r ED GIFT TO THE LIBRARY CIVIL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA BY PROFESSOR FRANK SOULE 1912 w< // /;••: TIMBER AND TIMBER TREES. » ." • »-••* Library CHARLES DICKENS AND EVANS, CRYSTAL PALACE PRESS. THIS BOOK IS DEDICATED (ly permission) TO THE RT HONBLE- G. WARD HUNT, M.R FIRST LORD OF THE ADMIRALTY, AS A MARK OF RESPECT, BY HIS VERY OBEDIENT SERVANT, THOMAS LASLETT. 793290 PREFACE. A HANDY-BOOK on Home and Foreign Timber, for ship and house building purposes, is, in the opinion of many, much 8 required. The botanical treatises which a-e accessible are too strictly scientific in their form aid treatment to interest the general reader, and they lack that practical application of knowledge to the vants of the shipwright and carpenter, which it is one of the aims of this book to give. Hence, I lave endeavoured to concentrate into one form all the information which books and long experience could give, and so to arrange the materials as to make them intelligible and acceptable alike to the master builder and apprentice. Keeping this in view, I have introduced into the work the substance of a course of lectures on the properties of timber, which I delivered at the Royal School of Naval Architecture at South Kensington ; viii PREFACE. and of three other courses of lectures on the same subject, delivered at the Royal School of Military Engineering at Brompton Barracks, Chatham. Many new descriptions are treated of, and a great number of experiments on the strength of timber are given in detail as well as in the abstract. Further, there are some useful notes on seasoning timber for use, and the best means to be taken for its presei- vation. THOMAS LASLETT. 58, MARYON ROAD, CHARLTON, S.E. September, 1875. CONTENTS. CHAPTER I. PAGE Trees, Exogenous species — Forms of stems — Direction of branches — Heart-wood — Sap-wood — Bark — Pith — Medullary rays — Ascent and descent of sap — Cambium — Lignine — Annual layers, &c. . 3 CHAPTER II. Annual layers at top and butt of trees — Boabab — Cedars of Lebanon — Sizes and ages of trees — Rate of growth — Position of maximum strength — Signs when past maturity — Foxiness — Stag-headed — Natural seasoning — Proper time for felling, &c 13 CHAPTER III. Trees, hedge-grown — Copse-grown — Effects of variety of soil — In- fluence on water supply — Form when young — Pith, snake- like, &c 22 CHAPTER IV. Defects — Heart-shake — "Woods affected — In Teak attributed to ring- ing or girdling — Common to Exogenous species — Various forms of, &c. . . 26 CHAPTER V. Defects — Star-shake — External evidence of — Trees most frequent in — Cup -shake — Varieties of — Occur in sound trees — to some extent local, &c. >./,;'.* - « » . , . .: . ,: • 3<> CHAPTER VI. Annual layers of irregular growth — Departure from natural colour — Spots — Swellings — Removal of branches — Broken branches — Mode of pruning — Druxy knot — Rindgall — How to select timber, spars, planks, deals, &c 34 TIMBER AND TIMBER TREES. CHAPTER VII. PAGE Timber — Numerous experiments — Specimens well seasoned — Sizes experimented on — Mode of testing — Transverse — Tensile, &c. . 40 CHAPTER VIII. Oak, various — British species — Best soil for — Standard of quality — Dimensions attained — Qualities — Store in H. M.'s Dockyards — Supply inadequate — Substitutes for, &c 43 CHAPTER IX. British Oak — Tables of experiments — Elasticity — Strength — Barlow's formulae — Experiments on pieces cut from centre of log — Deflec- tion, &c 50 CHAPTER X. British Oak — Experiments on Tensile strength — Tables — Vertical strength — Tables — Sectional area for pillars — Elongation of fibres— Tables, &c 58 CHAPTER XL British Oak — Time for felling — Tannin in bark — Winter-felled" timber — Account of some ships in which used, &c. . . .67 CHAPTER XII. British Oak — Navy contracts — Specifications for timber, thick-stuff, and plank, &c «! CHAPTER XIII. French Oak— Resemblance to British— Sample first tried— Loss in conversion— Method of hewing— Tried in H. M.'s Ship "Pallas" —Quality— Classed at Lloyd's— Experiments— Tables, &c. . .77 CHAPTER XIV. Italian Oak—Several varieties — Quality —Description — Defects — Quantity in H. M.'s Dockyards— Navy contracts— Experiments— lables, &c. . c/, o3 CHAPTER XV. Dantzic Oak— Description— Classification— Agent employed— Specifi- cation for Navy contracts— Experiments— Tables, &c. . . 90 CONTENTS. xi CHAPTER XVI. Riga Oak — Dimensions — Quality — Quantity imported — Used for fur- niture— Form when hewn — Peculiarity in selling, £c. . . 95 CHAPTER XVII. Belgian Oak — Survey of Belgian forests — Piedmont — Dutch or Rhenish — Spanish and Turkey Oak — Forests of Asia Minor — European Turkey — Hungary, &c. . . : . .. • . . 97 CHAPTER XVIII. American White Oak — Dimensions — Descriptions — Principal uses — Experiments — Tables, &c . . .103 CHAPTER XIX. Live Oak — Dimensions — Description — Uses — Baltimore Oak — Sizes imported — Description — Slow growth — Experiments — Tables — Canadian Oak — Description — Sizes and quantity imported — Various American Oaks, &c 107 CHAPTER XX. Teak — Extensive forests — Burmah — Siam — Description of trees — Variable quality — Short logs — Girdling — Variety of species — Ex- periments in India and England — Deflections — Tables — Extensive use — Falling supply — Market value — Experiments — Tables, &c. . 112 CHAPTER XXI. Pyengadu — Description — Uses — Col. Blake's Report — Dr. Hooker's account — Various woods examined at Moulmein — Experiments — Tables, &c. . - . ' v • . . V . . . . 129 CHAPTER XXII. Borneo — Chow, Pingow, Kranji, and Kapor Trees — Description — Dimensions — Defects — ^Experiments — Tables — Other species — Philippine Islands — Molave tree — Experiments — Tables — Other species — Report on Lauan Timber — Acle, &c 134 CHAPTER XXIII. African Oak — Description — Uses — Logs imported — Experiments — Tables — Other African species — Zambesi — List of trees, &c. . 145 CHAPTER XXIV. Greenheart — Dimensions — Qualities — Sap-wood — Shape of imported logs — Experiments — Tables — Mora — Size of logs — Defects — Ex- periments — Tables — Carapo — Balata — Angelique and trees of French Guiana — Juba and Sabicu — Dimensions — Qualities — Defects — Experiments — Tables — Lignum Vitee — Rosewood, &c. . 151 xii TIMBER AND TIMBER TREES. CHAPTER XXV. PAGE Mahogany : Spanish, St. Domingo, Nassau, Honduras, and Mexican — Description — Uses — Experiments — Tables — Chief defects — Santa Maria — Trees of Brazil, &c 170 CHAPTER XXVI. Trees of Australia — Tewart — Experiments — Tables — Jarrah — Peculiar defect — Mode of flitching — Experiments — Tables — Kari — Extra- ordinary size — Defects — Experiments — Tables — Iron-bark — Blue Gum — Stringy-bark — Dimensions — Uses — Experiments — Tables —Trees of Van Diemen's Land, &c 187 CHAPTER XXVII. Ash : British, Canadian, American — Description — Dimensions — Quality — Experiments — Tables — Alder — Use of Bark — Beech — Chestnut — Elm, English — Variety of uses — Defects — Experi- ments— Tables — Navy contracts — Elm, Wych — Dutch — Canada Rock — Hornbeam — Experiments — Tables, &c 207 CHAPTER XXVIII. Fir, Dantzic — Whence drawn — Sorting round wood — Hand-masts — Deals — Classes of quality — Variety of marks — Description of tests — Experiments — Tables — Navy contracts, &c. . . . 231 CHAPTER XXIX. Fir, Riga— Description — Selection of spars — Classed by brackers Spars in great favour — Experiments — Tables — Navy contracts Specification for hand-masts, &c. 245 CHAPTER XXX. Fir, Swedish — Description — Uses — Quantity imported — Norway Small Dimensions — Spars — Navy contracts — Spruce deals — Quantity — Quality — Experiments — Tables, &c 251 CHAPTER XXXI. Larch — Rate of growth — Planted in Scotland — Italian — Early uses Palish— Russian— Tried at Woolwich— Excessive shrinkage— 1 ' Experiments— Tables— Americ>nj-Uses,j$& . , ;• f . 259 CHAPTER XXXII. Cedar of Lebanon— Rapid growth— Cedar : Cuba, Honduras and Mexican— Size of logs— Uses— Bermuda— Florida— Experiments -Tables, &c F . ^ 2fi CONTENTS. xiii CHAPTER XXXIII. PAGE Pine, Canada red — Colour of bark — Dimensions — Sap-wood — Experi- ments— Tables — Navy contracts, &c. - .•» ' , . . .270 CHAPTER XXXIV. Pine, Canada yellow — Dimensions — Inch masts — Size of logs — "Waney" timber — Deals bright and floated — Defects — Ex- periments— Tables — Navy contracts, &c. .. . . , . . 275 CHAPTER XXXV. Pine, American Pitch — Mast pieces — Size of logs — Defects — Experi- ments—Tables, &c 286 CHAPTER XXXVI. Pine, Oregon or Douglas — Description — Rate of Growth — Size of Spars — Specimen at Kew Gardens — Uses, &c. . .- • . . 292 CHAPTER XXXVII. New Zealand — Kaurie or Cowdie Pine — Large handsome trees — Rate of growth — Dense foliage — Unequalled for masts — Slight defects — Experiments — Tables, &c 295 CHAPTER XXXVIII. New Zealand — Kahikatea trees — Large Dimensions — Anti-scorbutic — Tanakaha — Size of logs — Uses — Rimu — Specimen at Kew Gardens — Miro — Totara — Rata — Pohutukawa — Puriri, &c. . 304 CHAPTER XXXIX. Timber — Winter felled — Natural seasoning — Suggestions for stacking — Seasoning — Duhamel's plan — Fincham's — Steaming — Heated chambers — Carbonising — M. Lapparent's patent — Tried at Wool- wich — Experiments — Tables — Abstracts of previous experi- ments, &c. > 314 INDEX TO ILLUSTRATIONS. FIGURE 1. Plank properly fixed with heart side against the team . . 5 2. Plank improperly fixed with outside against the beam . . 5 3 a, b. Medullary rays, or silver grain 6 3 c. Concentric circles, or annual layers 6 4. Conversion of sap-wood into heart-wood .... 9 5. Do. do. partially completed . . -9 6. Conical or tapering form of woody layers . . . 15 7. Pith, snake-like form of 24 8 a, b. Heart-shake defect 28 9. Do. do. twisting form 29 10. Do. do. at right angles to each other . . .29 11. Star-shake defect 30 12 0, b. Cup-shake defect 31 13. Defect caused by a broken branch . . . . -37 14. Proper mode of pruning . . . . . . • 3& 15. Rindgall defect 39 1 6 a, b. British Oak, Rough, form of log 72 IT a, b. Do. Sided, do. 73 1 8. Do. Compass, do. 74 19. Do. do. do. 74 20 a, b. French Oak, mode of hewing ...... 79 21 a, b. Italian Oak, compass form of log 86 22. Riga Oak, semicircular, do. 96 23. African Oak, irregular, do 146 24. Spanish Mahogany, general, do .170 25. Jarrah, mode of flitching . 193 26 a, b. English Elm, rough, form of log ...... 223 27. Canada Rock Elm, defective annual layers .... 226 28 a, b. Canada Red Pine, mode of hewing ..... 272 29. Canada Yellow Pine. do. . . . . . 277 30. Do. Section showing seven pieces taken across the full breadth of the tree . . . . .279 31. Canada Yellow Pine. Section showing eight pieces, do. . 282 32 #,£,<:. American Pitch Pine. Section and twelve lengths of the inner and outer layers 288 33. New Zealand Kaurie. Section showing four pieces taken from one side, and two pieces from the other side of pith 298 34. New Zealand Kaurie. Section, and butt, middle, and top lengths, three on each side of the pith .... 300 INDEX TO TABLES. TABLE PAGE 1. Number of concentric rings counted in top and butt ends of four English Elm trees . . . 14 2. Number of concentric circles found in various trees . 1 7 3. Dimensions of nine Oak trees growing in Woburn Abbey Park . . . . . . . 45 4. Store of timber maintained at Woolwich Dockyard . 49 5 — 23. British Oak, experiments on . . . . . 50 — 66 24—26. French Oak, do. . . ' , • ' . • . 81, 82 27—31. Italian Oak, do. •>.•'. . . . 87—89 32 — 35. Dantzic Oak, do. . . . . \ . 93, 94 36. Dutch, or Rhenish Oak, experiments on ,v . 98 37. Spanish Oak, experiments on '.. . . . 99 38—40. American White Oak, do. . ' . . 105, 106 41 — 43. Baltimore Oak, do. . . ~Z 108, 109 44 — 50. Teak, do. ..... 121 — 128 51—53. Pyengadu, do 133 54 — 56. Chow, do. . . . . 135 57—59- Pingow, do. . . . ' .' . 136,137 60. Red Kranji, do -. 138 6 1 — 63. Kapor or Camphor, do. . . . • . 139, 140 Molave, do 141, 142 Lauan, do. . . . •*,'.. 143 5—71. African Oak, do 147, 148 72. Trees of Zambesi, list of 150 73—76. Greenheart, experiments on 154 — 156 77 — 79- Mora, do. . . .... . 157 80—82. Sabicu, do. . .... . 166, 167 83 — 85. Spanish Mahogany, experiments on . . . 171, 172 86—88. Honduras do. do. . . . . 176, 177 89 — 91. Mexican do. do. . . . 179, 1 80 92 — 94. Tewart, experiments on . . . . . 188, 189 95—97. Jarrah, do. . . •-, " • • 195, 19& 98 — loo. Kari, .do. ..... 198, 199 101 — 103. Iron Bark, do. . . ". . . 200 104 — 106. Blue Gum, do. ..... 203, 204 107. Trees of Van Diemen's Land, list of ... 206 108 — no. British Ash, experiments on 209,210 in — 113. Canadian Ash, do. 211,212 114 — 116. English Elm, experiments on .... 220,221 117 — 119. Canada Rock Elm, do. 227,228 I20& 121. Hornbeam, do. 230 122 — 128. Dantzic Fir, do. 237 — 240 129 — 132. Riga Fir, do. 247 — 249 XVI TIMBER AND TIMBER TREES. 133. Riga hand-masts, specification for . 134. Norway spars, do. , 135 — 137. Canada Spruce, experiments on 138. Deals, &c., specimens of trade-marks 139 — 141. Russian Larch, experiments on 142 — 144. Cuba Cedar, do. 145 — 147. Canada Red Pine, do. 148 — 152. Canada Yellow Pine, do. ,.^., " 153 — 159. American Pitch Pine, do. 1 60 — 165. New Zealand Kaurie Pine, experiments on 166—168. Timber, carbonised, do. 169 — 172. Abstract tables of foregoing experiments 173. Proportionate yield of converted material per cubic foot of raw material 174. Uses of principal woods 250 254 256 258 262, 263 268, 269 273, 274 279 — 284 287—291 298 — 302 323, 325 327—333 334 337—343 TIMBER AND TIMBER TREES INTRODUCTION. THE properties and characteristic qualities of the timber available for works of construction are so numerous and important, and yet so little understood generally, that I am induced by the solicitations of many friends to give, in these pages, all the information respecting them which I have been able to collect. This collection has been made during a long course of practice in the working of forests, and in the employment of a great variety of woods, and I am not without hope that the results will be of service to many who are engaged in carpentry, shipbuilding, and engineering. To the students of these branches of art, it will be my aim to make the work especially useful, as I propose to treat, not only of the timber known to, and dealt with in commerce, but to extend my observations to a few others which, for the most part, are equally valuable, although, at present, they are scarcely known beyond the localities in which they grow. I propose also to treat of the defects most frequently met with in timber, B . 2. , . TISRJ^D TIMBER TREES. and of the influences they severally exert on the strength and durability of the pieces in which they occur ; and, further, to offer a few remarks on the principal points that should be attended to in selecting timber for use. It will also be in keeping with the object in view, if I treat of the growth and formation of timber trees, a slight knowledge, at least, of this being necessary to enable us to appreciate their character and general caoabilities. CHAPTER I. ON THE GROWTH AND STRUCTURE OF TREES. THE stems of Exogenous* trees may be described as of one uniform structure and mode of increase, and are usually very firm, yielding the most solid and best description of timber, their solidity and strength fitting them admirably for use in carpentry, and for many domestic purposes. The most common form of stem is the cylindrical, but it is occasionally found grooved or fluted, and not unfrequently flattened, approximating to an oval ; the cylindrical form being, for most purposes, the best for conversion into beams, joists, boards, &c. Botanists speak of the stem as the " ascending axis " of a tree, from its taking an upward direction and giving off branches. In the Elm, these branches take an oblique upward direction ; in the Birch, they are also oblique, slightly pendulous, and flexible ; those of the Willow are somewhat oblique, with the lateral branchlets pendulous and drooping in graceful curves ; in the * Exogens are a vegetable class, which augment their woody matter by additions to the outside of that which is first formed ; as long, therefore, as they grow a new layer of wood is added to the outside of the previous growth. The Endogen class — i.e., Palms, &c. £c. — differ from the above, in having their substance formed by successive additions from the inside. 