UNIVERSITY OF B.C. LIBRARY 3 9424 00126 1772 H^v STORAGE JTBU PSOCESSING-CKE U.B.C. LIBRARY 4fJ w/r Digitized by the Internet Archive in 2010 with funding from University of British Columbia Library http://www.archive.org/details/timbertimbertreeOOIasl TIMBER AND TIMBER TREES TIMBER AND TIMBER TREES NATIVE AND FOREIGN BV THE LATE THOMAS LASLETT TIMBER INSPECTOR TO THE ADMIRALTY SECOND EDITION COMPLETELY REVISED, WITH NUMEROUS ADDITIONS AND ALTERATIONS BY H. MARSHALL WARD, D.Sc, F.R.S., F.L.S., F.H.S. PROFESSOR OF BOTANY IN THE ROYAL INDIAN ENGINEERING COLLEGE, COOPERS HILL Wanton MACMILLAN AND CO. AND NEW YORK 1894 [A// rights reserved] First Edition^ 1875- Second Edition^ 1894. PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION A HANDY-BOOK on Home and Foreign Timber, for ship and house building purposes, is, in the opinion of many, much required. The botanical treatises which are accessible are too strictly scientific in their form and treatment to interest the general reader, and they lack that practical application of knowledge to the wants of the shipwright and carpenter, which it is one of the aims of this book to give. Hence, I have endeavoured to concentrate into one form all the information which books and long experience could give, and so to arrange the materials as to make them intelligible and acceptable alike to the master builder and apprentice. Keeping this in view, I have introduced into the work the substance of a course of lectures on the properties of timber, which I delivered at the Royal School of Naval Architecture at South Kensington ; vi PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION. and of three other courses of lectures on the same subject, delivered at the Royal School of Military Engineering at Brompton Barracks, Chatham. Many new descriptions are treated of, and a great number of experiments on the strength of timber are given in detail as well as in the abstract. Further, there are some useful notes on seasoning timber for use, and the best means to be taken for its preser- vation. THOMAS LASLETT. 58, Maryon Road, Charlton, S.E. September^ 1875. PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION When the Publishers requested me to undertake the preparation of a New Edition of this Standard Work, I felt that an opportunity was offered for doing a valuable service to the professions and trades to which it appeals, by showing some of the numerous advances made in our knowledge of that remarkable structure, Timber, and the no less remarkable Trees that yield it, gained by the study of modern botany, and especially in its economic aspects, since the appearance of the First Edition of this work nearly twenty years ago. At the same time it had to be clearly understood that the work should not be altered in character to the extent of making it a formal text- book of theoretical science. The question whether I should be able to set forth these matters in the limits of the book, and at the same time retain all that is best of the popular style and wide knowledge of his subject shown by viii PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION. the late Author^ was a serious one, because it was at once evident that I must almost entirely re-write some parts of the book, and make material alterations and additions in others. I have, wherever practicable, retained the numerous Tables of Experiments and the Illustrations of the First Edition. At the same time, it should be noted that much has been done to advance our knowledge of the technical properties of timber since Laslett wrote, and the reader should consult the works of Bauschinger, Rankine, Unwin, Lanza, and others, for further experimental details on the strength of timber as building material. In this connection, I have espe- cially to thank Mr. W. J. Luke for valuable suggestions and assistance in revising the Tables and calculations of the First Edition, and particularly corrections re- garding the formulae on p. loi and the Appendix. Those familiar with the First Edition will notice that I have completely altered the arrangement of the work in so far as to bring the timbers of the '•broad-leaved," or Dicotyledonous trees together, as contrasted with those of the Conifers, in each case treating of them according to the part of the world they are found in. Important additions have been made as regards the timbers of India, Australia, the PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION. ix Cape, Natal, and others of our Colonies, thereby, I believe, greatly enhancing the value of the work. I trust, also, that those concerned will find the com- prehensive additions regarding the general characters of timber and its uses, its defects, and the processes of preserving it of value. Those readers who wish to go further into the literature of timber, and especially of the woods of our Colonial possessions, will do well to consult the various works quoted throughout the book, and to visit the Timber Museum at Kew.* I do not pretend to have enumerated all, but choice has been made of some of the leading ones, and I take this opportunity of acknowledging many obligations to the works referred to. In order to facilitate reference to the very numerous additions, especially among the timbers of our Colonies, I have prepared an index as complete as possible to all the names of the trees concerned. In conclusion, while it is too much to expect that no omissions have been overlooked in a book requiring so much labour, I hope that few will be * An excellent guide to this has since been pubHshed, to which I owe several corrections in the proof-sheets. X PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION. found of importance ; but I shall be extremely obliged to any readers who will suggest improve- ments which might make the work even more useful than it is. H. MARSHALL WARD. Coopers Hill, December^ '893. CONTENTS. Part E ON TIMBER IN GENERAL. INTRODUCTION. PAGE On the nature of timber or wood — The various aspects under which timber is viewed — By the timber merchant — By the engineer and builder — By the carpenter, turner, &c. — By the chemist — By the physicist — By the botanist, forester, &c i CHAPTER I. Trees, and their kinds — Forms of stems — Direction of branches — Heart- wood — Sap-wood — Bark — Pith — Medullary rays — The sap — Cam- bium— Lignine — Annual layers, &c 30 CHAPTER II. Annual layers at top and butt of trees — Baobab — Cedars of Lebanon — Sizes and ages of trees — Rate of growth — Position of maximum strength — Signs when past maturity — Parasitic fungi — Foxiness — Stag-headed — Natural seasoning — Proper time for felling, &c. . . 41 CHAPTER III. Trees, hedge-grown — Copse-grown — Effects of variety of soil — Influence on water supply— Form when young, &c 49 xii CONTENTS. CHAPTER IV. PAGE Defects— Heart-shake— Woods affected- In Teak attributed to ringing or girdling— Various defects and their causes, 8:c.— Defects— Bois rou^e— Hollow branches, &c.— Star-shake— External evidence of— Trees most frequent in— Cup-shake— Varieties of— Occur in sound trees— Frost-cracks— Sun-burns— Forest fires 53 CHAPTER V. Annual layers of irregular growth— Departure from natural colour— Spots — Swellings — Removal of branches — Broken branches — Mode of pruning — Druxy knot — Rind-gall — How to select timber, spars, planks, deals, &c 63 CHAPTER VI. Timber — Numerous experiments — Specimens well seasoned — Sizes ex- perimented on— Mode of testing— Transverse— Tensile, &'C. . . 70 CHAPTER VII. Timber — Winter felled — Natural seasoning — Suggestions for stackmg — Seasoning — Duhamel's plan — Fincham's — Steaming — Heated chambers — Carbonising — M. de Lappareni's patent — Tried at Wool- wich—Experiments—Tables— Abstracts of previous experiments — Im- pregnation with antiseptics, &c. — Materials used — Methods . . 73 Part M. THE TIMBER OF DICOTYLEDONOUS TREES. CHAPTER VIII. European timbers — British species of Oak — Best soil for — Standard of quality — Dimensions attained — Qualities — Store formerly kept in H.M.'s Dockyards — Substitutes for, &c 92 CHAPTER IX. British Oak — Tables of experiments — Elasticity — Strength — Barlow's formulu; — Experiments on pieces cut from centre of log— Deflection, ^■c 99 CONTENTS. xiii CHAPTER X. PAGE British Oak — Experiments on tensile strength — Tables — Vertical strength — Tables — Sectional area for pillars — Elongation of fibres — Tables, &c io6 CHAPTER XI. British Oak — Time for felling — Tannin in bark — Winter-felled timber — Account of some ships in which used, &c. ...... 114 CHAPTER Xn. British Oak — Navy contracts — Specifications for timber, thick-stuff, and plank, &c 118 CHAPTER Xni. French Oak — Resemblance to British — Sample first tried — Loss in con- version— Method of hewing — Tried in H.M.'s Ship "Pallas " — Quality — Classed at Lloyd's — Experiments — Tables, &c 123 CHAPTER XIV. Italian Oak — Several varieties — Quality — Description — Defects — Quantity in H.M.'s Dockyards — Navy contracts — Experiments — Tables, &c. . 127 CHAPTER XV. Dantzic Oak — Description — Classification — Agent employed — Specifi- cation for Navy contracts — Experiments — Tables, &c. , , . 134 CHAPTER XVI. Riga Oak — Dimensions — Quality — Quantity imported — Used for furniture — Form when hewn — Peculiarity in selling, »S:c. . . . . .139 CHAPTER XVII. Belgian Oak — Survey of Belgian forests — Piedmont — Dutch or Rhenish — Spanish and Turkey Oak — Forests of Asia Minor — European Turkey — Hungary, &c «... 141 xiv CONTENTS. CHAPTER XVIII. PAGE Walnut — Ash — Description — Dimensions — Quality — Experiments — Tables— Use of Bark — Beech -Chestnut — Elm, English — Variety of uses — Defects — Experiments — Tables — Navy contracts — Elm, Wych — Hornbeam — Experiments — Tables — Box — Alder — Willows — Other European Timbers .......... 146 CHAPTER XIX. American White Oak — Dimensions — Descriptions — Principal uses — Experiments — Tables, &c. — Live Oak — Dimensions — Description — Uses — Baltimore Oak — Sizes imported — Description — Slow growth — Experiments — Tables — Canadian Oak — Description — Sizes and quantity imported — Various American Oaks, &c. — American Ash — Elm — Walnut — Birch — Other American Timbers .... 166 CHAPTER XX. Timbers of the Indian Empire — Teak — Extensive forests — Burmah — Siam — Description of trees — Variable quality — Short logs — Girdling — Variety of species — Experiments in India and England — Deflections — Tables — Extensive use — FalUng supply — Market value — Experi- ments— Tables, &c 185 CHAPTER XXI. Pyengadu — Description — Uses — Col Blake's Report — Dr. Hooker's account — Various woods examined at Moulmein — Experiments — Tables, &c. — Indian Oaks — Sal — Sissoo — Toon — Ebony — Other Indian Timbers 202 CHAPTER XXII. The Timbers of other parts of Asia— Borneo— Chow, Pingow, Kranji, and Kapor Trees— Description — Dimensions — Defects — Experiments — Tables — Other species — Philippine Islands — Molav^ tree — Experi- ments— Tables— Other species — Report on Lauan Timber — Acle, &c. 217 CHAPTER XXIII. Timber Trees of Australia — Tewart — Experiments — Tables — Jarrah — Peculiar defect — Mode of flitching — Experiments — Tables — Kari — Extraordinary size — Defects — Experiments — Tables — Iron-bark — Blue Gum —Stringy-bark — Dimensions — Uses — Experiments — Tables — Other species of Eucalyptus — The Australian Oaks — Other Australian Timbers — Trees of Van Diemen's Land, &c. . . 228 CONTENTS. XV CHAPTER XXIV. PAGE Timber Trees of Central America and the West Indies — Mahogany : Spanish, St. Domingo, Nassau, Honduras, and Mexican — Description — Uses — Experiments — Tables — Chief defects — Santa Maria — Trees of Brazil, &c. — Greenheart — Dimensions — Qualities — Sap-wood — Shape of imported logs — Experiments — Tables — Mora — Size of Ipgs — Defects — Experiments — Tables — Carapo — Balata — Ang^lique and trees of French Guiana — Juba and Sabicu — Dimensions — Qualities — Defects — Experiments — Tables — Lignum Vitae — Rosewood, &c. — Other West Indian Timbers 257 CHAPTER XXV. The Timber Trees of Africa — African Oak — Description — Uses — Logs imported — Experiments — Tables — Other African species — Zambesi — List of trees, &c. 299 CHAPTER XXVI. New Zealand Timbers — Rata — Pohutukawa — Puriri — Other New Zealand Timbers, &c 308 CONIFEROUS TIMBER TREES. CHAPTER XXVII. European Conifers — Fir, Dantzic — Whence drawn — Sorting round wood — Hand-masts — Deals — Classes of quality — Variety of marks — De- scription of tests — Experiments — Tables — Navy contracts, &c. . . 313 CHAPTER XXVIII. Fir, Riga — Description — Selection of spars — Classed by brackers — Spars in great favour — Experiments — Tables — Navy contracts — Specifi- cation for hand-masts, &c. 329 CHAPTER XXIX. Fir, Swedish — Description — Uses — Quantity imported — Norway — Small dimensions — Spars — Navy contracts — Spruce deals — Quantity — Quality — Experiments — Tables, &c 336 xvi CONTENTS. CHAPTER XXX. PAGE European Spruce — Deal — Silver Fir 338 CHAPTER XXXI. Larch — Rate of growth — Planted in Scotland — Italian — Early uses — Polish — Russian — Tried at Woolwich — Excessive shrinkage — Experi- ments— Tables — Uses, &c. — Other European Conifers . . . 344 CHAPTER XXXII. North American Conifers — The Pines of Canada and the United States — Red Pine — Dimensions — Sap-wood — Experiments — Tables, &c. . 350 CHAPTER XXXIII. Pine, Canada yellow — Dimensions — Inch masts — Size of logs — " Waney" timber — Deals bright and floated — Defects — Experiments — Tables — Navy contracts, &c 356 CHAPTER XXXIV. Pine, American Pitch — Mast pieces — Size of logs — Defects — Experiments — Tables, &c. — Other American Pines 367 CHAPTER XXXV. The American Firs — Oregon or Douglas Fir — Description — Rate of growth — Size of spars — Specimen at Kew Gardens — Uses — Other American Firs — Spruce — Larch, &c 374 CHAPTER XXXVI. Asiatic and African Conifers — The Cedars — The Conifers of India, &c. — Cedar of Lebanon — Rapid growth — Other Cedars .... 380 CHAPTER XXXVI r. The Conifers of Australia and New Zealand — Kauri or Cowdie Pine — Large handsome trees — Rate of growth — Dense foliage — Unequalled for masts — Slight defects — Experiments — Tables, &c. . , . 387 I CONTENTS. xvu fart W. APPENDICES AND INDEX. Appendix A. Uses of Timber .... B. Uses of the principal Woods described C. Exp3riments on Timber . D. Tensile strength E. Vertical strength F. Conversion of Timber G. Elasticity and transverse strength H. Elasticity and transverse strength I, Conversion of Timber General Index PAGE 405 409 418 421 422 423 424 427 429 431 INDEX TO ILLUSTRATIONS. FIGURE I. 2. 3 a, b. 3^. 4- 5- 6, 7. 9- 10. II. 12 a, b, 13- 14. 15. 16 a, b. 17 ^, ^. 18. 19. 20 a, ^. 21 a, b. 22. 23 a, b. 24. 25- 26. 27. 28 a, ^. 29. 30. 31. 3'2a,b,c. 33- 34- Plank properly fixed with heart side against the beam Plank improperly fixed with outside against the biam Medullary rays, or silver grain Concentric circles, or annual layers Conversion of sap-wood into heart-wood Do. do. partially completed Conical or tapering form of woody layers . Pith, snake-like form of Heart-shake defect Do. do. twisting form Do. do. at right angles to each other Star-shake defect Cup-shake defect .... Defect caused by a broken branch Pruning Rind-gall defect .... British Oak, rough, form of log . Do. sided, do. Do. compass, do. Do. do. do. French Oak, mode of hewing Italian Oak, compass form of log Riga Oak, semicircular, do. English Elm, rough, do. Canada Rock Elm, defective annual layers Jarrah, mode of flitching . . Spanish Mahogany, general, form of kg African Oak, irregular, do. Canada Red Pine, mode of hewing Canada Yellow Pine. do. Do. Section showing seven pieces taken across the full breadth of tlie tree Canada Yellow Pine. Section showing eight pieces, do. American Pitch Pine. Section and twelve lengths of the inner and outer layers . New Zealand Kauri. Section showing four pieces taken from one side, and two pieces from the other side of pith. New Zealand Kauri. Section, and butt, middle, and top lengths, three on each side of the pith I'AGE 32 32 33 33 37 37 42 SI 55 56 56 57 60 65 66 67 119 120 121 INDEX TO TABLES. TABLE I'AGE I. Number of concentric circles found in various trees 44. 45 2—4. Carbonised and ncn-carbonised British Oak, experiments on ... . 83, 84 5. Dimensions of nine Oak trees growing in Woburn Abbe) r Park .... 94 6. Store of timber maintained at Woolwich Dockyard. 98 7—23. British Oak, experiments on 99—113 24 — 26, French Oak, do. . 125, 126 27—31. Italian Oak, do. . 131— 133 ■ 32-35- Dantzic Oak, do. . 137, 138 36. Dutch, or Rhenish Oak, e xperiments on . 142 37. Spanish Oak, experiments on 143 38—40. British Ash, do. . 149 41—43- English Elm, do. . 155. 156 44&4S- Hornbeam, do. . 161 46—48. American White Oak, experiments on . 169, 170 49—51- Baltimore Oak, experiments on . . . 172, 173 52—54. Canadian Ash, do. 175. 176 55—57. Canada Rock Elm, do. 179, 180 58-64. Teak, do. 194 — 201 65—67. Pyengadu, do. 205, 206 68—70. Chow, do. 2l8 71—73. Pingow, do. 219, 220 74. Red Kranji, do. 221 75—77- Kapor or Camphor, do. 222, 223 78&79. Molav^, do. 224, 225 80&81. Lauan, do. 226 82—84. Tewart, do. 230, 231 85-87. Jar rah, do. 237. 238 88—90. Kari, do. 240, 241 91—93. Iron-bark, do. . 242, 243 94—96. Blue Gum, do. . 246, 247 97- Trees of Van Diemen's Land, list of 249 98 — ICO. Spanish Mahogany, experiments on . 259, 260 loi — 103. Honduras do. do. ... . 264, 265 104 — 106. Mexican do. do. ... . 267, 268 107 — 109. Cuba Cedar, do. ... . 269, 270 no — 113. Greenheart, do. ... . 274, 275 114 — 116. Mora, do. ... • 276, 277 XX INDEX TO TABLES. TABLE 117 — 119. Sabicu, experiments on . 120 — 123. African Timber, do. 124. List of Trees of Zambesi district 125 — 131. Dantzic Fir, experiments on . 132 — 135. Riga Fir, do. 136. Riga Fir hand-masts, specification for 137. Norway spars, do. 138. Deals, &c. , specimens of trade-marks 139 — 141. Russian Larch, experiments on 142 — 144. Canada Red Pine, do. 145 — 149. Canada Yellow Pine, do. 150 — 156. American Pitch Pine, do. 157 — 159. Spruce, Canadian, do. 160 —165. New Zealand Kauri Pine, experiments on 166 — 172. See Appendices PAGE 281, 282 301—303 306 320—323 332—334 335 339 342 347. 348 353- 354 360—365 368—372 378 392—395 409 — 428 TIMBER AND TIMBER TREES. ??art 91.— #n ^imhtv in (S^enetal INTRODUCTION. ON THE NATURE OF TIMBER, OR WOOD. Timber, a word derived from the Saxon, signifies wood of such kind and size that it can be employed in con- struction, building and engineering works, ship and carriage making, carpentry, and for numerous other purposes, and a timber tree is one that yields such wood. If, now, we take any convenient piece of wood of the kind mentioned, and submit it to the examination of various experts used to the investigation of natural objects used in commerce, we shall find their reports upon it differ considerably according to their pomts of view, and according to the kind of training they have received. The report of the carpenter will differ altogether from that of the chemist, that of the physicist will be of a kind utterly unlike that of the timber-mer- chant, and that of the engineer will have little or nothing in common with that of the botanist or of the forester,, and so on. TIMBER AND TIMBER TREES. Nevertheless, totally different as are the facts brought into the foreground by each of these investigators, there is a common substratum belonging to them all, and the best possible knowledge of what timber, or wood, is, will be got by comparing all their statements, and find- ing out what relations they bear to each other, sifting out what depends on inferences drawn from incom- plete examination, and fitting together in their proper sequence all those which support one another. With this end in view, I propose to give some idea of the kind of luay of looking at a piece of wood which seems prevalent among various sections of professional and scientific experts who concern themselves with wood in one form or another. Let us first examine the points of view taken I. BY THE TIMBER-MERCHANT. It will readily be understood that when our piece of wood comes into the timber-yard, from its forest home away in the hills, or beyond the sea, or wherever it was, the first tests to which it will be subjected are at the hands of the sharp-eyed, experienced man of business whose purpose is to sell or buy it ; and when we reflect that — to say nothing of the vicissitudes to which it was exposed while growing in its native forest — the wood may have passed through many perils as it lay felled on the ground, or as it slid down the timber-slide, or was carried down the hills on sledges, or rolled helter-skelter into the river, thence to be floated, or carted, or carried by rail to its destination, it will be evident the expert who is concerned with buying and selling the timber must have his eyes open to many possibilities before he decides as to the quality of the wood he examines. We INTRODUCTION. will suppose that he chances to select as a sample some particular piece of wood. In the first place, or at any rate after satisfying himself as to the species of timber concerned, he will examine the cut ends — the transverse section — and see what marks are there visible. He will probably make sure that the annual rings are of the right average breadth, and evenly grown without interruption : these matters are of some importance, and there are differences in detail required for each kind of timber. He will at the same time assure himself as to the soundness or otherwise of the central parts, round the pith ; for in old trees the inner portions of the heart- wood (the oldest of all) are apt to decay, and if this decay has commenced the timber-merchant must take steps to find out how far the useless portions extend into the log, and of what nature the decay is, because some forms of rotting are much more damaging and far- reaching than others. He will also be on the look-out for various indica- tions of damage only known to those who are in the habit of examining large timber. Certain fissures, or cracks, are very common in felled timber ; and while some of these only extend slightly into the log, others, again, are indicative of serious defects which will cause great waste when the logs are sawn. These fissures are mostly apparent at the cross section, especially of the lower parts of the log. Some of them exist before the tree is felled, but others only appear afterwards. Certain of these fissures occur in the direction of the radiating lines known as medullary rays, the wider part of the fissure being next the pith, while it narrows more and more as it extends outwards. If these ''Heart-shakes,'' as they are called, exist to any B 2 TIMBER AND TIMBER TREES. great extent, it is obvious that it will seriously affect the cutting up of the timber into planks, etc. The principal cause of ''Heart-shake " is the unequal loss of water, and consequent shrinkage, of the older (central) parts of the wood, owing to the incipient decomposition of that part and its consequent inability to retain its usual proportion of water in antagonism to the more powerful outer and younger parts. Another form of radial fissure has to be carefully distinguished from the above. In this case the cracks are wider and wider as we trace them outwards — i.e. towards the bark. Many of these so-called " Star- shakes " are due to the more rapid drying of the ex- ternal layers of wood, as the tree lies exposed on the ground, after felling ; but there are other defects, also expressed by radiating fissures which look very similar to the last, to the inexperienced eye, but which are due to quite other causes, often operating while the tree is standing in the forest. The chief causes of these are violent changes of temperature, but their peculiarities in detail may be passed over here. Finally, the practised eye of the expert will search for fissures which run in the planes of the annual rings, and therefore cause separation, more or less complete, of the layers. These " Cup-shakes " may be due to violent and sudden changes of temperature, or to the excessive bending of the tree before high winds, or to other shocks — e.g. the heavy fall of the tree or the log. Nor does this by any means exhaust the list of possible defects in the wood, and to which the merchant will direct his keen attention. He will want to know whether the " grain " — i.e. the lines and planes of structure — runs straight in the log, or whether it is twisted, as is often the case in some woods. Then he will investigate INTRODUCTION. the sample carefully for any signs of discoloration, especially certain rusty-looking streaks which betray the presence of various kinds of " rot''\ for signs of an undue proportion of " knots " — i.e. the buried proximal ends of branches long dead. Many woods have their own special odours ; and the suspicious connoisseur will bring his olfactory sense into play to ascertain if the odour is characteristic, or if it is unduly overpowered by certain musty or sour smells which denote the existence of fungi, or insects^ or chemical decompositions which may cause trouble. Even the sense of touch is sometimes employed by the expert, though probably to a far less degree by the buyer of large timber, than by the more sympathetic cabinet-maker or turner. 2. BY THE ENGINEER AND BUILDER. Those who use timber as material for construction, will naturally have a way of their own of criticising our piece of wood. The engineer or builder will be especially concerned as to the loads that pieces of given length and diameter will sustain ; the amount of change it will exhibit in volume, by swelling or shrinking ; the shocks it will endure and respond to elastically ; and how long it will last when exposed to the vicissitudes of a variable climate or other medium. The methods by which he gains the information desired are simple, and for the most part direct. He subjects pieces of known length and diameter to various increasing strains. He finds that all woods offer resistance to strains or pressures applied in the direction of the longitudinal axis of the stem, or radially or tangentially across this axis ; and he compares the TIMBER AND TIMBER TREES. different species by applying the same tests to similarly cut samples of each. He thus obtains empirical numbers expressing how many units of weight are needed to slowly extend or compress a bar of the wood, longitudinally, by so much of its original length ; or how many units are necessary to bend it transversely up to such a point that it can, or can not, recover its original shape ; or, again, to such a point that it snaps, and so on. Since numerous trials convince him that different species differ in these respects, and that wood of the same species differs considerably according to its age, dryness, and the manner of its growth, he obtains long lists of somewhat rough data for his calculations. By these means he arrives at numerical expressions for the average rigidity, elasticity, resistance to com- pression or shearing stress, to tearing or abrasion, and so forth. He also tests the resistance to torsion, to splitting, etc., and to the cutting power of various instruments. Additional information is obtained by experience — another word for experiment if properly controlled and recorded — as to the durability of various specimens of wood after long years of exposure in dry air, or soil, or in damp media, or, finally, in an environment subject to changes in the degree of moisture. Some kinds of wood last a fairly long time if kept dry, which decay rapidly if exposed to damp ; others, again, will endure for years if always wet, but soon rot if alternately ex- posed to moisture and to a dry air. Moreover, different woods offer different degrees of resistance to the attacks of predatory animals and plants ; such as white ants and teredo on the one hand, and the fungus of dry-rot on the other. INTRODUCTION. The average weights of equal volumes of *' green " wood, expressed in terms of a chosen standard, also afford him information of service ; and when these are compared with the average weights of similar volumes of the same wood in a dry state, he obtains yet other data, which lead him moreover to approximate notions as to the quantities of water contained in the former. Comparisons of the changes in volume undergone by his specimens as they lose or absorb water also help him to estimate the capacities for shrinking and swelling which his specimens exhibit. But it must be confessed that his methods and con- clusions in this connection are very rough indeed ; for, while on the one hand the same wood holds very different quantities of water according to the time of year at which it is felled, the soil on which it grows, and the climate in which the tree flourished, on the other hand the observations on dry wood have been usually recorded for *' air-dry '' specimens — i.e. speci- mens allowed to dry until they are judged to be dry in the popular sense. Now it can be readily shown that such wood is never really dry, and that it gives off and takes up considerable quantities of hygroscopic moisture from the air ; and there are many other fallacies at the bottom of these conclusions. The same criticism applies to the weights of different pieces of wood, as given in the tables of the engineer and builder, etc. The numbers there found refer to pieces which vary in volume — because their volumes alter differently as the state of the atmosphere changes — and which contain different quantities of water — because different pieces of wood give up or retain dif- ferent quantities of water as the state of the air varies. 8 TIMBER AND TIMBER TREES. However, given certain rough corrections, a sort of average is obtained for each kind of timber, that seems to satisfy the requirements of the practical man. By noting these properties, and taking into account the relative hardness or softness of different woods ; their freedom from resin or oil, and conversely ; their tendency to warp, crack, shrink, etc., as they lose water in ^'seasoning ^^ ; and some other points which the expert is on the look-out for, the engineer or builder selects his wood for bridges, railway stations, sleepers, roofs, mills, piers, ships, and so forth. 3. BY THE CARPENTER, TURNER, ETC. Here we have critics with somewhat different ends in view, and if we include the cabinet-maker, carver and gilder, and other specialists who work with smaller quantities of wood, the points to be examined in our piece of wood are numerous and various. One essential will be what is called the " grain " of the wood ; a term it is not easy to define on paper, but which refers to the kind of surface — rousfh, smooth, coarse or fine — left after the action of a tool. Some woods, for instance, have a beautifully smooth, even *^ grain,'^ so that a sharp saw cuts directly through and leaves the surface compact and level ; others, again, are apt to tear under the tool, and the surface is rough, or " woolly,'^ with ragged ends of torn fibres. " Cross- grained " is a curious term, which refers to the fact that the fibres, etc., are so irregular in their course, that the tool is sure to meet many of them at a wide angle with their longitudinal axis at that spot. The terms hardness and softness, and the word surface are used somewhat loosely, and are sometimes INTRODUCTION. confused with the above. " Silver-grain " refers to the distinct patches of medullary rays often seen on those surfaces which coincide more or less with the radial plane. Since the workman has to think of his tools, and their edges, teeth, etc., as well as of the wood he uses, he comes to look critically at the relative hardness or otherwise of the latter ; and the kind of surface — smooth, lustrous, silky, clean, mottled, etc. — he can bring out with such instruments as the chisel and plane, also in- fluences his verdict as to the quality of the timber. Some varieties of the Scotch Pine, for instance, are so resinous that the tools clog and refuse to work up a fine surface, whereas the beautiful silky lustrous surface of properly planed White Deal (Spruce) is well known to every joiner as easy '^ to work/' Similar considerations affect the cabinet-maker, etc., who wants a good polishing surface ; and he knows that not every smooth wood-surface will take stains or polish — and the remark applies to painting. The turner and the carver are also critical as to the hardness, smooth- ness, ease of working, etc., of the woods they use. It is also important to these, and others who use wood, whether the timber consists chiefly of heart-wood or of sap-wood : the latter is usually darker, harder, and heavier, but more durable and closer in texture. Con- siderations of colour also affect the question, and so do those of the power to hold nails. Some woods contain so much tannic and other acids that the iron of the nails becomes corroded — by chemical action between the metal and the acids — and the nails soon drop out ; other woods are difficult to nail, because they split so readily as the point is hammered in ; others, again, are apt to warp and twist, and so prize lo TIMBER AND TIMBER TREES. out the nails. This brings us to the question of " seasoning. ^^ Many woods, if they once become air-dry^ — i.e, de- prived of all the water that the air can take up from them at ordinary temperatures — alter very little in volume or shape in the ordinary course of events ; that is to say, they do not shrink or swell beyond certain limits which can be tolerated in practice. As a matter of fact no wood exists that does not alter its dimensions as the temperature and hygrometric conditions of the atmosphere vary; and all undergo such changes in volume more in directions across the longitudinal axis of the wood than in those which coincide with that axis. " Seasoning " is also necessary because wood is apt to undergo certain deteriorations of very serious nature, unless the excess of moisture is got rid of. Consequently the joiner_, cabinet-maker, etc., will assure himself of the fact that wood has been properly seasoned before he employs it for specific purposes. 4. BY THE CHEMIST. Let us now inquire what the chemist has to say to our piece of wood. By means of those two busy handmaids of his — the balance and the fire — we may be sure he can give us some information ; though there may be room for dis- appointment at some of his results, and we stand aghast at the wreck of our object which remains, after he has dissipated its elements by his searching analysis. Wc may assume that he will take a somewhat small piece of the wood, and will weigh it accurately in its fresh condition ; this piece, having a certain size or INTRODUCTION. u volume — i.e. occupying a definite portion of space — will weigh so much. He will then dry the piece of wood, driving off its moisture (water) at a known temperature, and then again weigh it ; here he will pause to note that the weight has diminished considerably — so much water, by weight, has been driven off as vapour, and can be con- densed and compared with his first results. He will also note that the dried piece of wood has diminished in volume considerably ; in other words, the wood not only loses weight, but it also shrinks as the water is expelled. He will find that the amount of water which can be thus driven off by merely drying the wood, and not charring or burning it, varies according to the kind of wood examined, the age of the tree which yielded it, the season at which the tree was felled, and the part of the stem from which his specimen was selected, and some other circumstances ; it will probably amount to from about 1 8 per cent, to about 52 per cent, of the original weight before drying — say nearly 40 per cent, as an average number. But he will also find that this process of drying takes place in two stages, as it were. Most of the water comes off easily as the temperature rises above that of a hot summer day, or that of a busy kitchen where the stoves are in full working order — say 25^ to 30° C. ; but there is a smaller proportion of the water which is held very tenaciously in the wood, and cannot be easily driven off until the temperature ascends to perilously near the scorching point, and which must therefore be expelled by keeping the wood at a tem- perature somewhat above that of boiling water — say 110° C. — for several hours. The first lot of easily dissipated water was merely 12 TIMBER AND TIMBER TREES. the water of the "sap," as it is called, held by capillarity in the visible cavities of the wood ; but the second lot •of water was present in the substance of the walls of those cavities, not as movable liquid water, but as what we know as "imbibed^' water, and it was held fast between the structural units of those walls by molecular forces of another category. Having determined that the piece of wood contained (in whatever form) so much water, the chemist would then proceed to analyse the solid, dry portion, of known weight, which remains. This he would do by burning it under conditions which he would be able to control. Here, again, he <:ould advance in stages. If he chose, he might first simply raise the temperature, gradually, but far beyond the drying points already referred to, and so distil off as much as could be thus got rid of; he would then examine the products, and would find some curious and interest- ing results. Put shortly, about one-half of the substance of the dry wood will be eventually distilled off in the form of gases and vapours, while the other half will remain behind in a solid form. The gases which escape will consist of Carbon dioxide, carbonic oxide, Marsh-gas, and certain other gaseous compounds of the elements Carbon and Hydro- gen. The more liquid bodies will contain certain com- pounds of Carbon, with Hydrogen, or with that element and Oxygen, of the nature of Alcohol, Vinegar, and such like substances. Benzol, Xylol, Creosote, and a number of other queer compounds, as well as Ammonia. More- over, many of these substances will be mixed in a brown or black viscid mess, which is in fact '' Azr." INTRODUCTION. 13 Now it is interesting in the first place to notice that many of these substances can be obtained from the products of the rotting, or decomposition of wood, such as goes on in bogs and in the soil ; and, in the second, that it is just these bodies which we obtain when coal is heated — and we know that coal is practically nothing but wood long bottled up in the earth. The other moiety of our piece of wood will be found in the form of a much shrunken, but very perfect model of the original specimen, and black in colour : in fact, as a piece of charcoal. It is very interesting to notice that it may show all the essential structural peculiarities of the wood so distinctly, that it is even possible to recognise the species of wood by means of the microscope. These facts gain in importance when you learn that it is frequently not difficult to make out the characters of fossil woods, and I have had opportunities of satis- fying myself that pieces of various species of timber, buried for ages in the earth, show sufficient of their structure, not only to enable one to determine what tree yielded them, but even to show the marks of injury done to them by parasitic fungi, as well as the parasites themselves in their interior. I have also had occasion to examine pieces of charcoal from the remains of an old Roman funeral-pyre, or other fire, the structure of which was quite recognisable. In all these cases the black " carbonised ^^ wood invites comparison with what we know of coal — which is, in principle, indeed nothing else. The lump of charcoal, representing about half the weight of the dry wood, will be found to consist almost entirely of carbon : I say almost entirely, because a small proportion of it will be found to be a mixture of several mineral substances cr salts^ comprising what is known 14 ' TIMBER AND TIMBER TREES. as the '^ ash '^ of the wood. If, novv^ the chemist chooses to proceed to extremes, he may raise the temperature still higher, and allow the carbon to burn off in presence of oxygen : in doing this he only completes what we should do if we had burnt the piece of wood in an open fire — excepting, of course, that he controls every step in his experiments, and catches and weighs all the pro- ducts, instead of letting them escape anyhow. At the end of his complete combustion, then, the chemist finds a minute remnant, weighing only perhaps one per cent, of the weight of the original piece of wood, and looking like a white or grey fine powdery mass, exactly comparable to the ash of a cigar. In this ash — the actual quantity of which, like the charcoal and other substances referred to above, will depend on the species of wood, the part of the stem analysed, its age, the soil on which it was grown, and the time of the year at which the specimen was collected — the chemist will ultimately discover salts of lime, potash, and magnesia, with phosphorus and sulphur, and possibly traces of one or two other elements, such as soda, iron, silica, and manganese. The results of the destructive analysis, therefore, may be summed up as follows : The piece of wood consisted of 1. Water .. ... about 40 per cent. 2. "Wood" ,, 60 ,, as compared with the original weight of the fresh, non- shrunken specimen. 3. The dry wood was composed of : (a). Combustible constituents, such as : Carbon ... nearly 50 per cent. Hydrogen 1, 06 ,, Oxygen -. 14 Nitrogen 01 II INTRODUCTION. 15 And j3. Incombustible constituents, or "ash/' com- prising salts of lime, potash, and a few other elements, forming in all only something like from one to two per cent, of the total weight of the piece of wood. But it is evident that such analyses as the above would throw little light on the question, in what form are these chemical elements and compounds present in the intact wood ? And I shall have to pass over any reference to the methods by which the chemist would proceed in his further examination of the piece of wood, and content myself with the following brief summary. Mention has already been made as to the water which is expelled on drying, and we have seen that nearly 50 per cent, by weight of the dry wood was carbon, chiefly in the form of a charcoal skeleton of the structure. Before the application of the intense heat of his com- bustion apparatus, however, the chemist would find that this structural part was composed of peculiar substances known as cellulose and lignin, both of which consist of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, combined in different pro- portions; the destruction of these substances it is which yields the greater part of the carbon compounds referred to above. Careful examination would also show that starch is present in our piece of wood, and that in quantities which vary greatly according to the season and the age of the wood ; in the winter the percentage weight of starch would be considerable, whereas in summer there would be very little. 5. BY THE PHYSICIST. Examined as a physical object, and by means of the methods devised for measuring and weighing accurately, i6 TIMBER AND TIMBER TREES. the physicist will surely have something to tell us about our piece of wood. In the first place he will classify it among porous bodies^ and his attempts to investigate its properties from his own points of view will help us to throw some light on several points of interest. The physicist will also, no doubt, investigate the specific gravity, the swelling and absorptive properties, and the capillary phenomena exhibited by the piece of wood, as well as its capacity for conducting sound, heat, and electricity. First as to the specific gravity. This is a much less simple matter than is immediately apparent at first sight. The question arises, are we to regard the specific gravity as ascertained by comparing the weight of a given volume of our piece of wood — which we have seen contains considerable quantities of water and air — forthwith, and in the fresh state ; or are we to first dry the wood, by driving off all the water, at iio° C. or so ; or should we adopt some other method ? Obviously, no trustworthy results can be got by the first method ; for the quantities of air and water in a piece of fresh wood not only vary according to the time of year, the part of the stem it is taken from, etc., etc., but it is almost impossible to measure accurately a body which is changing its volume so rapidly as a piece of fresh wood does when once exposed to the air. The second plan would be to thoroughly dry a large piece of the wood, and then cut a portion which could be measured, and compare its weight with that of an equal volume of water. But it is obvious that here, again, what we really get is the specific gravity of the wood p/us imprisoned air, for the atmosphere drives air in to replace the water expelled on heating; and the INTRODUCTION. 17 quantity of air thus driven in varies according to the cubic capacities of the spaces in the wood, and to the temperature, etc., and these spaces differ very largely in different pieces of wood, even from the same tree. Consequently, here again we get values which are not constant but variable. Now let us see how it is possible to avoid these objections, and obtain the real specific gravity of the wood itself. Strictly considered, this can only be done by anticipating some knowledge of the structure of the piece of wood, and it is only fair to point out that the method was devised by a botanist, who combined his knowledge of the anatomy and physiology of the wood, with that of physical methods. The piece of wood must be so cut that all the tubular cavities in it are opened, and it is then boiled for several hours in some dense medium, such as a solution of some stable mineral salt — say calcic nitrate, or a zinc salt — until all the water and air in its cavities are displaced by the medium. It is then found that the soaked piece of wood floats at any level in a salt-solution the density of which is 1*56, compared with pure water as unity. In other words, the specific gravity of the wood itself, apart from air and water imprisoned in it, is i'56, if we call that of water i, and the striking result is obtained that our piece of wood is itself really heavier than — more than half as heavy again as — an equal volume of water. Obviously, then, the chief reason why wood floats on water is because it is buoyed up by the air in it ; and this also explains why any piece of wood becomes '' water-logged," and sinks eventually, if it remains long enough in a river, pond, etc. It also explains why some woods cannot be floated down rivers — the air i8 TIMBER AND TIMBER TREES. cavities are too small, or feWj or both, in comparison) with the solid matter; and why dry wood floats better than freshly cut, " green " or wet wood — there is more air and less water in the former. Although the so-called specific gravity of fresh, or of dried wood, is so misleading a value, as usually quoted,, nevertheless it is possible to obtain some information of a very interesting nature if we carefully compare a suffi- ciently large number of determinations. For instance, by determining the average specific gravity of a number of pieces of the same wood when fresh cut, and then repeating the process after the pieces are seasoned, we obtain at least an insight into the quantity of liquid water which the fresh wood con- tained. If we add determinations of the specific gravity of the same wood thoroughly dried, at iio° C, we can form some ideas of the distribution of the water in each piece. Of course corrections have to be made for the shrinkage of the pieces, and an ingenious but simple instrument, called a xylometer or wood-measurer, has been invented for the purpose of such investigations. Botanists have taken some trouble to have such measurements carefully carried out, and often repeated, since a good deal depended on a knowledge of the distribution of the water and the air (or other gases) in wood from various trees, and from different parts of the same tree. Thus, if the weight of a given piece of wood, measuring loo cubic centimeters when fresh from the tree, is found to be 85 grams, and that of the same piece, perfectly dry, is 35 grams, then we know that the fresh piece of wood contained altogether 50 grams of water, which we expelled as vapour. The weight of the solid dry wood being 35 grams,. INTRODUCTION. 19 we can — since we know its true specific gravity is 1*56 — determine the cubic contents of the solid substance : it is -/-g = 22*43 cubic centimeters. That is to say, of the 100 cubic centimeters total volume of the fresh piece of wood, 22*43 cubic centimeters were solid substance, and therefore 77"57 cubic centimeters were cavities, and in these cavities (if we assume that no other spaces exist) the 50 grams — i.e. 50 cubic centimeters — of water were distributed. This would imply that 77-57 — 50 (— 27*57) cubic centimeters were occupied with air or other gases. But the assumption that all the water must be con- tained in the cavities is found to be erroneous, for it turns out that a portion of it is taken up into the solid substance of the wood itself, and is there held with peculiar tenacity. It is this imbibed water, in fact which it is so difficult to get rid of, even at high tempe- ratures, and which never is expelled in the ordinary process of drying, or " seasoning," wood. It is measured by the following method. A piece of the wood is dried thoroughly at 110° C, and its volume and weight deter- mined ; a thin transverse slice is selected, because it cracks radially as it dries. The thoroughly dried, cracked slice of wood is now hung in a moist atmosphere, kept at a suitable temperature, for several days. Here it absorbs and condenses some of the water, and the crack closes up tight. When it is found that no more water is thus absorbed, the piece of wood is again carefully weighed and measured and examined, and it is found that although there is no liquid water in the cavities, the increase in weight is considerable. Now, since the volume of the wood-substance was known — by dividing the dry weight by the specific gravity 1*56 — it is possible to determine the relations c 2 20 TIMBER AND TIMBER TREES. between this volume and that of the hygroscopically absorbed water. Numerous experiments have shown that this imbibed water ranges from 50 to 90 per cent, of the volume of the solid wood-substance, according to the species and some other circumstances. In the case selected we will take it at 50 per cent. — i.e. half the volume of the solid wood-substance. Returning to our example, then, we find that our piece of fresh wood, the volume of which was 100 cubic centimeters, and the weight 85 grams, contained 50 grams of water altogether, and 35 grams of solid substance. The cubic contents of this solid substance measured 22*43 cubic centimeters, and would contain half that volume — i.e. 11*215 cubic centimeters — of imbibed water, making 33*645 cubic centimeters in all. The remainder of the cubic contents refers to the cavities : it would be 66*355 cubic centimeters. Now there were 50 cubic centimeters of water altogether in our 100 cubic centimeters of fresh wood, and we have accounted for the distribution of 11*215 cubic centimeters of its water. Obviously, the diffe- rence, namely 38*785 cubic centimeters of water, was contained in the cavities, and as these measured 66*355 cubic centimeters, the remainder — i.e. 27*57 cubic centi- meters— was gaseous matter, and as a matter of fact we know that it was chiefly air-bubbles. This will suffice to show you how very complex a structure our piece of wood is, and to convince you that the physicist is in error if he regards it merely as a " porous body," for it is obviously much more than what is implied by that term. As we shall see presently, the piece of wood consists essentially of bundles of tubes, and, consequently, it INTRODUCTION. 21 offers certain problems In capillary phenomena. Recent researches have shown that these problems are compli- cated by the behaviour of the air-bubbles above referred to, and which are entangled between the water-columns in the various tubes, of different calibre, length, and substance, of which the wood is constructed. 6. BY THE BOTANIST, FORESTER, ETC. The scientific botanist sees in any piece of wood a complex structure cut up into tubes of various kinds, and differing in length, diameter, and the thickness of their walls. These tubes may be empty — i.e. contain only air — or more or less filled with certain substances of the nature of starch, sugars, resins, etc. They may also be grouped in an immense variety of combinations, and the directions of their longer axes may be either coincident with that of the long axis of the stem or across it. The closer microscopic examination of these tubular elements of the wood discloses various irregularities or markings on the walls of these tubes, and long experience of many such examinations convinces him that certain types of such markings constantly recur in different timbers. The botanist is consequently enabled to classify or group the various tubular elements into a few classes, or types, to which he gives technical names. The botanist is also concerned with the origin, or development, of these elements, and finds that they arise in all woods from the same primary element, and follow the same course of development in each and every case. Such studies have led him further, however, and he has had to frame conceptions of the ultimate structure 22 TIMBER AND TIMBER TREES. of the walls of these tubes, or elements, the result being that a piece of wood turns out to have a complexity of structure far beyond anything that was supposed to exist by the older observers. But structure suggests function. When we see a piece of machinery, we are not satisfied with knowing how its parts are put together, and what these parts are composed of; we, almost instinctively, ask, how do the parts work, and what duties do they perform, severally and collectively. So with the botanist — not content with knowing the structure and origin of the parts, or tubes, themselves, or with observing how they are grouped or arranged, he at once proceeds to inquire what they do. Putting the results of such investigations quite generally, it is found that all wood, whether in small quantity as in herbaceous plants, or in large quantity as in timber, may be broken up into long or short, open or closed, wide or narrow, thick or thin-walled tubular elements. Some of these are not much longer than broad, and may be compared to boxes of parallelopiped or shortly prismatic shape, and are termed, generally, cells. The individual differences between the cells of one wood and another, or the wood from one part of a plant and that from another, chiefly depend on their number and states of aggregation — in layers, clumps, long tracts, etc. — on the nature of their contents, including colour — on the thickness of their walls, as well as the chemical sub- stances (including pigments) to be extracted therefrom — and on the form and size, etc., of the markings on these walls, due principally to irregular or regular difference of thickness. Others of these elements — to pass to the extreme INTRODUCTION. 23 forms — are long, open, more or less cylindrical pipes or tubes, termed vessels^ which r*un through long distances, especially vertically, without our being able to detect any stoppage or closure of their calibre. The differences between the various vessels depend on much the same principles as those between cells, but since the contents are usually only air (in ripe timber), and the markings on their walls are usually very characteristic and prominent, it is the latter especially which aid us in distinguishing them, and pitted, annular, spiral, and scalariform vessels are names of the commonest types. Leaving these two extreme examples of element, there is found in all wood a remarkable intermediate type, which consists of prismatic closed tubes, several times longer than wide, and containing living contents at least when young. This type of wood -element is the most important of all, for it is the fundamental one from which all the rest are derived. In its youngest condition — in real timber — it is known as a cambium-cell^ and we must here neglect the fact that it was itself derived from a more primitive condition. When its walls have become thickened and its living contents have become exhausted, it passes over into one of two structures. It either becomes a fibre or a peculiar prismatic element termed a tracheid. Now, since the cells of the wood may be regarded simply as one of these prismatic elements cut up into shorter closed prisms, or boxes, and since the vessels are merely pipes formed by the intercommunication of a longitudinal series of these prisms, their joined ends being broken through — in a certain sense very much as a water-pipe might be formed from a series of elongated 24 TIMBER AND TIMBER TREES. casks, if we suppose them put end to end and the parti- tions broken through — it is evident that the prismatic cambium-cell is the primitive form of wood-element. Put in this very general way, then, we may say that all wood whatever is formed of elements of the above types derived from the primitive prismatic cambium-cell or its homologue, and in all true timber — the masses of wood of Coniferous and Dicotyledonous trees — the cambium-cells are grouped into a cambium layer, or cylinder, which appears as a ring (the cambium- ring) on a transverse section of the stem. In the Monocotyledons (Palms and Bamboos for instance) and in the Tree-ferns, and in a few other rare instances, however, there is no such cylinder, and although the general principle above stated is still true, there are certain peculiarities in detail concerning these false timbers, the discussion of which belongs to botanical works. True timber is yielded only by Conifers and Dicoty- ledons, and in all these cases we find a/////, medullary rays, and cambium, as well as the mass of wood proper. But it by no means follows that all the derived elements — cells, vessels, tracheids, and fibres — occur in any particular wood, and it is largely due to difi"erences of this order that various woods are so different in structure and quality. All woods — whether forming true timber or not — possess at least a few spiral vessels in the earliest stages ; but in Pines, Firs, Cedars, Larches, and a few Dicotyledons, they are only discoverable with the aid of the microscope close to the pith, where they were formed with the first wood, and no true vessels of aiiy kind occur in the main mass of wood. In most Dicotyledons, however, and in the Palms, Bamboos, and Tree-ferns, INTRODUCTION. 2S various other vessels occur in the wood, and their number, mode of grouping, width of calibre, and the thickness and markings of their walls afford valuable characters in recognising timbers. Thus the vessels are much more numerous in the Willows, Poplars, Lime, etc., than on an equal area of Ash, Oak, or Walnut. They differ much in size, also, being large enough to see without a lens in Vines, Aristolochia, and even in Oaks and Palms, etc., whereas they are so small in Box, Willows, Birch, etc., that the beginner is apt to confound these woods with that of Conifers, which have no vessels. Then, again, many woods examined in transverse section have the vessels grouped in clusters, beautifully seen in the Buckthorn and Elms, whereas others — e.g. Beech — have them equably distributed. Moreover, the grouping may be different in different parts of the transverse section, large vessels in one region and smaller ones elsewhere, e.g. Oak, Ash, etc., and many other peculiarities are noticeable, especially in the microscopic characters of the vessels themselves. Cells always occur in the medullary rays, but they are often either very sparse or absent in the wood proper, whereas in some woods — eg, Ailanthus^ ErytJirina, Bombax, etc. — they are so abundant as to give the timber a peculiarly soft and pith-like character. In many timbers, also, these cells are arranged in a definite manner, giving contrast-markings on the transverse sections as seen by the unaided eye : such are well seen in species of Ficits, and many Leguminosae. Possibly no wood is totally devoid of cells, but in very many they are confined to the neighbourhood of the vessels and medullary rays, and are so few in number that their presence is doubtful. 26 TIMBER AND TIMBER TREES. Fibres are characteristic of dense and tough woods, but there are many timbers which show no traces of them. Thus, true fibres do not occur in Pines, Firs, Larch, Cedar, Pear, Hawthorn, and a few others ; whereas they abound in such woods as Oak, Ash, Ehn, Chestnut, etc. In most hard woods the fibres are scattered among other elements, often in characteristic groups or strands, and it is at present impossible to make any generalisation as to the relation between the mechanical properties of wood and the distribution of the fibres in it ; it is clear, however, that much depends on the length of the fibres, and on the degree of thickening and hardening undergone by their walls. Tracheids occur in nearly all timbers, and in some -cases — e.g. Pines, Firs, etc. — the wood is composed -entirely of these elements. Tracheids are confounded with fibres by nearly all observers except the more modern ones, and the distinctions between them are not always easy to make out. Mechanically they affect the wood much as do the fibres, imparting to it the properties of hardness, toughness, and heaviness, in proportion to their number and length, and the density and thickness of their walls. It is obvious that many characters useful in distin- guishing timbers can be obtained from the points of structure referred to, though only in the hands of skilled observers. But these latter also make use of many other peculiarities of structure in woods for purposes of identification. Oak and Chestnut can be distinguished by the peculiarities of their medullary rays, and Alder and liirch likewise, and the breadth^ depth, and other pecu- liarities of medullary rays are widely employed for such purposes. INTRODUCTION. 27 Annual rings also are very useful distinguishing features in most woods. There are none at all in Palms, Bamboos, Tree-ferns, etc. ; and they are indis- tinguishable in many exotic timbers — e.g. many Indian Oaks and other timbers — while they differ in course, breadth, and sharpness in various ways in other woods. Heart-wood is formed by many trees, and is quite different in colour, hardness, density, etc., from their sap-wood ; but there are others which show no traces •of it to the observation. Some trees form it early, as the Oak, others late, as the Ash, and great differences occur in these respects. There are numerous other points of structure, most of them technical in character and not suited for dis- ■cussion here, that help the expert to determine the nature of a piece of wood. The resin-canals of the Pines, Larches, and Anacardiacece \ the so-called ^' pith- flecks" of many Birches, Alders, Hawthorns, Poplars, etc. ; the peculiar contents of the cells in Birch, Alder, Mountain Ash, Pear, Ebony, etc. ; or of the vessels in Teak, Robinia, and others, are all instances. To these may be added the peculiarities of weight (per cubic unit), grain, hardness, toughness, and even odour — e.g. Teak and Cedar. The botanist is also concerned with the functions of timber. Broadly speaking, these are, support and flexibility — the very mechanical purposes to which we apply timber apart from the tree — due principally to the fibres and tracheids ; the conduction of water and air — properties especially attributable to the vessels, and to which regard must be had in all cases of flotation, etc. ; and the storage of organic materials, the substances we have to take into account, owing to their putrescible nature, in preserving and seasoning timber, and to 28 TIMBER AND TIMBER TREES. which the burning properties of wood are due. These organic and readily combustible constituents of timber affect its durability in many ways ; not only are they apt to oxidise in the air, but it is these bodies which are consumed by various insects and fungi and other organisms which destroy the timber. Clearly, therefore, the points of view from which the forest botanist examines and reports upon our piece of wood, affect the arts in very many ways. Not only so. The discovery that wood Is a complex structure of tubular elements,, the walls of which are capable o absorbing or giving off water, entirely modifies all the older views as to the " porosity ^' of timber. We must not compare a piece of wood to a piece of chalk, or brick, or other capillary absorbent; the water which passes into the tubes (vessels, tracheids, cells, etc.) must be distinguished carefully from the water absorbed, and held much faster, in the porous walls of these elements. And similarly with regard to air. This not only concerns all views as to the physical properties of wood, but it shows that any mere weighing of equal volumes of two different timbers by no means gives accurate results as to their specific gravities, for in- stance. You might as well take two chambered boxes of equal size, filled with different substances, and imagine that their comparative weights gave you a constant of value, as compare directly the weights of a cubic foot of two different kinds of timber without regard to their structure and other peculiarities. Moreover, the study of timber from these points of view profoundly affects all experiments on its infiltration or impregnation with various poisonous preservative sub- stances. The difficulty of forcing solutions of phenol, cupric sulphate, mercury salts, etc., into wood, by the INTRODUCTION. 29 highest pressures, becomes intelligible only when the real differences between wood and ordinary '' porous bodies ^' are understood. That much of our empirical knowledge as to the strains to which wood may be subjected, as to the kind of wood-work (carving, carpentry, turning, etc.) it is fitted for, its burning properties, etc., will be improved as these things are more understood cannot be doubted. Finally, the experience of foresters and botanists is showing that these and other qualities of wood are profoundly affected by the conditions under which the timber is grown, and thus another wide horizon is opened up for further exploration.* * For further particulars the reader should consult " Timber and Some of its Diseases" (Macmillan & Co.), and "The Oak" (Kegan Paul & Co.). CHAPTER I. ON THE GROWTH AND STRUCTURE OF TREES. The stems of Dicotyledonous and Coniferous* trees may be described as of comparatively uniform structure and mode of increase, and are usually very firm, yielding the most solid and best description of timber, their solidity and strength fitting them admirably for use in carpentry, and for many domestic purposes. The most common form of stem is the cylindrical, but it is occasionally found grooved or fluted, and not unfrequently flattened, approximating to an oval ; the cylindrical form being, for most purposes, the best for conversion into beams, joists, boards, etc. Botanists speak of the stem as the " ascending axis " of a tree, from its taking an upward direction and giving off branches. In the Elm, these branches take an oblique upward direction ; in the Birch, they are also oblique, slightly pendulous, and flexible ; those of the * Dicotyledons and Conifers are trees, etc., which augment their woody structures by periodic additions to the outside of that which is first formed ; as long, therefore, as they grow a new layer of wood is normally added to the outside of the previous growth. The Monocotyledons — i.e. Palms, etc., etc. — differ from the above, in having their woody structures formed in suc- cessive strands, so i.solated in softer cellular material as to be almost useless for timber. To a certain extent the stems of Tree-ferns resemble the latter in this particular. CHAP. I.] THE PITH. 31 Willow are somewhat oblique, with the lateral branchlets pendulous and drooping in graceful curves ; in the Lombardy Poplar and Cypress they are nearly erect ; the Oak, in open and exposed situations, takes a wide- spreading form, its branches assuming every imaginable curve ; while in the Cedar they are nearly at a right angle. The stem is constructed upon the principle of a cone, and consists of a series of perfected layers designated heart-wood, or duramen, while outside these are some young layers that are imperfect, and which are known as the sap-wood, or alburnum ; the exterior is composed of a series of outer layers commonly termed the bark. The main portion of the stem is broadest at the base, and somewhat bell-shaped near the root, but gradually diminishes upwards to the part where the first branches are thrown out, and from this point there is again a still further diminution, until it is finally lost in the extremity of the branchlets. The central part of the stem, namely, the pith, is composed of cellular tissue, the cells being very numerous and varying considerably in size, but generally diminish- ing towards the outer edge. The pith is relatively large and full of fluid in the young plant, but does not increase in bulk as the tree grows older ; on the contrary, it appears rather to diminish than otherwise, by the fluid drying out. It retains, however, its place, even in the oldest trees, in the form of a dry mass, often resembling powder, although it is scarcely noticeable in some species on their arrival at maturity. In the employment of timber in carpentry, due regard must always be had to the position of the pith, since there is an outside and an inside to every board and piece of scantling; and the careful workman is so 32 TIMBER AND TIMBER TREES. CHAP.] well aware of this, that he will study to leave, if possible, in any work of construction, the outer side only exposed. It is, therefore, necessary in every case to look for the pith or centre of the stem, or — if that has been removed by the conversion of the tree — for the innermost, or FIG. I. oldest layer of heart-wood, in the plank or board, as that will be the inside of it. If this precaution is disregarded, the innermost or earlier layers of wood lift and shell out, after exposure for a time, in shreds and strips, the cohesion of the successive layers of wood having been destroyed by the action of the atmosphere. Fig. i FIG. 2. shows the plank properly fixed, with the inner or earlier layers of wood against the beam, in which position they do not so readily separate. Fig. 2 shows the plank im- properly fixed, with the outer, or younger layers of wood against the beam, in which position the earlier layers are very liable to lift, or shell out, destroying the evenness I-] MEDULLARY RAYS. 33 of surface ; and when so used in decks, flooring, etc., rendering it dangerous to walk upon. In the transverse section of a tree will be found a number of lines radiating from the centre and presenting a star-like appearance. These are the medullary rays of the botanists, but are best known to carpenters as the silver grain, or felt {a, Fig. 3). This peculiarity of appearance is due to thin plates of compressed cellular tissues, which usually run continuously from the pith to the bark. In some timbers ^^ j {e.g. Oak, Beech, etc.) other series of medullary rays are found, overlapping or scarfing by, but not touching, the larger rays [b^ Fig. 3). If, there- fore, we care- fully examine the smooth sur- — -c FIG. 3. face of a transverse section of the stems of most trees, we can generally trace these thin plates or rays. They can be SQQn to great advantage in the Beech, and, more or less, in all the varieties of Oak ; but they are far less dis- tinct in the Lime, Yew, and Chestnut, and in the Firs and Pines they cannot be obviously traced without lenses, although botanists know them to be present. No timber trees are devoid of medullary rays, and their peculiarities of colour, size, number, etc., are of great value in determining different timbers. Thus Oak and Beech, etc., have two sizes of medullary rays, a fevr D 34 TIMBER AND TIMBER TREES. [chap. very broad ones and numerous very narrow ones ; Chestnut, on the other hand, is easily distinguished from Oak by having no broad rays. While the medullary rays of the Willows, Poplars, and Hawthorn, etc., are colour- less, those of the Elm, Birch, Alder, Beech, etc., are pigmented.