, being suitable for a lighter
class of furniture with ornament centred in form, outline,
mouldings, etc. Its vise in the twentieth century is declin-
ing in face of diminishing supply. See " Fashion in Wood."

Walnut Burrs. — The produce of European and Asian grown
walnut-trees. " Burr " in this instance may not be a pro-
tuberance, as the name implies, but a body of wood contorted
in its fibrous grain in and around the root of a tree, hence the
trade-term " root-burr," or " figured- wood " from the root,
as distinguished from the plain or straight grained wood in

WAS] ( 150 )

blocks, planks or flitches. " Burrs " are invariably cut into
veneers by the knife process, in which form they occasionally
realize high prices. See " Burr- woods " and " Burr."

Walnut Tree (Juglans regia). — One of the most beautiful fancy
woods in the world. In great request among cabinet-makers
and also used by manufacturers of gunstocks. The wood is
not corrodible when in contact with iron.

Wandering Heart. — A tree in which the pith runs irregularly
through the stem, causing boards exit from it to be " short "
in the grain and weak for bearing purposes. Usual in wood
where the trees are not plantation growth.

Wane. — The natural rounded edge of the log ; the defective angles
of timber ; lack of wood on the corners from any cause. See
" Wane, Scant, or Cant-corner."

Wane, Scant, or Cant-corner. — Timber wanting in substance, or
not die-square at the corners. This is usually a mark of
inferiority, but in first-class log timber, as in " waney yellow
or white pine," mast-pieces, etc., it is not ; they are only
prevented from being shipped in the round by the loss of
stowage space in a ship which would view them as being their
full squares, hence they are shipped " partly squared," and
come under the category of " waney timber." Small Baltic
fir timbers, known as " Egyptian balks or squares," are
waney more or less in their upper parts, hence their tops may
be round.

Waney-board Pine Logs. — Selected clean butts of Canadian white
or yellow pine partially square. An old form of shipment,
used a century ago for riving into plasterer's laths, etc., but
now rare and costly. See " Waney Timber."

Waney-edged Goods. — Goods not sawn or shipped " die-square "
on the edges, or " not free from wane." It is a term that fits
common boards wrought into flooring, and common battens.

Waney Timber. — Timbers not hewn or sawn die-square, implying
a mark of inferiority in Baltic goods, but of superiority in
" Canadian white or yellow pine," where " waney-board
pine " logs are the highest quality. See " Waney-board
Pine Logs."

Washboards. — (1) Boards with a ribbed surface used for washing
clothes. (2) The boards or skirting in a structure level with
the floor. (3) A kind of board used by a ship or boat.

Washer. — A piece of iron, leather, etc., in the form of a flattened
ring interposed as in " handrail-screws " (which see), and the
head or nut of a bolt. They are common as " beds " for nuts
to work upon.

( 157 ) [WEL

Water-logged. — A ship is waterlogged when rendered immovable
by too much water in the hold. When a ship is water-logged
it implies that it is afloat with a cargo of wood, hence the
saying that the cargo often brings the ship instead of the
ship bringing the cargo.

Water Streak. — A dark streak in oak lumber due to injury to the
standing timber.

Wattle. — A hurdle formed by twigs interlaced.

Watts and Kilowatts. — Watts are the number of volts of an elec-
tric current multiplied by the number of amperes used. One
watt equals 1 ampere x 1 volt, 1,000 watts equal 1 kilowatt
and 740 watts are equal to 1 HP.

Wavy Grain. — An undulating grain. In maple, caused by denser
or darker wood cut across in sawing.

Wayleave. — An understood obligation resting on a proprietor
who sells standing timber to a merchant to grant wayleave
or arrange for a road by which the timber can be removed.
The time allowed for removal is a matter of mutual arrange-
ment.

Weatherboard. — A feather-edged board used for fencing and
covering of wooden ho vises. See " Clapboard."

Wedge. — A piece of wood or metal, thick at one end and sloping
to a thin edge at the other, used in splitting wood, etc. ; as
an instrument, allied with a hammer swung by manual force,
it exerts immense power in cleaving and lifting objects of
great size or weight. The use of " wood- wedges " in oil-
presses has declined in the presence of hydraulic presses, but
in the riving of billets or breaking up of timber, lathwood,
etc., it holds a prominent position.

Weights of Timber. — See Appendices III and IV.

Well-hole. — That part of a staircase that is left open in floors for
the descent of light. It is guarded or protected by handrails
(which see), newels and balusters (which see) on the floors,
landings and steps. A stair of this kind is termed " open
sided " in one or double degree.