4 TIMBER AND TIMBER TREES. [CHAP. Poplar and Cypress they are nearly erect ; the Oak, ini open and exposed situations, taking a wide-spreading form, its branches assuming every imaginable curve ; while in the Cedar they are nearly at a right angle. The stem is constructed upon the principle of a cone, and consists of a series of perfected layers desig- nated heart-wood, or duramen, with, commonly outside these, some layers that are imperfect, which are known as the sap-wood, or alburnum ; while the exterior is composed of the bark, or liber. The main portion of the stem is broadest at the base, and somewhat bell-shaped near the root, but gradually diminishes upwards to the part where the first branches are thrown out, and from this point there is again a still further diminution, until it is finally lost in the extremity of the branchlets. The central and first-formed part of an exogenous stem, namely, the pith, is composed of cellular tissues, the cells being very numerous and varying considerably in size, but generally diminishing towards the outer edge. The pith is somewhat large and full of fluid in the young plant, but does not increase in bulk as the tree grows older ; on the contrary,, it appears rather to diminish than otherwise, by the fluid drying out. It retains, however, its place in the oldest trees, in the form of a dry consistent powder, although it is scarcely noticeable in some species on their arrival at maturity. In the employment of timber in carpentry, due regard must always be had to the position of the pith, since there is an outside and an inside to every board and piece of scantling ; and the careful workman is so well aware of this, that he will study to leave, if pos- sible, in any work of construction, the outer side only exposed. It is, therefore, necessary in every case to PITH, OR CENTRE. look for the pith or centre of the stem, or — if that has been removed by the conversion of the tree — for the innermost, or oldest layer of heart-wood, in the plank or board, as that will be the inside of it. If this precaution is disregarded, the innermost or FIG. earlier layers of wood lift and shell out, after exposure for a time, in shreds and strips, the cohesive properties of the ligneous layers having been destroyed by the action of the atmosphere. Fig. I shows the plank properly fixed, with the inner or earlier layers of wood FIG. 2. against the beam, in which position it is impossible for them to separate. Fig. 2 shows the plank improperly fixed, with the outer, or later layers of wood against the beam, in which position the earlier layers are very liable to lift, or shell out, destroying the evenness of surface ; TIMBER AND TIMBER TREES. [CHAP. and when so used in decks, flooring, &c., rendering it dangerous to walk upon. In the transverse section of a tree will be found a number of lines radiating from the centre and pre- senting a star-like appearance. These are the medullary rays of the botanists, but are best known to carpenters as the silver grain, or felt (a, Fig. 3). This peculiarity of appearance is due to thin plates of compressed cellular tissues, which usually run continuously from the pith to the bark. Although, as a general rule, this is the case, yet in some species a se- condary series is found, over- lapping or scarfing by, -<• but very sel- dom touch- ing, the pri- mary rays (by Fig. 3). If, th erefo re, we carefully examine the smooth sur- face of a transverse section of the stems of most trees, we can generally trace these thin plates or rays. They can be seen to great advantage in the Beech, ajnd, more or less, in all the varieties of Oak ; but they are far less distinct in the Lime, Yew, and Chestnut, and in the Firs and Pines they cannot be traced, although botanists believe them to be present. Before converting or employing most kinds of woods, particularly in dealing with unseasoned timber, it will be FIG. 3. i.] MED ULLAR Y RA YS. 7 necessary, for many purposes in carpentry, to regard this arrangement of medullary rays, to insure that the work shall remain, when finished, free from warp or twist upon the surface. The timber should be cut as nearly as possible in the direction of these rays, the shrinkage in seasoning being, for the most part, angular to them. Workmen in general, and modellers in wood in par- ticular, endeavour to embrace the greatest length of medullary figure in their work to guard against warping, well knowing that if they do so it will stand satisfactorily the test of time and wear. Others, who are engaged in the cleaving of posts, rails, or palings for park and other fences, know that they can only successfully do this by rending the piece in the direction of these rays. It is by a careful study of this that we obtain our best and most beautifully figured wainscot from the slow-growing Oaks found in the North of Europe, Austria, Asia Minor, and in some districts of North America. By the contact of these medullary rays with the annual layers, and chiefly in the newly-formed wood, a means is afforded for the ascent of sap from the root. The sap is believed to be drawn upwards every spring by capillary attraction, and continues for a time to flow through the pores and fibres of the tree until it reaches the upper side of the leaves ; thence it returns, by the under side of the leaf downwards, between the outer circle or zone of ligneous layers and the bark, per- meating in its course the whole body of the tree, and contributing to form annually a new layer. During this progress the sap undergoes some very important chemical change, and, becoming gradually elaborated, tends to the formation of a substance called cambium, between the liber, or bark, and the alburnum. The stem is thus enlarged by a new layer on the outside of TIMBER AND TIMBER TREES. [CHAP. the alburnum, while a portion of the sap being absorbed by the bark increases its elasticity and assists the de- velopment by the addition of a new layer on the inside. Thus the bark of trees is expansive in character, and this accounts for the differences observable on the surface, which varies from great smoothness, as in the Beech, to extreme ruggedness in the Chestnut, and to strips and flakes in some other kinds. It is upon the pith and its sheath that the first year's growth of lignine, or woody matter, is formed, and the whole structure of the stem raised. The several con- centric rings or layers which surround, and are, as it were, moulded upon it to form the cone, are generally well formed and uniform in thickness, seldom varying except when the pith is excentrically placed, or deviates somewhat from the centre. Whenever this is the case, the thinner layers will be found upon the side having the smallest semi-diameter ; while on the reverse side, owing to the annual supply of ligneous matter having been drawn in that direction by atmospheric influences, they are found to be compensatingly thicker, but are a little less dense in texture. The yearly growth or increase is thus defined by concentric circles outside the medullary sheath (c, Fig. 3). These are generally clear to common observation in a transverse section of a stem, the outer portion of each being of a firm and dense texture, while the inner part is perceptibly vascular and more or less porous ; the quality of the wood, and its fitness for architectural or engineering purposes, depending, to a great extent, upon the degree of firmness and solidity of the annual layers. These are all very plainly marked in the Oak and Fir, and in most woods ; but in the Maple and Lime, and in some others, as also in many trees of tropical growth, WOODY LAYERS. they are not nearly so distinct ; indeed, in some it is impossible to trace them. The woody layers, when first formed, are full of sap, but they change and gradually become solidified by the compression of each subsequent layer; and it seems obvious, that as each zone is moulded upon the one of the previous year's growth, it would, by cohesion, become amalgamated with it. The perfecting of the concentric layer is, however, a very gradual process, FIG. 4. FIG. 5. and the time necessary to convert a new layer of sap- wood into heart-wood (which alone represents the serviceable timber in most trees) varies from about one year, as in Hornbeam, Ash, Beech, and in some other species, to thirty years or even more, as in Oak, &c. &c. It seems, as a rule, from evidence to be shown later on in Table II., that Oak trees which form their wood most rapidly under ordinary conditions of growth are the best in quality. In the Firs it is the same, and we see it also in the Pines (Kauri excepted). I incline, there- fore, to the opinion that it must be the case in every io TIMBER AND TIMBER TREES. [CHAP. » description of timber, and that such trees are not only the best, but the most durable. Under ordinary conditions of growth, and with most trees, the conversion or change of the alburnum into duramen takes place with great regularity (Fig. 4) ; but to this rule there are exceptions in every species, a variety of influences, such as temperature, aspect, soil, and others less understood, apparently bearing upon and tending to disturb this regularity. It is, indeed, often found that outside the completed circles of duramen, portions of the circumference of several successive layers of alburnum (Fig. 5) have already been changed into heart-wood, while the rest remain to be indurated in the ordinary course ; the perfected segments generally occurring earlier on the south side of trees of the Northern Hemisphere, and on the north side of those of the Southern Hemisphere. This is, perhaps, only to be accounted for by the supposition that, being exposed to the most powerful rays of the sun, especially during the summer months, the principal strength of the indurating elements of the sap is drawn to that particular side; while, on the reverse side, the action is much slower, owing to the partially exhausted state of the juices and the deadening effects of cold. This hypothesis is supported by the fact that, in the Firs and Pines, we frequently find patches of indurated wood, somewhat darker in colour than the rest, and brittle in character. The brittleness is easily accounted for by supposing the first strength of the sap to have been drawn to the other side of the tree, and the con- version of these portions of sap-wood into heart-wood to have been much slower than would have been the case had the action of the sap been uniform. i.] SAP-WOOD. ii Such indurations of portions of the layers occur more frequently in the Firs and Pines than in the wood of trees of harder and more compact texture. In Dantzic Fir, for example, I have noticed parts of twenty or more concentric rings changed from alburnum into duramen, or heart-wood, while the remaining portions of the circles retained their sap-like or alburnum character, and greater or less deviations in this respect are fre- quently met with in other species. It may be that these can only be accounted for by the exceptional influences before mentioned, for it seems quite possible that, when- ever a tree is suddenly thrown open and -exposed by the clearing away of others from its vicinity, the hardening process will go on with unusual rapidity. In such Firs and Pines as have been sheltered in the depths of a forest, we do not find the wood of this variable character, as the perfecting of the duramen takes place then with much greater regularity and uni- formity, if somewhat less rapidly, than in more exposed situations. This peculiarity of growth is more strikingly exem- plified in the Firs and Pines, and occurs with greater frequency in trees of this kind than in any others. Acci- dental circumstances no doubt affect the sap-wood of many other kinds to a greater or less degree ; but in trees of a close texture the want of vigour in the sap is generally found to affect the whole circumference of a layer rather than several distinct portions of it. The proportion of sap-wood, or alburnum, to heart- wood, or duramen, in trees in which it occurs, is exces- sive in the young, but decreases rapidly as they advance in age, the difference being in some measure attributable to the fact that, as the circumference of the tree increases, the tissues of each successive layer, or annual ring, are 12 TIMBER AND TIMBER TREES. [CHAP. i. spread over a larger surface. The sap-wood is, as a rule, darker in the white-wood class than the heart-wood, whether seasoned or unseasoned, but is paler in colour in most hardwood trees which have had time to season. In some of the white, or softer woods, when fresh cut, the difference is scarcely perceptible ; but exposure to the air quickly gives to the outer layers a greenish tinge, as a species of mildew attacks them. With, I believe, only a few solitary exceptions, great care is taken to remove all sap-wood from the scantlings under conver- sion, if they are required for works of an important character. CHAPTER II. ON THE GROWTH AND STRUCTURE OF TREES (Continued). MOST writers upon the subject of the growth of timber are agreed in ascribing the hardening of the inner layers of the wood to the indurating action of the juices upon the fibres and on the tissues, and thus far I have treated of the process as carried on solely by this means ; but another and a very different force is thought to be simul- taneously exerted, which must at least accelerate the change we have referred to. It will be remembered that each year the sap, collecting between the last-formed ring and the bark, congeals there, and forms a new layer. This layer, as it solidifies, appears to exert a double influence upon the tree, inasmuch as it exercises an ex- pansive force upon the bark, thereby causing it gradually to yield, while the resistance it offers, slight though it may be, acts as a compressive force upon the whole of the tree comprised within the circumference of the new. layer. By means of this compression the interior layers are rendered more dense, horny, and compact ; and such portions of them as can no longer find room in their former position are forced upwards, the elongation being facilitated by the ascent of the sap through the vascular system, and by the consequent deposit of additional substance. We thus find the woody layers gradually assuming a i4 TIMBER AND TIMBER TREES. [CHAP. tapering or conical form (Fig. 6), and elongating them- selves year by year, so that a large proportion of those visible at the butt are traceable at the upper part of the stem. A given diameter of wood consequently contains many more layers at the top than at the butt end of the tree. The following table is given to show the number of concentric rings counted in the butt and top ends of four very fine English Elm trees : — TABLE I. n§ Butt-end. Top-end. 0 ft V 0 4) 'O i? No. of layers to U3 || W" rt t! Ffl one inch. No. e? I; •3* J aj Diam. Annual layers. Diam. Annual layers. Sfc &s 1* Butt. Top. Feet. Cub. ft. Inches. No. Inches. No. Cub. ft. I 44 I.S8 36 89 18 S6 63 178 2-47 3'10 2 41 233 36 80 18 74 Q2 2-90 2' 2O 4--IO 3 35 170 36 66 18 62 Q4- 2'57 1-83 3 '42 4* 49 355 48 97 18 85 88 3-66 2'02 470 From the examples here given, we find that about 84 per cent, of the layers seen at the butt were trace- able at the part where the tree was topped off. We also see by the number of layers in one inch of wood at the top, as compared with the butt end, the approximate taper of the cones just referred to. It is very generally admitted that, in latitudes having the seasons clearly defined as they are in this country, each circle of lignine is completed in one year, but opinions differ as to this being the case in tropical climates, and there are botanists who consider that as * This tree, when cut at 25 feet from the butt, was found to have ninety-two layers at that point. II.] COMPUTING THE AGE OF. many as three or four layers are formed in those regions in the same period of time. Relying, however, on the generally recognised rule, of one circle or layer for each year's growth, we have a measure and guide for com- puting the age of a tree at the time of felling it. Of course, this can only be done with trees having clearly de- fined concentric circles ; in the instances exceptional to this, we, of necessity, have to fall back upon historical or traditional records to satisfy our inquiries. It may be interesting here to note the size and age which some species of trees attain. It is said that speci- mens of the "Baobab" of Senegal are more than 5,000 years old, and that some of them have a girth of 90 feet. Again, some cedars that were seen in Lebanon in the six- teenth century were consi- dered to be the remains of the forest from which the timber was drawn to build the temple of Solomon. By tradition, and other reason- ing, the age of these Cedars was set down at about 3,000 years. Maundrell men- FIG. 6. 335 years. Lime . r, 147 years. 350 ,» Oak . 810 to 1,500 „ 576 „ Yew . 1,214102,820 „ 800 „ Adansonia . 5,000 ,, 1 6 TIMBER AND TIMBER TREES. [CHAP. tions that the largest he measured of this species was about 36 feet in diameter. Decandolle gives the following list of the ascertained ages of the undermentioned species of trees : — Elm . ... Cypress Larch . Cedar . These figures have, doubtless, been based and com- puted upon the supposition I have advanced of there being one concentric circle for each year of growth ; but, as they do not serve us for any practical purpose, we must look to those trees of moderate dimensions, which attain to maturity in a shorter time, rather than to those I have enumerated, for the timber we may wish to employ for architectural works. The record, however, which these circles afford of the duration of life in trees possesses a value of which we cannot but feel the importance. I have carefully examined and counted the annual layers of a great many specimens— taking generally an average of ten trees — with the view to show the common and comparative rates of growth, and have tabulated them to afford an opportunity of noticing any variations there may have been in the time required to form the wood in each of the several given diameters of 6, 12, 1 8 inches, &c. This evidence of the ordinary rate of growth, and the time which it takes to bring the various descriptions of timber trees to maturity, will be of value to us when considered in connection with the properties and characteristics of the timber employed for architectural works. The number of concentric circles, or woody layers, found in various timber trees, within a radius of 3, 6, 9, IL] RATE OF GROWTH. 12, 15, 1 8, 21, and 24 inches, measured from the pith, or centre, are shown in the following table : — TABLE II. No. Description. DIAMETER OF THE STEM. Concentric circles, or woody layers, in Number of trees examined. Average number of layers to make one inch at 24 in. diam. 6 in 12 in 18 in. 24 in. 30 in. 36 in 42 in 48 in r Oak, English . 22 34 Si 68 " * 10 2-84 2 do. do.*. . 12 20 28 36 44 53 64 76 10 I'50 3 do. do.*. . 13 19 24 30 37 40 44 49 I 1-25 4 do. French. 1 8 T.A 47 60 IO 2XO do. Roman. . iS 28 43 62 76 ... ... 10 * y* 2 '60 6 do. Sicilian 24 44 6,S 87 104 ... 10 3'60 7 do. Neapolitan 19 37 58 72 86 no 128 ... 15 3-00 8 do. Sardinian . 2S 4S 05 89 10 370 9 • do. Dutch or Rhenish 29 56 Si 107 140 ... ... ... 6 4 '45 10 do Dantzic 27 58 87 6 4-81 ii do. Spanish . 36 I^O 4 7'2O 12 do Turkish •7 12 'OO 13 do. American White j 36 63 89 112 129 10 470 H do. do. (Bal- timore) 46 82 137 133 10 7'60 15 do. do. (Ca- nadian) 49 105 100 216 ... ... 4 9'oo 16 Teak, Burmah (Moulmein) 27 47 7. 96 10 4*00 17 do. do. (Ran- ) 27 60 87 114 c 4"7S goon . . \ 18 do. Malabar IQ 4.O 61 QO IO ^'7S IQ do Siam ^8 CQ 88 118 f 4-'QO 2O Pyengadu(Iron- 7 t wood), Burmah \ 21 Chow, or Men- kabang Pe- 4. voo nang, Borneo 22 Pino'ow do 4 4< 23 Kranj i do. 4 t 24 25 Kapor do. . Molave, Philip- 4 -\ 7-00 t pine Islands * These were trees of magnificent growth and first quality. t Not clearly traceable. C i8 TIMBER AND TIMBER TREES. [CHAP TABLE II.— Continued. No. Description. DIAMETER OF THE STEM. Concentric circles, or woody layers, in Number of trees examined. Average number of layers to make one inch at 24 in. diam. 6in; 12 in. 18 in. 94 83 76 24 in. 30 in. 36 in. 42 in. 48 in. 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 it 11 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 5i 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 •8 African, Sierra Leone . . Greenheart,De- merara . . Mora, Trinidad . Carapo do. Balata do. Sabicu, Cuba . Mahogany do. . do. Honduras do. Mexican . Santa Maria Tewart, Australia Jarrah do. Iron Bark do. Blue Gum do. Stringy Bark do. Kari, Western do. Ash, English do. American . Beech, English . Elm do. do. do.