* Before converting or employing most kinds of woods, particularly in dealing with unseasoned timber, it will be necessary, for many purposes in carpentry, to regard this arrangement of medullary rays, to ensure that the work shall remain, when finished, free from warp or twist upon the surface. The timber should be cut as nearly as possible in the direction of these rays, the shrinkage in seasoning being, for the most part, angular to them. Workmen in general, and modellers in wood in particular, endeavour to embrace the greatest length of medullary figure in their work to guard against warping, well knowing that if they do so it will stand satisfactorily the test of time and wear. Others, who are engaged in the cleaving of posts, rails, or palings for park and other fences, know that they can only success- fully do this by rending the piece in the direction of these rays. It is by a careful study of this that we obtain our best and most beautifully figured wainscot from the slow-growing Oaks found in the North of Europe, Austria, Asia Minor, and in some districts of North America. By the mechanism of these medullary rays in inti- mate connection with the annual layers, and chiefly in the newly-formed wood, a means is afforded for the ascent of water, containing traces of dissolved mineral salts, such as potash, lime, common salt, etc., and gases, such * For other characters of the medullary rays see "Timber and Some of its Diseases" (Macmillan & Co., 1890). I.] CAMBIUM. 35 as oxygen_, etc., obtained from the rain-water in the soil and taken up by the root. This "sap ^' is found to move upwards every spring, and continues for a time to flow through the tubular and pipe-like structures com- posing the wood of the tree until it reaches the leaves ; here it is distributed to the cells containing the green chlorophyll, and gives up to them its minerals. These living leaf-cells, properly supplied with water and mineral salts, and exposed to the sunlight, are able to manufacture from the carbon dioxide of the air, certain organic compounds which require very little chemical change to become wood-substance. These compounds are then carried down from the leaves into the stem, and pass, by various routes — e.g. the medullary rays, the inner tissues lining the bark, etc. — to wherever they are needed by the growing parts of the tree. Of these growing and living parts of the stem none is so important to us as the cambium, a very thin and delicate layer of active cells, easily found in immediate contact with the outside of the sap-wood, and often regarded by the uninitiated as a slimy substance between the wood and the inner bark. It is not a mere substance, however, but a definite, though extremely tenuous, mantle of living and growing cells, fed by the substances dissolved in the sap handed on to it from the leaves. This cambium, if properly supplied with food- materials, adds new layers of wood on to the outside of the wood already formed, and new layers of other living tissues to the inside of the structures found beneath the bark, which structures may be collectively termed the cortex. The stem is thus enlarged periodically by a new layer on the outside of the alburnum, and by the D 2 36 TIMBER AND TIMBER TREES. [chap. addition of a new layer on the inside of the cortex, the cambium itself remaining between^ and exerting its activity at definite periods, usually in the summer in our climate. Thus the bark and cortex of trees is expansive in character, and it is owing to differences connected with this that we find such differences ob- servable on the surface, which varies from great smooth- ness, as in the Beech, to extreme ruggedness in the Chestnut, and to strips and flakes in some other kinds* It is around the pith that the first year's growth of wood is formed, and upon this the whole structure of the stem is, so to speak, raised. The several con- centric rings or layers which surround, and are, as it were, moulded upon it to form the cone, are generally well formed and uniform in thickness, seldom varying : when they do the pith is excentrically placed, or deviates somewhat from the centre. Whenever this is the case, the thinner layers will be found upon the side having the smallest semi-diameter ; while on the reverse side, owing to the annual supply of ligneous matter having been drawn in that direction by various influences, they are found to be thicker, but are often less dense in texture. The yearly growth or increment is thus defined by concentric circles outside the medullary sheathf {c, Fig. 3). These are generally clear to common observa- tion in a transverse section of a stem, the outer portion of each being of a firm and dense texture, while the inner part is perceptibly vascular and more or less porous ; the quality of the wood, and its fitness for architectural or * For further information as regards the cambium, its structure and growtli, see " Timber and Some of its Diseases." t The " medullary sheath" is the first formed cylindrical layer of wood. I.] ANNUAL RINGS. 37 engineering purposes^ depends, to a great extent, upon the degree of firmness and solidity of the annual layers. These layers are all very plainly marked in the Oak and Fir, and in most European woods ; but in the Maple and Lime, and in some others, they are less obvious, while in many trees of tropical growth they are so in- distinct that it is impossible to trace them. The woody layers, when first formed, are full of sap, but they change and gradually become solidified by the thickening and drying of the wood-cell walls of each FIG. 4. FIG. 5. subsequent layer, and their infiltration with various preservative and other materials ; and as each zone is moulded upon ^one of the previous year's growth by the action of the continuous cambium, it must, by cohesion, be amalgamated with it. The perfecting of the concentric layers is, however, a very gradual process, and the time necessary to convert a new layer of sap- wood into heart-wood (which alone represents the serviceable timber in most trees) varies from about one year to thirty years or even more. It seems, as a rule, from evidence to be shown later on in Table I., that 38 TIMBER AND TIMBER TREES. [chap. Oak trees which form their wood most rapidly under ordinary conditions of growth are the best in quality. In the Firs and Pines and Conifers generally the converse is usually true. Under ordinary conditions of growth, and with most trees, the conversion or change of the alburnum into duramen takes place with great regularity (Fig. 4) ; but to this rule there are exceptions in every species, a variety of influences, such as temperature, aspect, soil, and others less understood, apparently bearing upon and tending to disturb this regularity. It is, indeed, often found that outside the completed circles of duramen, portions of the circumference of several successive layers of alburnum (Fig. 5) have already been changed into heart-wood, while the rest remain to be indurated in the ordinary course ; the perfected segments generally occurring earlier on the south side of trees of the Northern Hemisphere, and on the north side of those of the Southern Hemisphere. This is, perhaps, only to be accounted for by the supposition that, being exposed to the most powerful rays of the sun, especially during the summer months, the indurating elements of the sap tend more that particular side ; while, on the reverse side, the action is much slower, owing to the partially exhausted state of the juices and the deadening effects of cold. Such indurations of portions of the layers occur more frequently in the Firs and Pines than in the wood of trees of harder and more compact texture. In Dantzic Fir, for example, I have noticed parts of twenty or more concentric rings changed from alburnum into duramen, or heart-wood, while the remaining portions of the circles retained their sap-like or alburnum character, and greater or less deviations in this respect arc fre- I.] ALBURNUM AND DURAMEN. 39 quently met with in other species. It may be that these can only be accounted for by the exceptional influences before mentioned, for it seems quite possible that, when- ever a tree is suddenly thrown open and exposed by the clearing away of others from its vicinity, the hardening process will go on with unusual rapidity. In such Firs and Pines as have been sheltered in the depths of a forest, we do not find the wood of this variable character, as the perfecting of the duramen takes place then with much greater regularity and uni- formity, if somewhat less rapidly, than in more exposed situations. This peculiarity is more strikingly exemplified in the Firs and Pines, and occurs with greater frequency in trees of this kind than in any others. Accidental circumstances no doubt affect the sap-wood of many other kinds to a greater or less degree ; but in trees of a close texture the induration is generally found to affect the whole circumference of a layer rather than several distinct portions of it. The proportion of sap-wood, or alburnum, to heart- wood, or duramen, in trees in which it occurs, is exces- sive in the young, but decreases rapidly as they advance in age, the difference being in some measure attributable to the fact that, as the circumference of the tree increases, the tissues of each successive layer, or annual ring, are spread over a larger surface. The sap-wood is, as a rule, darker in the white-wood class than the heart-wood, whether seasoned or unseasoned, but is paler in colour in most hardwood trees which have had time to season. In some of the white, or softer woods, when fresh cut, the difference is scarcely perceptible ; but exposure to the air quickly gives to the outer layers a greenish tinge, due to a species of mould fungi which attack them, and 40 TIMBER AND TIMBER TREES. [chap. i. flourish at the expense of the organic cell-contents. With, I believe, only a few solitary exceptions, great care is taken to remove all sap-wood from the scantlings under conversion, if they are required for works of an important character. CHAPTER II. ON THE GROWTH AND STRUCTURE OF TREES (^Continued). Most writers upon the subject of the growth of timber are agreed in ascribing the hardening of the inner layers of the wood (heart-wood) to the indurating action of certain secretions as they accumulate in the walls and cavities of the fibres and other tissues, and thus far I have treated of the process as carried on solely by this means ; but another and a very different set of events bring about the different degrees of hardness often found between one part of the annual ring and another. It will be remembered that each year the cambium, developed between the last-formed ring of wood and the bark, exerts its specific activity and forms a new layer. This layer, as it is completed, and its elements become firmer by the thickening of their walls, appears to exert a double influence upon the tree, inasmuch as it exercises an expansive force upon the bark, thereby causing it gradually to yield, while the resistance it offers, slight though it may be, acts as a compressive force upon the whole of the tree comprised within the circumference of the new layer. By means of this compression parts of the layers are rendered more dense, horny, and compact. TIMBER AND TIMBER TREES. [chap. We thus find the woody layers gradually assuming a tapering or conical form (Fig. 6), and elongating them- selves year by year, so that a large proportion of those visible at the butt are traceable at the upper part of the stem. It is very generally admitted that, in latitudes having the sea- sons clearly defined as they are in this country, each circle of lignified wood-tissue is completed in one year, but opinions differ as to this being the case in tropical climates, and there are botanists who con- sider that as many as three or four layers are formed in those regions in the same period of time. Rely- ing, however, on the generally re- cognised rule, of one circle or layer for each year's growth, we have a measure and guide for computing the age of a tree at the time of felling it. Of course, this can only be done with trees having clearly defined concentric circles ; in the instances exceptional to this, we, of necessity, have to fall back upon historical or traditional records to satisfy our inquiries. It may be interesting here to note the size and age which some species of trees attain. It has been said that specimens of the "Baobab" of Senegal are more than 5,000 years old, and that some of them have a FIG, 6. 335 years. Lime . . 1,147 years 350 .. Oak . . 810 to 1,500 ,, 576 M Yew 1,214 to 2,820 800 ,, Adansonia . . 5.000 ,, II.] AGES OF TREES. 43 girth of 90 feet.* Again, some Cedars that were seen in Lebanon in the sixteenth century were considered to be the remains of the forest from which the timber was drawn to build the temple of Solomon. By tradition, and other reasoning, the age of these Cedars was set down at about 3,000 years. Maundrell mentioned that the largest he measured of this species was about 36 feet in diameter. Decandolle gives the following list of the ascertained ages of the undermentioned species of trees : — Elm Cypress . Larch Cedar These figures have, doubtless, been based and com- puted upon the supposition I have advanced of there being one concentric circle for each year of growth ; but, as they do not serve us for any practical purpose, we must look to those trees of moderate dimensions, which attain to maturity in a shorter time, rather than to those I have enumerated, for the timber we may wish to employ for architectural works. The record, however, which these circles afford of the duration of life in trees possesses a value of which we cannot but feel the interest. I have carefully examined and counted the annual layers of a great many specimens — taking generally an average of ten trees — with the view to show the common and comparative rates of growth, and have tabulated them to afford an opportunity of noticing any variations there may have been in the time required to form the wood in each of the several given diameters * It is impossible to accept these estimates, however, in the absence of knowledge as to the rate of growth of the tree, and more recent observations throw such grave doubts on them that we may conclude the age of these trees is vastly exaggerated. 44 TIMBER AND TIMBER TREES. [chap. of 6, 12, 1 8 inches, etc. This evidence of the ordinary rate of growth, and the time which it takes to bring the various descriptions of timber trees to maturity, will be of value to us when considered in connection with the properties and characteristics of the timber employed for architectural works. The number of concentric circles, or woody layers, found in various timber trees, within a radius of 3, 6, 9, 12, 15, 18, 21, and 24 inches, measured from the pith, or centre, are shown in the following table :■ — Table I. No. Description. Diameter of the Stem. Concentric circles, or woody layers, in V >. 0 I 2 Oak, English . do. do.* . 22 12 34 20 51 28 68 36 44 53 64 76 10 10 2-84 I "50 3 4 .S do. do.* . do. French . do. Roman . 13 18 19 34 28 24 47 43 30 60 62 37 76 40 44 49 I 10 10 ^■25 2 SO 2 '60 6 7 8 9 do. Sicilian , do. Neapolitan . do. Sardinian do. Dutch or ) Rhenish ) 24 19 25 29 44 37 45 56 65 58 t)5 81 87 72 89 107 104 86 140 no 128 10 15 10 6 3-60 3-00 370 4 '45 10 II 12 do. Dantzic do. Spanish do. Turkish 27 36 58 81 87 130 6 4 3 4-83 7 20 I2"00 13 do. American ) White i" 36 63 89 112 129 10 470 14 do, do. (Balti- ). more) i 46 82 137 183 ... 10 7 60 15 do. do. (Ca- > nadian) -> 49 105 160 216 4 9'oo 16 Teak, Burmah \ (Moulmein) ) =7 47 71 96 10 4 '00 17 18 19 20 do. do. (Ran- > goon) i do. Malabar do. Siam . Pyengadu (Iron- ) wood), Burmah )' 27 19 28 60 40 59 87 64 88 114 90 118 ... 5 10 5 3 475 375 490 t 21 Chow, or Menka- ^ bang Penang, J- Borneo . J ... ... 4 3-00 * These were trees of magnificent growth and first quality. t Not clearly traceable. II.] RATES OF GROWTH. 45 Table I. — Continued. ^«i Diameter of the Stem. ■MT3 1. 0 " No. Description. Concentric circles, or woody layers, in o.S ■" 5 (D 0 '^ rt (/3 w 1 .1.1 ' ' 22 6 in. 12 in. 1 i8in, 24 in, '30 in. 36 in, 1 i 42 in. 48 in. 3 Pingow, Borneo . ... 4 4«- 23 Kranji, do. ... ... 4 ■X- 24 Kapor, do. ... ,., 4 7 "CO 25 Molave, Philip- ; pine Islands * ... ,,. ... ... ... 3 26 AfricanOak, Sierra )_ 69 118 ... Leone . . j 40 94 10 4-90 27 Greenheart, De- ^ merara . i 37 60 83 ! ,.. 3 4 "60 28 Mora, Trinidad 30 53 76 102 . . . 6 4*25 29 Carapo, do. ... 2 5-00 30 Balata, do. ... ... 2 8-00 31 Sabicu, Cuba 32 57 88 134 10 5-60 32 Mahogany, do. . 31 55 76 100 10 4 '20 33 do, Honduras 25 43 60 77 10 3-20 34 do. Mexican . 17 30 44 59 73 10 2 '45 35 Santa Maria . 28 59 86 117 ... ... 3 4-87 36 Tewart, Australia . 23 45 63 93 10 3 '90 37 Jarrah, do. .., ... 6 •j«- 38 Iron Bark, do. 3 4'oo 39 Blue Gum, do. ,,. 2 3 '30 40 Stringy Bark, do. . 3 * 41 Kari, Western do. . 18 37 59 82 108 3 3 "41 42 A-^h, English . 19 36 54 70 6 2-90 43 do. American 36 77 116 1^2 , ,. 4 6-36 44 Beech, English 17 33 50 68 6 2-83 45 Elm, do. 21 34 45 37 10 2 -So 46 do. do.* 10 16 25 36 48 61 82 lOI I I '50 47 do, Canada 80 156 252 10 14 "OO 48 Fir, Dantzic . 23- 49 85 116 10 4-82 49 do. Riga 29 60 96 124 10 5-20 50 do, Polish 29 55 88 137 10 570 5t do. Spruce , 68 6 TI"40 52 Pine, Canada Red . 16 34 66 123 10 5'i3 53 do. do. Yellow 28 73 102 125 10 5-22 54 do, American { Pitch ) • 32 61 98 147 10 6'12 55 do. Oregon 17 46 77 104 2 4*32 56 do. New Zea- ") land Kauri J %j 53 95 130 161 207 247 ... ... 4 670 57 Larch, Polish 23 52 90 132 ... ... 7 5*50 58 do. Russian 27 64 108 130 ... ... 10 5 '42 59 do. Italian . .. 60 Cedar, Honduras , 13 22 31 43 58 70 .,. ... 10 I '95 See Note (f) on p. 44. 46 TIMBER AND TIMBER TREES. [chap. The measurements in the foregoing table were taken at consecutive distances of 3 inches from the pith of trees having well-formed concentric rings, and by doubling this, the diameters of 6, 12, 18, 24, 30, 36 inches, etc., were obtained. There are only two or three of these results that can be compared with the list furnished by DecandoUe, but severally they will be found useful for reference ; and, later on, I shall have occasion to revert to some of them, when treating of the characteristics of the individual kinds to be noticed in these pages. The proportion which the width or thickness of each layer at the upper bears to that at the lower extremity of the tree, varies considerably in the several species, the difference being the least marked where there is the greatest length of clear stem. Indeed, as the material which goes to form a branch may be regarded as so much matter diverted from the trunk itself, it follows that in a tree in which the branches occur low down, the stem will taper more than in one which has them only near the top. The diminution in the thickness of the layers will be most apparent in the trees which produce the largest branches, and will be regular or irregular according as the branches are thrown out at regular intervals or otherwise. It might be supposed that as every layer from the pith, or medulla, to the bark is in a different stage of perfection, the innermost or earliest, being the most matured, would be the strongest ; but experience teaches us that this is only true up to a certain period of growth, and that in the majority of cases the maximum of strength and toughness lies nearer the more recently- formed heart-wood, or duramen. In some trees, indeedj no true heart-wood is distinguishable ; but old stems have a *' false heart '^ of decaying and discoloured wood II.] DECAY OF TIMBER. 47 at the centre. For this reason it becomes a matter of great importance, in selecting timber for use — especially if it be intended for works of any magnitude — that logs should not be taken of dimensions much in excess of the specification given, but corresponding as nearly as possible in size to it, as the removal of more than a few of the outer layers of heart-wood is likely to involve a serious loss of strength. It should be observed that a tree does not cease growing when it arrives at maturity. As long as it is alive, it continues to increase in bulk by the addition of the annual layers developed by the cambium ; but when maturity is once passed, each succeeding year produces a certain amount of deterioration at the centre. This deterioration or decay appears in various stages, and generally exhibits, in the first instance, either a white or yellowish-red colour at the butt or root end of the stem. If white, the defect is probably very slight, and does not usually extend more than a few feet up ; but if yellowish-red in colour, it is not unfrequently of a more serious character. Again, if the affected parts have assumed a decidedly red tinge, the tree is said to be, in technical language, *' foxy,^^ and is scarcely fit for constructive purposes, as the decay will be found to pervade a great portion of the tree. The further advanced stage of deterioration is that which may be described as a drying up or wasting away of the wood immediately surrounding the pith, or medulla. It forms a hollow, first at the butt, and then spreads upwards, gradually increasing in size as the tree gets older, while the defect may eventually reach even into the branches. Many of these forms of ^^rot" are directly due to parasitic fungi, and others are accompanied and hastened by the ravages of these organisms. 48 TIMBER AND TIMBER TREES. [chap. ti. Trees are of course most valuable, as yielding the largest possible amount of good timber, just prior to the commencement of this change, which is indicated almost immediately it takes place by the topmost branches and branchlets becoming stunted and thick ; being, in fact, what the surveyor or woodman would call " stag-headed.'^ If, therefore, we wish to select a healthy tree for felling, we must seek for one with an abundance of young shoots, and the topmost branches of which look strong, pointed, and vigorous, this being the most certain evidence that it has not yet passed maturity. Timber trees, immediately after they are felled, un- less they have been previously killed, contain a great deal of moisture, and are, therefore, unfit for use until they have been somewhat seasoned. This is accom- plished in a variety of ways, but the primitive and best mode is, probably, to leave it for a time protected from the weather, following as closely as possible the natural process, which consists simply of the gradual drying up, or evaporation, of this moisture, which would other- wise promote decay owing to its favouring the develop- ment of fungi, which feed on the organic substances dissolved in the water. Of the time required for season- ing, and the various means of accomplishing it, we shall have occasion to notice farther on ; suffice it to say at present, that as the wood which needs the least season- ing is generally found to be the most durable, it becomes an essential point that trees should be felled during the winter months, when the sap is present in its smallest quantity. CHAPTER III. ON THE FORM AND QUALITY OF TREES. Trees grown in sheltered places run up quickly and to a great height, a fact of which advantage is taken in the early stages of growth of forests ; such trees also produce the greatest length of clear stem, the development in the upper portions preventing the growth of branches low down. This is chiefly owing to the want of sufficient light and air to enable them to assimilate freely, and in situations where it occurs to excess the texture of the wood is soft in comparison with that of trees grown in the open. They have, however, the compensating advantage of being very free from local defects, and by gradually exposing them to the light after the principal growth in height has been attained, the best results are secured in the end. Many trees, as, for example, the Oak, when grown in hedge-rows, or other exposed and isolated places where they are fully exposed to light and air, take a freer and, perhaps, more natural form of growth ; the branches generally occurring lower down, and meeting with no obstacle to their development, they assume every variety of curve, and produce timber which is especially valuable for naval purposes. Timber thus grown is from the first of the hardest and most compact kind, although subject 50 TIMBER AND TIMBER TREES. [chap. to many defects from the want of shelter from cold winds and other exigencies of the environment, including the occasional breakages of the branches from various causes, and the injudicious lopping or pruning which is too often practised. Trees grown in a copse might be expected to unite the leading characteristics of the two forms of growth just mentioned, inasmuch as, while the underwood remained, the upward tendency of the stem would be almost as strong as in a forest-grown tree, while each time the copse was cut, the branches would have perfect freedom of growth. It is, however, found that, although forming curved branches and a greater length of stem than can be met with in isolated trees, instead of the wood being uniformly harder, the changes to which the trees are subjected by the periodical growth and loss of the protecting underwood renders the quality of such timber extremely variable. Variety of soil also exercises an influence, both direct and indirect, upon the quality of timber ; trees grown in a dry, rocky soil having generally hard, compact wood ; while the wood of those grown in swampy and moist situations will be found comparatively soft and spongy in texture. Variations of temperature, violent storms, or proximity to the sea or large rivers, and many other circumstances also affect the quality and rate of growth of trees. It has long been known that the presence of trees tends directly to keep up and render more constant and uniform the water supply, and that the clearing of large forests results, in time, in the drying up of all the springs and watercourses in the neighbourhood. That such an effect is produced is certain, as attention was lately drawn to it by the condition of large tracts of land in III.] FORESTRY. 51 the South of France and in other countries, which, though long celebrated for their fertility, were rapidly becoming valueless. The change in the nature of the soil, consequent upon the partial drying up of all the sources of water supply, was proved to have commenced when the trees had been removed. At the same time, cases are known of districts where there had previously been a deficiency of water, until the extensive planting of trees re- medied the defect."*^ It would seem that the fine trees found in forests and elsewhere, whether it be natural to them to have straight stems or curved ones, have not always been so fair looking or so symmetrically shaped as we find them when of an age and size fit for felling, but that in early life they have not unfrequently assumed a wavy, rambling, or, it may be, unsightly appearance, which was only improved upon as they attained to greater strength and approached maturity. This suppo- sition will, I think, be readily allowed by any one who has passed through a copse, or maiden forest, in search of a straight sapling for a walking-stick, and expe- rienced the difficulty of finding one suitable for the purpose. A short time since a piece of Oak timber of moderate * The reader will find more details concerning these matters, and the direct and indirect utility of forests, in Dr. Schlich's "Manual of Forestry" (Bradbury. Agnew, & Co.), and in Nisbett's "British Forest Trees" (Mac- millan). E 2 52 TIMBER AND TIMBER TREES. [chap. hi. dimensions came under my notice which fully illustrated this fact, as it had sufficient of its wavy and rambling form laid open, while under conversion for employment in ship-building", to satisfy the most sceptical that it could have had little of beauty to recommend it to notice during the first thirty years of its growth ; while the large straight block of timber which encased it showed that later in life it had assumed a much fairer form,, and was even considered, when viewed in the log, to be fit for any purpose where straight timber was required. It is, therefore, clear that trees do not change or alter their form while young, except in a very slight degree ; they appear rather to assume the fairer and more even growth later on, and very gradually. It may pos- sibly be brought about by the matter which forms the zones of each succeeding year's growth contributing to one part a greater and to another a lesser substance of woody layer, as required to develop the fairer growth seen in the matured tree referred to. And hence, if we take a perfectly straight tree, and cut it through the middle longitudinally, we are pretty sure to see the pith running snake-like along its entire length (Fig. 7). Therefore, in timber having much heart-shake, there is certain to be considerable waste in its conversion, espe- cially if we wish to reduce the log into plank and board. CHAPTER IV. ON THE DEFECTS FOUND IN TREES. Having referred to a few characteristics of growing ^-/„a^-^^^^^ timber trees, it will perhaps be interesting if, before pro- ceeding to a detailed account of the various kinds, we give a description of some of the defects to which trees are liable prior to their being felled and hewn, or other- wise prepared for the market. There is one defect so common to nearly all trees that I will treat of it first. It is known to carpenters as the heart-shake. In typical heart-shake, we find the central parts of the stem show signs of hollowness, with radiating cracks around running more or less out into theyounger layers ; the widest part of the crack is nearest the centre of the stem, and this does not necessarily show obvious signs of rot or decay. It is met with to a greater or lesser extent in nearly every species of timber that we have to deal with, and as it has a very important bearing upon the value of the tree affected, we cannot afford to disregard it, inasmuch as the quantity of good and serviceable material obtainable from a log, depends almost entirely upon the distance we are constrained to go from the pith, or centre, in order to get clear of it. Experience has shown that among the woods least affected by the 54 TIMBER AND TIMBER TREES. [chap. heart-shake are African Oak, or Teak, as it is sometirries called ; Sabicu ; Cuba Mahogany ; and English Elm ; while Indian Teak* and Australian Tevvart have it in a very objectionable form. These species are among the hard and strong woods used for architectural pur- poses in this country, and by cabinet-makers for the manufacture of furniture, and for other domestic uses. As regards the white or softer woods, it is generally very small in the Dantzic, but extensive and open in Riga and Swedish Fir. In the Pines, the Canadian Red is perhaps the closest and least of all affected by it, the Canadian Yellow coming next in order ; but in the Pitch Pine of the Southern States of North America it is often present in a more enlarged form, and the centre, or pith, of this species cannot well be approached if thin boards are required to be cut from it. This defect, as before mentioned, affects and pervades more or less nearly every description of timber ; it is common to all the dicotyledonous trees as well as Conifers, and neither soil nor situation appears to have anything to do with its origin. It must be accepted as an indication of incipient decay consequent on old age; the gradual loss of solid substance in the oldest layers of wood causing them to shrink. more than the specifi- cally heavier younger ones. Our study should be to so utilise the trees possessing it in its most extensive and objectionable form, as to employ them for purposes which entail doing as little as possible to them if we wish to convert the logs profitably. The heart-shake is so very insignificant in some timber, that many * In India, the forest officers have attributed the heart-shake in Teak to the ringing, or barking, the trees, to kill them before they are felled. It has, howev(T, been proved that, where this has not been done, and the trees were felled green, heart-shake was found in them. IV.] HEART-SHAKE. 55 persons, not professionally educated to the work, might look at a log without suspecting its presence. Others, again, if they did discover it, would hardly consider it to be of any import- FiG. 8a. ance, as it is often so small that the bladeof a penknife could scarcely be thrust into it. There are, however, several varieties of tim- ber which have it, not in an insignificant form or shape, but extend- ing from the pith to a distance of about two- thirds the semi - dia- meter of the tree. This is of serious consequence to the converter who has to deal with it, as the defect com- pletely separates the concentric layers into segments of circles. The simplest form in which we find this shake (Fi^. 8 a and ^), is that of a straight line crossing the pith, and taking a direction in the same plane through the length of the stem. It will, however, be found in some specimens to have taken a twisting form, and on examining the top of the tree, the shake may be nearly at right angles to that at the butt-end (Fig, 9). This is about the worst form, as it would involve a FIG. 8(J. 56 TIMBER AND TIMBER TREES. [chap. FIG. 9. most serious loss in the conversion of the log if it were an object to reduce it into plank, and often necessitates its being employed in bulk. The twist in the heart-shake just re- ferred to looks like the result of an effort made by the tree to turn upon its base, and it has been supposed that it might happen to trees pro- duced in dense forests, where light and air are very scant, or perhaps to trees unequally ba- lanced in their branches, if grown in the open. There is more evidence, however, of its being due to the twisting in the spiral turns of grain noticed in many trees, and which is connected with the interpectination of the fibrous and other ele- ments during the growth of the wood.* The heart-shakes are equally disadvanta- geous, if, indeed, they are not more so, when they cross each otlicr at the pith, and open to the full diameter of the tree, splitting it into four segments. FIG. 10. * This spiral growth is common in the Turitcy Box tree ; it is also fre- quently seen in the Fir and Pine species, and occasionally in other woods, e.g. Chestnut. IV.] STAR-SHAKE. 57 This form of the defect is very conspicuous in the Green- heart timber (Fig. lo). The next important defect is the star-shake (Fig. ii). This is found in many varieties of timber, and occurs in trees of all ages and conditions of growth. It consists of clefts radiating from the centre, or pith, which often extend far towards — and even in bad cases touch — the circumference of the tree, rendering it almost valueless for conversion into board and small scantlings. The clefts or lines forming the star are generally only slightly open, and can scarcely be seen in a fresh-cut tree, there being no obvious signs of decay about them. They are, however, very plainly perceptible when the wood is mo- derately seasoned, by the matter forming the two sides of the shake having become some- what darker in colour and more horny in texture by exposure to the air. The principal cause of all such defects as those referred to, and to that condition of the central parts of many old trees, especially Beeches, known as bois rouge in France, is a more or less advanced stage of decay commencing in the pith and proceeding thence into the wood around. This decay consists in a gradual rotting and oxidation — i,e, combustion — of the wood-substance, essentially similar to the decomposition which all wood undergoes sooner or later, especially when exposed to alternating- conditions of drought and moisture in FIG. II. 58 TIMBER AND TIMBER TREES. [chap. the air ; and it is usually started in the standing tree by the loss of a large root or branch, which gradually opens the way to the air and moisture, and eventually, it may be, to minute fungi and bacteria which hasten the processes of decomposition started by the oxygen of the atmosphere. Fundamentally, this process of decay is merely a phase of the process of destructive combustion which all organic matter is liable to in contact with oxygen. As the wood loses weight and substance, it shrinks more and more, and so we find cracks of various kinds as described. It is, after all, merely the extension of these de- structive processes which result in the hollowing out of old trees ; though in these cases the phenomenon is usually accelerated — and often, indeed, started — by the ravages of certain fungi which gain access through wounds, such as broken branches, gnarled roots, and so forth. As before stated, in bad cases the points touch the circumference of the tree ; they even occasionally bulge there, forming a longitudinal rib, varying in length from about a foot to two or three yards. We have thus external evidence of the presence of the star-shake in this extreme case while the tree is yet standing. We can, therefore, from this alone, estimate its value, and prove the correctness of our opinion of it after the tree has been felled. No one, I imagine, experienced in timber-surveying, would, with the bulging rib in view, care to examine either the top or butt end of the log to satisfy himself of the presence of the star-shake ; the guide is so absolutely certain that we need not fear to trust to it. In these last cases, the cause of the radial crack is IV.] CUP-SHAKE: RING-SHAKE. 59 a\most inv3ina.b\y either/rost or suU'durn, and it is usually possible to determine which by paying attention to the conditions. The plane followed by the crack is that of the medullary rays, and the separation of the wood is due to its violent contractions, or shrinkage, and expansions during the process of rapid freezing from without in- wards. In other cases, especially with smooth-stemmed trees such as the Beech and Hornbeam, the sun's rays kill the living tissues of the cortex, and longitudinal cracks result in the wood. Occasionally both frost and insolation are concerned. It occasionally happens that defects of the nature of (^^jJaffK " cup-shake " are traceable to the base of the tree having been scorched by a forest fire. The cambium is then so baked on one side of the tree (or even nearly all round) that it is many years before the still living portions of the cambium can entirely cover over the dead parts, and the consequence is the production of a series of more or less irregular occluding layers* super- posed over the hitherto regular and concentric annual rings. As the occlusion approaches completion, the burnt side of the tree shows external ridges and defects very like those due to sun-cracks or frost-cracks. The cup-shake or ring-shake (Figs. 12 a and b). This shake, which is most frequently met with near the roots of trees, consists of a cavity or separation of two of the concentric layers, often accompanied by more or less traces of rot, if the injury is of long standing. This deficiency of cohesion between the woody layers is supposed to result from sudden changes of temperature, from the roots passing through a peculiar vein of soil, * J.e. the subsequently developed annual layers of wood which gradually ■cover over (occlude) the injured part. 6o TIMBER AND TIMBER TREES. [chap. and even from frosts ; violent and sudden gusts of wind and storms may also help to produce it It is un- questionably, in some cases, due to the destructive action of fungi — e.g. Pines attacked by Trametes Pini — those parts of the wood injured by the fungus losing and taking up water more rapidly than the sound portions, from which they consequently contract away as shrinkage goes on. Wood, as is well known, is a bad conductor of heat, and standing timber usually takes a considerable time to accommodate its temperature to that of the air. FIG. X2.a. FIG. x-zb. Suppose a tree, with abundance of water in its wood, suddenly exposed to a prolonged and severe dry frost. The cortex and outer layers of wood freeze first, and, neglecting an initial expansion, the icy mass contracts and exerts considerable pressure on the inner parts of the wood ; these latter gradually freeze in turn, and at a certain period in the process the stresses and strains may be so arranged that the outer parts of the woody mass have contracted so much, especially owing to IV.] FROST-CRACKS. 6i the drying of the wood-cell walls as their water freezes out in ice-crystals in the cavities, that any expansion of the inner mass may result in violent and sudden rupture. Such an expansion may result at a certain stage of the freezing of the inner woody cylinder, and the con- sequence is 2i frost-crack. So far as such cracks are radial only, they come under the category of " star-shakes," as we have seen ; but it is obvious that the sudden and violent rupture of these outer layers of wood may lead to separation of the whole mass of outer shells of wood from the inner ones, and such separations constitute '^ cup-shakes/^ These latter may also result, however, especially in soft-wooded trees like Poplars, by the shearing action of violent winds, for in bending beneath the gusts the cylindrical shells of woody layers tend to be alternately compressed and extended on opposite sides, a process obviously calculated to cause the layers to separate at the softer parts and shell off. It will sometimes happen that only a portion of a layer is detached, making the segment of a cup ; at other times, a small part of several layers ; and again, in some instances, we find that the disjunction is not complete, owing to there being a few fibres remaining to connect the two layers. When, however, it assumes its worst shape, that is, when the ring or cup is perfect, it will in all probability be found to pervade the greater part, if not the whole tree, evidence of it being frequently traceable in the remotest branches. Experience has shown that with only a segmental cavity open, there is not much to fear, as it seldom extends far up from the root ; any log, therefore, not having more cup-defect than this, may without hesi- tation be converted into plank, board, or scantling ; 62 TIMBER AND TIMBER TREES. [chap. iv. but if one or more complete cups be present, especially if they are large, it could not safely be sawn longi- tudinally down the middle, as the centre or cup part would drop out, leaving in each half a deeply-grooved channel, equal to the semi-diameter of the cup-defect. The log in this case could, therefore, only be used advantageously by appropriating it to some purpose where the full growth might be employed. The cup-defect occurs in perfectly sound and healthy- looking trees, and there is not anything to indicate its presence to the surv^eyor while the tree is standing. It can only, therefore, be dealt with when discovered in the log, after being felled. This defect is, to some extent, local, and is especially so among the Oaks, it being more frequently met with in the Sicilian Oak than in, perhaps, any other. It occurs in Virginian Pitch Pine, and it is often found in Lignum Vitae. It is worthy of notice that whatever may be the cause of the cup-shake in the last-named wood, which is grown extensively in St. Domingo, latitude i8° to 20° N., and where the tempera- ture of the winter is rarely below 60°, it cannot have suffered from frost. CHAPTER V. ON THE DEFECTS IN TREES — [Conti?med), Where woody layers of irregular growth are found in timber, especially if there be alteration of colour extend- ing over any of them, they may be considered to in- dicate that the tree was not at all times in a healthy state, but that it had suffered from some cause, or from the failure in the nourishment it required to perfect the layers with regularity. Any departure, therefore, from the natural colour peculiar to the species, whether it embrace one or more concentric circles, or be locally situated, is prejudicial to the wood, and generally, if tried under the adze or plane, it will be found brittle and deficient in tena- city. Such logs should on no account have the prefe- rence of selection for important services in works of construction, but should be used only for minor purposes, if at all. I have noticed this defect in many varieties of trees, but in none is it more conspicuous than in the Kauri of New Zealand, these noble Conifers being peculiarly liable to this whenever they stand exposed upon the north or equatorial side. We occasionally see spots in timber, quite foreign in colour to that which is natural to it ; they may be seen in all parts, but are most common at or upon the butt- 64 TIMBER AND TIMBER TREES. [chap. end of the log. These are not often of a very serious character, but are nevertheless the early or first stage of incipient decay, and will be found less able to resist the action of water, or oxidation and destruction consequent on alternate drying and wetting, than the wood of the same log which is untainted. Although these spots can hardly be reckoned as hopeless defects, seeing that they do not penetrate deeply enough to affect in any appreciable degree the value of the timber, the surveyor would do well not to employ such logs in architectural works where it would be difficult to replace the piece should it at any time be found to be decayed. A swelling upon the exterior of a tree is generally a sign of some defect being hidden beneath ; it may be confined to the alburnum, but it may also conceal a serious fault that would be highly detrimental to its value. The excrescence should, therefore, be removed as soon as the tree is felled, in order to clear up the exist- ing doubt. There are, however, some few exceptions to this ; for instance, the burrs which are found upon the Oaks of some districts,* and the Austrian and Turkey Walnut tree burrs, which are very finely mottled and figured,, make good veneers, and have of themselves a special value for cabinet purposes. The removal of a branch of moderate size from a tree, close down upon the stem, will generally be con- cealed by a swelling of the kind first mentioned, particularly if it has been done while the tree was in a healthy state and annually forming new wood. Such * These peculiar excrescences are supposed to be caused by punctura- tions of the bark by insects, while the tree is growing ; but, so far as I am aware, the quality of the trunk of the tree js not often affected by it. v.] DECAY. 65 hidden knots are frequently in a state of incipient decay, owing to the rain and the moisture of the atmosphere having entered by the wound, and fostered the development of various rot-fungi, the spores of which were washed in, before it became hermetically sealed ; and, as it generally takes a long time, even many years, to com- pletely heal it over, it would during all that while be steadily pro- ducing decay in the fibres, etc., running from the knot to the centre of the tree ; the diseased or affected part, when opened, being often found spread to a very great extent, and in bad cases emittmg an un- pleasant odour. The disease thus occasioned first at- tacks the alburnum, and the wood-tissues , ^^g. 13. immediately sur- rounding the centre of the knot, and then passes down- wards, following the direction of the wounded branch towards the pith of the bole or stem, after which it rises in the various elements conveying the sap, and is often communicated to other parts of the tree, and does very great mischief. It will sometimes happen that this disease is con- centrated, or confined to the root-end of the branch, F 66 TIMBER AND TIMBER TREES. [chap. producing there what is technically termed a " druxy knot." This defect, if prevented from spreading by the otherwise healthy and vigorous state of the tree during its growth, must still be looked to after it is felled, since, if neglected, there being no longer any check to its development, fresh moisture will be absorbed, decay will be accelerated, and the whole log soon destroyed. To guard against this, it would be proper, as soon as the log is appropriated for any purpose, to take out and completely remove the affected part, substituting in its place a piece of sound wood. Again, the damage done by the breaking of a branch from a tree is often very serious, as illustrated in Fig. 13. The wound was of very old standing, and entirely healed over, but the decay had nevertheless made steady progress. It was found, by counting the concentric layers, that the branch was broken when the tree was fifty-six years old ; that in twenty-three years more the annual layers had completely covered the broken part, while outside this twenty- third layer there were twenty -seven years^ growth of duramen or heart-wood, and twenty-six years' growth of albur- num or sap-wood, the tree having been about 132 years old at the time of its being felled. Pruning closely, except in the case of very young trees, where the branches are small, and the wound is certain to be soon healed over, will, as before shown, FIG. 14. v.] PRUNING. 67 be attended with some danger, and should not, I con- sider, be done if it can be avoided. The safer plan with trees of moderate growth is to let a part of the branch remain if it is still living and capable of putting out foliage; say a foot or two in length, taking care at the same time not to leave it rugged at the end. It should be neither cut horizontally nor square to the branch, but perpendicularly, or in the direction most certain to prevent water lying on the surface (Fig. 14). If the branch is dead, or will soon die, however, it is absolutely necessary to cut it as close to the stem as possible, in order that the sound cambium of the latter may cover the wood as soon as possible. In all cases where fea- sible, it is a good plan to cover the wound at once fig. 15. with hot tar. A tree is occasionally wounded and damaged by a blow. It may have been struck by the fall of another contiguous to it, or in some other way — e.g. by the scorch- ing of a ground fire; such bruises, etc., often penetrate no farther than the bark, and simply leave evidence of it later on, in what is technically termed " rind-gall " (Fig. 15). This is a defect, inasmuch as the concentric layers at this part are not organically united, but simply deposited over each other ; but there is usually no decay of the wood. If, however, the injury be more severe, and the alburnum and duramen are contused, the wounded part no longer resists, but largely absorbs F 2 68 TIMBER AND TIMBER TREES. [chap. moisture, which tends directly to decompose it, and, decay having once set in owing to the penetration of fungi, a species of rot soon supervenes, to the detriment of the tree. This is often difficult to discover while the tree is standing, as, unless the blow is of quite recent date, the bark will have grown over it again, and effaced every trace of the wound. The cases of "cup-shake^' due to forest fires come under this heading also. The following remarks on the selection of timber, etc., may be useful : — In selecting timber, the surveyor's attention will naturally be given to an examination of the butt or root end, which should be close, solid, and sound ; and if satisfied in this respect, the top should next be in- spected, to see that it corresponds with the butt-end. Afterwards he will glance over the exposed sides in search of defects, carefully examining the knots, if any, to see that they are solid. He will, of course, avoid any piece that has either heart, cup, or star-shake, or sponginess near the pith at the butt, discoloured wood at the top, split along the sides, rind-gall, worm holes, or hollow or decayed knots. In dealing with spar-timbei*, he will select the straightest pieces ; they should be free from all the defects before mentioned, upsets, i.e. fibres crippled by compression, large knots, and even those of moderate size if they are numerous or situate ring-like round the stick. Spar-timber should be straight-grained. As planks, deals, etc., depend for their usefulness upon both quality and manufacture, the surveyor will not only see that they arc free from excess of sap, knots, shakes, and shelliness upon their sides, but also that they are evenly cut and fit for use of their thickness. v.] SELECTION OF TIMBER. 69 Bright-looking timber is better in quality than dull, and that which is smooth in the working better than the rough or woolly-surfaced. The heart of trees having the most sap-wood, is generally stronger and better in quality than the heart of trees of the same species that has little sap-wood. CHAPTER VI. EXPERIMENTS ON TIMBER. Having treated of the principal defects to which timber trees are liable during their growth — and perhaps they are all that need be now considered, as others of a less important character will be noticed later on, whenever they affect any particular class of wood — I will pass for the present to the description in detail of the various timber trees, observing, by the way, that the tables appended are the results of experiments made trans- versely, tensilely, and vertically on specimens taken from the wood of the tree described. In some cases these are very numerous, and will be, I consider, invaluable, as showing the range and variation of the strength and specific gravities of each wood ; further, they include some rare, and at present scarcely known, species of timber, which may at a future day be in request in this country for building purposes. It need scarcely be stated here, since it will be well understood, that to classify and collect the notes in order to record these tests of strength, etc., in timber, it has taken a very long time, and, but for the exceptional opportunities I had during a long course of service in the royal dockyards and elsewhere, it would have been impossible for me to have obtained these results. While employed surveying timber for the Navy in CHAP. VI.] METHODS. 71 New Zealand, and subsequently in India, Belgium, France, Prussia, Asia Minor, and European Turkey, and also in the royal forests in England, and later on as Timber Inspector of a dockyard, and Timber Inspector to the Admiralty, every effort has been made to acquire a knowledge of the capabilities and characteristic properties of the several varieties of timber which came under notice. Many of the experiments to which I shall have to refer were made at Woolwich Dockyard, where it was necessary, as a part of the duty of my office, to ascertain the specific gravities, strength, and measurement, and attend to the receipt of the timber coming in under contract with the Admiralty. Especial care was taken to carry out the experiments upon wood brought to a well-seasoned condition and fit for appropriation to works of construction ; and in many instances we have tried not only a number of pieces taken from different trees, but a series of pieces from the same tree, with a view to find, if possible, in what part the maximum of strength lay. Formerly, I believe, it was the practice to carry out these experiments upon exceedingly small pieces of wood, and I have seen it stated that some were no bigger than a French line, = 'oSSS-inch measurement, and varying in size from that to about one quarter of an inch of English measure, the result per square inch being obtained by subsequent calculations. This was probably done in consequence of the great difficulty there is in securely holding, and bringing a sufficient strain to bear upon and break the larger scantlings. I should not, however, be disposed to place much reliance in the results so worked out, as it would seem to be impossible to reduce pieces of wood to such small dimensions 72 TIMBER AND TIMBER TREES. [char vi. without cutting across some of the fibres^ and thus unnecessarily weakening those which remain. There are, undoubtedly, many examples to be found where larger scantlings have been experimented upon, and the results of these are, of course, more reliable and trustworthy.* The tests for the transverse strength in my experi- ments were conducted, in every case, with pieces 2" X 2" X 84" = 336 cubic inches. Each piece was placed upon supports exactly 6 feet apart, and then water was poured gently and gradually into a scale suspended from the middle until the piece broke, note being taken of the deflection with 390 lbs. weight, and also at the crisis of breaking. After this a piece 2 feet 6 inches in length was taken, wherever it was found practicable, from one of the two pieces broken by the transverse strain, and tested for the tensile strain by means of a powerful hydraulic machine, the direct cohesion of the fibres being thus obtained with great exactness. Further, for the purpose of determining the proportions of size to length best adapted for supporting heavy weights, a great many cube blocks were prepared, of various sizes, as also a number of other pieces of different form and dimensions, which were then, by the aid of the same machine, subjected to gradually increasing vertical pressure in the direction of their fibres, until a force sufficient to crush them was obtained. * Among the best of these made in recent times, the reader will find Bauschinger's Mittheilutigen aus devi Mech. Techn. Lab or at or ium, 1883 and 1887, referred to in Unwin, "The Testing of Materials of Construction" (Longmans, Green, & Co., 1888). For American timbers, Lanza, "Applied Mechanics," and " Report on Strength of Wooden Columns." For Indian timbers. Gamble, " Manual of Indian Timbers," 1881. For Australian timbers, Maiden, " Useful Native Plants of Australia," 1889. And for many Colonial timbers, " Reports of the Colonial and Indian Exhibition (1887)." CHAPTER VII. ON THE SEASONING AND PRESERVATION OF TIMBER. The properties and characteristic qualities of the various species of timber being known, it will be easy for any- one engaged in engineering or architectural works to select the particular species or kind most suited for his purpose ; he will also, by the aid of the tables of expe- riments upon the several varieties, be enabled to deter- mine the scantlings, and thus economise the process of conversion. As will be stated later on, from observations extend- ing over many years, Oak and other timber felled during the winter is preferable for constructive pur- poses to that felled in the spring or summer months ; but this must be taken only as applying to the de- ciduous trees, there not being, so far as I am aware, any difference in the wood of the evergreens whether they are felled in the winter or the spring months. As regards the former class, however, I have carefully examined and compared a great many pieces of both winter and spring or summer felled logs, and found, almost invariably, that the winter-cut timber, after being a few years in store, was in better condition than that which had been cut in the spring. Both, be it observed, having been under similar treatment for preservation. 74 TIMBER AND TIMBER TREES. [chap. The winter-felled logs were sounder, less rent by shakes, and the centres or early growth generally showed less of incipient decay than the spring-felled. The centres in both, however, unless they are carefully pro- tected from the weather, are liable to be deteriorated at the ends after being about three years in store, and if exposed for a longer period, the deterioration will be more serious, inasmuch as the shakes will be deeper and more open, and instead of the early stage of decom- position at the ends, there may be decided rot super- vening, and involving great waste whenever it is required to be brought into use. The Tewart of Australia and the Greenheart of Demerara are, however, notable ex- ceptions to this, for on these two woods time and weather have little effect ; they seem to be almost imperishable. While the above is true of the timbers of Europe and cold temperate countries generally, however, there are other considerations to be noted in hot climates. In India, for instance, the season of felling should be as cool and moist as possible, to ensure the slow drying of the wood and therefore the minimum of cracking ; but it often happens that malarial periods and heavy rains prevent this. In hill countries, again, the snow and rains compel fellings at seasons otherwise not preferable. Then, again, the purposes for which the timber are to be employed are important ; firewood should contain all the solid materials possible, and be dried rapidly, and the best season for this is often that of drought and heat. Ten or twelve years seems but a short time compared with the usual and common duration of timber, and when we hear of the timber framework and fitments of old buildings being found in a sound state after having VII.] DURABILITY. IS stood the test of ages, I think it should be understood that it could only have been under certain very favour- able conditions. First. That the timber was of good quality when selected for employment. Secondly. That it was at least moderately seasoned when brought into use. Thirdly. That it was placed in a favourable position in the building for lasting, and where it had a free circulation of air about it, without being in a draught. Fourthly. That the temperature was moderate and regular, and not subject to sudden calorific changes, or even to too strong a light. The most effectual way to preserve good timber is to partially season it in as natural a way as possible before working it up, and to give it simply that protection when brought into use which all other materials require to keep them from perishing. It should not be too soon varnished, painted, or coated with any preservative compound whatever, but be allowed to undergo after conversion a further short process of the natural seasoning before this is done. Its durability will be thus ensured much more effectually than if desiccating, charring, or some other rapid process of seasoning had been resorted to, for the sake of bringing it into earlier use after being felled. My experience of the approximate time required for seasoning timber under cover, and protected from wind and weather, is as follows : — Pieces 24 ins. and upwards square, Oak, require about 26 mths. Under 24 ins. to 20 ins. ,, ,, ,, 22 20 16 12 i6 12 10 6 Fir, 13 mths. II ,, 9 .. 7 .. 5 .. 3 .. 76 TIMBER AND TIMBER TREES. [chap. Planks from one-half to two-thirds the above time, according to the thickness. If kept longer than the periods named, the thin fine shakes which first open upon the surface during the process of seasoning will open deeper and wider, until they possibly render the logs unfit for conversion. If, however, the logs be reduced to the scantlings required after partial seasoning, and then further allowed to dry, they will not be liable to tear open so much, but by shrinking gradually will retain a more solid form, and be less objectionable to the eye when placed in position. The table showing the time necessary for seasoning the various scantlings must be qualified by the con- sideration that in the case of any foreign timber that will float, the foresters and raftsmen, while transporting it to the port of shipment, often, and quite unintentionally, do good service in giving it some weeks, if not months, of water seasoning, which should be estimated for in determining its fitness for use, whether it be as a substi- tute for Oak or otherwise. Square Fir timber, and rough spars for masts, are often kept too long afloat after they are purchased, under the impression that they will soon be wanted, and therefore their temporary submergence is hardly worth while. Yet, perhaps, from some cause or other, they are not brought so quickly into use as was expected, and months, even years, may pass by without much thought being given to them. The consequence is that just about the line of flotation, and that part which the water washes, the logs are often found to be seriously de- teriorated, owing to the invasion of fungi which require air as well as water, and which therefore could not VII] SODDENED TIMBER. TJ flourish if completely submerged. To ensure the pre- servation of this wood it will therefore be necessary to submerge it without delay. In cases where it is not convenient to submerge the timber at once, it would do some good if the logs were occasionally turned over. It is a little difficult, however, to accomplish after one-half the log is soddened with water, as then it can only be managed if secured in rafts, and it is almost impossible to permanently change the position of a log, if it be crooked, from that which it naturally takes by its own gravity in the water. To aid the natural seasoning, and bring about at the earliest possible time the evaporation of the moisture which is contained in all newly-felled timber, the trees should not be allowed to remain long upon the ground where they grew, as the soil is generally damp and wet. They should rather be carried off as early as convenient to the timber yard, and stored there for preservation. One of the earliest causes of decay may be accounted for by the way in which valuable logs of timber are too often left to sink by their own weight into soft earth, where they absorb a large amount of moisture, and are sure to be infected by the spores of destructive fungi. All logs, therefore, as they are brought in, unless stacked at once, should be blocked or skidded off the ground, as a temporary measure ; it involves little trouble, and will amply repay the cost of labour. In stacking timber the following suggestions maybe useful : — First. Let the skidding as a rule be placed as nearly as possible level both ways, and in no case allow the 78 TIMBER AND TIMBER TREES. [chap. upper side of it to be less than 12 inches distant from the ground ; it will then necessarily follow that, whether the stacking ground be level or upon the hillside, there will be ample space for ventilation under the timber to be piled thereon. Secondly. Let the butt-ends of the logs be placed to the front, and keep the back or top ends of each tier slightly higher than the butts, for facility in withdrawing them from the stack. Thirdly. Let the skidding over each tier of logs be level, and place short blocks under it, as packing pieces i^ or 2 inches in thickness upon every log; the advan- tage of this is, that by removing the packing pieces any log in the tier, between the two layers of skidding, may be withdrawn from the stack without disturbing the remainder. Fourthly. If the timber to be stored cannot be placed in a permanent shed, it should, with the view to its preservation, have a temporary roof placed over it. The size of the stack should therefore be considered in setting it out, limiting the breadth or span to about 25 or 30 feet. Fifthly. Let each tier as it rises be set back 6 to 8 inches, to enable the converter to get over it without a ladder ; he will find it convenient for examining and selecting his logs for conversion. These rules were carefully carried out at Woolwich Dockyard, where for some few years previous to its being closed, an immense quantity of timber was kept. The stacks, besides being covered in, had the sides and one end also screened from the weather; all this was done with the coarsest description of board in store, and such as could not have been used for joiners' general purposes. VII.] STORING TIMBER. 