Welsh Slates, Covering Power with 3-in. lap, per mille of 1,200

slates : —

in. in. sq. yds.

24 x 12 . . 116

22 x 12 . . 105

20 x 12 . . 95

18 x 12 . . 80

16 x 12 . . 72

14 x 12 60

in. in. sq. yds.

20 x 10 . . 78

18 X 10 . . 69

16 :: 10 . . 60

14 x 10 . . 50

13 x 10 .. 46

12 x 10 40

in. in. sq. yds.

10 x 8 . . 48

14 x 8 . . 40

12 x 8 .. 32
10 x 8 . . 26
14 x 7 .. 36

13 x 7 32

WHI] (158)

Other sizes in proportion. See " Welsh Slates, Computed
Weight of."

Welsh Slates, Computed Weight of a Mille of 1,200 Slates of the

following sizes : —

in. in. T. c. Q. in. in. T. c. Q. j in. in. T. c. Q.

24 X 12 3 10 0 20 x 10 2 7 2

22 x 12 3 5 0 j 18 x 10 2 2 2

20 x 12 3 0 0 ! 16 x 10 1 17 2

18 x 12 2 10 0 I 14 x 10 1 15 0

16 x 12 2 2 2 j 13 x 10 1 7 2

14 x 12 1 17 2 j 12 x 10 1 5 0

16 x 8 1 10 0

14 x 8 150

12 x 8 100
10 x 8 0 17 2
14 x 7 122

13 x 7 100

other sizes in proportion. See ' ' Welsh Slates, Covering
Power of, etc."

West India Quality. — A quality or classification in pitchpine
calling for all heart.

Westmorland Slates.— An old, strong, heavy class of slates not
graded in sizes, but used on the principle that the eave por-
tion of a roof has to deal with the greater part of the rain-
water, hence the largest are there fixed, and the smallest are
allocated to the ridge. It is a durable but somewhat costly
covering, though still used, especially on estate-work. See
"Welsh Slates."

Wet or Tight Cooperage. — Casks made to hold liquids. See
" Tight Cooperage."

Wheelwright. — ( 1 ) A mechanic who makes wheels. (2 ) A machine
capable of performing a number of operations necessary in
the construction of wheels, such as planing, jointing and
shaping the felloes, mortising the hubs, boring the felloes,
and tanging the ends of the spokes.

Whiffle-tree. — A swinging bar, to which the single-trees are
attached, used in a pair-horse wagon.

Whin or Whim.— A pole suspended on two wheels, used for haul-
ing timber, known by various names locally, some of which
are : " Timber gin," " Long-shaft bob," " Timber tug,"
" Timber janker " (in Scotland), " Timber nib," " Pole tim-
ber carriage," "Big wheels," " Timber gill," " Timber drug,"
"Timber gig," "Timber cutts," "Timber jim," etc.

Whip Saw. — A strong gauge two-handed saw. A saw used by
hand in pit-sawing of timber. It has no frame, and conse-
quently is not stretched or tightened. It is used for breaking
down logs, i.e., in making the " falling-cut " (which see),

White Cooperage. — Includes such articles as churns, pails, etc.,
which for the most part have straight sides, and are mostly
wrought in sycamore.

( 159 ) [WIL

White Mahogany. — See " Prima Vera."

White Oak, West India. — A description of hogshead staves, ex-
pressed as " W. O.W.I."

White Pine. — The American name for the Pinus strobus, known in
Great Britain as yellow pine.

White Willow (Salix alba).— -See " Willow."

Whitebeam (Pyrus aria}. — A very slow-growing tree, and is (with
the hawthorn) the toughest and hardest of native woods, and
has extreme closeness of grain. Used by musical instrument
makers, millwrights and engineers. Known also as " White-
leaf Tree."

Whitewood. — A soft, durable, very fine-grained wood used in
England for joinery work. This term is very loosely used
with regard to various kinds of coniferoxis woods. It is
applied to Baltic whitewood (Picea excelsa) or white deal, and
to Canadian white spruce (Picea alba). A whitewood is also
imported from New Zealand, and is known as New Zealand
whitewood (P. dacrydioides) or white pine. Mexican white-
wood has been imported. American yellow poplar or
Canary wood (Liriodendron tulipi/era) is known as Canary
whitewood.

Whittle. — Now understood to mean a small pocket-knife, but
formerly as a " sheath-knife," worn by the common people
who were not entitled to wear swords. Chaucer alludes to
such knives being worn in the time of Edward III :—
"A Shefeld thwytel bore he in his hose."