* . do. Canada. . Fir, Dantzic. . do. Riga . . do. Polish . . do. Spruce . . Pine, Canada Red do. do. Yellow do. American ) Pitch \ do. Oregon . . do. New Zea- land Kauri Larch, Polish . ,, Russian . ,, Italian . Cedar, Honduras 40 37 30 69 60 53 118 10 3 6 2 2 10 IO 10 IO 3 IO 6 3 2 3 6 I 10 i 10 IO 10 IO 6 10 10 10 2 4 7 10 4-90 4 '60 4-25 5'oo 8-00 5-60 4-20 3'2O 2'45 4-87 3-90 4-00 .3*30 3 '4i 2-90 6-36 2-83 2-80 1-50 14 -oo 4-82 5-20 570 11-40 5^3 5'22 6-12 4-32 670 5-50 5-42 1 02 32 3i 25 2 23 57 55 43 30 59 45 88 £ 60 44 86 63 134 IOO 77 59 117 93 73 ... ... ... ... 18 19 36 17 21 IO 80 23 29 29 68 16 28 32 17 53 23 27 11 77 33 34 16 156 49 60 55 59 54 116 5o 45 25 252 85 82 70 152 68 67 36 108 48 61 82 101 116 124 137 34 73 61 46 95 52 64 66 102 98 77 130 90 108 123 125 H7 104 161 132 130 ... ... 207 247 13 22 3i 43 58 70 ... ... 10 1-95 See Note (t) on p. 17. IL] RATE OF GROWTH. 19 The measurements in the foregoing table were taken at consecutive distances of 3 inches from the pith of trees having well-formed concentric rings, and by doubling this, the diameters of 6, 12, 18, 24, 30, 36 inches, &c., were obtained. There are only two or three of these results that can be compared with the list furnished by Decandolle, but severally they will be found useful for reference ; and, later on, I shall have occasion to revert to some of them, when treating of the characteristics of the individual kinds to be noticed in these pages. The proportion which the width or thickness of each layer at the upper bears to that at the lower extremity of the tree, varies considerably in the several species, the difference being the least marked where there is the greatest length of clear stem. Indeed, as the sap which goes to form a branch must be regarded as so much matter diverted from the trunk itself, it follows that in . a tree in which the branches occur low down, the stem will taper more than in one which has them only near the top. The diminution in the thickness of the layers ' will be most apparent in the trees which produce the largest branches, and will be regular or irregular ac- cording as the branches are thrown out at regular intervals or otherwise. It might be supposed that as every layer from the pith, or medulla, to the bark is in a different stage of perfection, the innermost or earliest, being the most matured, would be the strongest ; but experience teaches us that this is only true up to a certain period of growth, and that in the majority of cases the maximum of strength and toughness lies nearer the more recently- formed heart-wood, or duramen. For this reason it becomes a matter of great importance, in selecting timber for use — especially if it be intended for works of any 20 TIMBER AND TIMBER TREES. [CHAP. magnitude — that logs should not be taken of dimensions much in excess of the specification given, but correspond- ing as nearly as possible in size to it, as the removal of more than a few of the outer layers of heart-wood is likely to involve a serious loss of strength. It should be observed that a tree does not cease growing when it arrives at maturity. As long as it is alive, it continues to increase in bulk by the addition of the annual layer ; but when maturity is once passed, each succeeding year produces a certain amount of deteriora- tion at the centre. This deterioration or decay appears in various stages, and generally exhibits, in the first instance, either a white or yellowish-red colour at the butt or root end of the stem. If white, the defect is pro- bably very slight, and does not usually extend more than a few feet up ; but if yellowish-red in colour, it is not unfrequently of a more serious character. Again, if the affected parts have assumed a decidedly red tinge, the tree is said to be, in technical language, " foxy," and is scarcely fit for constructive purposes, as the decay will be found to pervade a great portion of the tree. The further advanced stage of deterioration is that which may be described as a drying up or wasting away of the wood immediately surrounding the pith, or medulla. It forms a hollow, first at the butt, and then spreads upwards, gradually increasing in size as the tree gets older, while the defect may eventually reach even into the branches. Trees are of course most valuable, as yielding the largest possible amount of good timber, just prior to the commencement of this change, which is indicated almost immediately it takes place by the topmost branches and branchlets becoming stunted and thick ; being, in fact, what the surveyor or woodman would call "stag- ii.] INDICATION OF HEALTHY STATE. 21 headed." If, therefore, we wish to select a healthy tree for felling, we must seek for one with an abundance of yqung shoots, and the topmost branches of which look strong, pointed, and vigorous, this being the most certain evidence that it has not yet passed maturity. Timber trees, immediately after they are felled, unless they have been previously killed, contain a great deal of moisture, and are, therefore, unfit for use until they have been somewhat seasoned. This is accom- plished in a variety of ways, but the primitive and best mode is, probably, to leave it for a time protected from the weather, following as closely as possible the natural process, which consists simply of the gradual drying up, or evaporation, of this moisture, which would other- wise form the first elements of decay. Of the time required for seasoning, and the various means of accom- plishing it, I shall have occasion to notice farther on ; suffice it to say at present, that as the wood which" needs the least seasoning is generally found to be the most durable, it becomes an essential point that trees should be felled during the winter months, when the sap is present in its smallest quantity. CHAPTER III. ON THE FORM AND QUALITY OF TREES. TREES grown in sheltered places run up quickly and to a great height ; they also produce the greatest length of clear stem, the upward development preventing the growth of branches low down. This is probably owing to the want of sufficient light and air to enable them to respire freely, and in situations where it occurs the texture of the wood is soft in comparison with that of trees grown in the open. They have, however, the compensating advantage of being very free from local defects. Many trees, as, for example, the Oak, when grown in hedge-rows, or other exposed and isolated places, en- joying a healthy circulation of air, take a freer and, perhaps, more natural form of growth ; the branches generally occurring lower down, and meeting with no obstacle to their development, they assume every variety of curve, and produce timber which is especially valuable for naval purposes. Timber thus grown is of the hardest and most compact kind, although subject to many defects from the want of shelter from cold winds ; the occasional breakages of the branches from various causes ; and the injudicious lopping or pruning, which is too often practised. IIL] EFFECTS OF SOIL, &c., ON. 23 Trees grown in a copse might be expected to unite the leading characteristics of the two forms of growth just mentioned, inasmuch as, while the underwood remained, the upward tendency of the stem would be almost as strong as in a forest-grown tree, while each time the copse was cut, the branches would have perfect freedom of growth. It is, however, found that, although forming curved branches and a greater length of stem than can be met with in isolated trees, instead of the wood being uniformly harder, the changes of temperature to which the trees are subjected by the periodical loss of the protecting underwood renders the quality of such timber extremely variable. Variety of soil also exercises a direct influence upon the quality of timber ; trees grown in a dry, rocky soil having generally hard, compact wood ; while the wood of those grown in swampy and moist situations will be found comparatively soft and spongy in texture. Varia- tions of temperature, violent storms, or proximity to the sea or large rivers, will also affect the quality and rate of growth of trees. It has long been supposed that the presence of trees tends directly to keep up the water supply, and that the clearing of large forests results, in time, in the drying up of all the springs and watercourses in the neigh- bourhood. That such an effect is produced is certain, as attention was lately drawn to it by the condition of large tracts of land in the South of France and other districts, which, though long celebrated for their fertility, were rapidly becoming valueless. The change in the nature of the soil, consequent upon the partial drying up of all the sources of water supply, was proved to have commenced when the trees had been removed. At the same time, it is said that in places where there TIMBER AND TIMBER TREES. [CHAP. had always been a deficiency of water, the extensive planting of trees has remedied the defect. It would seem that the fine trees found in forests and elsewhere, whether it be natural to them to have straight stems or curved ones, have not always been so fair looking or so symmetrically shaped as we find them when of an age and size fit for felling, but that in early life they have not unfrequently assumed a wavy, ram- bling, or, it may be, unsightly ap- pearance, which was only improved upon as they attained to greater strength and approached maturity. This supposition will, I think, be readily allowed by anyone who has passed through a copse, or maiden forest, in search of a straight sapling for a walking-stick, and experienced the difficulty of finding one suitable for the purpose. A short time since a piece of Oak timber of moderate dimensions came under my notice which fully illus- trated this fact, as it had sufficient of its wavy and rambling form laid open, while under conversion for em- ployment in ship-building, to satisfy the most sceptical that it could have FIG. 7. had little of beauty to recommend it to notice during the first thirty years of its growth ; while the large straight block of timber which encased it showed that later in life it had assumed a much fairer form, and was even considered, when IIL] EARLY FORM OF. 25 viewed in the log, to be fit for any purpose where straight timber was required. It is, therefore, clear that trees .do not change or alter their form while young, except in a very slight degree ; they appear rather to assume the fairer and more even growth later on, and very gradually. It may pos- sibly be brought about by the matter which forms the zones of each succeeding year's growth contributing to one part a greater and to another a lesser substance of woody layer, as required to develop the fairer growth seen in the matured tree referred to. • And hence, if we take a perfectly straight tree, and cut it through the middle longitudinally, we are pretty sure to see the pith running snake-like along its entire length (Fig. 7). Therefore, in timber having much heart-shake, there is certain to be considerable waste in its conversion, espe- cially if we wish to reduce the log into plank and board. CHAPTER IV. ON THE DEFECTS FOUND IN TREES. HAVING described the characteristic points of growing timber trees, it will perhaps be interesting if, before pro- ceeding to a detailed account of the various kinds, we were to give a description of some of the defects to which trees are liable prior to their being felled and hewn, or otherwise prepared for the market. There is one defect so common to nearly all trees, that I will treat of it first. It is known to carpenters as the heart-shake. It is met with to a greater or lesser extent in nearly every species of timber that we have to deal with, and as it has a very important bearing upon the value of the tree affected, we cannot afford to disregard it, inasmuch as the quantity of good and serviceable material obtainable from a log, depends almost entirely upon the distance we are constrained to go from the pith, or centre, in order to get clear of it. Experience has shown that among the woods least affected by the heart-shake are African Oak, or Teak, as it is sometimes called; Sabicu ; Cuba Mahogany; and English Elm; while Indian Teak * and Australian Tewart have it in * In India, the forest officers have attributed the heart-shake in Teak to the ringing, or barking, the trees, to kill them before they are felled. It has, however, been proved that, where this has not been done, and the trees were felled green, heart-shake was found in them. iv.] . HEART-SHAKE. 27 a very objectionable form. These species are among the hard and strong woods used for architectural pur- poses in this country, and by cabinet-makers for the manufacture of furniture, and for other domestic uses. As regards the white or softer woods, it is generally very small in the Dantzic, but extensive and open in Riga and Swedish Fir. In the Pines, the Canadian Red is perhaps the closest and least of all affected by it, the Canadian Yellow coming next in order; but in the Pitch Pine of the Southern States of North America it is often present in a more enlarged form, and the centre, or pith, of this species cannot well be approached if thin boards are required to be cut from it. This defect, as before mentioned, affects and pervades more or less nearly every description of timber ; it is common to all the exogenous trees, and neither age, soil, nor situation appears to have anything to do with its origin. It must consequently be accepted as an arrangement in the natural order of things for which there is no help, and our study should be to so utilise the trees possessing it in its most extensive and objec- tionable form, as to employ them for purposes which require their full growth, doing as little as possible to them if we wish to convert the logs profitably. The heart-shake is, nevertheless, so very insignificant in some timber, that many persons, not professionally educated to the work, might look at a log without suspecting its presence. Others, again, if they did discover it, would hardly consider it to be of any importance, as it is often so small that the blade of a penknife could scarcely be thrust into it. There are, however, several varieties of timber which have it, not in an insignificant form or shape, but extending from the pith to a distance of about two- 28 TIMBER AND TIMBER TREES. [CHAP. FIG. Sa. thirds the semi-diameter of the tree. This is of serious consequence to the converter who has to deal with it, as the defect completely separates the concentric layers into segments of cir- cles. The simplest form in which we find this shake (Figs. 8 a and £), is that of a straight line crossing the pith, and taking a direction in the same plane through the length of the stem. It will, however, be found in some speci- mens to have taken a twisting form, and on examining the top of the tree, the shake may be nearly at right angles to that at the butt- end (Fig. 9). This is about the worst form, as it would involve a. most serious loss in the conversion of the log if it were an ob- ject to reduce it into plank, and often ne- cessitates its being employed in bulk. The twist in the heart-shake just re- ferred to is pro- bably the result of an effort made by the tree to turn upon its base, which, I should think, might happen to trees produced in dense forests, where light and air are FIG. IV.] HEART-SHAKE. 29 very scant, or perhaps to trees unequally balanced in their branches, if grown in the open. There is some- thing like evidence of this twisting in the spiral turns of grain noticed in many trees.* The heart-shakes are equally disadvantageous, if, indeed, they are not more FIG. 9. so, when they cross each other at the pith, and open to the full diameter of the tree, splitting it into four seg- ments. This form of the defect is very conspicuous in the Green-heart timber (Fig. 10). FIG. 10. * This spiral growth is common in the Turkey Box tree ; it is also frequently seen in the Fir and Pine species, and occasionally in other woods. CHAPTER V. ON THE DEFECTS IN TREES — (Continued}. THE next important defect is the star-shake (Fig. n). This is found in many varieties of timber, and occurs in trees of all ages and conditions of growth. It consists of clefts radiating from the centre, or pith, which often extend far towards — and even in bad cases touch — the circumference of the tree, rendering it al- most valueless for con- version into board and small scantlings. The clefts or lines forming the star are generally only slightly open, and can scarcely be seen in a fresh-cut tree, there being no decay of lignine about them. They are, how- ever, very plainly perceptible when the wood is moder- ately seasoned, by the matter forming the two sides of the shake having become somewhat darker in colour and more horny in texture by exposure to the air. As before stated, in bad cases the points touch the circumference of the tree ; they even occasionally bulge there, forming a longitudinal rib, varying in length from FIG. II. CUP-SHAKE. about a foot to two or three yards. We have thus ex- ternal evidence of the presence of the star-shake in this extreme case while the tree is yet standing. We can, therefore, from this alone, estimate its value, and prove the correctness of our opinion of it after the tree has been felled. No one, I imagine, experienced in timber- surveying, would, with the bulging rib in view, care to examine either the top or butt end of the log to satisfy himself of the presence of the star-shake ; the guide is so absolutely certain that we need not fear to trust to it. FIG. I2a. My experience will not enable me to account for the star-shake, and I do not remember to have seen any reasonable explanation given in any work respecting it. I may state, however, that it is more frequent in trees which have been grown upon either a sandy or a rocky soil, than in those which were grown upon loam or stiff clay. The cup-shake (Figs. 12 a and b). This shake, which is most frequently met with near the roots of trees, consists of a cavity or separation of two of the con- 32 TIMBER AND TIMBER TREES. [CHAP. centric layers, and probably arises from the sap failing to possess some of the elements necessary for uniting the new layer to that of the previous year's growth. This deficiency of the cohesive matter between the woody layers is supposed to result from sudden changes of temperature, from the roots passing through a peculiar vein of soil, and even from frosts ; violent and sudden gusts of wind and storms may also help to produce it. It will sometimes happen that only a portion of a layer is detached, making the segment of a cup; at other times, a small part of several layers ; and again, in some instances, we find that the disjunction is not complete, owing to there being a few fibres remaining to connect the two layers. When, however, it assumes its worst shape, that is, when the ring or cup is perfect, it will in all probability be found to pervade the greater part, if not the whole tree, evidence of it being fre- quently traceable in the remotest branches. Experience has shown that with only a segmental cavity open, there is not much to fear, as it seldom extends far up from the root ; any log, therefore, not having more cup-defect than this, may without hesi- tation be converted into plank, board, or scantling ; but if one or more complete cups be present, especially if they are large, it could not safely be sawn longi- tudinally down the middle, as the centre or cup part would drop out, leaving in each half a deeply-grooved channel, equal to the semi-diameter of the cup-defect. The log in this case could, therefore, only be used advantageously by appropriating it to some purpose, where the full growth might be employed. The cup-defect occurs in perfectly sound and healthy- looking trees, and there is not anything to indicate its v.] CUP-SHAKE. 