79 The boards forming the screen at the sides were slipped into a groove at top and bottom, and a rail or fillet mid- way up and outside was secured to the inner framework of the shed by nails driven between the edges of the boards. No other fastening was required, and the advantage of the plan was this — it allowed sufficient play for the boards to shrink or expand according to the weather and the season, while they were still removable at pleasure for any other purpose. The end or working face of the stack was similarly closed up, but in this case, the boards being more frequently shifted, they were, for convenience, clamped together in twos and threes, and secured with a shifting bar half-way up. The timber was thus wxll protected from the weather, and well ventilated, though not subjected to a draught; and, in 1869, Woolwich yard contained probably the finest and best-preserved stock of timber in England. It will be seen, then, that the preservation of timber may be cheaply and economically effected, and its seasoning brought about in a steady and regular manner by the adoption of the simplest precautions. | Experience has shown that this is the only certain method of ensuring its durability, and it is therefore fit that the best attention should be paid to it. Sheds of a cool, dry, lofty, and permanent character are required for the proper seasoning of thick-stuff, planks, and deals ; and it is desirable that the stacks of each of these should be of a moderate breadth only, a passage through the middle of the shed being necessary for the convenience of examining and working each parcel. The ground skidding should be like that of the timber stacks, placed level, and be at least a foot in 8o TIMBER AND TIMBER TREES. [chap. depth, to admit of a free circulation of air throughout ; upon these the planks, etc., should be laid flat, and open at the edges. Each tier should, as it rises, be blocked with dry battens ^ to i inch in thickness, by at least 3 inches in breadth for deals ; and i to 3 inches thick by at least 4 inches in breadth for plank, etc. These should be placed immediately over the ground skidding, as by so doing it will prevent buckling or warping, and keep the planks straight and fair-looking ; and further, care should be taken not to stack too high, lest the upper tiers should feel the effects of the sun^s heat through the roof. Boards may either be placed on end and blocked from each other by pegs or battens, or be placed upon racks fitted horizontally to receive them for seasoning. The former plan is in much favour in many places, and especially so in small private yards, where they usually stand in the open. I much prefer, however, a.' dry, cool shed, fitted with horizontal beams and vertical iron bars, to prevent the boards which are placed on edge from tilting over, and believe that the wood shrinks gradually, more evenly, and is less damaged by splits or shakes than by any other method. Boards season surprisingly well in this way, and when it is' considered with what ease and facility they are worked in and out of the frame, there is, I think, much to recommend the plan to favourable notice. Duhamel considered that by setting timber upright it would season quicker, if not better, than if it were placed horizontally ; it is, however, very difficult to do if dealing with large quantities, and is seldom practised. I rather doubt the efficacy of the plan. Fincham did not go quite so far, but experimented on timber placed upon VII.] DESICCATING, ETC. 81 frames set at an angle of about 30% and it was found that it afforded no good results. The butt-ends dried far too quickly to allow the sap juices, which drained to the lower part, to evaporate ; as a consequence, decay was rather accelerated than otherwise. Steaming or boiling unseasoned timber will fit it quickly for employment in architectural work, but it should only be' resorted to in case of necessity, as it takes from its strength, and adds nothing to its durability. Seasoning in chambers heated to a high temperature is practised to some extent on thin planks, boards, and other small and light material, but it cannot be carried out on timber of large scantlings, owing to the great weight and the difficulty there is in handling it ; besides, the storage room required for any considerable quantity of it would be so enormous that it may be looked upon as next to impracticable. Very great care is necessary in drying boards by this desiccating process ; the ends need always to be clamped to prevent them from splitting and warping, and they must be firmly secured by thin laths being placed between them. Ordinarily wood thus dried loses in strength, and in coloured woods there is this further drawback, that they generally turn pale and lose their lustre. A patent was taken out in France about the year 1 861, by M. de Lapparent, Director of the French Dock- yards and Inspector of Timber for Naval Purposes, for carbonising timber by means of inflammable gas (either pure hydrogen, or, better still, lighting gas) directed by means of a tube against every part to be carbonised, just as one would direct a jet of water from a fire- engine upon the fiame to be extinguished. No doubt G 82 TIMBER AND TIMBER TREES, [chap. vii. the principal action is to destroy all fungi and spores present on the surface, and render the wood less liable to infection. A trial of it was made at Cherbourg in presence of the Director of Naval Works and numerous other witnesses, and it is said this was crowned with complete success. The absence of all danger from fire was clearly proved, and this of course removed the principal objection to its introduction in the dockyards. The cost, it appeared from calculations made at the gas- meter of the town, with the aid of an accountant, did not exceed one penny per square metre for gas and labour together. M. de Lapparent holds that, the surface being once thoroughly dried, the juices of the interior will remain inactive — or, more accurately, they are not so exposed to the action of ferment fungi — and the durability of the timber be thereby ensured. I experimented with this process at Woolwich in 1862, by charring seven out of twelve pieces of winter- felled British Oak, prepared to a scantling of 2" x 2" x 84", and disposed of them as follows : for instance, Nos. 3, 7, 8, 9, 10, II, and 12 were carbonised, and Nos. 1, 2, 4, 5, and 6 were not carbonised. Of the former, Nos. 3 and 10, and of the latter, Nos. I and 2, were suspended in a dry place in the store-room ; Nos. 7, 8, and 9, and Nos. 4, 5, and 6, were put into a box of manure; Nos. 11 and 12 were driven half their length into damp earth, on the stacking ground. I examined these specimens in 1863 and 1864, and they all appeared to be as strong and sound as when first prepared ; they were therefore returned to their places. I again examined them in 1867, and then tested them for transverse strength. The results arc given in the following tables : — Table II.— Carbonised British Oak. Number of the specimen. Deflections. Total weight required to break each piece. C/3 M Weight required to break I square inch. Kept dry in the store-room. With the apparatus weighing 390 lbs. At the crisis of breaking. 3 lO Inches. 2-45 2-55 Inches. 4 "45 4-55 lbs. 660 690 626 622 lbs. 165 "oo 172-50 Total . 5-00 9"oo 1.350 1248 337*50 Average 2-50 4'5o 675 624 168-75 7 8 9 S'oo 3 '50 3 '25 4*25 5*00 575 345 490 530 1036 1095 1080 86-25 122 56 i32"5o I Kept in a box j of manure. Total . 975 15-00 1.365 32II 341 '25 II375 Average 3 "25 5-00 455 1070 II 12 27s 4 "50 480 946 120-00 Remarks. — No. 3 broke with scarph-like fracture, 5 inches in length ; 10 broke in three pieces, each with scarph of 6 inches ; 7 broke with long splintery fracture ; 8 broke with splinters, 12 inches in length ; 9 broke with splinters, 9 inches in length ; 11, lost ; 12 broke off short in three pieces Table III.— Non-Carbonised British Oak. Number of the specimen. Total Average Total Average Deflections. With the appa^^atus weighing 390 lbs. Inches. 2-00 2-50 4 'SO 2-25 275 3 '50 3 '50 975 3*25 At the crisis of breaking. Inches. 375 5*00 875 4-375 4-15 4 '50 4'35 13-00 Total weight required to breik each piece. lbs. 700 770 643 650 1,470 735 1293 485 420 440 4 '33 1.345 646-5 1064 1085 1090 Weight required to break I square inch. lbs. 175-00 192-50 367 "50 18375 121-25 105-00 110 -oo 3239 '■33 '1079-66 112-08 336-25 Kept dry in the store-room. Kept in a box of manure. Remarks — No. 1 broke with scarph-like fracture, 7 inches in length ; 2 broke in three pieces, each scarph-like, 7 inches in length ; 4 broke with scarph-like fracture, 14 inches in length ; 5 broke rather short, with small splinters ; 6 broke with scarph-like fracture, 8 inches in length. G 2 84 TIMBER AND TIMBER TREES. [chap. All the specimens that were kept dry, whether carbonised or not, were apparently in good condition ; but those which had been placed in manure or damp earth were more or less in a state of decomposition, the softer parts of the concentric layers being slightly wasted away with rot on the surface. The difference in strength between the carbonised and non-carbonised pieces was not very great, but the tables show that of the pieces kept dry, the loss of strength was greatest by about 8 per cent, in the carbonised specimens; and of those kept in manure, the loss was about i^ per cent, in excess on the non-carbonised pieces. When the experiment for testing the strength was completed, the broken pieces of Nos. 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, and 9 were again placed in the box of manure. The weight of the specimens, taken on five occasions in nine years, was as follows : — Table IV. Number of the specimen. December, June, September, July, April, 1862. 1863. 1867. 1869. 1871. lbs. oz. lbs. oz. lbs. oz. lbs. oz. lbs. oz. I 12 3 7 ISV* 7 13 — — 2 12 6y2 8 oK 7 15 — — 3 12 2 7 iiJ< 7 9% — — 4 12 9K 13 IK 12 IS 9 2 7 2 5 12 2% 12 I03^ 13 5 10 12 7 8M 6 12 8 12 7Ji 13 3 II 2 8 03^ 7 12 8 12 I2j< 12 9K 10 14 7 3% 8 12 12 12 9^ 13 S'A II 6 7 12 9 12 6 12 g% 13 2 9 12 7 5 10 12 3% 7 10^ 7 9 — — II 12 8% — — — 12 12 I3K 11 8 ~ ~ Nos, II and 12 were left in the ground in 1863, but No. II was missing in 1867. Nos. i, 2, 3, 10, and 12 were lost at the closing of the dockyard in 1869, vii.] CARBONISING. 85 but the broken pieces in the box of manure were safe, and these I kept until the yard was completely cleared of all its stores in 1871. At that time their condition was as follows : — No. 4. Both pieces were considerably wasted. No. 5. One piece much wasted, the other less so. No. 6. Neither piece much wasted. No. 7. Both pieces much wasted. No. 8. On one piece some carbon remained ; the other was much wasted. No. 9. Ditto ditto. The decay and waste between July, 1869, and April, 1 871, was very rapid, but the condition of the carbonised and non-carbonised specimens was much the same ; it leaves, therefore, little to say in favour of the charring process, and I should not myself be inclined to use it on timber for works of construction, except as a possible means of preventing the generation of moisture or fungus where two unseasoned pieces of wood are placed in juxtaposition. An experiment in carbonising was tried on a piece of plank 5 feet in length, one-half the breadth being charred, the other not ; this was set in the ground under the drip of a roof. In another case a piece of plank was charred over half its length, the other not. Plates of iron were then secured to each end, and the whole immersed in water to ascertain whether the carbonising of the surface would prevent oxidation. When, how- ever, each of these was examined, some six months later, it could not be seen on which side to give the preference. The wood backing to the armour plates on the star- board side of H.M.S. Caledonia was charred by M. de Lapparent^s process, with the view to test its efficacy 86 TIMBER AND TIMBER TREES. [chap. thoroughly, and when this ship comes under repair it will be ascertained by comparison with the other side how far it is useful in preventing decay. The Admiralty also ordered the faying surfaces of the frame timber and planking of the Tenedos and Spartan, the former build- ing at Devonport, and the latter at Deptford Dockyard in 1868, to be carbonised by this process, in the hope that it will retard the formation of fungus on the sur- faces, on which it frequently forms with rapidity ; but, as neither of these ships has yet been opened for repairs (1875), it is uncertain whether any good results have come of the experim.ent. Experience has shown that many soluble substances of a poisonous or antiseptic nature, will delay or prevent the processes of rot or putrefaction to which all timber is liable. Modern botanical research has proved that this is owing to the fact that the poisons used kill the spores and mycelia of the various parasitic and other fungi which destroy the timber by (i) feeding upon the sub- stances in the wood-elements, and (2) piercing the walls of the latter, or even dissolving them, and so weakening the structure. But experience has also shown that there are enor- mous difficulties to be overcome before a piece of wood can be interpenetrated by any solution, however dilute. These difficulties never are overcome in practice, because where large pieces of timber are to be operated upon it is impossible either to give the time or to apply the pressures necessary for forcing the solution into the deeper layers of wood. In discussing this subject it must never be forgotten that wood is not a mere porous body, like a piece of brick or gypsum, but that it has a complex structure, as already described in tlie introductory chapters. This VII.] INJECTION. 87 structure is intimately related to, and adapted for the conduction of fluids (containing dissolved salts, etc., and therefore comparable physically with the fluids to be in- jected) from the base to the apex, and vice versa. As the trunk, orbranch, ages, however, its inner portions undergo the changes which convert them into heart-wood. Now these changes are principally of two kinds. In the first place the elements of the heart-wood are more and more shut off, by peculiar structural changes, from par- taking in the function of transport of water, therefore rendering it more and more difficult for air or liquids to traverse their walls ; and, in the second place, these walls and the cavities of the elements become blocked up with such materials as resins, tannin, colouring matters and the like, and thus the heart is rendered more and more impervious to such fluids as we refer to. Exact experiments prove that it requires very little pressure to inject the sap-wood of a Conifer or Dicoty- ledon with any coloured solution capable of wetting the walls, if the pressure drives the fluid up or down the stem ; whereas very much higher pressures are needed to even partially inject the heart-wood in the same way. Again, while it is still comparatively easy to press such liquids through the sap-wood in a horizontal direction* at right angles to a medullary ray, it is almost impossible to drive them in one parallel to the ray, even in the sap-wood. This being the case, it only remains to add that the timber of different species of trees differs considerably as to the depth to which it can be injected with anti- septics, and as to the pressures necessary to force the fluids in; and that, while it remains true that no large * In all these statements concerning direction I assume the tree trunk to be in its normal vertical position. 88 TIMBER AND TIMBER TREES. [chap. piece of timber can be thoroughly injected, it is found in practice that the penetration of the antiseptic to even a few millimeters below the exposed surface of the wood, enhances its durability considerably — how much, depends on the nature of the antiseptic and the con- ditions to which the treated wood is exposed. The following are the principal antiseptic substances in actual use for these purposes : — Cupric sulphate, or sulphate of copper, is sometimes used for sleepers in France. It is cheap, very soluble, and easily applied ; but as it merely deposits in crystals in the dried wood, it renders the timber brittle and is easily soaked out in drainage water. Creosote^ or rather tarry oils with a large proportion of creosote in them, is cheap where coal is abundant. The creosote is absorbed into the substance of the walls of the wood-elements and is not washed out, while the oily nature of the mixture renders the wood more pliable and damp-proof, and less liable to splinter, etc. Mercuric chloride^ or corrosive sublimate. Is used in the process of kyanising — named after the inventor, Kyan — and is the most effective poison known for fungi, insects, etc. ; moreover, this • salt forms insoluble compounds in the vv^ood, and is therefore permanent. Unfortunately, however, it is very expensive, and its exceedingly dangerous characters as a poison are against its general use. Other substances which have been employed are zinc chloride, which is cheap but inferior to creosote ; carbolic acid, which is, however, too expensive to com- pete with creosote; tar oils, paraffins, benzene^ etc., etc. As to the methods of impregnating timber, the most primitive is to paint the wood, preferably dry, as thickly VII.] IMPREGNATION. 89 as possible^ and trust to soakage ; tarred timber is very commonly employed on this principle. The chief draw- backs are that the liquid soaks in a very little way, and any crack opened after treatment exposes the raw sur- face of the wood to the agents of decay. The next simplest method is to submerge the logs, poles, etc., in a large bath and leave them there as long as practicable ; in certain cases the bath is heated, even to boiling, with more rapid results. The principle of this method is exactly the same as that concerned in water- logging ; the air in the cavities of the wood-elements is gradually displaced, more or less as the case maybe, by the liquid, and obviously this displacement is hurried and rendered more complete if the liquid is hot enough to cause the imprisoned air to expand and escape. Experience shows that long submergence may render the timber brittle, and the results differ with different species of wood. Tar, sulphate of iron or of copper, chloride of zinc, and creosote have been used in this way often with excellent results, though the liquid only enters a very little way into the sleepers, poles, etc., treated. A somewhat more complicated and more costly process has been employed with great success of late years. This consists in placing the sleepers, telegraph poles, etc., in air-tight chambers, which are then partially exhausted, so that some of the air in the wood escapes. Then the chamiber is filled with the solution — usually creosote, but salts of copper or zinc, or tar, ferric tan- nate, etc., have been used — which is allowed to soak in, either at the ordinary atmospheric pressure, or under pressures applied by force-pumps. Even more effective, with creosote, is this method combined with the heating of the whole apparatus ; or 90 TIMBER AND TIMBER TREES, [chap. vii. steam, saturated with the preservative, is forcibly driven in. The chief advantages claimed for this process are (i) that unseasoned wood can be effectively treated, (2) the antiseptic liquid is driven in to a greater depth than by any other method, and (3) the process is very rapid, it being possible to impregnate many tons of timber in less than an hour in large cylinders. A very ingenious method, invented by Boucherie, has been employed in France. This consists in attaching a pipe to the lower part of a log, so that the antiseptic solution employed, under a pressure of about one atmosphere, is gradually forced in to displace the natural fluids of the sap-wood of the tree. The pressure is obtained by elevating the reservoir of antiseptic. Sulphate of copper and chloride of zinc have been thus used, but since the log must be treated with the bark on (other- wise there is great loss at the surface) there are many drawbacks to this method — e.g. loss in conversion and carriage — except where whole trunks are employed and directly treated on the spot. I NOW pass to the consideration of the principal Timber trees of the British Empire and other parts of the world, commencing with those known to the forester generally as *' Broad- leafed " trees — in contra- distinction to the " Needle-leafed '' trees of the Conifers — and to the botanist as Dicotyledons. These are the ordinary foliage-trees of the forests of all countries, and for the sake of practical convenience only, they will be taken more or less in order of their importance as met with in the various quarters of the globe, be- ginning with the trees of Europe, and passing on to those of America, Asia, etc., and especially those of our Colonies. CHAPTER VIII. EUROPEAN TIMBERS. THE OAK [Quercus). The Oakj regarded generally, is found to be very widely spread. It has been met with in Europe in about 35° N., and is known to extend to 60°, or over 25° of North latitude. Various species are also found in the north of Asia, North America, and in Africa. The Oak exists in very great variety, and England produces two, if not three, distinct sub-species or varieties, in addition to numerous others, not native, but which are cultivated for ornamental purposes. The botanical names of those which are indigenous to this country are Quercus Robur pedunculata, Quercus Robtir sessiliflora, and Quercus pubescens, or Durmast Oak. In the former, which is our best species, the foot- stalks of the female flowers and acorns are long, while those of the leaves are short. In Quercus sessiliflora\.\v\s order is reversed, the footstalks of the fruit being short and those of the leaves long ; while the distinguishing character of Quercus pubescens consists in its having the under sides of the leaves somewhat downy, the footstalks of the fruit and leaves nearly resembling those of the sessilijiora variety. It is also peculiar to the leaves of the Durmast or pubescent species that they commonly hang longer on the tree than those of either of the others. It is the prevailing opinion that the wood of Quercus Robur pedunculata is the best in quality, and that Quercus CHAP. VIII.] OAKS. 93 Robur sessiliflora is slightly inferior to it ; but, while coinciding generally in this opinion^ I feel bound to admit that, during a long experience in working them, I have not been able to discover any important difference between the two varieties. We find, indeed,, the wood of the two species so closely resembling each other, that few surveyors are able to speak positively as to the identity of either. It is only by tracing the log from the first fall of the tree to the hands of the converter that we are able to say that the timber of the sessiliflora is a little less dense and compact in texture than that of t\\Q pedtmculata. The Durmast Oak is only sparingly met with^ and is usually of inferior quality. Preference should there- fore be given in all works of importance to the two species before mentioned ; and in this there will be no difficulty, as they are easily obtainable. It is fortunate that Qiierais Robur pedu7iculata, ^hich. is believed to produce the best timber, is to be found in greater abundance than Q. sessiliflora ; and it is greatly to be desired that in any future planting, care should be taken to perpetuate it, although as a com- mercial speculation Q. sessiliflora would probably yield the best return, as it generally attains a greater length of clear stem. Very fine specimens of these long, clear stems of Q. sessiliflora are to be met with in abundance in the Forest of Dean, in Gloucestershire, where, upon a rocky subsoil, the Oak trees generally attain noble dimensions, with, however, this drawback — they are liable to the cup and the star-shake. Whether this is caused by the rocky nature of the soil, combined with the swaying to and fro of these tall trees by strong winds, or whether it is in some degree peculiar to the 94 TIMBER AND TIMBER TREES. [chap. species, is not easily determined. I incline, however, to the belief that these defects are less frequent in Quercus Robur peduncitlata^ whatever the situation or soil maybe upon which they are grown. There appears to be little difficulty in rearing the Oak tree ; it thrives in almost any soil, except that which is boggy or peaty; but to bring it to the greatest perfec- tion, it is preferable to have a rich loam with a deep subsoil. It will even spring up again from the old stool, or root, and without requiring any attention, produce, in time, one or more fine trees in place of that which was first cut down. The following dimensions of nine Oak trees that were growing only a few years since (and possibly are so still) at Woburn Abbey Park, may be interesting, as showing the size they will attain upon a favourable soil. The particulars are taken from a small book, published in 1832, under the superintendence of the Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge : — Table V. Oak Trees. Height. Circumference. No. I Stem 50 ft. , measures at 3 ft. 6 in. from the ground 17 ft. 3 in. 1 1 ) 1 II 20 ft. , , , 14 It. 2 1 1 .. 35 ft. 4 ft. 20 ft. 17 ft. 9 in. 12 ft. 9 in. 3 , , 20 ft. 4 ft. 20 ft. 13 ft. o\i in. 12 ft. 0% in. 4 3 ft. 66 ft. 12 ft. oj^ in. 8 ft. oJ< in. 5 4 ft. 56 ft. 14 ft. 9 ft. 0% in. 6 II 3 ft. 34 ft. 14 ft. 4 in. 12 ft. 6 in. 7 4 ft. 12 ft. 1 1 50 ft. 8 ft. 0"% in. 8 II 4 ft. 50 ft. 13 ft. 0^ in. 8 ft. oj^ in. 9 3 ft. 48 ft. 13 ft. oK in. 8 ft. oyi in. VIII.] BRITISH OAK. 95 *^ It is stated that at the lowest estimate, the total quantity of timber in these nine trees amounts to 3,200 cubic feet of the very best quality for naval architecture, and that although they must be of great age, it is remarkable that no symptoms of decay appear in them. They are perfectly sound and free from blemish.'' The characteristic properties of the British Oak are, upon the whole, so good, that it has long been accepted by practical men as a standard of quality and fitness for architectural purposes, and in the classification of all other hard and heavy woods in use in the royal dock- yards, they are tabulated as "substitutes'' for "Oak"; the individual species, differing from it either in kind or specific gravity, or in having some important property attached to it, being only specially noted in the specifi- cation for building a ship^ whenever it is considered desirable to secure some particular element of lightness or strength, dissimilar to that of the standard. The English Oak tree, if grown in sheltered situa- tions or in forests, frequently reaches to a height of 70 to 100 feet, with a clear, straight stem of from 30 to 40 feet, and a circumference of 8 to 10 feet, and much larger specimens (though now only rarely to be met with) were formerly common. If grown in open and exposed situations, it is generally shorter, and fre- quently takes strange and eccentric forms, assuming a * No wooden man-of-war has been built for our Navy for upwards of twenty years, nor are we in the least likely to revert to the building of such ; but, although Oak is now so little used for ship-building in comparison with its demand when the above remarks were written, I have retained Mr. Laslett's words because his opinion applies to other uses to which this timber is applied. The case is somewhat different in the Mercantile Marine, and of the vessels on Lloyd's register about 10 per cent, of the British tonnage is of wood. This is still more the case with the Colonies, which, having more abundant material, build more wooden vessels than we do, though the ships themselves are of a less important commercial type. 96 TIMBER AND TIMBER TREES. [chap. somewhat curved and crooked shape ; this^ however, is one of its most valuable characteristics, as naturally curved timber is almost indispensable for wood ship- building. It is when grown under these conditions that it appears to attain its maximum of hardness, and is often found so gnarled and knotty that it is difficult to work. The long, straight, fair-grown trees, which yield the largest proportion of useful wood, are most in request for the general purposes of the architect and engineer, but they are also fully appreciated by ship-builders, who employ them for beams, waterways, keelsons, etc. Oak timber of the gnarled description, and having some figure in the grain, is in request for articles of furniture; and even when in a state of decay, or in its worst stage of '^ foxiness," the cabinet-maker prizes it for its deep-red colour, and works it up in a variety of ways. The economical uses of Oak timber, and especially the English varieties of it, are, on account of its many valuable properties and freedom from excessive weight — the specific gravity being about '597 to 1*024 — so extensive that it would be impossible to enumerate the many useful purposes to which it is applied, while in wood ship-building it is invaluable, and, indeed, almost indispensable, as it is flexible enough to bear bending to the most curved and difficult parts in a ship's con- struction, without breaking. The wood is light-brown in colour, hard, tough, and very strong ; it does not splinter readily, and its solidity of character is such that it resists well the action of water. In seasoning it is apt to warp and shrink, although not to any considerable extent ; consequently it cannot be used in a partially dried state without in- VIII.] OAK TIMBERS. 97 curring some risk to the stability of the work ; but when once its moisture is completely evaporated, few woods are liable to so little change, particularly when employed in situations where it is protected from the influence of moisture or draught. If subjected to alternations of wet and dry, it withstands the change better than most other woods ; while, if kept wholly submerged, there is scarcely any limit to its endurance. Oak timber has, however, one drawback. It con- tains a powerful pyroligneous acid, which prevents its general employment in immediate contact with iron, as the metal, whether used for fastenings or other- wise, is subjected to a rapid corrosive action, while the timber is also liable to suffer by waste and deterioration. British Oak timber has, for ages past, been a most important article in ship-building in this country, and it is still used for this purpose to a very great extent, notwithstanding the present very general use of iron as a substitute for it. It is only within the last few years that it has been felt that the quantity of Oak produced in England would soon be inadequate to meet the great and increasing demand for it, and that it was necessary efforts should be made to supplement it by the introduction of foreign Oaks and other hard woods for ship-building purposes. To show this great necessity it will be sufficient to state, approximately, the store of ship-building timber which it was thought necessary to maintain at Woolwich Dockyard in the several quinquennial periods of the quarter- century ending in 1865.* It will, apart from the ordinary demands of the private trade, serve to illustrate * This stock, I am informed, is now all gone, and very little Oak is now bought for the royal dockyards. The illustrative statement retained, there- forC; is merely matter of history now. H 98 TIMBER AND TIMBER TREES, [chap. viii. in some degree how large must have been the supplies annually required for all the royal dockyards, taken collectively, in order to replace the ships that were worn-out or had become obsolete, and to keep the ships of the royal navy up to the strength called for by the times. The store of timber maintained at Woolwich Dock- yard suitable for ship-building was as follows, viz. : — Table VI. Foreign timber, In the years English Oak. or Substitutes for Oak. Total. Loads. Loads. Loads. 1840 1. 591 936 2,527 1845 1,029 2,196 3.945 1850 1.259 3.693 4.952 1855 1,868 4.596 6,464 i860 857 6,977 7.834 1865 5.490 14.077 19.567 The smallest quantity of English Oak at that yard at any one time within the thirty years ending in 1867 was 857 loads in i860, and the largest 5,490 loads in 1865 ; while the smallest stock of foreign timber in store for use as substitutes for Oak was 936 in 1840, and the largest 16,771 loads in 1863. The smallest store of ship-building timber of all kinds held there during the same period was 2,356 loads in i84i,and the largest 21,012 loads in 1863. The relative quantities of English Oak and its sub- stitutes were kept up at all the yards, in proportion to the magnitude of the several naval establishments, and in i860 there was the large quantity of 35,800 loads in the various stores, suitable for ship-building, exclusive of Elm, Fir, and Pine timber and plank ; and this was very largely supplemented by later deliveries. i CHAPTER IX. EUROPEAN TIMBERS — (Continued). EXPERIMENTS UPON THE TRANSVERSE STRENGTH OF BRITISH OAK. British Oak timber being, as before stated, generally recognised as the standard of quality, the greatest possible care was taken in preparing the specimens of the prescribed dimensions — 2" x 2!' x 84" — for the experi- ments to test its strength ; further, the deflections under a weight of 390 lbs., as also that at the crisis of breaking, and the exact breaking weight each piece bore, were all taken, the results being shown in the tables which follow. It is hoped, therefore, that a sufficient guide is thus afforded, not only for comparing its strength with other woods, but also for determining the scantling required for architectural purposes : — Table VII.— English Oak. Transverse Experiments. Number of the specimen. Deflections. Total weight required to break each piece. Specific Gravity. With the apparatus weighing 390 lbs. After the weight was removed. At., the crisis of^ breaking. Inches. 5-250 8-500 1 1 -ooo 6-500 7-000 5-875 I 2 3 4 5 6 Inches. 3'SOO 3"i25 3*250 3 "250 3 "500 3*625 Inch. •200 •312 •125 •125 •250 •125 lbs. 590 825 1,002 797 804 637 905 682 708 725 720 670 Total . 20*250 I '137 44"i2S 4.655 4410 Average 3'375 •189 7*354 776 735 Remarks. — Nos. i and 4 broke with a moderate length of fracture ; 2, 5, and 6 with 9 to 15 inches and splinters in fracture. No. 3 was not completely broken asunder. H 2 lOO TIMBER AND TIMBER TREES. [chap. Table VIII,— English Oak. Transverse Experi7nents. — 7.nd Exani.ple. ' Number of the specimen. Deflections. Total weight required to break each piece. Specific Gravity. 780 753 770 1005 1003 1002 With the apparatus weighing 390 lbs. After the weight was removed. At_ the crisis of breaking. 7 8 9 lO II 12 Inch. 1-625 1*625 1-500 1-625 1750 1-500 Inch. •125 -250 •187 •125 •000 ■000 Inches. 4'I25 5-250 5-000 9-500 9-250 8-750 lbs. 674 837 824 977 882 827 Total . 9-625 -687 -114 41 "875 5,021 5313 Average 1-604 6-979 837 886 Remarks. — No. 7 broke short ; 8 and 12 with 7 to 13 inches length of fracture ; 9, 10, and II with 15 inches scarph-like splintery fracture. The Tables VII. and VIII. each refer to parcels of six pieces, which were taken from trees of good average quality and size, moderately seasoned, and fit to be applied to architectural works, the specific gravity vary- ing from 670 to 1005. Of the twelve pieces tested, the elasticity of two, after the weight of 390 lbs. was re- moved, was perfect. One piece recovered its straight- ness to within '312 inch, while of the remainder, nine in number, the elasticity was in all something better, though not quite perfect. The deflections varied under this weight of 390 lbs. from 1-500 to 3*625 inches, the ultimate deflections at the crisis of breaking varying from 4*125 to 1 1 '00 inches ; while the breaking weight varied from 590 to 1,005 ^bs., the average results being 201*58 lbs. on the square inch. Taking the mean of the figures in the Tables VII. and VIII., wc have a deflection of 2*489 inches with 390 lbs. ; but only "151 inch after the weight had been removed, ix.J BARLOW'S FORMULA. loi the ultimate deflection at the time of breaking being 7*i66 inches, the breaking weight 806*83 lbs., and the specific gravity 810. Further results may be got by applying the formulae used by Professor Barlow, viz., E = :jt^ ', /= length, ^ -= width, ^= depth, and 8 = de- ^(Za -^ o flection. * It should be borne in mind that in determining the scantlings to be employed, there are to be taken into account the possible chance of a short or twisted grain, a spiral turn of the fibre, knots, faulty or otherwise, and the risk which the practical builder must always run of having some defects hidden beyond the possibility of detection in, perhaps, his best-looking pieces. It would, therefore, be obviously unsafe to subject them to any- thing like the strain which the ascertained average strength of the specimens tested would seem to warrant charging them with. Considering the importance of this, it was determined to extend the experiments by testing a series of pieces taken from a longitudinal section cut through the centre breadth of a very fine-looking Oak tree. In setting out the specimens, the centre piece containing the pith and a very small heart-shake, was allowed to drop out as being of little or no value for the trial. The six pieces cut from one side of the centre or pith of this tree, came out with a long, clean, straight grain, as the appearance of the log had promised ; but the six taken from the opposite side were not nearly so good, the grain being in each a little waved or twisted. * It should be noted that Laslett gives the total length of his specimens, instead of the length between supports, and consequently his results are not in accordance with those of others. The reader should consult special works on this part of the subject. (See p. 72.) I02 TIMBER AND TIMBER TREES. [chap. and the fibre of no great length. Some had small pin- like knots in them, and the surface of the plank being dotted over with these, it presented a mottled ap- pearance, somewhat resembling Bird's-eye Maple. The specimens are numbered from the centre or pith of the tree outwards — i to 6 and i' to 6' in column 8. The results are as follow, viz. : — Table IX. Transverse Experiments. — 2>^d Example. Deflection. avity. 0 .2.2 JU bo l4> 0 ^ 4) With the ap] ratus weigh: 390 lbs. 1^ < Total we required to each pie 0 '0 4) a 1) D 0 2 4) « The mean of i ' Inches. Inches. lbs. lbs. to6/ . . . 3 '25 3*95 407 867 6' 13 375 375 390 836 14 375 375 400 866 5; IS 3*50 390 868 4' 16 390 865 3' 17 375 390 860 2' English 18 2 25 5-00 480 910 1/ Oak. 19 2'00 7 '00 740 900 S.320 I 20 2 '00 4*50 630 900 4,400 2 21 2-25 5-00 620 854 4,200 3 22 3 'SO 4 '50 470 864 4.340 4 ^3 375 S'oo 480 838 2,520 5 24 4'oo 4 '50 430 791 2,240 6 The mean of i to 6 . 2*9i6 S'lo 562 858 3.837 ... The mean of the whole 3083 4-525 484 862-5 ... Remarks. — Nos. 13 to 17 inclusive broke very short ; 18 and 19 were nearly alike, and had scarph-shaped fractures 10 inches in length ; 2q and 21 had long splintery frac- tures ; 22 to 24 inclusive broke short to %th the depth, then long fractures. In the specimens marked i to 6, the greatest strength was possessed by the piece taken from close to the centre of the log, which comprised the oldest and densest annual layers, while No. 6, which was farthest removed from it, and contained the most recently perfected dura- IX.J STRENGTH OF OAK. 103 men, proved to be the weakest, the respective breaking weights showing a difference of nearly 42 per cent. Turning to the specimens marked i' to 6', taken from the other side of the tree, we find a similar result as regards the inner and the outer layers, the greatest strength being again near to the centre of the tree; No. 5', however, bearing the next greatest strain. The pieces Nos. 2', 3', 4.', and 6\ each broke as the weight of the scale was applied, and are therefore of little value. We may gather, however, from the trial, that from the centre to the circumference of this tree there was clearly a diminution of strength, which, although not quite proportionate to the decrease observed in the specific gravity of the several pieces, is yet in some degree approximate to it. I infer from this that the tree had not reached maturity when it was cut down, and that it was still in the prime of life. Had it been otherwise, we should have expected, when viewed by the light of other ex- periments, to find that the point of density and greatest strength would lie in the piece marked 4, or even farther removed from the centre. There can be very little doubt that the wood of this tree, if used in its greatest bulk, or in any large scantlings, would have been found to possess fully the average strength of Oak timber, and that it was only weak in certain parts, as discovered on trial when cut into strips of 2 inches square. There still remains, however, the fact that in a fine tree, sound and apparently free from defect, nearly the whole of one side was found to be faulty, while the other half proved to be inferior in strength to the specimens of average quality noticed in the Tables VII. and VIII., the mean breaking weight of the best side being 562 lbs., as com- 104 TIMBER AND TIMBER TREES. [chap. pared with 776 lbs. in Table VII., and 837 lbs. in Table VIII. (mean = 8065), the weaker side not affording any figures by which it could be compared with previous experiments. The deflections of a few specimens, under given weights and with various bearings, are shown in the following tables : — DEFLECTIONS: ENGLISH OAK. Table X. 1 Specimens : depth, i% inch ; breadth, 2 inches ; length, 84 inches ; weighted wiih 300 lbs. Supports, apart. 3 Feet. 4 Feet. 5 Feet. 6 Feet. No. 25 26 27 28 Sp. gr. 795 785 782 775 Inches. •375 •500 •375 •375 Inches. ■750 •875 •750 •750 Inches. I -187 I 750 1-625 1-500 Inches. 2-500 2-750 2-500 2-625 Total . . 3'i37 i*625 3125 6-062 10-375 Average . •784 •406 •781 i"5i5 2-593 Table XI. Specimens as in Table X., weighted with 400 lbs. Supports, apart. 3 Feet. 4 Feet. 5 Feet. 6 Feet. No. 29 30 32 Sp. gr. 795 785 782 775 Inches. •625 -687 •437 ■625 Inches. I'OO I '125 I -000 i-ooo Inches. 2 00 2-25 2-25 2"00 Inches. 3 "625 3 937 3*562 3 '250 Total . . 3"i37 2-374 4-125 1 8-50 14 '374 Average . •784 1 •593 1031 2125 3-593 IX.] DEFLECTIONS. 105 Table XII. Specimens : depth, 2 inches ; breadth, x]^ inch ; length, 84 inches ; weighted with 300 lbs. Supports, apart. 3 Feet. 4 Feet. 5 Feet. 6 Feet. No. 33 34 35 36 Sp. gr. 795 785 782 775 Inches. -312 •250 •187 •250 Inches, •625 •500 •563 •437 Inches, 1-063 •875 •937 •875 Inches. 1-625 1-500 1-562 1-562 6-249 Total . . 3'i37 I-OOO 2'125 i 3750 Average . •784 '25 "531 ■937 1-562 Table XIII, Specimens as in Table XII., weighted with 400 lbs. | Supports, apart. 3 Feet. 4 Feet. 5 Feet. 6 Feet, No. 37 38 39 40 Sp. gr. 795 785 782 775 Inches. ■375 -312 -250 •437 Inches. -625 -625 •750 ■625 Inches, 1-250 I -125 I -187 1-312 Inches. 2-125 2-000 2-125 2-000 Total . . 3-137 i"374 2-625 4-874 8-250 Average . -784 •343 -656 1 I -218 2-062 CHAPTER X. EUROPEAN TlU^Y^K^— {Continued) . ON THE TENSILE STRENGTH, OR DIRECT COHESION, AND STRENGTH UNDER COMPRESSION OF BRITISH OAK. The tensile experiments are somewhat difficult to carry out, and therefore only specimens Nos. i to 6, Table IX., were tested from the log referred to at page 102. They varied from 2,240 to 5,320 lbs., giving a mean strength o^ 3.S37 lbs. to the square inch, the wood next to the pith or centre proving to be the strongest, as with the transverse test. The gradations of strength, taking No. I as unity or roo, give No. 2 as '82 ; No. 3, 785 ; No. 4, -81; No. 5, -475; and No. 6, -42, the tensile strength of the inner wood of this tree being therefore about 58 per cent, greater than the outer. Instances of weakness, both transversely and tensilely, similar to those which are given in Table IX., are not unfrequent, and may occur, as before stated, in good- looking specimens of any species of timber : and this, again, serves to show that it would be unsafe to arrange the various parts of any construction according to the highest calculated strength of any timber to be employed. Further tensile experiments were made on six speci- mens of British Oak saved from the pieces experimented CHAP. X.] TENSILE STRENGTH. 107 upon, and referred to in Tables VII. and VIII. They appear to be of better quality than those referred to in Table IX. The following are the results : — Table XIV. Tensile Experiments. Number of the specimen. Dimensions of each piece. c^..^-^^ Weight the Direct cohe- sion on I square inch. 43 44 45 46 47 48 Inches. \ \ > 2 X 2 X 30 < 1003 1005 1002 905 720 725 lbs. 35,560 31.360 33,600 33.040 24,640 23,520 lbs. 8,890 7.840 8,400 8,260 6,160 5.880 Total . . ... 5360 181,720 45.430 Average . 893 30.287 7.571 Very little appears to be known of the amount of resistance offered by British Oak to a crushing force, when applied in the direction of its fibres. Some ex- periments of the kind have, it is true, been made, both in this and in other countries, but the results, as published, are far from being satisfactory, inasmuch as they vary to a great extent, as between author and author, and afford no reliable measure of the strain to which a pillar or column can be safely loaded. The difficulty of carrying out these experiments is indeed so great, and withal so extremely tedious, that it is no matter of surprise more has not been done in this direction. I have, therefore, with the view of supplying a want long felt, availed myself of every opportunity to extend this important inquiry, by experi- menting not only upon English Oak timber, but upon io8 TIMBER AND TIMBER TREES. [chap. perhaps a greater variety of woods than has ever before been attempted. The experiments on the vertical strength of British Oak are given in Tables XV. to XXII. inclusive. Table XV. Cubes of Unseasoned British Oak. Specific gravity, 966. Vertical or crushing experiments. Number of the specimen. I Inch. 2 Inches. 3 Inches. 4 Inches. Crushed with Crushed with Crushed with Crushed with 49—52 53—56 57—60 61 — 64 65—68 69—72 Tons. 2-750 2-500 2-000 2-500 2-250 2-375 Tons. 7-000 8-000 9-500 8-qoo 8-125 9-250 Tons. 20-000 19-375 20-125 19-625 20-500 20-125 Tons. 33-750 31-875 33'i25 32-875 33-125 33 '500 Total . . 14-375 50-375 119-750 198-250 Average . 2*396 8-396 19 '958 33-041 Do. per in. 2-396 2-099 2-217 2-064 Table XVI. Cubes of Seasoned British Oak. Specific gravity, 740. Vertical or crushing experiments. Number of the specimen. I Inch. 2 Inches. 3 Inches. 4 Inches. Crushed with Crushed with Crushed with Crushed with 73—76 77—80 81—84 85—88 89—92 i 93—96 Tons. 3-750 3-500 3-375 3 '625 3-500 3-625 Tons. 13-000 12-500 14-375 1 4 000 13-875 14-125 Tons. 28-750 29-750 29-125 28-500 29-125 28-875 Tons. 50-875 50*125 49-875 50-625 49-875 51-125 Total . . 21-375 81875 174-125 302-500 Average . 3"S62 13-646 29-021 50-417 1 Do. per in. 3-562 3411 3-225 3-151 X.] CRUSHING. 109 Table XVII. Vertical or Crushing Experiments 07i British Oak, with 4 square inches of base. Note. — Nos. 97 to 107 (inclusive) were cut from one piece of timber, Nos. 108 to no were cut from another, and No. iii from a third piece. Table XVIII. Vertical or Crushing Experiments on British Oak, with 9 sqtiare inches of base. Number of the specimen. Dimensions of the pieces. Specific gravity. Crushed with Do. on the square inch. Inches. Tons. Tons. 112 3x3x8 912 1 5 "50 1-722 "3 ,, ,, 9 981 16-125 1-792 114 .. >> 10 960 i6'oo 1777 115 ,. •> II 943 16 '50 1-833 116 .. .. 12 928 1475 1-639 117 ,. ,, 13 901 13*50 1-500 \ 118 M ,. 14 891 14 00 I "555 i 119 .. ., 15 883 15-00 I -666 120 ,, ,, 16 900 15-00 1-666 121 ,, ,, 17 768 23*50 2-6ii 122 ,. ,, 18 789 22 'OO 2-444 Note. — Nos. 112 to 120 (inclusive) were cut from a piece of Oak timber that had been four years in store — it was not even then well seasoned; Nos. 121 and 122 were of better seasoned timber. no TIMBER AND TIMBER TREES. [chap. Table XIX. Vertical or Crushing Experiments on British Oak, with i6 square inches of base. Number of the specimen. Dimensions of the pieces. Specific gravity. Crushed with Do. on the square inch. Inches. Tons. Tons. 123 4x4x15 958 25 '50 I -600 124 M M 16 972 25'25 1-578 125 .. ., 17 934 27-00 1-687 126 ,, M 18 930 27-50 I -719 127 ., ,. 19 932 28-25 1-762 128 . . > . 20 972 28-25 1-762 1 29 • > >, 21 946 28-00 1750 130 .. ., 22 932 26-00 1-625 131 -, ., 23 921 23 "50 1-470 132 ,, ,. 24 1-003 30-00 1-875 Table XX. Vertical or Crushing Experiments on British Oak, with 9 square inches of base. Number of the specimen. Dimensions of the pieces. Specific gravity. Crushed with Do. on the square inch. 133 134 135 Inches. 3X3X 8 ., ,, 9 696 597 742 Tons. 25-25 21-00 20-25 Tons. 2-805 2-333 2-250 Note. — These were respectively Nos. 115, 118, and 121 of Table XVIII., shortened, and further seasoned. X.] CRUSHING. Ill Table XXI. Vertical or Crushing Experiments on British Oak, with i6 square inches of base. Number of the specimen. Dimensions of the pieces. Specific gravity. Crushed with Do. on the square inch. Inches. Tons. Tons. 136 4X 4X 10 713 34-875 2-179 137 • ) ., II 658 33750 2-IIO 138 i> I. 12 639 32'000 2 '000 139 M ,, 13 665 29*500 1843 140 „ ,, 14 752 31-250 I '953 141 „ ,. 15 742 28 '500 1-781 142 ,, ,, 16 688 40750 2-517 Note.— These were respectively Nos. 132, 123, 125, 124, 127, 129, and 130 of Table XI5C-) shortened after the first experiments upon thtm, and further seasoned before the second trial. Table XXII. Vertical or Crushing Experiments on British Oak; sundry scantlings. Number of the specimen. Dimensions of the pieces. Specific gravity. Crushed with Do. on the square inch. Inches. Tons. Tons. 1 143 3x3x2 820 32-125 3-569 144 4x4x2 822 53'i25 3 320 145 6 X 6 X 12 864 131-000 3*640 146 ,, 18 926 154*000 4-277 147 ,, 24 822 122 200 3-394 148 .. .,36 888 I22-200 3-394 149 9 X 9 X 12 1-024 223-600 2*760 150 9'x 9' X 15 918 247-800 2-898 151 M 18 889 244-800 2 -860 152 21 883 247*000 2887 153 9'xio' X 15 904 397-000 4-175 154 lo'xii X 18 794 307 -ooo 2*722 155 l> M 21 819 327 -800 2-907 156 9' xio' X 24 905 307 000 3-239 112 TIMBER AND TIMBER TREES. [chap. In these tables are recorded the results of io8 ex- periments on the crushing strains applied to specimens of English Oak timber, varying from small pieces with only I inch of base, and i inch in height, carrying 7,978 lbs., to larger pieces with no inches of base, and 21 inches in height, carrying 734,272 lbs., or 327 tons 16 cvvt., before breaking. The intermediate sizes include some pieces with 36 inches of base and 36 inches in height, this being the greatest length upon which I have been able to bring the crushing force to bear. It is to be regretted that these experiments could only be carried on with pieces of inconsiderable length, owing to the difficulty experienced in keeping the centres perfectly straight with the line of pressure. Still, enough has, I hope, been done to afford a fair guide for determining the scantlings for pillars to beams, etc., although, perhaps, there is not even yet sufficient data to construct a formula upon. M. Rondelet ascertained that it took a force of 5,000 to 6,000 lbs. to crush a piece of Oak having I inch of base ; and Mr. Rennie gives 3,860 lbs. as the force required to crush a similar piece i inch in height. These two statements vary considerably from each other, and also from my own experience, inasmuch as I found it required a force of 7,978 lbs., or 3*562 tons weight, to crush a i-inch cube of seasoned Oak; vide Table XVI. In a trial, however, of six pieces of unseasoned Oak of the same dimensions, it was found that it took upon an average only 5,367 lbs., or 2*396 tons — one piece requiring only 4,480 lbs., or 2 tons, to crush it ; vide Table XV. The experiments upon seasoned cubes of Oak, of 2, X.] ELONGATION. 113 3, and 4 inches (Table XVI.) show that the force re- quired to crush them was, severally, 7,640 lbs., 7,224 lbs., and 7,058 lbs., per square inch of base, which, if com- pared with 7,978 lbs. on the one-inch cube of the same seasoned wood, shows an apparent diminution of strength in each of the next larger sizes ; the average force required to crush the complete parcel of four sets of cubes being 7,475 lbs. The average strength of the un- seasoned pieces of the same dimensions only 4,915 lbs. to the square inch of base. There is yet another description of test to be noticed, namely, that for ascertaining the elongation of the fibres under certain strains. The experiment was made in one of the royal dockyards upon two pieces of English Oak, each 2 x 2 x 48 inches, and very carefully con- ducted— note being taken of the elongation in a length of 3 feet ; the mean results were found to be as follow^, viz. : — Table XXIII. With the weight of 2 3 4 •04617 5 6 7 tons. The elongation was 'o '03 1 25 •07812 •1250 ■15625 ins. With the weight of 8 9 '23437 10 •2500 II •2500 1 1 12 1 tons. The elongation was •19375 •3125 ins. CHAPTER XI. EUROPEAN TIMBERS — {Continued). ON THE FELLING OF OAK IN SPRING AND WINTER. The bark of the Oak tree, or, more strictly speaking, the cortical tissues under the true bark, contains a sub- stance called tannin, which is of considerable value, and is used in the preparation of leather. Therefore, in order to secure this tannin in its greatest quantity, it is the practice to fell, or cut down, the trees in the spring of the year, when the sap is rising ; moreover, the bark is more easily removed in the spring. Under other circumstances, the trees would have been cut in the winter, while the sap was down and in a quiescent state — a period which has been almost universally recognised as the best for felling, as it ensures a better quality, and is conducive to the greater durability of the timber. This is because the walls of the wood-elements are then thoroughly lignified and hardened, there is less water in the wood, and the decomposable substances are. less abun- dant and less in a soluble form conducive to rot. The value of the bark, however, generally overrides this considera- tion, since, although the weight in proportion to the con- tents of the timber will vary according to circumstances of growth, it is always thought profitable to save it, and, CHAP. XL] WINTER FELLING. 115 viewed under the commercial aspect, it is not likely to be disregarded. The quantity of tannin contained in the bark of the Oak, as ascertained by Sir Humphry Davy, varies as follows, viz. : In Coppice Oak it is 32 ; middle sized, 29; and Oak cut in the autumn, 21 per cent. The timber and bark merchants variously estimate the quantity of bark proportionate to the contents of the timber; and no doubt there is a very considerable difference in the weight afforded by trees of equal ages, whether grown in forests or in open situations. Mr. Monteith states, in his '' Planter's Guide,'' that— An Oak 40 years old yields, for every cubic foot of timber 9 lbs. to 12 lbs. of bark. And if 80 to 100 years old yields, for every cubic foot of timber ., ... 10 lbs. to 16 lbs. ,, The question of the propriety of felling in the winter in preference to any other season is of considerable import- ance, and its bearing upon the durability or otherwise of the timber may be gathered from the following par- ticulars, taken from a " Treatise on Dry Rot,*' by Ambrose Bowden. He states that — " The Sovereign of the Seas, built at Woolwich in 1635, was constructed of timber barked in the spring and felled in the succeeding winter, a strong conviction existing that such timber was superior to any other in point of durability. Forty-seven years later this ship was pulled to pieces and rebuilt, and the greater part of the materials were found to be in sufficiently good con- dition for re -employment. ^' The Royal William, built at Portsmouth in 17 15 to 17 19, after being slightly repaired at three different times, was finally taken to pieces in August, 181 3, after a service of ninety-four years. The extreme durability I 2 ii6 TIMBER AND TIMBER TREES. [chap. of this ship attracted much attention at the time, and it was believed that, having been built in close proximity to the New Forest, only winter-felled timber had been used in her construction. This is said to be borne out by the fact that the authorities at Portsmouth, about 1717 or 171 8, offered, as an encouragement for the delivery of winter-felled Oak timber to that yard, an addition of* ;^5 per cent, to the contractor to compen- sate him for the loss of the bark. The state of the materials when the ship was taken to pieces confirmed the conjecture which had been then formed, as the iron fastenings, above the water-line, were in general good, proving the absence of acrid juices in the timber. "In the year 1755, Mr. Barnard, of Deptford, con- tracted to build a sixty-gun ship, named the Achilles^ for His Majesty's service. She was completed in 1757, and taken to pieces in 1784. It was not known that any peculiar circumstances attended the construction of this ship, until Mr. Barnard was summoned to attend a Committee appointed by the House of Commons, in March, 1771, to consider how His Majesty's navy might be better supplied with timber. He then gave it as his opinion that the method to be observed in felling timber should be by barking in the spring, and not to fell it until the succeeding winter, and added that he built the Achilles, man-of-war, in 1757^ of timber felled in that manner. "The MontaguCy launched in 1779, was built of winter-felled timber, and its superiority is forcibly at- tested by the fact that she had only one frame-timber * A much higher premium than £^ per cent, in addition to the contract price of spring-felled Oak timber was offered and paid by the Government a few years since for winter-felled Oak, without, however, being able to obtain more than a fraction of the quantity required for the royal dockyards. XI.] OAK FOR SHIPS. 117 shifted, from the time she was built up to 1803, when she was repaired. Mention is also made of this ship being in active service and in good condition in 18 15 ; that is, thirty-six years after she was launched. It was thought there was a striking coincidence between the durability of this ship and that of the Royal William, affording a strong presumption that they were both built on the same principles. "The H azvke sXoo"^ ^z.?, built in 1793, one half of timber barked in the spring and felled in the winter, and the other half of timber felled at the usual time in spring. Ten years later she was in such a general state of decay that she was taken to pieces, no difference being then observable in the condition of her several timbers. '^ " At first view/^ Mr. Bowden observes, " this experi- ment appears to decide the fate of the system ; but it must be remarked that the timber was barked standing in the spring of 1787, and not felled until the autumn of 1790^ a period of three and a half years; and further, that if we were to inquire into the probable duration of such timber, we might discover, perhaps, that it is in an inverse ratio to the time the trees may stand after being barked ; and therefore, this ship was in precisely the same state at the end of ten years as we might reasonably have expected." CHAPTER XII. EUROPEAN TIUB-ERS— {Continued). BRITISH OAK. — CONTRACT SPECIFICATION. The British Oak tree affords logs that meet the follow- ing specification for the navy contracts, viz. : — * Timber sided ; or if rough, that will side — 20 inches and upwards, the shortest length being 26 feet. 20}^ ,, to 19 inches, ,, ,, 24 ,, 181^ ,, ,, 17 ., M .. 20 ,, M M 16 ,, »l If 14 l> I > It 12 , , 16% „ M 15 T-W2 .. .. 13 I2K .. ,> 11 io}4 ,, 10 the quantities of each class or siding varying according to the requirements of the dockyards. For the rough timber (Fig. i6, a and b) it is generally agreed that the price is to be, for , each log measur- ing— 250 cub ft. and upwards, rough contents, per load of 50 cub. ft. £ 249 , , to 200 cub. ft. 199 .. 150 .. 149 ,, ,. 100 ,, 99 ,. 50 .. 49 ,. 25 ,, Under 25 * It may be remarked that I have retained these illustrative specifications, not because they have any importance now as regards the navy, but because they may be of use to private individuals in purchasing. CHAP. XII.] OAK SPECIFICATIONS. 119 the conditions being that the measurement of rough timber for payment is to be regulated by the stops or joggles. Every piece to be measured for contents by calliper measurement^ as far as the spire will hold 12 inches in diameter. No tops to be received, except the spire and such other top or limb as may be grown on the main piece, of a substance and length to admit of being converted with it. Such other top or limb FIG. i6a. FIG. i6b. will be measured for contents as far as it will hold 12 inches in diameter. If, however, the professional officers of the yards are of opinion that the conversion of the main piece will be improved thereby, tops, including the spire, will be measured for contents as far as they will hold 9 inches in diameter ; but, in such case, two-thirds only of the contents below 12 inches in diameter will be added to the other contents of the piece for payment. All the rough timber to be so hewn or squared that no part of the surface or square I20 TIMBER AND TIMBER TREES. [chap. shall be less than one-fourth of the diameter of the piece. F'or the sided timber (Fig. 17),* it is also agreed that the price is to be, for each log measuring — 120 cub. ft. and upwards, sided contents, per load of 50 cub. ft. £ 119 ,, to 100 ft. ,, ., 99 ,■ ., 80 ,, ,, >> 79 .... 60 ,, ,, .. 59 .. .. 40 .. 39 .. .. 20 ,, Under 20 ,, ,, ,. the conditions being that in computing the measurement FIG. ija. m" IS" ^ ■4 FIG. 17^. for payment of sided timber, no quarter-inches to be allowed in the sidings. All the timber to be so sided that, between the wanes,t at half the length of the piece, there shall not be less than the siding with one-eighth * It has been found in practice that a fairly grown cylindrically-shaped British Oak tree of 30 inches calliper will yield sided timber of about 21 inches. 24 ,. ,, ,, ,, iS'A „ 18 ,, ,, ,, ,. 12K ,, and that generally about two-thirds of the calliper of the rough tree is the siding to be obtained from it. t Wane is the natural rounded edge of the log, W, Fig. i6l>. XII.] WANES AND PANES. 121 added thereto; to be fairly sided from end to end, parallel, and to be measured for contents as far as it holds, at the top end, on each side, between the wanes, three-fourths of the siding of the piece. The pane* at the top is to determine the length of the piece ; but if the length of the sides be not equal, the mean is to be taken. The timber to be so hewn upon the moulding edges that the surface of the square shall not be less than one-fourth the diameter of the piece. The timber to be measured for contents at the middle of the length, FIG. l8. FIG. 19, when fairly grown from end to end, but if otherwise, it will be regulated by the stops or joggles. Such timber as has length beyond the prescribed proportion of pane, being compass timber, and the additional length aiding the conversion, or such as shall be bond fide convertible for a beam piece, to be received at the discretion of the officers who are to determine the length ; two-thirds of the addi- tional length to be measured for the cubic contents. It is, of course, understood that the wants of the * Pane is the hewn or sawn surface of the log, P, Fig. 16^. 122 TIMBER AND TIMBER TREES, [chap. xii. private trade are as well met as those of the royal navy, nothing being required of the navy specification other than is afforded by the ordinary growth of the tree. Thick-stuff and plank is supplied to the navy accord- ing to the following specification : — To be mea- Thick- Shortest To average Breadth sured as far ness. length. in length at least between the sap at 24 ft. as it holds between the sap. Remarks. Inches. Feet. Feet. Inches. Inches. lO \ \ II 8 \ 9 8 \ 1 Thick stuff, 4% in. ' ' \ and upwards, is 7 9 7 f measured in cubic 6 > 24 ,, feet. 5 1 28 ,, 4% / ,, / 4 8 6 j Plank, 4 to 2 in. 3'A / ,, 1 inclusive, is mea- 3 ^ 7* > sured in superficial 2K V 20 1 1 feet of its thick- 2 / \l " I ness. * At 20 feet. All the thick-stuff and plank to be cut straight, or nearly so, and of parallel thickness, and to be measured for breadth at the middle, or half the length, taking in half the wanes, provided the breadth, clear of sap, is within two inches of the breadth at which it is to be received; but no thick-stuff the breadth of which in the middle is less than 11 inches or more than 18 inches, and no plank of 4, 3^, and 3 inches, less than 9 inches or more than 15 inches, and none of 2}4 and 2 inches less than 8 or more than 15 inches, clear of sap at half the length, is to be received. All the timber, thick-stuff, and plank to be fresh-cut, good, sound, merchantable, well conditioned, and in every respect fit for Her Majesty's service. CHAPTER XIII. EUROPEAN TIMBERS — {Continued). FRENCH OAK {Qiievcus Robur). The Oak timber of the north-western provinces of France, and especially of Brittany and Normandy, so closely resembles British Oak timber in colour, quality, texture, and general characteristics, that a description of one will as nearly as possible serve for the other. It is therefore, I think, fairly entitled to the first notice after that which has been adopted as our standard. The French Government formerly claimed the right of first selection of this description of timber, and drew nearly all their supplies from the western districts, for the use of their own dockyards, the landed proprietors and merchants not being free to offer it on the market until the full requirements of the French navy were met. Consequently, but little, if any, of good quality was left for exportation after the demands of the private trade of that country were satisfied. The first sample shipped to the London market after the relaxation of the French laws bearing upon it (about the year i860) enabled the British Government to give it a trial in ship-building ; and as this proved 124 TIMBER AND TIMBER TREES. [chap. to be satisfactory, a contract was soon after made with a London merchant for a supply to the several dock- yards in England. French Oak, until about the time I am speaking of, was looked upon with some disfavour in this country, and thought to be generally inferior in quality to the British Oak ; but this opinion was probably formed from very unfavourable specimens, there being certain localities in France, as there are in most other countries, where the trees do not attain any degree of excellence, FIG. 20a. FIG. 2ob. and also from the fact that the best timber had been first selected and retained by the French Government. Figs. 2oa and 2ob show the method of hewing the French Oak, whereby all the square wood that could be obtained is preserved, by simply following the natural taper or growth of tree, and, by so doing, there can be little, if any, disadvantage, since, the measurements being taken, as in English timber, at the middle, or half the length of the log, the buyer would receive and pay for the correct quantity contained in it. French Oak is equal to the English in point of durability, and there is yet to be carried to its credit the fact that experiments prove it to be equally strong, XIII.] FRENCH OAK. 125 tough, and elastic. It is also in its favour that it shrinks only moderately in seasoning, and rends or splits some- what less than the English Oak during that process. That it is suitable and fit for all the purposes to which English Oak is applied, in ship-building or other works of construction, there is no reason to doubt ; and^ except that the timber procured from the north-west of France is generally smaller, shorter, and has a more tapering form than the English Oak timber tree, there is no appreciable difference in them, and in a manu- factured state the cleverest expert could not tell one from the other. The experiments made on French Oak (Tables XXIV., XXV., and XXVI.) are perhaps sufficient to show its relative merits as compared with our standard- French is classed with English Oak at Lloyd's, for employment in ship-building. Table XXIV. Transverse Experiments. Deflections. Total weight required Number of the With the After the 1 At Specific specimen. apparatus weight ' the crisis to break each gravity. weighing was 1 of 390 lbs. removed. | breaking. Inches. Inch. Inches. lbs. I I '50 •00 4'35 720 966 2 I '35 ■05 7"oo 930 977 3 1-50 ■05 6-05 901 983 4 I "55 •10 5 '50 89s 992 5 1-65 ■00 ■ 7'oo 915 979 6 1-35 •05 6'io 904 962 Total . . 8-90 •25 3600 5.265 5859 Average . 1-483 1 ■041 6 '00 877-5 976-5 The ave rage of six othe r specimens, of equal quality tc the above, g ave— 7 — 12 1-583 ■125 7*583 The mean of the whole — 831- 1082 I "533 •083 6791 854 1029-5 Remarks. — All the specimens broke with a fibrous fracture fully 10 inches in length. 126 TIMBER AND TIMBER TREES, [chap. xiii. Table XXV. Tensile Experhnents. Number of the specimen. Dimension of each piece. Specific gravity. Weight the piece broke with. Direct cohesion on i square inch. 13 14 15 16 17 18 Inches. - 2 X 2 X 30 - J N. 966 979 983 962 977 992 lbs. 21,280 40,040 39,208 27.432 33.460 33.040 lbs. 5. 320 10,010 9,802 6,858 8.365 8,260 Total . . 5859 i 194,460 48,615 Average . 976*5 ! 32.410 8,102 Table XXVI. Vertical Experiments on cubes of 2 inches. No. 19. No. 20. No. 21. No. 22. No. 23. No. 24. Total tons. Average tons. Crashed with Crashed with Crushed with Crushed with Crushed with Crushed with Tons. 12 "500 Tons. I4"ooo Tons. 14-125 3'53i Tons. 14 '875 Tons. 14750 Tons. 14-875 85-125 14-187 *3i25 3*500 3719 3-687 3719 14-187 3-547 * On I square inch. Remarks. — These cubes were in about the same seasoned condition as the English Oak, Table XVI. CHAPTER XIV. EUROPEAN i:iy[^Y.KS^{Continued). ITALIAN OAK {Quercus). There are several varieties of very valuable oak trees spread over the whole length of the Italian peninsula, the island of Sicily, and also in the island of Sardinia, which in form and quality differ but slightly one from the other. Botanists might say they were all of erect growth, yet they very rarely attain a perfectly upright position, as, owing to their naturally curved and crooked form of stem, they must necessarily be a little, more or less, inclined to the horizon. They appear generally to attain at least moderate dimensions ; but, judging from those imported into this country, their best specimens are inferior in size to many of our British Oak trees. The following forms of Italian Oak, viz., Qicercus Robur, and its variety Q. ^sctdus, Q. pyrenaica (the Pyrenean Oak), are the best in quality. There are also the Q. cerris (usually known as the Turkey Oak), Q. Ilex, Q. Suber (cork oak); and one or two others which are not generally thought to be equal to those first men- tioned. Some of these may, nevertheless, occasionally compare favourably with them, especially when they are found at a moderate elevation, or on the mountain sides. 128 TIMBER AND TIMBER TREES. [chap- The wood of Italian Oak is brown in colour, hard, horny, tough, strong, less elastic and slightly heavier than the English Oak, and is, on account of its extreme hardness, more difficult to work. In seasoning it is very apt to split and leave deep shakes on the exterior of the log, which are detrimental to its value for general purposes ; but, viewed as to its form and properties, it is employed in preference to m.ost other Oaks for the frame of a ship. It may also be used in any work of construction where strength and durability are impor- tant, if care be taken to protect it, by planks or other- wise, from exposure. Owing to its characteristic defect of shakes in season- ing, Italian Oak is unfit for conversion into planks, or boards, or into almost any small scantlings ; and its introduction into this country (about the year 1820) was not with the view to its general employment, but solely to supplement the supply of British Oak timber, which was then scarce, and seemed likely to be in- sufficient in quantity to meet the growing demands for it, especially for the framing of our ships of war. For this particular purpose, where it is generally used in bulk to nearly the full growth of the tree, preference may even be given to it over English Oak. Of the different varieties of Italian Oak, the Tuscan, Neapolitan, and Sicilian are the hardest and most horny in texture, and, when thoroughly seasoned, by far the most difficult to work ; while the Modena, Roman, and Sardinian are what the workmen call milder in character — that is to say, they are easier to work, and a little less hard than the former. The Modena and Sardinian also yield an easier curved form of timber than the other kinds, and do not split to the same extent in seasoning ; they arc all, XIV.] ITALIAN OAK. 129 however, very much of the same strong character, and it is a fact worth mentioning, as showing the unusual hard- ness of this kind of timber, when well seasoned, that I have known many sawyers, when only entered tem- porarily in the dockyards for some pressing work to be done, leave rather than be employed in cutting this timber.* In the employment of this wood very few defects are found, and no better evidence is necessary to show that great care is taken of it during its growth. It has both the star and the cup shake, but neither of these defects are very common in the Oaks grown upon the mainland or in the island of Sardinia. The Sicilian Oaks have, however, rather extensive cup-shake defects. It was stipulated in the conditions of the navy con- tracts that about three-fourths of all the Italian Oak timber should be of compass form — that is to say, to qualify it as such, it must have at least five inches of curve in twelve feet, taken in any part of the length of the log; and this proportion was almost invariably obtained, whife many of the logs which did not pass for compass had generally more or less curve, and a straight log was quite the exception. * The following note is extracted from the first edition (p. 85). Very large supplies of this description of timber were sent to H.M. dockyards during the years i860 to 1863, the greater part of it having been contracted for just prior to the introduction of iron ships for war purposes. But the wooden fleet having been almost superseded by the time it was delivered, a considerable quantity of it is still upon hand (1875); yet even now, although much of it has been from ten to twelve years in store, it is for the most part in a good state of preserva- tion. The French Government for a long time drew upon the Italian states for considerable quantities of this Oak for the use of their dockyards, and were often competing with our own for the possession of it ; thus, until quite recently, Italian Oak was an important and valuable article to the two chief naval powers of the world. K I30 TIMBER AND TIMBER TREES. [chap. The specification under which Italian Oak (Fig. 21, a and b) was received stood as follows, viz.: — Pieces co taining each 30 feet and upwards cube ,, ,, ,, 20 feet and under 30 feet ,, ,, ,, 14 feet and under 20 feet Pieces under 14 feet contents, sided 9 to 11% inches, inclusive, and not less than ID feet long Pieces under 14 feet contents, sided 7 to 8^ inches, inclusive, and cot less than '8 feet long... Price per Load of 50 feet. £ s. d. FIG. ixa. FIG. 21^. All the timber to be winter-felled. Pieces sided 7 to 8J^ inches, inclusive, to have at least 8 inches curvature in 8 feet in some part of its length. The straight timber, excepting that sided 9 to ii>4 inches, inclusive, to be 20 feet and upwards in length .... and both compass and straight timber to measure in the middle between the wanes, or to have pane at that place, not less than the siding of the piece with one-eighth' part added thereto, and the pane at the top end not to be less than three-fourths the siding of the piece. All the timber to be fairly tapered from end to end, and not to have more wane at any part than 4 inches on the two wanes taken together ; or, if there is no wane on one edge or angle, and it is only on the other edge or angle, that wane is not to exceed 4 inches. The compass timber to be sided from 7 to 20 inches, inclusive, and no part thereof, except of from 7 to iiK inches sided, to be less than 13 feet in length. The transverse strength of Italian Oak is shown in Tables XXVII., XXIX., and XXX., and the vertical strength in Tables XXVIII. and XXXI.; but there are XIV.] ITALIAN OAK. 131 fewer experiments on these than on most other woods, owing to the difficulty that was found in obtaining a length of seven feet with a clean straight grain for testing. Table XXVII. — Italian or Tuscan Oak. Transverse Experiments. Number of the specimen. Deflections. Total weight required to break each piece. Specific gravity. With the apparatus weighing 390 lbs. After the weight was removed. At the crisis of breaking. I 2 3 4 5 6 Inches. 