" Whittle " is a common term for aimlessly cutting wood.
The Americans " whittled down the forest trees."

Wicken Tree.- — The Sorbus aucuparia of the arboriculturist ; a
well-knowTn tree when bearing its load of red fruit or berries.
It is otherwise known as the " Roan " or " Rowan tree " and
the "Mountain Ash."

Wicket. — (1) A small door formed in a larger one to admit of
ingress and egress without opening the whole. (2) A hole in
a door through which to co;nmunicate without opening the
door. (3) A sluice-gate in a canal, etc., lock.

Willow (Salix). — A very rapidly growing tree, many varieties of
which grow in England. A very durable (unless exposed to
alternate wet and dry), non-combustible wood, and not
liable to split. The wood is used by shipbuilders, clog-
makers, turners, toymakers, and wheelwrights, and the
species Salix cerulea is the best wood for making cricket
bats.

WOO] ( 160 )

Willow Oak. — The willow oak (Quercus Phellos) is a native of the
States and Canada, and draws its name from the willow-like
form or shape of its leaves.

Wind Break. — (1) To prevent breaking of trees by wind.
(2) Portion of a forest maintained as a protection against
wind, a wind screen.

Wind Shake. — See " Thunder Shake," popular terms only.

Winder. — Steps or treads, broad at one end and narrow at the
other, occupying what would otherwise be " quarter " or
" half -landings." In some cases they form the whole stair,
winding round a pillar or a well-hole, hence " corkscrew
stair."

Window or Window Frame. — The frame of a window which
receives and holds the sashes or casements.

Window Nosings. — A piece of planed torus board fixed on the sill
of a window to receive the bottom of architrave moulding.

Wintered. — Kept or stored during the winter months.
Wintering. — See " Wintered."

Witch Hazel. — A shrub supposed to be efficacious in discovering
witches. A forked twig made into a divining rod for the
purpose. See " Divining Rod."

Wood. — (1) A collection of trees ; a forest. (2) The hard fibrous
substance which composes the body of a tree and its branches.
See "Timber."

Wood Bricks. — Blocks of wood of the shape and size of bricks,
inserted in the interior walls of a building as groiuidwork on
which to fix joinery, etc. Blocks of less thickness or of other
sizes than bricks are usually called " wood-pads " (which see).

Wood Cogs. — Occur in cog-wheels of iron fitted with teeth of
wood in one of a pair of wheels transmitting power. The
object of their use, always costly in labour, is to deaden
sound. The most favoured woods for the purpose are
" Hornbeam " and " Greenheart." Cogs of this kind will
wear for a length of time in powerful machinery. They
represent practically the last detail in the lost trade of the
wood " millwright.''

Wood Column. — Wood columns were much in use until about a
century ago. Instance, the houses forming the celebrated
• " Rows " of Chester, the " Long row," etc., at Nottingham,
and the roof columns of the City, or Guildhall, at York.

Wood Fibre. — Narrow shavings cut from a round block of wood
by a special machine.

( 161 ) [WOO

Wood Flour is made from dry sawdust or small wood waste
ground to powder in a mill similar to that in which corn is
ground. It is vised for making explosives and linoleum.

Wood Pulp. — Usually made by either one or two general pro-
cesses, mechanical or chemical. In the mechanical process,
the wood, after being cut into suitable sizes and barked, is
held against revolving grindstones in a stream of water
and thus reduced to pulp. In the chemical process the
barked wood is reduced to chips and cooked in large digesters
with chemicals which destroy the cementing material of the
fibres and leave practically pure cellulose. This is then
washed and screened to render it suitable for paper-making.
The chemicals ordinarily used are either bisulphite of lime
or caustic soda.

Wood Screw. — Applied to screws in iron or brass used for wood
work. In wood, as " joiner' s-bench screw " and sundry tools.

Wood Vinegar. — Another name for pyroligneous acid.

Wood Wool. — Fine shavings made from wood ; used as a substi-
tute for hair in plaster ; largely used for packing purposes ;
when made from pine and specially prepared, used for surgi-
cal dressings.

Wood-boring Marine Animals. — These are numerous, especially
in tropical waters. The Teredo navalis, or " ship- worm,"
the terror of wooden ships and overlying stocks in saline
waters, is too well known, from actually boring and burying
itself in the wood ; another destructive insect is the " sea-
shrimp," which eats floating timber or that at the water-line
of wood piling, not by boring in, but eating away the outer
layers or skins.

Woodman's Measure. — In some localities it is customary to
measure the length of a tree with a 5 ft. or a 3 ft. rod, and an
allowance is made of a handbreadth between each 3 ft., to
make up for irregularities and defects.