33 presence to the surveyor while the tree is standing. It can only, therefore, be dealt with when discovered in the log, after being felled. This defect is, to some extent, local, and is especially so among the Oaks, it being more frequently met with in the Sicilian Oak than in, perhaps, any other. It occurs in Virginian Pitch Pine, and it is often found in Lignum Vitae. It is worthy of notice that whatever may be the cause of the cup-shake in the last-named wood, which is grown extensively in St. Domingo, latitude 1 8° to 20° N., and where the tempera- ture of the winter is rarely below 60°, it cannot have suffered from frost. CHAPTER VI. ON THE DEFECTS IN TREES— (Continued}. WHERE woody layers of irregular growth are found in timber, especially if there be alternation of colour extend- ing over many of them, they may be considered to indicate that the tree was not at all times in a healthy state, but that it had suffered from some cause, or from the failure in the nourishment it required to perfect the layers with regularity. Any departure, therefore, from the natural colour peculiar to the species, whether it embrace one or more concentric circles, or be locally situated, is prejudicial to the wood, and generally, if tried under the adze or plane, it will be found brittle and deficient in 'tena- city. Such logs should on no account have the preference of selection for important services in works of construc- tion, but should rather be used for minor purposes. I have noticed this defect in many varieties of trees, but in none is it more conspicuous than in the Kauri of New Zealand, these noble Pines being peculiarly liable to this whenever they stand exposed upon the north or equa- torial side. We occasionally see, spots in timber, quite foreign in colour to that which is natural to it ; they may be seen in all parts, but are most common at or upon the butt- end of the log. These are not often of a very serious vi.] EXCRESCENCES. 35 character, but are nevertheless the early or first stage of incipient decay, and will be found less able to resist the action of water than the wood of the same log which is untainted. Although these spots can hardly be reckoned as defects, seeing that they do not penetrate deeply enough to affect in any appreciable degree the value of the timber, the surveyor would do well not to employ such logs in architectural works where it would be difficult to replace the piece should it at any time be found to be decayed. A swelling upon the exterior of a tree is generally a sign of some defect being hidden beneath ; it may be confined to the alburnum, but it may also conceal a serious fault that would be highly detrimental to its value. The excrescence should, therefore, be removed as soon as the tree is felled, in order to clear up the existing doubt. There are, however, some few exceptions to this ; for instance, the burrs which are found upon the Oaks of some districts,* and the Austrian and Turkey Walnut tree burrs, which are very finely mottled and figured, make good veneers, and have of themselves a special value for cabinet purposes. The removal of a branch of moderate size from a tree, close down upon the stem, will generally be con- cealed by a swelling of the kind first mentioned, particularly if it has been done while the tree was in a healthy state and annually forming new wood. Such hidden knots are frequently in a state of incipient * These peculiar excrescences are supposed to be caused by punctura- tions of the bark by insects, while the tree is growing ; but, so far as I am aware, the quality of the trunk of the tree is not often affected by it.— Vide Description of the Walnut Tree, page in. TIMBER AND TIMBER TREES. [CHAP. decay, owing to the rain and the moisture of the atmosphere having entered by the wound, before it became hermetically sealed ; and, as it generally takes a long time, even many years, to completely heal it over, it would during all that while be steadily pro- ducing, decay in the fibres, running from the knot to the centre of the tree ; the diseased or affected part, when opened, being often found spread to a very great ex- tent, and in bad cases emitting an unplea- sant odour. The disease thus occasioned first at- tacks the alburnum, and the fibres imme- diately surrounding the centre of the knot, and then passes downwards, following the direction of the wounded branch to- wards the pith of the bole or stem, after which it rises with the sap, and is often communicated to other parts of the tree, and does very great mischief. It will sometimes happen that this disease is con- .centrated, or confined to the root end of the branch, producing there what is technically termed a "druxy knot." This defect, if prevented from spreading by the otherwise healthy and vigorous state of the tree FIG. 13. PRUNING. 37 during its growth, must still be looked to after it is felled, since, if neglected, there being no longer any check to its development, fresh moisture" will be absorbed, decay will be accelerated, and the whole log soon destroyed. To guard against this, it would be proper, as soon as the log is ap- propriated for any purpose, to take out and completely remove the affected part, substituting in its place a piece of sound wood. Again, the damage done by the breaking of a branch from a tree is often very serious, as illustrated in Fig. 13. The wound was of very old standing, and entirely healed over, but the decay had never- theless made steady progress. It was found, by counting the con- centric layers, that the branch was broken when the tree was fifty-six years old; that in twenty-three years more the annual layers had completely covered the broken part, while outside this twenty- third layer there were twenty-seven years' growth of duramen or heart- wood, and twenty-six years' growth of alburnum or sap, the tree having been about 132 years old at the time of its being felted. Pruning closely, except in the case of very young trees, where the branches are small, and the wound is certain to be soon healed over, will, as before shown, FIG. 14. 38 TIMBER AND TIMBER TREES. [CHAP. be attended with some danger, and should not, I con- sider, be done if it can be avoided. The safer plan with trees of moderate growth is to let a part of the branch remain ; say a foot or two in length, taking care at the same time not to leave it rugged at the end. It should be neither cut horizontally nor square to the branch, but perpendicularly, or in the direction most certain to prevent water lying on the surface (Fig. 14). A tree is occasionally wounded and damaged by a blow. It may have been struck by the fall of another contiguous to it, or in some other way ; but such bruises often penetrate no farther than the bark, and simply leave evidence of it later on, in what is technically termed " rind- gall" (Fig. 15). This is a defect, inasmuch as the concentric layers at this part are not solidified upon each other ; but there is usually no decay of the fibre. If, however^ the injury be more severe, and the alburnum and duramen are contused, the wounded part no longer resists, but largely absorbs moisture, which tends directly to decompose it, and, decay having once set in, a species of rot soon supervenes, to the detriment of the tree. This is often difficult to discover while the tree is stand- ing, as, unless the blow is of quite recent date, the bark will have grown over it again, and effaced every trace of the wound. vi.] SELECTION OF TIMBER. 39 The following remarks on the selection of timber, &c., may be useful : — In selecting timber, the surveyor's attention will naturally be given to an examination of the butt or root end, which should be close, solid, and sound ; and if satisfied in this respect, the top should next be in- spected, to see that it corresponds with the butt-end. Afterwards he will glance over the exposed sides in search of defects, carefully examining the knots, if any, to see that they are solid. He will, of course, avoid any piece that has either heart, cup, or star-shake, or sponginess near the pith at the butt, discoloured wood at the top, splits along the sides, rind-gall, worm holes, or hollow or decayed knots. In dealing with spar-timber, he will select the straightest pieces ; they should be free from all the defects before mentioned, upsets, i.e., fibres crippled by compression, large knots, and even those of moderate size if they are numerous or situate ring-like round the stick. Spar-timber should be straight-grained. As planks, deals, &c., depend for their usefulness upon both quality and manufacture, the surveyor will not only see that they are free from excess of sap, knots, shakes, and shelliness upon their sides, but also that they are evenly cut and fit for use of their thickness. Bright-looking timber is better in quality than dull, and that which is smooth in the working better than the rough or woolly-surfaced. The heart of trees having the most sap-wood, is generally stronger and better in quality than the heart of trees of the same species, that has little sap-wood. CHAPTER VII. EXPERIMENTS ON TIMBER. HAVING treated of the principal defects to which timber trees are liable during their growth — and perhaps they are all that need be now considered, as others of a less important character will be noticed later on, whenever they affect any particular class of wood — I will pass for the present to the description in detail of the various timber trees, observing, by -the -way, that the tables appended are the results of experiments made trans- versely, tensilely, and vertically on specimens taken from the wood of the tree described. In some cases these are very numerous, and will be, I consider, invaluable, as showing the range and variation of the strength and specific gravities of each wood ; further, they include some rare, and at present scarcely known, species of timber, which may at a future day be in request in this country for building purposes. It need scarcely be stated here, since it will be well understood, that to classify and collect the notes in order to record these tests of strength, &c., in timber, it has taken a very long time, and, but for the exceptional opportunities I had during a long course of service in the royal dockyards and elsewhere, it would have been impossible for me to have obtained these results. While employed surveying timber for the Navy in New Zealand, and subsequently in India, Belgium, vii.] EXPERIMENTS ON TIMBER. 41 France, Prussia, Asia Minor, and European Turkey, and also in the royal forests in England, and later on as Timber Inspector of a dockyard, and Timber Inspector to the Admiralty, every effort has been made to acquire a knowledge of the capabilities and characteristic properties of the several varieties of timber which came under notice. Many of the experiments to which I shall have to refer were made at Woolwich Dockyard, where it was necessary, as a part of the duty of my office, to ascertain the specific gravities, strength, and measurement, and attend to the receipt of the timber coming in under contract with the Admiralty. Especial care was taken to carry out the experiments upon wood brought to a well-seasoned condition and fit for appropriation to works of construction ; and in many instances we have tried not only a number of pieces taken from different trees, but a series of pieces from the same tree, with a view to find, if possible, in what part the maximum of strength lay. Formerly, I believe, it was the practice to carry out these experiments upon exceedingly small pieces of wood, and I have seen it stated that some were no bigger than a French line, = '0888-inch measurement, and varying in size from that to about one quarter of an inch of English measure, the result per square inch being obtained by subsequent calculations. This was probably done in consequence of the great difficulty there is in securely holding, and bringing a sufficient strain to bear upon and break the larger scantlings. I should not, however, be disposed to place much reliance in the results so worked out, as it would seem to be impossible to reduce pieces of wood to such small dimensions without cutting across some of the fibres^ and thus 42 TIMBER AND TIMBER TREES. [CHAP. vn. unnecessarily weakening those which remain. There are, undoubtedly, many examples to be found where larger scantlings have been experimented upon, and the results of these are, of course, more reliable and trustworthy. The tests for the transverse strength in my experi- ments were conducted, in every case, with pieces 2//X2/'x84//=336 cubic inches. Each piece was placed upon supports exactly 6 feet apart, and then water was poured gently and gradually into a scale suspended from the middle until the piece broke, note being taken of the deflection with 390 Ibs. weight, and also at the crisis of breaking. After this a piece 2 feet 6 inches in length was taken, wherever it was found practicable, from one of the two pieces broken by the transverse strain, and tested for the tensile strain by means of a powerful hydraulic machine, the direct cohesion of the fibres being thus obtained with great exactness. Further, for the purpose of determining the proportions of size to length best adapted for supporting heavy weights, a great many cube blocks were prepared, of various sizes, as also a number of other pieces of different form and dimensions, which were then, by the aid of the same machine, subjected to gradually increasing vertical pressure in the direction of their fibres, until a force sufficient to crush them was obtained. CHAPTER VIII. THE OAK TREE (Qliercus). THE Oak is found to be more widely spread than perhaps any other tree. It has been met with in Europe in about 35° N., and is known to extend to 60°, or over 25° of North latitude. It is also found in the north of Asia, North America, and in Africa. The Oak exists in very great variety, and England produces two, if not three, distinct species, in addition to numerous others, not native, but which are cultivated for ornamental purposes. The botanical names of those which are indigenous to this country are the Quercus Robur pedunculate, the Quercus Robur sessiliflora, and the Quercus pubescens, or Durmast Oak. In the former, which is our best species, the foot- stalks of the flowers and acorns are long, while those of the leaves are short. In the Quercus sessiliflora this order is reversed, the footstalks of the fruit being short and those of the leaves long ; while the distinguishing character of the Quercus pubescens consists in its having the under sides of the leaves somewhat downy, the footstalks of the fruit and leaves nearly resembling those of the sessiliflora variety. It is also peculiar to the leaves of the Durmast or pubescent species that they hang longer on the tree than those of either of the others. It is the prevailing opinion that the wood of the Quercus Robur pedunculate is the best in quality, and that the Quercus Robiir sessiliflora .is slightly inferior to 44 TIMBER AND TIMBER TREES. [CHAP. it ; but, while coinciding generally in this opinion, I feel bound to admit that, during a long experience in working them, I have not been able to discover any important difference between the two varieties. We find, indeed, the wood of the two species so closely resembling each other, that few surveyors are able to speak positively as to the identity of either. It is only by tracing the log from the first fall of the tree to the hands of the converter that we are able to say that the timber of the sessiliflora is a little less dense and compact in texture than that of the pedunculata. The Durmast Oak is only sparingly met with, and is of very inferior quality. Preference should therefore be given in all works of importance to the two species before mentioned ; and in this there will be no difficulty, as they are easily obtainable. It is fortunate that the Quercus Robitr pedunculata, which is believed to produce the best timber, is to be found in greater abundance than the sessiliflora ; and it is greatly to be desired that in any future planting, care should be taken to perpetuate it, although as a commercial speculation the sessiliflora would probably yield the best return, as it generally attains a greater length of clear stem. Very fine specimens of these long, clear stems of the sessiliflora species are to be met with in abundance in the Forest of Dean, in Gloucestershire, where, upon a rocky subsoil, the Oak trees generally attain noble dimensions, with, however, this drawback — they are liable to the cup and the star-shake. Whether this is caused by the rocky nature of the soil, combined with the swaying to and fro of these tall trees by strong winds, or whether it is in some degree peculiar to the species, is not easily determined. I incline, however, VIII.] BRITISH OAK. 45 to the belief that these defects are less frequent in the Quercus Robur pedunculata, whatever the .situation or soil may be upon which they are grown. There appears to be little difficulty in rearing the Oak tree ; it thrives in almost any soil, except that which is boggy or peaty ; but to bring it to the greatest perfec- tion, it is preferable to have a rich loam with a clayey subsoil. It will even spring up again from the old stool, or root, and without requiring any attention, produce, in time, one or more fine trees in place of that which was first cut down. The following dimensions of nine Oak trees that were growing only a few years since (and possibly are so still) at Woburn Abbey Park, may be interesting, as showing the size they will attain upon a favourable soil. The particulars are taken from a small book, published in 1832, under the superintendence of the Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge : — TABLE III. rX 'Q 6* Height. Circumference. No. I » Stem 50 ft., measures at 3 ft. 6 in. from the ground ,, 20 ft. 1 7 ft. 3 in. 14 ft. 2 35 ft- 4ft. 1 7 ft. 9 in. 11 9 9 20 ft. 12 ft. 9 in. 3 20 ft. 4 ft- '3 ft- °X in- » » 20 ft. , 12 ft. o% in. 4 • 3 ft- 12 ft. o^ in. j» 66ft. 8 ft. oX in. 5 4ft. 14 ft. »> 56 ft. , 9 ft. o>yz in. 6 3ft. 14 ft. 4 in. »> 34ft- » 12 ft. 6 in. 7 4ft. 12 ft. » 5° ft- » 8 ft. oX in. 8 4ft." 13 ft. o/4 in. ?