4 "5° 375 2-15 4 "65 4 '5° 3-00 Inch. •15 ■15 •00 •20 •15 •15 Inches. 7 '25 9'2S 7-35 6-85 8-55 675 lbs. 766 659 625 906 777 813 TOII 1094 985 1018 1025 IIIO Total . . 22-55 •80 46 'OO 4.546 6243 Average . 376 •133 7-66 757-66 1040-5 Remarks. — All the specimens broke with fibrous fractures, 10 to 16 inches in length. Table XXVIII. — Italian ok Tuscan Oak. Vertical or Crushing Strain on cubes of 2 inches. No. 7. No. 8. No. 9. No. 10. No. n. No. 12. Total. Average. Tons. io"oo Tons. 975 Tons. 9*5 Tons. 975 Tons. 10 'oo Tons. 9-5 Tons. 58-5 Tons. 9-75 ♦2-50 2-437 2-375 2-437 2-50 2-375 975 2-437 * On I square inch. K 2 132 TIMBER AND TIMBER TREES. [chap. Table XXIX. — Italian or Modena Oak. Transverse Experiments. Number of the specimen. Deflections. Total weight required to break each piece. Specific gravity. With the apparatus weighing 390 lbs. After the weight was removed. At_ . the crisis of breaking. I 2 3 4 5 6 Inches. 2 25 2-30 2 '25 270 225 2-25 Inch. •05 •05 ■05 •IS •10 '05 Inches. 5-65 670 6-iS 7'oo 6-25 6'oo lbs. 848 1 130 787 I 103 881 1 1121 823 1 1060 859 ] 1092 859 I 1150 Total . . 14 "GO •45 3775 5.057 6656 Average . 2 33 •075 6*291 842-83 1109-3 Remarks.— Nos. i, 5, and 6 broke with fractures slightly scarph-shaped ; 2, 3, and 4 had long fibrous fractures. Table XXX.— Sardinian Oak. Transverse Experiments. Number of the specimen. Deflections. Total weight required to break each piece. Specific gravity. With the apparatus weighing 390 lbs. After the weight was removed. At _ the crisis of breaking. Inches. 575 5-65 4-85 800 8-25 6-50 I 2 3 4 5 6 Total . . Inches. 2-65 275 3"i5 2-25 2 '50 2*35 Inch. ■05 •10 ■15 •15 •15 ■15 lbs. 659 630 906 776 812 1002 1030 1025 943 973 970 1 5 '65 75 39-00 4.548 5943 Average . 2608 •125 6-5 758 990 "5 Remarks.— Nos. i, 2, and 3 broke rather short to i-5th the depth, and had about 12 inches length of fracture under it ; 4, 5, and 6 had 13 inches length of fibrous fr.-xcture. XIV.] SARDINIAN OAK. 133 Table XXXL— Sardinian Oak, , Vertical or Crushing Strain on cubes of 2 inches. No. 7. 1 No. 8. No. 9. No. ID. Tons. 10750 No. II. No. 15. Total. Average. Tons. 10 'OO Tons. IO'I25 Tons. 10 625 Tons. 10 -GOO Tons. 1 1 -ooo Tons. 62 -500 Tons. lO-4i6 ^2-5 2-531 2-656 2 "687 2-500 2750 10-416 2*604 * On I square inch. CHAPTER XV. EUROPEAN TIMBERS — {Continued), DANTZIC OAK {Qu^rcus). This Oak derives its name from the port of shipment, but is chiefly the produce of the Polish forests, whence the bulk of it is brought down the river Vistula to Dantzic; small quantities are also sent into the ports of Memel and Stettin by other sources. There is a considerable quantity of Oak timber exported from these three places in logs, varying from 1 8 to 30 feet in length, and from 10 to 16 inches square, and also planks 24 feet and upwards in length, averaging about 32 feet, the breadth being from 9 to 15 inches, and the thickness varying from 2 to 8 inches. Large quantities of staves, roughly cleft from the tree, are also exported in various sizes, suitable for the manufacture of every description of cask or barrel. The Dantzic-Polish or Prussian Oak timber is obtained from a tree of straight growth. It is brown in colour, of moderate strength and hardness, rather porous, and has the medullary rays bright and sufficiently distinct to qualify it in some instances for wainscot CHAP. XV.] DANTZIC OAK. 135 purposes. It is of fair durability, and is largely used in the construction of the mercantile ships of this country, but only sparingly for our ships of war, except for their decks, for which purpose it has been regarded as peculiarly fit, as it stands well the wear and tear of the gun carriages. For planking it is much esteemed, as the grain is straight, clean, and almost free from knots, but its price is prohibitive. Further, it is so pliable and elastic, when boiled or heated by steam, that it may be bent into the most difficult of curved forms without showing any sign of fracture. This description of timber is carefully classified by the merchants, and divided into crown and crown brack qualities, the former being selected from trees of the fairest growth, clean in the grain, and generally free from every kind of coarseness and defect, while the crown brack includes the short and irregularly grown trees, and all those of a rough, coarse, and knotty character. With the Oak planks they are more particular than with the timber, and endeavour to secure uniformity in their arrangement by employing a sworn bracker to make the classification. Thus the planks of each thick- ness are sorted into first and second qualities, or rather into crown and crown brack qualities as understood in the trade, and are respectively distinguished by the mark w on the best, and WW on the second best, plainly rased upon the side of the plank. Those of the crown quality are selected from the finest and fairest grown trees only, the crown brack being made up of planks produced from trees of less regular growth, including the coarse and sometimes faulty pieces. The com- mercial values of the two bracks vary both in the 136 TIMBER AND TIMBER TREES. [chap. timber, and in the plank, in about the proportion of three to two. In civil architecture, the Dantzic Oak may be used with advantage for a great variety of purposes, as it stands well, shrinks only moderately, and without split- ting much in seasoning. The Navy contracts for Dantzic Oak do not include square timber, but thick-stuff of 7 to 4^^ inches, and plank of 4 to 2 inches only, which are received under the following specification : — The Dantzic Oak thick-stuff and plank to meet at 32 feet, and none to be ihorter than 24 feet ; and to be from 10 to 13 inches broad, averaging ii inches ■clear of sap. The whole to be fresh, clean, free from defective wanes, cut r-^gular, square-edged, and straight ; the breadth for measurement to be taken clear of sap at the middle of the length ; 67 per cent, of each thickness to be of first or crown quality, and the remainder of second or crown brack quality. Tables XXXII. and XXXIII. show that the Dantzic Oak, when tested transversely, or tensilely, is of moderate strength; and, according to Table XXXIV., when tested for the vertical or crushing strain, it proves to be strong, and compares favourably with the British Oak. XV.] DANTZIC OAK. 137 Tablk XXXII.— Dantzic Oak. Transverse Experiments. Number of the specimen. Deflections. Total weight required to break each piece. ] Specific ' gravitJ^ ■With the apparatus weighing 390 lbs. After t^e weight was remove'1. At the crisis of breaking. I 2 3 4 5 6 Inches. 4'30 4'35 5'55 575 5 '20 4'85 Inch. ■15 •25 ■30 •25 •25 ■25 Inches. 5-25 5 '25 6-85 7'oo 7-85 6'55 lbs. 474 466 449 456 508 488 850 812 817 768 897 872 Total . . 30 'OO 1-45 38 '75 2,841 5016 Average . 5 "00 ■24 6-458 ^73*5 836 , Remarks. — All the specimens broke rather short. Table XXXIII. Tensile Experiments. 1 j Number ! of the 1 specimen. 7 8 ; 9 10 Dimensions of each piece; Specific gravity. Weight the piece broke with. Direct cohesion on 1 square inch. Inches. ) ( - 2 X 2 X 30 ^ ) ( 812 817 850 872 lbs. 13.444 14,276 17,920 21,840 lbs. 3.361 3.569 4,480 5,460 Total . . 335 T 67,480 16,870 4.217 Average . 838 16,870 I-.8 TIMBER AND TIMBER TREES, [chap. xv. r ^ "Si' X :5 OQ < Ditto on r square inch. CO u-)VO N N CO CO CO Vo CO Average tons. CN O O Q O (N O O 0 0\ C^ O O O vO tv JO LO p pN CO rnoo o co 11 O -^ M .OS lo 0 tN 0 lO fn o . . t^ op : : 00 N M u-> N OO LO 1/5 c o lO O t^ lO CO _p CO : : p ro CO " ■ W- Tons. LO O O ^N LT) o 00 (N : : }o CO CO ■ ■ CO H H Tons. lO O O O lO f^ O O O CI LO UO LO P M CO CO 00 On rf c _o '3! c t :^ t t "cO M O CO -1-j X X X X^"^ X X X X^ V v. ^ .. "(N M « "cO -t J( "ci O 2 vo cj 00 1 1 j^jri M tV »0 MM M > X X X m R « Q ^ a; j- ^ tJ c <^ 00 o ^ c . .5 bo 5 ' ^ ' LO a o M M u M M : ►5 » • lO pj u5 c o H 0 M ■J M M • to 0) c o H O CO CO . lO pj t/5 c o 00 ^ CO CO " 00 pt c o H ■^ CO CO M ^ "lo"iO~^ IN 00 ■ o o -i^J:;!.-!:! H ^ P) H-1 X ■I" *-> w hJ k n ^) < h 5^ Ditto on I square inch. VO ON VO 0 . 0 VO t^ t^ 0 _M M ; _LO p On On 5^ im CO (N W N '« N ho • V 0 mo • N tN tNOo M (N CO Tf Tf CO M (N CO 3 c g to ON p vp : : : : : : c 0 H 88 Lo li-) . : : : : : coo e2 0 0 10 in (N tv : : : : : : CO 0) c 0 H 0 U-) 0 0 « 10 . p _H (N . . . : : COM b H M 01 C 0 H lO Q 0 « 0 LO H LO t^ : : : : : CO "« ON M u5 c 0 H Q 100 P IN P . ; . . . CO "(N ON • ■ '• • • in C e2 lOOOOOOOO MQLOOOpOO H p r^ U-) p p p p CO N On M CO t^ t^OO M (N CO -+ -:^ CO (N 0 CO u5 c 0 c V 6 Q 10 -^ 0 -1- M N CO *CO M M -^^ CO Tf X X X XX•„XX;^;^^^^ H (N v^ C0'<^0n0nW XXfvjXX^^^ M r< y CO Tf a On On N M in 0 2; t>» CO tx M P< « 1 1 1 00 ON 0 M 0 1 1 1 C< W CO CO CO CJ 00 -t- M M CI XIX.] AMERICAN LIVE OAK. 171 AMERICAN LIVE OAK {Quercus virens). This tree is of very moderate dimensions when com- pared with the White Oak, its usual height being only about 35 to 45 feet, with a diameter of 12 to 18 inches. It is an evergreen, and is found principally in the Southern States of North America, and near to the sea-coast, which it seems to prefer to the more inland and sheltered situations. The wood is dark brown in colour, hard, tough, strong, heavy, and very difficult to work, on account of the grain being waved or twisted. Its pores are very minute and the medullary rays unusually bright and distinct. The largest logs of live Oak that I have seen im- ported did not exceed about 18 feet in length by 12 inches square, and generally they were of much smaller dimensions. They are usually of a crooked or compass shape, and are, therefore, very suitable for the framing of ships of from 300 to 800 tons burthen, in which only small scantlings are required. It is used extensively for this purpose in the Southern States; it makes good mallets for carpenters, and would be useful for cogs in machinery, and many other services where great weight is not an objection. Judging from the appearance of this timber, it is stronger than any other known Oak, but, as it was im- possible to obtain a single straight specimen of the prescribed dimensions, viz., 2 x 2 x 84 inches, the usual tests could not be applied, and there are consequently no tables to show what it would actually bear. 172 TIMBER AND TIMBER TREES. [chap. BALTIMORE OAK [Qiiercus alba) is so called from the shipments being made chiefly from Baltimore, is a perfectly straight timber, and is brought to us in lengths varying from 25 to 40 feet, the squares, or sidings, being from 11 to 20 inches. The wood is of a reddish-brown colour, somewhat darker than the White Oak, and less hard and horny in texture ; it is moderately strong, and the quality fair. It might be used with advantage for many minor fit- ments in ships, and for general purposes in carpentry, as it is easy to work, and stands well after seasoning. It is not, however, recommended for use where great strength is required, as, when thoroughly dry, it is scarcely so strong as the best Fir or Pine. The Baltimore Oak tree is of very slow growth {vide Table I., p. 44), and the timber would soon decay unless well protected by paint or varnish after seasoning. Table XLTX.— American (or Baltimore) Oak. Transverse Experiments. Number of the specimen. Deflections. Total weight required to break each piece. Specific gravity. With the After the apparatus weight weighing was 390 lbs. removed. At the crisis of breaking.' I 2 3 4 5 6 Inches. I '25 1-25 I "35 1-50 1-85 1-65 Inch. •00 •IS •25 •IS •2S •35 Inches. S'OO 7 •SO 8-25 7-15 7-65 7'2S lbs. 651 837 769 729 627 723 820 695 738 736 734 758 Total . . 8-85 ! 1-15 4280 4.336 4481 Average . | 1475 '191 7-133 722 '66 746-83 Remarks.— Nos. I, 3, and 6 broke quite short; 2, 4, and 5 with a scarph-Iike frac- ture, about 8 inches in length. XIX.] CANADIAN RED OAK. 173 Table L. Tensile Experime?its. Number of the specimen. Dimensions of each piece. Specific gravity. Weight the piece broke with. Direct cohesion on I square inch. 7 8 9 10 Inches. 1 ( V 2 X 2 X 30 •< 758 736 734 738 lbs. 19,600 19,052 11,748 10,920 lbs. 4,900 4.763 2,937 2,730 Total . . ... 2966 61,320 15.330 Average . 741 '5 15.330 3.832 Table LI. Vertical or Crushing Strain on cubes of 2 inches. No. II. No. 12. No. 13. No. 14. No. 15. No. 16. Total. Average. Ditto on I square inch. Tons. Tons. Tons. Tons. Tons. Tons. Tons. Tons. 1075 1075 10-5 10 '5 10-5 10-125 63*125 10-521 2-630 CANADIAN RED OAK [Quercus rubra). This tree is of perfectly straight growth, and yields the timber of commerce in logs varying from 25 to 50 feet in length by 12 to 24 inches square. The wood is brown in colour, has a fine straight clean grain, is somewhat porous, shrinks moderately without splitting, is easy to work, and stands well after seasoning. It is remarkable for its very slow growth. Large quantities of this Canadian Oak timber are usually imported annually into London, and a far greater quantity into the Liverpool market, for the use of cabinet-makers and general dealers, who employ it for the manufacture of furniture, and in the domestic 174 TIMBER AND TIMBER TREES. [chap. arts ; but, as a building wood, it can never be in favour, and is quite unfit for architectural or engineering works requiring strength or durability. There are about half-a-dozen other Canadian Oaks of excellent quality, the Black Oak {Q. tinctoria), Red Oak {Q. rubra), Mossy Cup (Q. olivceformis), Swamp White Oak {Q. prinus bicolor), Pin Oak {Q. palustris)^ being the best. The Canadian or Quebec Oak is the White Oak {Q. alba), but it is generally quoted in the market at about 20 per cent, higher than the Baltimore Oak : probably this is chiefly owing to its superior dimensions rather than to any difference in the quality. America produces, besides the foregoing, the Rough or Post Oak {Q. stellata) ; the Rock Chestnut Oak {Q, montana) ; and the Scarlet Oak {Q. coccinea) ; all these are largely used in architectural works, and for agri- cultural implements, both in the United States and in Canada. The chief Californian Oaks are the Long Acorned Oak (2, Hindsii), the Chestnut Oak {Q. densiflora), and the Californian Evergreen Oak {Q. agrifolia), but their timber is of little value, and hardly known in commerce. CANADIAN ASH (Fraxinus sambucifolia). The timber of this tree is often confounded with the American White Ash, also found in Canada. It attains good dimensions, and yields the timber of commerce in logs varying from 20 to 40 feet in length, by from 10 to 16 inches square. Oar rafters are also produced from it, and until quite recently considerable quantities were brought to this country. These rafters are pieces roughly shaped to the form of oars, and reduced to a minimum of size, to lessen, as far as possible, the cost of freight. XIX.J CANADIAN ASH. I7S The wood is reddish-brown in colour, and con- siderably darker than the English Ash. It is plain and straight in the grain, moderately hard and heavy, tough, elastic, and easy to work. It is very suitable for em- ployment for oars to boats, and is consequently in great request for that service, while its economical uses are as wide and general as that of our native growth. Table LIL— Ash (Canadian). Transverse Experiments. Number of the specimen. Deflections. Total weight required to break each piece. Specific gravity. With the apparatus weighing 390 lbs. After the weight was removed. At the crisis of breaking. I 2 Inches. 2-5 3'o Inch. •10 •IS Inches. 7'oo 775 lbs. 696 580 493 467 Total . . 5 '5 ■25 1475 1,276 960 Average . 275 •125 7 '375 638 480 1 Table LIII. Tensile Experiments. Number of the specimen. Dimensions of each piece. Specific gravity. Weight the piece broke with. Direct cohesion on I square inch. 3 4 5 6 Inches. >• 2 X 2 X 30 •< 558 544 625 625 lbs. 16,240 17,360 28,560 25,760 lbs. 4,060 4.340 7,140 6,440 Total . . 2352 87,920 21, 980 Average . 588 21,980 5.495 176 TIMBER AND TIMBER TREES. [chap. Table LIV. Vertical or Crushing Strain on cubes of 2 inches. No. 7. j No. 8. i No. g. 1 No. 10. Total. Average. Ditto on I square inch. 1 Tons. Tons. Tons. Tons. Tons. Tons. 7 '25 775 i 1275 11-50 39 '25 9-812 2-453 AMERICAN ASH, OR WHITE ASH {Fraxinus Americana), is found chiefly on the banks of the rivers of North America. It is of straight growth, and frequently attains a height of 70 feet, with a circumference of from 3 to 5 feet. It is imported into this country, only sparingly, in logs varying from 10 to 18 inches square, and 18 to 35 feet in length ; but comes to us in considerable quantities in a partially manufactured state in the form of machine- made boat-oars, handspikes, &c. The wood is light brown or whitish in colour, of very moderate hardness and weight, is tough, elastic, clean and straight in the grain, and quite easy to work ; it stands well after seasoning, and hence we get from this tree the best material for oars for boats that can be pro- duced. They are much and eagerly sought after by foreign Governments as well as our own, and also by the great private steamship companies and the mercantile marine of this country, consequently there is often a very keen competition for the possession of them. The best quality wood has a clean, bright, uniform whitish colour^ the second is slightly stained with red and yellow shades alternating, while the third, and most objectionable, quality is that in which the red and yellow colours predominate over the healthy shade. Any deviation, therefore, from the bright whitish colour may XIX.] CANADA ROCK ELM. 177 be taken as indicating a deterioration which will affect its strength and durability. The United States Ash is much slower in growth than the English, and is probably not so durable. There are several other species of Ash in Canada and the United States, but none are of much importance as timber. CANADA ROCK ELM {Ulmus Americana) is found growing abundantly in the low woods of North America, from New England to the Carolinas. It at- tains moderate dimensions, with a clean straight stem, and few heavy branches, and yields timber for the market in logs of from 20 to 40 feet in length and from 11 to 16 inches square. The wood is whitish-brown in colour, hard, tough, and flexible, with a fine, smooth, close, silky grain; and as it has only a small quantity of sap-wood it can be worked up closely and economically. It is necessary, however, to remove the sap in the conversion of the log, as, unlike that of the English Elm, it is of a perishable character. Rock Elm used to be often substituted for the English common Elm for garboards and planking in ship-building, as it is very durable when employed under water; it is also used for ladder steps, gratings, &c., on account of its clean whitish appearance ; and owing to its flexible character it is frequently used in boat-building. It cannot, however, be used with advantage in bulk, or even in plank, if exposed to a dry current of air, as under such circumstances it is very liable to split with fine deep shakes from the surface. Having this serious liability to rend in seasoning, N 178 TIMBER AND TIMBER TREES. [chap. the logs should never be left a week exposed to the influence of drying winds without some kind of protection, for even less than that time is often sufficient to bring about an amount of deterioration which will greatly affect their value. Therefore, to preserve this timber for future use, it should be treated in the same manner as the English common Elm, namely, by immersing it in water ; or, if this cannot be done conveniently, it should be cut into planks of thicknesses which would be available for further conversion if required, taking care to store it in a dry, cool place, under cover, but quite free from draught. The star-shake, in a mild form, is rather common to this description of timber, but does not usually extend to more than 2 or 3 inches from the pith ; there is also another, and rather peculiar defect, consisting of several complete consecutive circles of the annual layers being softer and more spongy than the natural or healthy wood (Fig. 24). They are darker in colour, and contain much moisture, and are, as pointed out in Chapter V., p. 63, considered detrimental to the quality, strength, and durability, and consequently, to the value of the tree. The surveyor should, there- fore, in selecting this wood take only the logs with a uniform whitish colour for his best work, and leave those which are marked with the dark annular layers upon the ends for inferior purposes. In all other respects the Canada Rock Elm is a safe wood for the converter to deal with, the instances of defects being found in opening it, arising either from FIG. 24. XIX.] CANADA ROCK ELM. 179 pruning or from accidental causes, being extremely rare. Large quantities of this wood are imported annually into each of the London and Liverpool markets, to meet the wants of private dealers, who employ it for coach-making, turnery, boat-building, &c. The Govern- ment also used to take about 600 to 700 loads annually for the use of the royal dockyards, stipulating in their contracts that it should be of the first quality, from 1 1 to 15 inches square, averaging 12^ inches ; 20 feet and upwards in length, averaging at least 24 feet in length, and to be well squared, and free from knots. The Canada Rock Elm is a remarkably slow-growing tree, one of the slowest in fact with which we have to deal ; it makes only one inch of wood diameter in about fourteen years.* Table LV.— Rock Elm (Canada). Transverse Experiments. Number of the specimen. Deflections. Total weight required to break each piece. Specific gravity. With the apparatus weighing 390 lbs. After the weight was removed. At the crisis of breaking. I 2 3 4 5 6 Inches. I "60 1-85 175 1*90 1-85 I "55 Inch. •25 •30 •30 •35 •25 •30 Inches. 8-55 875 9"oo 8-65 875 9 "05 lbs. 935 946 899 918 927 895 760 753 735 740 738 765 Total . . 10 '50 17s 5275 5-520 4491 Average . 175 •29 879 920 748 Remarks. — All fractured and crippled, but not completely broken asunder. * See Tabular Statement in Chapter II., on the comparative rate of growth of trees, p. 45. N 2 i8o TIMBER AND TIMBER TREES. [chap. Table LVI. Tensile Experiments. Number of the specimen. Dimensions of each piece. Specific gravity. Weight the piece broke with. Direct cohesion on I square inch. 7 8 9 lO II 12 Inches. ^ ( >• 2 X 2 X 30 ■< 740 738 765 753 735 760 lbs. 32,480 31,920 42,000 38,640 33.040 42,280 lbs. 8,120 7,980 10,500 9,660 8,260 10,570 Total . . 4491 220,360 55.090 Average . ... 748 36.727 9,182 Table LVI I. Vertical or Crushing Strain on cubes of— Number of the specimens. I Inch. 2 Inches. 3 Inches. 4 Inches. Crushed with Crushed with Crushed with Crushed with 13—16 17 — 20 21, 22 23. 24 Tons. 3-000 3"I25 3 '500 3-625 Tons. 15*75 16-25 17-00 16 -oo Tons. .37*125 36-625 Tons. 62-5 61 "O Total . . 13*250 65-00 73*75 123*5 Average . 3*312 16-25 36-875 61-75 Do. per in. 3*312 4-062 4-097 3*859 The principal other American Elms are U, fidvay the Red Elm, and the " Wahoo " {U. alata\ both yielding good timber. XIX.] AMERICAN WALNUT. i8i AMERICAN WALNUT [Juglans 7tigra), The wood of the American Black Walnut tree is whitish-brown in colour, moderately hard, straight and plain in the grain, splits freely, and is easy to work ; the heart is much darker, however, whence the name, and is very durable and handsome. It will not bear com- parison with the quality of either the Italian or Black Sea Walnut wood. The trees are large enough to yield building scantlings, the logs as imported being usually about 15 to 30 inches square, imperfectly hewn, by 10 to 20 feet in length. Owing to the liability of the logs to split from the centre, the ends have generally a red colouring matter put over them before shipment, to protect them against atmospheric influences. This wood is sold at per foot cube. There is only about ^ inch of sap-wood on the Walnut trees above mentioned. The uses of Walnut wood are chiefly for furniture and pianoforte making. It is also much prized for gun-stocks; but there are many other ways of employing it profitably in place of mahogany and other furniture woods. Other American species of Juglans are the Butter- nut (/. cinerea), and the much less important /. Call- fornica and /. rupesUns. The wood of the Shell-bark Hickory (Carya alba) and the Mocker-nut {C. tomentosd) and several other species of Carya are frequently used in carriage-making, owing to the extreme elasticity of their strong, hard, and close-grained timber. i82 TIMBER AND TIMBER TREES. [chap. CANADIAN AND AMERICAN BIRCH. There are several species of Birch tree in North America, and among the best are the following : — Betula rubra, or Red Birch, is found on the borders of rivers in the southern provinces of the United States, and according to Michaux, it delights as much in heat as many other species do in cold. It attains the height of 70 feet, with a diameter of 30 to 36 inches. Its uses are chiefly for cabinet work and turnery. Betula lentay the Black or Cherry Birch of North America, is, perhaps, the most valuable, and is abundant in the midland states and in Canada. It differs, how- ever, from the common Birch of Europe, and flourishes best in a rich soil. It is of straight growth, and, in favourable situations, attains the height of 75 feet, with a diameter of 30 to 36 inches. The wood is of a yellowish colour, moderately hard, straight and even in the grain, close in texture, easy to work, and on account of its superior quality to the other species, it is sometimes in America called Mountain Mahogany. American Birch is imported into this country in logs varying from 6 to 20 feet in length, by 12 to 30 inches, pretty well squared, and having only I to 2 inches wane upon the angles. The sap is 2 to 4 inches thick. The heart-shake is small, and the wood near the pith is, for the most part, solid; very little loss can, there- fore, arise from its conversion. It is used extensively for furniture, turnery, and in a variety of ways in the domestic arts. Dark, damp-looking spots and rings are often seen on the ends of the logs, which seem to indicate incipient XIX.] OTHER AMERICAN TIMBERS. 183 and early decay. I imagine, therefore, that it is un- suitable for building purposes. The specific gravity of European Birch is about 700, and that of American about 600 to 640. The Yellow Birch [Betula excelsa) is a northern and rather large form, with a solid, fine grained, easily worked wood, excellent for cabinet-making. The Canoe Birch [B. papyracea) of Canada and the north states obtains its name from the use of the bark by the Indians. Its white wood is used in turnery, &c. OTHER AMERICAN TIMBERS. The Chestnut [Castanea vescd) is common in Kentucky, Tennessee, New England, and New York, but the wood is of little importance as compared with that of Italy and South Europe. Besides our European Beech, there is also a native species {Fagus fertcginea in the middle states and Canada. The American Alder i^Alnus incand) and one or two others yield wood of very little value. The Sugar Maple {Acer saccharinum) of Canada and the northern states, is better known from its sugar- yielding sap than on account of its timber, though fine veneer wood is obtained from it. The same is true of the Black Maple [A. nigrum). The Silver-leaf Maple {A, dasycarpuni) and the Red Maple {A. rubriim) yield soft wood of little value, though that of the latter is used. TiLia Americana is the Bass wood of the Atlantic states and Canada, and its white, light, even-grained wood is much prized for cabinet-work, carving, and fine work. The timber of the Oregon Maple {A. rnacrophyllum) is i84 TIMBER AND TIMBER TREES, [chap. xix. close and fine, and polishes well. There are half-a-dozen other species yielding timber of small size and little value. The Bow-wood {Madura aurantiaca) of the south- west states is hard and durable, and valued by waggon- makers. Morus rubra, the Red Mulberry of the Atlantic states, is used in ship - building, and the Hackberry {Celtis occidentalis) yields a hard Beech-like timber. The Tulip tree {Liriodendron tulipifera) is a Mag- nolia, and its soft white wood, known as ^* White-wood" or Yellow Poplar, is useful for inside work, flooring, &c. The Button-wood {Platauus occidentalis), an ally of which is much planted in Europe under the name of Plane tree, is common in America, and yields a cabinet- wood of considerable beauty. The other Planes are of little or no value as timber. The Buck-eyes are trees allied to our Horse-chestnut {^sculus hippocastanum) J and have soft wood of little value. The Locust tree, known in Europe as the False- acacia {Robinia pseudacacia), has a solid, fine-grained, yellow or greenish heart-wood, of great beauty, and very durable ; one or two other species of Robinia are known in the United States. Myall - wood, well known in the manufacture of tobacco-pipes, is obtained from Acacia homalopJiylla ; several Australian Acacias also are cultivated in the States. Various species of Pyrus (Pears) yield hard, close woods, useful for carving, but the American species of Prunus (Plums) and Cratcegus (Hawthorn) are of little value as timber. Several of the Blue Gums (Ejicalyptus) of Australia are now cultivated \\\ America. CHAPTER XX. ASIATIC TIMBERS. TIMBERS OF INDIA AND BURMAH. TEAK {Tectona grandis). Of the vast timber supplies of Asia, none are so important to us as those of the Indian Empire, and among these the Teak stands pre-eminent. This tree is found principally in Central and Southern India, and in Burmah ; and from the southern limits of its range in Java it is distributed over about 2,000 miles, until it touches close upon the 23^ of North latitude. Its range in longitude is also very considerable, since it is found to stretch across Hindustan, and through Burmah to near the frontier of China. It was formerly very plentiful in the Malabar district, but is now only sparingly met with there. At Bombay, where a few years since it was supplied in sufficient quantities from the adjacent province to meet all the demands for ship-building and other purposes, builders have now, owing to its almost complete exhaustion, to draw upon other sources to meet the local requirements. It is now extensively planted, however, in Assam, Bengal, and elsewhere. The most extensive, and probably the best, forests of Teak at present existing are in Burmah, where they lie spread along the banks of the Salween, Thoungyeen, Irrawaddy, and other rivers. They also stretch very i86 TIMBER AND TIMBER TREES. [chap. far inland to the countries occupied by the Shans, the Karens, and the Chinese. Other forests stretch con- siderably to the north, and there, upon some of the undulating and mountainous districts_, it becomes dwarfed to a rather insignificant tree. Teak is also believed to be plentiful in Siam,* and is found on several of the islands in the Indian seas. The Teak is a deciduous tree, and prefers shelter to bring it to the greatest perfection. In its natural state it grows mixed with Bamboos and other trees. It is of straight growth, and is remarkable for its large drooping leaves, which are from lo to 20 inches in length, and from 8 to 15 inches in breadth. It frequently attains the height of 80 or 100 feet, with a circumference of from 6 to 10 feet, and yields timber in the log 23 to 50 feet in length and 10 to 30 inches square, these being the sizes commonly shipped to this country. The wood varies from yellow or straw to a brownish colour ; is moderately hard and strong, clean, even, and straight in the grain, and is easily worked somewhat like oak, but very different in structure ; it shrinks very little in seasoning, and has no shakes upon the outer surfaces of the log. It will split, however, unless care is * Since the foregoing was written, a sample of about 200 loads of Teak timber, the produce of Siam, has been imported' into London from Bangkok (1873). In dimensions it compared favourably with the Burmah Teak, was quite straight, and of a pale yellowish colour, plain in the grain, moderately hard, and apparently of about the same specific gravity. As a parcel, how- ever, it was faulty at the pith or centre, in having most injurious heart and star-shakes, only about 20 per cent, of the logs being fit for conversion into plank or board ; the remainder, owing to the defects referred to, could only be profitably employed in bulk, or reduced to scantlings, which would involve a heavy loss. The sound and solid wood in the logs, however, was very good ; and 1 am of opinion that if the timber is only carefully sorted over at Bangkok,, good shipments might be made for the London market. [Large quantities of excellent Teak are now imported into England annually. — H. M. W. ] XX.] INDIAN TEAK. 187 observed in applying the fastenings when brought into use. The average weight is not far from 40 lbs. per cubic foot. The quality of the timber depends very much upon the locality in which it is grown, and is exceedingly variable. Teak wood is very fragrant, and contains a resinous oily body which clogs its pores and resists the action of water, and it often oozes into and congeals in the shakes which radiate from the pith, forming there a hard concrete substance which no edge-tool can touch without losing its keen- ness. This is no doubt due to the calcareous salts deposited in the wood. The oil also acts as a preventive against rust when iron is in contact with it, and for this reason it is preferred to all other known woods for the backing to the armour-plates of iron-clad ships of war. It possesses, indeed, so many valuable properties, that it has long been held in great esteem as a material for construction, while its economical uses are so great, that there is no carpenter, or other worker in wood, who does not, after having once tried it, fully appreciate its value. Its durability is remarkably long, and even the ravages of white ants seem to be resisted by it. In favourable situations the Teak tree grows to a sufficient height to furnish the lower masts for ships of 2,000 tons burthen, and it is commonly employed for this purpose in the East Indies. Ordinarily the practice is to cut off the bole or stem below the branches ; whereas, in many cases, it would be easy to include in it the knots of some of the lower ones, and thus gain a foot or two more of length in the log, which the ship- builders and many others would consider to greatly enhance its value. In the late contracts for this description of timber for the royal dockyards, it was stipulated that the minimum ■i88 TIMBER AND TIMBER TREES. [chap. length of the log should be 24, and the average 28 feet, but as of late it has been found difficult to obtain this average from the Moulmein district (whence nearly all our supplies have been drawn for many years past), the minimum and average length has been reduced respec- tively to 23 and 27 feet. The Burmese assign two reasons for not aiming to produce a better average length of log ; one is that the greater the length the greater is the difficulty of moving and getting them out of the forests to the streams, and the increased danger when there of en- tanglement in the short bends of the water-courses. Another is that the long logs were, until quite lately, liable to some trifling duty; while upon the short pieces coming from the forests, no charge whatever was levied on their arrival at Moulmein. It is the practice in Burmah to girdle the Teak trees three years before they intend to fell them ; a complete ring of the bark and sap-wood being cut through and removed in order to kill the tree. This object is very soon obtained, as in a few days, or at most a few weeks, the tree is dead ; the natural juices contained in it are, therefore, gradually cut off from ascending through the sap-wood while the tree stands. This and the great heat ■of the climate combined, seasons the wood, and renders the log — which in its green state would have a specific gravity of at least rooo, and be difficult to move if felled — so much lighter that it floats easily over the shallows of the streams or rivers to the port of ship- ment. And as usually about a year elapses between the felling and the delivery of the timber in England, it is commonly received in a fit state for immediate use. The practice of girdling is, I think, objectionable, -inasmuch as the timber dries too rapidly, is liable to XX.] INDIAN TEAK. 189 become brittle and inelastic, and leads frequently to the loss of many fine trees by breakage in falling; further, it must be regarded as so much time taken from the limit of its duration, which is of great importance. Girdling has been discontinued in the Annamallay forests of Malabar, under the impression that it causes, or at least extends, the heart-shake. It is, however^ practised in Cochin, Travancore, and a few other places ; but, as the evidence of its utility goes no farther than to show the advantage gained in being able to float the timber immediately it is felled, it seemed probable that it would eventually be given up entirely. Such, how- ever, is not the case, and it is universally the practice in Burmah to girdle, in order to render the timber floatable. Experiments have been made in Burmah* in felling green Teak, but, as out of 100 trees so felled, twenty- seven in number had extensive heart-shake, and ten others were less seriously afl'ected, it was thought de- sirable to carry the experiments farther before deter- mining the matter in question. Although imported and known under the general name of Teak, there are many varieties, if not distinct species of it, the Burmese naming those found in their country after the districts in which they grow ; thus, in the Moulmein district there are the Thoungyeen, the Salween, the Karanee, the Attaran, and the Laingbooe Teak ; and in the Rangoon district, the Irrawaddy Teak, all differing slightly in colour, grain, texture, and specific gravity. The Thoungyeen and the Salween Teak timber are of a yellowish-brown colour, smooth and uniform in their texture, with a fine long grain. The Karanee Teak has alternate shades of dull brown and yellow colour, * Forest Reports. I90 TIMBER AND TIMBER TREES. [chap. the grain being close and long, with occasionally a rowiness, or figure, in it, and is also very free from defects. The Attaran Teak is rather stunted in growth compared with the varieties just mentioned, but is of fully the same circumference. The wood is brownish in colour, dense, hard, and resembles very much the Malabar Teak. It is heavier than either the Thoungyeen or Karanee, and is also coarser and more knotty, owing to the branches occurring lower down the stem. Some of these, from accident or otherwise, get broken off, and defects, arising from the moisture lodging in the ruptured parts, are not unfrequent in it. . The Laingbooe Teak has a most peculiar growth, and deviates strangely from the ordinary cylindrical form, in having its stem twisted and deeply grooved, or fluted. It consequently takes a tree of rather large size to yield a small straight square log, and when obtained it is but an indifferent one, owing to the fibre of the grain having been cut and weakened by the hewing of an irregular form or shape into a regular one. In colour this wood is rather darker than any of the others, and it is also considerably harder and heavier. The Irrawaddy or Rangoon Teak timber is of a pale yellow colour, very closely resembling the Thoungyeen Teak of the Moulmein district in its uniformity of texture, and in having a long straight grain. It is a clean free kind of wood, with the centre commonly softer and more spongy than the outer annual layers. In consequence of this it cuts transversely, with a coarse- ness and fluffiness of surface near the pith which is remarkable ; this, I consider, may be taken as indicative of poorness or inferiority in the quality.* * The dealers in Rangoon Teak would say that the soft spongy appear- ance is of no consequence, as it is merely caused by the workmen having XX.] INDIAN TEAK. 191 It is also characteristic of the Rangoon or Irrawaddy Teak to be shaky at the centre, there being, besides the heart-shake, which is common more or less to Teak timber, a close, fine star-shake, radiating from the pith, which is seriously detrimental to its value. Many of the logs cannot, therefore, on this account be converted into planks and boards without incurring a very con- siderable loss. If, however, it is used in bulk, or in stout scantlings, as for backing to armour-plates on ships, or in batteries, or any similar works, it answers equally well with the Moulmein Teak, the risk being in attempting to reduce it into thin planks. The Rangoon Teak is straight, and yields a better average length of log than is to be found in those of the Moulmein district; the dimensions of the squares are, however, nearly alike. In Malabar, the largest forests of Teak trees are to be found upon the Annamallay hills, at an elevation of about 1,500 to 3,000 feet above the level of the sea. They consist, however, for the most part, of saplings and trees past their prime, the most useful having been felled and removed long since, a few trees of excessively large growth only being left available for the purposes of commerce. The Teak grown on the Annamallay hills is subject to extensive heart and other shakes about the centre of the tree, and this involves great waste of timber, as only the flitches taken from the outside part are available for use. Attempts have been made to produce '^ squares " and " planks " by the use of the saw upon pits, and by machinery, but it was found not to answer ; the logs were, therefore, cleaved by wedges along the run of the used a coarse cross-cut saw for butting and topping the logs, in place of an ordinary fine-toothed one, that would be better fitted for it. 192 TIMBER AND TIMBER TREES. [chap. heart-shake into two segments, and from these '' squares '^ '^planks'' and various scantlings were produced by the axe, quite clear of shakes. The Malabar Teak is very good in quality, and is generally darker in colour, denser, and a trifle stronger than Burmah Teak, when tested, one piece against another. But, as the trees are so much less useful on account of the defects before mentioned, it is probable the Burmah Teak will always have the preference for manufacturing purposes. Malabar Teak is a few pounds heavier per cubic foot than Burmah.* I tested, when in Burmah, all the varieties of Teak that were then drawn from the Tenasserim forests, and found a very considerable difference in their transverse strength; this, however, may probably be attributed to the variations of soil, and to the length of fibre in the grain. Thus the transverse strength of the Thoungyeen was proved to be 284 lbs., the Karanee 271 lbs., the Attaran 201 lbs., and the Laingbooe only 175 lbs. per square inch, the mean strength being 233 lbs. per square inch. The several specimens tried were each of them 2 x 2 x 84 inches, supported on props six feet apart, with the weight applied, as usual, in the middle; the result being that the Thoungyeen and the Attaran bpth broke with a long splintery fracture, while the others snapped off very short. In some experiments more recently conducted in this country on twelve pieces of Moulmein Teak of the * An effort has recently been made to open up afresh the resources of the Annamallays ; but owing to the faulty character of the trees, and from having to convey the logs a distance of about forty miles by land-carriage to a port of shipment, it is thought to be extremely doubtful whether it can ever compete in the European market with the Teak timber of Burmah. XX.] INDIAN TEAK. 193 same dimensions as above, the results gave, as the mean breaking weight, 220 lbs. to the square inch, which is less than the average of the four varieties just mentioned, and 32 lbs. below the average of the three first-named ; the Laingbooe being struck out as not likely ever to be imported in sufficient quantities to affect the results when applying Teak to building purposes. The dif- ference is against the specimens tried in England, but this may be attributed mainly to the more seasoned state of the pieces, and, perhaps, in part, to better appliances for testing. The mean deflections of the twelve pieces referred to were, when weighted to 390 lbs., i*79i inch, and with the breaking weight of 8y8 lbs., 5'9i6 inches. From these results it appears, by the application of the formulae used by Professor Barlow, that the strength is represented by 2303, and the elasticity by 530970. The same pieces being tested for tensile strength, took a strain nearly equal to 6 tons to overcome the direct cohesion, or about 3,301 lbs. to the square inch. A number of cubes of this timber were subjected to a crushing force in the direction of the fibres, and these generally gave way under a pressure of about 2j4 tons per superficial inch of base. Altogether, some fifty- three experiments of this kind were made upon Teak, four being on pieces 2 x 2 of various lengths, others were 3x3, varying by I inch from 8 to 18 inches in length, the piece of 16 inches proving to be the strongest, and taking 2875 tons to crush it ; then there were pieces 4x4, and severally varying by I inch from 15 to 24 inches in length, the piece of twenty inches proving to be the strongest, and taking 42 tons to crush it. Again, there were pieces 6x6, and severally varying by 3 inches from 12 to 30 inches in length, the piece 18 inches in o 194 TIMBER AND TIMBER TREES. [chap. length taking 174 tons to crush it ; and finally, there were other pieces 9 x 91^, varying by 3 to 6 inches from 12 to 30 inches in length, the strongest of which, 21 inches in length, took 368*6 tons to cripple it ; the details of these will, however, appear in Tables LXII. and LXIII. The following experiments were made in order to test the deflections of Teak under given weights at various distances, viz : — Table LVIII. Nos. I to 6. Specimen, 2 X 2 x 84 inches, supported on props, 3 ft., 4 ft., 5 ft., 6 ft. apart. Weighted with 300 lbs. , the deflections were ,, ,, 400 lbs. , ,, ,, •065 *300 •300 *75o •600 1 I "150 1*250 ins. 2-050 ,, Specimen, 2 deep X 1% broad X 84 inches, supported on props, 3 ft., 4 ft., 5 ft., 6 ft. apart. Weighted with 300 lbs. , the deflections were , > . . 400 lbs. , , , , , •300 •400 •400 •800 1*100 1-500 2-100 ins. 2 -800 , , This piece, tried the other way, viz. : — il4" deep X 2" broad, supported on props, 3 ft., 4 ft., 5 ft., 6 ft. apart. Weighted with 300 lbs. , the deflections were >> >• 400 lbs. , ,, ,, •200 •500 •800 I '200 I "600 2*600 3*200 ins. Broke. The specific gravity of these pieces was respectively •586 and '631 ; a proof that they were thoroughly seasoned. Upon the laws which govern these deflections, I offer no opinion, and the experiments are merely in- troduced here to show how near the results go to confirm 1 XX.] INDIAN TEAK. 195 Professor Barlow's theory that the strength varies as the cubes of the length. There is one other species of trial which it may be well to mention, namely, that to ascertain the elongation of the fibres of Moulmein Teak in a length of 3 feet under certain strains. Three pieces, each 2 x 2 x 48 inches, were thus tested, at one of the royal dockyards, and it was found that the mean elongation was nearly a quarter of an inch. (See Table LXIV.) The Teak tree is subject to a wasting away of the early annual layers long before it reaches maturity; and the number of young trees found thus affected in the rafts brought from the forests to the shipping port is very remarkable. The surveyor judging only from the deliveries of Teak in this country would hardly be aware of this, as hollow trees would not be selected for the European market. Teak timber is also subject to heart-shake, as before observed, and in many logs, especially if they are procured from old trees, it is found to extend to one- half, and sometimes to two-thirds the diameter of the tree, and stretching along the entire length of it. If this shake is in one plane throughout, the conversion of the log involves no greater difficulty or loss than that occasioned by dropping out a piece large enough to include it. When, however, as in other instances, the cleft or shake at the top is at right angles, or nearly so, to that at the butt-end, it is rather more serious, as the log must either be used in its greatest bulk, or worked up for small scantlings, such as could be obtained if it were cut into two or more lengths. If the shake extends only a few feet up from the butt- end, the most profitable way of converting the log would be by cutting it into plank or board, taking care to work o 2 196 TIMBER AND TIMBER TREES. [chap. from the outside instead of the centre, and thus waste only a tapering or wedge-like piece, sufficient to include the defect. Many Teak logs are worm-eaten ; holes from a quarter to half an inch in diameter are found upon the surface, which often penetrate deeply and in ail direc- tions. Such logs have generally a dull appearance, and are invariably brittle and of inferior quality. This defect is, I consider_, indicative of the tree having been unhealthy if not dead before it was cut down. The ravages of the worm are detrimental to the strength and value of the timber, and logs so affected are not fit to be reduced to plank for use on bottoms of ships. Teak, notwithstanding its defects, is extensively used for ship-building in this country, in place of English and other Oaks, African and Sabicu timber, &c., &c., and the objection that was formerly made against its use in ships of war, as being unsuitable, on account of its liability to splinter if struck by a shot, is no longer allowed to stand in the way of its employment. Teak timber is also used, to a moderate extent, for ship-building in the arsenals of foreign countries. Its employment for construction, railway carriages, and sleepers, ship-building, &c., is well known. The quahtities of Teak timber received here annually from Moulmein have hitherto been very large, and so greatly in excess of that which it was calculated a (ew years ago could be drawn from the Tenasserim forests, that fears have been entertained the supply from that source must soon fail, and we notice a falling off in the shipments. This has, however, been supplemented by the shipment of considerable quantities of Teak from Rangoon, and it seems probable that that port will sooa XX.] INDIAN TEAK. 197 become the chief timber station for the export of this important article of commerce.* I do not_, with this new source of supply open to us, apprehend that any serious difficulty is likely to arise for some time to come ; but, happen when it may, there are yet the forests of Siamf which are said to be very extensive, and also those of Java, almost untouched ; and from these, I imagine, the future supplies for the European market could be drawn. f Teak timber is sorted into A, B, and C classes in the London market, according to dimensions, not quality, A class or pile being 15 inches and upwards on the larger side, and 23 feet and upwards in length ; B, ditto ditto, 12 and under 15 inches on the larger side, and 23 feet and upwards in length; C, ditto ditto, under 12 inches on the larger side, and 23 feet and upwards in length; D are damaged logs. B and C classes are usually sold at about 10 to 20 shillings per load under the price for A pile timber. The value of Teak in the London market has fluc- tuated very much. In 1859 ^^^ i860, the market being overstocked, it stood as low as ;£"io to ;^'ii per load of 50 cubic feet; but in 1861, when there was a sudden and unexpected demand for timber generally, it rose to j£i6 per load ; it soon, however, declined again, and in 1875, with a stock of about 8,000 loads of Moulmein and Rangoon upon hand in the London market, was to be had at about ;i^i2 to ^14 per load. It is now about j£iS to J^iy per load. * Between 1865 and 1870, inclusive, Moulmein sent to Europe 147,421 loads, and Rangoon 28,821 loads of Teak timber. The shipments are now much larger. t The prediction that Siam would yield abundance of Teak has since turned out to be correct. Moreover, the Indian Forest Department plant several thousand acres annually, so that little fear of short supplies need be entertained, especially as natural reproduction goes on extensively in the protected areas. 198 TIMBER AND TIMBER TREES. [chap. Table LIX.— Burmah (or Moulmein) Teak.— No. i. Transverse Experiments. Number of the specimen. Deflections. Total weight required to break each piece. Specific gravity. With the apparatus weighing 390 lbs. After the weight was removed. At the crisis of breaking. 7 8 9 10 II 12 Inches. 2-05 I '35 175 1-65 175 I '35 Inch. •25 •10 •15 •00 •00 ■00 Inches. 5 '50 4 "50 475 5'oo 7 "50 5-00 lbs. 840 971 867 915 923 960 712 787 840 724 720 874 Total . . 9-90 ■50 32-25 5.476 4657 Average . 1-65 •083 5 '375 912*66 776*16 Remarks. — Each piece broke short to the depth of about one-third, then with scarph-like fracture, 8 to 12 inches in length. Table LX. — Burmah (or Moulmein) Teak.— No. 2. Transverse Experiments. Number of the specimen. Deflections. Total weight required to break each piece. Specific gravity. With the apparatus weighing 390 lbs. After the weight was removed. At the crisis of breaking. 13 14 15 16 17 18 Inches. 1-25 2'IO 175 I '90 1-50 3'i5 Inch. ■0 •0 •Q ■Q ■Q ■5 Inches. 5 "25 7 '00 7'oo 675 6-50 6-25 lbs. 950 850 920 8x6 920 602 910 821 805 790 800 726 Total . . 1 1 '65 •5 3875 S.058 4852 Average . 1-942 •083 6-485 843 808 -66 Rk.makks.— Each piece broke short to the deiJlh of about one-fifth, then with scarph-like and fibrous fracture, 10 to 14 inches in lengtli. XX.] INDIAN TEAK. 199 Table LXI. Tensile Experiments. Number of the specimen. Dimensions of each piece. Specific gravity. Weight the piece broke with. Direct cohesion on I square inch. 19 20 21 22 23 24 Inches. > 2 X 2 X 30 < 787 800 724 805 726 821 lbs. 14,564 16,240 10,916 14,000 10,368 13.152 lbs. 3.641 4,060 2,729 3.500 2,592 3.288 Total . . ... 4663 79,240 19,810 Average . ... 777 13,207 3-301 Table LXII. Vertical Experiments on Cubes of Number of the specimens. I Inch. 2 Inches. 3 Inches. 4 Inches. Crushed with Crushed with Crushed with Crushed with 25 to 28 29. 30 31. 32 33. 34 35. 36 37.38 Tons. 2-375 2-500 2-625 2-500 - 2-125 2-375 Tons. 12-500 12-500 10-750 10-500 10-750 11-125 Tons. 23-75 Tons. 37-5 Total . . 14-500 68-125 — — Average . 2-4166 11-354 23-75 37-5 Do. per in. 2-4166 2-838 2*64 2-343 200 TIMBER AND TIMBER TREES. [chap. Table LXIII. Vertical Experiments. mber the imen. Dimensions of Crushed Ditto on the in the pieces. ^2 with square inch. Inches. Length. Inches. Tons. Tons. 39 ) j >■ 2 X 2 - I 760 13750 3-437 40 41 2 3 730 770 II '354 12-875 2-838 3-219 42 4 780 13750 3-437 43 \ / 8 744 i8-ooo 2 'ooo 44 9 704 18 500 2-055 45 TO 653 i8-ooo 2 000 46 II 663 18-250 2-028 47 12 640 19-000 2-III 48 > 3 X 3 < 13 635 20 -ooo 2*222 49 14 672 23-500 2-388 50 15 678 23750 2-639 51 16 672 24-250 2-694 52 17 678 24 000 2-666 53 / \ 18 661 22 -500 2-500 54 \ / 15 662 33*5 2-094 55 16 682 34 'o 2-125 56 17 724 38-25 2-387 S7 18 744 40-25 2515 58 \ A ^, . } 19 699 37-00 2-312 59 / 4 X 4 < 20 756 42-00 2-625 60 21 761 40-25 2-515 61 22 771 37-00 2-312 62 23 690 37-50 2-343 63 / I 24 644 30 'OO 1-875 64 \ / 12 811 153 'o 4-250 65 15 831 i6y8 4-550 66 18 831 174-0 4-833 67 > 6 X 6 / 21 786 169 "O 4-694 68 1 24 836 122-2 3 '399 69 27 693 168-4 4-666 70 / V 30 781 153-0 4-250 71 9 X 9 12 889 307*0 317^ 72 9' X 9' 15 845 337-8 3 '974 IZ 9x9 18 846 286-0 3-530 74 9' X 9' 18 864 307-0 3-612 75 9' X 9' 21 828 368-6 4'572 76 9x9 24 757 276*2 3-410 77 9x9 30 835 307-0 3-790 XX.] INDIAN TEAK. 20I Table LXIV. Experiments on Specimens of Teak, to ascertain the elongation of the fibres in a length of 3 feet, under various strai?ts, the dimensions of each piece being 2 x 2 x 48 inches. Number of the specimen. en G H u5 c C c 0 H IT) u5 c c 0 H 231 766 1,122 814 1.013 1 144 1 100 1136 1 124 1070 I120 Total . . 5-50 •15 17 '00 5.850 6694 Average . •916 •025 2-833 975 iii5'6 Remarks. — Nos. i, 2, 4, and 6 broke with fractures about 12 inches in length ; 3 and 5, rather shorter. Table LXIX. Tensile Experiments. Table LXX. Vertical or Crushing Strain 07i cubes of 2 inches. No. 12. Tons. No. 13. Tons. No. 14. No. 15. Total. Average. Ditto on I square inch. Tons. Tons. Tons. Tons. \ 22750 22*500 22*250 22*446 89*946 22*486 5 '621 XXII.] PINGOW. 219 THE PINGOW TREE is also found in the island of Borneo, where it is said to be plentiful. It is of straight growth and good dimensions, and yields timber of from 25 to 40 feet in length, and 11 to 18 inches square. The wood is of a dark brown colour, hard, heavy, tough, rigid, and remarkably strong ; it is straight in the grain, close in texture, and not difficult to work. It is used in Borneo for all the purposes to which the Chow is applied, except that, as the tree does not attain the same altitude, it will not furnish masts for any but the smaller junks. The characteristic properties of the Pingow are favourable to its introduction for any purpose where great strength is required ; and, of the sample logs brought to this country in 1860-61 and at subsequent dates, the whole were passed either to Woolwich Dockyard or to the out-ports, to be employed in ship-building. Table LXXI.— Pingow (Borneo). . Transverse Experiments. Number of the specimen. Deflections. Total weight required to break each piece. Weight reduced to specific gravity 1000. Weight required to break I square inch. With the apparatus weighing 390 lbs. After the weight was removed. At the crisis of . breaking. I 2 3 4 5 6 Inches. 75 75 •65 •90 75 •85 Inch. ■05 •05 "00 •10 ■15 •00 Inches. 3 '50 3*65 4 '25 375 4-35 3"40 lbs. 1.235 1,223 1.355 1.237 1,302 1,228 757 753 745 742 748 740 1631 1624 1819 1667 1740 1660 lbs. 30875 30575 33875 309-25 325*50 307-00 Total . 4-65 •35 22*90 7,580 4485 IOI41 1895-00 Average j '775 •0583 3-816 1.263-3 747*5 1690 3i5"83 Note. — All broke short. 220 TIMBER AND TIMBER TREES. [chap. Table LXXII. Tensile Experiments. Number Dimensions Specific Weight the Direct of the of piece broke cohesion on specimen. each piece. with. I square inch. Inches. lbs. lbs. 7 \ / 745 22,400 5,600 8 1 J 742 20,440 5,110 9 757 28,000 7,000 lO > 2 X 2 X 30 / 748 25,480 6,370 II 740 26,600 6,650 12 / \ 753 28,560 7,140 Total . . 4485 151,480 37.870 Average . 747 '5 25,246 6,311 Table LXXIII. Vertical or Crushing Strain on cicbes of 2 inches. No. 13. No. 14. No. IS. No. 16. Total, Average. Ditto on I square inch. Tons. Tons. Tons. Tons. Tons. Tons. 17-125 18-625 18-125 18750 72-625 18-156 4 '539 THE KRANJI, OR RED KRANJI TREE, of which it is probable there are varieties of some other colour, is likewise found in the island of Borneo; it is a tree of straight growth and noble dimensions, and compares favourably with the Chow; it was imported in 1860-61 with the latter wood, and ultimately sent to Woolwich Dockyard to be employed for naval purposes. The wood is red in colour, hard, heavy, exceedingly tough, and is one of the strongest with which we are acquainted, every one of the specimens, when tried transversely, taking a very heavy strain, and breaking with an unusually long fracture; the grain is close and somewhat resembles Cuba or Spanish Mahogany, but is XXII.] KRANJI. 221 very plain. It would take a high polish, and, except for the almost total absence of " figure " to give it beauty, it would be valuable for the manufacture of furniture^ or any ornamental purposes. The Kranji is chiefly used in Borneo for ship and house-building, but would be useful in a general way, and seems likely to prove fit for many of our requirements. Table LXXIV.— Red Kranji (Borneo). Transverse Experiments. Number of the specimen. Deflections. Total weight required to break each piece. Specific gravity. With the apparatus weighing 390 lbs. After the weight was removed. At the crisis of breaking. I 2 3 4 5 6 Inches. 75 •60 •50 75 •65 ■50 Inch. •05 •00 •00 •00 •05 ■05 Inches. 4 '50 475 3"25 4 'CO 5 -GO 275 lbs. 1.531 1. 519 1,382 1.347 1.657 1,460 1058 1067 1051 956 1046 998 Total . . 375 •15 24-25 8,896 6176 Average . •625 •025 4-04 1, 482 '6 1029 "3 Rkmarks.— Nos. I, 5, and 6 broke with very long fractme ; 2, 3, and 4 much shorter, and scarph-like. Only one piece of Kranji was tested for tensile strength, and that proved equal to a strain of 10,920 lbs. on the square inch. None were tried under the vertical or crushing strain. KAPOR OR CAMPHOR [Dryobalonops aromaticd) is found also in the island of Borneo, and was imported in 1860-61 with the Chow, Pingow, and Kranji ; it is of 222 TIMBER AND TIMBER TREES. [chap. straight growth and very large dimensions, yielding timber from 25 to 45 feet in length, and from 12 to 24 inches square. It has no rich scent like that of the camphor wood of India. The wood is light red in colour, and has some resemblance to Honduras Mahogany; it is plain, close and straight in the grain, moderately hard and tough, and nearly as strong as the Pingow. The defects of this wood are, a sponginess about the early concentric layers, which, combined with the prevalence of star- shake, is very detrimental to the quality and usefulness of it; on this account it would be most suitable for such conversions as admit of its use in the greatest bulk. Its employment being thus somewhat restricted, it will probably not be esteemed either among engineers or builders in this country. Table LXXV.— Kapor or Camphor (Borneo). Transverse Experiments. Number of the specimen. Deflections. Total weight required to break each piece. Specific gravity. With the apparatus weighing 390 lbs. After the weight was removed. At the crisis of breaking. I 2 3 4 5 6 Inches. 75 •60 75 •50 •65 •65 Inch. •08 •00 ■05 •05 •10 ■00 Inches. 375 3 "50 375 4'oo 4'io 3 "50 lbs. 1,213 1. 123 1,168 1,236 1,238 1,127 910 965 1053 977 936 895 Total . . 3*90 •28 22 "60 7.105 5736 Average . •65 ■046 3766 i,i84'i6 956 Remarks. — All broke with splinters 4 to 8 inches in length. XXII.] MO LAVE. 223. Table LXXVI. Tensile Experiments, Number of the specimen. Dimensions of_ each piece. Specific gravity. Weight the piece broke with. Direct cohesion on I square inch. 7 8 Inches. I 2 X 2 X 30 1" 965 977 lbs. 25,760 28,560 lbs. 6,440 7,140 Total . . ... 1942 54.320 13.580 Average . 971 27, 160 6,790 Table LXXVI I. Vertical or Crushing Strain 07i cubes of 2 inches. No. 9. No. 10. No. II. No. 12. Total. Average. Ditto on I square inch. Tons. Tons. Tons. Tons. Tons. Tons. 2175 21-25 21 "oo 21-25 85-25 21-31 5 '33 Borneo produces several other species of trees, including the Tanjan, Meraha, Panjan, and the Kampar. These all attain good building sizes, and, judging from the sample logs sent with the Chow, &c., to this country, I am inclined to think they would be found useful and valuable for constructive purposes. THE MOLAv£ TREE (Vitex geniculata'^) is found in the Philippine Islands, and, judged by the parcel of 6 to 8 loads of selected wood imported here in 1863 or 1864, is of straight growth and moderate dimensions, although, according to Blanco, it is " very often crooked/' * Blanco's " Philippine Flora." 224 TIMBER AND TIMBER TREES. [chap. The wood is yellowish or straw-colour, hard, heavy, strong, close in the grain, and possesses a figure or waviness that somewhat resembles satin-wood ; hence it may be found useful not only in building, but for cabinet purposes. It is said to be used extensively in the Philippines for all kinds of work. The Molave timber appears to be of good quality, and has the property of seasoning without much shrink- age or splitting; it also stands exposure to the weather for a long time without showing any signs of being deteriorated by it. In the Philippines it is considered to be very durable. Judging from the appearance of the parcel referred to, it can be recommended to notice, as being fit to supplement any of the hard woods in present use for constructive purposes. Table LXXVI II.— Molave (Philippine Islands). Transverse Experiments. Number of the specimen. Deflections. Total weight required to break each piece. With the 1 After ths apparatus weight weighing was 390 lbs. removed. At the crisis of breaking. Specific gravity. I 2 3 Inches. I '25 I 25 I '25 Inch. •10 •25 •15 Inches. 500 575 475 lbs. 1,200 1,320 1,210 972 987 1080 Total . . 375 •50 1550 3.730 3039 Average . 1-25 •166 5-i66 1. 243 "3 1013 Remarks.— Each piece broke with a long scarph-Iike fracture. XXII.] LAUAN. 225 Table LXXIX. Tensile Experiments. Number of the specimen. Dimensions of each piece. Specific gravity. Weight the piece broke with. Direct cohesion on I square inch. 4 5 6 7 8 Inches, y 2 X 2 X 30 •/ ) ( 987 972 1080 9.S4 1115 lbs. 30,240 29,120 34.720 20,160 42,000 lbs. 7,560 7,280 8,680 5.040 10,500 Total . . 5108 156,240 39,060 Average . I02I"6 31,248 7,812 The following woods are also found in the Philippine Islands, namely — 2. Lauan, II. Mangachapuy, 3- Banaba, 12. Karra, 4- Dougon, 13- Guigo, 5- Ypil, 14. Camayuan. 6. Lacolaco, 15- Malatapay, 7. Acle, 16. Palo Maria, 8. Tindalo (two sorts), 17. Mapilia, 9- Diladila, 18. Mam bog, 10. Yacal. 19. Bolongnita, and Sonne of them are considered to be of a very useful description, Nos. 2 and 7 especially so. The Lauan timber (No. 2), after some experiments had been made on specimens 0"3937i inches square by 39*371 inches in length, with the following results, was Q 226 TIMBER AND TIMBER TREES. [chap. officially reported upon to the Spanish Government only a short time ago : — Table LXXX. Arc of flexion produced by a constant weight of 2,204 lbs. hung from the centre. Arc at which fracture took place. Weight applied at centre of the arc. Distance between the supporters of the wood. Inch. 0-43 Inches. 3-15 lbs. 14-99 Inches. 23-62 and 26-77 Table LXXXI. V Resistance. Maximum elas- ticity to be allowed in construction of buildings. Weight corre- sponding to this elasticity. s ^ 0 Resistance to To pressure. Tension of strength of cohesion. torsion co-eflScient of fracture T. With the grain of the fibre. On the grain perpendi- cularly. Absolute strength. lbs. 168-43 Applicable strength. lbs. •948 lbs. 498-24 lbs. 198-41 lbs. 1. 529*99 Inch. -038 lbs. 152-99 lbs. 158-16 lbs. 16-84 Remarks. — Weight producing fracture at the bend, 1-32 lb. fracture by bending, or of maximum bend. T co-efficient of Father Gaspard de St. Augustine says, in his manu- script History of the Philippine Islands, that the outside planks of the old Manilla and Acapulco galleons were of Lauan wood, and that it was chosen because it does not split with shot. THE ACLE, No. 7 (Mimosa Acle^Juga xylocropa),^ is without thorns or excrescences. The Indians use it for the construction of their houses, and prize it for its good quality. In working it causes sneezing. The bark is * Blanco's " Philippine Flora." XXII.] BORNEAN TIMBERS. 227 used in washing. Its leaves are not small like the generality of Mimosa, but about 8 or 9 inches long, by 3 inches broad. This wood is supposed to be identical with the Iron-wood or Pyengadu of Burmah. The forests* of Panay (Iloilo) and Negros abound with these excellent woods, in situations most favourable for shipment. The following trees of British North Borneo may also be mentioned : t Billian or Iron-wood [Eusideroxylon Zwageri), a very durable, hard, heavy, reddish timber, suitable for piles and ship-building, and well-known in Borneo. Mirabow, Afzelia palembanica (Leguminosae), a heavy, dark-coloured, tough, and durable furniture wood, recommended as a substitute for Mahogany. Russock or Rassak, Vatica Rassak (Dipterocarpeae) , a yellowish, heavy, rough-grained and durable building wood, used for piles, &c. Serayah, Kruen, Gagil, Palawan , Rungas, Penggah, Urab Mata, Epel, Chindana, Majow, Ballow, Kunipass or Compass, Greeting. * One of the present Chinese steam-frigates was built wholly of Philippine Island woods; and the ribs, knees, &c., &c. , were cut in the forests from templates sent from the Foo-choo-foo Arsenal. t See reports of Indo-Colonial Exhibition. Q 2 CHAPTER XXIII. TIMBER TREES OF AUSTRALIA. EUCALYPTUS. Among the most astonishing advances in economic Botany have been the developments of our knowledge of the timbers of the remarkable and interesting Australian Myrtles belonging to the difficult genus Eucalyptus, The late Mr. Laslett's opinions on these timbers would probably have been more favourable had he obtained better felled and seasoned specimens, and it seems to be the opinion of Australian experts that even the much more favourable reports of the Colonial and Indian Exhibition would have been more so had more carefully chosen pieces been experimented with. In any case it seems clear that much is yet to be done with some of these timbers, and the reader is referred to Maiden's ''Australian Native Plants'' for further information on their mechanical and other properties. TEWART {Eucalyptus gomphocephala) . This tree is also often called the White Gum, a name of no value, however, since it is shared by many other Australian trees. Is found principally in the Swan River and King George's Sound district of Western Australia. It is a tree of straight growth and noble CHAP. XXIII.] TEWART. 