Woodmonger. — The old name of a timber merchant or dealer.
See " Monger." " The Company of Woodmongers " was
formerly one of the trade-guilds of the city of London. See
" Timber Merchant " and " Raff Merchant."

Wood-pads. — Blocks of wood varied in size according to their
purpose — "large " in the instance of roof-principals placed
as their beds and built in the walls ; " small " when their
thickness is only half or a fourth of that of " wood bricks "
(which see).

Woodware. — A branch of the wood-trade allied to that of the
" cooper " ; woodware largely curtailed by the development

M

VAN] ( 162 )

of pottery or earthenware, consisting of domestic kitchen
requisites mostly turned or throwan (thrown) in sycamore or
maple, as " bowls," " dishes," " platters," " trenchers,"
" ladles," " spoons," " mugs," " cups," " boxes," " noggins,"
and items too numerous to here chronicle. A survival is the
" wooden-spoon " awarded for incompetence at certain
colleges.

Wood-wool Machines. — A machine for manufacturing wood wool,
in which a very thin shaving is removed from a piece of wood
by a fixed knife, the shaving being divided into very narrow
strips by means of lances.

Woods Scale. — The scale of the logs made in the woods.

Worm Holed, Wormy or Wormed. — Holes made in wood by
worms burrowing. This is the work of numerous insects in
the larva or grub state. In England the most destructive is
the furniture-beetle, which leaves the wood a sponge-like
dusty substance, rightly termed " dry-rot " (which see, and
"Wood-Boring Marine Animals").

Wot. — A contraction meaning that the wood is planed or wrought.

Wrack. — Wood sorted out for defects. See " Wrack- wainscot."
This term and that of " brack " are allied, possibly derived
from " wreck," implying damaged from some cause.

Wrack-wainscot. — Logs or billets sorted out of the ordinary
merchantable wood. See " Wrack." Wainscot billets often
fall into this grade from being shallow, or below 12 in. in
depth from sole to crown.

Wrest Plank. — Beech planks cut on the quarter from the butt of
the tree to form the part of a piano in which the wrest pins
that hold the wires are inserted.

Wringing-machine Rollers.— See " Roller Blocks for Wringing
Machines."

Wrought. — Planed wood is said to be wrought. Sometimes
written "Wrot" or "Wot."

Yang (Dipterocarpus tuberculatus). — A valuable hardwood
exported from Siam, closely allied to the Eng or In tree.
Sometimes used as a substitute for teak.

( 163 ) [ZEB

Yard oJ Flooring. — A trade term defining 9 sq. ft. of flooring
boards, computed in the width of the boards before being
reduced by planing or working in the machine. See
" Square."

Yard Keeper. — The keeper of a yard, usually for storage, or
goods on rent.

Yard Stocks. — Stocks of wood goods stored in a yard or on a
storage ground.

Yard Trade. — A business in wood goods from yarded stocks.
Yardman. — The foreman of a yard, timber or otherwise.

Yellow Deal. — A term used in the London trade for sawn deals
made from Scandinavian redwood or Scots fir.

Yellow-pine Flooring. — An American term for what is known as
" pitchpine flooring " in England. From this wood being
very marked in its annual growths or layers of wood, the
floors wear into shreds or " slivers " unless the wood is cut
on the true quarter, the same as wainscot oak, i.e., with the
edges of the grain presented as the wearing face. See
" Edge-grain " and " Slive and Slivering."

Yew (Taxus baccato). — An extremely fine and even-grained wood,
and very durable. Found in Europe, India and Canada.
Used for turnery, sticks, etc. The leaves are poisonous to
live stock.

Zebra Code. — A cable code specially designed for the wood trade.

Zebra Wood. — A term applied to striped woods of pleasing colour
and imported from various tropical sources.

( 164)

BIBLIOGRAPHY OF TIMBER

THE MAHOGANY TREK (Chaloner and Fleming). 1850.
THE TREES OF COMMERCE. By Wm. Stevenson. 1894.
TIMBER AND TIMBER TREES, NATIVE AND FOREIGN. By T.

Laslett. 1894.
WOOD : ITS USE AS A CONSTRUCTIVE MATERIAL. By Wm.

Stevenson. 1894.
WOOD : A MANUAL OP THE NATURAL HISTORY AND INDUSTRIAL

APPLICATIONS OF THE TIMBERS OF COMMERCE. By Prof.

G. S. Boulger. 1902.
TIMBERS OF COMMERCE AND THEIR IDENTIFICATION. By Herbert

Stone. 1 91 8.