> 50 ft. 8 ft. 0% in. 9 3ft- 13 ft. oX in. » 48ft. 8 ft. o^ in. 46 TIMBER AND TIMBER TREES. [CHAP. " It is stated that at the lowest estimate, the total quantity of timber in these nine trees amounts to 3,200 cubic feet of the very best quality for naval architecture, and that although they must be of great age, it is re- markable that no symptoms of decay appear in them. They are perfectly sound and free from blemish/' The characteristic properties of the British Oak are, upon the whole, so good, that it has long been accepted by practical men as a standard of quality and fitness for architectural purposes, and in the classification of all other hard and heavy woods in use in the royal dock- yards, they are tabulated as " substitutes " for " Oak," the individual species, differing from it either in kind or specific gravity, or in having some important property attached to it, being only specially noted in the specifi- cation for building a ship whenever it is considered desirable to secure some particular element of lightness or strength, dissimilar to that of the standard. The English Oak tree, if grown in sheltered situa- tions or in forests, frequently reaches to a height of 70 to 100 feet, with a clear, straight stem of from 30 to 40 feet, and a circumference of 8 to 10 feet, and much larger specimens (though now only rarely to be met with) were formerly common. If grown in open and exposed situations, it is generally shorter, and frequently takes strange and eccentric forms, assuming a somewhat curved or crooked shape ; this, however, is one of its most valuable characteristics, as naturally curved timber is almost indispensable for wood ship-building. It is when grown under these conditions that it appears to attain its maximum of hardness, and is often found so gnarled and knotty that it is difficult to work. The long, straight, fair-grown trees, which yield the viii.] BRITISH OAK. 47 largest proportion of useful wood, are most in request for the general purposes of the architect and en- gineer, but they are also fully appreciated by ship- builders, who employ them for beams, waterways, keelsons, &c. Oak timber of the gnarled description, and having some figure in the grain, is in request for articles of furniture ; and even when in a state of decay, or in its worst stage of " foxiness," the cabinet-maker prizes it for its deep-red colour, and works it up in a variety of ways. The economical uses of Oak timber, and especially the English varieties of it, are, on account of its many valuable properties and freedom from excessive weight — the specific gravity being only about "730 to '900 — so extensive that it would be impossible to enumerate the many useful purposes to which it is applied, while in wood ship-building it is invaluable, and, indeed, almost indis- pensable, as it is flexible enough to bear bending to the most curved and difficult parts in a ship's construction, without breaking. •". The wood is light-brown in colour, hard, tough, and very strong ; it does not splinter readily, and its solidity of character is such that it resists well the action of water. In seasoning it is apt to warp and shrink, although not to any considerable extent ; consequently it cannot be used in a partially dried state without in- curring some risk to the stability of the work ; but when once its moisture is completely evaporated, few woods are liable to so little change, particularly when employed in situations where it is protected from the influence of moisture or draught. If subjected to alternations of wet and dry, it withstands the change better than most 48 TIMBER AND TIMBER TREES. [CHAP. other woods ; while, if kept wholly submerged, there is scarcely any limit to its endurance. Oak timber' has, however, one drawback. It con- tains a powerful pyroligneous acid, which prevents its general employment in immediate contact with iron, as the metal, whether used for fastenings or other- wise, is subjected to a rapid corrosive action, while the timber is also liable to suffer by waste and deterioration. British Oak timber has, for ages past, been a most important article in ship-building in this country, and it is still used for this purpose to a very great extent, not- withstanding the present very general use of iron as a substitute for it. It was only within the last few years, that it was felt the quantity of Oak produced in England would soon be inadequate to meet the great and increasing demand for it, and that it was necessary efforts should be made to supplement it by the introduction of foreign Oaks and other hard woods for ship-building purposes. To show this great necessity it will be sufficient to state, approximately, the store of ship-building timber which it was thought necessary to maintain at Woolwich Dockyard in the several quinquennial periods of the quarter-century ending in 1865. It will, apart from the ordinary demands of the private trade, serve to illustrate in some degree how large must have been the supplies annually required for all the royal dockyards, taken collectively, in order to replace the ships that were worn-out or had become obsolete, and to keep the ships of the royal navy up to the strength called for by the times. VIIL] BRITISH OAK. 49 The store of timber maintained at Woolwich Dock- yard suitable for ship-building was as follows, viz. : — TABLE IV. In the years English Oak. Foreign timber, or Substitutes for Oak. Total. 1840 1845 1850 1855 1860 1865 Loads. 1,591 1,029 1,259 1,868 857 5,490 Loads. 936 2,196 3,693 4,596 6,977 14,077 Loads. 2,527 3,945 4,952 6,464 7,834 19,567 The smallest quantity of English Oak at that yard at any one time within the thirty years ending in 1867 was 857 loads in 1860, and the largest 5,490 loads in 1865 ; while the smallest stock of foreign timber in store for use as substitutes for Oak was 936 in 1840, and the largest 16,771 loads in 1863. The smallest store of ship-building timber of all kinds held there during the same period was 2,356 loads in 1841, and the largest 21,012 loads in 1863. The relative quantities of English Oak and its substitutes were kept up at all the yards, in proportion to the magnitude of the several naval establishments, and in 1860 there was the large quantity of 35,800 loads in the various stores, suitable for ship-building, exclusive of Elm, Fir, and Pine timber and plank ; and this was very largely supplemented by later deliveries. CHAPTER IX. EXPERIMENTS UPON THE TRANSVERSE STRENGTH OF BRITISH OAK. BRITISH Oak timber being, as before stated, generally recognised as the standard of quality, the greatest possible care was taken in preparing the specimens of the prescribed dimensions — 2" X 2" X 84" — for the experi- ments to test its strength ; further, the deflections under a weight of 390 Ibs., as also that at the crisis of breaking, and the exact breaking weight each piece bore, were all taken, the results being shown in the tables which follow. It is hoped, therefore, that a sufficient guide is thus afforded, not only for comparing its strength with other woods, but also for determining the scantlings required for architectural purposes : — TABLE V. — ENGLISH OAK. Transverse Experiments. Number of the specimen. Deflections. Total weight required to break each piece. £>• 11 Weight reduced to specific gravity IOOO. Weight required to break i square inch. With the apparatus weighing 390 Ibs. After the weight was removed. At. . the crisis of breaking. Inches. Inch. Inches. Ibs. Ibs. I 3'500 •200 5^50 590 905 652 147-50 2 3-125 •3I2 8-500 825 682 1209 206-25 3 3'250 •125 1 1 -000 I,OO2 708 1415 250-50 4 3'250 •125 6-500 797 725 1099 I99-25 5 3-500 •250 7-000 804 720 1116 201'00 6 3^25 •125 5-875 637 670 936 159-25 Total . 20*250 I-I37 44-125 4,655 4410 6427 1163-75 Average 3-375 -189 7-354 776 735 1071 193-96 E = 283410. S = 2037. REMARKS.— Nos. i and 4 broke with a moderate length of fracture ; 2, 5, and 6 with 9 to 15 inches and splinters in fracture. No. 3 was not completely broken asunder. CHAP. IX.] BRITISH OAK. 51 TABLE VI.— ENGLISH OAK. Transverse Experiments. — Second Example. Number of the specimen. Deflections. Total weight required to break each piece. Specific gravity. Weight reduced to specific gravity IOOO. Weight required to break i square inch. With the apparatus weighing 390 Ibs. After the weight was removed. At the crisis of breaking. Inch. Inch. Inch. Ibs. Ibs. 7 1*625 •125 4-125 674 780 864 168-50 8 1-625 •250 5^50 837 753 III2 209-25 9 I i 'Soo •I87 5 -ooo 824 770 1070 206-00 10 1-625 •125 9-500 977 1005 972 244-25 ii I-750 •ooo 9-250 882 1003 879 220*50 12 I-500 •ooo 8'75° 827 1002 825 206-75 Total . 9-625 •687 4I-875 5,021 5313 5722 I255-25 Average 1-604 -114 6-979 837 886 954 209-21 E = 605950. S = 2197. REMARKS. — No. 7 broke short : 8 and 12 with 7 to 13 inches length of fracture ; 9, 10, and ii with 15 inches scarph-like splintery fracture. The Tables V. and VI. each refer to parcels of six pieces, which were taken from trees of good average quality and size, moderately seasoned, and fit to be applied to architectural works, the specific gravity vary- ing from 670 to 905 in one set, and 780 to 1005 m the other. Of the twelve pieces tested, the elasticity of two, after the weight of 390 Ibs. was removed, was perfect. One piece recovered its straightness to within '312 inch, while of the remainder, nine in number, the elasticity was in all something better, though not quite perfect. The deflections varied under this weight of 390 Ibs. from 3-125 to 3*625 inches in one set, and from I '5 to i "75 inch in the other, the ultimate deflections at the crisis of breaking varying from 5-25 to ii'OO inches, and 4*125 to 9-50 inches, respectively; while the break- 52 TIMBER AND TIMBER TREES. [CHAP. ing weight varied from 590 to 1,002 Ibs., and from 753 to 1,005 Ibs., the average results of one parcel being I93*961bs., and of the other 209' 21 Ibs. on the square inch, the difference between the two being only 15-25 Ibs. Taking the mean of the figures in the Tables V. and VI, we have a deflection of 2-489 inches with 390 Ibs. ; but only * 1 5 1 inch after the weight had been removed, the ultimate deflection at the time of breaking being 7-166 inches, the breaking weight, 806 '83 Ibs., and the specific gravity 810. By applying the formulae used by Professor Barlow, viz., ^ w. ^ and — ^- respectively I o aa 3 o 4 aa for elasticity and strength, we obtain the following result : E = 386400, S = 2116. It should be borne in mind that in determining the scantlings to be employed, there are to be taken into account the possible chance of a short or twisted grain, a spiral turn of the fibre, knots, faulty or otherwise, and the risk which the practical builder must always run of having some defects hidden beyond the possibility of detection in, perhaps, his best-looking pieces. It would, therefore be obviously unsafe to subject them to anything like the strain which the ascertained average strength of the specimens tested would seem to warrant charging them with. Considering the importance of this, it was determined to extend the experiments by testing a series of pieces taken from a longitudinal section cut through the centre breadth of a very fine-looking Oak tree. In setting out the specimens, the centre piece containing the pith and a very small heart-shake, was allowed to drop out as being of little or no value for the trial. The six pieces cut from one side of the centre or pith IX.] BRITISH OAK. 53 of this tree, came out with a long, clean, straight grain, as the appearance of the log had promised ; but the six taken from the opposite side were not nearly so good, the grain being in each a little waved or twisted, and the fibre of no great length. Some had small pin-like knots in them, and the surface of the plank being dotted over with these, it presented a mottled appearance, somewhat resembling Bird's-eye Maple. The specimens are numbered from the centre or pith of the tree outwards — I to 6 and i' to 6' in column 9. The results are as follow, viz. : — TABLE VII. Transverse Experiments. — yd Example. Deflection. rt ,* §,- i* Number of th specimen. With the appa- ratus weighing 390 Ibs. At the crisis of breaking. Total weight required to bre each piece. Specific gravit Total weight required to bre i square inch Direct cohesion the square inc Number of the s cimen in the tr« The mean of I ' Inches. Inches. Ibs. Ibs. Ibs. to 6 ' . . . ... 3*25 3*95 407 867 IGI'75 n 375 375 390 836 97'5 ... 6' H 375 375 400 866 lOO'O S' 15 390 868 97 '5 ... 4' it) 390 865 97-5 .V 17 ... 375 390 860 97-5 ... 2' ENGLISH 18 2-25 5-00 480 910 I2O'O i ' OAK. 19 2-00 7-00 740 900 I85-0 5,320 i 20 2'OO 4-50 630 900 I57-5 4,400 2 21 2-25 5-00 62O 854 4,200 3 22 3-50 4'5° 470 864 U7-5 4,340 4 23 3'75 5-00 480 838 I2O'O 2,520 5 24 4'00 43° 791 107-5 2,240 6 The mean of i to 6 2-916 5'io 562 858 I40-5 3,837 The mean of the whole 3-083 4-525 484 862-5 121 ... ... REMARKS. — Nos. 13 to 17 inclusive broke very short ; 18 and 19 were nearly alike, and had scarph-shaped fractures 10 inches in length ; 20 and 21 had long splintery frac- tures ; 22 to 24 inclusive broke short to %th the depth, then long fractures. 54 TIMBER AND TIMBER TREES. [CHAP. In the specimens marked I to 6, the greatest strength was possessed by the piece taken from close to the centre of the log, which comprised the oldest and densest annual layers, while No. 6, which was farthest removed from it, and contained the most recently perfected dura- men, proved to be the weakest, the respective breaking weights showing a difference of nearly 42 per cent. Turning to the specimens marked i' to 6', taken from the other side of the tree, we find a similar result as regards the inner and the outer layers, the greatest strength being again near to the centre of the tree ; No. 5', however, bearing the next greatest strain. The pieces Nos. 2', 3', 4', and 6', each broke as the weight of the scale was applied, and are therefore of little value. We may gather, however, from the trial, that from the centre to the circumference of this tree there was clearly a diminution of strength, which, although not quite proportionate to the decrease observed in the specific gravity of the several pieces, is yet in some degree approximate to it. I infer from this that the tree had not reached maturity when it was cut down, and that it was still in the prime of life. Had it been otherwise, we should have expected, when viewed by the light of other experiments, to find that the point of density and greatest strength would lie in the piece marked 4, or even farther removed from the centre. There can be very little doubt that the wood of this tree, if used in its greatest bulk, or in any large scantlings, would have been found to possess fully the average strength of Oak timber, and that it was only weak in certain parts, as discovered on trial when cut into strips of 2 inches square. There still remains, IX.] BRITISH OAK. 55 however, the fact that in a fine tree, sound and apparently free from defect, nearly the whole of one side was found to be faulty, while the other half proved to be inferior in strength to the specimens of average quality noticed in the Tables V. and VI., the mean breaking weight of the best side being 562 Ibs., as compared with 776 Ibs. in Table V., and 837 Ibs. in Table VI., the weaker side not affording any figures by which it could be compared with previous experiments. The deflections of a few specimens, under given weights and with various bearings, are shown in the following tables : — DEFLECTIONS: ENGLISH OAK. TABLE VIII. Specimens : depth, i^ inch ; breadth, 2 inches ; length, 84 inches ; weighted with 300 Ibs. Supports, apart. 3 Feet. 4 Feet. S Feet. 6 Feet. No. 11 27 28 Sp. gr. 795 785 782 775 Inches. '375 •500 •375 •375 Inches. 750 •875 750 750 nches. •I87 •750 •625 •500 Inches. 2"5OO 2750 2*500 2-525 Total . . 3-I37 1-625 3-I25 6-062 10*375 Average . 784 •406 78l I-5I5 2'593 TIMBER AND TIMBER TREES. [CHAP. TABLE IX. Specimens as in Table VIII., weighted with 400 Ibs. Supports, apart. 3 Feet. 4 Feet. 5 Feet. 6 Feet. No. 29 30 31 32 Sp.gr. 795 785 782 775 Inches. •625 •687 "437 •625 Inches. I"OO I-I2S I'OOO I -000 Inches. 2'00 2-25 2-25 2'OO Inches. 3^25 3-937 3-562 3-250 Total . . 3-I37 2'374 4-125 8-50 i4'374 Average. •784 '593 1-031 2-125 3*593 TABLE X. Specimens : depth, 2 inches ; breadth, I ^ inch ; length, 84 inches ; weighted with 300 Ibs. Supports, apart. 3 Feet. 4 Feet. 5 Feet. 6 Feet. No. 33 34 | SP. gr. 795 785 782 775 Inches. •312 •250 •I87 •250 Inches. •625 •500 •563 •437 Inches. 1-063 •875 •937 •875 Inches. 1-625 I-500 1-562 1-562 Total . . 3-137 I -000 2-125 3-750 6-249 Average. 784 •25 •53i '937 1-562 IX.] BRITISH OAK. 57 TABLE XI. Specimens as in Table X. , weighted with 400 Ibs. Supports, apart. 3 Feet. 4 Feet. 5 Feet. 6 Feet. No. 37 38 39 40 Sp. gr. 795 785 782 775 Inches. '375 •312 •250 '437 Inches. •625 •625 750 •625 Inches. 1-250 I-I25 I-l87 I-3I2 Inches. 2-125 2'DOO 2'125 2-000 Total . . 3-137 1-374 2-625 4-874 8-250 Average. 784 '343 '656 I'2l8 2*062 Further experiments with reference to deflections were made upon a piece of English Oak, 2 X 2 X 84 inches, specific gravity 792, with the following result : — TABLE XII. Weighted with 300 Ibs. Supports, apart. 3 Feet. 4 Feet. 5 Feet. 6 Feet. No. 41 Inches. •125 Inches. '375 Inches. •625 Inches. •875 TABLE XIII. Weighted with 400 Ibs. Supports, apart. 