229 dimensions, yielding timber of from 20 to 45 feet in length by from 11 to 28 inches square. The wood is of a yellowish or straw colour, hard, heavy, tough, strong, and rigid ; the texture close, and the grain so twisted and curled as to render it difficult either to cleave or work. It is a very sound wood, possessing few or no defects, with the exception of a mild form of heart and star-shake at the centre, which would necessitate a small amount of waste, if it were required to reduce the logs into thin planks or boards ; but, if employed in large scantlings, it will be found a most valuable wood, especially where great strength is needed. The Tewart shrinks very little in seasoning, and does not split while undergoing that process; it is also characteristic of this wood that it will bear exposure to all the vicissitudes of weather for a long time without being in any but the least degree affected by it. I have known it subjected to this severe test for fully ten years, and when afterwards converted, it opened out with all the freshness of newly-felled timber. Possibly no better evidence is required to show that this is a durable wood. It is used in ship-building for beams, keelsons, stern- posts, engine-bearers, and for other works below the line of flotation, for which great strength is required, a weighty material in that position not being objectionable in a ship's construction. It is spoken of very highly as a wood for use in the engine-room, where exposed to high temperatures. In civil architecture the Tewart is far too little known in this country, although it might be employed with advantage for many purposes. It would make good piles for piers, and supports in bridges, and be useful in the framing of dock gates, as it withstands the action of water, and is one of the strongest woods known, whether 230 TIMBER AND TIMBER TREES. fCHAP. it be tried transversely or otherwise. But it would probably be found too heavy for general use in the domestic arts. Table LXXXII. — Tewart (Australian) Trayisverse Experiments. Number of the specimen. Deflections. Total weight required to break each piece. Specific gravity. With the apparatus weighing 390 lbs. After the weight was removed. At the crisis of breaking. I 2 3 4 5 6 Inches. 1-25 I "25 I '25 I '35 1-35 Inch. •15 •00 •20 •IS •05 •10 Inches. 4 'SO 4 "SO 5-00 5-00 4-85 4-65 lbs. 1,071 972 1,032 1,116 1,017 966 1 147 1 173 1184 1 147 1 170 1 194 Total . . 7 '60 •65 28-50 6,174 7015 Average . 1-27 •108 475 1,029 ii69"i6 Remarks. — Each piece broke with moderate length of fracture, and very fibrous. Table LXXXIII. Tensile Experiments. Number of the specimen. Dimensions of each piece. Specific gravity. Weight the piece broke with. Direct cohesion on I square inch. 7 8 9 10 n 12 Inches. > 2 X 2 X 30 / 1 147 1 184 1 173 1 170 1 147 1 194 lbs. 32,580 44,520 46,900 34,160 34.720 5I^240 lbs. 8,820 11,130 11.725 8,540 8,610 12,880 Total . . ... 7015 244,120 61,705 Average . 1169 40,687 10,284 XXIII.] JARRAH. 231 Table LXXXIV. Vertical Experiments on cubes of — Number of the specimen. I Inch. 2 Inches. 3 Inches. 4 Inches. Crushed with Crushed with Crushed with Crushed with 13—16 17 — 20 21, 22 23. 24 Tons. 4*ooo 4-500 4-625 4750 Tons. 16-875 16-750 16-500 17-000 Tons. 37*625 33"i25 Tons. , 67-00 64-25 Total . . 17 "875 67-125 70-75 131*25 Average . 4-469 16-781 35 "375 65-625 Do. per in. 4-469 4'i95 3*931 4-102 The Victorian Timber Board have also made ex- periments on the strength of this and other Eucalyptus timbers (see Maiden's '' Useful Native Plants of Australia," p. 461). JARRAH^* OR AUSTRALIAN MAHOGANY {Eucalyptus marginatd)^ is also found in South- Western Australia, where it is said to be very abundant. It is of straight growth and very large dimensions, but, unfortunately, is liable to early decay in the centre. The sound trees, however, yield solid and useful timber of from 20 to 40 feet in length by 1 1 to 24 inches square, while those with faulty centres furnish only indifferent squares of smaller sizes, or pieces unequally sided, called flitches. * This tree, Jarrah, must not be confounded with the Yarrah {Eucalyptus rostrata). 232 TIMBER AND TIMBER TREES. [chap. The wood is red in colour, hard, heavy, close in texture, slightly wavy in the grain, and with occasionally enough figure to give it value for ornamental purposes ; it works up quite smoothly, and takes a good polish. Cabinet-makers may therefore readily employ it for furniture, but for architectural and other works where great strength is required it should be used with caution, as the experiments prove it to be somewhat brittle in character. Some few years since a small supply of this wood was sent to Woolwich Dockyard, with the view to test its quality and fitness for employment in ship-building, but the sample did not turn out well, owing to the want of proper care in the selection of the wood in the colony. The shipping officer sent only such sm.all squares as might have been produced from logs cut or quartered longitudinally, which left in each case one weak or shaky angle, instead of sending the full-sized compact square log representing all that the growth of the tree would give. It is just possible, however, that this was unavoid- able, since it may be inferred from the nature of the conversions that the trees from which they were cut commenced to decay at the centre at or about mid-life, and they had become hollow at the root-end of the stem, long before they arrived at maturity. This remarkable defect being characteristic of the Jarrah tree, it follows that no compact and solid square log beyond the medium size can be obtained of the full growth, and hence the conversion of the faulty trees is necessarily restricted to the dimensions of flitches cut clear of the centre. One peculiarity was noticed in the sample referred to, some of the logs had cavities or blisters, varying from one to several inches in length in the longitudinal xxiii.] JARRAH. 235 direction of the woody layers, and spreading from i to 5 inches concentrically, which occurred, like the cup-shake, at various distances from the pith, and at intervals of a few feet along the line of the trunk of the tree. These cavities were partially filled with a hard secretion of resin or gum, which made up in some measure for the solidity, although it did not impart the strength which would compensate for the deficiency of the cohesive properties common to the annual layers.* P'rom what has been stated respecting the Jarrah timber received at Woolwich, it will be readily supposed that the authorities there did not look upon it with favour, or any desire to employ it for ship-building purposes. It therefore passed to some of the minor services of the yard, and it was while under conversion for these ordinary and inferior works that I took the opportunity of making the experiments which are given in detail in Tables LXXXV., LXXXVL, and LXXXVII. It is a noticeable fact in connection with the experi- ments, that all the specimens tried proved deficient in strength and tenacity, by breaking off suddenly with a short fracture, under an average transverse strain of about 686 lbs. weight only, or about 171 '5 lbs. to the square inch of sectional area. Since the foregoing was prepared I have seen some correspondence between the Home and Colonial Govern- ments on the subject of Jarrah timber, and also between the Governor of Western Australia and the leading ship- builders and ship-owners, including Lloyds' surveyor at Freemantle, who had been severally asked to report * This peculiar defect is met with in several of the Eucalyptus species, and may occasionally be seen in the Urs and Pines. 234 TIMBER AND TIMBER TREES. [chap. upon the merits of the Jarrah, with a view to getting it recognised at Lloyds*. Most of the ship-builders and ship-owners have reported very favourably, and speak of it as a good description of wood. They say that, when used with iron fastenings, neither material is in any way injured by the other, and, also, what is a little remarkable, that it bends well without steaming. In speaking of its merits, how- ever, they nearly all do so under some reserve, such as insisting on the felling being done at a certain time of the year; getting it from some particular district, and so forth. Lloyds' agent at Freemantle, however, does not report quite so favourably of it ; indeed, he differs so widely from the rest, that perhaps it would be well to quote his report in extenso : — " In reply to your letter relative to the qualities of the Jarrah of this country as a ship-building timber, I con- sider it valuable wood for planking purposes as high as the wales, and I also consider it especially excellent wood for small craft which are not intended to be sheathed with metal, inasmuch as it resists the sea-worm better than almost any other wood, and is less liable to foul ; but I do not consider it suitable timber for top- sides, or deck work, where it must necessarily be much exposed to the effects of the sun, it being, in such positions, more than ordinarily subject to shrink and warp ; and it is rather deficient in tenacity of fibre, so that in situations where eccentric or sudden bends occur it cannot generally be employed with advantage. It is probable you may have heard of the Honourable East India Company's pilot brig Sahveen taking in a cargo of Jarrah at Bunbury. This was supplied by Mr. W. Pearce Clifton, and the vessel was sent at my instance in order to a series of trials of the wood in the Kidder- XXIII.] JARRAH. 235 pore dockyard. These trials, I regret to say, were not favourable to the character of the wood, and the result was that no further supply was ordered. " When last at Calcutta I obtained the sanction of the Government of Bengal to further tests of the wood, the greater portion of the Salzveen's cargo being then still in store, but I am sorry to say that the result was not more favourable than before.^' The clerk of works at Freemantle reporting summarily upon the opinions expressed by the ship-builders and others, says : '' The sound timber resists the attack of the 'teredo navalis ' and * white ant.^ On analysis by Professor Abel, it was found to contain a pungent acid that was destructive to life. The principle, however, was not found to be present in the unsound portions. Great care is therefore necessary in preparing the wood for use by flitching the log so as to cut all the defective portions of the heart out, and using only the perfectly sound timber. Fig. 25 will show the mode of flitching, so as to retain the sound wood in any required size for all prac- tical purposes, A B C D E F being flitches. Very much has been said about Jarrah being subject to split when exported to India or England in log. It must be borne in mind that its density renders seasoning very slow, and that the inner portions of the larger trees are in a state of decay even while the outer portions are in full vigour. A tree under these conditions, the inner portions comparatively dry, and the outer full of sap, shipped at once to a hot ^ F B \ \ JE N " ^ \ \ K A ^ / J FIG. 25. 236 TIMBER AND TIMBER TREES. [chap. climate like that of India, or to such a variable one as that of England, very naturally ruptures from unequal shrinkage, being also exposed to very great changes of temperature. To obviate this peculiarity and apparent defect, let the Jarrah be fallen when the sap is at the lowest ebb, and flitched as previously suggested."* I have seen it stated in some correspondence from Western Australia that a specimen of Jarrah timber has been chemically examined by Professor Frankland, with the view to ascertain whether there is any peculiar acid or other substance present in it calculated to resist the attacks of the Teredo navalis. It does not appear, however, that anything of the kind has been found which could be credited with the effect referred to. It is believed by the Professor that the singular immunity from attack which this wood enjoys is due either to the odour or taste it possesses. These, though by no means remarkable or repugnant to the human senses, are probably strongly so to the Teredo navalis. f * The Committee of Lloyds have recently had the subject of Jarrah under their consideration, and determined to class this timber with those in line 3, Table A, of the Society's rules ; thus ranking it with Cuba Sabicu, Pencil Cedar, &c. , for the construction and classification of ships. t A late Western Australian almanack says : "None of the neighbouring colonies possess timber of a similar character to the Jarrah, or endowed with equally valuable properties. If cut at the proper season, when the sap has expended itself and the tree is at rest, it will be found the most enduring of all woods. On this condition it defies decay ; time, weather, water, the white ant, and the sea-worm have no effect upon it. Specimens have been exhibited of portions of wood which had been nearly thirty years partly under water and partly out. Others had been used as posts, and for the same period buried in sand, where the white ant destroys in a few weeks every other kind of wood. For this peculiar property the Jarrah is now much sought after for railway sleepers and telegraph posts in India and the colonies. It is admirably adapted for dock gates, piles, and other purposes, and for keel-pieces, keelsons, and other heavy timber in ship-building. Vessels of considerable burthen are built entirely of this wood, the pcGuliar properties of which render copper sheathing unnecessary, although the sea-worm is most abundant in these waters." XXIII.] JARRAH. 237 From the foregoing statements it will be seen that there is great diversity of opinion upon the merits of Jarrah timber, and time only will show whether if imported it will find favour with ship-builders and others in this country.* Some three or four years since (about 1871) the Western Australia Timber Company were busily en- gaged in the forests preparing a large quantity of Jarrah for exportation. The company professes, I believe, to select only the best trees, and to cut them at the proper season ; the deliveries should therefore be of the very best sort the country produces. I have earnestly looked for sample cargoes to arrive in the London Docks, but up to the present (1875) none of any importance have been reported. Table LXXXV.— Jarrah (Australia). Transverse Experiments. Number of the specimen. Deflections. Total weight required to break each piece. C/3 M Weight reduced to specific gravity 1000. Weight required to break 1 square inch. With the apparatus weighing 390 lbs. After the weight was removed. At the crisis of breaking. I 2 3 4 5 6 Inches. 2-85 3 '25 3*25 3 'SO 3-15 3 '25 Inch. •10 •15 •15 •15 •10 •15 Inches. 4*50 4*50 5'oo 5'oo 4'5o 475 lbs. ^^^ 638 661 661 'J'26 685 987 1049 977 1039 1006 1002 753 608 677 636 722 684 lbs. 185-75 159-50 165-25 165-25 181-50 171-25 Total . 19-25 •80 28-25 4,114 6060 4080 1028-50 Average 3*21 •133 471 685-66 lOIO 680 171-416 Remarks. — Each piece broke short. * It may now be conceded that Jarrah is a more valuable timber than was formerly supposed, especially where durability is required, as in pile-work, sleepers, ship-building, &c. It has been extensively employed for wooden pavements with success. 2^8 TIMBER AND TIMBER TREES. [chap. Table LXXXVI. Tensile Experiments. Number of the specimen. Dimensions of each piece. Specific gravity. \Veight the piece broke with. Direct cohesion on I square inch. 7 8 Inches. 1 2 X 2 X 30 1^ 987 1006 lbs. 10,080 13.440 lbs. 2,520 3.360 Total . . 1993 23,520 S.880 Average . 996 11,760 2,940 Table LXXXVII. Vertical or Crushing Strain on cubes of 2 inches. No. 9. No. 10. No. II. No. 12. No. 13. No. 14. Total. Average. Ditto on I square inch. Tons. Tons. Tons. Tons. Tons. Tons. Tons. Tons. 12-875 i3'ooo 12 '625 12750 12750 12750 767s 12792 3-198 KARI {Eucalyptus diver sicolor) is found in South-Western Australia, and is said to be very abundant. It is of straight growth, and can be obtained of extraordinary size and length ; no reason- able limit to its dimensions being necessary, except that of the capacity of a ship to carry it. Governor Weld, of Western Australia, says he has estimated trees of this description at 300 feet; and the learned botanist, J^aron Van Mueller, of Melbourne, states that the Kari tree reaches the height of 400 feet. XXIII.] KARL 239 The wood is red in colour, hard, heavy, strong, tough, and sHghtly wavy or curled in the grain, but it has no figure to recommend it for cabinet purposes. Six logs of this timber, viz., two of 12'' X 12'' x 28', one of 12" X 12'' X 34', two of 24'' X 24" X 24', and one of 24" X 24'' X 32', were recently shipped at Freemantle by the Western Australian Government for delivery at one of the royal dockyards in England, for experimental trial in the navy, the colonists being of opinion that it will ere long be in great request for ship-building and other architectural works. Unfortunately, however, all these logs had the defect of star-shake, which rendered them unfit for almost any purpose except where they could be employed in very large scantlings. It was also noticed that the Kari had the peculiar blistery appearance of the annual layers which has been mentioned as common to the Jarrah, consequently this wood is not considered to be suitable for any work requiring nicety of finish, although no doubt it would be admirably suitable for piles for jetties, bridges, &c., and generally for heavy structures where large scantlings and great strength is required. It will not last between wind and earth, though, as far as is yet known, it resists the action of water. It is, moreover, more difficult to work than Jarrah, and does not finish well in the moulding and planing machine. It is much to be regretted that a tree so noble in its dimensions should prove so disappointing in its character; but, like the Jarrah, to which it has some resemblance, it is not, I think, likely to be in request for architectural works in this country. 240 TIMBER AND TIMBER TREES. [chap. Table LXXXVIII.— Kari (Australia). Transverse Experiments. Number of the specimen. Deflections. Total weight required to break each piece. Specific gravity. With the apparatus weighing 390 lbs. After the weight was removed. At the crisis of_ breaking. I 2 3 4 5 6 Inches. 75 1-25 I "35 75 I'OO I'OO Inch. '00 •00 '10 •05 •05 •05 Inches. 5'oo 6-25 4 "60 7*50 6*50 6-50 lbs. 820 725 955 840 920 915 957 885 1023 987 1013 1023 Total . . 6*io •25 36-35 5.175 5888 Average . i-oi •04 6 -06 862-5 981-33 Remarks. — Each piece broke with scarph-like fracture, 8 to 10 inches in length. Table LXXXIX. Tensile Experiments. Number of the specimen. Dimensions of each piece. Specific gravity. Weight the piece broke with. Direct cohesion on I square inch. 7 8 9 10 II 12 Inches. > 2 X 2 X 30 / • lbs. 31,080 30,800 31.360 31.360 22,120 22,960 lbs. 7.770 7.700 7.840 7.840 5.530 5.740 Total . . ... 169,680 42,420 Average . 981- 28,280 7,070 XXIII.] IRON-BARK. 241 Table XC. Vertical or Crushing Strain on cubes of 6 inches. No. 13. No. 14. Total. Average. Ditto on I square inch. Tons. Tons. Tons. Tons. 175 195 370 185 5-14 IRON-BARK {Eucalyptus resiniferd)^ is found very widely spread over a large part of Aus- tralia, and is considered to be abundant, especially in South Queensland ; but it is rarer than formerly. It is a lofty and erect tree of moderate circumference, and yields timber of from 20 to 40 feet in length, by from 1 1 to 16 or 18 inches square. It is believed to have been named as above by some of the earliest Australian settlers, on account of the extreme hardness of its bark ; but it might with equal reason have been called iron- wood. The wood is of a deep red colour^ very hard, heavy, strong, extremely rigid, and difficult to work. It has a plain straight grain, and the pores, which are very minute, are filled with a hard, white, brittle secretion. The tree is generally sound, but liable to the defect of both heart and star-shake, and on this account it is not usually very solid about the centre, consequently the timber cannot be employed with advantage except in stout planks or large scantlings. It is used extensively in ship-building and engineer- ing works in Au.stralia, and in this country it is employed in the mercantile navy for beams, keelsons, and in many * This species is now known as E. siderophloia, and must not be confounded with the E. resini/era of New South Wales and Queensland (see Maiden — " Australian Native Plants," p. 509). R 242 TIMBER AND TIMBER TREES. [chap. ways in the construction of ships, especially below the line of flotation, where a heavy material is not considered objectionable. For civil architecture, the ornamental and the domestic arts, it is not, however, likely to be in much request, its extreme hardness and great weight precluding it from general use. Table XCL— Iron-bark (Australia). Transverse Experiments. Number of the specimen. Deflections. Total weight required to break each piece. Specific gravity. With the apparatus weighing 390 lbs. After the weight was removed. At^ . the crisis of breaking. X 2 3 4 Inches. •85 I"0O •90 i"oo Inch. •0 •0 •0 •0 Inches. 375 3 '50 4 00 4'oo lbs. 1,460 1.370 1,400 1,400 I163 1 146 1 142 II16 Total . . 375 •0 i5"25 S.630 4567 Average . ■94 •0 3-812 1.407 '5 1 142 Remarks. — No. i, wiry fracture, 16 inches in length ; No. 2, wiry fracture, 12 inches in length ; No. 3, wiry fracture, 10 inches in length ; No. 4, broke short to one-third depth, then splintery fracture, 10 inches in length. Table XCII. Tensile Experiments. Number of the specimen. Dimensions of each piece. Specific gravity. Weight the piece broke with. Direct cohesion on I square inch. 5 6 7 Inches. V 2 X 2 X 30 -1 1 142 1 146 1 163 lbs. 34,160 26,880 39,480 lbs. 8,540 6,720 9.870 Total . . 3451 100,520 25.130 Average . ... 1 150 33.507 8,377 XXIII.] BLUE GUM. 243 Table XCIII. Vertical or Crushing Strain on cubes of 2 inches. No. 8. No. 9. No. 10. Tons. No. II. Total. Average. Ditto on I square inch. Tons. Tons. Tons. Tons. Tons. 18-500 17-625 18-500 19-000 73*625 18-406 4-601 BLUE GUM [Eucalyptus Globulus)^ is found abundantly spread over a great part of Aus- tralia and Van Diemen's Land. It is a tree of straight * In reference to the Eucalyptus Globulus, the following appeared in the Homeward Mail in 1873 : — "A Disease-destroying Tree.— M. Gimbert, who has been long engaged in collecting evidence concerning the Australian tree, Eucalyptus Globulus, the growth of which is surprisingly rapid, attaining, besides, gigantic dimensions, has addressed an interesting communication to the Academy of Sciences. This plant, it now appears, possesses an extra- ordinary power of destroying miasmatic influence in fever-stricken districts. It has the singular property of absorbing ten times its weight of water from the soil, and of emitting antiseptic camphorous effluvia. When sown in marshy ground it will dry it up in a very short time. The English were the first to try it at the Cape, and within two or three years they completely changed the climatic condition of the unhealthy parts of the colony. A few years later its plantation was undertaken on a large scale in various parts of Algeria. At Pardock, twenty miles from Algiers, a farm, situated on the banks of the Hamyze, was noted for its extremely pestilential air. In the spring of 1867 about 1,300 of the Eucalyptus were planted there. In July of the same year, at the time when the fever season used to set in, not a single case occurred, yet the trees were not more than nine feet high. Since then complete immunity from fever has been maintained. In the neighbourhood of Constantine the farm of Ben Machydlin was equally in bad repute. It was covered with marshes both in winter and summer. In five years the whole ground was dried up by 14,000 of these trees, and farmers and children enjoy excellent health. At the factory of the Gue de Constantine, in three years a plantation of Eucalyptus has transformed twelve acres of marshy soil into a magnificent park, whence fever has completely disappeared. In the island of Cuba this and all other paludal diseases are fast disappearing from all the unhealthy districts where this tree has been introduced. A station-house at one of the ends of the railway viaduct R 2 244 TIMBER AND TIMBER TREES. [char growth, and attains a height of 200 to 300 feet, with a diameter of from 6 to 25 feet. Like the Jarrah, it is characteristic of the larger trees, that, while they appear to be healthy and vigorous, and continue to increase in height and bulk, the centre wastes away near the root, and, when felled, they are often found hollow for some considerable distance up from the butt. The dimensions of the serviceable logs which the tree yields will, there- fore, depend very much upon its soundness; but, un- questionably, very large scantlings can be procured from it if required. The wood is of a pale straw colour, hard, heavy, moderately strong, tough, and with the grain twisted or curled. In seasoning deep shakes occur from the sur- face, and it shrinks and warps considerably. I remember to have seen in one of the royal dock- yards some extremely long and broad planks, or thick- stuff, of this description of timber, which had been apparently flitched from some of the hollow trees before referred to. These, after being kept to season for a while, warped and split to such an excessive degree that it was impossible to use them for any planking purpose whatever. In consequence of this defect it was found necessary to reduce the planks to very short lengths, in, order to utilise them at all, and so they passed to quite inferior services. in the Department of the Var was so pestilential that the officials could not be kept there longer than a year. Forty of these trees were planted, and it is now as healthy as any other place on the line. We have no information as to whether this beneficent tree will grow in other but hot climates. We hope that experiments will be made to determine this point. It would be a good thing to introduce it on the West Coast of Africa." Similar accounts are published from other parts of the world, but, without denying the substratum of truth in the statements, it seems clear that many of them arc exaggerated. XXIII.] BLUE GUM. 245 A specimen log of Blue Gum 3i'x24"x28" was forwarded with other woods to the London Exhibition of 1862 by the Tasmanian Commissioners ; and this, at the close of the Exhibition, was transferred to Woolwich Dockyard for trial experimentally in ship-building. It came in, however, too late, and just when wood was giving place to iron in this branch of architecture, so that no favourable opportunity ever offered for its em- ployment. This log, although of very large dimensions, had been cut clear of the centre, and very probably had formed part of one of the hollow trees before alluded to, consequently the tree to which it belonged must have been at the least 6 to 7 feet in diameter. A plank 6 inches thick was cut from it, which quickly warped or twisted 2 inches, and ultimately went to 3}^ inches, and stood at that in 1870. Upon examination then, it was found to be full of deep, fine shakes, but otherwise it was not much changed, and there were no signs whatever of decay, although it had been for a long time exposed to the weather. It seems, therefore, likely to be a durable wood. In the Australian colonies the Blue Gum is largely employed in ship-building for keels, keelsons, beams, and planking ; and in civil architecture for any service where long, straight, and heavy timber is required. It is also largely used upon the farms for fences, &c. 246 TIMBER AND TIMBER TREES. [chap. Table XCIV.— Blue Gum (Australia) Transverse Experiments. Number of the specimen. Deflections. Total weight required to break each piece. Specific gravity. With the apparatus weighing 390 lbs. After the weight was removed. At ^ the crisis of breaking. I 2 3 4 5 6 Inches. I "25 175 1-35 i"oo 1-25 I'OO Inch. •15 •20 •10 ■00 ■15 •00 Inches. 4 "50 375 575 375 3 "50 4*oo lbs. 767 602 710 767 684 741 1079 997 1037 1 108 1026 924 Total . . 7 '60 6-0 25*25 4,271 617T Average . I "26 •10 4"2I 712 1029 Remarks. — Each piece broke with a short fracture. TABLE XCV. Tensile Experiments. Number of the specimen. Dimensions of each piece. Specific gravity. Weight the piece broke with. Direct cohesion on I square inch. 7 8 9 10 II Inches. \ / > 2 X 2 X 30 •/ / \ 997 1079 1037 1 108 1026 lbs. 14,560 26,600 24,360 26,600 28,840 lbs. 3,640 6,650 6,090 6,650 7,210 Total . . ... 5247 120,96c 30,240 Average . 1049 24,192 6,048 XXIII.] STRINGY-BARK. 247 Table XCVI. Vertical or Crushing Strain on cubes of 2 inches. No. 12. No. 13. No. 14. No. 15. No. 16. No. 17. Total. Average. Ditto on I square inch. Tons. Tons. Tons. Tons. Tons. Tons. Tons. Tons. 12-875 13*000 12750 H-I25 10*500 13*625 73-875 12-312 3-078 STRINGY-BARK* {E. obliqua) is of straight growth, and takes its name from the strip- like character of its bark. It is very abundant in Aus- traHa and Van Diemen^s Land, and flourishes well in any situation, provided the soil be dry. It attains a height of from loo to 230 feet, with a diameter of from 3 to 15 feet. The wood is of a brown colour, hard, heavy, strong, close, and straight in the grain. It works up well, and is much employed in the colonies in ship-building, for planking, beams, keels, and keelsons, and in civil archi- tecture for joists, flooring, &c. Upon the farms it is used for fences and agricultural implements ; it is also employed for furniture and for all ordinary purposes, and is probably the most generally used of all Eucalypts. The Stringy-bark is liable to the peculiar defect noticed in the Jarrah, and described at p. 232. In a specimen of this wood obtained in 1842 from ''Cook's tree" in a forest bordering on Adventure Bay, Van Diemen's Land, there are several imperfect annual layers, which are partially filled with a reddish resinous * This name is given in Australia to at least a dozen different species of Eucalyptus. 248 TIMBER AND TIMBER TREES. [CHAP. secretion. It is believed that this specimen was cut from the identical Stringy-bark tree which Captain Cook marked to denote his visit to that place. When I saw it, the tree was partially destroyed, and it is probable that Cook's marks had long before disappeared. It bore on the north side the letters — and on the south side LE GEO GR ac G A LAN ] LAFR = AP :- DE . . [802 : GA L The Tewart, Jarrah, Kari, Iron-bark, Blue-gum, and Stringy-bark trees, are among the noblest of the vege- table products of Australia and Van Diemen's Land ; but there are many others of nearly equal value. The following table contains a list of these woods, with the particulars of their growth, the soils favourable to them, and the several uses for which they are most suitable ; observing that the specimens were collected, and the information respecting thenl given, by an in- telligent sawyer who had been many years employed in the colony.* * Unfortunately the value of this hst is diminished owing to the vague popular names only being given. XXIII.] STRINGY-BARK. 249 Table XCVII. Description. Hgt. Dia. Where found. Uses. White Gum . . Ft. 150 In. 25 Hard, dry ground Floors, futtocks, treenails. Brown do. 30 24 Do. do. ("Ship - building (harder I than the other Gums). Curly do. . . 100 20 Do. do. ( Floors, futtocks, ship- l building. Red do. . . 40 18 Low, marshy. Fencing. Swamp do. . . 200 30 Do. do. Shingles, laths, fencing. White, Stringy ) Bark . . . i In all situations. r Roofs, joists, fiooring- (. boards. Brown Pepper-; mint . . . j" 60 24 Dry. Flooring-boards, charcoal. White do. . . 50 24 Dry, hard. Shingles, laths, fencing. Scented Myrtle . 15 6 Low, marshy. Seldom used. Red do. 40 12 Swampy. Same purposes as Pine. White do. 20 9 Low, marshy. House-carpenters' use. Yellow do. 20 9 Do. do. Do. do. Brown do. 20 30 Do. do. Do. and joiners' planes. Black Wattle 15 8 Hard, dry. Bark used for tanning. Prickly do. . . 20 6 Low, marshy. Seldom used. Silver do. . . 40 12-30 Do. do. Boat oars; bark for tanning He Oak. . . . 18 12 Hard, dry. Firewood. She Oak, or -} Beefwood . ) 18 12 Hard, dry, hilly. Furniture, firewood. Boxwood . . . 12 9 Do. do. ( Block sheaves, caulking- l mallets. Blackwood . . . 15 12 Creek sides. Naves for wheels, turning. Lightwood . . . SO 24 Low, marshy. Staves, cabinet - makers' Dogwood . . . 20 9 Fine, dry. Not much used. [work. Pinkwood . . . 15 6 Low, marshy. Turners & cabinet-makers. Stinkwood . . . 20 8 Fine, dry. Cabinet-makers' work. Forest Lightwood 15 12 Hard, dry. Naves for wheels, turning. Black Willow . . short 6 Sides of creeks. Basket-makers. Brown do. . . small small Do. do. Not used. White do. . . 15 8 Hard, dry. Seldom used. Honeysuckle . . 12 12 Dry. Floors and knees of small Laurel .... 15 9 Low, marshy. [vessels. Pencil Cedar . . 50 24 Do. do. Staves (not much used). Celery - topped ] Pine . . . j" 20 20 Do. do. Doors, sashes, «S:c. Sassafras . . . 40 14 Do. do. Sashes and door-frames. Cabbage Tree 15 10 Hard, dry, rocky. Seldom used. Plum do. 12 10 Low, marshy. Gun-stocks. Emu do. small small Do. do. Turners' work. Cherry do. 30 9 Hard, dry. Tool-handles. Swamp Tea Tree. 12 6 Low, marshy. Useless. [plements. Tea Tree . . . 30 9 Do. do. Turners, Agricultural Im- Musk do. . . . 12 small Do. do. Do. do. 250 TIMBER AND TIMBER TREES. [chap. The following Eucalypts ought also to be noted : — E. amygdalinay the Giant Gum, also known as Peppermint Tree, and by a variety of other names, is especially remarkable as furnishing the tallest trees in the world, one having measured 471 feet, and several reaching 400 to 420 feet in height. It is very useful for straight work in carpentry, as it does not twist on drying ; it is hence peculiarly valuable for splitting — rails, &c. The wood is light and buff-coloured, and is said to be durable. E. botryoideSi one of the many '^ Blue Gums/^ is often termed Bastard Mahogany, and yields a hard, tough, durable, and valuable ship-building and waggon timber, which does not split easily. E. capitella, '' White Stringy - bark,'^ is a useful splitting timber for fence and building work; E. corymbosa, the " Blood Gum," has similar uses. E. corynocalyx, " Sugar Gum ^' of South Australia, is said to be least likely to warp when exposed of all the Australian timbers. It is yellowish, and particularly strong, hard, and heavy, and one of the most durable and resistant of woods. Of course it is correspondingly difficult to extract and work, but its properties as timber for sleepers, piles, &c., are spoken of so highly that it seems to deserve more attention. E. crebra, an " Iron-bark '^ of Queensland and New South Wales, is also described as an excellent, hard, fibrous, and durable brown timber, but very hard to work. Similar characters are ascribed to E, goniocalyx, much esteemed by wheelwrights. E, Gunniij the Cider Gum of Tasmania, yields a sweet sap often converted into a drink, and the timber is more valued for charcoal than for constructive purposes. XXIII.] EUCALYPTUS. 251 E. hemiphloia, the " Box " of New South Wales^ &c., yields a Box-like timber famous for its hardness and durability, and much used for sleepers, bridges,, and railway-work, ship and coach-making, cogs, &c. E. leucoxyhn, the common *^ Iron-bark," is also said to be a very superior timber for the above purposes, but there has been much confusion regarding its names. E. maculata, the " Spotted Gum '^ of New South Wales, is in great demand for ship and bridge-building, paving, and other durable work. E. melliodora, the " Yellow Box," has a hard, tough, durable and close-grained wood, used in engraving, but hardly suitable for large work. E. paniculata, " Blood-wood," is reputed durable ; but E. pauciflora is soft and short-grained, whereas E. pilularis, the " Black-butt," is said to be an excellent carpenters' wood, &c. E. piperita, E. polyanthema, E. punctata, and E, rohiista are also worthy of note. E. rostrata, the common Red Gum, is highly valued for its durability in damp ground, as in ship and bridge- building, sleepers, &c. ; but it is so hard when dry that difficulties in working it limit its applications to furni- ture, &c. It is said to rival Jarrah in value as a timber, and has been much used in construction. E. salignay with various names, is regarded as good for fences, rails, and spars, &c., and is widely used. E. Sieberiana, the Cabbage Gum, is very soft, but curiously durable under ground according to some, while others deny this. E. Stuartiana, the '' Turpentine Tree," yields good timber for ships' planks, &c. E. tereticornis has a Cedar- coloured wood good for fencing, &c., while E, tesselaris 252 TIMBER AND TIMBER TREES. [chap. is described as good for flooring, &c. E. viminalis, the White Gum of Tasmania, is not very durable, but useful in rough building work and for split-stuff, and several other species are used for minor purposes in the colony. AUSTRALIAN "OAKS." There are no true Oaks in Australia, but the name has been transferred by the colonists to the timber of various species of Casuarina, a totally different family with no relationship to the genus Querctis. These trees are very remarkable in many respects, and it is the merest superficial resemblance between the timbers — chiefly turning on the broad medullary rays, and partly the colour — that has suggested the name " Oak " for them. The usual colour of Casuarina wood is that of deep red Mahogany, with dark veinings and markings, and the grain has some resemblance to that of the Evergreen Oaks of Asia. There are various species in Australia, and one or two have now been planted else- where. The following are the most important, some being especially good fuel : — Casuarina eqtiisetifoliay the Swamp Oak or Beef- wood, with a coarse-grained but beautifully-marked structure, and employed for fencing, gates, shingles, &c., in work where lightness and toughness are required. It is described as very durable. C. strictay the Shingle Oak, regarded as a fine furniture wood, and with very handsome mottling and capable of being turned, polished, and well worked. Several other species are known, but used chiefly as fuel, under the names of '' He Oak," " She Oak," " River Oak," &c. XXIII.] OTHER AUSTRALIAN TIMBERS. 253 OTHER AUSTRALIAN TIMBERS. The following Australian timbers may also be noted^ with the remark that much observation and experiment are still needed before our information concerning them is complete : — Acacia Cuiminghami, a close-grained and useful cabinet wood, not unlike Red Cedar, but heavier ; A. decurrenSy much used for staves ; A. excelsa, a beauti- ful cabinet wood, with the peculiar violet odour found in several of these Acacias ; A. melanoxylon^ the " Black- wood,'^ one of the most valuable timbers of Australia, and employed for all kinds of construction, carpentry, and ornamental work, and well reported upon at the Indian and Colonial Exhibition; and A. salicina, used for furniture. Several others of the many Australian Acacias, or '' Wattles,'^ are also used in carpentry, cabinet work, and turning, and would probably repay further inquiry into their value for these purposes. Achras australis and some other species of sapotaca^ also seem worthy of trial, and the same is probable of some of the Australian Albizzias. Cedrela Toona, the Toon of India, is well known and valued in New South Wales and Queensland under the name of Cedar, or " Red Cedar/' See p. 209. Ceratopetalum apetalum yields the '^ Light-wood " or *' Coach-wood " of New South Wales, a tough timber used especially in carriage-making. Daviesia arborea, the " Queen-wood,^' is highly spoken of as a timber "destined to take a prominent position with cabinet-makers. '' Dysoxylon Fraserianum, often termed Rose-wood and Pencil Cedar, is a Mahogany-like, fragrant wood, 254 TIMBER AND TIMBER TREES. [chap. very valuable for indoor work, cabinet-making, ship- building, &c. Eugenia myrtifolia, E. Jambolana and some other species are useful woods, chiefly for small work. Exocarpiis cupressiformiSy the " Native Cherry/' is not a Cherry at all, but an ally of the Sandal-wood of India, and is a close-grained and handsome wood, quite common, and used for all kinds of turnery, &c. Fagus Cunninghamiy known as the Myrtle, or Ever- green Beech,* is a true Beech found in Tasmania and Victoria, and is a hard, richly-coloured furniture and carpenters' wood, much prized for all kinds of joinery. Ficus macrophylla, F. scabra and other Figs yield timber of little value in Australia. Flindersia australis, sometimes called Ash,t is a hard, close, and very durable timber, well known, but so difficult to saw that it is neglected. Several other species of Flindersia are used also. Fusanus spicatus is the Sandal -wood of Australia, but not of India, though they belong to the same natural family. It has been for some time a valuable export * Beech is another wood on the road to being spoilt by our Australian colonists. Numerous trees go by this name in Australia — Cryptocarya glaucesceus, Flindersia australis, Gtnelina Leichardtii, Monotoca elliptica, Trochocarpa laurina, Elcecarpus Kirtoni, and several others, none of which have any real resemblance to the true Beeches. t The word " Ash" is applied to various very different trees in different parts of the world. The Cape Ash is Ekebergia capentis ; the Rhamnaceous Alphitonea excelsa is called the Red Ash in Australia, and various other trees go by the name of Ash in the colony. Our common Rowan {Pyrus aucuparia) is often called the Mountain Ash, though it is no more a true Ash than the very different tree [ElcBOcarpus lon^ifolia) called by the same name in New South Wales. The Australian Flindersia australis is also dubbed Ash in Queensland, but as it also goes by the name of Beech, &c., some idea can be obtained of the flagrant looseness of application of these terms. Cupania semiglauca and Litsa:a dealbata are both called Black Ash in Australia, though the true Black Ash is Fraxinus sambucifolia of North America. XXIII.] OTHER AUSTRALIAN TIMBERS. 255 timber in West Australia, chiefly to China, but it is becoming scarce. F. acuminatus is also a valuable cabinet wood, and is interesting as being one of the hard woods used by Australian aborigines to obtain fire by friction. Gmelina Leichhardtii^ the White Beech, is allied to Teak, and is a useful, strong, easily-worked timber, prized for decks and floorings. Grevillea robusta, called Silky Oak, but in no way allied either to the true Oaks or the Australian " Oaks," is one of the Proteacae, now becoming scarcer owing to its extensive employment for the staves of tallow- casks, &c. It is also much used for interior work in houses. G. striata is the Beef-wood, so called from the resemblance of the worked timber to raw beef, much valued for cabinet work. Hedycarya angustifolia, the native " Mulberry,'^ is not a mulberry at all. The wood is a cabinet wood, and preferred by the natives for obtaining fire by friction. Heritiera littoralis is the Sundi of India, and called Red Mangrove in Queensland. Melaleuca leucadendron^ the White Tea Tree, is an extremely pretty wood, with ripple markings, and extremely durable in the ground. M. ericifoliay the Swamp Tree Tree, and M. styphelioides, the Prickly Tea Tree, are also durable. These Tea Trees have nothing to do with Tea ; they are Myrtles. Melia Azedaracky the Persian Lilac, or Bastard Cedar of India, is known in Australia as the White Cedar. Notelcsa ligustrina, the Iron-wood of Tasmania, is so hard as to rival Lignum Vitae, and is used for blocks, &c., in the same way. Olearia argophylla, Musk-wood, is a common, fragrant, and beautifully mottled turnery wood. 2S6 TIMBER AND TIMBER TREES, [chap.xxtil Owenia venosa, the Sour Plum, is allied to the Mahogany, and is said to be a very strong and durable,, ornamental, yellow and black timber. Panax Murray i, the Pencil -wood of New South Wales, is said to be the lightest wood in Victoria, and cuts splendidly for lining boards. It must not be confounded with the Pencil Cedars or other Cedars of commerce. Stenocarpiis salignus^ often called Silky Oak (but again different from any other so-called " Oaks '^), is a valuable, but now rather scarce, furniture and coopers' wood. Syncarpia laurifolia, Turpentine Tree of New South Wales, is valuable for piles, ship-building, &c., owing to its resistant properties, due to resinous contents. Synoum glandulosuiUj Dog-wood, is a Cedar-like, scented, red wood for inside work. Tristania conferta, the White Box of New South Wales, is used in ship-building ; T. sicaveolens, Bastard Peppermint, for carriage work, &c., and others of these Myrtles for various purposes. These are by no means all the useful timbers of Australia, and the reader is referred to Maiden's " Useful Native Plants of Australia " for further in- formation. CHAPTER XXIV. THE TIMBER TREES OF WEST INDIA AND CENTRAL AMERICA. Among the rich variety of Timber trees met with in Central and South America, and the Islands known generally as the West Indies, a considerable number never reach our markets. For our purpose it will suffice that we note the following valuable species. MAHOGANY. The term Mahogany is applied to very different timbers in various parts of the world. True Mahogany is yielded by Swtetenia, one of the Cedrelacese, and is also termed Bay-wood by the cabinet-makers. The Toon of India [Cedrela Toond) is also often called In- dian Mahogany, though, perhaps, it is more commonly known under the equally inaccurate name of Cedar (see p. 209). African Mahogany is a totally different plant {Khaya Senegalensis), and the same is true of the following : Bastard Mahogany {Ratonia apetala), East Indian Mahogany {Soymida febrifugd)^ Mountain Mahogany {Bettda lentd)^ Madeira Mahogany {Persea indicd)^ while various species of Eucalyptus {E. marginatUy s 258 TIMBER AND TIMBER TREES. [chap. E. botryoides, E. resinifera, E. pilularis, E, robusta, &c.) are known as Mahogany in Australia. MAHOGANY, SPANISH {Swietema Mahoga7ii)y is the produce of a large Cedrelaceous tree found in Central America, Mexico, and the island of Cuba, and others of the West Indies, and is indiscriminately called the Spanish or Cuba Mahogany. It is a tree of perfectly straight growth, and yields timber for the market of from 18 to 35 feet in length, by from 11 to 24 inches, dressed quite square, and generally with two or three stops or joggles, with the view to preserve as much timber as possible in the stem of the tree. ( Vide Fig. 26). z z FIG. 26. The wood is of a reddish-brown colour, hard, heavy, strong, close and straight in the grain, with occasionally a wavy or figured appearance ; it is also very solid, especially about the centre, or pith, the heart-shake in this variety of the Swietenia being quite insignificant ; the cup and star-shakes arc also rare, and there is little sap-wood ; so that it need not give us any anxiety in dealing with it, whatever may be the nature of the con- version required. It is susceptible of a very high polish, and with the wave or figure well marked, it possesses great beauty ; indeed, if worked up for furniture, or used for any ornamental purposes whatever, we cannot fail to XXIV.] MAHOGANY. 259 admire it. The figured logs, therefore, possess a consi- derably enhanced value over those of a plainer descrip- tion, and high, even fabulous prices are often realised for them. Cuba or Spanish Mahogany is durable^ and is em- ployed for a variety of purposes. It has been very advantageously used in the building of ships of war in place of Oak for beams, planking, stanchions, &c. ; its strength and rigidity rendering it admirably fitted for these, while, being of moderate specific gravity, it was safe to use it either above, at, or below the line of flotation ; but in civil architecture it is not much used, on account of the high price it obtains over other woods. Table XCVIII.— Mahogany (Cuba, or Spanish). Transverse Experiments. Deflections. Total weight required to break Number of the specimen. With the apparatus After the weight At the crisis Specific gravity. weighing was of 390 lbs. . removed. breaking. Inches. Inch. Inches. lbs. I 1-50 ■00 3*50 767 720 2 1-50 •00 3*50 883 817 3 I "25 •05 3"50 817 789 4 •85 , 'OO 3-85 956 752 5 I-I5 ■05 3'35 883 765 6 I'OO •05 3-00 831 771 Total . . 7 '25 •15 2070 S.137 4614 Average . I -208 •025 3-45 856-16 769 Remarks. — Nos. i and 4 broke with moderate length of fracture, and splintery 3, 5, and 6 — each broke very short. S 2 26o TIMBER AND TIMBER TREES. [chap. Table XCIX. Tc7isile Experiments. Number Dimensions Specific Weight the Direct of the of piece broke cohesion on specimen. each piece. with. I square inchi. Inches. lis. lbs. 7 y 2 X 2 X 30 J 752 19,040 4.760 8 765 19,824 4.956 9 817 15,120 3.780 lO , 720 11,200 2,800 II • 771 10,640 2,660 Total . . 3825 75,824 18,956 Average . 765 15.165 3.791 Table C. Vertical Experiments on cubes of- Number of the specimens. I Inch. 2 Inches. 3 Inches. 4 Inches. Crushed with Crushed with Crushed with Crushed with 12—15 16 — 19 20 — 23 24—27 Tons. 2-500 2750 2-875 2-875 Tons. 12-750 11-875 i3"625 13750 Tons. 27*250 27 '375 26*800 27*425 Tons. 38-750 39' 150 38-625 39-100 Total . . 1 1 'OOO 52*000 108-85 i55'625 Average . 2750 13-000 27-2x2 38-906 Do. per in. 275 3*25 3-024 2-431 Nos. 28 TO 36. — Four more pieces — each 2x2x2 inches — tried under the- vertical pressure, took, on the average, 13-937 tons, or 3*484 tons to the square inch, to crush them. Two pieces, each 3 x 3 — the one 11 inches, the other 16 inches in length — bore 27* tons and 25*5 tons. Two other pieces, each 4x4 inches — the one being 8 inches, the other 13 inches in length — bore respectively 47*75 tons and 38*5 tons; and one piece — 12 x 12 x 15 inches in length — bore 481 tons, or 3 34 tons per square inch of base. XXIV.] MAHOGANY. 261 ST. DOMINGO MAHOGANY is very similar in quality, but of much smaller dimen- sions than that of Cuba, and only a few logs exceeding 8 to 10 feet in length, by 12 to 13 inches in the mean thickness of their scantlings, are imported into the markets of this country, although they are occasionally seen in well-squared logs, measuring I5"x I5"x25'. The wood is of a deep red colour, hard, almost horny, heavy, strong, and very solid at the centre ; it has a good figured grain, and near to the top of the stem, where it branches off, there is generally a rich and pretty feather or curl in it, which is much prized by cabinet-makers, especially when it is of sufficient length for table-tops, or the fronts of drawers. It shrinks very little, and rarely splits externally in seasoning. The average measurement of the logs imported is only about 100 superficial feet of i inch ; while the pieces brought over as curls are seldom more than about 12 superficial feet. Owing to the very small dimensions of this Mahogany tree, there is scarcely any that is available for architectural works, and the supply which comes to us goes solely to meet the demand for cabinet and ornamental purposes. NASSAU MAHOGANY. This is even more dwarfish in character than the Mahogany of St. Domingo, and the logs imported have rarely exceeded 5 or even 3 feet in length, dressed into neat squares of 6 to 12 inches, the latter size being, however, rare. The measured contents of these logs average only about 8 to 9 superficial feet of i inch thick. 262 TIMBER AND TIMBER TREES. [chap. The wood is deep red in colour, hard, heavy, equally horny with the St. Domingo Mahogany, very firm and solid at the centre, fine and close in texture, and is generally veined or figured, or in curls ; hence it is very suitable for cabinet work in a small way, and for turnery. HONDURAS MAHOGANY. This tree, which was formerly found in great abun- dance in the forests of Central America, near to Belize, was first imported into England about 1724 or 1725 ; the supply is, however, gradually failing; but until quite recently it has been brought in sufficient quantities, annually, to meet the requirements of this country; it is therefore well known to commerce as a most valu- able wood for furniture purposes. In contrast with the two varieties last mentioned, these Mahogany trees of Honduras are very tall, and rise 40 to 50 feet to the branches, with a circumference of 6 to 9 feet ; they are generally straight, but are not unfrequently of an irregular or crooked growth ; they yield very fine logs of 25 to 40 feet in length, by 12 to 24 inches square, and some are occasionally met with of much larger dimensions ; but even this does not show, fully, the length of useful wood in this noble tree, since we learn from those engaged in the trade that each tree is cut several feet up from the ground, and that in this way is involved a very unnecessary amount of waste of a most valuable article. The wood is red in colour, moderately hard, strong, tough, flexible and elastic while fresh, but becomes some- what brittle when thoroughly dry ; it has a smooth, silky grain, works up well, and does not shrink or warp much in seasoning; it is liable, however, to split into xxiv.J MAHOGANY. 263 deep shakes, externally, if this process is carried on too rapidly. The quality of the wood varies very much, according to the situation in which it is grown ; that which is produced on a firm soil and in exposed places, and notably that grown in the northern district, being by far the best, while the timber produced on the low moist grounds is generally soft, spongy, and inferior. For the most part, however, it is of a very plain character, with uniformity of colour, although occasionally logs are found with a waviness or curl in the grain, ap- proaching to figure ; and these, when worked up and polished, present an appearance of great beauty ; such logs generally realise, as in the case of Cuba Mahogany, a much higher price than logs of the ordinary description, which fetch at present market prices (1875) about 4^ d. to 6d. per foot superficial of i inch. About two-thirds only of the actual cubic contents, calliper measure, are, however, brought to sale account ; the remainder or difference being allowed for the waste of saw kerfs, shakes, defects, centres, &c., in the conversion of the log into board, Scc."^ The economical uses of this wood are very numerous, and it is much sought after by shipwrights, carpenters, cabinet-makers, turners, and others, who employ it for a great variety of purposes. It has been largely used in ship-building for beams, planking, and in many other ways as a substitute for Oak, and found to answer ex- ceedingly well. It is also used extensively for cabin- fitments ; and in its application to the arts there is scarcely any limit to its usefulness. The Honduras and other descriptions of Mahogany have only about ^ to i inch of alburnum or sap-wood * This mode of measurement applies equally to all the other descriptions of Mahogany, and to Cedar. 264 TIMBER AND TIMBER TREES. [chap. on them, and being remarkably free from defect, the loss in conversion is comparatively small. Table CI.— Mahogany (Honduras). Tra?isverse Experiments. Number of the specimen. Deflections. Total weight required to break each piece. Specific gravity. With the apparatus weighing 390 lbs. After the weight was removed. At the crisis of breaking. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Inches. 2"00 175 2-25 2 '00 1-65 1-85 Inch. *IO •00 •10 •05 •10 ■15 Inches. 4 '50 375 375 3 "55 4'i5 4'65 lbs. 811 821 750 756 823 851 644 684 650 662 650 666 Total . . 11*50 •50 24 '35 4,812 3956 Average . 1*916 •083 4-058 802 659*3 Remarks. — Each piece broke with moderate length of fracture, and splintery. Table CII. Tensile Experiments. Number Dimensions Specific gravity. Weight the Direct of the of piece broke cohesion on specimen. each piece. with. 1 square inch. Inches. ■ lbs. lbs. 7 \ / 662 10,920 2,730 8 650 12,040 3,010 9 644 9,940 2.485 10 666 14,280 3.570 II 684 12,740 3.185 12 / \ 650 12,040 3,010 Total . . 3956 71,960 17,990 Average . 659 ".993 2,998 XXIV.] MAHOGANY. 265 Table CIII. Vertical or Crushing Experiments on cubes of— Number of the specimen. I Inch. 2 Inches. 3 Inches. 4 Inches. Crushed with Crushed with Crushed with Crushed with 13—16 17 — 20 21 — 24 25—28 Tons. 2-675 3-000 2-675 2-875 Tons. 1 1 -00 1 1 00 11-25 1075 Tons. 2775 27 'OO 26-875 27-875 Tons. 45-000 45 "500 44 "875 45'i25 Total . . 11-225 44-00 109-500 180-500 Average . 2 -806 II-OO 27*375 45"i25 Do. per in. 2 -806 275 3-042 2-820 Nos. 29 and 30. Crushed with the weight of One piece, 9" -5 x 9" "5 x 15", 307 tons = 3'493 tons per square inch. 9" '5 X 9" -5 X 18", 336-8,, =3-833 MEXICAN MAHOGANY is the produce of Mexico, in Central America^ where it is very abundant. It is of straight growth and outvies every ^other description of Mahogany in its noble dimen- sions. It yields the timber of commerce in squares of 15 to 36 inches, by i8 to 30 feet in length. These are, however, only the ordinary lengths brought to market, the stems being generally cut into short pieces for the convenience of getting them down the hatchways of the ships, which have frequently to load in a roadstead, where it would be unsafe to open a raft-port. Some of the trees from the district of Minatitlan must be very large, since it is no unusual thing to meet 266 TIMBER AND TIMBER TREES. [chap. with well-squared pieces of this timber, measuring 40 to 48 inches on the side, with every appearance of having- been cut from tall trees. Hence we infer that in their growth they must exceed the height of those grown in Honduras. The wood is red in colour, moderately hard, less strong, and with the centre more soft;, spongy, and shaky than either of the varieties before referred to. Exception may, however, be taken in favour of Tabasco ; the districts of Frontera, Chiltepec, Santa Ana, and Tonala, each yielding some very excellent timber.* The grain of the Minatitlan is generally very plain, but that cut in the province of Tabasco has generally some rowiness or figure to recommend it for special purposes. It is easy to work, takes a good polish, splits very little, and stands well after it is seasoned. It is tough and elastic while quite fresh, but brittle when thoroughly dry, breaking off short if subjected to a heavy strain. The chief defect in Mexican Mahogany is the pre- valence of star-shake, and this, combined with the spongy character of the early layers, or centres, of many of the trees, frequently spreading, as they do, over about one-sixth of their diameter, detracts very much from their usefulness ; but, as this can all be seen by exa- mining the ends, the converter will naturally select and appropriate the logs to the work he may have in hand, and thus avoid any serious loss. The Mexican Mahogany is generally too large and heavy in growth to be converted profitably to ship scantlings, but is in other respects a very good substitute for Honduras for all kinds of joiners' and cabinet work, * Mexican is sold in the London market at about the same price as Honduras Mahogany ; but the cuttings from Tabasco often realise fully 20 per cent. more. XXIV.] MAHOGANY. 267 and is used most extensively in that way. It therefore supplements the supply of Honduras, the deliveries of which of late have been scarcely sufficient to meet the growing demands for it. Table CIV.— Mahogany (Mexican). Transverse Experiments. Number of the specimen. Deflections. Total weight required to break each piece. Specific gravity. With the apparatus weighing 390 lbs. After the weight was removed. At the crisis of breaking. I 2 3 4 5 6 Inches. 1-25 I "25 i"oo I'OO 1-25 I'OO Inch. *oo •10 •05 •00 •15 •05 Inches. 3 '50 4-25 4 '25 3 '65 375 4-15 lbs. 720 700 920 785 880 690 790 612 715 665 660 625 Total . . 675 •35 23 "55 4.695 4067 Average . 1*125 •058 3*925 782-5 677-83 Remarks. — Each piece broke short. Table CV. Tensile Experiments. Number of the specimen. Dimensions of each piece. Specific gravity. Weight the piece broke with. Direct cohesion on I square inch. 7 8 9 10 II Inches. V 2 X 2 X 30 -< J V. 665 660 625 612 715 lbs. 15,680 15,120 10,640 10,304 l6,8oo lbs. 3.920 3.780 2,660 2.576 4,200 Total . . ... 3277 68,544 17.136 Average . ... 655 13.709 3.427 268 TIMBER AND TIMBER TREES. [chap. Table CVI. Vertical Experiments on cubes of- Number of the specimen. I Inch. 2 Inches. 3 Inches. 4 Inches. Crushed with Crushed with Crushed with Crushed with 12—15 16 — 19 20 — 23 24—27 Tons. 2-875 2-375 2*250 2250 Tons. 11*500 9-500 10*625 10*500 Tons. 22*500 24 -ooo 22*125 23-125 Tons. 38-500 38-125 37-500 39-125 Total . . 9750 42*125 91750 i53"25 Average . 2*437 10-531 22*937 38-312 Do. per in. 2-437 2-633 2-549 2-394 Nos. 28 and 29. Inches. Tons. Tons. One piece, 8-5 x 10 x 12, crushed with the weight of 279-2 = 3-285 per sq. inch. ,, 8-5x10x21, ,, ,, ,, 245-5 = 2-887 CUBA, HONDURAS, AND MEXICAN CEDARS are varieties of the Cedrela odorata, but in their nature and condition of growth are very different from the genus CedruSf the Cedar* of Lebanon, &c., which are conifers, and succeed best with plenty of room and in open grounds, whilst the " Cedar " wood trees of the West Indies and Central America appear to prefer a closer situation, and attain the greatest perfection in the forests. Many of these are very fine trees, capable of yielding well-squared logs of timber, 12 to 24 inches on the side by 18 to 40 feet in length, and even these dimensions are occasionally exceeded. Smaller timber is brought in considerable quantities into the market, * See p. 210. XXIV.] CEDARS. 269 the whole finding a ready sale among cabinet-makers and with those engaged in the manufacture of cigar- boxes and similar articles. Table CVII.— Cedar (Cuba). Transverse Experiments. Number of the specimen. Deflections. Total weight required to break each piece. Specific gravity. With the apparatus weighing 390 lbs. After the weight was removed. At the crisis of breaking. I 2 3 4 5 6 Inches. 2-25 2-35 2*00 2-25 2 '25 2-50 Inch. ■OS •30 '25 ■25 '35 •35 Inches. 4 '35 4"35 4 '25 4*25 4-35 4 "65 lbs. 530 555 630 560 550 535 372 386 530 504 416 425 Total . . 13-60 I '55 26*20 3-360 2633 Average . 2 '266 •258 4-366 560 439 Remarks. — All broke with a short fracture. Table CVIII. Tensile Experiments. Number of the specimen. Dimensions of each piece. Specific gravity. Weight the piece broke with. Direct cohesion on I square inch. 7 8 9 10 Inches." ) ( V 2 X 2 X 30 ^ 416 425 504 530 lbs. 11,760 11,200 12,320 10,640 lbs. 2,940 2,800 3.080 2,660 Total . . ... 1875 45,920 11,480 Average . ... 469 11,480 2,870 TJO TIMBER AND TIMBER TREES. [chap. Table CIX. Vertical or Crushing Strain on nibes of 2 inches. No. II. No. 12. No. 13. No. 14. Total. Average. Ditto on I square inch. Tons. Tons. Tons. Tons. Tons. Tons. 8-O0 775 9*oo 7 '25 32*00 8-O0 2 00 The specific gravity of well-seasoned Cuba Cedar is about 439. The specific gravities of moderately- seasoned Cuba, Mexican, and Honduras Cedars are respectively 564, 640, and 664. GREEN HEART {Nectandva Rodim). This tree, belonging to the natural order Lauracecs, is found in Guiana, in the north-eastern portion of South America, and in the West Indies, and is an exceedingly valuable timber of perfectly straight growth, of from 24 to 50 feet in length, and 12 to 24 inches square. Dr. Rodie detected in the bark of this tree an alkaloid called Bebeerine, which is used by the inhabi- tants of British Guiana as a remedy for fevers ; and it is said, that when used as a substitute for quinine, it does not produce the headache and other symptoms found to follow the use of that medicine. The wood is of a dark greenish or chestnut colour, the centre part being often nearly black ; it, however, varies slightly, and the darker kinds are considered the best in quality. It is clean and straight in the grain, very hard and heavy, tough, strong, and elastic. In a transverse section it resembles a cane in being very full XXIV.] GREENHEART. 271 of minute pores, and the concentric layers are only in rare instances distinguishable. The heart-wood is considered very durable, and is generally believed to be proof against the ravages of the wornn v/hen used for piles, or other purposes under water, a property which would greatly enhance its value if it could be relied upon ; but its total immunity under such circumstances is doubtful. Of the durability of the Greenheart timber, we have had sufficient evidence in the large stock of this wood kept in the royal dockyards, where it stood the test of many years' exposure to the weather, without being in any but the least degree affected by it. At Woolwich, the only place, I believe, where any attempt was made to protect it for preservation, the experiment to some extent failed, the ends of the logs splitting open rather more in the covered stacks than in those which were left exposed, while in other respects, there was abso- lutely no difference observable between the two parcels. It is characteristic, however, of the Greenheart timber to split in this way, and to open clean across the pith in seasoning, there being frequently two such splits crossing each other at nearly right angles, and cleaving the log, at the end, into four segments; but these do not, usually, extend more than two or three feet up from the end. This serious defect is, to some extent, compensated for by the fact that the logs do not split and form deep shakes along the sides in the seasoning, as do most other woods ; so that there is not, after all, more than the ordinary amount of waste in the conversion of this kind of timber. Further, it is remarkable for its freedom from knots, and also for its general soundness, the only defect, beyond the splitting of the ends before mentioned, being a cross fracture of the longitudinal fibres, which is occa- 272 TIMBER AND TIMBER TREES. [chap. sionally seen^ but can seldom be detected before the log is under conversion. The alburnum^ or sap of this wood, is of a dark greenish colour, and differs so little in appearance from the heart-wood, that it is often difficult to distinguish the one from the other. In quantity it is usually excessive, frequently amounting to a fifth, and sometimes even to a third, of the diameter of the tree. Few people, however, regard it when appropriating this timber to works of construction. Owing to the difficulty of distinguishing the sap,, many either dispute its presence altogether, or assert that if it exists it may be safely employed the same as the sap of Lignum Vitae ; this is, however, by no means certain, as I have found that if it is placed in any damp or imperfectly ventilated situation, it decays much sooner than the heart-wood ; but if used under more favourable circumstances, its durability is very great. In connection with this question, a merchant and importer of Greenheart timber said upon one occasion,, when we had a parcel under survey, that he was confident a certain log had no sap-wood upon it, for if it had, it would be liable to the attack of a small worm, but that the worm would not touch the heart-wood. The log referred to was accordingly tested by cutting off a thin cross section, and upon examination of the piece, there were found in it several marks or traces of the worm, which had penetrated to the depth of 2 to 3 inches ; the heart-wood, or duramen, had not, however, been touched. The gentleman at once admitted that, with such evidence, he would take it as conclusive that there was sap to the depth of 3 inches on the log, but that its appearance had entirely deceived him. xxiv.J GREENHEART. 273 The case was no doubt exceptional, as the worm is very seldom seen in this wood. Greenheart is extensively employed in ship-building for keelsons, engine-bearers, beams, shelf-pieces, &c., and for planking". It is also used for piles, and many other purposes, but its application to the domestic arts is some- what limited by its great weight. The strength of this wood exceeds that of most others, whether it be tried by the transverse or tensile strain, or by a crushing force in the direction of its fibres. Tried by the latter process, it exhibits a peculiarity unshared, I believe, by any other timber except Sabicu. It bears the addition of weight after weight without showing any signs of yielding; and, when the crushing force is obtained, it gives way suddenly and completely, with a loud report, nothing being left of the pieces but a loose mass of shapeless fibres. The Greenheart timber is not usually hewn in the perfect manner that Teak, Mahogany, and many other woods are when prepared for shipment to the markets of this country, but comes from Demerara only partially dressed, a great deal of wane being left upon the angles. The butts are also almost invariably left with the snapped ends, as prepared for drawing out of the forest, instead of being cut off square. Its form should therefore be considered with the price quoted per load, as it will not compare favourably with well-squared timber. 274 TIMBER AND TIMBER TREES. [chap. Table CX.— Greenheart (Demerara) Transverse Experiments. Number of the specimen. .Deflections. Total weight required to break each piece. Specific Gravity. With the apparatus weighing 390 lbs. After the weight was removed. At the crisis of breaking. I 2 3 4 5 6 Inches. 2-15 2'00 2*25 2"00 2*25 2-25 Inch. •05 '00 •15 •00 •15 •05 Inches. 5-00 475 4 "60 5'oo 4-15 4'25 lbs. 1.235 1,656 1.305 1,212 1,258 1.329 I180 I193 1079 I152 I172 II22 Total . . 1 2 '90 •40 2775 7.995 6898 Average . 2-15 •066 4-625 1.332-5 1 149 "6 Remarks. — Nos. i, 2, 3, and 6 broke with splintery fractures, 12 to 15 inches in length ; 4 and 5 with similar fractures, but only 10 to 12 inches in length. Table CXI. Tensile Experiments. Number of the specimen. Dimensions of_ each piece. Specific gravity. ^Yeight the piece broke with. Direct cohesion on 1 square inch. 7 8 9 Inches. I 2 X 2 X 30 ] I152 1079 1 193 lbs. 31,920 36,400 37.520 lbs 7.980 9,100 9.380 Total . . ! 3424 1 105,840 26,460 Average .1 1141 35,280 1 8,820 XXIV.] MORA. 275 Table CXII. Vertical Experiments on cubes of— Number of the specimen. I Inch. 2 Inches. 3 Inches. 4 Inches. Crushed with Crushed with Crushed with Crushed with 10—13 14—17 18—21 22—25 Tons. 7-00 675 675 6-50 Tons. 27 'OOO 27-362 27750 27 'OOO Tons. S7"i25 58*000 57 '250 56-875 Tons. 93"iSO 92*875 92*625 93 "500 Total . . 27*00 109112 229*25 372*150 Average . 675 27*278 57 "312 93 "037 Do. per in. 675 6-819 6*368 5-814 Table CXIII. Vertical Experiments, — Foicr pieces, Nos. 26, 27, 28, and 29, each 2x2 inches, and respectively 1234 Inches in length. Crushed with 27*25 | 27*2875 | 25*875 | 25*862 Tons. MORA [Mora excelsa)^ the product of Demerara and the island of Trinidad, is a Leguminous tree of straight growth^ yielding timber in the log of 18 to 35 feet in length, and 12 to 20 inches square. The wood is of a chestnut-brown colour, hard, heavy, tough, strong, and generally straight in the grain, but has occasionally a twist or waviness in the fibre, which Corrected to Dimorphandra Mora (Beuth) in the Kew Catalogue. T 2 276 TIMBER AND TIMBER TREES. [chap. imparts to the logs possessing it a beautifully figured appearance, giving to thena much additional value. As it takes a good polish, it would be useful as a substitute for Rosewood or dark Spanish Mahogany in cabinet- making, and might be employed for many purposes in the domestic arts. The economical uses of the Mora are somewhat restricted by the frequency of star-shake in the logs, and only the best trees can be advantageously converted into plank and board ; it may, however, be used with greater profit for beams, keelsons, engine-bearers, &c., in ship-building, and in a general way in large scantlings for either civil or naval architecture. The Mora possesses great strength, and contains an oily or glutinous substance in its pores, which is probably conducive to its durability. Table CXIV.— Mora (Demerara and Trinidad). Transverse Experiments. Number of the specimen. Deflections. Total weight required to break each piece. Specific gravity. With the apparatus weighing 390 lbs. After the weight was removed. At the crisis of breaking. I 2 3 4 Inches. 2'00 2"00 215 2"00 Inch. •10 ■10 •15 •OS Inches. 475 5-00 5-00 5'oo lbs. 1.353 1.363 1.304 1,284 I07S 1088 1094 1090 Total . . 8-iS •40 1975 5.304 4347 Average . 2-037 •10 4 "94 1,326 108675 Remakks. — Each piece broke with about 12 inches length of fracture. XXIV.] MORA. 277 Table CXV. Tensile Experiments. Number of the specimen. Dimensions of each piece. Specific gravity. Wei§;ht the piece broke with. Direct cohesion on I square inch. 5 ^ 7 ) Inches. 