TEXT-BOOK OF WOOD. By Herbert Stone. 1921.
BRITISH FOREST TREES. By John Nisbet. 1893.
MANUAL OF INDIAN TIMBERS. By J. S. Gamble. 1902.
TIMBER. By J. H. Baterden. 1918.
TIMBER. By W. Bullock. 1918.
THE TREES OF GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND. By H. J. Elwes

and Dr. A. Henry.

TIMBER MERCHANTS' HANDBOOK. By Frank Tiffany. 1919.
FORESTRY HANDBOOK. By Angus D. Webster. 1920.
THE FORESTS OF WEST AFRICA. By Prof. Unwin. 1 920 .
BRITISH-GROWN TIMBER TREES. By Angus D. Webster. 1 91 6.
ENGLISH TIMBER AND ITS ECONOMICAL CONVERSION. By Acorn.

1916.

SHIPPING MARKS ON TIMBER. 1920.

STANDARD TIMBER MEASURER. By E. A. P. Burt. 1888.
STANDARD STAVE MEASURER. By E. A. P. Burt. 1912.
THE PRESERVATION OF WOOD. By A. J. Wallis-Tayler. 1917.
WEBSTER'S PRACTICAL FORESTRY. By Angus D. Webster. 1919.

(165)

Appendix I

CONTRACTIONS AND ABBREVIATIONS IN USE IN
THE TIMBER TRADE

@ . . . .

a.a.r. .

A/C . . .

A/c ...

act. std.

a.f.b. . . .

a/d. . . .

amt.

a/o

a/s

bdls. . . .

B/E . . .

B/L . . .

B.M. . . .

B/P . . .

B/R . . .

C or std. .

c. ft. or eft. .

cal.

c. & f. . . .

carr. pd. .

carr. ford. .

c.i.f. . . .

c.i.f.e. .

Cr. carr.

C.M. . . .

C.O.D.. . .

c/p . . .

Cr

c/s ....
cub. met. or m3
D. & H. . .
D. & M. . .

dia

d/d. . . .
dft..

from, or at

against all risks (insurance)

account current

account

actual standard

allowance for bark

after date

amount

account of

account sales

bundles

Bill of Entry

Bill of Lading

Board Measure

Bills payable (applied to Bills of Exchange)

Bills receivable (applied to Bills of Exchange)

standard

cubic foot

calliper measure

cost and freight

carriage paid

carriage forward

cost, insurance, freight

cost, insurance, freight, exchange

credit carriage

calliper measure

cash on delivery

charter party

credit or creditor

cases

cubic metre

Dressed and Headed

Dressed and Matched

diameter

days after date

draft (Bill of Exchange)

(166)

did. ...

dly. ...

Dr. . . .

d/r ...

d/s ...

E.E. . . .
E. & O.E. . .

Entd. . . .

ex

Exd. . . .

f.a.c.

f.a.q.

f.a.s.

f.e

fm. ...

f.o.b. .

f.o.c.

f.o.q. .

f.o.r.

f.o.t. . . .

f.o.w. .

ft

ft. sup. or sup. ft,
G.F.A. . . .
G.S.M. . .

in

inv.

J/A . . .

K.D. . . .

Ids

l.ft

Md. ...
M.ft. . . .
M. or Mille
M.s.ft. . . .
m/d . . .
m/s
mldgs. .

no

nom. std. .

n/s

N.S. . . .

O/a . . .

O/d . . .

O.G. or ogee .

O.G. Mouldings
o.s.

delivered

delivery

Debtor or Debit

dock return

days after sight

Errors excepted

Errors and omissions excepted

Entered

out of

Examined

feet average cube

fair average quality

first and second

feather edge

fathom

free on board

free on car (American)

free on quay

free on rail

free on truck

first open water (Baltic trade)

feet

superficial foot

Good fair average

Good sound merchantable

inch

invoice

Joint Account

knocked down, or taken apart for shipment

loads

lineal foot

Moulded

1,000 ft.

1,000 (pieces)

1,000 superficial feet

months after date

months after sight

mouldings

number

nominal standard

new style

Not sufficient (to meet cheques, etc.)