3 Feet. 4 Feet. 5 Feet. 6 Feet. No. 42 Inches. •250 Inches. •500 Inches. •875 Inches. IT25 CHAPTER X. ON THE TENSILE STRENGTH, OR DIRECT COHESION, AND VERTICAL STRENGTH OF BRITISH OAK. THE tensile experiments are somewhat difficult to carry out, and therefore only specimens Nos. I to 6, Table VI I., were tested from the log referred to at page 53. They varied from 2,240 to 5,320 Ibs., giving a mean strength °f 3>837 Ibs. to the square inch, the wood next to the pith or centre proving to be the strongest, as with the transverse test. The gradations of strength, taking No. I as unity or roo, give No. 2 as '82 ; No. 3, 785 ; No. 4, '81; No. 5, -475; and No. 6, -42, the tensile strength of the inner wood of this tree being therefore about 58 per cent, greater than the outer. Instances of weakness, both transversely and tensilely, similar to those which are given in Table VII., are not unfrequent, and may occur, as before stated, in good- looking specimens of any species of timber : and this, again, serves to show that it would be unsafe to arrange the various parts of any construction according to the highest calculated strength of any timber to be employed. Further tensile experiments were made on six speci- mens of British Oak saved from the pieces experimented upon, and referred to in Tables V. and VI. They appear CHAP. X.] BRITISH OAK. 59 to be of better quality than those referred to in Table VII. The following are the results : — TABLE XIV. Tensile Experiments. Number of the specimen. Dimensions of each piece. Specific gravity. Weight the pieces broke with. Direct cohe- sion on i square inch. Inches. Ibs. Ibs. 43 1003 , 35,560 8,890 44 IOO5 S^S^O 7,840 45 46 2 X 2 X 30 1002 905 33,600 33,040 8,400 8,260 47 720 24,640 6, 1 60 48 725 23,52° 5,880 Total . . 5360 181,720 45,430 Average . ... 893 30,287 7,571 Very little appears to be known of the amount of resistance offered by British Oak to a crushing force, when applied in the direction of its fibres. Some experiments of the kind have, it is true, been made, both in this and in other countries, but the results, as published, are far from being satisfactory, inasmuch as they vary to a great extent, as between author and author, and afford no reliable measure of the strain to which a pillar or column can be safely loaded. The difficulty of carrying out these experiments is indeed so great, and withal so extremely tedious, that it is no matter of surprise more has not been done in this direction. I have, therefore, with the view of supplying a want long felt, availed myself of every opportunity to extend this important inquiry, by experi- menting not only upon English Oak timber, but upon perhaps a greater variety of woods than has ever before been attempted. 6o TIMBER AND TIMBER TREES. [CHAP. The experiments on the vertical strength of British Oak are given in Tables XV. to XXII. inclusive. TABLE XV. Cubes of Unseasoned British Oak. Specific gravity, 966. Vertical or crushing experiments. Number of the specimen. i Inch. 2 Inches. 3 Inches. 4 Inches. Crushed with Crushed with Crushed with Crushed with 49—52 53—56 57—60 6 1 — 64 65—68 69—72 Tons. 2-750 2'500 2'OOO 2-500 2*250 2*375 Tons. 7*000 8-000 9-500 8-500 8-125 9-250 Tons. 2O'OOO I9375 2O-I25 19-625 20*500 20-I25 Tons. 33-750 3I-875 33-125 32-875 33-I25 33-500 Total . . I4-375 50-375 II9-750 198*250 Average . 2'396 8-396 19-958 33-04I Do. per in. 2-396 2-099 2-217 2*064 TABLE XVI. Cubes of Seasoned British Oak. Specific gravity, 740. Vertical or crushing experiments. Number of the specimen. i Inch. 2 Inches. 3 Inches. 4 Inches. Crushed with Crushed with Crushed with Crushed with 73—76 77-80 81—84 85—88 89—92 93—96 Tons. 3-750 3-500 3-375- 3-625 3-500 3'625 Tons. 1 3 -ooo I2-500 I4-375 I4-000 I3-875 14-125 Tons. 28-750 29-750 29-125 28*500 29-125 28-875 Tons. 50-875 50-I25 49-875 50-625 49^75 5I-I25 Total . . 21-375 81-875 174-125 302-500 Average . 3-562 13-646 29-021 50-4I7 Do. per in. 3-562 SHU 3-225 3-I5I X.] BRITISH OAK. 61 TABLE XVII. Vertical or Crushing Experiments on British Oak, with 4 square inches of base. Number of the specimen. Dimensions .of the pieces. Specific gravity. Crushed with Do. on the square inch. Inches. Tons. Tons. 97 2X2X1 740 13-500 3 '375 98 2 » 13-625 3-406 99 3 13-875 3'469 100 4 » I4-000 3-500 101 5 ,, 15750 3 '93 7 102 6 » 14^75 3719 103 7 }) 1475° 3-687 104 8 » 14-500 3-625 105 9 ,, I5-000 375° 106 10 » slipped .107 n „ 14750 3-687 108 12 720 13750 3-437 109 18 5 J II'OOO 2-750 no 24 ,, 10-500 2-625 III 30 734 9750 2-437 NOTE. — Nos. 97 to 107 (inclusive) were cut from one piece of Timber, Nos. 108 to no were cut from another, and No. in from a third piece. TABLE XVIII. Vertical or Crushing Experiments on British Oak, with 9 square inches of base. Number of the specimen. Dimensions of the pieces. Specific gravity. Crushed with Do. on the square inch. Inches. Tons. Tons. 112 3x3x8 9I2 I5-50 1722 H3 , 9 98l 16*125 I-792 114 , 10 960 16-00 1777 US , , n 943 16-50 •833 116 , 12 928 H-75 •639 117 , , 13 901 I3-50 •500 118 , H 891 14-00 '555 119 > > 15 883 15-00 120 , , 16 900 15-00 •666 121 , , 17 768 23-50 2-611 122 , , 18 789 22 -OO 2-444 NOTE. — Nos. 112 to 120 (inclusive) were cut from a piece of Oak timber that had been four years in store — it was not even then well seasoned ; Nos. 121 and 122 were of better seasoned timber. 62 TIMBER AND TIMBER TREES. [CHAP. TABLE XIX. Vertical or Crushing Experiments on British Oak, •with 1 6 square inches of base. Number of the specimen. Dimensions of the pieces. Specific gravity. Crushed with Do. on the square inch. Inches. Tons. Tons. 123 4 x 4 x 15 958 25 '5° •600 124 1 6 972 25^5 •578 125 17 934 27-00 •687 i2b 18 930 27-50 719 127 19 932 28-25 •762 128 20 972 28-25 •762 129 21 946 28-00 •750 130 22 932 26-OO •625 131 23 921 23-50 •470 132 24 1-003 30-00 •875 TABLE XX. Vertical or Crushing Experiments on British Oak, with 9 square inches of base. Number of the specimen. Dimensions of the pieces. Specific gravity. Crushed with Do. on the square inch. Inches. Tons. Tons. 133 3x3x8 696 25^5 2-805 134 » „ 9 597 2 1 'OO 2-333 135 ., ,, 10 742 20-25 2-250 NOTE.— These were respectively Nos. 115, 118, and 121 of Table XVIII., shortened, ana turther seasoned. X.] BRITISH OAK. TABLE XXI. Vertical or Crushing Experiments on British Oak, •with 1 6 square inches of base. Number of the specimen. Dimensions of the pieces. Specific gravity. Crushed with Do. on the square inch. Inches. Tons. Tons. 136 4 x 4 x 10 713 34-875 2-179 137 5> » II 658 33-750 2-IIO 138 ,, ,, 12 639 32-000 2-000 139 „ » 13 665 29-500 I-843 140 ,, ,, 14 752 3I-250 1-953 » ' » 15 742 28*500 1781 142 „ „ 16 688 40-750 2-517 NOTE. — These were respectively Nos. 132, 123, 125, 124, 127, 129, and 130 of Table XIX., shortened after the first experiments upon them, and further seasoned before the second trial. TABLE XXII. Vertical or Crushing Experiments on British Oak ; sundry scantlings. Number of the specimen. Dimensions of the pieces. Specific gravity. Crushed with Do. on the square inch. Inches. Tons. Tons. 143 3x3x2 820 32-I25 3^9 144 4 x 4 x 2 822 53'125 3-320 i H5 6 x 6 x 12 864 I3I-000 3-640 ! 146 » » 18 926 154-000 4-277 147 „ !> 24 822 122-200 3394 148 „ „ 36 888 I22'2OO 3 '394 149 9 x 9 x 12 1-024 223-600 2-760 J50 9'x 9'x 15 918 247-800 2-898 151 „ „ 18 889 244-800 2-860 152 „ „ 21 883 247-OOO 2-887 i53 9'x zo'x 15 904 397-000 4*175 154 zo'x n x 18 794 307*000 2-722 i55 „ „ 21 819 327-800 2-907 156 9'x lo'x 24 905 307-000 3-239 64 TIMBER AND TIMBER TREES. [CHAP. In these tables are recorded the results of 108 ex- periments on the crushing strains applied .to specimens of English Oak timber, varying from small pieces with only I inch of base, and I inch in height, carrying 7,978 Ibs., to larger pieces with no inches of base, and 21 inches in height, carrying 734,272 Ibs., or 327 tons 1 6 cwt, before breaking. The intermediate sizes include some pieces with 36 inches of base and 36 inches in height, this being the greatest length upon which I have been able to bring the crushing force to bear. It is to be regretted that these experiments could only be carried on with pieces of inconsiderable length, owing to the difficulty experienced in keeping the centres perfectly straight with the line of pressure. Still, enough has, I hope, been done to afford a fair guide for determining the scantlings for pillars to beams, &c., although, perhaps, there is not even yet sufficient data to construct a formula upon. M. Rondelet ascertained that it took a force of 5,000 to 6,000 Ibs. to crush a piece of Oak having I inch of base ; and Mr. Rennie gives 3,860 Ibs. as the force required to crush a similar piece I inch in height. These two statements vary considerably from each other, and also from my own experience, inasmuch as I found it required a force of 7,978 Ibs., or 3*562 tons weight, to crush a I -inch cube of seasoned Oak ; vide Table XVI. In a trial, however, of six pieces of unseasoned Oak of the same dimensions, it was found that it took upon an average only 5,367 Ibs., or 2-396 tons — one piece requiring only 4,480 Ibs., or 2 tons, to crush it; vide Table XV. The experiments upon seasoned cubes of Oak, of 2, 3, and 4 inches (Table XVI.) show that the force re- x.] BRITISH OAK. 65 quired to crush them was, severally, 7,640 Ibs., 7,224 Ibs,, and 7,058 Ibs., per square inch of base, which, if com- pared with 7,978 Ibs. on the one-inch cube of the same seasoned wood, shows an apparent diminution of strength in each of the next larger sizes ; the average force required to crush the complete parcel of four sets of cubes being 7,475 Ibs. The average strength of the unseasoned pieces of the same dimensions only 4,9 15 Ibs. to the square inch of base. In the experiments (Table XVII.) on a set of fifteen specimens, each 2X2 inches, and severally varying only I inch in length from I to 12 inches, and then by 6 inches, until a length of 30 inches was obtained, it was found that the piece 5 inches in length bore the maxi- mum pressure of 8,820 Ibs., or 3 '937 tons on the square inch, the resisting power of each of the others being less, while the piece of 24 inches was crushed by about two- thirds the strain of that of 5 inches in length. From this it would appear that the proper proportion of sectional area to length for this description of timber is as about 4 : 5 ; or, in other words, the superficial area of the base in inches should not be less than four-fifths the length of the pillar or column in inches. Thus, if it were required to ascertain the scantling for an Oak pillar, 144 inches in length, to ensure its carrying the maximum of strain, we should have v/ ^ — 10 73 inches for the side of that pillar, and according to the ascertained strength of our specimen, 5 inches in length, this would be capable of bearing a weight of 453 tons. Even if we observe the rule, recom- mended by many authorities, of only loading to one- fourth of the calculated strength, we may still consider it equal to the strain of 113 tons, while a pillar of Riga F 66 TIMBER AND TIMBER TREES. [CHAP.X. Fir of the same dimensions, as shown in subsequent Tables, might be loaded to 67 tons. As before stated, I have applied this description of test to a great variety of woods, and it has enabled me to ascertain with tolerable accuracy the amount of strain they will each bear to the square inch, of base. The general result of the trials with gradation of lengths confirms, in some degree, the theory of a four-fifths pro- portion of base to length, and shows it to be at least approximately correct. Therefore, with this data for our guidance, aided by a little practical judgment, there should be no difficulty in determining the scantlings of props and supports for all ordinary purposes. There is yet another description of test to be noticed, namely, that for ascertaining the elongation of the fibres under certain strains. The experiment was made in one of the royal dockyards upon two pieces of English Oak, each 2 x 2 x 48 inches, and very carefully con- ducted— note being taken of the elongation in a length of 3 feet ; the mean results were found to be as follows, viz. : — TABLE XXIII. With the weight of 2 3 4 5 6 7 tons. The elongation was •o •03125 •04617 •07812 •1250 •15625 ins. With the weight of 8 9 10 ii 12 tons. The elongation was •19375 •23437 •2500 •2500 •3125 ... ins. CHAPTER XI. ON THE FELLING OF OAK IN SPRING AND WINTER. THE bark of the Oak tree contains a substance called tannin, which is of considerable value, and is used in the preparation of leather. Therefore, in order to secure this tannin in its 'greatest quantity, it is the practice to fell, or cut down, the trees in the spring of the year, when the sap is rising. Under other circumstances, the trees would have been cut in the winter, while the sap was down and in a quiescent state — a period which has been almost universally recognised as the best for felling, as it is considered to ensure a better quality, and to be conducive to the greater durability of the timber. The value of the bark, however, generally overrides this consideration, since, although the weight in proportion to the contents of the timber will vary according to circumstances of growth, it is always thought profitable to save it, and, viewed under the commercial aspect, it is not likely to be disregarded. The quantity of tannin contained in the bark of the Oak, as ascertained by Sir Humphry Davy, varies as follows, viz. : In Coppice Oak it is 32 ; middle sized, 29 and Oak cut in the autumn, 2 1 per cent. The timber and bark merchants variously estimate the quantity of bark to the contents of the timber ; and no doubt there is a very considerable difference in the 68 TIMBER AND TIMBER TREES. [CHAP. weight afforded by trees of equal ages, whether grown in forests or in open situations. Mr. Monteith states, in his " Planter's Guide/' that— An Oak 40 years old yields, for every cubic foot of timber Qlbs. to 12 Ibs. of bark. And if 80 to 100 years old yields, for every cubic foot of timber .. lolbs. to i61bs. ,, The question of the propriety of felling in the winter jn preference to any other season is of considerable im- portance, and its bearing upon the durability or other- wise of the timber may be gathered from the following particulars, taken from a " Treatise on Dry Rot," by Ambrose Bowden. He states that — " The ' Sovereign of the Seas/ built at Woolwich in 1635, was constructed of timber barked in the spring and felled in the succeeding winter, a strong conviction existing that such timber was superior to any other in point of durability. Fo'rty-seven years later this ship was pulled to pieces and rebuilt, and the greater part of the materials were found to be in sufficiently good condition for re-employment. "The ' Royal William/ built at Portsmouth in 1715 to 1719, after being slightly repaired at three different times, was finally taken to pieces in August, 1813, after a service of ninety-four years. The extreme durability of this ship attracted much attention at the time, and it was believed that, having been built in close proximity to the New Forest, only winter-felled timber had been used in her construction. This is said to be borne out by the fact that the authorities at Portsmouth, about 1717 or 1718, offered, as an encouragement for the delivery of winter-felled Oak timber to that yard, an XL] BRITISH OAK. 69 addition of* £$ per cent to the contractor to compen- sate him for the loss of the bark. The state of the materials when the ship was taken to pieces confirmed the conjecture which had been then formed, as the iron fastenings, above the water-line, were in general good, proving the absence of acrid juices in the timber. "In the year 1/55, Mr. Barnard, of Deptford, con- tracted to build a sixty-gun ship, named the ' Achilles/ for His Majesty's service. She was completed in 1757, and taken to pieces in 1784. It was not known that any peculiar circumstances attended the construction of this ship, until Mr. Barnard was summoned to attend a Committee appointed by the House of Commons, in March, 1771, to consider how His Majesty's navy might be better supplied with timber. He then gave it as his opinion that the method to be observed in felling timber should be by barking in the spring, and not to fell it until the succeeding winter, and added that he built the 'Achilles/ man-of-war, in 1757, of timber felled in that manner. "The 'Montague/ launched in 1779, was built of winter-felled timber, and its superiority is forcibly at- tested by the fact that she had only one frame-timber shifted, from the time she was built up to 1803, when she was repaired. Mention is also made of this ship being in active service and in good condition in 1815 ; that is, thirty-six years after she was launched. It was thought there was a striking coincidence between the durability of this ship and that of the ' Royal William/ * A much higher premium than £5 per cent, in addition to the contract price of spring-felled Oak timber was offered and paid by the Government a few years since for winter-felled Oak, without, however, being able to obtain more than a fraction of the quantity required for the royal dock- yards. 70 TIMBER AND TIMBER TREES. [CHAP. xi. affording a strong presumption that they were both built on the same principles. "The ' Hawke' sloop was built in 1793, one half of timber barked in the spring and felled in the winter, and the other half of timber felled at the usual time in spring. Ten years later she was in such a general state of decay that she was taken to pieces, no difference being then observable in the condition of her several timbers." " At first view," Mr. Bowden observes, " this experi- ment appears to decide the fate of the system ; but it must be remarked that the timber was barked standing in the spring of 1/87, and not felled until the autumn of 1790, a period of three and a half years ; and further, that if we were to inquire into the probable duration of such timber, we might discover, perhaps, that it is in an inverse ratio to the time the trees may stand after being barked ; and therefore, this ship was in precisely the same state at the end .of ten years as we might reasonably have expected." CHAPTER XII. BRITISH OAK.