2 X 2 X 30 f 1094 } 1090 I 1075 lbs. 37,800 37.240 35.840 lbs. 9.450 9.310 8,960 Total . ... 3259 iio,88g 27,720 Average . ... 1086 36,960 9,240 Table CXVI. Vertical or Crushing Strain on cubes of 2 inches. No. 8. No, 9. No. 10. No. II. No. 12. No. 13. Total. Average. Ditto on I square inch. Tons. Tons. Tons. Tons. Tons. Tons. Tons, Tons. 14-875 14*750 14*875 15750 15*750 15*500 91*50 15*25 3-812 The island of Trinidad also produces the Carapo {Carapa guyanensis) and the Balata trees, both of which attain moderate dimensions. Sample logs of the Carapo timber were a few years since sent to Woolwich Dockyard, with a view to their introduction for ship-building purposes. The wood was red in colour, straight in the grain, of moderate weight and hardness, and somewhat resembled inferior Mahogany. It had, however, a strong tendency to split and tear to pieces in seasoning, and in only a few months it was 278 TIMBER AND TIMBER TREES. [chap. so far deteriorated by shakes as to be unfit for almost any purpose in carpentry. The wood of the Balata tree {Mimusops globosa) was dark red in colour — fine, close, and straight in the grain — hard, heavy, strong, and somewhat resembled the African timber of commerce, except that the centre of the logs was very shaky. Decay, with hollowness, had set in about the pith in some of the logs, indicating that it had commenced while the trees were still young, and otherwise strong and vigorous. When the logs referred to had been kept for only a few months to season, the ends split open very much, and as these splits or shakes crossed each other at nearly right angles, and extended rapidly, they seemed likely soon to separate the pieces into four quarters, a serious defect which disqualified them for use in large scantlings, and rendered them only fit for some inferior purposes. Judged by the samples of Carapo and Balata, it seems that neither are suitable for important works of construction; it is therefore doubtful whether any supplies will be now imported. JUBA {Erythroxylofi) is found in Havana. Two sample pieces of plank, cut from the Juba tree, were sent by the Consul-General in Cuba, in 1858, to the Admiralty, with a view to the intro- duction of this wood into the royal dockyards for ship- building purposes. It was understood they were forwarded at the request of Mr. Donald, a gentleman of considerable experience in the timber business, who was of opinion that it would be found a useful wood. He reported that the tree XXIV.] SABICU. 279 attained the same dimensions as the Sabicu, and that it could be supplied in large quantities. It, therefore, appeared to be well worth a consideration, as the im- portation of Sabicu timber was very limited, and scarcely equal to the demand for it. The samples referred to, upon examination at Wool- wich, were found to have been cut from small trees, but so far as could be judged from their appearance, the timber was suitable for use in architecture, and would probably be useful in the domestic arts. The wood of the Juba tree is yellow in colour, hard, heavy, strong, close in the grain, and apparently would work up well. The specific gravity is about 1072. I have not been able to ascertain that it has ever been brought upon the London market, and think it likely its uses are chiefly confined to the island of Cuba. SABICU {Lysiloma Sabicu), known also as Savicu, is a native of the West Indies, and is plentiful in Cuba. Its growth is somewhat crooked and irregular, but it yields excellent timber of from 20 to 35 feet in length, and from 11 to 24 inches square. The wood is of a dark chestnut colour, hard, heavy, strong, close in the grain, and is often twisted or curled in the fibres, which gives it a wavy, or, as it is technically termed, a figured appearance, imparting to it a rich dark colour, which resembles and is sometimes mistaken for Rosewood. It is often on this account of considerable value, and being capable of taking a high polish, is much prized by cabinet-makers and others who employ it for furniture, &c. 28o TIMBER AND TIMBER TREES. [chap. The Sabicu has very little sap, and is a remarkably solid wood. It is characteristic of it that there is an almost complete absence of the heart, star, and cup- shakes. It seasons slowly, shrinks but little, and does not split, as do most other woods, while undergoing that process. It also bears exposure to the weather without being in any but the slightest degree afifected, even if left without either paint or varnish to protect it ; further, it works up well, and there is only a trifling loss in its conversion. Therefore, as this wood is known to be durable, it has much to recommend it to the favourable notice of the manufacturer. There is one defect, however, occasionally met with in the Sabicu, which must be set against the good qualities before mentioned, as it is more common to this than to any other timber with which we are acquainted. This is a cross fracture of a very remarkable kind, and of the greatest importance, from the fact that it can rarely be detected until the log is in process of conversion. It is then sometimes found that the longitudinal fibres of the early and middle period of the tree's existence are completely broken, while the outer woody layers of both the duramen and alburnum are perfect. This defect will sometimes occur in several places in the same tree. It is difficult to conjecture the cause of this, since it cannot, one would think, be done by the concussion in tlie fall of the tree, as that would, if any injury were done, produce a more extensive fracture than has been noticed ; one which would be apparent upon a superficial examination of the surface. I therefore incline to the opinion that it is produced by the storms and hurricanes that occasionally sweep over the island, swaying the trees to and fro, and snapping the longitudinal fibres of the stem, without breaking them completely off; the XXIV.] SABICU. 281 later growth apparently strengthening, and most effectually covering the defect. It nnay, however, be well to state, that in offering this opinion of the cause of the cross fracture in Sabicu timber, the same does not appear to affect the Mahogany and other trees, the produce of Cuba, since no instance of this peculiar defect has been found. Sabicu is used in ship-building for beams, keelsons^ engine-bearers, and stern-posts, and for pillars, cleats, &c. Officers have, however, hesitated to employ it for beams which are intended to carry heavy guns, lest it should contain some hidden defect of the character just mentioned. It is only sparingly used in works of civil architecture, on account of its great specific gravity. Table CXVII.— Sabicu (Cuba) Tra7tsverse Experiments. Deflections. Total Number of the weight required Specific With the After the At specimen. apparatus weight the crisis to break gravity. weighing was of 390 lbs. removed. breaking. piece. Inches. Inch. Inches. lbs. I I'OO •00 3 "25 1,090 936 2 I'OO •10 4"io 1. 510 928 3 I'OO •05 3'i5 1,090 899 4 •85 •00 4'25 1.390 910 5 I'OO •05 3 "SO 1,280 923 6 •90 •00 4-25 1.395 904 Total . . 575 •20 22-50 7.755 5500 Average . •958 •033 375 1,292-5 916 '66 Remarks — Nos. i, 4, 5, and 6 broke with about 10 to 11 inches fracture; 2 and broke with 8 inches fracture. 282 TIMBER AND TIMBER TREES. [chap. Table CXVIII. Tensile Experiments. Number of the specimen. Dimensions of_ each piece. Qr^«^;fir Weight the Spe^fi*^ piecl broke gravity. ^ ^-^^^ Direct cohesion on I square inch. 7 8 9 lO 11 12 Inches. 1 f > 2 X 2 X 30 < 923 904 910 936 899 928 lbs. 17,360 24,360 22,120 21,280 20,776 27,496 lbs. 4.340 6,090 5.530 5.320 5.194 6,874 1 Total . . ... SSoo 133-392 33.348 Average . ... 916-66 22,232 S.558 Table CXIX. Vertical Experiments on cubes of— Number of the specimen. I Inch. 2 Inches. 3 Inches. 4 Inches. Crushed with Crushed with Crushed with Crushed with 13—16 17 — 20 21, 22 23. 24 Tons. 3-000 3*250 3'i25 2-875 Tons. 15-875 16-750 i6-ooo 14750 Tons. 36-625 36-500 Tons. 6175 6375 Total . . 12-25 63*375 73'i25 125-50 Average . 3-062 15 "844 36-562 62-75 Do. per in. 3-062 3-961 4*06 3-922 XXIV.] LIGNUM VIT^. 283 LIGNUM VIT^ {Guaiacum officinale)^ one of the Zygophyllece^ is found on several of the West India Islands, and in many other places, but the chief supplies come from St. Domingo and Bahama. It attains, in the former, the diameter of 22 inches, and some 30 to 40 feet in length ; but the Bahama is generally very small. The wood is dark brown, or rather greenish black, in colour, very hard, heavy, strong, and close and wiry in the grain ; it is difficult to work in any fashion, but there is nothing equal to it for the making of sheaves for blocks, and when employed in this way it wears well, and seems almost imperishable. I have examined some sheaves after they have been in use for 50 to 70 years, and found them perfectly good, and fit for further service. The sap-wood is yellow in colour, ^ to i inch in thickness, and, like the sap of English Elm, is of such exceptionable character, that it is equally as good and durable as the heart- wood. In sheave making, a belt of this sap-wood is, if possible, left on to preserve the rest of it from splitting. The chief defect in Lignum Vitae is the cup-shake, and this occurs rather frequently in the wood of 10 inches and upwards in diameter ; it is, there- fore, often difficult to obtain a sufficient supply of the larger sizes suitable for the block-maker, who must have not only the roundest, but also the most solid, wood for his purpose. There are many demands, however, for this wood for less important services, and all that comes finds a ready sale. Lignum Vitae is imported in the round state, and in very short lengths ; pieces under 10 inches diameter are usually in lengths of 6 to 12 feet, and the larger wood in * A totally different wood, yielded by a species of Ixora, goes by this name in British Guiana. 284 TIMBER AND TIMBER TREES. [chap, lengths of 3 to 6 feet. It is commonly sold by weight, and realises from £,6 to ;^i8 per ton, according to size and quality. That from the city of St. Domingo is the best. The specific gravity is 1248. ROSEWOOD ( TriptoleincEa ) . The name Rosewood is applied to very different timbers in various parts of the world. West Indian Rosewood, of the best kind, appears to be the timber of Dalbergia nigra, but there is little doubt that several allied species are thus denominated, e.g. Machceriurn — the lacarandas of Brazil. African Rosewood is Pterocarpus erinaceus^ and in India the wood oi Dalbergia latifolia is thus named, as in Burmah is that of Pterocarpus indicus. In Australia species o{ Acacia, Dysoxylon, Eremophila and Synouin go under this name, some of them, however, on account of their scent, and not their resemblance to the cabinet- makers' wood. Canary Rosewood is Rhodorhiza sco- paria, and the Cordia Gerascajtthus of Dominica receives the name. Amyris balsamifera and others are also so called in the West Indies. Further information as to the Rosewood is much wanted. It is found in Jamaica, Honduras, Bahia, Rio, and San Francisco. It attains large dimensions, but is often faulty in the centre, owing to decay setting in long before the tree reaches maturity. The wood is dark chestnut, or brown, in colour, streaked or veined, and generally figured in the grain ; it is hard and heavy, but in the hands of the cabinet and pianoforte makers it works up well ; it is highly valuable for all kinds of ornamental work, and for many purposes in the domestic arts. It takes a good polish. XXIV.] ANGELIQUE. 285 The chief defect in this wood is heart-shake, or hollowness at the centre, which extends far up the tree, and this necessitates the cutting of the logs down the middle longitudinally ; often a middle piece is wasted on this account, consequently we never see sound solid square logs, or even plank, but generally half-round flitches, 10 to 20 feet in length, and varying from 5 to 12 inches in the thicker part, put upon the market, the inside or sawn surface being even then frequently deficient of wood in the centre, exhibiting in part the hollowness pertaining to the tree. Solid round Rosewood logs beyond the medium size, or 14 inches in diameter, are extremely rare, and the best that I have met with were brought from San Francisco. Owing to the difficulty there is in measuring half-round flitches of the nature and form herein described, this wood can only be sold by weight. It realises, for the inferior, ^lO to ;^I2, and for the good, ^20 to £^0 per ton ; the superior qualities fetch much higher prices. The following woods, the growth of French Guiana, were selected under a commission appointed by the Colonial Government of St. Laurent du Maroni. They were imported into Havre only recently (1874). I. Angelique. This tree is of straight growth, and yields timber 12 to 22 inches square, by 20 to 54 feet in length, clear of branches. The wood is of a reddish-brown colour, clean and even in the grain, moderately hard, tough, strong, elastic, and not difficult to work, although it does not cleave readily. Occasionally a few logs are found with a waviness or figure in the grain, which would make them valuable to the cabinet-maker. There is little sap-wood. The timber is very sound and free from knots, and. 286 TIMBER AND TIMBER TREES. [chap. except that a small percentage of the logs have a slight heart, or perhaps, star-shake at the pith or centre, there are no defects affecting the conversion of it into planks, boards, &c., as may be required. This wood, therefore, seems fit for employment in architecture for most of the purposes to which African Mahogany, Oak, Teak, Sabicu, &c., &c., are used. It is reported to have been used for some time in the French dockyards as backing to armour plates on ships, and as it does not appear to contain any acid it might be employed in lieu of Teak for a similar purpose in England. It has been said that it does not rot in water, that it is proof against attacks from many insects to which other timber is liable, and that it is durable. The specific gravity is estimated to be about 770 to 820 when seasoned.* 2. Balata. (See p. 278.) This wood is of a yellowish colour, hard, heavy, strong, plain in grain, with slight heart-shake at pith or centre. It appears to be of good quality, and fit for employment in architecture in lieu of other hard wood, or it might be used for furniture. The sample logs were 13 to 18 inches square, by 20 to 24 feet in length. 3. Ebene. This wood is greenish in colour, very hard, heavy, strong, plain and even in the grain, solid, and good in quality. The sap-wood is about i^ inch thick. It would be useful in turnery, or for any of the * Since the above was written, an opportunity has offered of practically testing a few logs of partially seasoned Angdlique timber, s. g. 916. They opened very sound, and were tough, strong, and elastic. There was very little waste in the conversion — in reducing it to planks, «S:c. In working, however, it was found that some of the logs emitted an unpleasant odour, and — unless in seasoning the odour should evaporate — this may possibly prove ditrimental to its value for general purposes, perhaps for the inside of ships, or in close, damp places. xxiv.J VARIOUS. 287 purposes to which the common or Ceylon Ebony is applied. 4. Ebene rouge. This wood is of a dark reddish colour, hard, heavy, strong, and straight in the grain, but is scarcely so solid at the centre as the last-mentioned wood. The dimensions of two sample logs were 12 to 14 inches square, by 14 to 17 feet in length. Both had cup-shakes at the ends. The uses for this wood would be similar to No. 3. 5. Grignon. This wood is red in colour, moderately hard, close and plain in the grain, and solid. It is of good quality, and fit to be employed in civil architecture, or in the domestic arts. The dimensions of sample logs varied from 14 to 17 inches square, and 14 to 27 feet in length. 6. Maconatari. Only one out of six pieces sent could be identified ; it was dark in colour, hard, and heavy. The dimensions given for the parcel varied from 14 to 20 inches square, and 14 to 23 feet in length. 7. Paccouri Soufri. This wood is of a reddish- yellow, or brimstone colour, of a moderate degree of hardness, straight in the grain, and disposed to split freely in seasoning. Three logs were sent as samples, and each had injurious heart and cup-shakes. The dimensions were 19 to 22 inches square, and 14 feet in length : longer timber could no doubt be obtained if it were worth while, but it seems to be only fit for very inferior purposes. 8. Rose male. This wood is of a yellowish colour, moderately hard, heavy, and straight in the grain. Only one sample log was sent; the dimensions were 12 inches square, and 14 feet in length, both ends were covered with wood clamps, which was probably done to hide a faulty centre. It appeared to be only fit for inferior purposes. 288 TIMBER AND TIMBER TREES. [chap. 9. Rose femelle. This wood, like the preceding, is of a yellowish colour, hard, of moderate weight, and straight in the grain. Only one sample log was sent ; the dimen- sions were 16 inches square and 14 feet in length, and this was touched with incipient decay at the centre. Like No. 8, it appeared to be only fit for inferior purposes. 10. Simarouba. This wood is light in colour, mode- rately hard, plain and free in the grain, and splits rather seriously in seasoning. The quality is not good, it there- fore could only be used for inferior purposes. The dimensions of the logs varied from 14 to 16 inches square, and 13 to 14 feet in length. 11. Satine. This wood is red in colour, hard, heavy, solid, and of good quality. It might be employed in either naval or civil architecture in lieu of other hard wood, and also for cabinet work, turnery, &c., &c. The dimensions of the logs varied from 13 to 15 inches square, and 14 to 28 feet in length. The sap-wood left upon the angles appeared to be about i^ inch thick. 12. St. Martin. This wood is red in colour, hard, heavy, close and straight in the grain, and of good quality. It might be employed in either naval or civil architecture in lieu of other hard wood, and would be valuable for furniture and other purposes. The dimensions of the two sample logs were 17 and 20 inches square, and 2y}^ feet in length. 13. Violet. This wood is of a violet colour, very hard and heavy, close and fine in the grain, and solid. The quality is very good, and therefore it is likely to be highly prized by the cabinet-maker, turner, and others. The dimensions of the logs were 11 and 13 inches square, and 24 feet in length. 14. Wacapou. This wood is brownish in colour, straight, and clean in the grain, of moderate hardness XXIV.] SOUTH AMERICAN TIMBERS. 289 and weight, and inclined to split or shake rather seriously from the pith or centre. It would not, therefore, be of much value for architectural purposes, but in the domestic arts it could be turned to account in many ways. The dimensions of the logs varied from 13 to 16 inches square, and from 14 to 21 feet in length. 15. Wacapou gris. This wood is darker in colour than the preceding, and has a slight resemblance to Rosewood, but is upon the whole pretty much of the same character as the Wacapou, and of no value except perhaps for the plainer description of cabinet work. The dimensions are the same as No. 14. 16. Ebene verte. This wood is dark green in colour, very hard, heavy, close in the grain, solid, and of good quality. Like No. 3, it has about ijf^ inch of sap-wood. The dimensions of the logs varied from 14 to 16 inches square, and were about 14 feet in length. It would be chiefly used in cabinet work and turnery. 17. Boco. This wood is dark in colour, hard, heavy, straight, and of good quality. It might be useful in architecture as an article of general applicability in place of other hard and strong wood, or to the cabinet-maker for furniture, &c., &c. The logs were delivered at the docks in Havre in a round state, and were about 18 inches in diameter, and 29 feet in length. 18. Panacoco. This wood is dark in colour, hard, heavy, straight, and of good quality, the sap-wood being about i^ inch thick. It might be used as a substi- tute for other hard wood in architecture, or for general purposes. The sample log was in a round state, 17 inches diameter, and 32}^ feet in length. All the woods, from 2 to 18 inclusive, were readily taken by the Parisian and local dealers at Havre for cabinet and other purposes, and realised good prices. u 290 TIMBER AND TIMBER TREES. [chap. A great many specimens of other woods growing in the French colony at Guiana were also sent with the foregoing ; but as they were quite small 'pieces it was difficult to judge of their fitness for employment in architectural or other works. Probably before long some of these may be supplemented by sample logs, similar in dimensions to Nos. 2 to i8, and if so, a better estimate may be formed of their commercial value. SANTA MARIA [Calophyllum Calaba) is found in Honduras, in Central America, but is not considered to be abundant; and very little of it finds its way to the markets of this country. It is of nearly straight growth, and attains the height of 60 to 90 feet, with a circumference of from 7 to 9 feet, yielding very fine logs, measuring from 25 to 50 feet in length and from 12 to 22 inches square. The wood is of a pale reddish colour, moderately hard, has a clean fine straight grain, and is a little porous. It is generally free from injurious heart or star- shake, has few knots, does not shrink much, and scarcely splits at all in seasoning. It is easily worked, and may there- fore be considered a very fair substitute for the plainest Honduras or Mexican Mahogany. Some few years since several cargoes of Santa Maria timber were brought to the royal dockyards, and employed there for beams, planking, &c., in ships ; and although it would seem never to have been much in favour as a building wood, there is good reason to think that in the absence of Mahogany it might very well be used for cabin fitments, for furni- ture, and many other purposes. This wood stands exposure to the weather remarkably well, and is, I think, durable, since a parcel of about 150 XXIV.] BRAZILIAN TIMBERS. 291 loads which I inspected after it had been left in the open in a moist country for about ten years, showed scarcely any signs of deterioration either at the centre or at any other part, and had but few shakes on the external surfaces. The specific gravity is about the same as Honduras or Mexican Mahogany. Southwards from Central America there are to be found^in the forests of the Brazilian Empire great varieties of timber trees, many of which are no doubt of good quality and fit for architectural purposes, but little or nothing is known of them in this country. I therefore take the present opportunity to place before the reader a brief description of some twenty-four of them, with their uses ; observing that specimens of these woods, 3" X i" X i", were sent to the Admiralty in 1858, by H.B.M.'s Consul at Rio de Janeiro, with the view to the introduction of some of them for employment in ship- building. Angelim-vermetho, The wood is reddish brown in colour, and moderately heavy. It is probably of crooked growth, as it is used for ship-timbers in the Brazilian dockyards. Judged by the specimen, this appears to be of good quality. Incaranda-tan. The wood is reddish in colour, close-grained, and fit to be employed for furniture and ornamental work. It is used for these purposes, and might be made available for architectural works, as it appears to be of good quality. Securipa, This is a brown-coloured wood, of mode- rate weight, and fair quality. It is believed to attain large dimensions, and being of straight growth, it would convert well into planks, boards, and scantlings, for u 2 292 TIMBER AND TLMBER TREES. [chap. employment in architecture. It is used for planking and beams in ship-building. Guarabii. The wood is puce-coloured, and fine in grain ; its pores, which are very numerous, being filled with a hard white substance. It is stated to be of straight growth and large dimensions, and would there- fore be applicable to naval and civil architecture, as well as other purposes. It is used in ship-building the same as the Securlpa. Macaranduba. The wood is red in colour, close- grained, strong, and heavy. It is occasionally used for ship-building in the Brazils; and, if the dimensions are suitable, it probably would be found available for architectural works, as it appears to be of good quality. Meriquitiai'a. A reddish-coloured wood, moderate in weight, and apparently of good quality. If it attains to large dimensions it might be employed for archi- tectural purposes. It is used for ornamental work in the Brazils. Pao-de-Pezo. A hard, dark, and heavy close-grained wood, resembling Lignum Vitae. It may be adapted for blocks and sheaves, and, judging from its appear- ance, is well suited to those purposes. Peroba-parda. This is a brown-coloured wood, light, with a fine, straight grain. It attains moderate dimensions, and is used in ship-building. Peroba-branca, or P. de Campos. The wood is yellow in colour, of moderate weight, close and fine in the grain, and not difficult to work. It takes a high polish. It attains large dimensions, and is fit for employment in architecture, for furniture, and gene- rally in the domestic arts. A sample of this wood, 6" X 1 8" X lo', measuring 7>^ cubic feet, was sent to XXIV.] BRAZILIAN TIMBERS. 293 the Admiralty a short time since, with this description, viz.: *^ Produced in square logs of about 24 inches siding and 60 to 70 feet in length. Sound timber of 30 to 40 inches square is common. The tree is of straight growth, is stronger than Teak^ agrees well with iron, and is very durable. The specific gravity is 86S. Brazilian ironclads are built with it." Peroba-vermetho. The wood is red in colour, and has a smooth, close, fine grain ; it is of moderate weight, and resembles, in a slight degree, Pencil Cedar. It was stated with reference to the Peroba-parda, the Peroba-branca, and the Peroba-vermetho trees, that they were " the principal woods adapted for ship-building purposes, being the largest and the lightest, the weight being about 50 lbs. to the cubic foot. Large sizes of these can be obtained, but only at a great expense. The Peroba-branca is more plentiful than the others, is equally good, and better adapted for spars. It floats about the same as Pitch-pine. Peroba is stronger than Teak, but not so heavy.'' Grapiapunha. This is a yellowish-coloured wood, with a clean, free, straight grain, moderately heavy, strong, and one of the most useful woods for planking or timber. It attains only medium dimensions, but may be turned to account in many ways in the domestic arts, although, judging from the appearance of the specimen, it did not impress me as being of the best quality. TapinJwnho. The wood is light brown in colour, porous, with a clean, free, straight grain, moderately heavy, and is used for frame-timbers in ship-building. It attains only moderate dimensions, and is probably of crooked growth. Piquea-marfim. The wood is of a bright yellow 294 TIMBER AND TIMBER TREES. [chap. colour, close and fine in the grain, and would work up well, taking a high polish. It is similar to Satin-wood, but scarcely so hard or so heavy. It is chiefly used for ornamental work, for which it appears to be very suitable. Canella-preta. The wood is brown in colour, straight in grain, light, and easy to work. It is of straight growth, and attains considerable dimensio|ns. It is used for decks in ships, and in house-building and carpentry generally ; but, when old, it becomes soft and spongy, and is considered not to be durable. Jenipapo. This is a light-coloured porous wood, having a clean, straight grain. It works up well, and is employed in carpentry and the domestic arts ; it is also used for planking in ships, but it does not appear to be of a durable character. Camara. This is a light-coloured wood, strong, moderately heavy, of small growth, and is used principally for boats^ timbers. Peguy, The wood is light brown in colour, straight in grain, porous, moderately heavy and strong. It attains medium dimensions, and is used for planking in ships, and for many purposes in carpentry. Arariba-ou-potumuju. This is a light-coloured wood, with a clean, straight grain. It works up well, and is chiefly employed in the domestic arts. The quality is considered to be inferior. Arariba-roza. The wood is red in colour, and has a fine, straight, close grain ; it is very light, and is used for furniture and cabin fittings. It attains only moderate dimensions, and is probably a dye wood. Cedro, This is a light-coloured and very porous wood, of quick growth, and apparently of inferior quality. It is probably a species of Cedar. XXIV.] WEST INDIAN TIMBERS. 295 Mangalo. This is a brown-coloured, porous wood, strong, and moderately heavy. It is used for beams in ship-building", in carpentry, and in the domestic arts. Judged by the specimen, the quality appears to be fair, but little is known as to its durability. Pao-setim. The wood is bright yellow in colour, with a clean, fine, straight grain ; looks as if it would work up well, and is chiefly used for the manufacture of small wares. J acaranda-cabiuna. This is a dark-coloured, porous, open-grained wood ; in appearance it somewhat re- sembles an inferior quality of Rosewood. It is of moderate weight, and works up well for furniture and for ornamental purposes. Vinhatico. The wood is yellow in colour, light, open-grained, and is probably of inferior quality. It appears to be a species of Cedar, and is used by the cabinet-maker, and for many purposes in carpentry. In addition to the foregoing, the following West Indian Timbers may be mentioned, though little is known of them out of the Islands.* The Jamaica Cogwood, the most durable wood for mill-work, &c., under water, yielded by Zyzyphus Chloroxylon, a species of Rhamnacese. Cedrela odorata. See p. 268. Copaifera hymenceifolia is a Cuban tree yielding large building timber in the lowlands, and known there as Cagueyran. JAMAICA. Red Muskwood, Guarea or Moschoxyhim Schwartzii, * Much information is still needed regarding West Indian timbers and their names. The new catalogue of the Kew Museum, No. 3, published since this list was drawn up, should be consulted for further details not included here. See also Reports of the Indian and Colonial Exhibition, 296 TIMBER AND TIMBER TREES. [chap. Iron wood J ErytJiroxylon acreolatum. " Birch," Bursera guvnnifera. Green Ebony, Brya ebeniis. A valuable cabinet wood. Yacca, Podocarpus coriaceus. A cabinet wood. TRINIDAD. Balata, Mimusops glohosa (Sapotaceae). A good building wood. Black Cypre. A species of Cordia. Bois Lezard, Vitex divaricata, Chairwood, Tecoma leucoxylon, Cordia Cerascanthus . A somewhat important timber in the colony. Lignum Vitae. See p. 283. Locust, HymencEa Coitrharil (Leguminosae). A large tree, with close, hard, and very beautiful timber, used for engineering works. Mora. See p. 275. 'R.ohlc, riatyinisczum platystachyuin. Used for ships. Yoke, Piptadenia peregrina. ST. VINCENT. Water-wood, Chimarrhis cymosa. A valuable joiners' wood. ST. LUCIA. Satin-wood, } Maba guianensis (Ebenaceae). Used for furniture. Savonette, Pithecolobium micradeitium. ANTIGUA. Mastick, ? Bit^'sca ginmnifera. XXIV.] WEST INDIAN TIMBERS. 297 DOMINICA. Bullet-wood. Same as Balata (p. 296). Angeliri; Andira inermis. A durable building and engineering timber. Bois Riviere, Chimarrhis cymosa (p. 296). BARBADOES. Fiddle - wood, Citharexyluni melanocardimn (Ver^ benacese). Carpentry and wheelwrights^ work. GRENADA. Dog - wood, Piscidia Erythrina (Leguminosae). Building. Galaba. If this is the Galba of Trinidad {Calophylluvi Calabd) it is an excellent and durable timber. See Santa Maria (p. 290). Sapodilla, Achras Sapota, Furniture, cabinet- work, &c. BAHAMAS. Sabicu, Lysiloma Sahicu (Leguminosae). Valuable for ship-building, imported from Cuba. See p. 279. Braziletto, Ccesalpmia crista. Cabinet work. And C, brasiliensis. Horseflesh. An allied species of Ccesalpinia. BRITISH HONDURAS. Yellow or Pitch Pine, Pinus cubensis. Yellow,, carpentry. Rosewood, Dalbergia. Pianos and cabinet. Palmalatto or Zebra-wood, Connarus guiaitensis, an elegantly marked furniture and cabinet wood. 298 TIMBER AND TIMBER TREES, [chap.xxiv. Santa Maria, Calophylhtm Calaba. Large, yellow, close. Structure and ships. See p. 290. Fustic, Chlorophora tinctoria. A light durable timber, suitable for carriage work and furniture. Iron- wood, Laplacea hcBinatoxylon^ hard, and used for cogs. The following also belong to Honduras, and are for the most part undetermined :^ Button-wood, ? Cephalanthus occidentalis. Cabinet. Granadilla. Red, hard. Building and furniture. Information is wanted about the following and other West Indian timbers : Tacca, Dago, Lancebark, Red Blue Heart, Sceiti, Tappana, Zambosa, Cazon, Dibasse, Acacia, India Oak, Razor Strop, Mawbee, Bois Cassava, Lauriet-zabella, Red Zammier, Axemaster, Blackheart, Chechem, Drunken Bayman, My Lady, Redwood. CHAPTER XXV. AFRICAN TIMBERS. No large division of the globe is so little explored in respect of its Timber as the African Continent, and beyond a few regions such as the Cape and Natal, parts of the West Coast, and a few others, we are almost uninformed as to the supplies or values of the native woods for the purposes of Europeans. The best known of African woods is the AFRICAN OAK OR TEAK * The African Oak tree, the African Teak [Oldfieldia africand)^ is yielded by a species of Euphorbiaceae. It has been known under a variety of names, and confounded with Mahogany under the name of Swietenia Senega- * Cape Teak, or Cape Oak, is an unimportant South African wood, referred to variously as Strychtios, Atherstonea, and Canthium, and has nothing to do with this timber. The term "Oak" is misapphed in different parts of the world. As usual, the Australian colonists have done this largely, numerous species of Casuarina (see p. 252) being thus designated ; but settlers in various other parts of the world have given the name to many other trees having nothing in common with true Oaks. Thus Catalpa longissima goes by this name in St. Domingo, and in Dominica Ilex sideroxy hides, in New Zealand Alectfjon excelstcm. The Ceylon "Oak " is Scheichera trijuga. 300 TIMBER AND TIMBER TREES. [chap. lensis^ or 6". Khaya, and is brought from Sierra Leone, and resembles in properties the Oaks of Europe and America and the Teak of India, largely the character- istics of both species, but much heavier and harder to work. The tree is of straight growth, and the height, as estimated from the logs imported, must be at least 30 to 40 feet clear of the branches, with a circumference of from 7 to 8 feet. This wood is of a dark red colour, very hard, strong, rigid, and difficult to work or cleave ; it has a fine, close, straight grain, is of remarkable solidity, has no injurious heart-shake, and shakes of the cup or star kind are extremely rare in it ; the centre wood, FIG. 27. about the earlier concentric circles, is close and very compact, differing less from the outer layers in texture than in most other trees. In seasoning this timber shrinks very little, it rarely warps, and stands exposure to the weather a long time without opening with surface shakes, or sustaining any apparent damage. African timber, possessing, as it does, so many good properties, is employed in ship - building for beams, keelsons, riding bitts, stanchions, &c., and in a variety of ways ; but in civil architecture, and in the domestic arts, it is only sparingly used, on account of its weight. This timber is brought upon the market in very roughly-hewn logs, intended, no doubt, to be square. XXV.] AFRICAN OAK. 301 but varying considerably from that form, and taking, generally, the most irregular shapes (Fig. 27). Some- times they are angular, at other times they have a thick and a thin edge, resembling, in some degree, a ^'feather- edge" board; again, we find they are neither tapered to the natural growth of the tree, nor made parallel longi- tudinally, but vary in thickness in that direction, leading to a most serious waste of the raw material in the neglect to preserve the fullest-sized square log obtainable from the tree. It will naturally be inferred that, being thus awk- wardly shaped, it is the most difficult of all timber to measure correctly. Table CXX.— African (Africa). Transverse ExJ>erime?ifs. Number of the specimen. Deflections. Total weight required to break each piece. Specific gravity. With the apparatus weighing 390 lbs. After the weight was removed. At the crisis of breaking. I 2 3 4 5 6 Inches. 2-25 2-50 2-50 2*oo 175 2 "50 Inch. ■10 ■05 •05 •00 •00 •10 Inches. 5"50 4-25 575 5'35 475 5 '25 lbs. I -301 971 1,231 1,086 1,014 1,046 982 1086 1008 988 934 962 Total . . 13-50 •30 3085 6,649 5960 Average . 2 '25 •05 5"i42 i,io8*i6 993 '3 Remarks. — Nos. i, 3, and 4 broke with a long fracture ; 2, 5, and 6, short, but fibrous. W2 TIMBER AND TIMBER TREES. [chap. Table CXXI. Tensile Experiments. Number of the specimen. Dimensions of each piece. Specific gravity. Weight the piece broke with. Direct cohesion on I square inch. 7 8 9 lO Inches. V 2 X 2 X 30 ■( 982 1008 934 962 lbs. 30,800 43,400 19,040 19,600 lbs. 7,700 10,850 4,760 4,900 Total . . 3886 112,840 28,210 Average . 1 .... . ... 971-5 28,210 7.052 Table CXXII. Vertical Experiments on cubes of Number of the specimen. I Inch. 8 Inches. 3 Inches. ] 4 Inches. Crushed with Crushed with Crushed with Crushed with 1 II — 14 15. 16 17, 18 19, 20 21, 22 23. 24 Tons. 5-013 4-875 4-875 4-937 4-875 4-875 Tons. 18-625 17-875 18-500 18 000 18-500 18-250 Tons. 39-5 Tons. 64-0 Total . . 29-450 10975 — — Average . 4-908 18-292 39-5 64-0 Do. i^er in. 4-90 4-573 4-388 4-0 XXV.] VARIOUS. 303 Table CXXIII. Vertical Experimetits. Number of the specimen. Dimensions of the pieces. Specific gravity. Crushed with Do. on the square inch. Inches. Length. Inches. Tons. Tons. 25 ) ( I ) / l7'ooo 4-250 26 27 >• 2 X 2 •< 2 3 [ 993 ■] 18 '292 18-875 4*573 4719 28 / \ 4 / ( 18-125 4'53T 29 \ i 7 39-500 4 '390 30 [3x3] 8 38*500 4-277 31 11 35 '500 3 '944 32 ) i 12 36-000 4'ooo 33 4x4 17 63 'OOO 3*938 34 9 X 10 24 433-200 4-811 The principal dicotyledonous timbers of South Africa are: — Stink- wood [Ocotea bullata)^ yielding a timber not unlike Walnut and regarded as a substitute for Teak, and which emits a strong and peculiar odour when worked. Sneeze-wood (Pteroxylon utile), perhaps the most valuable large timber in Cape Colony and Natal. The name is said to be due to the irritant action of the dust given off in working. Large logs can be obtained, and the grain is very beautiful, somewhat resembling Satin-wood. It contains a gum-resin like substance, and burns briskly. Unfortunately it is extremely hard and difficult to convert, drawbacks which, together with its irregularities of growth, must be set off against its undoubted value as a durable and handsome wood for many purposes of engineering, carpentry, and cabinet work. Assegai-wood {Curtisea fagiiiea), a bright red, close, tough furniture wood. 304 TIMBER AND TIMBER TREES. [chap. Candeboo Stink- wood [Celtis Kraussiand)^ dark greenish, beautifully veined^ and very hard. Essen-wood or '' Ash " [Ekebergia capensis\ an easily worked, pale yellow timber of poorer quality than the European Ash, to which it has resemblance. Black Iron-wood {Olea laurifolia)^ dense, close- grained, and heavy, but beautifully figured and good for turnery. White Iron-wood [Toddalia lanceolata), moderately hard, elastic wood, used for wheelwrights' work and general purposes. Red Stink- wood [Brabejuin stellatifolitim) ^ a dark- coloured wheelwright and cabinet wood of moderate size. Boxwood* {Buxus Macowani), a small dense Box, recommended as a substitute for true Box. Wild Chestnut [Calodendron capense)^ a light-coloured, fairly hard, tough and strong wood, useful for waggon work, &c., and said to be suitable for sleepers, but con- demned as inferior by some authorities. Red Els {Cunonia cape^isis)^ a hard, tough and fairly light timber, of good quality and of a rich red colour, useful for furniture work, and said to be durable in water. Saffron-wood [Elceodendron croceuni) is a beautifully- grained furniture wood, somewhat like Walnut ; also useful for boat-building, wheelwright and general work. It is heavy, hard and tough, and durable, and said to be useful for coarser engraving. Cape Ebony, a species of Euclea, of the same family as the true Ebony, is a very hard jet-black wood, suit- * Boxwood is a term commonly applied to several different trees in the colonies. Various species of Eucalyptus go under this name in Australia, and in Tasmania Bursaria spinosa is thus termed. American Boxwood is Cornus Florida ; Jamaica Boxwood is Tecoma pentaphylla ; while in other parts of the West Indies Vitex umbrosa receives this name. Duxus Maco^vani is the Boxwood of the Cape, but (hnioma Kamassi receives the same nime. XXV.] AFRICAN OAK, ETC. 305 able for fancy work ; one or two other species of the genus are used at the Cape, of which the hard, brown, beautifully-figured Ouar is the most important. Other South African timbers of note are the White Milkwood {Sideroxylon merme), the Wild Olive {Olea capensis), the Red-wood {Ochna arborea), and a kind of Boxwood [Gonioma Kamassi), reported as valuable for turnery work and engraving. We have no very extensive knowledge of the woods of Western Africa, and that to which I have just referred is probably the only useful tree known to commerce in the markets of this country. At the Cape I obtained specimens of the Els and Red Els wood, the light, dark, and grey Stink-wood, and the Yellow-wood, and understood that all these grew to moderate dimensions, and were useful for building and domestic purposes in the colony ; but as there were none within easy reach of Cape Town, or then available for exportation, no oppor- tunity was afforded of judging from any large parcel of either as to their real merits. A few years since Mr. Macleod, formerly H.B.M. Consul at the Seychelles Islands, procured a great many specimens of wood from the district of the Zambesi, and sent them to the Admiralty. Annexed is a list of twenty-six varieties, with their names and the dimensions the trees are supposed to attain, as also their uses as given by Mr. Macleod ; observing that where an opinion of the quality is stated, it is the best that I could form from small pieces of 3"x3"xi". Some few of these would certainly be fit for any architectural or other works, but we have no informa- tion as to their abundance or otherwise, or even whether they could be easily brought out from the forests to a port of shipment. X 3o6 TIMBER AND TIMBER TREES. [chap. Table CXXIV. Trees found near the River Zambesi. Dimensions of Stem. No. Local Names. Remarks. Length. Diameter. Feet. Inches. I Inhanpasse . . 6 8 2 Pingue or Pad- preto .... Mocua .... } ' 6 Resembles Lignum vitse. 3 14 8—10 Forked knees. Good quality. 4 Imbila .... 15—18 12 Flexible, light. Middling do. 5 Murumanhama . i8 12 Pale red colour, light. 6 Mocunca . . . 15—18 8—10 Grows crooked, heavy. 7 Mocoza .... 35—45 36-48 Yellow colour, light, wormed. Inferior quality. 8 Mucumite or Sandal-wood . 1 6—8 •{ Brown with light and dark shades of colour, heavy, crooked. Good quality. 9 Pamburo . . . Shrub lO Peam .... 18 12 — 20 Red colour, shrinks and warps, heavy. II Mussangara . . 12 10 Crooked, heavy, Uable to split. 12 Taxa .... 20 20 — 28 Yellowish colour, heavy. Good quality. 13 Mocundo-cundo . 36 40 — 60 Yellow colour, light, porous, used for masts, bark yields quinine. 14 Mucorongo . . 18 12 15 Raiz-de- Pingue or 1 • ... -, Roots spreading, heavy, black Pao-preto . . as ebony. 16 Monangare . . 18 20 — 28 Resembles rosewood, heavy, crooked, used by wheel- wrights, and for blocks. 17 Mocasso-cassa 18 20 — 28 Reddish-brown colour, hard, heavy, used for joiners' work. Good quality. 18 Pao-ferra or Iron- wood .... } =4 •1 Red colour, hard, heavy, used for furniture and treenails. Good quality. 19 Pao-ferro or Mais- ^ 0. • 1 Dark brown, heavy, resembles is-curo . . . f 24 Sabicu, Good quality. 20 Pangira .... 30 26 Brown colour, porous, used in house and ship-building. 21 Pao-fava . . . 22 12 Red colour, light, resembles mahogany. Good quality. 22 Metteral . . . 24 12 Ditto, heavier. Ditto, ditto. 23 Mugunda . . . 40 — 60 12 — 24 Yellow colour, straight, light, used in ship-building. 24 Morrunda . . . IS 5-8 Ditto, ditto, ditto. 25 Mouna .... ^5 12 Red colour, straight, mode- rately heavy. Good quality. 26 Luabo .... 12 lO Ditto, heavy, ditto. I XXV.] IROKO. 307 Mention may also be made of Iroko^ a very valuable and handsome building and cabinet wood, with characters like Satin-wood or wavy Maple, and yielded by Chloro- phora excelsa in Yoruba land. West Africa."^ * Kew Bulletin, 1891, p. 42. For further details concerning African trees, the reader may consult Reports of the Colonial and Indian Exhibition — Report on the Natal Forests, H. G. Fourcade, Maritzburg, 1889, and Report of ihe Colonial Botanist to the Cape (1866). X 2 CHAPTER XXVI. NEW ZEALAND TIMBERS. New Zealand abounds in valuable timbers, some of which are of first importance in building and construc- tion. Perhaps the Conifers are most valuable,, but in addition to them we find the following Dicotyledons. RATA [Metrosideros robustd). This magnificent tree is found in the denser forests of New Zealand, where it reaches its greatest perfection on a rich soil, and with a moderate degree of moisture. In such situations it very commonly attains the height of 80 to 100 feetj with a circumference of from 9 to 12 feet. It often rises with a clear stem to 30 and even 40 feet without a branch, and then puts out very ponderous and robust arms, forming a heavy top. The leaves are marginate, and of a light green ■ colour, ly^, inch in length and ^ inch in width. In December and January this tree puts forth very beautiful crimson polyandrous flowers, which render it conspicuous at a considerable distance.* * There are some very fine creepers growing up the stem and over the tops of the tallest trees in the New Zealand forests, that are so exceedingly like the Rata in wood, bark, leaf, and flower, that 1 could never distinguish any difference between them. [Some other species of Metrosideros are climbers.] CHAP. XXVI.] NEW ZEALAND TIMBERS. 309 The Rata tree yields timber 12 to 30 inches square, and 20 to 50 feet in length. The bark is ragged in appearance and dark brown in colour ; the wood red, hard, heavy, close-grained, strong, and not difficult to work. It is fit for employment in ship-building, and for any work in civil architecture requiring timber of straight growth and large dimensions ; the natives assert that it is very durable. The specific gravity of the Rata, freshly cut, is about 1228, but when seasoned only about "jZS. POHUTUKAWA [Metrosideros tomentosd) is found only on the rocky shores and outlets of rivers in New Zealand. It prefers an exposed situation to any other, and requires but little soil for its nourishment. The bark is ragged in appearance, thick, reddish- grey in colour, and yields a good brown dye. The tree is very hardy, attains moderate dimensions, is crooked, misshapen, and branchy, with not more than 10 to 18 feet in length of clear stem. It has a thick foliage of dark green glossy leaves of about 1% inch in width by 2 inches in length, and in December puts forth quite a covering of large crimson polyandrous flowers. The Pohutukawa tree yields timber 9 to 16 inches square, and 10 to 20 feet in length. The wood is red in colour, hard, strong, heavy, and close-grained. In form and quality it is admirably well adapted for the frames of ships, or any other purpose where curved timber is required. The natives speak of it as being very durable. Specimen logs of this compass timber were brought to England in 1843, ^^^ placed in store at Chatham Dockyard, for use experimentally in ship-building, and 3IO TIMBER AND TIMBER TREES. [chap. in 1869 — i.e., twenty-six years later — two or three pieces were still there in a perfectly sound state. The specific gravity of Pohutukawa, green or fresh cut, is about 1200, but after seasoning it is only about 858. PURIRI ( Vitex litoralis) is common to nearly all the forests of New Zealand, and flourishes in almost any situation, but the best trees are those grown on a rich soil, and sheltered from strong winds. The stems of these trees vary from straight to every imaginable form of curved growth, and are seldom seen standing erect. Usually they have a short clear bole or trunk of from 8 to 18 feet in length, with a circum- ference of 6 to 9 feet, and an overpowering weight of robust branches. The foliage is a deeply-veined, plain- edged, light green leaf, 2 inches in breadth by 3 inches in length. It flowers nearly all the year round, and is especially full in September ; the flowers are of a deep red colour, and somewhat bell-shaped. The fruit, which is like a cherry, is a favourite food of the wood-pigeon. The Puriri tree yields timber 9 to 18 feet in length, and 10 to 18 inches square. The bark is thin, smooth, and greyish-white in colour. The, wood is dark brown, extremely hard, heavy, close-grained, and generally free from defects, the exception being that it is liable to some slight injury during growth from a worm, which bores it from the roots upwards, leaving a clean hole of from Yz to ^ths of an inch diameter. The alburnum or sap-wood on this tree is generally from 2 to 3 inches thick, and of a yellowish colour. This timber is very durable, and suitable for the frames of ships, and also for many other purposes XXVI.] NEW ZEALAND TIMBERS. 311 where hard, short, curved wood is required. Specimen logs were brought to England to be used experi- mentally in ship-building. The specific gravity of Puriri in a green state is about 1 100, and when seasoned it is nearly 1000. Other New Zealand timbers are : — The Maire {Oka Cunninghamii)^ a very hard wood used for mill and wheel work ; the *' Birch " — really a Beech [Fagus Solandri) — a durable hard fencing and pile wood, but not fit for marine work ; the Rewa- Rewa {Knightea excelsa)^ valuable in cabinet work; the Hinau {Elceocarpus dentatus), a small strong timber used for sleepers, railings, &c., in exposed places ; the Taraire {Beilschmiedia Tarairi)^ a hard, compact, cabinet wood, and the allied Tawa {B. Tawa), similarly useful for furniture work; Mangeas {Teiranthera cali- caris)^ used for blocks, &c. ; and a number of others. Part JI$JI»— Coniferous ^imhtx ^Trees. So far we have been concerned entirely with timbers yielded by Dicotyledons, but there are many valuable timbers derived from the class of Conifers, of which the Pines and Firs are the most important. The principal feature about these woods is their freedom from true vessels, and their consisting of tracheids only ; conse- quently their structure is very uniform, and, since true fibres are absent, on the whole soft and even in texture. It is, in fact, principally due to this uniformity of struc- ture and soft, even texture that Coniferous woods are so valuable ; and when, as so often occurs, these woods abound in resinous substances, which aid them in resisting water and other destructive agents, we realise that the great value of Coniferous timbers consists principally in their combining the properties of lightness and softness, which render them easy to work, with a fair amount of durability. Nevertheless, Coniferous woods differ very much in the degrees in which these valuable properties are com- bined, not only in the various species, but even in the same timber grown under different conditions. The following are the more important European species. CHAPTER XXVII. PINES. Many woods yielded by true Pines are known as Firs in commerce; thus the Scotch Pine is often called Scots Fir, and its timber comes into the market under a most puzzling variety of names — e.g.^ Red Fir, Yellow Fir, often complicated by names derived from the ports of shipment : Riga, Memel, Dantzic, Stettin, &c., and so on. I retain the ordinary terminology, but it should be remembered that Firs proper are only of the genera Abies ^ Picea, Tsuga, and Pseudo-tsuga. It should further be noted that the various kinds of wood denominated as Dantzic, Memel, Riga, and Swedish Fir (or Pine) are not botanically different species, but merely the timber of the same tree grown and shipped in different districts. Broadly speaking, all the red and yellow timber coming from the Baltic ports goes under the name of Fir, though it is really the wood of a Pine [P. sylvestris). White Fir is the Spruce {Picea excelsd)-, commonly known as White Deal. DANTZIC FIR OR NORTHERN PINE [Pinus sylvestris). The wood of this tree takes its name from the port of shipment, the forests from which it is drawn being spread 314 TIMBER AND TIMBER TREES. [char over very large districts in Prussia proper, Prussian Poland, and upon the borders of Russia, whence the timber, after being prepared partly in the round and partly in the square state, is floated in large rafts down the River Vistula to Dantzic, advantage being taken of this mode of transit for bringing considerable quantities of corn from the interior to be shipped to foreign markets. These trees frequently grow to a great height, and throw out numerous branches; they yield the Dantzic Fir of commerce in the shape of rough spars for masts, from small to medium sizes ; timber varying from 1 1 to 20 inches square and from 18 to 45 feet, and occasionally even greater lengths ; deals of various thicknesses, from 2 to 5 inches and 18 to 50 feet in length; railway sleepers, &c., &c., which are shipped in large quantities chiefly to this country. The Dantzic Fir is known locally as Redwood, although its colour is whitish, and only slightly tinged with red. It is even and straight in the grain, tough, elastic, and easily worked, and as it is moderately hard in texture, as well as of light weight (the specific gravity being only about 582), it is used more generally, and in much larger quantities, than any other kind of Fir for building purposes. It is characteristic of it to have a large amount of alburnum or sap-wood, especially upon the small and medium size trees. Very great care is therefore necessary in the conversion of this wood, to ensure the production of the deals and other scantlings of the required dimensions free from sap, the difficulty being often enhanced by the fact that in working on fresh lo<^s, the sap can scarcely be distinguished from the heart- wood, although, if exposed a short time only to the atmosphere, the difference soon becomes visible, the XXVII.] DANTZIC FIR. 315 moisture of the latter drying up more rapidly, and leaving it lighter in colour. The Dantzic converter is^ however, by dint of practice, generally so correct in his judgment, that he seldom fails to obtain all that he requires, even from logs which have a very unpromising appearance. Previous to shipment at Dantzic, the whole of the timber in the rafts is carefully sorted over, and the best of the round wood, i.e., the longest, straightest, and finest pieces, and those most free from knots, are selected for exportation, under the name of " hand-masts," very little being required to be done to them beyond topping them off to the established length, which is proportioned to their diameter. A few trees, perhaps, which are not perfectly fair and straight in their growth, being trimmed or dressed as may be necessary to make them appear so. *' Hand-mast ^^ is a technical term applied by the mast- maker to a round spar, holding at the least 24, and not exceeding 72, inches in circumference. They are measured by the hand of 4 inches, there being also a fixed proportion between the number of hands in the length of the mast and those contained in the circum- ference, taken at one-third of the length from the butt-end. All the round pieces which measure less than 24 inches in circumference at the base are simply called spars or poles, while those which measure more than 72 inches in circumference are generally dressed to the octagonal or square form, and are then called " inch- masts." These inch-masts, hand-masts, and spars or poles, if straight, and free from large knots and excess of sap, are much esteemed by the mast-makers, and are considered equal, if not superior, to those obtained from Riga. The first selection from the round wood having been made for the mast-pieces, the remainder undergoes a 3i6 TIMBER AND TIMBER TREES. [chap. further sorting over, to secure the logs most suitable for conversion into deals, and these are always in great request in England, France, Prussia, &c., the respective governments requiring them in large quantities for the decks of their ships of war. There are also the ordinary demands of the private trade, which are sometimes very considerable. To be fit for deck purposes the deals must be of the very best quality, and free from large or defective knots, cup-shake upon the upper or outer surface, and they must also be free from sap. The round wood logs remaining from these two sortings serve for conversion into plank and board for the home or country trade, and, as in this they are not very particular about the sap-wood being removed, it is all worked up very closely, and with the least possible loss. The coarse and irregularly grown trees, which are brought into Dantzic in a round state, are a special class, and require but little consideration ; they pass at once for conversion into railway sleepers, and are ex- ported in large quantities to various parts of the world. The square timber also undergoes a very careful sorting with the view to its classification under the heads of crown, best, good, and common middling qualities, and sometimes even making a fifth class, if it be short, small, or irregular.* The prices of these several descriptions vary with the quality and average length ; and, at the present time (1875) in the London market, they stand at about seventy to ninety shillings per load for best, sixty to eighty shillings per load for good, and fifty-two to fifty-eight shillings per load for common middling. The crown and the fifth class being special distinctions, are, respectively, a little above and a little below these prices. * 1 here is also a small or undersized class of Memel and Dantzic Fir timber, called Maucrlatten. J XXVII.] DANTZIC FIR. 317 There are no reliable or recognised official brands by which the several qualities of Dantzic Fir timber may be known, there being no sworn Bracker to make the sorting ; consequently, as each merchant acts for him- self, he can give to it any particular distinguishing mark he pleases, and of course this will be only known in his own private circle, or, at most, to the trade of the district. The result is, there are often as many marks for each quality as there are merchants dealing in the article, thus making it necessary to see the several kinds in order to determine which would be most suitable for the work to be done. The practice is not a very satis- factory one, since it is not an uncommon thing to find the best middling timber of one merchant 3 to 4 or 5 per cent, better in quality than that of another, and the same with regard to each of the other classes brought into the market. Dantzic Fir is employed more extensively in civil architecture than, perhaps, any other description of wood for joists, rafters, trusses, floors, scaffolding, &c.; it also enters largely into the construction of bridges and railway works ; indeed, it is not too much to say that few works in this country are ever carried on without its capabilities being in some way turned to account. In ship-building it is employed for beams to carry the upper and lighter decks, occasionally for bottom plankings, and also for various fitments in cabins and store-rooms ; and its special fitness for deck pur- poses has been already mentioned. Further, the cheap, common, middling quality is in request for props, or shores, required for supporting a vessel while in course of construction, or while in dock undergoing repairs, for which, and similar purposes, its coarse character is not an objection. 3i8 TIMBER AND TIMBER TREES. [chap. Having in former chapters, treating of the hard- wood trees, adopted the British Oak timber as the standard of quality and fitness for all the purposes of naval and civil architecture, it is proposed to adopt the Dantzic Fir timber — the most important and generally- useful of the Firs and Pines — as the standard of com- parison for the soft or white wood class. The author has, therefore, gone more fully into the experiments on this timber than would have been possible with each of the other descriptions. The transverse experiments recorded in Table CXXV. were made upon pieces of well-seasoned wood, of good average quality, and in every respect fit to be employed in the best architectural works, their specific gravity ranging from 478 to 673, and averaging 582. Of these specimens the elasticity of one piece was perfect immediately after the weight of 390 lbs. was removed, and in each of the others it was very nearly so, the average of the whole giving only "066 of deflection. All these would probably have recovered their straight- ness if time had permitted of their being left for only a short period prior to proceeding with the breaking strain. The strains required to break these specimens varied very much, the minimum being 700 and the maximum 970 lbs., the average Z'j6'6 lbs. on pieces of the standard dimensions. The deflections at the crisis of breaking varied from 4*5 to 6*15 inches, and averaged 5*142 inches. The experiments for determining the direct cohesive strength are, as before stated, somewhat difficult to carry out, even upon the hard woods, but they are infinitely more so on the soft woods, owing to the liability of the pieces to crush in the clamps holding them before the XXVII.] DANTZIC FIR. 319 true tensile strain could be reached. The results given in Table CXXVI. were, therefore, only obtained after much perseverance and not a few failures. The five pieces subjected to the strain bore respectively 2,240, 2,800, 3,220, 3,416, and 4,480 lbs., giving an average of 3,231 lbs. as the direct cohesion per square inch. Their specific gravities varied from 512 to 639, the average being 603, which is very near the average specific gravity of the pieces tried for the transverse strength."^ A great many experiments were made to ascertain the resistance of this wood to a vertical or crushing force, the details of which are given in Tables CXXVII. to CXXXI. From Table CXXVIII. it may be deduced that the proportion of length to section best adapted for carrying the greatest weights is when the sectional area in inches is to the length in inches as 4 : 5 or ^-^ L = side of square for the base. This confirms the opinion before given as regards English Oak ; but the rule must rather be considered approximate than absolute, for in the experiments on pieces 3'' x 3" (Table CXXIX.), the maximum strength lay in that of 12 inches in length, making the proportion as 9:12 i^/-— L = sec- tional area). If, however, the area of the base (or the sectional area) be too small for the length of the pillar, it will be liable to bend or buckle up under the load, showing that stiffness is an important element in the con- dition of strength. Specimens were also tested measuring 4'' x 4'' (Table CXXX.), but the results obtained were scarcely so * The results of nearly all my experiments on the tensile strength of woods are lower than the values given by Rankine, Tredgold, and some others. But as the specimens 2" x 2" x 30" were each tested by hydraulic machinery most carefully applied, the tabular values here given may, I consider, be depended upon. 520 TIMBER AND TIMBER TREES. [chap. satisfactory as before, in consequence of the sudden falling off in strength in the 21 -inch piece ; still there is, perhaps, sufficient to indicate that the maximum of strength would be in a length of about 2d' , in which case the proportion of base to length would still be as 16 : 20 or 4: 5. Table CXXXI. shows the result of some vertical tests on pieces 6"x ^" and even larger, but the lengths are not in the same proportion to the scantlings given in former tables, there not being any means at my disposal for holding pieces of greater length than 30 inches. Whether the result would have been the same if this had been possible, cannot therefore be determined by the experiments herein referred to. Table CXXV.— Fir (Dantzic) Ti'ansverse Experiments. Number of the specimen. Deflections. Total weight required to break each piece. Specific gravity. With the apparatus weighing 390 lbs. After the weight was removed. At the crisis of breaking. I 2 3 4 5 6 Inches. 2-25 2"00 1-25 1-25 I 25 Inch. •10 ■05 •00 ■05 •10 •10 Inches. 5"i5 4 'SO 4-65 5 "25 6-15 5-15 lbs. 845 700 970 856 944 945 534 478 673 512 639 656 Total . . 975 •40 30-85 5,260 3492 Average . 1*625 •066 5"i42 876-66 582 Ncs. I, 2, and 3 broke with a scarph-like fracture, 10 inches in length ; 4 and 5 a little longer and more splintery; 6 about 15 inches, and also sp'iiitery. XXVII.] DANTZIC FIR. Ui Table CXXVI. Tensile Experiments. Number of the specimen. Dimensions of each piece. Specific gravity. Weight the piece broke with. Direct cohesion on I square inch. 7 8 9 lO II Inches. > 2 X 2 X 30 < 534 673 639 656 5T2 lbs. 13,664 17,920 12,880 11,200 8,960 lbs. 3.416 4,480 3,220 2,800 2,240 Total . . ... 3014 64,624 16,156 Average . ... 603 12,925 3.231 Table CXXVII. Veriicdl Experiments on cubes of— Number of the specimen. I Inch. 2 Inches. 3 Inches. 4 Inches. Crushed with Crushed with Crushed with Crushed with 12—15 16, 17 18, 19 20, 21 22, 23 24. 25 Tons. 3*625 2-625 3*750 3*250 3*250 2*375 Tons. 12-875 12-750 12-500 13-000 I2'I25 12-875 Tons. 27*875 Tons. 47*875 Total. . . 18-875 76*125 — — Average . 3*146 12-687 27-875 47*875 Do. per in. 3*146 3-172 3*097 2*992 322 TIMBER AND TIMBER TREES. [chap. Table CXXVIII. Vei'tical Experiments. mber the imen. Length Size in in _ Square | Weight inches in of the Specific Crushed with Ditto on the square 3 V. o (A inches, inches. base. specimen. gravity. inch. lbs. ozs. Tons. Tons. 26 I \ 0 2 756 10-875 2719 27 2 0 3K 756 12-687 3-172 28 3 0 5 720 H-875 2-969 29 4 0 7 756 13750 3 "437 30 5 0 7M 669 13750 3 "437 31 6 0 9 648 13-000 3"25o 32 7 0 10 617 12-750 3-187 33 8 32x2 4 J 0 iiK 621 12-125 3 '03 1 34 9 0 15 720 12-125 3 '03 1 35 10 0 isJ^ 669 12-500 3"i25 36 II 1 2K 726 11-625 2-906 37 12 1 5M 774 I2-000 3-000 38 18 I loK 636 11-500 2-875 39 24 2 6 684 10-875 2-719 40 30 i 2 14 i 662 10-500 2-625 Table CXXIX. Vertical Expei-iments. Number of the specimen. Length in inches. Size in inches. Square inches in base. Weight of the specimen. Specific gravity. Crushed with Ditto on the square inch. lbs. ozs. Tons. Tons. 41 8 I 15 744 21750 2-417 42 9 ' 1 i5J^ 672 21-500 2-388 43 10 2 I 634 21-625 2-403 44 II /3 X 3 ' 2 4 629 21-500 2-388 45 12 2 15 752 21-875 2-431 46 13 2 I3J^ 672 i5"250 1-694 47 14 3 4 7^Z 20-250 2-250 48 15 \ 3 5 679 21-250 2-361 XXVII.] DANTZIC FIR. 323 Table CXXX. Vertical Experiments. mber the imen. Length in Size in Square Weight inches in of the Specific Crushed with Ditto on the square 1/1 inches. inches. base. specimen. gravity. inch. lbs. ozs. Tons. Tons. 49 15 5 0 576 37*500 2 '343 SO IS 4 5 497 32 '000 2*000 51 16 5 9 600 36-250 2-265 52 16 4 10 500 34*500 2-156 S3 17 6 4 63s 36-500 2*278 54 17 4 14 496 32-250 2-015 55 18 4x4 16 < 5 4K 507 37 '875 2-368 56 18 5 9>^ 556 33 "500 2-093 57 19 5 7 494 33 '875 2-ii8 58 20 5 14 508 34 "500 2-156 59 21 6 2 504 28 -000 1750 60 22 6 6 SOI 33-900 2-ii8 61 23 6 10 498 37700 2-356 62 24 6 II 495 34-400 2-150 Table CXXXI. Vertical Experiments on pieces of various dimensions. mber the imen. Length in Size in Square inches in Weight of the Specific Crushed with Ditto on the square r°l inches. inches. base. specimen. gravity. inch. lbs. ozs. Tons. Tons. 63 12 N / 8 15 571 I32'00 3-640 64 IS 6x6 36 (is 4^ 654 i53'oo 4*277 65 24 I ) 17 4K 554 153 "oo 4-277 66 30/ I 24 4 622 122 20 3*394 67 68 12 I 15^ 9'"xio" 102-37 f 27 0 i 33 13 608 608 245-40 279-20 2*397 2-727 69 70 18 f io"xio" 110-25 i 38 12 148 6 648 673 214-80 1 83 80 1*953 I -671 71 72 18 ( 21 ) lo'xio" 107*5 (39 8 \ 45 13 564 561 254*40 279-20 2-292 2*600 Y 2 324 TIMBER AND TIMBER TREES. [chap. Contracts for the supply of Dantzic Fir timber, Fir deck deals, and Oak plank for the royal navy, are made annually, the quantities of each kind varying according to the requirements of the Service. The following is the specification and conditions under which they are obtained : — Dantzic Fir Timber. Best jNIiddling Good ,, Common ,, At per load . Deck Deals. T u { Crown . . 4 Inches ^ ^^^^^^ g^^^j^ J/ j Crown . . 3/2 " \ Crown Brack f Crown . . 3 " ( Crown Brack J/ ( Crown . . ^'^ " I Crown Brack ( Crown . . ^ " \ Crown Brack At per 40-ft. run of 3 in. Stage Deals. Loads. I s- Dantzic Oak Planks. Loads. ^ 1/ Tnc: i Crown At per load 4/^ ins. ^ ^^^^^^ gj.^^j^ j Crown ,, 4 " ( Crown Brack ,, ,, ] Crown ,, 3/^ " ( Crown Brack ( Crown ,, 3 " ( Crown Brack &c., &c., &c. jQ s. d. XXVII.] DANTZIC FIR. 325 CONDITIONS OF CONTRACT. I, — Quality, Specification, b'c. — The Goods to be supplied are to be answer- able in every respect to the following Specifications ; and to be imported direct from the Baltic. Fir Timber. — The Dantzic Fir Timber to be of the latest felling, free from defective knots and shakes, and to be the best goods obtai "able. In the Best Middling quality the spine to be seen from the butt to the top in the greater part of the delivery, and the heart not to be more than one-fourth the breadth from the centre of the log. In the Good Middling quality the spine to be seen for two-thirds of the length in the greater part of the delivery. The Mauerlatten to be of the best quality. The Best and Good Middling qualities to be 12 inches square and upwar Is, averaging not less than 13^ inches, and to be 18 feet long and upwards, averaging not less than 24 feet. The whole to consist of a good assortment of lengths and sidings. The Mauerlatten to be 9 to 10 and 10 to 11 inches square in equal proportions. The quantity required to be d-^livered in the following proportion's of quality, viz. , 60 per cent, to be Best Middling quality, 20 per cent, to be Good Middling quality, and the remaining 20 per cent, to be Mauerlatten. Deck Deals. — The Dantzic Deals for Decks of 4 inches thick to be cut 8 inches in breadth, and to be 8 inches clear of sap for the greater part of their length, and nowhere less than 7^ inches clear of sap, and to ht 26 to 40 feet in length, averaging not less than 33 feet. The Deals of 31^ and 3 inches thick to b: cut 8 inches in breadth, and to be yj^ inches clear of sap for the greater part of their length, and nowhere less than 7 inches clear of sap, and to be 25 to 35 feet in length, averaging not less than 30 feet. The Deals of 2K inches thick to be cut 'jYz inches in breadth, and to be 7^^ inches clear ol sap for the greater part of their length, and nowhere less than 7 inches clear of sap, and to be 25 to 35 feet in length, averaging not less than 30 feet. The deals of 2 inches thick to be cut 7H inches in breadth, and to be 7^ inches clear of sap for the greater part of their length, and nowhere less than 7 inches clear of sap, and to be 20 to 35 feet in length, averaging not less than 28 feet. A few of the Deals of each thickness, not exceeding 10 per cent, at the most of the quantity ordered, will be accepted of longer lengths than the maximum specified. The Deals of each thickness to be delivered at each dockyard in the pro - portion of not less than 70 per cent. Crown quality, and the remainder Crown Brack quality. The whole to be bright, clean, s-)und yellow wood, converted in th J country, and thoroughly air dried before shipment, of an equal thickness and square edged, and to be clear of unsound sap, shakes, injurious knots, and defects, according to their respective brands. Stage Deals. — The Dantzic Deals for stages to be 2 inches thick, 12 to 15 inches in breadth, and 25 feet and upwards in length, averaging not less than 30 feet ; the sap on the two edges not to exceed one-half of the breadth. The 326 TIMBER AND TIMBER TREES. [chap. whole to be bright, clean, sound yellow wood, converted in the country, of an equal thickness and square edged, and to be clear of shakes, injurious knots and defects. Oak. — The Dantzic Oak Timber to be the best goods obtainable. The Thickstuff and Planks to be 24 feet long and upwards, averaging not less than 30 feet, and to be 10 inches and upwards in breadth, averaging not less than II inches clear of sap; the breadth for measurement to be taken clear of sap at the middle of the length. The whole to be fresh, clean, free from defective wanes, according to their respective brands, cut regular, square edged, and mostly straight, the curve, if any, not to exceed % inch in 6 feet. Not less than 67 per cent, of each thickness to be of Crown quality, and the remainder of Crown Brack quality. The brand of the respective qualities to be marked upon each description of Timber, Plank, and Deals, and to be stated by the contractors prior to com- mencing delivery. 