On account

On demand

A moulding of two members, one concave, the

other convex
Old Greek mouldings
old style

P1

r

r

(167)

pan. . . . panel

pcs. . . . pieces

Pd. ... Paid

Pet. std. . . Petersburg standard

P/N . . . Promissory Note

p.p., per pro, or

per prop, per procuration
P.S.H. . . . Petersburg or Petrograd Standard Hundred

R Red

R.D. . . . Refer to drawer of a cheqiie

Reed. . . . Received

S.P. . . . Supra protest

sq. ft. . . . square feet

s.u.b. . . . string under bark

sup. ft. or s.ft. superficial ft.

sup. yds. . . superficial yards

t.o.b. . . . tape over bark

u/a . . . unassorted

u/s . . . unsorted

W White

W.I. puncheon West Indian puncheon staves

W.O.W.I. . . White Oak West India

Y. or Yeo . . Yellow

yd. . . . yard or square yard

' or ft. . . . feet

" or in. . . . inches

CHARTERING

a.a always afloat

A.R. . . . Antwerp, Rotterdam

a/s . . . Alongside

B.C. . . . Bristol Channel

b.d. . . . bar draft

B/H ... (A port between) Bordeaux and Hamburg

B/L . . . Bill of Lading

b.t. . . . berth terms

c.i.f. . . . Cost of cargo, insurance and freight

c.f.o. . . . Calling for orders

C.N.S. . . . Cardiff, Newport, Swansea

c.p.d. . . . Charterers paying dues

d.b. . . . deals and battens

d.b.b. . . . deals, battens and boards

Ex excluding

E.C.G.B. . . East Coast of Great Britain

E.C.I. . . . East Coast of Ireland

E.C.U.K. . . East Coast of United Kingdom

E.E. . . . Errors excepted

(108)

E. & O.E.

f.a. . . .

f.a.a.

f.a.s.

f.d. . . .

f.f.a. . . .

f.g.a. . . .

f.i.b. . . .

f.o.b. . . .

f.o.r.

f.o.t. . . .

f.o.w. .

f.p.a. .

f.s

f.t

fth

G.A. . . .
H to H or H/H
K.C.M. . .
L.C. . . .
L/H . . .
L.H.A.R, . .
L.H.B.. . .
M.D. . . .
Merblanc .
n.a.a. .

n.c

n.r

o.c

Pix pinus .
p.p. . . .
P.P. . . .
pt. or ppt.
R.M.S. . . .
Russpruss
Scanfin

S.C.D. . . .
S.N. . . .
s.p.d. .

s.s

std

T.L.O. . .
U.K. . . .
U-w. . . .
W.C.E. . .
W.C.G.B. . .
W.I.D.. . .
Y.A.

Errors and omissions excepted

free address

free of all average (insurance)

free alongside

free dispatch

free from alongside

free of general average (insurance)

free into barge

free on board

free on rail

free on truck

first open water

free from particular average

free shorts

full terms

fathom

General average

Any direct port between Havre and Hamburg

King's calliper measure

London clause

(A port between) Lisbon and Hamburg

London, Hull, Antwerp, Rotterdam

Liverpool, Havre, Bremen

Mill wall Docks

White Sea charterparty

not always afloat

new charter

net register

open charter ; overcharge

Pitch pine charterparty

Picked ports

Pitch Pine

prompt

Royal Mail Steamer

Petrograd, Danzig, Memel, etc., charterparty

Scandinavian charterparty

Surrey Commercial Docks

Shipping Note

Shipowners paying dues

steamship

standard

Total Loss only (insurance)

United Kingdom.

Underwriter

West Coast of England

West Coast Great Britain

West India Docks

York Antwerp rules

( 169 )

FLOORING AND PLANED WOOD

d.s double sunk (mouldings)

C.B. . . . centre beaded

C.V. . . . centre V- jointed.

D. 1 S. . . . dressed one side

D. 2 S. . . . dressed two sides

Ex. 1st . . Extra firsts

f. & g. . . . feathered and grooved

f.g. & v. . feathered, grooved and V-jointed

inf. . . . inferior

p. & chd. . . planed and chamfered

p.e plain edges

p.s.e. . . . planed and square edges

p.t.g. & bd. . planed, tongued, grooved and beaded

p.t.g.v.v. . . planed, tongued, grooved and V-jointed two

sides

p.t.g. v.c.v. . planed, tongued, grooved and V-jointed with

centre V point

p.t.g.v.2s. . . planed, tongued, grooved and V-jointed two

sides

p.t.g.b.2s. . . planed, tongued, grooved and beaded two sides

p.t.g.b.c.b. . planed, tongued, grooved, beaded and centre
beaded

p.t.g. & v.j. . planed, tongued, grooved and V-jointed

p.t.g. & b. . planed, tongued, grooved and beaded

p.t.g. & r. . . planed, tongued, grooved and rabbeted

p.t.g. . . . planed, tongued and grooved

rbtd. . . . rabbeted

r. & b. . . rebated and beaded

r. & v. . . . rebated and V-jointed.