— CONTRACT SPECIFICATION. THE British Oak tree affords logs that meet the follow- ing specification for the navy contracts, viz. : — Timber sided ; or if rough, that will side — 20 inches and upwards, the shortest length being 26 feet. 20l/2 ,, to 19 inches, ,, , 24 20 16 10 the quantities of each class or siding varying according to the requirements of the dockyards. For the rough timber (Fig. 16, a and b) it is generally agreed that the price is to be, for each log measur- ing— 250 cub. ft. and upwards, rough contents, $ load of 50 cub. ft. £ 249 to 200 cub. ft. 199 ,, 150 , 149 ,, 100 , 99 „ 50 , 49 „ 25 , Under 25 , 72 TIMBER AND TIMBER TREES. [CHAP. the conditions being that the measurement of rough timber for payment is to be regulated by the stops or joggles. Every piece to be measured for contents by calliper measurement, as far as the spire will hold 12 inches in diameter. No tops to be received, except the spire and such other top or limb as may be grown on the main piece, of a substance and length to admit of being converted with it. Such other top or limb will be measured for contents as far as it will hold FIG. i6a. FIG. 1 6b. 12 inches in diameter. If, however, the professional officers of the yards are of opinion that the conversion of the main piece will be improved thereby, tops, including the spire, will be measured for contents as far as they will hold 9 inches in diameter ; but, in such case, two-thirds only of the contents below 12 inches in diameter will be added to the other contents of the piece for payment. All the rough timber to be so hewn or squared that no part of the surface or square XII.] BRITISH OAK. 73 shall be less than one-fourth of the diameter of the piece. For the sided timber (Fig. 17)*, it is also agreed that the price is to be, for each log measuring — 1 20 cub. ft. and upwards, sided contents, $ load of 50 cub. ft. £ 119 99 79 59 39 to 100 ft. „ 80 „ 60 „ 40 „ 20 Under 20 the conditions being that in computing the measurement FIG. 170. \1E FIG. for payment of sided timber, no quarter-inches to be allowed in the sidings. All the timber to be so sided that, between the wanes,f at half the length of the piece, there shall not be less than the siding with one-eighth * It has been found in practice that a fairly grown cylindrically-shaped British Oak tree of 30 inches calliper will yield sided timber of about 21 inches. 24 ,, ,, » " l8/^ >» 18 „ „ „ „ 12^ „ and that generally about two-thirds of the calliper of the rough tree is the siding to be obtained from it. f Wane is the natural rounded edge of the log, W Fig. i6£. 74 TIMBER AND TIMBER TREES. [CHAP. added thereto ; to be fairly sided from end to end, parallel, and to be measured for contents as far as it holds, at the top end, on each side, between the wanes, three-fourths of the siding of the piece. The pane* at the top is to determine the length of the piece ; but if the length of the sides be not equal, the mean is to be taken. The timber to be so hewn upon the moulding edges that the surface of the square shall not be less than one-fourth the diameter of the piece. The timber to be measured for contents at the middle of the length, FromAtoB 5"and vpwarfo FIG. 1 8. FIG. 19. when fairly grown from end to end, but if otherwise, it will be regulated by the stops or joggles. Such timber as has length beyond the prescribed proportion of pane, being compass timber, and the additional length aiding the conversion, or such as shall be bond fide convertible for a beam piece, to be received at the discretion of the officers, who are to determine the length ; two-thirds of the additional length to be measured for the cubic contents. Pane is the hewn or sawn surface of the log, P Fig. i6£. XII.] BRITISH OAK. 75 Premium prices were until lately paid for logs suit- able for the stems and stern-posts, and also for logs having compass form suitable for the frames of ships (Figs. 1 8 and 19) ; but this is no longer necessary, as the supply is fully equal to the demand for these particular services. It is, of course, understood that the wants of the private trade are as well met as those of the royal navy, nothing being required by the navy specification other than is afforded by the ordinary growth of the tree. Thick-stuff and plank is supplied to the navy according to the following specification : — To be mea- Thick- ness. Shortest length. To average in length at least Breadth between the sap at 24 ft. sured as far as it holds between the REMARKS. sap. Inches. Feet. Feet. Inches. Inches. IO II 8 9 8 M Thick stuff, 4% in. 7 6 24 9 7 and upwards, is measured in cubic feet. 5r 28 " A g 6 3/2 Plank, 4 to 2 in. inclusive, is mea- 3^ 7* sured in superficial 20 feet of its thick- 2 / » ness. * At 20 feet. All the thick-stuff and plank to be cut straight, or nearly so, and of parallel thickness, and to be measured for breadth at the middle, or half the length, taking in half the wanes, provided the breadth, clear of sap, is within two inches of the breadth at which it is to be received ; but no thick-stuff the breadth of which in 76 TIMBER AND TIMBER TREES. [CHAP. xn. the middle is less than n inches or more than 18 inches, and no plank of 4, 3*^, and 3 inches, less than 9 inches or more than 15 inches, and none of 2J^ and 2 inches, less than 8 or more than 15 inches, clear of sap at half the length, is to be received. All the timber, thick-stuff, and plank to be fresh-cut, good, sound, merchantable, well-conditioned, and in every respect fit for Her Majesty's service. CHAPTER XIII. THE FRENCH OAK TREE (Quercus). THE Oak timber of the north-western provinces of France, and especially of Brittany and Normandy, so closely resembles British Oak timber in colour, quality, texture, and general characteristics, that a description of one will as nearly as possible serve for the other. It is, therefore, I think, fairly entitled to the first notice after that which has been adopted as our standard. The French Government until quite recently claimed the right of first selection of this description of timber, and drew nearly all their supplies from the western districts, for the use of their own dockyards, the landed proprietors and merchants not being free to offer it on the market until the full requirements of the French navy were met. Consequently, but little, if any, of good quality was left for exportation after the demands of the private trade of that country were satisfied. 7 8 TIMBER AND TIMBER TREES. [CHAP. The first sample shipped to the London market after the relaxation of the French laws bearing upon it (about the year 1860) enabled the British Government to give it a trial in ship-building; and as this proved to be satisfactory, a contract was soon after made with a London merchant for a supply to the several dock- yards in England. French Oak, until about the time I am speaking of, was looked upon with some disfavour in this country, and thought to be generally inferior in quality to the British Oak ; but this opinion was probably formed from very unfavourable specimens, there being certain localities in France, as there are in most other countries, where the trees do not attain any degree of excellence, and also from the fact that the best timber had been first selected and retained by the French Govern- ment. The Oak timber, however, of the north-west pro- vinces of France is generally of very good quality, and experience in the employment of it in ship-building proves it to be an excellent substitute for that of British produce. It is a very remarkable fact that, of all the supplies sent to the several royal dockyards, the only complaint ever urged against it was that it had not been hewn in accordance with English practice as applied to "sided timber," and that the loss in conversion would be greater in consequence. This, however, was only imaginary, as the converters at Woolwich proved that there was little to object to on that score, their returns for the three years ending in 1863 making the difference in the loss per cent, in the conversion of the French, as compared with that of British Oak, to be quite insignificant, the figures actually showing that the loss on the French Oak was 47-3 per cent, and on the XIII.] FRENCH OAK. 79 British 47*4 per cent. ; the yield was therefore as nearly as possible the same in both cases.* Figs. 200 and 2O# show the method of hewing the French Oak, whereby all the square wood that could be obtained is preserved, by simply following the natural taper or growth of tree, and, by so doing, there can be little, if any, disadvantage, since, the measurements being taken, as in English timber, at the middle, or half the length of the log, the buyer would receive and pay for the correct quantity contained in it. FIG. 20(5. The error in estimating its worth at the dockyards was one of those things to which professional and prac- tical men are occasionally liable, when they have long been accustomed to a particular form or object, and are unwilling to see in any change that an advantage may sometimes be gained by its adoption. About eighty loads of French Oak timber of compass form, that is, of pieces having at least 5 inches bend in * Since the foregoing was prepared I have referred to recent Blue Books, and find that the conversions done in French Oak at the royal dockyards are all favourable, the loss upon the French being less than that on the English Oak by about 6 per cent. So TIMBER AND TIMBER TREES. [CHAP. a length of 12 feet, were worked into the frame of the " Pallas," built at Woolwich Dockyard in 1863, and when the timbers were examined after they had been dressed and trimmed to a fairness fit to receive the planking, it was very difficult to distinguish the French from the English Oak with which it was mixed. A considerable portion of this French Oak timber, after lying in the several royal dockyards for about ten years, seasoning, some of it in the open, and some in. sheds protected from the weather, when surveyed was found to be in better condition than the English Oak of the same dates of receipt, which had been kept in stacks similarly placed for preservation. No better evidence than this can be needed to prove that the French Oak is equal to the English in point of durability, and there is yet to be carried to its credit the fact that experiments prove it to be equally strong, tough, and elastic. It is also in its favour that it shrinks only moderately in seasoning, and rends or splits some- what less than the English Oak during that process. That it is suitable and fit for all the purposes to which English Oak is applied, in ship-building or other works of construction, there* is no reason to doubt ; and, except that the timber procured from the north-west of France is generally smaller, shorter, and has a more tapering form than the English Oak timber tree, there is no appreciable difference in them, and in a manu- factured state the cleverest expert could not tell one from the other. The experiments made on French Oak (Tables XXIV, XXV., and XXVI.) are perhaps sufficient to show its relative merits as compared with our standard. French is classed with English Oak at Lloyd's, for employment in ship-building. XIII.] FRENCH OAK. 81 TABLE XXIV. — FRENCH OAK. Transverse Experiments. Number of the specimen. Deflections. Total weight required to break each piece. I! 11 w bb Weight reduced to specific gravity 1000. Weight required to break i square inch. With the apparatus weighing 390 Ibs. After the weight was removed. At the crisis of breaking. Inches. Inch. Inches. Ibs. Ibs. I I'50 "OO 4'35 720 966 745 iSo-OO 2 I'35 •05 7-00 930 977 952 232-50 3 I-50 •05 6 '05 901 983 916 225-25 4 I'55 •10 5-50 895 992 902 223-75 5 1-65 •oo 7-00 915 979 934 228-75 6 I'35 •05 6'io 904 962 939 226-00 Total . 8-90 •25 36-00 5,265 5859 5388 1316-25 Average I-483 •041 6'oo 87r5 976-5 898 219375 The average of six other specimens, of equal quality to the above, gave — 7—12 1-583 -125 7-583 831- 1082 768 20775 The mean of the whole — i '533 "083 6791 854 1029-5 833 213-562 REMARKS. — All the specimens broke with a fibrous fracture fully 10 inches in length. TABLE XXV. Tensile Expei intents. Number of the specimen. Dimension of each piece. Specific gravity. Weight the piece broke with. Direct cohesion on t square inch. Inches. Ibs. Ibs. !3 \ « 966 21,280 5,320 H 979 40,040 IO,OIO 15 16 2X2X30 983 962 39,208 27,432 9,802 6,858 17 977 33,460 8,365 18 / V 992 33,040 8,260 Total. . 5859 194,460 48,615 Average . 976-5 32,410 8,102 82 TIMBER AND TIMBER TREES. [CHAP. xm. TABLE XXVI. Vertical Experiments on cubes of 2 inches. No. 19. No. 20. No. 21. NO. 22. No. 23. No. 24. Total tons. Average tons. Crushed with Crushed with Crushed with Crushed with Crushed with Crushed with Tons. 12-500 Tons. I4'000 Tons. 14-125 Tons. I4-875 Tons. I4-750 Tons. H-875 85-125 I4'l87 *3'i25 3-500 3-53I 3719 3-687 3719 I4-I87 3*547 * On i square inch. REMARKS.— These cubes were in about the same seasoned condition as the English Oak, Table XVI. E = 622720. S = 2242. CHAPTER XIV. i THE ITALIAN OAK TREE (Quercus). THERE are several varieties of very valuable Oak trees spread over the whole length of the Italian peninsula, the island of Sicily, and also in the island of Sardinia, which in form and quality differ but slightly one from the other. Botanists might say they were all of erect growth, yet they very rarely attain a perfectly upright position, as, owing to their naturally curved and crooked form of stem, they must necessarily be a little, more or less, inclined to the horizon. They appear generally to attain at least moderate dimensions ; but, judging from those imported into this country, their best specimens are inferior in size to many of our British Oak trees. The following varieties of Italian Oak, viz., the Quercus Robur, Q. montella, Q. Tiiscana, Q. pyrenaica, Q. vera, Q. Ischia, and the Q. montana, are the best in quality. There are also the Q. cerro, Q. dEsculus, Q. farina, and one or two others which are not generally thought to be quite equal to those first lentioned. They may, nevertheless, occasionally com- >are favourably with them, especially when they are found at a moderate elevation, or on the mountain sides. The wood of the Italian Oak is brown in colour, 84 TIMBER AND TIMBER TREES. [CHAP. hard, horny, tough, strong, less elastic and slightly heavier than the English Oak, and is, on account of its extreme hardness, more difficult to work. In seasoning it is very apt to split and leave deep shakes on the exterior of the log, which are detrimental to its value for general purposes ; but, viewed as to its form and properties, it is employed in preference to most other Oaks for the frame of a ship. It may also be used in any work of construction where strength and durability are important, if care be taken to protect it, by planks or otherwise, from exposure. Owing to its characteristic defect of shakes in season- ing, the Italian Oak is unfit for conversion into planks, or boards, or into almost any small scantlings ; and its introduction into this country (about the year 1820) was not with the view to its general employment, but solely to supplement the supply of British Oak timber, which was then scarce, and seemed likely to be in- sufficient in quantity to meet the growing demands for it, especially for the framing of our ships of war. For this particular purpose, where it is generally used in bulk to nearly the full growth of the tree, preference may even be given to it over English Oak. Of the different kinds of Italian Oak supplied to the royal dockyards, the Tuscan, Neapolitan, and Sicilian are the hardest and most horny in texture, and, when thoroughly seasoned, by far the most difficult to work ; while the Modena, Roman, and Sardinian are what the workmen call milder in character — that is to say, they are easier to work, and a little less hard than the former. The Modena and Sardinian also yield an easier curved form of timber than the other kinds, and do not split, to the same extent in seasoning ; they are all, however, very much of the same strong character, and it xiv.] ITALIAN OAK. 85 is a fact worth mentioning, as showing the unusual hard- ness of this kind of timber, when well seasoned, that I have known many sawyers, when only entered tem- porarily in the dockyards for some pressing work to be done, leave rather than be employed in cutting this timber. Very large supplies of this description of timber were sent to H.M. dockyards during the years 1860 to 1863, the greater part of it having been contracted for just prior to the introduction of iron ships for war purposes. But the wooden fleet having been almost superseded by the time it was delivered, a considerable quantity of it is still upon hand (1875) ; yet even now, although much of it has been from ten to twelve years in store, it is for the most part in a good state of preservation. The French Government for a long time drew upon the Italian states for considerable quantities of this Oak for the use of their dockyards, and were often competing with our own for the possession of it ; thus, until quite recently, Italian Oak was an important and valuable article to the two chief naval powers of the world. In the employment of this wood very few defects are found, and no better evidence is necessary to show that great care is taken of it during its growth. It has both the star and the cup shake, but neither of these defects are very common in the Oaks grown upon the mainland or in the island of Sardinia. The Sicilian Oaks have, however, rather extensive cup-shake defects. It was stipulated in the conditions of the navy con- tracts that about three-fourths of all the Italian Oak timber should be of compass form — that is to say, to qualify it as such, it must have at least five inches of curve in twelve feet, taken in any part of the length of the log; and this proportion was almost invariably 86 TIMBER AND TIMBER TREES. [CHAP. obtained, while many of the logs which did not pass for compass had generally more or less curve, and a straight log was quite the exception. The specification under which Italian Oak (Fig. 21, a and b) was received stood as follows, viz. : — Pieces containing each 30 feet and upwards cube ... ,, ,, ,, 20 feet and under 30 feet ... ,, ,, ,, 1 4 feet and under 20 feet Pieces under 14 feet contents, sided 9 to n^ inches, in- clusive, and not less than 10 feet long... Pieces under 14 feet contents, sided 7 to 8^ inches, in- clusive, and not less than 8 feet long ... Price per Load of 50 feet. £ * d. FIG. All the timber to be winter-felled. Pieces sided 7 to 8^ inches, inclusive, to have at least 8 inches curvature in 8 feet in some part of its length. The straight timber, excepting that sided 9 to li>£ inches, inclusive, to be 20 feet and upwards in length .... and both compass and straight timber to measure in the middle between the wanes, or to have pane at that place, not less than the siding of the piece with one-eighth part added thereto, and the pane at the top end not to be less than three-fourths the siding of the piece. All the timber to be fairly tapered from end to end, and not to have XIV.] ITALIAN OAK. more wane at any part than 4 inches on the two wanes taken together ; or, if there is no wane on one edge or angle, and it is only on the other edge or angle, that wane is not to exceed 4 inches. The compass timber to be sided from 7 to 20 inches, inclusive, and no part thereof, except of from 7 to n^ inches sided, to be less than 13 feet in length. The transverse strength of Italian Oak is shown in Tables XXVIL, XXIX., and XXX., and the vertical strength in Tables XXVIII. and XXXI. ; but there are fewer experiments on these than on most other woods, owing to the difficulty that was found in obtaining a length of seven feet with a clean straight grain for testing. TABLE XXVIL — ITALIAN OR TUSCAN OAK. Transverse Experiments. Number of the specimen. Deflections. Total weight required to break each piece. .