2. — The goods are inspected and measured at Dantzic. 3. — QuuTitities to be skipped. — The quant ties of goods shipped under this contract must approximate as closely as possible to the respective quantities for each dockyard. Slight variations will be permitted to meet difficulties in pro- curing the exact tonnage required, but overhead the total quantity of each description must not be exceeded. 4. — Charters of Vessels to be advised. — The names of ships chartered in fulfilment of this contract, and in due course the quantities actually shipped, must be advised to the Director of Navy Contracts. 5. — Delivery. — Goods delivered by ship or barge are to be put over the side or out of the ports by the crew either into the water or into lighters, as may be directed by the officers. The officers may also direct the ship or barge to come alongside a quay. In his case, if a crane be available, the goods will be slung by the crew, and will be hoisted out by yard labour. If no crane be available, the goods are to be delivered Ly ship or barge into the water or on the quay, as directed by the yard officers. No charge will be made for the yard cranes in performing the services above specified. 6. — Payment for Supplies. — With every delivery of goods under this agree- ment, invoices,* in duplicate, are to be sent to the consignee by the contractors. The duplicate will be returned by the consignee, with the quantities received noted thereon. The contractors are then to send their claim* for payment to the Arcounta nt-General of the Navy, Admiralty, Spring Gardens, London , S. W. , by whom an order for payment of the amount due will be forwarded to the contractors. 7. — Members of Parliament. — In pursuance of Act 22 Geo. III., Cap. XLV., no Member of the House of Commons is to be admitted to any share or part in the contract, or to any b.^nefit to arise therefrom. * Forms may be obtained on application to the Accountant-General of the Navy, Adniirahy, Spring Gardens, London, S.W. XXVII.] DANTZIC FIR. 327 We occasionally obtain from Dantzic some Fir timber, which is known in the London market under the names of Eliasberg and Saldowitz, from the districts in Russia whence it is drawn. It is a very clean, sound, straight, and well-squared wood, of great average length, and more closely re- sembles the Riga Fir than any other in colour, texture, general appearance, and even in its defects, the heart and star-shakes being common to it. This wood cannot, therefore, be safely reduced to thin planks near the centre of the log without incurring the risk of some faulty pieces being produced at that part. The classification for the market is similar to that of the Dantzic Fir, but there is very little of the common middling quality in it. When made up for sale it is generally arranged in parcels according to the size of the logs, those of 13 to 16 inches being kept distinct from those over 16 to 20 inches square, the latter being about the maximum size obtainable from the tree, while the lengths vary from 20 to ^6 feet, and include many pieces of mast dimensions. The employment of this description of Fir for mast purposes does not, however, appear to be contemplated by the shippers, and it is not, in my opinion, suitable for it, owing to its free character and liability to split in seasoning. The clean, straight, and even grain is, never- theless, quite sufficient to recommend it to notice for furniture purposes, and its superior dimensions will always entitle it to preference over Dantzic or Riga Fir for works requiring long timber. The prices of " Eliasberg " and " Saldowitz '^ Fir timber in general rule somewhat higher than that of the best Dantzic Fir. There is also an inferior species of Fir brought in 328 TIMBER AND TIMBER TREES, [chap, xxvii. small quantities from Dantzic, and put upon the market under the name of Whitewood. It is white in colour, soft in character, and generally a little spongy near the centre. It has a dull shade, and appears to be poor in quality, but, being a light, clean, straight-grained wood, and easy to work, it is suitable for packing-cases and for any ordinary purpose; it thus saves the more expensive kinds of Fir. It is brought to this country in well-squared logs of rather superior dimensions to the Dantzic Fir. CHAPTER XXVIII. NORTHERN PINE — [Continued). RIGA FIR [Pinus sylvestris). This timber takes its name from the port of shipment^ although many of the forests from which it is drawn are very far back in the interior of Russia.* It is the produce of a tree of almost perfectly straight growth, with lighter branches than are usually found in the Firs of the same species brought into Dantzic ; it is con- sequently more free from injurious and objectionable knots. The Riga closely resembles the Dantzic Fir timber in being whitish in colour and tinged slightly with red, but is rather lighter looking. It is tough, flexible, mode- rately strong, and scarcely so heavy as the Dantzic Fir, the respective specific gravities being about 541 and 582. It has a clean, fine, straight grain, and is a little shaky at the pith. It cannot, therefore, be converted into * Slowly grown Pines, such as are found in high latitudes or at great eleva- tions, are usually heavier, denser, and more even in quality than those of the same species in warmer situations ; this is because the quantity of softer spring- wood is proportionally smaller in the narrower annual rings. The converse is true of Oak (see Marshall Ward, " The Oak," p. 144. Kegan Paul, 1892). 330 TIMBER AND TIMBER TREES. [chap. plank and board so profitably as the Dantzic and some other Firs. With this exception it is a very valuable wood, and is in great request for architectural works of every description ; indeed, we find it used for nearly every purpose where light materials are required. After the felling of this timber, it passes through the process of selecting and sorting over, the same as pre- vails in the Polish and Prussian forests and shipping ports, with a view to bring out the best pieces for masts, and the coarsest for railway sleepers. The logs of the intermediate class, when hewn into squares, yield dimen- sions of about 1 1 to 14 inches on the side, and from 20 to 45 feet in length. This timber is seldom classified as best, good, or common middling, but is placed upon the market unsorted, and without any particular distinguish- ing brand upon it. The selected spars generally come to us in a round state, under the name of Hand-masts. These are classed by the brackers at Riga alphabetically A to N, accord- ing to their size, the smallest being A, or 6 hands ; that is to say, it measures six hands of 4 inches each, or 24 inches in circumference, taken at 4 feet in length from the butt-end of the spar: the largest being N, or 18 hands, or 72 inches in circumference. The lengths of these two sizes are respectively 36 and 74 feet. The following very plain rule prevails by which the estab- lished length to the number of hands is calculated, viz., rough spars for masts, of 6 to 9^ hands, the number of hands multiplied by 3, and 18 added, gives the length in feet; and spars of 10 to 18 hands, multiplied by 3, and 20 added, gives the length in feet ; there being a small proportional increase of length required for vessels carrying the larger sizes. XXVIII.] RIGA FIR. 331 The straightest and best spars have simply the bark taken off them, and the knots dressed smoothly, with perhaps a few feet in length at the butt-end hewn, to remove the swelling which often occurs at the base of the tree. Beyond this, owing to their generally fair and even growth, very little is required, and, as the'_^alburnum or sap upon this description of timber is not usually more than about i inch in thickness, the waste sustained in their conversion into masts is altogether insignificant. These Riga spars (their generally small and medium sizes being considered) are about the best to be met with, and are in great favour with the mast-makers of the royal dockyards, though somewhat less so in the private trade. There are, besides the hand-masts, many straight and fair-grown trees that measure less than 24 inches in circumference at the base, which are simply termed spars, or poles. There are also a few pieces occasionally met with that exceed the maxinium size of the hand- mast, which are generally dressed approximately to an octagonal form, and then, as at Dantzic and elsewhere, they are called inch masts. In ordinary specifications for building, it is stipulated the Fir is to be from Dantzic or Riga, as if they were equal in quality ; but my experiments on Riga Fir, though not nearly so numerous as those on Dantzic, prove the former to be slightly inferior to the latter. The tables on the following and preceding pages show that the strength of the Riga is to that of Dantzic Fir as follows, viz. : — Transversely as 150 : 219 or, it is weaker by about 31 per cent. Tersilely ,, 4051 : 3231 ,, ,, stronger ,, 20 ,, Vertically ,, 5247 : 6948 ,, ,, weaker ,, 24 ,, 332 TIMBER AND TIMBER TREES. [chap. Table CXXXII.— Fir (Riga) Transverse Experiments. Number of the specimen. Deflections. Total weight required to break each piece. Specific gravity. With the apparatus weighing 390 lbs. After the weight was removed. At_ _ the crisis of breaking. I 2 3 4 5 6 Inches, 125 i-oo I '50 I "50 I '.35 i"i5 Inch. •10 ■10 •10 •OS •10 •10 Inches. 3-00 375 3 '30 4 'SO 3-85 3*35 lbs. 580 707 498 615 677 523 524 584 518 534 570 516 Total . . 775 •55 2175 3,600 3246 Average . I '292 •092 3*625 600 541 Remarks. — No. i broke a little short ; 2 and 3 with fractures 9 inches in length ; in 4, 5, and 6 the fractures were longer and splintery. Table CXXXIII. Tensile Experiments. Number of the specimen Dimensions each piece. Specific gravity. Weight the piece broke with. Direct cohesion on I square inch. 7 8 9 10 Inches. ) ( V 2 X 2 X 30 •< 584 524 570 534 lbs. 17,920 12,320 19,600 14,980 lbs. 4,480 3.080 4,900 3.745 Total . . ... 64,820 16,205 Average . ... ... 16,205 4.051 1 XXVIII.] RIGA FIR. 133 Table CXXXIV. Vertical or Crushing Experiments on cubes of— Number of the specimen. I Inch. 2 Inches- 3 Inches. 4 Inches. • Crushed with Crushed with Crushed with Crushed with II — 14 15, 16 17. 18 19, 20 21, 22 23. 24 Tons. 3*250 3"I25 3*500 3750 3*250 3-000 Tons. 9 '000 7*875 8-250 8-500 8-750 8*250 Tons. i6- Tons. 34*875 Total , . 19*875 50-625 — Average . 3*312 8*437 i6- 34-875 Do. per in. 3*312 2-109 177 2-179 The Riga is of slower growth than the Dantzic Fir, the difference being about 0*4 layers per inch in dia- meter {vzde Table I.) ; this, in view of the theory previously set up, indicates that it is inferior to the Dantzic Fir.* Contracts for the supply of Riga Fir timber, and hand-masts for the royal navy, are made annually ; the quantities of each kind varying according to the requirements of the several dockyards. They are re- ceived under the following specification and conditions, viz., the timber at per load of 50 cubic feet, and the hand-masts at each. See footnote, p. 329. 334 TIMBER AND TIMBER TREES. [chap. Table CXXXV. Vertical or Crushing Experiments. mber the imen. ngth the ;imen. Scantling. Area in square Weight <5 ^ of the ^"^ Crushed with Ditto on I square 3^0 ^ OS, inches. specimen. 0.^ inch. Inches. Inches. lbs. ozs. Tons. Tons. 25 I \ / 0 I .. 9-875 2-469 26 2 0 2 .. 8-437 2-109 27 3 ' 0 3'/^ 11-500 2-875 28 4 0 4>^ 9"ooo 2-250 29 5 0 7 io"5oo 2-625 30 6 0 8K 11-250 2-812 31 7 > 2 X 2 1 0 10 11-125 2-781 32 8 4 \ 0 loK II'OOO 2-750 33 9 0 12 10 '000 2-500 34 10 0 15 S'ooo 2-000 35 u I I 9-750 2 '437 36 12 I 3 11-125 2-781 37 18 I 6 9-875 2-469 38 24 1 I 8K 6-875 1-719 39 3^ \ 2 5^ 7-375 1-844 40 12 . 100 J 28 I 6 47 367-80 3-678 41 42 J- 27 7 5 33 0 5 06 07 214-70 245-40 2-147 2*454 43 2[ ) 48 3 6 34 245 -40 2-454 44 18 u r! 46 6 1 e 46 307-00 2-784 45 21 \ loK X IO>^ 110-25 -^ 54 II ^ 54 307-00 2-784 46 24 / I - 55 4 f 77 279-20 2-532 47 48 30 ' } ^^ ^ '^ 144 { 85 0 e 92 6 j c 1 04 93 37872 395-28 2-630 2-752 CONDITIONS OF CONTRACT. All the goods supplied under this contract to be imported direct from ihi Baltic; to be ot the best quality, fresh cut, good, sound, merchantable, and well conditioned, The Riga Fir limber to be 11 inches square and upwards, averaging at least 12 inches, meeting in length at 24 feet, and none to be shorter than 18 feet ; tlie longest timber to be of the greatest scantling, and the spine to biseen from the butt to thi:: top on each of the four sides. The Riga hind-masts to be of the dimensions specified, straight grown, and free from hearl-shakc and injurious knots. One-third of all the masts of 9 hands and under to be 4 feet longer th m the prescribed length. XXVIII.] RIGA FIR. 335 Table CXXXVI. Specification for Hand-masts (Riga*). Distance Distance Hands. L-ngth, Diameter. from butt, 8" to a hand. Diameter. fr jm top, 4" to a yard. Ft. in. Inches. Ft. in. Inches. Ft. in. N i8 74 0 22% 12 0 15^ 8 2 m{ 17M 72 6 22 X II 8 14/8 8 0 17 71 0 21^8 II 4 14^ 7 10 L { i6y2 69 6 21 II 0 14 7 8 16 68 0 20?^ 10 8 13K 7 6 K ( iSK 66 6 I9K 10 4 13^ 7 4 15 65 0 19/8 10 0 12^ 7 2 I [ I4K 63 6 I8M 9 8 12% 7 0 14 62 0 17% 9 4 11/8 6 10 H ( 13^ 60 6 I7J< 9 0 iiK 6 8 13 59 0 i6K 8 8 II 6 6 G 1 xzVz 57 6 15^8 8 4 10% 6 4 12 56 0 i53< 8 0 loK 6 2 F -[ iiK 54 6 14^8 7 8 9/4 6 0 II 53 0 14 7 4 9/8 5 10 E ( loK 51 6 133/8 7 0 8/8 5 8 10 50 0 I2K 6 8 8^ 5 6 D i 9% 46 6 12/8 6 4 8 5 2 9 45 0 11% 6 0 7/8 5 0 c ( 8K 43 6 105/8 5 8 7'A 4 10 8 42 0 xoYs 5 4 6H 4 8 B ( 7% 40 6 9K 5 0 6/8 4 6 7 39 0 8/8 4 8 5% 4 4 A \ 6M 37 6 8J4: 4 4 5>^ 4 2 6 36 0 7/8 4 0 5 4 0 * The above Specification will serve, with a slight modification of the hands to the length, for Dantzic Fir, Canada Red Pine, and also for Virginia Pitch Pine, due regard being paid to the difference in the quantity of sap-wood on each compared with Riga Fir. Hand-masts are frequently sold in the private trade at per load. CHAPTER XXIX. NORTHERN VY^Y.— [Continued), SWEDISH FIR {Piniis sylvestris) Is, as its name indicates, a native of Sweden, where it is very abundant, and attains, under favourable circum- stances, a height of from 50 to 80 feet, with a circum- ference of from 4 to 5 feet ; it yields timber in logs of 20 to 35 feet in length by 10 to 16 inches square. From the smaller trees, deals 3 inches thick, by 7 to 9 inches broad, and 12 feet and upwards in length, are obtained. The wood is of a yellowish-white colour, soft, clean and straight in the grain, with only small knots, and very little alburnum or sap-wood on it. Of late it has been in great request for common building purposes, as it is considerably cheaper than Dantzic or Riga Fir timber. Swedish Fir is liable to the heart and star- shakes, and not unfrequently the cup-shake. On this account it is not suitable for conversion into board for joiners' work, but only for the rougher and more ordinary works in building operations. This species of Fir is of very slow growth, and, during the early stage of its existence, it makes wood at only about CHAP. XXIX.] NORWAY FIR. 337 half the rate of the Dantzic, Riga, and Polish Firs^ but gains slightly upon this rate as it approaches maturity. In consideration of the defects mentioned, there is little to recommend the Swedish Fir to favourable notice, beyond the fact of its being cheap and suitable for the coarser purposes in carpentry. About 3,500,000 Swedish deals, 7,000 loads of timber, and 18,000 fathoms of firewood, were imported into London in 1874, besides a large quantity of boards for flooring, &c., &c. NORWAY FIR is of straight growth and small dimensions, and balks of about 8 or 9 inches square only are produced from it, but even these are not now shipped in any con- siderable quantity for the English market. The Norwegians appear to find it most advantageous to convert their Fir timber (which is generally of a coarse description and inferior in quality) into battens of 6 to 7 inches in breadth, by less than 3 inches in thickness, and into prepared flooring and match-boards, which are sold by the *' square'^ of 100 superficial feet of I inch thick. They also produce a few deals of 3 x 9 inches, varying in length, for exportation ; and, as the whole of these are manufactured and sold at a very cheap rate, they pass readily into consumption for the building of the lowest and poorest class of houses. Norway supplies, in addition to the timber, deals, and battens, considerable quantities of small spars, and Fir for firewood, to the London market. CHAPTER XXX. COMMON OR NORWAY SPRUCE OR '^ WHITE FIR" (Picea excels a) Is very abundant upon the mountain slopes in Norway, and throughout Europe down to the Alps, and prefers generally a damp climate and moist soil to bring it to the greatest perfection. In such situations, it fre- quently reaches to a height of 80 to 130 feet, with a circumference of 3 to 5 feet. It may also be found upon most of the mountainous parts of the North of Europe, and is abundant in North America. The Spruce Fir is an evergreen, and assumes in open ground a beautiful pyramidal form, with the lower branches drooping nearly to the ground ; the leaves are solitary and very short, and the cones long and pendulous, with the scales thin at the edges. It will thus be easily distinguished from the Pines, which have their leaves clustered in twos or threes, and cones of quite different characters. The wood, which is commonly known as White Deal,* * Deal is a word with regard to which the reader may be put on his guard, as it is often loosely applied to very different timbers. White deal is the wood of the Norway Spruce {Picea cxcelsa). Yellow deal is the wood of the Norway Pine (Pinus sylvestris), but it is often called Red deal. Strictly speaking, the word dcnl refers to these woods cut to particular sizes, &c. , and not to the timl>er itself. CHAP, XXX.] FIRS. 339 is white in colour, straight and even in the grain, tough, h'ght, elastic, and more difficult to work than Pine, owing chiefly to the excessive hardness of the small knots which are frequently found in it. When cut into deals it is somewhat disposed to warp, unless carefully weighted in the stacks or piles during the process of seasoning. The shrinkage is inconsiderable, and the sap, though generally only of moderate thickness, varies from half an inch, in some trees, to 2 or 3 inches in others. The Spruce Firs are not suitable for the best-finished carpenters' or joiners^ work, but for framing and the coarser descriptions of work it may be used with ad- vantage, and also in ships for any of the fitments in store-rooms, for lockers, shelves, mess-tables, &c. The trees are generally straight, and being strong as well as elastic, they are admirably suited for making the small spars required for ships and boats. They are also in great request for ladders and scaffold poles, and for stage-making in ship-yards. Norway spars are known under the following desig- nations, and are classified for the navy contracts accord- ing to their size, thus : — Table CXXXVII. Specification. No. Description. Length. 1 Diameter. From the butt. Diameter. From the top. 5 4 3 2 I Feet. Cants 34 to 36 Barlings ... 31 -. 33 Booms 28 ,, 30 Middlings. 23 ,, 26 Smalls 19 ,, 22 Poles 21 ,, 42 Inches. 7 to6>^ 6 „ SVz 5 .. 4M 4 .. SVz 3 M 2 S Ft. in. at 3 4 2 8 2 0 I 4 0 8 Inches. 3K 3 I Ft. in. at 3 8 3 4 3 0 2 8 2 4 Z 2 340 TIMBER AND TIMBER TREES. [chap. These spars are usually bought for the navy at a price each^ but for the private trade they are not un- frequently sold at per foot run. Nothing is done to these trees after they are felled, beyond removing the small branches, cutting off the top, and making the ends even, to prepare them for the market. They are, therefore, brought to us with the bark on, and are measured over all. It is well, however, to take the bark off if they are not required for im- mediate use, otherwise they will suffer injury from the attack of a small worm which after a few months appears between the bark and the alburnum. The Spruce Fir has a further intrinsic value in yielding a resinous fluid which constitutes the foundation for the manufacture of pitch. The Spruce Firs are all of very slow growth, and not so durable as Pine. The trade in foreign deals, battens, boards, &c., from the countries in the North of Europe, is very great, and there were imported into the United King- dom, in 1874, 2,800,000 loads; in 1873, 2,450,000 loads; in 1872, about 2,300,000 loads; as compared with 2, 140,000 loads in 1871; 1,900,000 loads in 1870, and 1,380,000 loads in 1866. Large as these quantities are, they seem likely to go on increasing, and will probably continue to do so, until the supply is ex- hausted. Sweden has contributed the larger portion of these, Norway and Russia come next, and are nearly alike in quantity; Prussia follows, and Finland supplies least of all. To particularise and describe the various shades of difference to be found in the quality of these deals, battens, &c., would be next to impossible, drawn as they are from so many ports of shipment in each of the xxx.J FIRS. 341 countries referred to ; but, taking them in a general way, the order of quality would stand, first or best with Prussia, then with Russia, Sweden_, and Finland, and lastly, with Norway. Each of these countries classify their goods by first and second, and sometimes third quality, the respective distinctions of classes being based upon the perfection or otherwise of the manu- facture, and freedom from shakes, sap, or defects. From whatever source these deals are obtained, they are usually branded with some fancy mark, letter or device, as varied in character as the names of the different merchants who produce them. These trade- marks are all liable to be changed, and the purchaser, unless he can make the selection for himself, must rely upon the reputation and integrity of the firm he treats with, for obtaining the particular article he may require. The following are samples of the trade-marks in present use upon deals and battens : — 342 TIMBER AND TIMBER TREES. [chap. ffi w K + .. + >, H ffl i" K .. + .. 3 -^ J ffi H c + m H T3 t- fc^ J3 • - + u K ffi m .. K + ^ - a: '^ ^ CG 03 C/3 h CQ P3 " O S « 2 ? -- - - ^ ^' .. .. # •- O)" O 5 ^ ^ CI. < Q rt + ^ " O 7-. + < W ;z; < " ^ J > X X u < 3 < J < > Q - fc4 ■I "^ ^ C/2 K ^ ^ K > ^ K + o U + fc + + ^ ffi m £ 13 f^ 5i & >-. .ti .ti M. d x} 'C ^ m j2 2 2 " ^ I Q P K -CO I o U . da i^ CQ O 73 IT . to >. 03 rt £ o £ ^ t/5 (U 3 o < J < ^ O m •- •- .. K ffi < ^ + + : o c« « < ^ :z: ^ fa H »— , c/} < < m ^ fc K J^ o CQ CQ + > ^ O ^ « ffl < ^ - •- ^ 7. CQ O U Q PQ i^ < < ■ - # rt • rt tfl E rt S X u ^ U Q fa 15 to 73 TJ ^ c r! ^ w 10 E O ^ F 73 b? ■ 2 X 2 X 30 •< J V 536 525 552 554 578 576 lbs. 11,200 11,200 11,200 6,832 13.300 11,200 lbs. 2,800 2,800 2,800 1,708 3.325 2,800 Total . . ... 3321 64,932 16,233 Average . 553 10,822 2,705 Table CXLIV. Vertical Experiments on cubes of — Number of the specimen. I Inch. 2 Inches. 3 Inches. 4 Inches. Crushed with Crushed with Crushed with Crushed with 13—16 17, i8 19, 20 21, 22 23. 24 25, 26 Tons. 2-375 3-500 3-250 3-500 3750 3 500 Tons. 8-O0O 8-500 8-250 8-750 8-375 8-875 Tons. 21-875 Tons. 34-00 Total . . 19-875 5075 — Average . 3-312 8-46 21-875 34-00 Do. per in. 3-312 2-115 2-431 2-125 Nos. 27 TO 30. — Four pieces, each 2x2 inches, and respectively i, 2, 3, and 4 inches in length, crushed with 9-375, 8-460, 8 250, and 9-50 Tons. XXXII.] RED PINE. 355 Contracts are annually made for the supply of Canada Red Pine timber for the royal navy, according to the following specification and condition, namely : — The Red Pine timber to be of the first quality, fresh cut, good, sound, merchantable, and well-conditioned, from II to 15 inches square, averaging 12 inches, 20 feet and upwards, averaging not less than 30 feet in length, and the spine must be seen from the butt to the top on each of the four sides. 2 A 2 CHAPTER XXXIII. AMERICAN PINES — {Continued). YELLOW PINE [Piuus Strobiis). This tree occupies a very wide range in North America, and is found to spread from near the Saskatchewan River, in about 54° N., to the ridges of the Alleghany Mountains in Georgia, and from Nova Scotia to the Rocky Mountains. It is found in every part of New England, growing in every variety of soil, but flourishing best in a deep, moist, loamy sand. In England it is called by botanists the Weymouth Pine, in compliment to Lord Weymouth, who first intro- duced it into this country ; but in America it is com- monly known as the White Pine, while the timber it yields is best known in commerce as the Yellow Pine. This tree may be distinguished by its leaves growing in tufts of five, by its very long cones composed of loosely- arranged scales, and, when young, by the smoothness and delicate light green colour of the bark. The trees are of erect growth and noble dimensions, many of them being 100 to 150 feet in height, and from 9 to 12 feet in circumference. The wood is of a pale straw colour, soft, light (the specific gravity being only 435), and moderately strong. It has a clean, fine grain, works up with a smooth and CHAP. XXXIII.] YELLOW PINE. 357 silky appearance, and is, on this account, in great favour with carpenters. It is very valuable for every description of joinery, where lightness may be desirable, and may be applied with advantage to many ornamental uses in both naval and civil architecture. For more substantial works of construction, it is not, however, considered to be so well adapted, as it is not sufficiently strong or durable for employment in them. In every season's felling of the Yellow Pine trees, the straightest, longest, and finest pieces are sorted out and dressed or hewn nearly to the octagonal form ; they are then called *' Inch masts,'' and these rough spars are suitable for employment for the lower masts, yards, and bowsprits of ships. It is essential to the qualification of the stick for mast, yard, or bowsprit purposes, that it be straight, sound, free from sudden bends and injurious knots. Further, it is important that the grain be straight, and especially it should be free from any spiral turn, as timber of that growth is liable to warp or twist out of shape after being worked. Nearly all the lower masts, yards, and bowsprits of large ships were formerly made of Yellow Pine ; but, for the lower masts of small vessels, and generally for the topmast, topsail-yards, and other light spars where the strain is often sudden and great, this description of Pine was found to be not strong enough, and was therefore seldom employed. The employment of Yellow Pine for large spars was chiefly owing to the difficulty experienced in obtaining the stronger Pines of sufficiently large dimensions, and it was only after the introduction of the "Douglas Pine" spars from the Oregon district of Columbia, that they were in some measure superseded. Still, the Yellow Pine wood, when made into masts, has generally proved 358 TIMBER AND TIMBER TREES. [chap. equal to the strains brought to bear upon it ; the stays, shrouds, and other rigging being quite sufficient to hold it against any ordinary amount of pressure.* After the spars have been withdrawn from each season's fall of trees, the remainder are hewn into a square form, producing logs varying from 14 to 26 inches square, and from 18 to 40 feet in length (Fig. 29). These pass through a sorting for quality, to suit the market, but there are no official brands by which the surveyor could at once identify them. Good, sound, practical judgment is therefore most essential for making a selection of this wood. FIG. 29. Occasionally we see quoted some " waney " timber for board purposes, or *' waney board timber.'^ These logs are not so perfectly hewn or squared as the ordinary timber, and are usually short butts of trees, which are very clean in the grain, free from knots, and solid at the centre. These are probably procured from fine trees that have been broken in their fall, and are doubtless about * Masts made of Yellow Pine can seldom be relied upon after eight or ten years' work, especially if tliey have been used in the tropics, where the intense heat and rains deteriorate them very rapidly. Every care should therefore be taken to preserve them, first by p linting them only after thorough seasoning, and then at intervals of a year or so. The covers at the wedging decks should also be carefully looked to, and kept in good condition, to prevent damp from affecting the mast at that part. The introduction of iron and steel for the lower masts of ships has now almost entirely superseded the use of wood, both in the royal and the mercantile navy. XXXIII.] YELLOW PINE. 359 the best that can be obtained for conversion into board. In addition to the masts and timber, a few deals are imported. These are cut 3 inches thick, and vary in breadth from 9 to 24 inches, and occasionally even to 32 inches. In length they vary from 10 to 20 feet. They are sorted in Canada into three parcels, and designated first, second, and third quality, according as they are found free from knots, sap, defects, &c., &c., or otherwise. They are further denominated ^^ bright" when passed direct from the saw-mills to the craft for shipment, in contradistinction to others, termed " floated," which are often brought over long distances on rafts, and get a little discoloured in their transit. They are commonly sold at per 120, St. Petersburg standard, and the price of the " floated " usually stands depreciated in the market to the extent of about 10 or 12 per cent, below the price of "bright" deals. A simple red chalk mark, thus — I., II., and III., drawn across the middle or side of the deals, is the only distinguishing brand they have to denote their quality. Yellow Pine timber is subject to the cup and heart- shake defects, and there is also a slight degree of sponginess about the centre or early annual layers of the older trees, which detracts a little from their value. Further, the top end of the logs are often coarse and knotty, which renders that part unfit for conversion into small scantlings ; but, otherwise, it is a good and profitable description of timber for usC; in substitution for the heavier and harder Pines. The subjoined tables of experiments on the strength of Yellow Pine will afford a means of comparison with other species. 360 TIMBER AND TIMBER TREES. [chap. Table CXLV.— Yellow Pine (Canada). Transverse Experiments. Number of the specimen. Deflections, Total weight required to break each piece. Specific gravity. With the apparatus weighing 390 lbs. After the weight was removed. At the crisis of breaking. I 2 3 4 5 6 Inches. 2 '00 2 00 2 00 175 2-25 275 Inches. 175 1-65 1-85 1-65 2'CX3 2"IO Inches. 4*50 5-00 4*50 4 "50 375 575 lbs. 630 636 684 660 552 598 424 432 464 444 435 411 Total . . 1275 II "OO 28*00 3.760 2610 Average . 2*125 1-833 4-66 626-6 435 Remarks. — The whole of these broke with a moderate length of fracture and splintery. The above-mentioned specimens were all of good quality, well seasoned, and taken from trees of 6 to 8 feet in circumference. It will be observed that the specific gravity and breaking strains varied only in a slight degree. Experiments were also made to test the transverse strength of a series of seven pieces (Table CXLVI.) cut from a plank 2 inches thick, taken out of the middle or centre part of the butt-end of a tree, the centre piece O being made to include the pith (Fig. 30). I-IG. 30. XXXIII.] YELLOW PINE. 361 We are thus enabled to compare the strength of the earher and the later growth of this wood. Table CXLVL— Yellow Pine (Canada). Ttaijsverse Experiments. — 2.nd Example. Deflections. -^ -o TS Tensile X, eight 3 bre ece. "J ^ X «« c 0 V Is U! ifi > -a.^vo S.6 With the ap ratus weigh 390 lbs. After the weight wa removed. At the cris breaking Total w required t each pi 0 'D Weight rt to spec gravity Weight re to bre I square Direct cohesion on I square in. Number of the specimen. Inches. Inches. Inches. lbs. lbs. lbs. 7. 3 I "SO •50 4-25 to8 568 537 127-0 2,660 3. 22 8. 2 1-25 ■50 4 '25 562 600 562 140-5 2,800 2. 23 9. I 1-50 •50 2*25 480 537 536 1200 2.485 I. 24 10. 0 2-25 I'lO 275 360 430 502 90*0 0 II. i' I -85 •85 3-00 480 588 490 1200 2,730 l'. 25 12. 2' 1*90 •90 4 '25 512 568 541 128-0 2,800 2'. 26 13- 3' 17s •65 3-00 478 566 3857 507 ii9"5 3,080 3'. 27 Total 12 'OO S'oo 2375 3.380 3675 845-00 16,555 — Aver. 1 714 ■714 3 "393 482-85 551 525 120-71 2,759 — The mean results of the experiments are as follows, viz. : — The centre piece © s.g. 430 broke with 360 lbs. ,, next pieces i and i' ,, 562 ,, 480 ,, 2 ,, 2' ,, 584 ,, 537 ,, ,, outer ,, 3 ,, 3' ,, 567 ,, 493 ,, In the above example, there is something like a direct proportion existing between the specific gravity 362 TIMBER AND TIMBER TREES. [chap, and the strength, the densest wood having borne the greatest strain before breaking. Instead, however, of this point of density lying at the centre of the tree, as in the specimens of Oak that were tested in a similar manner, we find it, as is generally the case with other woods, about midway between the pith and the outer layers of duramen. The results, if compared with the mean of the first- mentioned set of experiments on Yellow Pine (Table CXLV.), which were upon pieces taken from several trees, show that the tree from which the seven specimens were obtained possessed a little less strength, and rather less elasticity, than the former ; but then it must be borne in mind that they were selected pieces, and probably did not include the weaker wood of either the oldest or the newest layers. Further experiments were tried on six out of seven of the specimens, to ascertain their relative tensile strength (Table CXLVII., column 9). The following are the average results : — The pieces i and i', s.g, 562, broke with 2,607 lbs. on the square inch. 2 ,, 2', ,, 584, ,, 2,800 ,. 3 » 3'. .. 567. M 2,870 The centre piece 0 was not tried for tensile strength, as it was too much crippled under the transverse strain to be of any further value for experimental purposes. The denser layers 2 and 2\ were not in this case quite so strong as 3 and 3', which were of a less specific gravity. XXXIII.] YELLOW PINE. 365 Table CXLVI I.— Yellow Pine (Canada). Transverse Experivients. — 2>^d Example. V Deflections. -^ >, T5 -o Tensile 0 V ■J) 0 u duce ific 600. Experiments. 2.^ Ui y^ Table CLIIL— Pitch Pine (American). Transverse Experiments. — 4//^ Example, (Butt to top, inner part of the tree.) Number of the specimen. Deflections. Total weight required to break each piece. Specific gravity. With the apparatus weighing 390 lbs. After the weight was removed. At_ the crisis of breaking. 19 20 21 22 23 24 Inches. 1-25 I '50 I '25 1-50 1-50 I 50 Inch. •00 ■15 •00 •25 •25 '10 Inches. 4 "50 5'oo 375 475 475 4 '50 lbs. 760 778 752 705 695 710 583 550 531 505 501 498 Total . . 8-50 75 27-25 4,400 3168 Average . I •416 •125 4"54i 733 '33 528 Remarks. — Specimens all broke with fracture of a few inches in length. Table CLIV. — Pitch Pine (American). Transverse Experiments. — $th Example. (Butt to top, outer part of the tree.) Number of the specimen. Deflections. Total weight required to break each piece. Specific gravity. With the apparatus weighing 390 lbs. After the weight was removed. At the crisis of breaking. 25 26 27 28 29 30 Inches. 1-50 1-25 I "25 I '50 1-50 150 Inch. 10 •15 ■05 •15 •05 ■00 Inches. 475 5-00 4-25 4'oo 4" 00 375 lbs. 805 778 742 725 739 741 601 572 533 530 528 518 Total . . 8-50 •50 2575 4.530 3282 Average . I "416 •083 4-291 755 547 Remarks. — Specimens all broke with fracture of a few inches in length. 2 B 2 372 TIMBER AND TIMBER TREES. [chap. Specimens 19 to 24, with the early layers, also 25 to 30, with the later layers of wood, were taken from a log of the same dimensions as the last, and under precisely the same conditions as those referred to in Tables CLI. and CLIL, the results being nearly as before; that is, specimen 20, or the second piece from the butt-end of the early growth, and specimen 25, or the butt length of the later growth, are the two strongest pieces of the respective series. We also see in the mean results of the experiments that the strength of the inner is to the outer wood as 733 : 755. Thus the outside is as before, the strongest. Table CLV. Tensile Experiments. Number of the specimen. Dimensions of each piece. Specific gravity. Weight the piece broke with. Direct cohesion on I square inch. 31 32 33 34 35 36 Inches. > 2 X 2 X 30 < 693 630 651 620 662 698 lbs. 16,800 17,640 19,320 17,920 19,600 20,720 lbs. 4,200 4.410 4.830 4,480 4.900 5,180 Total . . ... 3954 112,000 28,000 Average . 659 18,666 4,666 Table CLVI. Vertical or Crrishing Strain on cubes of 2 inches. No. 37. No. 38. No. 39. No. 40. No. 41. No. 42. Total. Average. Ditto on I square inch. Tons. Tons. Tons. Tons. Tons. 1 Tons. Tons. Tons. 10-875 1 II-I2S 11-5 11-625 1200 1 12-125 69-25 11-542 2-885 XXXIV.] VARIOUS. 373 Other American Pines are : — The Western White Pine [P. montuola)^ common in Columbia and Vancouver Island, but less valuable as timber than its Atlantic representative, P. Strobus. The Sugar Pine {P. Lambertiand) of the Rocky Mountains and Pacific Coast. Its timber is large and valuable. The Flexible Pine of Nevada, &c. {P . fiexilis). The wood is very pliable, but too knotty and coarse for good work. The Western Yellow Pine (P. ponderosa) of the Rocky Mountains and Pacific slopes, yields a very resinous heavy timber of large size, but not strong in proportion. The Loblolly Pine of Carolina, &c. (P, Tcedd), yields very poor timber. The Short-leafed Yellow Pine of the Southern States [P. Mitis) has fine-grained, strong and durable wood, much used in carpentry in the States. The Long-leafed Yellow Pine or Turpentine Tree of the Southern States {P . Australis) is by far the most im- portant of the genus in the South. The wood is red and resinous, and most of the resin in America comes from it. It is much used and exported as Pitch Pine, and must be distinguished from the Northern P. rigida of Canada, &c., which is exported under the same name. CHAPTER XXXV. AMERICAN CONIFERS— (Contznifed). We now pass to the Firs, which are distinguished botanically from the Pines by their leaves being isolated, and by differences in their cones. OREGON OR DOUGLAS FIR [Psendo-tsuga Doiiglasii). This noble and gigantic species of Fir* is, accord- ing to Mr. Douglas, to be found in large forests in North-Western America, stretching from 43° to 52° of north latitude, and is the most important Conifer of Canada and the North-West. It is an evergreen of erect growth, varying from 100 to fully 200 feet in height,, and from 5 to 25 feet in circumference, and occasionally even exceeding this measurement in girth. The bark is rough, and varies from i to 2 inches in thick- ness. The wood is reddish-white in colour, close, straight, and regular in the grain, tough, elastic, has very little alburnum or sap-wood, and is remarkably free from knots, it being no uncommon thing to find pieces 70 to 80 feet in length without a single one upon the surface. In general appearance it more closely * Oft'Ti cillrd thf Oregon Pine. I CHAP. XXXV.] OREGON FIR. 375 resembles the Red Pine {Pinus resinosd) of Canada than either of the other Pines and Firs with which we are acquainted. It is, however, sHghtly harder than the Red Pine, and less firm in texture. The Oregon Fir or Pine is rather more rapid in its rate of growth than the Firs and Pines generally are, and makes about 24 inches in diameter in a hundred years, or, as I have proved by an average of several specimens, it makes i inch diameter of wood in 4'32 years. Cargoes of Oregon Fir spars are occasionally brought to this country, together with a little timber and plank ; but it can scarcely be said that there is as yet any regular trade kept up in this wood, owing chiefly to the great cost of transport, the heavy freight charges preventing its importation and successful competition with the Canadian and Baltic Firs, which can be put upon the London market at less expense. The Oregon spars are generally well dressed, or manufactured for the market, are perfectly straight, and vary from about 10 inches in diameter and 40 feet in length, to 32 inches in diameter and no feet in length. They are much sought after, and are well adapted for lower-masts, yards, and bowsprits, &c., &c. ; for yachts, and for the royal and mercantile marine. For top-masts, however, where there is often much friction, they are not so well suited as Riga or Dantzic Fir, or the Kauri Pine of New Zealand, owing to the want of cohesion in the annual layers. A good specimen of the Oregon Fir, 159 feet in length, was placed in the Royal Botanic Gardens at Kew for a flagstaff, about the year 1861, and has shown excellent service there. One or two such spars, suitable for flagstafifs, the dimensions varying from 9 to 14 inches 376 TIMBER AND TIMBER TREES. [chap. in diameter, and 80 to no feet in length, are commonly brought with each cargo. The present price (1875) of these Oregon Pine spars for masts, &c., varies from jQy los. to £,\\ los. per load of 50 cubic feet, according to size. This is in excess of that usually charged for the Yellow Pine of Canada, but, looking to the superior manufacture of the Oregon spars, the actual difference in cost is very small indeed. For the square timber and planks, which are brought as stowage goods with the spars, no quotations are given, and, in a general way, they must always be ruled by the market price for Canadian and Baltic square Fir timber. The clean appearance and straightness of the Oregon Fir timber are quite sufficient to recommend it for many purposes in carpentry, and it certainly may be used with advantage in both naval and civil architecture, in lieu of the more well-known Firs. The specific gravity of this wood, when seasoned, is about 605. OTHER NORTH AMERICAN FIRS. There are several kinds of Firs in North America, namely, the Hemlock Spruce {Tsuga Canadensis), which has small, pointed, pendulous terminal cones, and thin, flat leaves, one of the commonest and most useful, though coarse timbers; the Black or Double Spruce {Picea nigra), with dependent, egg-shaped cones, the scales being waved and jagged at the edges ; and the White or Single Spruce [Picea alba), which has longer cones, spindle-shaped, also dependent, with the scales smooth and entire on the edge. XXXV.] FIRS. 377 The White Spruce are the only deals shipped to this country from Canada as a clearly-defined class, all others being simply known here as Canadian, St. John's, ■&C. Spruce. The London market was supplied with about 1,100,000 Spruce deals in 1871, 1,080,000 in 1872, 2,000,000 in 1873, and the immense quantity of 2,300,000 pieces in 1874, prepared generally in dimensions of 3 inches thick, 9 inches broad, and 12 to 21 feet in length. The bulk of these were sorted by brackers previous to shipment into first, second, and third qualities. Those of the first quality are perfectly clean, sound, and free from knots, sap, and defects; the second quality is also sound, and tolerably clean, but includes deals with a few knots and some sap upon the edges ; while the third quality includes and admits all the faulty and coarser descriptions of deals, and some of them are very rough indeed. As a rule, there is no brand other than a red chalk mark drawn once, twice, or thrice across the deal, to distinguish between the several qualities, and it is neces- sary that a careful inspection should be made before purchasing them. The relative values of the Canadian and New Brunswick Spruce deals in the London market are about as follows, viz., the 1st quality Canadian is to 1st quality New Brunswick Spruce as I'O : '82 ; the 2nd and 3rd quality Canadian is to 2nd and 3rd New Brunswick Spruce as ro : 'go ; and these figures indicate approximately the difference in their respective qualities. All these deals are employed extensively in carpentry, ship, and engineering works. 37S TIMBER AND TIMBER TREES. [chap. Table CLVII.— Spruce (Canada). Transverse Experiments. Number of the specimen. Deflections. Total weight required to break each piece. Specific gravity. With the After the apparatus weight weighing was 390 lbs. removed. At the crisis of breaking. I 2 3 4 Inches. 1-25 I "20 1-30 Inch. •06 •05 •04 •07 Inches. 6-25 5-00 375 575 lbs. 696 719 556 709 451 485 510 490 Total . . 4 "90 ■22 2075 2,680 1936 Average . 1225 •055 5-187 670 484 Remarks. — No. i broke with about 12 inches length of fracture; 2, 3, and 4 with only a little less. Table CLVIII. Tensile Experiments. (Dimensions of each piece, 2 X 2 X 30 inches, s.g. 484.) No. 5. No. 6. No. 7. No. 8. Total. Average. Weight the piece ) broke with j lbs. 13.104 lbs. 19,040 lbs. 13.440 lbs. 17,360 lbs. 62,944 lbs. 15.736 Direct cohesion on ) I square inch f 3.276 4.760 3.360 4.340 15.736 3-934 Table CLIX. Vertical or Crushing Strain on cubes of 2 inches. No. 9, No. 10. No. II. No. 12. No. 13. ' No. 14. Total. Tons. Average. Tons. Ditto on I square inch. Tons. Tons. Tons. Tons. Tons. Tons. 9 00 8-875 775 8-875 875 875 52-00 8-666 2 -166 I XXXV.] VARIOUS. 379 Other American Spruces are, P. Engelviannii, with an excellent durable timber, in the Northern States and Canada ; the Rocky Mountain Blue Spruce (P. piingens) ; and the Californian Coast Spruce {P. Sitckensis), with coarse but strong and useful timber. There are also several true Firs, some of which are extremely ornamental, such as Abies nobilis, a Canadian species yielding very good timber, and A. amabzlzs, the Western Silver Fir. The Red Fir of the Californian Sierras [A. magnified) is said to yield strong and durable wood, but the timber of the American Silver Firs is not much valued as a rule. North America also produces three species of Larch,, of which the Tamarack or Hackmatack (Larix Ameri- cana) is best known ; it is said to be tolerably abundant, and is found to range from the mountains of Virginia to Hudson's Bay. In deep forests it sometimes attains a height of 60 and even 80 feet, but it is generally of small dimensions. The wood is of a reddish-grey colour, moderately hard, heavy, strong, and as durable as Oak. It is extensively employed in America in the framing, and generally in the construction of ships. Great curves and knee-pieces, however, can only be obtained from the spurs of the root and from the branches. The American Red Larch [Larix mieroearpa) is less abundant, and as a building wood is not much known.. It is believed to be equal in strength and durability to the Larix Amerieana, with which, indeed, it occasionally passes without being detected. Larix oeeidentalis^ the Western Larch of Columbia,, yields a coarse but strong and durable timber. CHAPTER XXXVI. ASIATIC AND AFRICAN CONIFERS. THE CEDARS. The word Cedar, like the words Oak, Deal, and others, has been misapplied to several timbers which have no- thing in common beyond more or less superficial resemblances in colour, texture, &c.* The true Cedars are Coniferous trees belonging to the family Cedrus, Sind of these there are three races or varieties, often regarded as species. The Cedar of Lebanon {Cedrus Libani) of Asia Minor, the Deodar [C. Deodard) of the Hima- layas, and the Atlas Cedar (A. atlanticd) found in North Africa. It was not unnatural, perhaps, that the word Cedar should also be applied to certain fragrant woods yielded by the genus Cedrela and its allies, members of the Dicotyledonous family Meliaceae, and, as matter of fact, the wood of Cedrela odorata of the West Indies has long been so termed. Moulmein Cedar is Cedrela Too^a, the Toon of India ; and C. australis goes by the name in Australia. The matter is more complicated, however, by the name Cedar being applied to certain other Coniferae, e.g. * See page 210. CHAP. XXXVI.] CEDARS. 381 Bermuda Cedar is Juniperus Bermudiana'^, and various allied species of Thuja, Librocedrus, and Ctipressus are called Cedars in our colonies. Cedar-wood is also the name given to Idea altissima^ the timber used for making canoes in Guiana ; while Guazuma in Jamaica, and Dysoxylon in Australia, are called Bastard Cedar, and there are other cases of the same misapplication of the word. The following concerns the true Cedars. THE CEDARS. CEDAR OF LEBANON [Cedrus Libani) is found upon Mount Lebanon, the Taurus, and also upon many of the mountains in Asia Minor. It is a very stately and majestic evergreen tree, with heavy wide-spreading branches thrown out horizontally from low down the stem, bearing clustered leaves and erect obtuse oblong cones. Very extraordinary accounts * Bermudian Cedar [yuniperus Bermudiana) is very small, and much lighter than that of Cuba. It was tried experimentally in the building of several brigs and schooners in the royal dockyards, before wood ship-biilding had passed into disuse, but with only partial success, and the use of it was soon discontinued. It is used in the Bermudas for the building of boats and small vessels, and is in request in this country for making of pencils. The Cedar of Florida is similar in quality and texture to the Bermudian, and is well adapted for the same kind of employment. The Spaniards formerly used Cedar to a great extent in ship-building ; and the Gibraltar and other large ships of theirs were found, on being taken to pieces, to have much of this wood in them, in a sound state. The same rule prevails in the market with reference to the sale of Cedar as with Mahogany, namely, that of deducting about one-third from the calliper measurement for irregularity of manufacture, shakes, defects, centres, saw- kerfs, &c. Pencil Cedar is classed No. 3 ; Red Cedar, No. 6 ; and White Cedar, No. 17, among timbers used in ships, in Lloyds' rules for ship-building. 382 TIMBER AND TIMBER TREES. [chap. have been given of the longevity of these trees, but these should be received with some little reserve. It is stated in a small work on useful and ornamental planting, that at Highclere Park, in Hampshire, the Earl of Caernarvon planted seeds in 1739, from a cone gathered upon Mount Lebanon. Only two germinated, which, after being planted out, remained rather stunted, and without showing any signs of vigour. In 1767 they were transplanted into a poor soil, in a bleak situation, being at that time 17 inches in girth at one foot from the ground, and from that date their growth was considered to be satisfactory. No. I in 48 years measured 35 inches in girth at 3 feet from the ground. 73 .. 82 ,, 3 93 No. 2 in 48 73 93 III 22 72 102 These two Cedar trees, therefore, when 93 years old, measured respectively about 37 and 34 inches in diameter, and were making wood at the rate of i inch of diameter in about 2^ years. If this rate of growth is applied to the largest of the trees which Maundrell mentions that he saw upon Mount Lebanon, it would show them to be only about 350, or, at the most, 400 years old; and it is probable that this is somewhere about the limit of age which the Cedar trees attain, and not 3,000 years, as has been asserted. We know very little of the quality of the timber of the Cedar of Lebanon ; it is too scarce to find its way in any quantity into the markets of this country. The wood is reddish-brown in colour, open and straight in the grain, very porous, soft and spongy in the centre, of light weight, and rather brittle ; large and XXXVI.] CEDARS. 383 injurious heart and cup-shakes frequently occur in it. It is deficient in strength, whichever way it is tried, but it works up easily, shrinks only moderately, and stands exceedingly well when seasoned. It is, therefore, of great value to the modeller, the carver, the toy-maker, and the general dealer in light and small wares. Large scantlings cannot, however, be worked out of it for framing in carpentry, neither is it suitable for such employment. Cedar timber has long enjoyed the reputation of being durable ; and there is no doubt that Solomon obtained the wood of Cedrus for employment in the fitments, if not in the more solid structure, of the Temple at Jerusalem. The wood has a pleasant though peculiar odour, which is obnoxious to insects and vermin, and articles made of this material are practically free from their attacks. DEODAR {Cedrus Deodar a). This is a very large and tall tree of the North- West Himalayas, found between 4,000 and 10,000 feet, and extending into the mountains of Afghanistan and Beloochistan. The heart- wood is light, yellowish-brown, moderately hard, and distinctly fragrant, and the resin is not in distinct canals, though abundant. The annual rings are very even, and the quality of well-grown timber is excellent; in fact, it is the most durable and useful of the Himalayan Conifers, and must be regarded as by far the most important timber of North-West India, where it is employed for all kinds of construction — sleepers, bridges, carpentry, furniture, and shingles. More information, with tables of its mechanical pro- perties, can be seen in Gamble's " Manual of Indian Timbers/' !84 TIMBER AND TIMBER TREES. [chap. ATLAS CEDAR {Cednis atlantica) is met with in Morocco and on the Atlas Mountains of North Africa. Very little is known of its properties, but it is so closely allied to the foregoing that it may be inferred generally that the timber is very similar where well grown. As there can be scarcely any doubt that all the above three races of Cedrus have sprung from the same stock, I place them together, in spite of the fact that the home of the last named is North Africa. THE CONIFERS OF INDIA. I have already referred to the Himalayan Cedar, but the mountains of Northern India yield several other Coniferous trees of considerable importance in the country, though they are not exported. Of the five Pines, the beautiful Bhotan Pine [P. excelsd) stands first in order of importance. It is re- markably like the North American Weymouth Pine {P. Strobus), and, like it, has its needles in fives, and its cones drooping and Fir-like. The wood, which has a red heart, is remarkably compact and durable, and contains much resin. In the districts where it is chiefly found — 6,000 to 10,000 feet in the Himalayas — it is' regarded as the most valuable timber of the country for buildings and engineering work, and its durability is second only to that of the Deodar. Of the other Pines, the soft timber of P. longifolia is used for shingles, buildings, tea-boxes, &c., but it is not very durable. Perhaps its importance in producing resin is its chief value. P, Khasya is the chief soft wood for building and other purposes in the Khasya hills. P. Merkusii is a XXXVI.] FIRS. 385 very resinous wood used for torches in Burmah. P. Gerardiana is found in North Afghanistan. Of the Firs of India, the most important is Picea Smithiana^ the Spruce Fir of the North-West Himalayas, Sikkim, &c., a tree with considerable resemblances to our European Spruce both in habit and in the qualities of its timber. The nearly white, non-resinous, soft, and easily-worked wood is largely used in Simla and other places for packing cases and rough carpentry, planking, &c. The Himalayan Silver Fir {Abies Webbiana), which is found in similar districts to the last, is also in many respects the representative of our western species of Abies. Its white, soft, non-resinous, and easily-worked wood is not durable if exposed, but is used in some districts for shingles and construction. Larix Griffithii is the Himalayan Larch, found in Nepal, Sikkim, &c., at elevations of 8,000 to 12,000 feet. The timber is much like our own Larch. The Himalayan Cypress {Cupressus torulosd) yields a brown, streaked, fragrant, and moderately hard wood, used for building and other purposes. Other Indian Conifers are the Yew {Taxus baccata), several species of Juniper, and Podocarpus bracteata. The more important Conifers of the Cape and Natal are the Yellow-woods {Podocarpus Thunbergii and P. elongatd) . The former, known as Upright Yellow-wood, is a large tree of first-class importance, yielding timber of a light and soft, but fairly strong and elastic character, easily split and worked, and used generally for all kinds of planks, beams, rafters, &c., and, properly treated with antiseptics, it makes good sleepers. The latter is known 2 c 386 TIMBER AND TIMBER TREES, [chap. xxxvi. as Outeniqua Yellow-wood in the Colony, and is neither so common nor quite so hard as P. Thunbergiiy but it is used indiscriminately for the same purposes. The Cedar Boom of the Cape Colonists {Wid- dringtonia juniperoides) is a light-coloured Cedar, useful for flooring and other carpentry, but perishable. CHAPTER XXXVIL THE CONIFERS OF AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND. There are several excellent Coniferous timbers in Australia, of which the following are the most important. Several go locally by the name of " Pines/^ but there are no true Pines in Australia. The Moreton Bay Pine (Araucaria Cunninghami) is not a true Pine, but a tree allied to the so-called '^ Monkey Puzzle " often planted in our gardens. It occurs in large quantities in the north of New South Wales and in Queensland, and is especially abundant on the Richmond river. The timber is light, straight-grained, and works very smoothly ; it is very strong and durable if kept wet, but soon decays if exposed to alternations of damp and dryness. It is of considerable importance as an export timber, especially that from the hills away from the coasts. In addition to its uses in carpentry, for flooring, lining boards, &c., it is employed for cabinet work, and to some extent for spars. The allied Bunya-Bunya {A. Bidivilli) of Queens- land is less used as timber, on account of its seeds being eaten by the natives, but the wood is strong and good for framing, &c. Dacryditim Franklinii^ known in Tasmania as the 2 C 2 388 TIMBER AND TIMBER TREES. [chap. Huon Pine, yields a light tough wood, which has been used for whale boats, &c., and is said to be very durable. It is, however, somewhat scarce, owing to the great demand for so useful a timber. One of the most important coniferous timbers of Australia is that of Frenela robusta, the '^ Black Pine,'^ or Cypress Pine of Western New South Wales, but common all round the continent. It is not a true Pine, but a Cypress, and its fragrant, beautifully-marked wood is largely used for all kinds of carpentry and furniture work. It is regarded as an excellent and durable wood, very resistant to teredo and white ants, and therefore much valued for telegraph poles and rail- way work, as well as for boats. The closely allied " Murray Pine " {F, Endlicheri) of Victoria and Queensland is very similar, and almost equally valuable ; as are also the timbers of several related species of Frenela (F. rhomboideaj F. Macleyatia, F. Par/atorez, &c.). Another excellent timber is the Australian '^ Pencil Cedar'' {Podocarpus elatd) of New South Wales and Queensland. Close-grained, but soft and easily worked, and with beautiful figuring, this wood is much prized for joinery and cabinet work. NEW ZEALAND CONIFERS. KAURI, OR COWDIE PINE {Dainmara Australis), is a native of and is found only in New Zealand, and is the finest forest-tree in the colony. It is most plenti- ful about the middle part of the northern island, where there are very extensive forests of it, but it is only moderately abundant a little farther south, and towards XXXVII.] PINES. 389 Wellington, and in the middle island, it is only sparingly met with. It is not a true Pine at all, but is allied to the " Monkey Puzzle " {Araucarid). It is a tall and very handsome tree, with a slightly tapering stem, and reaches, in sheltered situations, a height of 100 to 140 feet, with a circumference of from 9 to 15 feet; and even much larger specimens are occasionally met with. At Wangaroa, a little to the northward of the Bay of Islands, I measured one that was 48 feet in circumference at 3 feet from the ground. It was a well-grown, healthy-looking tree, with a heavy cluster of branches thrown out at about 66 feet from the base, and these, spreading obliquely, covered a large space. Many others approximating in dimensions to this magnificent specimen were seen, but the largest that I ever met with was one standing near to Mercury Bay, which measured 80 feet to the branches, and 72 feet in circumference. The Kauri is a slower-growing tree than most Firs and Pines ; it is slower even than the Pitch Pine of America, and makes only i inch of wood diameter in about 6 or 7 years. Thus, the two noble trees to which I have referred were, by computation, respectively about 1,300 and 2,000 years old ; they were, however, almost unavailable for any industrial purpose, as it would be impossible to move these excessively large trees if they were cut down. The Kauri has a dense foliage of tough leathery leaves, resembling in shape those of the Box plant; they vary from ^ to 134^ inch in length, are sessile, and the fruit is a cone of a spherical form of about 3 inches in diameter, enclosed in which are the winged seeds. The bark is quite smooth, and about i inch in thickness. It is a peculiarity of this species of Pine, that a fluid gum, 390 TIMBER AND TIMBER TREES. [chap. or resin, of a milk-like character^ oozes spontaneously out from every part of the tree, and hardens upon the surface by exposure to the air, immense masses of this opaque gum being often seen on old trees, suspended from the stem at the forked part of the branches. Some few years since the British Government sent out several expeditions in succession to New Zealand, to procure spars fit for top-masts for line-of-battle ships, and it was while engaged on this special service that I first became acquainted with the properties of the Kauri Pine timber. Since the colonisation of that country, however, the business has been left to private enterprise, and spars, timber, and gum have occasionally formed part of the return cargoes of store and emigrant ships. Much more timber would, no doubt, have been shipped, were it not for the great expense that attends the work- ing of the forests, and the cost of freight for so long a voyage. These two very costly items effectually pre- clude the Kauri Pine timber from competing with the Fir timber brought to this country from the Baltic, for ordinary building purposes. Kauri Pine, when used for masts, yards, &c., is un- rivalled in excellence, as it not only possesses the requisite dimensions, lightness, elasticity, and strength, but is much more durable than any other Pine, and will stand a very large amount of work before it is thoroughly worn out. All the thriving and healthy trees have from 3 to 5 inches of alburnum or sap-wood very distinctly marked in them, even when fresh cut. The duramen or heart- wood is of a yellowish-white or straw colour, moderately hard for Pine, strong, clean, fine, close, and straight in the grain. It has a very pleasant and agreeable odour XXXVII.] KAURI PINE. 391 when worked, planes up well, and leaves a beautiful si Iky lustre upon the surface, resembling, in some degree, the plainest Satinwood. It shrinks very little, and stands well after seasoning ; further, it takes a good polish. It is, therefore, valuable for conversion into planks and boards, and is very suitable for cabin and other fitments in ships, for joiners' work generally, or for ornamental purposes. It is also employed for the decks of yachts, as, from the regularity of its grain and the absence of knots, it looks much better than the Dantzic Fir that is commonly used. It wears, besides, more evenly, and does not require the reconciling or planing over, which is frequently found necessary if other woods are worked. The Kauri Pine is generally sound, and free from the defects common to many other descriptions of timber ; it very rarely has more than a slight heart-shake, even in old trees ; the star and the cup-shake are also rare ; it is, therefore, a remarkably solid timber, and may be considered one of the best woods for working that the carpenter can take in hand. There are many experiments on the strength of the Kauri Pine, and the first to be noticed are on specimens taken from the butt-end of a log that ^^ ~^s^ was fully 60 feet in length and 22 / \ inches square. A plank 2 inches thick / , . |--i-pT -\ having been taken out of the middle, U c d ^ „> ^> 7 it was cut to produce six pieces of \ / 2 X 2 X 84 inches, four upon one side ^ ^ of the centre or pith and two upon the ^^' ^^* other (Fig. 33). The centre piece was excluded from the test as being of too weak a nature to bear com- parison with the rest of the wood. 392 TIMBER AND TIMBER TREES. [chap. Table CLX.— Kauri (New Zealand). Transverse Experitnents. Number of the specimen. Deflections. Total weight required to break each piece. Specific gravity. With the apparatus weighing 390 lbs. After the weight was removed. At _ the crisis of breaking. 1 d 2 C . 3 i 4 a 5 ^' 6 d' Inches. 1-25 125 I '15 1-05 i'i5 1-50 Inch. •00 •15 •10 •00 •10 •15 Inches. 3*75 4-25 4 "20 3*75 3*40 4-15 lbs. 818 87s 820 750 760 870 525 529 529 520 515 562 Total . . 7*35 •50 23-50 4.893 3180 Average . 1*225 •083 3-916 815 '5 530 1 Remarks. —These specimens broke with a moderate length of fracture. The table shows that transversely the strongest point was much nearer to the more recently-formed con- centric circles than to the centre or pith of the tree. Subsequently, from the specimens above-mentioned, I obtained four serviceable pieces, 2 feet 6 inches in length, for the purpose of ascertaining their tensile strength, and found the maximum to lie in the piece marked c as before. XXXVII.] KAURI PINE. 393 Table CLXI. Tensile Experiments. Number of the specimen. Dimensions of each piece. Specific gravity. Weight the piece broke with. Direct cohesion on I square inch. 7 d 8 c 9 b lo a Inches. r 2 X 2 X 30 •< 525 529 529 520 lbs. 16,244 20,440 17,920 18,080 lbs.. 4,061 5.110 4,480 4.520 Total . . 2103 72,684 18,171 Average . 526 18,171 4.543 Table CLXII. Vertical Experiments on cubes of — Number of the specimen. I Inch. 2 Inches. 3 Inches. 4 Inches. Crushed with Crushed with Crushed with Crushed with II — 14 15—18 19, 20 21, 22 Tons. 3'i25 3 "500 3'i25 3*000 Tons. 10-75 lO'OO 10*50 10 -75 Tons. 24 "5 24*5 Tons. 4575 48*00 Total . . 1275 42*00 49 'o 9375 Average . 3"i9 10*50 24 '5 46-875 Do. per in. 3'i9 2-625 2*722 2*929 Relatively considered, they stand as follows, viz. :- TRANSVERSE STRENGTH. a = -86 b = -97 C = I '00 d = '93 TENSILE STRENGTH. a = -88 b = -88 C = I'OO d = 78 394 TIMBER AND TIMBER TREES. [chap. The specimens referred to in Table CLX., after being prepared for the experiments, lost 9 per cent, of their weight in the twenty days prior to breaking them, and seemed then to be in good seasoned condition for use. A further series of experiments were made in a somewhat similar manner to that adopted with the n::^:::::: Section Butt Mid Top length FIG. 34. Pitch Pine ; but in this case only three lengths were taken from a long Kauri tree — viz., one at the butt, one at the middle, and one at the top end, the intermediate pieces, each about 20 feet in length, being allowed to drop out. Six pieces were, however, taken from the breadth of each plank, three on each side of the pith (Fig. 34). Table CLXIIL— Kauri (New Zealand). Transverse Experiments. — Top length. Deflections. "i >> •u T3 Tensile 1> 0 55 Total weight required to bre each piece. 'I M , -a 73 Tensile A .S U J y 0 0 Ji X. Experiments. rt W) a 3 IT) 37 ^' 38 a 39 ^ 40 c Inches. 1-50 1-40 1-50 T-25 I "25 I '35 Inch. •15 ■15 •20 -00 ■15 •10 Inches. 4-00 375 4-00 375 3-00 5-25 lbs. 760 710 705 765 640 810 550 580 560 595 580 555 829 734 755 771 662 876 lbs. 190-00 177 "50 176-25 191-25 160-00 202-50 lbs. __ 3.325 3,080 3,920 47 48 49 Total 8-25 75 2375 4.390 3420 4627 1097-50 — -£- Aver. I '375 '125 3-958 731-66 570 771 182-91 — Remarks. — These specimens broke with a moderate length of fracture. 396 TIMBER AND TIMBER TREES. [chap. Relatively considered^ these experiments stand as follows : — TRANSVERSE STRENGTH. Top-length. a - a' = "87 d - d' = -95 c - c' — I"CO Mid-length, a - a' = I '00 i> - i' = -95 c - c' = -95 Butt-length. a - a' — d - d> = c - c' = i"oo ■94 ■86 TENSILE STRENGTH. Top-length. b - b' = c - c' = •94 73 Mid-length. a - a' = I '00 b - b' = '93 c - c' ^ '93 Butt-length. a - a' = -85 b - b' = 79 c - c' = i*oo and of the above the relative strength of the series are — a - a' = -952 b - b' = '932 c - c' = I'OOO a - a' z= I'OOO b - b' = '937 ^ _ ^/ = -937 We find, also, the relative transverse strength of the three lengths is as follows, viz. : — Top-length = '870 Mid ,, = '947 Butt ,, = I'OOO and the specific gravity — Top-length Mid ,, Butt ,, •980 •946 The tables show that the maximum transverse strength lay in the outer series marked c' -c. It is not, however, certain whether the tree from which they were taken, although reduced to 22 inches square, would not have yielded a much larger square log, say 28 or 30 XXXVII.] KAHIKATEA. 397 inches; and thus it seems probable that the point c, although nearer to the outside of this log than in the other, may, after all, be in about the same position in the tree. The experiments for the tensile strength show- that the series a' - a were the strongest. Table CLXII. shows that the vertical strength of Kauri timber is about 2-8665 tons per square inch of base. KAHIKATEA OR "WHITE Vl'HiY.'