s.e. . . . square edges

S. 1 S. . . . dressed one side

S. 2 S. . . . dressed two sides

S. 1 S. 1 E. . dressed one side and one edge

S. 4 S. . . . dressed four sides

sq. yds. . . square yards

t.g. & b. . . tongued, grooved and beaded

t.g. & v-jtd. . tongued, grooved and V-jointed

t.g.v-j.c.v. . . tongued, grooved,V-jointed and centre V-jointed

t. & g. . . . tongued and grooved

w.b. . . . weatherboard

Wot . . . planed or wrought wood.

DOORS

B. & B. . . bead and butt

B. & F.P. . . beaded and flush panels

b. & f. bead and flush

( 170)

Bol. & flush .

bolection one side

D.M. . . .

double moulded

F.M. 2 sides .

flush moulded two sides

Mar. Light or
M.L. . . .
M. 1 S.. . .

marginal lights
moulded one side

M. 2S.. . .

moulded two sides

M.O.S. . .

moulded on solid

S.M. . . .

S. 2 S. . . .

single moulded
square two sides

SKIRTINGS

S. & M. sunk and moulded

( 171 )

Appendix II

COMPARATIVE TABLE OF ACTUAL AND NOMINAL
MEASUREMENT OF PLANED GOODS, SHOWING
THE GAIN FOR FREIGHT

SIZES.

Nominal
Standard.

Real Stan-
dard for
Freight.

If actual
Freight is 1,
then on
nominal it
is only

Squares in
Pet. Std.
nominal.

Gain %

Run. ft.

Run. ft.

li x 1"

2716

3129

•869

15-088

13-20

1± x 6J*

2924

3379

•866

15-389

13-47

1J x 6" 3168

3673

•863

15-840

13-75

1J x 5£" 3456

4023

•859

15-709

14-10

1J x 5" 3802

4446

•855

15-841

14-48

1 x 7"

3394

4023

•844

18-855

15-64

1 x 6J*

3655

4345

•841

19-237

15-88

1 x 6"

3960

4723

•838

19-800

16-14

1 x 5f

4320

5171

•835

19-636

16-46

1 x 5"

4752

5717

•831

19-800

16-88

* X V „

3879

4693

•827

21-550

17-35

4178

5069

•824

21-989

17-58

I x 6"

4526

5510

•821

22-630

17-86

3- x sr

4937

6035

•818

22-440

18-19

i x 5"

5431

6669

•814

22-629

18-56

J x 7"

4526

5632

•804

25-144

19-64

f x 6£"

4874

6083

•801

25-653

19-88

| x 6"

5280

6611

•799

26-400

20-13

J x 5J"

5760

7241

•795

26-182

20-45

f x 5*

6336

8003

•792

26-400

20-83

f x 7"

5431

7040

•771

30-172

22-86

* x er

5848

7603

•769

30-779

23-08

f x 6"^

6336

8264

•767

31-680

23-33

6912

9051

•764

31-418

23-63

f x 5"

7603

10004

•760

31-679

24-00

I x 7"

6788

9387

•723

37-711

27-68

i x 6J*

7311

10138

•721

38-478

27-89

i x 6"

7920

11019

•719

39-600

28-12

i x 5i*

8640

12069

•716

39-273

28-41

i x 5"

9504

13338

•713

39-600

28-75

-.::ri II.

7 T~r ; , ~ - - ~ - — — ^

-

:
~

^ "V .^

i.a -
•'•-

a

-

~. --:-_:

- - _
-

_

. -

( 173)

Appendix IV

OFFICIAL STANDARD WEIGHTS OF HARDWOOD
LUMBER AS ADOPTED BY THE AMERICAN HARDWOOD
MANUFACTURERS' ASSOCIATION

Rough
Dry.

Ash 3/8" 1500

1/2" 2000

5/8" 2500

3/4" 15000

4/4" 15800

5/4" 6/4" :!'.in<)

8/4" 4000

JUssuood 4/4" 2000

Beech 4/4" 4000

Birch 4/4" 4000

Black Gum 4/4" :»4no

Butternut 4/4" 2800

Buckeye 4/4" 2 GOO

Cherry 4/4" 4000

Chestnut 4/4" 2800

Cottonwood 1/4" 1050

3/8" 1050

1/2" 1400

5/8" 1 750

3/4" 2000

4/4" 2800

5/4" 0/4" 2900

8/4" 3000

Cypress 1/4" 1200

3/8" 1 200

1 /2" 1 500

5/8" 1 900

4/4" 5/4" 6/4" 3000

8/4" 3200

10/4" 12/4" 16/4" 3500

Elm (Soft) 4/4" 3200

5/4" 6/4" 3300

8/4" 3500

10/4" 12/4" 3600

Elm (Rock) 1/1" 3800

(174 )

Rough

Dry

Gum (Red)

1/4"

850

3/8"

1300

1/2"

1750

5/8"

2200

3/4"

2700

4/4"

3500

5/4"

6/4"

3600

8/4"

3800

Gum Sap

1 /4"

800

3/8"

1250

1/2"

1700

5/8"

2100

3/4"

2500

4/4"

3300

5/4"

6/4"

3400

•

8/4"

3600

Hickory

4/4"

5000

Axles and Reaches

5000

Rim Strips

5000

Holly

4/4"

3500

Locust

4/4"

4200

Magnolia

4/4"

3500

Maple (Soft)

4/4"

3250

5/4"

6/4"

3350

8/4"

3500

Maple (Hard)

4/4"

4000

Oak (Eastern)

3/8"

2000

1/2"

2200

5/8"

2700

3/4"

3200

4/4"

3900

5/4"

6/4"

4000

8/4"

4200

Chair and Furniture Stock ....

4200

Squares

4200

Wagon Stock and Felloes

4500

Plough Handle Strips

4250

Oak (Memphis Ter.)

1/4"

1100

3/8"

1700

1/2"

2150

5/8"

2700

3/4"

3250

4/4"

4200

5/4"

6/4"

4300

8/4"

4500

Chair and Furniture Stock ....

4200

( 175)

Rough

Dry
Oak (Memphis Ter.) — continued

Squares 4200

Wagon Stock and Felloes 4500

Plough Handle Strips 4250

Oak (La. and Tex.) 3/8" 1750

1 /2" 2200

5/8" 2750

3/4" 3400

4/4" 4400

5/4" 6/4" 4500

8/4" 4800

Pecan 4/4" 4800

Poplar 3/8" 1050

1/2" 1400

5/8" 1600

3/4" 2100

4/4" 2800

Sycamore 4/4" 3200

Tupelo 4/4" 3000

5/4" 6/4" 3100

8/4" 3200

Walnut 4/4" 4000

Willow . . 4/4" 2800

( 176)

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Spanish. Swedish.
; Palo de Campeche Campaschetra ;
Kampeschetrad
Madera de Limon Citrontra

Capitan Skeppskapten
L Carton Papp or Kartong

c Fabricca de papel Kartongfabrik
Estuches Foder

Contado jvontant
Tempanos Bottnar ; Botten-
stafver
Botas Fatverk ; Fastager
Cedro Cedertrad
Carbones de Lena Trakol
Contrato de Fleta- Certeparti
miento

Chimico Kemisk
Escoplos Mejslar ; Huggjern
Madera para Cubas Klappholts

e Almadrenas Traskor
Commission Kommission

Consignacion Consignation
Contrato Kontrakt
Lena de Cuerda Kast ved

N

M

r*n

• —

JZ

German.

Campeschehol
Blauholz
Citronenholz

Seekapitan
Papp or Carte

Holzpappfabr
Futtrale

Baar
Bodenholz

Fasser
Zedernholz

Holzkohle
Certepartie

Chcmisch

Meissel
Klapholz

Holziiberschu
Commission

Consignation
Contract

Klafterholz

French.

Bois de Campeche

Bois citron ; Bois
de chandelle ;

Bois a flambeau

Capitaiiie de navire
Carton

Fabrique de carton
Etuis ; Fourreaux

Comptant
Fongailles

Futailles
Bois de cedre

Charbon de bois
Le chartepartie

Chimique
Ciseaux ; Cisoirs
Bordillons ; Dou-
vains

1 Sabots
La commission

La consignation
Un contrat

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49

English

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(logwood)
Candle wood

Captain
Cardboard c

ton
Carton manu
Cases (boxes'

Cash
Cask- bottom

i 1

'-3 1

i K jj

-11

do

Charcoal
Chartorparty

Chemical

Chisels
Clapboards

Clogs (woode
Commission

Consignment
Contract

Cordwood (s
wood)

( 179 )

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H28

Haynes, Edwin

Timber technicalities

PLEASE DO NOT REMOVE
CARDS OR SLIPS FROM THIS POCKET

UNIVERSITY OF TORONTO LIBRARY

"3RAR

3F FORESTRY
UNIVERSITY OF TORONTO