^Podocarpus dacrydioides). This majestic and noble-looking tree belongs to the group Podocarpeae, allied to the Yews, and is in no sense a true Pine. It is a native chiefly of the temperate zone, and found abundantly in the close and dense forests of New Zealand, occupying many of the deep ravines, and generally preferring shelter and a low-lying moist situa- tion to bring it to the greatest perfection. It is of straight and lofty growth, frequently attaining a height of 150 to 180 feet, with a circumference of 6 to 15 feet. It is not an uncommon thing to meet with trees of this description, rising 60 feet and upwards in the stem, without a branch, and from thence to see them spreading out obliquely and forming a splendid conical top. The bark is dark brown in colour, rough, in strips, and also scaly ; the lower portion of the stem being generally covered with moss. The leaves are short, dark green in colour, narrow, rigid and erect, bristling evenly all round the branchlets. The fruit is a red berry, which the natives are very fond of; and it is said that a beverage, resembling in its anti-scorbutic qualities the well-known spruce beer, may be manufactured from the branches.* These trees are generally overrun with strong elastic creepers, of from * Lindley's "Vegetable Kingdom." 398 TIMBER AND TIMBER TREES. [chap, 4 to 6 inches in diameter, which intertwine with the branches^ and, clustering there, render the whole a grand and densely thick mass of rich foliage. The Kahikatea yields timber 1 2 to 30 inches square, and 20 to 60 feet in length. The wood is white in colour, light, straight in the grain, soft, and with little of the horny texture observable in the outer part of the concentric circles of the Fir and Pine species. It resembles the Pinus Strobus^ or Yellow Pine of Canada, more closely, perhaps, than any other wood. It is easy to work, but is inferior in quality, being neither strong nor durable. The natives of New Zealand sometimes make their canoes from this wood, as it is easily obtained. It does not, however, wear well, and, except for its buoyancy,, and handiness upon the streams, has little to recom- mend it to notice. It is not employed in buildings if other timber can be readily procured. The Kahikatea is liable to be speedily attacked by a small worm. I found this to be the case with some specimens, after being only about six months in store. The Kahikatea has sometimes been mistaken for the Kauri, it being similar in dimensions; when hewn, how- ever, the quality is immediately seen to be inferior, and quite unfit for mast purposes. The specific gravity of the seasoned wood varies from 428 to 490, and averages about 460. TANAKAHA [Podocarptis asplenifoliiis) is found scattered over a large portion of the northern island of New Zealand, but is nowhere met with in abundance. It arrives at its greatest perfection on a dry soil and at a moderate elevation. XXXVII.] RIMU. 399 It is of straight growth, and attains a height of 60 to 80 feet, with a circumference of about 5 feet, the branches being thrown out nearly horizontally at about 30 to 40 feet up the stem, and forming above this a fine pyramidical head. The leaves are i to i^ inch in length, and % \.o % inch in breadth. The bark is thick, smooth, and of a dark brown colour : it is used by the natives to dye their garments either black or brown. The wood is close and straight in the grain, and yellowish-white in colour, though not so light as that of the Kauri. It has a close resemblance to the Huon Pine of Van Diemen's Land. It works up well, is tough and very strong; so much so that the New Zealanders say it is the " strong man '^ among their forest trees. The Tanakaha tree yields timber 10 to 16 inches- square, and 18 to 45 feet in length, and is employed for masts, and for the decks of small vessels built for the coasting trade j it is found to answer admirably for these purposes, and is also valuable to the carpenter as a building material. The specific gravity of the seasoned wood is about 600, but logs which have been only felled a few weeks, and therefore have their moisture only partially eva- porated, will not float. RIMU {Dacrydium cupressinum). This tree, closely allied to the last, is found in many of the forests of New Zealand, and is one of the most magnificent of the vegetable productions of that country. It is tolerably abundant, prefers a rich alluvial soil,, moisture and shelter, and is rarely seen upon dry or moderately elevated situations. 40O TIMBER AND TIMBER TREES. [cHAP. It is of straight growth, and attains a height of from 80 to 100 feet, with a circumference of 6 to 9 feet. It rises fully 40 to 50 feet clear of branches, above which they are thrown out in long, curved, pendulous forms. These, in their turn, give out numerous filamentary branchlets, surrounded with short, light green, thread- like leaves, the whole drooping, and exhibiting a very graceful appearance, and rendering the tree especially valuable for ornamental purposes. The duramen, or heart-wood, is much varied in colour ; for some few inches round the pith it is brown or chestnut, but beyond this it is lighter, with a nice diversity of shade and figure. It is moderately hard, but appears to be deficient in tenacity, it planes up smoothly, takes a good polish, and would be useful to the cabinet- maker for the manufacture of furniture. The Rimu tree yields timber 10 to 30 inches square, and 20 to 50 feet in length ; the natives employ it for their buildings and stockades, and occasionally for making canoes, but they swim rather heavily as com- pared with Kauri ; they wear well, however, and last them a long time. Several of these beautiful Rimu plants, which I brought to England in the years 1841 to 1843, Sir VVm. Symonds presented to the Royal Gardens at Kew, where, under the careful management of Sir Wm. Hooker, they grew up to be fine trees of 25 to 30 feet in height. They stood for many years, during the summer months, in large square cases or tubs in the open, and were greatly admired by the visitors, but, in the winter time, they were removed under shelter. The specific gravity of the Rimu, when seasoned, is about 6yS. xxxvii.J MIRO. 401 MIRO OR " BLACK PINE " {Podocavpus ferrugineo) is found in slightly elevated situations in many of the forests of New Zealand ; it prefers shelter and a damp, although not an excessively moist soil, to bring it to per- fection. It is of straight growth, and reaches the height of about 60 feet, with a circumference of 5 feet. The stem is clean, and rises to 30 or 35 feet clear of branches, above which they are thrown out nearly horizontally. The foliage is dark-green, very thick, and the leaves are about yi\h of an inch in width, and i inch in length ; the fruit is a red berry with a hard stone ; it is a favourite food of the wood-pigeon. The wood varies from light to dark brown in colour, is close in grain, moderately hard and heavy, planes up well, and takes a good polish. Some logs are nicely figured ; it is, therefore, very suitable for cabinet-makers' work, &c. It would also be useful to the turner, and for any ornamental work, and as it yields timber 10 to 18 inches square, and 20 to 30 feet in length, it would, no doubt, be fit for civil architecture. The specific gravity of Miro in a green state is 12 14, but, when seasoned, varies from 660 to 752. TOTARA [Podocarpus totard) is of erect and straight growth, and attains the height of about 80 to 90 feet, with a circumference of 6 feet. It is tolerably abundant, and is found in many of the forests of the northern island of New Zealand. It is often met with upon the banks of rivers, where the tide washes its roots ; but, generally, it seems to require shelter and a moderately moist soil to produce the finest trees. 2 D 402 TIMBER AND TIMBER TREES. [chap. It rises with a clean stem to about 35 to 40 feet, above which the branches are thrown out horizontally. The foliage consists of sharp-pointed dark-green leaves, of about I % inch in length by % inch in width ; they are thick, rigid, and prickly to the touch. The bark is red in colour, and ringed at about i foot apart; the outer layers hang in thin long flakes ; strips of this bark are often used as a thatch for roofing. The Totara tree yields timber 10 to 22 inches square, and 20 to 45 feet in length. The wood is red in colour, close, straight, fine and even in grain, and is moderately hard and strong. It is probably the most valuable timber in New Zealand. It works up exceedingly well, and, although plain in appearance, would be found a good substitute for Mahogany, whether used for furniture, carpentry, or in the domestic arts. It might also be employed with advantage in civil architecture. The alburnum or sap-wood is generally from 2 to 3 inches thick on this description of timber, and is lighter in colour than the duramen or heart-wood. The natives make their small and medium sized canoes of the Totara, and generally prefer that the rising strake of the larger ones, and especially those employed in war, should be of this wood, as it wears better than Kauri, and is considered durable. I gathered the infor- mation from several intelligent natives that in thesouthern districts there are very large forests of Totara trees, of sufficient size and length for masts of ships of i,cxDO to 1,500 tons burthen. When fresh cut the specific gravity of this wood is about 1230, but when seasoned it is only about 600. The Kauri, Kahikatea, Tanakaha, Rimu, Miro, Totara, Rata, Pohutukawa, and Puriri trees are the principal, and, except the Kahikatea, probably the most XXXVII.] VARIOUS. 403 valuable of all that can be found in New Zealand. Still there are many other varieties, about thirty, some ten or twelve of which could be made available for building and cabinet purposes ; the remainder would be more or less useful for the manufacture of agricultural implements, fuel, &c., &c. Subjoined is the list of the New Zealand trees met with, in addition to those just described, and concerning which we want more information : — 1. Kahikatoa.* 2. Karoa. 3. Tongiho. Pugatea. Wawaku. Kowai. Kohehu. 8. Ramarama. 9. Pukapuka. 10. Mohoi, 11. Aki. 12. Akipero, 13. Towai. 14. Kohekohe. 15. Matai.f 16. Karaka. 17. Tepow. 18. Tee. 19. Mida. 20. Tarata. 21. Kohutuhutu.J 22. Nana. 23. Oroaka. 24. Kiwideah. 25. Tototo. 26. Manawa. 27. Tawada. * The Kahikatoa tree is of moderate dimensions, and yields a hard red wood ; it differs widely from the Kahikatea tree described at page 397. t Podocarpus spicata (Kew Catalogue). X Fuschia excorticata (Kew Catalogue). 2 D 2 APPENDICES. APPENDIX A. SOME OF THE PRINCIPAL USES FOR WHICH TIMBER IS EMPLOYED. Timber may be employed in the rough, or spHt, or sawn, or worked up in various ways. (i.) For constructions, such as buildings, bridges, piers, &c., where great weights have to be supported, and the materials must be in large masses, strong and durable. Posts, baulks, rafters, staircases, sashes, &c., of all kinds come under this heading. (2.) Piles and similar structures demand special properties of resistance and durability in contact with water, permanent or temporary, as the case may be. (3.) Wooden pavements, exposed stairs, and wooden road- ways of various kinds, as well as wooden protections to banks, docks, locks, &c., also require exceptional capacities for resisting wear and tear and exposure. (4.) Railway sleepers and telegraph poles consume enormous quantities of timber in all countries ; here, again, durability, hardness, and elasticity are demanded. (5.) Palisading, fencing, shingles, &c., are purposes for which enormous quantities of split or sawn timber are con- sumed. The exposure of such wood to sun and rain, insects, &:c., limits the kind to be employed considerably. 4o6 APPENDICES. (6.) Pit -wood. Many thousands of tons of timber, in the form of props for shoring, are employed annually in mines of all kinds. (7.) Sluice-gates, canal works, water-wheels, wet-slides, and many minor works under water require special kinds of timber. (8.) Mills for oil, sugar, «Sz:c., pulleys, windlasses, &c., are largely made of wood in many parts of the world, and great care is needed in employing the right kinds for cogs, axles, crushers, &c. (9.) Ship-building and boat-building of all kinds, in spite of the rapidly extending employment of metal, still demand (and will probably always do so) the selection and employment of enormous quantities of large timber, not only of special strength and durability, but also of peculiar shapes and sizes ; this, moreover, apart from the numerous fittings — masts, spars, decks, oars, fittings, &c. — afterwards put into the vessels. (10.) The necessities of waggon and carriage making of all kinds, including gun-carriages, barrows, hand-carts, railway and tram cars, sledges, &c., form another important market for timber. The naves (hubs), spokes, felloes of wheels, the shafts or poles, the panels, axles, and, indeed, all the parts require timber with properties specially suited for the particular purposes. (11.) Timber for cooperage — staves, hoops, and head- pieces— for barrels, casks, pails, buckets, &c., is another special branch of the subject ; and the various trades con- cerned demand very special properties, according as liquid, volatile, or dry goods of various kinds are to be in contact with the wood. (12.) The demands for joinery or carpentry and cabinet- making are so various, that a long chapter would be required to enumerate them. Panelling, balusters, flooring, furniture, and house-decoration require many woods of various degrees of hardness, shades of colour, marking, &c. Veneers, carved APPENDIX A. 407 work, inlaid work, and ornamental work of all kinds have their special requirements. (13.) Shingles, rudders and oars, treenails and pegs, skewers, drums, sieve-frames, hoops, band-boxes, wood for matches, match and other boxes, &c., may also be mentioned. (14.) Musical instruments — violins, guitars, wind instru- ments, the sounding-boards of pianos, &c., are other instances where special qualities are demanded. (15.) Lead and other pencils, penholders, &c., again consume enormous quantities of straight-grained soft woods. (16.) Wood for turnery, moulding, engraving, and carving must also have special properties. (17.) Packing-cases, tea-chests, opium-boxes, &c., are manufactured of soft woods readily suited for the particular purposes. (18.) Agricultural implements, such as ploughs, harrows, hoes, spades, hay-rakes, forks, &c., form another class of cases where wood is largely used. (19.) Lance-staves, broom-handles, tool-handles of all kinds, butchers' blocks, walking-sticks, and a host of other everyday implements remind us of other uses of various timbers. (20.) Basket-making in all its various branches demands more kinds and quantities of wood than people are generally aware of. (21.) Shavings of wood are used for packing and ornamental work of many kinds, and several devices are used for producing what is sometimes called wood-wool. (22.) Wood-pulp. One of the newest applications of wood is in the manufacture of many kinds of paper, papier-mache, and thousands of articles are now made annually of various moulded preparations of this wood-pulp ; these include not only toys, picture-frames, mouldings, &c., but even railway wheels have been made of it, pressed into steel frames. (23.) The uses of wood for burning purposes are almost forgotten in this country, but in Germany and many parts of the Continent, and in other countries, especially India, a great 4o8 APPENDICES. proportion of the "foresters' care is exercised in producing timber for firewood. (24.) Charcoal, not only for the manufacture of gunpowder, but also for many other purposes, is obtained by the burning of wood in closed stacks, and the charcoal-makers are by no means indifferent as to the species and quaHty of the timber used. (25.) Lastly, we may refer to the numerous and increasing substances obtained by the distillation of the products of combustion of wood of various kinds. Various tars, pitch, wood-spirits, soot, &c., are still obtained by these means. Enough has been said to illustrate some of the principal and various uses to which timber is applied in different parts of the world ; that these will increase, rather than diminish, is very evident to all who watch the progress of events, whence we may safely conclude that the foresters' art is Ukely to flourish for a long time to come. APPENDIX B. Table CLXVI. Showing the Uses of the Principal Woods described in this Work. SPECIES. WHERE GROWN. USES. Acacias , Australia Various purposes of construction, Acle. Philippine Islands carpentry, and ornamental work. Naval and civil architecture. Aki . New Zealand Turnery, agricultural implements. Alder Britain . clubs, and spears. Carpentry, piles, packing - cases. Angdique French Guiana turnery. Suitable for constructive purposes in lieu of African, Mahogany, or Teak. Angelim-vermetho . Brazil . Naval construction. Annan Burmah Constructive purposes generally. Araribo-ou-potomuju Brazil . gun carriages, &c. Cabinet work, domestic arts. Araribo-roza t f • • • >* II Araucaria Ash, British Australia . , Britain . Carpentry, cabinet and general work, spars, &c. Coach and wheelwrights' work, agricultural implements, domes- ,, Australian tic arts, turnery. ,, Canadian . Canada As Ash, British, boats' oars, S:c. ,, Cape ,, American . Cape . North America . As Ash, British, boats' oars, best sort, &c. Assegai-wood . Cape . Furniture, &c. Ba'ata Trinidad A substitute for plain or inferior ,1 . . . French Guiana . African or Mahogany. A substitute for hard woods in architectural works, furniture, &c. Basswood . America Cabinet work, &c. Beech Britain . Cabinet and chair making, piles. ,, Evergreen Australia wedges, turnery. Furniture, joinery, &c. 4IO APPENDICES. Table CLXVI. — co7itinued. WHERE GROWN. Beef wood, or She Oak Billian Birch , , Canadian Black-butt Blackwood Blood-wood Blue Gum Boco Bow-wood Box . Boxwood . Brazilletto Buck-eye . Buck-thorn Cagiieryan Camara . Camphor, or Kapor , Cape Ash . ,, Box. ,, Ebony Canella-preta Carapo Cedar, Cuba, Mexi- can, and Honduras Cedar, Bermudian . ,, Florida . ,, Pencil . Celery-topped Pine , Chalta Cham pack Cherry Chestnut . Chow , Coach-wood Cojj-wood Cotton-tree Dalbsrgia Diospyros Dog-wood Australia Borneo Europe Canada Australia French Guiana America Europe Australia Bahamas Europe Cuba , Brazil . Borneo Africa . Brazil . Trinidad Van Diemen India . Europe Britain Borneo Jamaica Iridia . Grenada ■■ { s Ld. Furniture, domestic arts. Turnery. Cabinet work. Wheelwrights' and turners' work. Architectural works, piles, fences, general purposes. Constructive purposes, furniture, turnery. Waggon work. Engraving, tools, carving, &c. Sheaves for pulleys, mallets, tur- [nery, &c. See Horse-chestnut. Turnery. Building. Boat-building. Planks, beams, piles, constructi/e purposes generally. As Ash, but poorer quality. Substitute for Box. Fancy work. Constructive purposes generally. A substitute for plain and inferior Mahogany. Cabinet work generally, cigar boxes, patterns, &c. ,, boat-building, &c. ,, pencil making. See Pine. General purposes. Building. Pipes. Carpenters', wheelwrights', and coachmakers' work, domestic arts, &c. Planks, beams, piles, constructive purposes generally. See Light-wood. Mill work, &c. Packing cases, floats, &c. Building, construction, work, sleepers, (S:c. Engraving. Building. cabinet APPENDIX B. 411 Table CLXVI. — contmzied. SPECIES. WHERE GROWN. USES, Eb^ne French Guiana . Furniture, domestic arts, turnery. ,, rouge . )> ) ) • )i »> verte 1 ) )i • >i »i Ebony India . Carving, fancy work, &c. Ekebergia Cape . Similar to Ash. Elm, Common . Britain , Ships' keels, bilge planks, wheel- wrights' and carpenters' work, carving and turnery. ,, Wych . I ) • > Do., specially adapted for boat- building. ,, Dutch 1) » • > 1 II , , Canada Rock . Canada Ship-building, coach and wheel- wrights' work, domestic arts, &c. Els, Red . Cape . Furniture. Emu Australia Turners' work. Eucalyptus . ) ) • • Various species used for all kinds of work. Fiddle-wood Barbadoes . Carpentry, wheelwrights' work, &c. Fir, Dantzic , , Prussia Constructive purposes gererally, deck deals, masts, &c. ,, Eliasberg . North Europe ,, ,, cabinet work. ,, Saldowitz . >) 1 ) • 11 ) ( II , , white wood 1) ) ) • Common purposes in carpentry, packing-cases, &c. ,, Riga . Russia . , Constructive purposes generally, superior for masts. ,, Swedish Sweden Constructive purposes generally, inferior to Dantzic or Riga. }, Norway Norway 11 II ,, Spruce N. Europe and ) N. America 1 Light flaming, floor boards, boats' oars and spars, scaffold poles, &c. Forest light wood Australia Cabinet work. Fustic Bahamas , Cabinet and furniture. Giant-gum Australia Carpentry. Grapiapunha . Brazil . Naval and civil architecture. Greenheart , Demerara . Keelsons, shelf pieces, and plank- ing in ships, excellent for piles, &c. Grignon . French Guiana . Civil architecture, domestic arts. Guarabu . . . Brazil . Naval and civil architecture. Gum, White . Australia Constructive purposes in carpentry. ,, Brown , > ) • » II )i ,, Curly I ) » • II »i ,, Red )i » • II II ,, Swamp , 11 • • II II Hackmatack , North America . See Larch, American. Hawthorn Europe , , Engraving. Hickory , , America , Carriage. Hinan , , , Europe , , Small work. Honeysuckle , Australia , , Furniture work, boat-building. 412 APPENDICES. Table CLXVI. — continued. SPECIES. WHERE GROWN, USES. Hornbeam Britain Cogs in machinery, wheelwrights work, turnery, &c. Horse-chestnut . Europe Blind- wood, moulds, &c. Incaranda-tan . Brazil . Furniture and ornamental work. ,, cabiuna . ) 1 • • • 1 ) M Iron-bark . Australia Ship-building, piles, agricultural implements, fencing, &c. Iron-wood Burmah See Pyengadu. Jarrah Australia Ship - building, piles, railway sleepers, agricultural imple- ments. Tenipapo . Brazil . Carpentry, domestic art^. Juba Havana A substitute for Sabicu, in ship- building, furniture, &c. Kahikatea New Zealand Indoor work in houses, packing- cases, &c. Kahikatoa > 1 Architectural works, piles, domes- tic arts, &c. Kammone Burmah Constructive purposes generally. Kamonpew I. • • i> 1) Kapor Borneo See Camphor. Kari West Australia . Piles, railway sleepers, agricultural implements, &c. Karra Philippine Islands Constructive purposes generally. Kathitka . Burmah A substitute for Mahogany. Kauri or Cowdie New Zealand Cabinet, carpentry, masts, and ship work. Kiwideah . »i Wheelwrights' work, agricultural implements. Kohekohe 1 » A substitute for Cedar, cabinet work, domestic arts. Kowai 1 » • Turnery, agricultural implements, clubs and spears. Kranji Borneo Pianks, beams, piles, constructive purposes generally. Laburnum Europe Cabinet-making. Larch, Italian . ) 1 • • All kinds of frame- woik in archi- tecture, piles, &c. Polish . »i • I > M ,, Russian »> »> »I ,, American North America . >i ,, and ship-building. Lauan Philippine Islands Naval and civil architecture, fur- niture, &c. Light-wood Australia Carriage-making. Lignum Vitas . West Indies, &c. . Sheaves for pulleys, turnery, do- mestic arts, &c. Lime Europe Furniture. Ix)cust-tree • Sec Robinia. APPENDIX B. 413 Table CL'yiVl.—co7iHfitied. SPECIES. WHERE GROWN. USES. Macaranduba . Brazil . Employed in ship-building. Maconatari French Guiana A furniture wood, &c. Mahogany, Spanish . Cuba . Cabinet work, turnery, domestic arts, ship-building. ,, Honduras II II ,, Mexican . II II , , Nassau . ... Cabinet work, turnery, domestic arts. ,, St, Domingo II M Maire Malatapay Phihppine Islands Constructive purposes generally. Mam bog . ,, > 1 II Mangachapuy . ,, II II Mangalo . Borneo Naval and civil architecture. Mapilia Philippine Islands Constructive purposes generally. Maples 11 • • • Europe Canada, &c. Cabinet-making, &c. 1 1 Margosa . ... ... See Neem. Matai New Zealand Constructive purposes generally, furniture. Meriquitiara Brazil . 11 II Metteral . Zambesi Substitute for Mahogany. Mida New Zealand Agricultural implements, clubs, spears, &c. Milk-wood, White . Cape and Natal , General purposes. Miraboo . Borneo Furniture. Miro New Zealand Cabinet work, turnery, civil archi- tecture. Mocasso-cassa . Zambesi Constructive purposes generally. Mocua ,1 Ship and boat building, a crooked wood for knee.". Mocunca . II • • II II Mocundo-cundo ,, Constructive purposes generally, masts. Molave Philippine Islands Cabinet work, ship-building. Monangare Zambesi Wheelwrights' and block-makers' work, furniture. Mora Trinidad Cabinet work, ship-building, piles, «&c. Ship and boat building. Morrunda Zambesi Mugunda . 11 II 1 1 Mulberry . Europe Cabinet work. Musk Australia Furniture and turners' work. Musk-wood, Red 1 Mussangara Zambesi 1 Ship and boat building. Myall America Pipes. Myrtle, scented. Australia Carpenters' and wheelwrights' work ,, Red . II • • II 11 ,, White , II • • II II , , Yellow . II II ,, Brown . II • • II II 414 APPENDICES. Table CLXVI. — continued. WHERE GROWN. Nectandria Neem Oak, African , , Australian , , British ,, Belgian , , Cape , , French ,, Piedmont ,, Turkey ,, American white ,, Italian ,, Indian , , Dutch ,, Dantzic ., Riga , , Spanish ,, Live. ,, Swamp white , , Rough or post ,, Black ,, Scarlet , , Baltimore , , Canadian . Olive , , Cape Oregon or Douglas Fir Pacouri-soufri Padouk Palo Maria Panacoco . Pangira . Pao-preta. ,, ferra . ,, fcrro , , , fava . Pao-de-pezo ,, setim. West Indies, &c. India . Himalayas . North America Europe North America . French Guiana Burmah Philippine Islands French Guiana Zambesi Brazil See Greenheart. Furniture. Ship-building, carpentry, work, turnery, &c. cabinet AUkindsofconstructive work, naval, civil, and military engineering. Similar to British, but not so gene- Construction, &c. [rally useful. Similar to British, but not so generally useful. Deck and outside planks for ships, cabinet work, domestic arts. Cabinet wainscot work, domestic arts. Constructive purposes of the second class. Ship-building, sills to window and door frames, mallets, &c. Cabinet and church furniture, general purposes. > I II Turnery. Spars, masts, carpentry. Furniture wood, domestic arts. Constructive purposes generally, piles, &c. II I » A strong wood for constructive purposes, furniture, «S:c. For ship and house building. Cabinet work, turnery, &c. A ship-building wood, also for fur A substitute for Sabicu. [niture. Mahogany. ,, Lignum Vitae. Generally in the domestic arts. \ APPENDIX B. 415 Table CLXVI. — continued. SPECIES. Parewah , Pear . Peguy Pencil-wood Penthityah Peppermint, brown ,, white Peroba-pardu . M branca . ,, vermetho Persian Lilac . Pine, Red Yellow Pitch Oregon . Kauri , Celery-topped Pingow Pingue Pink-wood Piquea-marfim . Plane Plums Plum tree . Pohutukawa Pugatea . , Puriri Pyengadu . , Quar . , Queen-wood Raiz-de- Pingue. Rata Red Els . Rewarewa WHERE GROWN. Burmah Europe Brazil , Victoria Burmah Australia Brazil Canada North America . (West Coast of) 1 N. America ) New Zealand V. Diemen's Land Borneo Zambesi Australia Brazil , , America Europe Australia New Zealand Burmah , Cape . , Australia Zambesi New Zealand Cape . New Zealand Constructive purposes generally, piles, &c. Instruments. Ship-building, carpentry, &c. Lining boards. Constructive purposes generally, piles, &c. Constructive purposes generally, charcoal, &c. II It Ship-building. , , furniture, domestic arts. A substitute for Cedar or Mahogany. Constructive purposes generaMy, masts, &c. Cabinet and joiners' work, fittings, patterns, masts, &c. Cabinet and joiners' work, outside planks for ships, masts, &c. Constructive purposes generally, masts, &c. Cabinet and joiners' work, fittings, patterns, masts, &c. Constructive purposes in carpentry. Planks, beams, piles, constructive purposes generally. A substitute for Lignum Vitoe. Constructive purposes, cabinet work. Cabinet work, a substitute for Satin- wood. Cabinet work. Turnery. Furniture, gun stocks, &c. Ships' frames, carpentry, agricul- tural implements. Civil architecture, domestic arts. Ships' frames, carpentry, agricul- tural implements. Constructive purposes generally, piles, &c. Cabinet work. Cabinet-making. See Pao-preto. Cabinet work, naval and civil architecture. Furniture, &c. Cabinet work, carpentry, piles, shingles, &c. 4i6 APPENDICES. Table CLXVI. — co7itinued. Rhododendron Rimu Robinia . Roble Rosewood ,, Indian Rose, male ,, female Russak Sabicu Saffron-wood Sal . Sandal-wood Santa Maria Sapodilla . Sassafras . Sating Securipa . She Oak . Shingle Oak Silky Oak . Silver Fir . Simarouba Sissoo Sneeze-wood Spindle-tree Spruce St. Martin Stink-wood II Stringy bark Sugar Gum Suridri Swamp Oak Tamarind Tan ak ah a Tapinhonho Taraire WHERE GROWN. America New Zealand America Trinidad Brazil . India . French Guiana Borneo Cuba . Cape and Natal India , Central America Grenada Australia French Guiana Brazils . Australia Europe French Guiana India . Cape . Europe II • French Guiana . Australia Cape . Australia India and Burmah India . New Zealand Brazils . New Zealand Engraving. Cabinet work, civil architecture. Cabinet v^^ork. Ship-building. Cabinet and pianoforte makers, domestic arts, turnery. Furniture and cabinet work. A furniture wood, useful in do- mestic arts. II II Piles and building. Cabinet work, ship-building, do- mestic arts, turnery. Furniture, boats, and general work. Piles, sleepers, construction. Fancy work. Cabinet work, ship-building, do- mestic arts, turnery. Furniture, cabinet. Carpenters' and cabinet work, do- mestic arts, (S:c. Naval and civil architecture, cabi- net work, turnery. Constructive purposes generally. See Beefwood. Shingles. General purposes. Carpentry. A furniture wood, useful in do- mestic arts. Construction, &c. Construction, carpentry, furniture, and general purposes. Turnery. Carpentry. Naval and civil architecture, cabi- net work, turnery. Cabinet work, domestic arts. Constructive purposes in carpentry, piles, fences, domestic arts. Piles, sleepers, &c. Boat-building. See Beefwood. Turning. Constructive purpcses generally, masts, &c. Ship-building. Cabinet wood. APPENDIX B. 4'7 Table CLXVl.—contimied. SPECIES. WHERE GROWN, USES. Tarata New Zealand Agricultural implements, domestic arts. Tawa II • Carpenters' and wheelwrights' work. Tawada . I > • Cabinet work, turnery. Teak, Burmah . ,, Cape Malabar . ,, Siam ! 1 Applicable to all kinds of naval. civil, and military engineering, cabinet and carpenters' work. Tepow New Zealand Carpentry and wheelwrights' work. Tewart . Australia Ship -building, piles, civil archi- tecture. Thingan . Burmah Constructive purposes generally. Thitkddo or Toon . _ Substitute for Cedar or Mahogany for furniture purposes. Thitka or Kathitka . II • • 11 11 Tongiho . New Zealand Boat-building, carpentry, &c. Toon India . Furniture and cabinet work. Toraira New Zealand Carpenters' and wheelwrights' work. Totara 1 1 • Cabinet work, ship-building, sub- stitute for Mahogany in domestio arts. Towai II Constructive purposes generally. Tulip-tree America Flooring and inside work. Turpentine tree Australia Ships' planks. Vinhatico . Brazils . A substitute for Cedar. Violet French Guiana . Much prized by cabinet-makers, turners, &c. Wacapou . 1 1 • Substitute for Rosewood for fur- niture, &c. gris . 11 1! 11 Wattle, Black . Australia Agricultural implements, boats' oars. , , Prickly 11 • • II II Silver . 11 11 Wawaku . New Zealand Carpentry, wheelwrights' work. Willows . Europe Barrows, carts, bats, basket-work, &c. Cabinet work. Yacca West Indies. Yellow-box Australia Engraving. 2 E 4i8 APPENDICES. U X I— I P w < > X •J u a >-) PQ ^ ^ ' X _c * • w^ 0 in Oi 1 1 1 1 iLOOnCNi»-|| 1 1 1'^ C ^■^ 9 \ 1 1 1 1 1 00 ON M 1 00 1 1 1 1 M X H ^. 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C MM H H M OJ C ■u O C u g-C! u *-> O) u CLrt X ir b/5 ci c ^ cS -^^ b. •J % 2^.55 ''^ ■s; 0 .^ -rj (J in td 1-5 -Ills -.- - Jsit^-S < o > ? c b/5 .£ 6 •jaquin^ H 01 CO Tj- LONO tNOO On 0 H N CO Tj- lOO tN APPENDIX C. 419 •rt 03 ^ ■>*• n X «i . ^ S cr ■<*■ 0 in X H u 1) ■* o< ON ON moo o -^ >0 0) N ON ^ -^OO CO (N O 0) (N LOO H O P CO p p >o I I LO C^ O 1-1 O CO CO M C cf VO NOOCO CJOwO t^ >J^ -^ C^iOLOcOi MCOWM 1 ■rfi t^i O vp 01 tv O I 00 MD _TJ- _H I LO I CO I >p 0) CO N 0) CO 0) CO (N CO CO « O ON 10 O vO tx I I t^ U-) O CO 00 C^OO Tj- * -!- PI VO . VO ON • 10 CO > u w CO < X u w 1 o b Q !d V) D 12 s o u o < V u V '5, c o 1 in X X ^ . O tn 4) a o >J^ lo 1 1 1 ? .2 1 1 .^ 1 1 1 1 N CO 01 1 1 <» '^ 1 0 1 1 1 1 .<^ .'^ 1 .*^ 1 1 CO "(N V X X <^ . c cr O in 4) a 1 1 1 .§>5 M .?? 1 1 1 1 00 M 1 1 -^ ^ 1 CO 1 1 ^01 CO X X .S K OMO CO LO COi |OiH| iVOiOOr 1 rt \ 1 M .n 1 1 °0 1 9° 1 1 M CO M H P) H 00 to 000 I 1 0 CO 1 ON CO 0 1 1 .<^°o 1 ^ y^ i^ CO N V V io X H X .S CO CO 0) NO 0\ 1 1 00 M I vo . . 1 1 p .•^ 1 .-^ : : CO c>» "•+ ■S.>j C X Is" : 1 1 o. ■>: 1 1 o 1 o 1 1 00 H 'i- w 0 1 1 10 0 1 CO H LO 1 1 10 CO 1 0 coo ui CO 0' 0" C?\ (U U2 C 2"X2"X72" between bearings. 1 OOMON^COC^COiO OOnOCOLocOCOO-iOsCOCO i^vO m O LO N 00 O 1 TfOO C^COLOChw --hNvO IN tN >^vO OOvOO'^iOl OOOOC-sKO) OnOO O c^_ o H H H H H •AjIABJ 3 oypsc fs O N vo CO o Lo M -t\o ONOO H 00 tN r^vo tv ON ^Nvo 'l-rfNCO LOromiOCT\LnO H M 'i-H c^oo -1-tN O O O ONLO-^LO>J^ "l^O IN tN "^ lO ON tXOO H O H H 1-1 H H M Name of Wood, Sabicu, Cuba ..... Teak, Burmah ..... (2nd Ex.) . Tewart, Australia .... Pingow, Borneo .... Pyengadu, Burmah .... Oak, Tuscan ,, Spanish ,, Rhenish ... ,, White, American Pine,' Red, Canada . ,, Yellow ,, ,, ,, ,, (2nd Ex.) (3rd Ex.) .> >> Oregon ,, Pitch, American •• '• } 2nd Ex. i ^""^'• ,, ) ( Outer •jsq mnn « fo -t ^n\o cv 00 a> COCOfOfOCO CO CO CO 0 M 01 CO Tj- Tj- Tt --t Tf TJ- APPENDIX D. 421 APPENDIX D. Table CLXVIII. Showing the woods which have been experimented upon, arranged in numerical order of tensile strength, and the comparative tensile strength, English Oak being = i"ooo. Abstracted from the tables accompanying the description of the various kinds. I Numerical Direct Comparative Name of the Wood. order of tensile cohesion on I square inch. strength, English Oak strength. being = I •000. lbs. Kranji I 10,920 1-442 Tewart . 2 10,284 I '398 Pyengadu 3 9,656 I "275 Mora . 4 9,240 I '220 Elm, Canada 5 9,182 I '213 Greenheart . 6 8,820 I "165 Iron-bark 7 8.377 I '106 Oak, French . 8 8,102 I •071 Molav6 . 9 7.812 1-032 Oak, English. 10 7.571 I -000 Chow . II 7.199 ■951 Kari . 12 7,070 '934 African . 13 7.052 •931 Oak, White American 14 7.021 •927 Kapor . 15 6,790 -896 Hornbeam . 16 6,405 -846 Pingow . 17 6,311 •832 Blue Gum . 18 6,048 798 Sabicu . 19 5.558 •734 Ash, American 20 5.495 ■725 Elm, English 21 5. 460 •721 Pine, Pitch . 22 4.666 •616 Kauri, New Zealand 23 4.543 -600 Oak, Dantzic 24 4,212 •556 1 Larch, Russian 25 4,203 •555 Fir, Riga 26 4,051 •535 ,, Spruce . 27 3.934 ■520 Oak, Baltimore 28 3.832 •506 Mahogany, Cuba . 29 3.791 •500 Ash, English. 30 3.780 ■499 Mahogany, Mexican 31 3.427 •451 Teak, Moulmein . 32 3-301 ■436 Fir, Dantzic . 33 3.231 -427 Mahogany, Honduras . 34 2,998 '396 Jarrah .... 35 2,940 •388 Cedar, Cuba. 36 2,870 ■379 Red Pine, Canada 37 2,705 '357 Yellow Pine, Canada . 38 2,027 •267 422 APPENDICES. APPENDIX E. Table CLXIX Showing the woods which have been e.vperimented upon, arranged in nu- merical order of vertical strength, and the comparative vertical strength, English Oak being = I'ooo, abstracted from the tables accompanying the description of the various kinds. Name of the Wood. Numerical order of vertical strength. Vertical force required to crush I square inch of base. Comparative strength, English Oak being=i'ooo. lbs. Greenhfart I 15.275 2 000 Chow . 2 12,591 1-648 Kapor . 3 11.939 1-561 Pyengadu 4 11,665 I "527 Iron-l ark 5 10,306 1-348 African , 6 10,244 I 341 Pingow , 7 10,167 I '331 Tewart . 8 9.397 1*229 Elm, Canada 9 9,oq8 I-I9I Sabicu . lO 8,873 I -161 Mora . II 8.539 1*117 Hornbeam . 12 8.312 1*087 Oak, French 13 7.945 1*040 ,, English 14 7,641 i*ooo , , Dantzic 15 7.560 •990 Mahogany, Cuba . i6 7,280 ■953 Jarrah . 17 7,164 ■937 Fir, Dantzic . i8 7.105 •930 Blue Gum, Australia 19 6.995 •915 Ash, English 20 6,964 •912 Oak, White American 21 6,964 •912 Pine, Pitch, American 22 ■ 6,462 •847 Teak, Moulmt-in . 23 6.357 •832 Mahogany, Honduras 24 6,160 •806 Larch, Russian 25 5.985 •783 Mahogany, Mexican 26 5.898 ■772 Oak, Baltimore 27 5.891 •771 Kauri New Zealand 28 5.880 •769 Oak, Saidinan 29 5833 •763 Elm, English 30 5.784 •757 Ash, Atnerican 31 5.495 •719 Oak, Tuscan 32 5.459 •714 Fir, Spruce . 33 4,852 •635 Pine, Red, American 34 4.738 -620 Fir, Riga 35 4.724 •618 Cedar, Cuba, 36 4,480 •586 APPENDIX F. 423 APPENDIX F. Table CLXX. Showing that in the conversion of 1,413,894 cubic feet of hewn or square timber (raw material), comprising the following descriptions, the average yield of converted mateiial — i.e., timber, plank, board, &c. , &c. — per cubic foot was as stated against each species in column A ; also that the average yield of slabs and sawdust, or difference between the cubic contents of the converted and the raw material was as stated in column B. A. B. Timber. Proportion of converted per one cubic foot of raw material. Proportion of slabs and sawdust per one cubic foot of raw material. Oak, various : — Italian •649 '351 American, Baltimore •648 •352 Sardinian . •646 •354 American White •641 '359 French •527 ■473 English •526 '474 Spanish •520 •480 Substitutes for Oak, &c. :- — Tewart •681 '319 Sabicu •674 ■326 Greenheart •605 '395 Mora •55s '445 African •519 •481 Mexican Mahogany . •721 •279 Cuba ,, •634 •366 Honduras , , •596 •404 Ced==r ... •726 •274 Teak . . . •660 '340 English Elm . ■531 •469 Canada ,, •687 •313 Canada Yellow Pine 705 '^95 Dantzic Fir •700 •300 Riga Fir . •677 ■323 Canada Red Pine . '650 1 '350 American Pitch Pine ■640 •360 Russian Larch . ■610 ■390 Canada Spruce Deals •796 ■204 ,, Yellow Pine Deals 742 •258 424 APPENDICES. O X l-H P a. ■a o o ■5 ^ HH J3 X W) X J )-i u w 0) t-i 0) W > -< tfl H c3 3 O 0) C o 03 Transverse strength. 00000000000000000000 00000000000000000000 OM^oOO^|-lHHOlHO^OooC^OO^NHM^^ HH M WHHMHH H HHHH Breaking load. VO t^ -n)- tv OsOO M rl-00 Ci^OO rj- On N -f rO CO fOOO CO c^ cooo 0 c^^:^^o"^>J^'*l^^v u-)vo 0 0) m ^^h t^ t^ C^OO ^00 VO 00 00 00 t^OO t^ rt'-D ""'00 t^ ONOO 00 01 M 5 oooooooooooooooooooo OOOOOOOOOOOQOOOOOOOO oooooooooooooooooooo rj-Oooc^Tft^OOOOOOOOOOOOl -i-00 o M CO CO N On t^vO NO rOH doo O O COC^Lr)C>J COVO t^ lO tN w ON lO J^00 tJ- t^ Qn CO lO CO ONOO COOO '^ LT) lO OJ vnoo NONO t>,OOONO lOH 0) _M Tf p CO yo ^-^ ^ rt-MD >NO N On O On b NO CO CJ CJ ^3 NO 00 M NO COOO NO M CN) r^oo 0) *+ o ON CO ■^ ■^oo 'i- t^ o on t^ t^OO OOOOOOOnOOOm OnOO O O On tv C^OO t>N M M H M M MM M c" .2 .9* 0 MN(Nt^NCOONC>)0000 »0 OnOO C>I0) cOCOCOCO^ 'tNO t^ On ON O MM MM MMMMMMMMMM O APPENDIX G. 425 Transverse strength. P^ 00000000 00000000 J^ CO CO ^ cooo co^ t^^O 00 00 -TO CO (N O^C^^':^^H(NM^0'-0 CO'-O CI CO ON^ COCO ONOOCOOt^OOOOCO CNLOOOO (NOOVD 0 WNO COa^OI t^O C^MVO LO CMOOCO t>.O^O00 ■* tNOO 0 CO OnOO ^ vO 0 lo^O M y^ ^ s QOOOOOOO 00000000 00000000 0000000000000000000 0000000000000000000 0000000000000000000 00000000 10 CX ON f^ 0 CO ONOO <-OHt^f-^MOOH NCOCOCOOjMrtH 0000000000000000000 VO 0 ^ COVO Th -t- (N VO ^ C-N COO VO 0 >J0 CO COOO ThONO) H ONtNCO^ON '^OO \0 ^J^ -^ ON ON'O H -:t- Cll-IM(NH (NdHH HHHIHHMM Net deflection. HI C^O rh-t-O -l-t^'OCOCOt^Cl t^O 0 0 lOiOO 0 00 0 woo CO ONw 0 000 000 cotMoo co'O ^ c^ t^ '+VO ^N(^^ 0"0 100 t^cho co 00 C^MD vOOOJOOnO^moOOmOOnOnm lovO yDTJ-tociiHCOO'Jl H (N (N H MHHHCO HHMCOMI-IHIHHCIIH Set. UOOO LOVO 0 "O OOOOhOOw CO ^oo CO COtNOOLOOCOTfl QlOC^ ONVO ON 10 tv, u^ CO OOOOHHO 1 wOmCOCIOOOmMm H Deflection with 390 lbs. vDi^i^O t^OOOO-OuO 10 lOCJ "^VO ^ >o M (NO) i-Oi^<-OLOrOLOO >-i OJ f^H H T^O OIUI 10CMO\MVO^VO Os t-^vO ^C^(NMOONOJONM(NMOONW>Ot^ON C^^ W M lo M vO H (N 0) (N MHHHCOi-I HMO)-rt-HHHHH(NlM Specific gravity. MD }n CO cop 00 10 IN OnvO CO "O OnmD H Tf (N LO H 0~ -tCO hC^OOnOOn'-'O H W W H H JN COOO _0 CO CO Y^ ^ On ON t^ "on 0 *M N ONVO O CO 00 N H r^-vb On CO M \0 i-O C^vO M CX) ^ O COOO LO -:f00 -^-00 ^ CO lO ON t^vO vO M O Onm O (N'^iOt^iOiO tj-nO •'^ >D MM H W c .2 0 (/) Q ish iuras can jwart Chow . Pingow Kranji Camphor . Molav6 Oak, African Green heart . Mora Sabicu Mahogany, Span ,, Hone Mexi Eucalyptus or Te Jar rah . Kari, Australian Iron-bark . Blue Gum , Ash, English , , Canada Elm, English , , Canada Fir, Dantzic ,, Riga . Spruce, Canada . Larch, Russian Cedar . Red Pine . 4) 00 ON w N ■+ w Tj-vO w OrhKO KO MvO ON>r)toONO MOO InOnCO M H N 0) (N 0 tN (\oo Lovo vo coco-f■■^T^rl-tNU-)^>,^^ cotN -i-vo 10 0)M0)HHHHiCOCOCOCOP)CO 426 APPENDICES. X X u Transverse strength. 88888888888 10 >J^co cnrooowONWON o o o o o o o o o o 0 MD CO CT> C^ M M H W H M 00 CTn On O H 1^ II tv, ro 1000 On (Ti 0 CO 10 OnMD 00 CO 0 M 0 ON^O 00 (N w t-^OvO Oh moo 0 C^C^CTnO. lOOO 00 CO tN,(NMrOHNMNHHHHMMHH Net deflection. 6 = N O t^ CO t^ O ONOO HI CO^ oooo cr>t^Lo-^o ONcoo 0) O COOO Os O 01 M ^ -^00 N CO 00 00C^t>OW)OOOHOO • • • • a; CO cooo u^ lo 00 00 O P) c< P P (N H M Deflection with 390 lbs. lO-t-cOtNt^lOH MvO^OOO O H ONINC^O) ONO-. H MOO to M vO >J^ On PI Tf H tNOO P) LO Tf CO CO (NhMmhhhhhhm CO M Lo H M CO CO ooo wcor^HOONOOO roioioi- - lOO M O Thcoco^'tt^io T^ Lo Lo lo loo r^ c^ >J^ lovo lo i^i lo ^o lo Description. Yellow Pine (i (2 (3) Mear Pitch Pine (i) (2) (3) (4) (5) Mean . . . . 03 0) ^ ; - . . > o rt Q>-i(0 OOOOMi-t CO en CO cococofoco ON ON On O^ CO CO CO CO o ^ « fX) ^ ■* <1 ■^ »o l^(» II M ■^ 1 •o ■v» l-H -3 W .^ M 3 > 3 c •o CJ Ui t: V V jS Xi H H APPENDIX H. 427 APPENDIX H. Table CLXXII. Comparative Comparative Description. elasticity. transverse strength. Mean of first two' Mean of first two English Oaks unity. English Oaks unity. British Oak (ij . M (2) . •64 •96 I ■36 I '04 M (3) • •66 •60 ,, ,, Mean of (i) and (2 ) I'OO I "00 ,, ,, ,, the three •81 •86 French Oak (i) . 1-41 I 01 M M (2) . i'39 I 03 ,, ,, Mean I "40 I 06 Oak, Tuscan •56 '93 ,, Modena •90 I '05 ,, Sardinian . •82 *93 ,, Dantzic ■43 •59 , , Rhenish •62 •82 ,, Spanish •54 70 ,, American . 1-19 I '00 ,, Baltimore . 1-58 •90 Teak(i) . 1*29 i"i3 .. (2) . . I '09 I'O.S ; ,, Mean. iig I 08 Ironwood . 2-19 158 Chow . 2*27 1*21 Pingow 2-83 1-56 Kranji 3*40 1-83 Camphor . 3*36 1-47 Molav^ 187 I '54 Oak, African •92 1-38 Greenheart . ■97 1-65 Mora . I 'OS I "64 Sabicu 2'2I I "60 Mahogany, Spanish 171 I '06 ,, Honduras. I'll '99 ,, Mexican . 1*90 '97 Eucalyptus or Tewart. 17s 1-28 Jarrah. 66 •85 Kari, Australian . 2'IO 1-05 Iron-bark . 216 174 Blue Gum . 175 •88 428 APPENDICES. Table CLXXII. — continued. Comparative Comparative Description. elasticity. transverse strength. Mean of first two Mean of first two English Oaks unity. English Oaks unity. Ash, English .... 1-28 1-05 ,, Canada 78 79 Elm, English •56 ■49 ,, Canada 1*39 I -14 Fir, Dantzic 1-30 I -08 M Riga . I '69 74 Spruce, Canada 174 •83 Larch, Russian 1-45 78 Cedar . i-oo 70 Red Pine . 1-32 •81 Yellow Pine(i) 6-94 78 (2) 203 •60 (3) 1*46 •62 ,, Mea n 3-48 •67 Pitch Pine (i) I '93 1-30 (2) 1-62 I"IO (3) 1-83 1*20 (4) 1-57 •91 (5) 1*53 *94 , , Mean 1*69 1*09 Cowdie (i) . 178 I*OI „ 2). 1*39 79 .. 3). 1-68 •85 M (4) . 1-62 •91 , , Mean I "62 •89 APPENDIX I. 429 APPENDIX I. (Referring to Table CLXX., Appendix F.) "' Well-squared timber," as understood in the trade, is nearly die square, and admits of little wane on the angles at any part of the log. The yield of this is about -68 per cubic foot of raw material, as shown in Appendix F against Tewart. Some woods, when exceedingly well squared, will often yield a little more ; as Mexican Mahogany. Others again, which are imperfectly manufactured, yield considerably less per cubic foot ; as African. The figures against Oak, English, were obtained from the conversion of both " rough " and " sided," not square timber. Also the figures against Elm, English, were obtained from "rough," and not square timber. The results given in the table were obtained from the conversion of timber for ship-building at Woolwich Dockyard. For civil architecture and engineering purposes the yield per cubic foot would probably be better, as there would be less waste in cutting to straight than to curved lines. The advantage of the table will be manifest on trial, since, if the figures in column A, which stand against any one of the woods mentioned in the list, are used as divisors of the net quantity of converted timber material required for any purpose, the quantity of hewn or square timber, i.e., raw material, which it is necessary to purchase to produce it, is readily found. Example : — If 5,600 cubic feet of converted timber material (Dantzic Fir) are required, how much hewn or square timber will it be necessary to purchase to produce it ? 430 APPENDICES. In column A, against Dantzic Fir, is 700; therefore 5622 = 8,000 cubic feet. •700 ' Also, if the figures in column A are used as multipliers, the converted produce can be ascertained approximately of any known quantity of raw material upon hand. Example : — 8,000 cubic feet of hewn or square timber (Dantzic Fir) is .*. 8,000 x 700 = 5,600 cubic feet of converted timber. Also, if the figures in column B are used as multipliers with the hewn or square timber, the approximate waste in the conversion of it will be obtained. Example : — Dantzic Fir, 8,000 x '300 = 2,400 cubic feet waste in slabs and sawdust. THE END. ALPHABETICAL INDEX. A. Abies . A. nmabilis A. mag7iifica A. nobilis . A. pectmata A, Webbiana Acacia A. Arabica . A. Catechu . A. Cunninghanii A. decurre7is A. excels a . A. homalophylla . A. melanoxylon , A. salicina . A. stenophylla Acer Cainpbellii . A. campestre A. dasycarpum . A. macrophyllum A, nigrum . A. pictum . A. platanoides A. pseudo-platanus A. rubrtivt . A. saccharinum . Achras australis A. Sapota . Acle . Adansonia . Adina cordifolia , AEscuhes hippocastanum African Conifers . ,, Mahoo^any Oak . 45, , , Teak ,, timbers . Afzelia palembanica Age of trees . PAGE PAGE Ailanthus . . 25 , , 313 Air in wood . 20 379 Aki . • 403. 409 379 Akipero . 403 379 Albizzia '. . 253 343 A. Lebbek . . 213 385 A. odoratissima . . 213 8^ f. 298, 409 A. procera . . 213 213 Alburnum . . 31, 38, 39, 65, 67 213 Alder . . .26, 27 , 34, 163, 409 253 Aleciryon excelsum . 299 253 Alnus ghitinosa . . 163 253 A. incana . . . 183 184 Alphitonea excelsa • 254 253 Alstonia scholaris . 214 253 American Alder . . 183 202 ,, Ash . . 174. 176 212 ,, Beech . . 183 164 ,, Birch . . 182 183 , , Boxwood . ■ 304 183 ,, Firs . • 374. 376 183 „ Oaks . . . 167 212 ,, Pines . 350. 356, 373 164 ,, timbers . 166 164 Walnut . 181 183 Amyris balsamifera . . 284 183 Anacardiaceae . 27 253 Anacarditim occidentale . . 213 297 Analysis of wood . 12 2^ 5, 226 409 Andira inermis . . 297 43 Angelim-vermetho . 291, 409 214 Angelin . 297 ■ 164 184 Angeliqiie . . 285, 409 380 385 Annan .... 215, 216, 409 257 Annual rings 26, 35, 37, 41. 42. 43 5^ ^. 299 414 Anogeisstis latifolia . . 214 . 54 299 Antiseptics . . . . 86 299 Arariba-ou-potumuju . . 294, 409 227 Arariba-roz 1 . 294, 409 i ^2, 44 153 Araticaria . . 389. 409 43' ALPHABETICAL INDEX. PAGE PAGE Araucaria Bidzvilli , • 389 Black Ash . 254 A. Cuntiinghami . 387 ,, Birch 182 Aristolochia • 25 Blackbutt . 251, 410 Artocarpus chaplasha . . 215 Black Cypre 296 Ash 14, 25, 26, 27, 45 147 254, 409 Blackheart . . 298 Asiatic Conifers . . 380 Black Iron- wood . 304 ,, timbers . 185, 202 ,, Maple 183 Aspen .... . 165 ,, Oaks. 166, 174. 414 Assegai-wood 303. 409 ,, Pine . 349. 388, 401 Atherstonia • 299 ,, Sea Walnut 146 Atlas Cedar 380, 384 ,, Spruce . 376 Australian Conifers . • 387 ,, Walnut 181 Oaks. 249. 252, 414 Blackwood . 208, 249 410 Austrian Pine • 349 Blood Gum 250 , , timbers . 202, 228 Blood-wood 251. 410 Axemaster . . 298 Blue Gum . . 45, Blue Spruce Boco . 184, 243. 289, 410 379 410 B. Bois Cassava , 298 Bacteria . • 58 Bois Lizard 296 Balata 45, 277, 286, 296, 297, 409 Bois Riviere 397 Ballow . 227 Bois rouge . 57 Baltimore Oak 172, 414 Bolongnita . . 225 Bamboos 24, 27 Boinbjx 25 Ban aba . . 225 B. malabarictivi . . 212 Baobab . 42 Bornean timbers . 202, 217 Barberry . 165 Botanists' views of wood \ . 21 Bark . . . 41, 114 Boucherie's method . 90 Bassia latifolia , . 214 Bow-wood . 184, 410 B. buthyracea . 214 Box . . 25, 56, 162, 249. 251 Bass-wood . 183, 409 Boxwood . 304. 305 410 Bastard Cedar 255- 381 Brahejum stellatifolium 304 ,, Mahogany • 257 Branching . 30. 49 ,, Peppermint . . 256 Brazilletto , 297. 410 Bauhinia racemosa • 213 Breaking of branches . . 66 Bay- wood . • 257 British Honduras . 202 Beech 25, 33, 34, 36, 45, 57 59. 149. ,, timbers . 91 254. 311, 409 Broad-leaved trees 91 , , Evergreen • 409 Broussa Oak 144 Beef-wood . 252 255. 410 Bruises 67 Beilschmiedia Tarairi • 311 B)-ya ebeiius 296 B. Taiua . • 311 Buchanania latifolia . 213 Belgian Oak 141, 414 Buck-eye . 184, 410 Benzine . 88 Bucklandia popiilvea . 213 Berberis . 165 Buckthorn , 25, 165. 410 Bermuda Cedar . .■381 Builders' views of wood 5 Behila alba . • 151 Bullet-wood . 297 B. Bhojpatj'a • 215 Bunya-Bunya . 389 B. excelsa . . 183 Burmese timbers . 185. 202 B. lenta 182, 257 Burrs .... 64, 146 B. papyracea . 183 Bursaria spinosa . 304 B. rubj'u . . , . 182 Burscra gumviifera . 296 liliotan Pine • 384 Butter-nut . 181 liillian 202, 227, 410 Button-wood 184, 298 Birch 25, 26, 27, 30, 34, 151. 215, 296, 311 Buxus Macowani B. seinpervirefis . 304 162 ALPHABETICAL INDEX. 433 C. Cabbage Gum . CcBsalpinia brasiliensis C. crista C, Sappan . Cagiieyran . Calamander-wood Californian Oaks Calodendron capense Calophyllum Calaba . 290 C. i7iophyllum Camara Camayu^n . Cambium . cell Camphor Canadian Ash ,, Birch Elm ,, Oak , , timbers Candeboo Stink-wood Canella-preta Canoe Birch Canthium . Cape Ash . ,, Box , , , Ebony ,, Oak . ,, Teak . Capillarity . Carallia integerrima Carapo ... 45 Carbolic acid Carbonised wood Carbonising Carpenters' views of wood Carpinus Betulus Carrey a arborea Carya alba . C. tomentosa Cashew Nut Castanea vesca Casuirina . C. equisetifolia C. stricta Catalpa longissima Cazon . Cedar 24, 26, 27, 31, 43, 45 268, 2>A'\ , , Boom ,, of Lebanon Cedrela C. australis C. odor at a . C. Toona . 209, 268 268 253 29s. 297. 294. 251 297 298 213 410 211 174 304 298 211 410 . 225 24. 35. 41 ■ 23 221, 410 . 174 . 182 . 177 414 166 304 410 183 299 410 4T0 410 414 417 16 214 410 173 294 304. 299, 299 277 252, 13 81 8 160 214 181 181 213 151 299 . 252 • 252 • 299 , 298 209, 253, 380, 410 . 386 380, 381 . 380 . 380 295, 380 257. 380 Cedro . Cedrits C. atlantica C, Deodar a C. Libani . Celery-topped Pine Cell . . _ . Celtis Kraussiana C. occidentalis Cembran Pine Central American limbers Cephalanthus occidentalis Ceratopetalum apetalum Ceylon Oak ,, timbers Chair-making Chalta Champa . 294 210, 268, 380 380, 384 380, 383 380, 381 410, 415 22, 25 ■ 304 . 184 ■ 349 • 257 . 298 • 253 . 299 . 202 . 150 211, 410 , 211 . 410 ■ 13 . 85 . 298 . lO 165, 254, 410 . 182 26, 33. 34. 36, 56, 151. 183, 410 i> Oak .... 174 Chi7narrhis cyjnosa . . 296, 297 Champack Charcoal Charring Chechen! Chemistry of wood Cherry , , Birch Chestnut 44, 217, Chindana Chlorides Chlorophora excelsa C. iinctoria Chow . Cider Gum . Citharexylum melanocardium Cleavage Climate ..... Cluster Pine .... Coach-wood . . . 253 Coal ...... Coast Spruce .... Cog-wood Colour Compass ..... ,, timber .... Conifers . 24, 25, 30, 38, 54, 87,91, 312 Connarus guianensis . Contract specification n8, 325, 339 Conversion of timber . Copaifera hymenceifolia Copper sulphate . Copse ...... 50 Cordia ..... 296 2 F 4231 227 88 307 298 410 250 297 34 50 349 4 TO 13 379 410 63 227 149 297 334. 365 429 295 434 ALPHABETICAL INDEX. PAGE PAGE Cordia Cerascanthtis 284, 296 Drunken Dayman . 298 Cornnsjlorida 162, 304 Druxy knot . . 66 Corsican Pine • 349 Drying • 7. II, 74 Cortex . 35 Dryobalanops aromatica . 221 Cotton Tree 212, 410 Durability . . 75. "6 Cowdie Pine 388, 412 Duramen . .31. 38, 39. 46. 67 C?-atcBgns . . 163 , 165, 184 Durmast . 92 Creosote . . 88 Dutch Elm . • 159 Crushing . . 72 107, 126 ,, Oak. . 142, 414 Cryptocarya glaucesceus • 254 Dysoxylon . . 284, 381 Cuba Mahogany . , . 258 D. Fraseriatnim . . 253 Cvnonia capensis , . 304 Ctipania semiglauca , . 254 E. Cupressus . , , . 381 East Indian Mahogany • 257 C. torulosa . , . 385 Ebene . 286, 411 Cup-shakes . • 4. . 59, 61, 68 ,, rouge . 287, 411 Ciirtisea faginea . . . 303 verte 289, 411 Cypress 31.43 385. 388 Ebony ... 2; 7, 210, 411 , , Pine . 388 Ekebergia . . 4" Cytisus Laburnum • . 16s E. capensis . Elceocarpus deniatus . 254. 304 • 3" D. E. Kirtoni . • 254 Dacrydium cupressimcm . 399 E. longifolia . 254 D. Franklinii . 387 Elceodendron croceum . . 304 Dago . . 298 Elasticity . • 424. 427 Dalbergia . 297, 410 Elder .... . . 165 D. latifolia 208, 284 Elm 25,26,30,34,43,54,15 3, 163,411 D. nigra . 284 Els • 305 D. Sissoo . . 208 ,, red . 411 Dammara Australis . 388 Emu .... . 4" Dantzic Fir • 313 Engineer, views of wood . 5 Oak 133. 414 Enghsh Oak . 92 Darjeeling Oaks . . 207 Epel .... . 227 Daviesia arborea • 253 Eremophila . 284 Deal . 338. 377 Erythrina . • 25 Decay . 47. . 58, 64. 6s E. suberosa . . 213 Deck Deals . • 325 Erythroxylo7i . 278 Defects . . ; J. 47. 53. 63. 68 E. acreolatum . 296 Deodar 380, 383 Essen wood . 304 Desiccating . . 81 Eucalyptus 162, 184, 202 228, 257, Dibasse . 298 304, 411 Dicotyledons 24, 30, 54.8; ^ 91. 312 E. amygdalina . • 250 Diladila . 225 E. botryoides 250, 258 Dillenia indcia , . 211 E. capitella . 250 D. pentagyna . 211 E. corymb osa . 250 Diospyros . 163, 202, 410 E. corynocalyx . . 250 D. Ebemim . 210 E. crebra . . . . • 250 D. Kurzii . . 210 E. diversicolor . . 238 D. Melanoxylon . . 210 E. globulus • 243 D. gicccsita . . 211 E. gomphocephala . 228 Diptcrocarpus . 208 E. goniocalyx . 250 Direct cohesion . . 106 E. Gunnii . . . . . 250 Dogwood . . 24< ?, 256, 297, 410 E. hcmiphloia . 251 Double Spruce . • 376 E. leucoxylon . 251 Douglas Fir 374. 414 E. maculata . 251 Dougon . 225 E. viarginata 231. 257 ALPHABETICAL INDEX. 435 PAGE PAGE Ezicalyptus melliodora ■ 251 Form of trees ■ 49 E. obliqua . . . . • 247 Foxy wood . , . . • 47 E. patiiculata • 251 Fraxinus Americana . . 176 E. pauci flora . 251 F, excelsior . . 147 E. pilularis 251, 258 F. sa?nbucifolia . 174. 254 E. piperita . . , . • 251 Freezing . . . . . 60 E. polyanthema . . 251 French Oak 123, 414 E. punctata . 251 Frenela Endiicheri . 388 E. resinifera 241, 258 F. Macleyana ■ . 388 E. robusta . . . . • 251 F. Parlatorei . 388 E. rostrata . . . . 231. 251 F. rhomboidea . 388 E. saligna . . . . . 251 F. I'obusta . . 388 E, siderophloia . . 241 Frost-cracks 59. 61 E. Sieberiana • 251 Functions of timber . 27. 35 E. Siuartiana . . 251 Fungi 39, 47, 58, 60, 65, 68, 76, 82 E. tereticornis . • 251 Fusanus actiminatus . • 255 E. tesselaris • 251 F. s pica t us . • 254 E. viminalis . 251 Fuschia excorticaia • 403 Eticlea . . , . • 304 Fustic .... 298, 411 Eugenia Jambolana . 214, 254 E. niyrtifolia • 254 G. Euonymus . . . . . 165 Gagil .... . 227 European Conifers • 313 Galaba • 297 ,, Oaks . . T4I Galba. . 297 ,, timbers . 92 Giant Gum . 250, 411 Evergreen Beech . 254 Girdling . 188 Oak . • 174 Ghita travancorica . 213 Excrescences . 64 Gmelina atborea . 215 Exocarpus cupressifonnis . • 254 G. Leichardtii . 254. 255 Experiments on timber 70, 33, 99, 106 Goat Willow . ' . . 164 Exposure . . . . . 6 Gonioma Kama s si 304. 305 Grain .... .4.8 F. Granadilla . . 298 Fagaria . . . . . 202 Grapiapunha 263, 411 Fagrcea fragrans 215, 216 Green Ebony . 296 Fagus Cunninghami . • 254 Greenheart . 45, 57, 7- \, 270, 411 F. ferruginea . 183 Greeting . 227 F. Solandri • 3" Grevillea robtista . 255 F. sylvatica . 149 G. striata . . 255 False Heart . 46 Grignon . 287, 411 Felling . 48 Growth of trees . 30. 41 Fibres 23. 25 Guaiacum officinale . . . 283 Ficus . . . . . . 25, 215 Guarabu , 292, 411 F. macrophylla . • 254 Guarea ■ 295 F. scabra • 254 Guazuma . . . 381 Fiddle-wood . 411 Guigo .... . 225 Field Maple . 164 Gum bar . 215 Figs .... . 215 Gums, Australian [su Eticai yptus) Firewood . . 74 249, 411 Firs 24, 33, 37, 38, 39, 45, 54. 56, 75. H. 76, 313, 34. h 385- 411 Hackberry . . 184 Fir timber . • 325 Hackmatack • 379. 4" Flexible Pine • 373 Hand-mast , • 31S Flindersia australis , • 254 Hardwickia binata . 213 Flotation 17, 76 Hawthorn 26,27,34, 163, i 55,184,411 Foresters' views of wood . 21 Heart-shakes . 3. 53. 68 436 ALPHABETICAL INDEX. PAGE PAGB Heart-wood 9, 27,31, 38, 39 41, 46, 87 Jnglans ci?ierea . . 181 Hedycarya augustifolia • 255 J. nigra . 181 Hemlock Spruce. ■ 376 J. regia . 146 He Oak . 252 Juniper 349. 385 Heritiera littoralis 212, 25s Jiiniperus . . 210 Hickory 181, 411 /. Bermudiana . . 381 Himalayan Firs . • 385 , , Maple . 212 K. Hinan 311, 4TI Kahikatea . 397. 412 Holarrhena antidysenterlca . 215 Kahikatoa . 403, 412 Hollow trees . 58 Kammone . 216, 412 Holly .... . 165 Kamonpew . . 412 Honduras Mahogany . . 262 Kapor. . . 4 5, 221 410, 412 Honeysuckle 249, 411 Karaka • 403 Hopea .... . 208 Kari . 45 238, 412 ,, odorata . 216 Karoa . . 403 Hornbeam . . • 59 , 160, 412 Karra . 225, 412 Horse-chestnut . 164, 412 Kathitka . 216 412, 417 Horseflesh . • 297 Kauri ... 6 3.388 412. 415 , , Mahogany • 279 Khaya Senegalensis • 257 Hot air seasoning . 81 Kiwideah . 403, 412 Hungarian Oak . . 144 Knightea excelsa . • 311 Huon Pine . . 388 Knots . 65.68 Hymencea Courbaril . . 296 Kohehu Kohekohe . • 403 403, 412 I. Kohutuhutu • 403 Icua altissima . . 381 Kowai 403. 412 Ilex . . . . 165 Kranji 45. 220, 412 /. sideroxyloides . • 299 Kruen . 227 Imbibed water . • 19 Kumpass . . 227 Imbila . 306 Kyanising . . 88 Impregnation of wood 28, 88 Incaranda-cabiuna . 412 L. Incaranda-tan 291, 412 Laburnum . 165, 412 Inch-masts . . . . • 315 Lacolaco . 225 Indian Conifers . • 384 Lager stfxmia parviflo} 'a . 214 ,, Oaks 27, 206 L. RegincB . . 214 ,, timbers . 185, 202 Lancebark . . 298 India Oak . 298, 414 Laplacea hcematoxylon 202, 298 Inhanpasse . . 306 Larch 24, 26, 27, 43, 4, 5. 344. 379. 385. Injection . 87 412 Iroko .... • 307 Larix Americana . • 379' Iron-bark . 45, 241, 25c ), 251, 412 L. Griffithii . ■ 385 Iron-wood 44, 202, 227, 255 296, 298, L. microcarpa . • 379 306, 412 L. occidentalis . . • 379 Italian Larch • 345 Lauan . 225, 412 ,, Oak 127, 414 Laurel . 249 Walnut . . 146 Lauriet-zabella . Leguminos.Te • . 298 • 25 J. Librocedrus. . 381 Jacaranda-cabiuna . 295 Lightwood , 249. 253. 412 Jamaica Boxwood • 304 Lignum Vitae 62, 272 , 283, 296, 412 Cogwood . 295 Lilac . . . . . . 165 Jarrah , . . . 4f 5, 231, 412 Lime . . 25, 33, 3 7. 43. 164, 412 Jenipapo 294. 412 Linden . 164 Juba .... 278, 412 Liriodendron tulipifen I . 184 ALPHABETICAL INDEX. 437 PAGE PAGE Litscea dealbata . • 254 Metrosideros . 202 Live Oak . . 171. 414 M. rob us la , . 308 Loblolly Pine • 373 M. toinejitosa • 309 Locust , 184, 296, 412 Metteral . 306, 413 Lombardy Poplar . 31 Mexican Mahogany . . 263 Long-acorned Oak • 174 Michelia Champaca . . 211 Long-leafed Yellow Pi ne . , 373 Mida .... • 403. 413 Luabo. . 306 Milk-wood, White • 413 Lysiloma Sabiai . . 279, 297 Mil let ti a pen du la .213 Mimosa Acle . 226 M. Mimusops globosa . 296 Maba guianensis . 296 Mirabou . 227, 413 Macaranduba . 292, 413 Miro .... . 401, 413 Mach(2riu7n . 284 Mocasso-cassa . . 306, 413 Madura aurantiaca . 184 Mocker-nut . 181 Maconatari . . 287, 413 Mocoza • 306 Madeira Mahogany • 257 Mocua . 306, 413 Mahogany 45, 54, 21 2, 2S7, 299, 413 Mocunca • 306, 413 ,, Australian . 231 Mocundo-cundo . . 306, 413 Bastard . 250 Modena Oak . 128 Maire . • 311. 413 Modulus of Elasticity . • 424 Maisis-curo . . 306 Mohoi ■ 403 Majow . 227 Molav6 ... 4^ 5, 223, 413 Malatapay . ■ 225, 413 Monangare . . 306, 413 Mambog . 225, 413 Monkey Puzzle . • 389 Manawa • 403 Monocotyledons . 24, 30 Mangachapuy . 225, 413 M on at oca elliptic a • 254 Mangalo • 29s, 413 Mora . . .45, 27^ 5, 296, 413 Mangeas . 311 Mora excelsa • 275 Mangifera indica . 212 Moreton Bay Pine . 387 Mango . 212 Morrunda . 306, 413 Mapilia • 225, 413 Morus alba . . 165 Maple . 37. 164. 413 M. nigra . 165 Marble-wood . 211 M. rubra . . 184 Margosa • 212, 413 Moschoxyhim Schwartzii • 295 Marks on timber 3. 25 Mossy-cup Oak . . 174 Mastic . 296 Mouna . . . . . 306 Masts . • 357. 375 Mountain Ash 27. 254 Matai . • 403. 413 ,, Mahogany . 182, 257 Mauerlatten . 316 ,, Pine . • 349 Mawbee . 298 Mucorongo . . . . . 306 Measurements of trees 46, 94 Mucumite . . . . . 306 Mechanical strength . .- . 5. 6 Mugunda . . . . 306, 413 Medullary rays . 25. 26, 33, 34 Mulberry . . .165 . 255. 413 ,, sheath . . 36 Murray Pine . . " . . 388 Melaleuca . . 202 Murumanhama . • 306 M. ericifolia • 255 Mussangara 306, 413 M. leucadendron . • 255 Musk • 413 M. styphelioides . • 255 Musk-wood. • 255 Melia Azedarach . 212, 255 Red . • 413 M. indica . . 212 Myall-wood 184. 413 Meliacece , 210 My Lady . . . . . 298 Memel Oak . ■ 134 Myrobalans . 214 Menkabang Penang . . 44. 217 Myrtle . . . . • 254 Meriquitiara . 292, 413 Myrtles, Australian 249. 413 Mesua ferrea . 202, 212 Myrtus . . . . . 202 438 ALPHABETICAL INDEX. PAGE PAGE N. Pao-fava . 306, 414 Nails . , . . 9 Pao-ferra . . 306, 414 Nana . , . . . 403 Pao-ferro . . 306, .; 14 Nassau Mahogany . 261 Pao-preto . . 306, 414 Natal timbers . 202 Pao-setim . . 295, 414 Neapolitan Oak . . 128 Paraffin . 88 Necfandra Rodicei . 270, 414 Parcwah • 215, 415 Needle-leafed trees . 91 Parrotia persica . , 202 Neem . . . . . 212, 414 Peam . . 306 New Zealand Conifers . 387. 388 Pear . . i j6, 27, 165, 184, 415 ,, timbers . . 308 Peguy . . 294, 415 North American timbe rs . . 202 Penagah . 227 Northern Pine . 313. 338. 350 Pencil Cedar 249. 253. 381. 388 Norway Fir • 337 Pencil-wood . 256, 415 ,, Maple . . 164 Pent ace Btirmani ;a . . . 216 Spruce . • 338 Penthityah . . 216, 415 Nofelcsa . 202 Peppermint Tree. . 250, 415 N. ligustrina • 255 Periodic rings . 42 Peroba-branca . . 292, 415 0. Peroba de Campc )S . . . 292 Oak 25, 26, 27, 31, 33, 34. 37. 38. 44. Peroba-parda . 292, 415 49, 51, 62, 64, -Ji, 75. 76, 92, 152. Peroba-vermetho • 293, 415 326, 414 Per sea in die a . 257 Occlusion , 59. 67 Persia . . 202 Ochna arborea • 305 Persian Lilac . 212, 255, 415 Ocotea bullata • 303 Physical propertie s of wood 15, 28 Odina Wodier . . 213 Picea . • 313 Oldfieldia africana • 299 P. alba . 376 Oka capensis • 305 P. Engelma7tnii . . 379 0, Cv7ininghamii . 311 P. excelsa , • 313. 338 0. Etiropcea . . 165 P. nigra . 376 0. lauri folia . 202, 304 P. pungens . • 379 Olearia argophylla • 255 P. Sitchensis • 379 Olive . . . . • 165, 414 P. Smithiana • 385 Oregon Fir . • 374. 414 Piedmont Oak . . 141. 414 Maple . . . 183 Pines 24,26, 27, ; J3. 38. 39. 45. 54. 56, Pine • 374.415 3. 313. 344. 367. 387 Oroaka • 403 Pingow . 45, 219, 415 Osiers . . 164 Pingue . 306, 415 Osirya . 232 Pink-wood . • 249, 415 Ougeinia dalbergioida . 213 Pin Oak . 174 Owenia venosa . • 256 Pill us A tis trails • 367. 373 P. Anstriaca • 349 P. P. Cembra , • 349 Paccouri Soufri . . 287, 414 P. ciibensis . . 297 Padouk 209, 215, 414 P. excelsa . . 384 Pad pre to . . 306 P. Jlexilis , • 373 Palawan . 227 P. Gerardiana . . . 385 Palmalatto . . 297 P. Khasya . . 384 Palms . . 24, 25, 27, 30 P. Lambertiana • 373 Palo Maria . . 225, 414 P. Laricio , • 349 Pamburo . 306 P. longifolia . . . . 384 Panacoco . . 289, 414 P. Merkusii . 384 Panax Mw rayi . 256 P. Mitis . • 373 P&ngira . 306, 414 P. man ti cola • 373 Pao-dc-Pezo . 292, 414 P. Pinaster • 349 ALPHABETICAL INDEX. 439 PAGE PAGE Pinus Pinea .... 349 Pterocarpiis indlcus . . 209, 234 P, ponderosa . 373 P. Marsupium . . 239 P, Pumilio • 349 P. santaltmis . 209 P. resinosa . • 350 Pteroxylon titile . • 303 P. rigida . • 367. 373 Pdgatea 403- 415 P. Strobus . 350, 356, 373, 384, 398 Pukapuka . • 403 P. sylvestris . . 313. 338. 350 Puriri .... • 310, 41c; ^' Tceda 373 Pyengadu . . 44, 202, 215, 4115 Piptadema peregrina . . . 296 Pynkado . 212 Piquea-marfim . . . 293, 415 Pyrenean Oak . 127 Piscidia Erythrina . . , 297 ,, Pine . • 349 Pistacia integerrima . . .212 Pyrol igneous acid • 97 Pistacio Nut .... 212 Pyrus .... . 184 Pitch-pine 54, 62, 297, 367, 373, 415 P. Aria . 165 Pith .... 31, 36, 52 P. Auctiparia . 165, 254 Pithecolohium micradenium . 296 P. commicnis • 165 Plane 184, 415 P. torminalis . 165 Planks . . .32, 68, 76, 122 PlataJius occidentalis . . . 184 Q. Platymiscium platystachyum . 296 Quality of trees . • 49 Plum .... 165, 184, 415 Quar .... • 305. 415 Podocarpus asplenifolhcs . . 398 Quebec Oak . 174 P. bracteata ■ . 385 Queen-wood 253. 415 P. coriaceus . 296 Qicercus 92, 206 P. dacrydioides • 397 Q. actuninata . 207 P. data 385, 388 Q. y^sculus . 127 P. ferruginea . 401 Q. agrifolia . 174 P. spicata . • 403 Q. alba . 166 P. Thiinbergii ■ 385 Q. anmilaia . 207 P. totara . . 401 Q. Cerris . . 127, 144 Pohutukawa • 309. 415 Q. coccinea . • 174 Poisons . 86 Q. densiflora • 174 Poles . . 315 Q. dilatata .... . 207 Polish Larch • 346 Q. fenestrata . 207 ,, Oak . . 134 Q. Griffithii . 207 Poplars . 25, 27, 3 ;4. 61, 165 Q. Hiiidsii . . 174 Populus alba . 165 Q. Ilex . 207 P. nigra . 165 Q. incana . . 207 P. treimda . . . 165 Q. lamellosa . 207 Porosity of wood 17, 20, 28 Q. lanceafolia . 207 Porous bodies i6, 86 Q. lanuginosa . 207 Post Oak . . 174, 414 Q. lappacea . 207 Preservation of wood . 28, 73 Q, montana . 174 Prickly Tea Tree ■ 255 Q. olivceformis . . 174 Pruning . 66 Q. pachyphylla . . 207 Prunus . 184 Q. palustris . 174 P. avUim . . 165 Q. pedjinculata . . 92 P. cerasus . . 165 Q. prinus bicolor • 174 P. do7nestica . 165 Q. pubescens . 92 P. Mahaleb . 165 Q. pyrenaica . 127 P. Puddwn . 213 Q. Robur .... 92, 127 Prussian Oak • 134 Q. Rnbra . . 174 Pseudo-tsiiga , . 313 Q. semecarpifolia . 206 P. Douglasil • 374 Q. serrata . . 207 Pterocarpus . 215 Q. sessiliflora 92, 144 P. erinaceus . 284 Q. spicata . . 207 440 ALPHABETICAL INDEX. Qiiercus siellata . Q. thictoria, Q. virens R. Raiz-de-Pingue Ramarama . Rassak Rata . Ratonia apetala Razor Strop Red Ash . , , Birch . ,, Blue Heart ,, Cedar . , , Deal . ,, Elm . „ Els . ., Fir , , Gum . ,, Larch , , , Mangrove ,, Maple . ,. Mulberry , , Musk- wood , , Oak ,, Pine , , Sanders-wood , , Stink- wood Red-wood . Red Zammier Resin canals Rewa-rewa . Rhatnnus . Rhenish Oak Rhododendron Rhodorhiza scopa Riga Fir ,, Oak . Rimu . Rind-gall . Ring-shake . River Oak . Robinia Robinia pseudacacia Roble . Rock Chestnut Oak ,, Elm . Roman Oak Rose femelle ,, male . Rosewood 208, 253^ 279 Rot 5. 47. 53- 57. 59. Rough Oak. ,, timber Rowan 304 PAGE • 174 • 174 , 171 306, 415 • 403 . 227 308, 415 • 257 . 298 . 254 . 182 . 298 253- 381 . 338 . 180 305. 415 313- 379 . 251 • 379 • 25s . 183 . 184 • 295 . 173 350. 415 . 209 • 304 305- 314 . 298 . 27 311- 415 . 165 . 142 163, 416 . 284 • 329 139. 4^4 399. 416 (yT, 68 • 59 • 252 27, 416 . 184 296, 416 ■ 174 . 177 . 128 288, ^i6 287, 416 , 284, 297, 416 65, 68, 74, 84 . 174, 414 . 118 • 165, 254 209, 298 Rungas Russak Russian Larch PAGE . 227 227, 416 . 346 S. 45 Sabicu . Saffron-wood St. Domingo Mahogany St. Martin . Sal _ . Salix alba . S. CaprcBa , S. fragilis . S. purpurea S. viminalis Sallow . Sambucus nigra Sandal-wood Sand Elm . Sanialum album Santa Maria 45, 290 Sapodilla 54' 279. 297. 304. Sap-wood . 9, 27, 31, 416 416 261 . 288 208, 416 . 164 . 164 . 164 . 164 . 164 . 164 . 165 215, 254, 306, 416 . 160 . 215 298, 416 297, 416 297. 38. 39. 69 I Sardinian Oak Sassafras Satine . Satin-wood Savicu Savonette Scantlings Scarlet Oak Sceiti . Schima Wallichii Schleichera trijuga Scorching Scotch Pine Scots Fir Screening Seasoning . . 7, 10, 48, Securipa Selection of tjmber Serayah Servian Oak Service Tree Sessile Oak . Shakes Shell-bark . She Oak . . .252 Shingle Oak Ship-building 95, 115, 128 Shorea robusta Short-leafed Yellow Pine Shrinking Sicilian Oak , 87, 154 128 249, 416 288, 416 . 296 . 279 . 296 . 76 174, 414 . 298 . 212 • 299 • 59 ■ 313 • 313 . 78 73- 75. 79 291, 416 410 252 129, 68 227 145 165 92 76 181 416 416 135. 150 208 . 373 7, 60 , 128 ALPHABETICAL INDEX. 441 PAGE PAGE Sided timber . 118 Swietinia . • 257 Sideroxylon . , . 202 S. Khaya . . 299 S. iiterme . . . 305 S. Makogani . 212, 258 Silky Oak . 255. 256, 416 S. Senegalensis . . 299 Silver Fir 343. 379. 416 Sycamore . . 164 Silver-grain . 9. 33 Syncarpia laurifolia • 256 Silver-leaf Maple . 183 Synoum . 284 Simarouba . 288, 416 S. glandulosuvi . .. 256 Single Spruce • 376 Syringa vulgaris . . . 165 Sissoo. 208, 416 Sloanea jamaicensis . . 202 T. Sneeze-wood 303. 416 Tacca . . 298 Soil .... . 50 Tamarack . . 379 Sour Plum . . 256 Tamarind . . 416 South African timbers . • 303 Tamarindus indica . 213 Soymida feh'ifuga • 257 Tanakaha . . 398, 416 Spanish Mahogany . 258 Tannin . 114 ,, Oak 141, 414 Tapinhonho . 293, 416 Spars . . 68, 76, 315. 357. 375 Tappana . 298 Specifications 130. 136, 156 Tar . . 88 Specific gravity . 16, 18, 418, 424 Taraire . 3". 416 Spindle Tree 165, 416 Tarata • 403- 4*7 Spots .... . 63 Tawa . . 311. 417 Spotted Gum . 251 Tawada ■ 403. 417 Spring felling . 114 Taxa . . 306 Spruce . . 313, 338, 385. 416 Taxus haccata . . . 385 Square timber . 76 Tea Tree . . 249 Stacking . n Teak . . 27, 44, 54, 185, 215, 417 Stage deals. • 325 Tecoina pentaphylla . 162, 304 Stag-headed trees . 48 Tectona grandis . . . . 185 Starch. . 15 Tee . . 403 Star-shakes . 4. 57. 68 Tensile strength, ^2, 106, 126, 418, 421 Steaming . . 81 Tepow • 403. 417 Stefiocarpus salignus . . 256 Tei'vtinalia belerica . 214 Stettin Oak . . 134 T. bialata . . 214 Stink-wood , . 249, 303 305. 416 T. chebula . . 214 Stone Pine . • 349 T. tomentosa . 214 Storage . . . . 76 Tetranthera calicaris ■ 3" Straits Settlements . 202 Tewart . . 45, 54, 74, 228, 417 Stringy-bark 45, 247 249 250, 416 Thespesia populnea . 212 Structure of trees 3O' 41 Thick-stuff . . 122 ,, wood 22, 312 Thingan . 216, 417 Strychnos . . 299 Thitka . 216, 417 Styrian Oak . 145 Thitkado . . 209, 417 Submergence . 89 TJuija . . . . 381 Sugar Gum 250, 416 Tilia Americana . . 183 ,, Maple . 183 T. EtiropcBU . 164 ,, Pine . • 373 Tiliaceae . . . 216 Summer felling . • 73 Timber, definition I Sun-burn • 59 Timber marks • 135 Sundri 212, 255 ,, merchant, views of wood 2 Surface 9 Tindalo . 225 Suridi .... . 416 Toddalea lanceolata . 202, 304 Swamp Oak 174 , 252, 416 Tongiho . 403, 417 , , Tea Tree • 255 Toon . . . 209, 253, 257, 417 Swedish Fir . 336 Toraira • 417 2 G 442 ALPHABETICAL INDEX. PAGE 1>AGE Totara . 401. 417 Water in wood . II, 19 Tototo . 403 Water-wood . 296 Towai ■ 403- 417 Wattle 249, 253- 417 Tracheide . 23, 26 Wawaku 403. 417 T; ade marks . 342 Western Larch . • 379 Ti a metes Pini . . 60 White Pine . • 373 Transverse strength 7 2, 99, 125, 418, ,, Yellow Pine . ■ 373 424, 427 West Indian timber . 202, 257 Tree-ferns . 24, 27, 30 Weymouth Pine . 356, 384 Tj-ipiolemcEa . 284 White Ash . . 174 Tristania conferta . 256 ,, Beech ■ 255 T. svaveolens . 256 ,, Box . . 256 Trochocarpa laurina • 254 ,, Cedar 255. 381 Tstiga • 313 ,, Deal 3^3. 338 T. Canadensis . • 376 „ Fir . . . 313. 338 Tubular structure . 21 ,, Gum 249, 251 Tulip Tree . . 184,417 , , Iron- wood ■ 304 Turkey Oak 127, 142, 414 Milk- wood . 305 Turners' views of woo d . . 8 ,, Oaks . 166 Turpentine Tree . 25 I. 256, 373, 417 , , Pine . • 397 Tuscan Oak . 128 ,, Spruce • 376 Twisted grain . . 56 , , Tea Tree . • 25s U. Ulmus alata U. Americana . U. campestris U. ftilva U. integrifolia . U. montava U. Wallichiana . ,, Willow . 164 . i8o • 177 . 153 . 180 White-wood IVidrington ia juniperoides . Wild Chestnut . ,, Olive .... 184, 328 . 386 . 304 • 305 . 215 • 159 • 215 Willows . 25, 31, 34, Winter felling Wych Elm . 1&4 73 249, 417 114, 148 158, 159 Upright Yellow Wood • 385 X. Urab Mat a . . 227 Xylia dolabriformis . . 202 Uses of timber . 96, 405, 409 Xylometer . . 18 Utility of forests. • 51 Y. V. Yacal .... . 228 Vatica Rassak . 227 Yacca .... 296, 417 Venice turpentine • 345 Yarrah . 231 Vertical strength. . 418, 422 Yew ... 3c .43 349. 385 Vessels 23, 24, 25 Yellow Birch ■ 183 Vine . • 25 ,, . Box. 251. 417 Vinhatico . . 295, 417 ,, Deal • 338 Violet . . 288, 417 ,, Fir . • 313 Vitex divaricata . 296 ^ Pine 297, 350, 356 398, 415 V. geniculaia . 223 ,, Poplar . 184 V. litoralis . • 310 Yellow-wood 305. 385 K ufndrosa . • 304 Yoke .... . 296 W. Ypil .... . £25 Wacapou . . 288, 417 Z. gris . , 289, 417 Zambosa . . 298 Wahoo . 180 Zebra-wood • 297 Walnut 25, 64, 146 Zizyphus Chloroxylon . . 295 EVANS AND CO., LIMITED, PRINTERS, CRYSTAL PALACE, S.E. 1^<.ok< J'ate Due MlL^Sc^ t^^fi#^ ^ m.-^.^- J I.M Id 1 Li 1 p."4 ] -IP- LJ . ! AGRICULTURE FORESTRY LIBRARY :\ V . WY TURE ..^Y