<§£ 11 CO M Weight reduced to specific gravity 1000. Weight required to break i square inch. With the apparatus weighing 390 Ibs. After the weight was removed. At the crisis of breaking. I 2 3 4 Inches. 4 '5° 375 2 •' 5 4-65 4*5° 3-00 Inch. •15 •15 •oo •20 'IS 'IS Inches. 7-25 9^5 7'35 6-85 8-55 675 Ibs. 766 659 625 906 777 813 IOII 1094 985 1018 1025 1 1 10 758 602 635 889 758 732 Ibs. 191-50 16475 I56-25 226-50 1 94 '25 203-25 Total . 22-55 •80 46-00 4546 6243 4374 1136-50 Average 376 •!33 7-66 757-66 1040-5 729 189-41 REMARKS. — All the specimens broke with fibrous fractures, 10 to 16 inches in length. 88 TIMBER AND TIMBER TREES. [CHAP. TABLE XXVIII. — ITALIAN OR TUSCAN OAK. Vertical or Crushing Strain on cubes of 2 inches. No. 7. No. 8. No. 9. No. 10. No. ii. I No. 12. Total. Average. Tons. lO'OO Tons. 975 Tons. 9'5 Tons. 975 Tons. 10 '00 Tons. 9'5 Tons. 58-5 Tons. 975 *2'50 2'437 2-375 2-437 2-50 2*375 975 2-437 * On i square inch. E = 248950. S = 1989. TABLE XXIX. — ITALIAN OR MODENA OAK. Transverse Experiments. Number of the specimen. Deflections. Total! weight required to break each piece. £>> 11 CO bfl Weight reduced to specific gravity IOOO. Weight required to break i square inch. With the apparatus weighing 390 Ibs. After the weight was removed. At the crisis :of breaking. Inches. Inch. Inches. Ibs. Ibs. I 2-25 •05 5^5 848 1130 750 212-00 2 2-30 •05 6-70 787 IIO3 713 19675 3 2-25 •05 6-15 881 II2I 786 220-25 4 270 •15 7-00 823 IO6O 776 20575 5 2-25 •io 6-25 859 1092 787 21475 6 2-25 "OS O'OO 859 II5O 747 21475 Total . 14-00 '45 3775 5057 6656 4559 1264*25 Average 2-33 •075 6-291 842-83 1109-3 7598-3 2IO-7I REMARKS.— Nos. i, 5, and 6 broke with fractures slightly scarf-shaped ; 2, 3, and 4 had long fibrous fractures. 400420. S = 22I2. XIV.] SARDINIAN OAK. 89 TABLE XXX. — SARDINIAN OAK. Transverse Experiments. Number of the specimen. Deflections. Total weight required to break each piece. Specific gravity. Weight reduced to specific gravity 1000. Weight required to break i square inch. With the apparatus weighing 390 Ibs. After the weight was removed. At the crisis of breaking. Inches. Inch. Inches. Ibs, Ibs. I 2-65 •05 575 765 1002 763 I9I-25 2 275 •10 5-65 <>59 IO3O ^39 l64'75 3 3*i5 "IS 4-85 630 1025 614 I57'5° 4 2-25 •15 8-00 906 943 96l 226-50 5 2-50 •15 8-25 776 973 899 I94'CO 6 2'35 'IS 6-50 812 970 838 203-00 Total . 15-65 75 39-00 4,548 5943 47H II37-00 Average 2-608 •125 6-5 758 990-5 785-66 I89-5 REMARKS. — Nos. i, 2, and 3 broke rather short to i-sth the depth, and had about 12 inches length of fracture under it. 4, 5, and 6 had 13 inches length of fibrous fracture. TABLE XXXI. — SARDINIAN OAK. Vertical or Crushing Strain on cubes of 2 inches. No. 7. No. 8. No. 9. No. 10. No. ii. No. 12. Total. Average. Tons. 10-00 Tons. IO-I25 Tons. 10*625 Tons. 10-750 Tons. 10-000 Tons. H'OOO Tons. 62-500 Tons. 10-416 *2'5 2-53I 2-656 2-687 2-500 2750 10*416 2*604 * On i square inch. = 363450- = 1990. CHAPTER XV, THE DANTZIC OAK TREE THIS Oak derives its name from the port of shipment, but is chiefly the produce of the Polish forests, whence the bulk of it is brought down the river Vistula to Dantzic ; small quantities are also sent into the ports of Memel and Stettin by other sources. There is a considerable quantity of Oak timber exported from these three places in logs, varying from 1 8 to 30 feet in length, and from 10 to 16 inches square, and also planks 24 feet and upwards in length, averaging about 32 feet, the breadth being from 9 to 15 inches, and the thickness varying from 2 to 8 inches. Large quantities of staves, roughly cleft from the tree, are also exported in various sizes, suitable for the manufacture of every description of cask or barrel. The Dantzic -Polish or Prussian Oak timber is obtained from a tree of straight growth. It is brown in colour, of moderate strength and hardness, rather porous, and has the medullary rays bright and sufficiently CHAP, xv.] DANTZIC OAK. 91 distinct to qualify it in some instances for wainscot purposes. It is of fair durability, and is largely used in the construction of the mercantile ships of this country, but only sparingly for our ships of war, except for their decks, for which purpose it is regarded as a specialite, as it stands well the wear and tear of the gun carriages. For planking it is much esteemed, as the grain is straight, clean, and almost free from knots- Further, it is so pliable and elastic, when boiled or heated by steam, that it may be bent into the most difficult of curved forms without showing any sign of fracture. This description of timber is carefully classified by the merchants, and divided into crown and crown brack qualities, the former being selected from trees of the fairest growth, clean in the grain, and generally free from every kind of coarseness and defect, while the crown brack includes the short and irregularly grown trees, and all those of a rough, coarse, and knotty character. With the Oak planks they are more particular than with the timber, and endeavour to secure uniformity in their arrangement by employing a sworn bracker to make the classification. Thus the planks of each thick- ness are sorted into first and second qualities, or rather into crown and crown brack qualities as understood in the trade, and are respectively distinguished by the mark W on the best, and WW on the second best, plainly rased upon the side of the plank. Those of the crown quality are selected from the finest and fairest grown trees only, the crown brack being made up of planks produced from trees of less regular growth, including the coarse and sometimes faulty pieces. The com- 92 TIMBER AND TIMBER TREES. [CHAP. mercial values of the two bracks vary both in the timber, and in the plank, in about the proportion of three to two. In civil architecture, the Dantzic Oak may be used with advantage for a great variety of purposes, as it stands well, shrinks only moderately, and without split- ting much in seasoning. The Navy contracts for Dantzic Oak do not include square timber, but thick-stuff of 7 to 4^ inches, and plank of 4 to 2 inches only, which are received under the following specification : — The Dantzic Oak thick-stuff and plank to meet at 32 feet, and none to be shorter than 24 feet ; and to be from 10 to 13 inches broad, averaging 1 1 inches clear of sap. The whole to be fresh, clean, free from defective wanes, cut regular, square-edged, and straight ; the breadth for measure- ment to be taken clear of sap at the middle of the length ; 67 per cent, of each thickness to be of first or crown quality, and the remainder of second or crown brack quality. Tables XXXII. and XXXIII. show that the Dantzic Oak, when tested transversely, or tensilely, is of moderate strength ; and, according to Table XXXIV., when tested for the vertical or crushing strain, it proves to be strong, and compares favourably with the British Oak. XV.] DANTZIC OAK. 93 TABLE XXXII.— DANTZIC OAK. Transverse Experiments. Deflections Total Weight Weight Number of the specimen. With the apparatus weighing 390 Ibs. After the weight was removed. At the crisis of breaking. required to break each piece. 1,1 C/2 bo to specific gravity 1000. required to break i square inch. 2 3 4 I Inches. 4 '30 4'35 5'55 575 4-85 Inch. *J5 •25 •30 •25 •25 •25 Inches. 5^5 ill 7-00 7-85 6'55 Ibs. 474 466 449 456 508 488 850 812 817 768 872' 558 573 549 592 566 559 Ibs. 118-50 116-50 112*25 114-00 127-00 122-00 Total . 30-00 i '45 3875 2,841 5016 3397 7IO-25 Average 5-00 •24 6-458 473-5 836 566-16 IlS'37 REMARKS.— All the specimens broke rather short. TABLE XXXIII. Tensile Experiments. Number of the specimen. Dimensions of each piece. Specific gravity. Weight the piece broke with. Direct cohesion on i square inch. 9 10 Inches. 2 X 2 X 30 812 8l7 850 872 Ibs. 13,444 14,276 17,920 21,840 Ibs. 3,361 3,569 4,480 5,460 Total . . 3351 67,480 16,870 Average . ... 838 16,870 4,217 94 TIMBER AND TIMBER TREES. [CHAP. xv. IN t^ ro JH O Th CO CO co CO co 22 CO COOO CN CO If r^ O to vp p • -op Cl M io N CO 10 1 ICS> op 5? : : : CO co ui § t-^10 ONOO" : • • H CO CO H o o o CO CO Tj- 1 10 to O CO CO Tf HH hH 1 10 O O t-!io 5 op j^ : : io CO co co HH HH S3 S to O O O 10 t^ O O O c) io to to O « CO COOO CT« Vj- HH N rj- t-i Dimensions. V ^5N>ovr X X X X N •u%,^,v> X X X X X ^HS«VjV« •S 1 ^^ ^ 1 1 ^ ^t" 1 1 1 M CS 1 f *•-* 10 111 to 100 W N to 1 HH H< O III ^vovovo to §£§• M ^"^ M- • « ft^ 1 1 :§. : S? i N i4' 10 ui lii1 to 3 H ^S« : 10 fl J3Q 0 § -• M N 'g CO CO • 10 H c 7^^; • r1 Oi ^ ui 1 ^ vo vo 00 H H oo 1 js ^^"2 oo" H fx -"^^^ H ^j vo vo vo ,5 ^T^T^o $ VO | -• N N VO •g COCO« t-^ CO H >5 CO W W p | jl VO VO VO '0 H - a ,£! N N N o cococo N HH P H HH HH HH HH g s CHAPTER XVI. THE RIGA OAK TREE (Quercus}. THIS Oak, like the preceding, takes its name from the port of shipment, and is the produce of a tree found some distance in the interior of Russia, whence it is brought by the River Diina to Riga. Its dimensions are only moderate, and, as it is far from being abundant, very little ever reaches this country, except in the form of wainscot logs, of which there were imported into the London market, 20,500 pieces in 1874, 9,400 in 1873, 8,100 in 1872, 7,700 in 1871, and about 10,400 in the previous year. It is characteristic of this Oak timber, that the medullary rays are very numerous and more dis- tinctly marked than is the case with the Dantzic Oak ; but, otherwise, the wood is in colour, texture, fineness of grain, and general appearance, very much the same, as is also its strength and specific gravity. There is no reason, therefore, to doubt its fitness for employment in civil architecture, or for general pur- poses, but it is chiefly shipped to this country to meet the demand for ornamental work, and for the manu- facture of furniture. To prepare it for the London market, the butt 96 TIMBER AND TIMBER TREES. [CHAP. lengths of the tree are slightly hewn upon two opposite sides, and then sawn down the middle; the logs have thus a nearly semicir- cular form (Fig. 22), the average contents of each being only about 16 feet cube. This timber de- rives its chief value from the figured appearance it presents when cut, or converted in the direc- tion of its medullary rays into boards or veneers for cabinet purposes. Riga wainscot timber passes through the process of bracking prior to its being shipped, and dealers have the option of making their selection from either the Riga, English, or Dutch crown qualities — or the brack quality — at prices varying with the market rates. These stood recently at about 100, 90, 80, and 60 shillings respectively for the log of 18 feet cube, a peculiarity in the mode of selling, which is exclusively confined to this description of timber. FIG. 22. CHAPTER XVII. THE OAK (Quercus) — (continued}. THE foregoing are the principal European Oaks at present employed in this country ; others have occa- sionally been brought in, and there are many new and extensive sources of supply open to us whenever it may be necessary to draw upon them. A few years since I surveyed several fine forests of Oak in Belgium, consisting chiefly of trees of straight growth and superior dimensions. The wood of these was less hard and horny, and of slightly inferior quality to the English and French Oaks, but otherwise it was quite suitable for architectural and other works. There is, therefore, reason to believe that much good timber might be drawn thence. Very good samples of Oak timber have been imported from Piedmont. The quality closely resembles that of the Oak found in the west of France. Parcels of Dutch or Rhenish Oak were a short time since brought into the London market ; they were all apparently cut from a dwarfish tree which yielded only short thick pieces of timber, and these were dressed to produce a greater curve than was natural to them; with the view to make them appear fit for use in ship-building. The wood was brown in colour, plain in grain, of a 98 TIMBER AND TIMBER TREES. [CHAP. moderate degree of hardness and strength, but with nothing in its appearance to recommend it to favourable notice. The private ship-builders therefore declined to use it, and as upon trial it was found unsuitable for the royal dockyards, none has of late been imported. TABLE XXXVI. — DUTCH OR RHENISH OAK. Transverse Experiments. Number of the specimen. Deflections. Total weight required to break each piece. ££> If w w Weight reduced to specific gravity 1000. Weight required to break i square inch. With the apparatus weighing 390 Ibs. After the weight was removed. At the crisis of breaking. I 2 3 4 6 Inches. 3 '5° 4-00 3-50 3-5o 3-25 3*5o Inch. •25 •25 •30 *35 •25 •25 • Inches. S'25 6-65 675 7-I5 8-00 6-50 Ibs. 658 650 625 630 710 680 1035 1 100 IO2O 940 1082 1080 635 650 612 670 656 630 Ibs. 164-50 162-50 I56-25 I57-50 177-50 I70-00 Total . 21-25 I-65 •275 40-30 3953 6257 3853 988-25 Average 3*54 6716 658-8 1043 642 16471 E = 276550. S = 1729. REMARKS.— Each piece broke with a moderate length of fracture. Oak timber has also been imported from Spain in considerable quantities, for ship-building and other purposes. The logs were generally small, or, at the best, of only medium dimensions, curved or crooked at the butt end, and tapering rather quickly towards the top. The wood of the Spanish Oak is of a dark brown colour, plain and even in its grain, porous, softer than most other Oaks, and liable to excessive shrinkage in seasoning. XVII.] SPANISH OAK. 99 The star-shake defect is common to it, and, taken altogether, it is of very inferior quality. fne Spanish Oak did not meet with approval in either the royal or private ship-building yards, and consequently the ship- ments of it to this country have declined for some time past. It is remarkable that this Oak is of very slow growth (vide Table II., p. 17) ; and perhaps this in some measure accounts for its inferior quality, our theory being that the trees of the same species which mature their wood most rapidly are generally the best of their kind. TABLE XXXVII.— SPANISH OAK. Transverse Experiments. Number of the specimen. Deflections. Total weight required to break , each piece. y >, 11 Weight reduced to specific gravity 1000. Weight required to break i square inch. With the apparatus weighing 390 Ibs. After the weight was removed. At the crisis of breaking. Inches. Inch. Inches. Ibs. Ibs. I 4-25 •25 6-00 626 1032 606 I56-50 2 3-50 •20 6-15 616 1076 572 154-00 3 3-65 •25 5-65 544 1030 528 136-00 4 4-75 i 35 775 509 1066 477 127-25 5 3-85 '25 8-00 578 IO2O 566 144-50 6 4-I5 •20 6-15 497 1028 483 124-25 Total . 24-I5 I-50 3970 3370 6252 3232 842-50 Average 4-025 •25 x 6-616 561-66 IO42 538-66 140-416 E = 239190. S = 1474. REMARKS. — Each piece broke short ; in no instance was there more than 3 to 4 inches of fracture. There are, besides the Oaks already mentioned, several others which have not yet been brought sufficiently into use for their capabilities to be fairly tested ; and among these are the Oaks of Turkey. In ioo TIMBER AND TIMBER TREES. [CHAP. the year 1859, when the supply of British Oak was thought to be insufficient, and the Italian forests were showing signs of clearance and gradual exhaustion, the Admiralty, deeming it prudent to seek for other sources of supply for the service of their dockyards, directed surveys of the Oak forests in the district of Broussa, in Asia Minor. Having been intrusted with this duty, I found a vast number of very fine Oak trees, both of straight and compass form. Without doubt much good timber exists there ; it is not, however, nearly equal in quality to the British Oak, although it would be likely to prove a good substitute for it if need required. Two kinds of Oak were met with in the forests to the south-east of Broussa, that upon the upper ranges of the mountains being similar in foliage and fruit to the English Quercus Robur ; the other species, which is found chiefly upon the slopes and in the valleys, is the Quercus Cerris, or Mossy-cupped Oak. It is from these forests that most of the supplies are drawn for the service of the imperial dockyards at Con- stantinople and Gimlek ; the Turks very carefully selecting the cleanest-grained trees for employment, and apparently neglecting the hard, gnarly-looking trees that would be difficult to work. They seem generally to be quite content with a mild and free specimen, which would require little labour to dress it to the necessary form ; and therefore no correct opinion of the quality of the timber in the forests of the Broussa district can be formed from that seen in use in the naval establishment on the Golden Horn. In the following year (1860) I made an inspection of several of the forests in Herzegovina, Bosnia, and Croatia, in European Turkey, and also some of the Oak forests in Styria and Hungary, meeting with almost inexhaustible BERKELEY, CAUFOftNIA xvii.] TURKEY AND AUSTRIAN OAK. 101 quantities of Oak spread over the slopes of the mountains, and in the district betwefcri th& »rivers> VeVBa's and Okrina. The Oaks seen over this wide range were chiefly of the Quercus sessiliflora species, but mixed occasionally with the Quercus Cerris; they were all of straight growth, with long clean stems, and generally of good quality, but varying considerably in this respect according as the situation and soil were favourable or otherwise to the development of their character. There is, however, good reason to believe that by selecting from the best description of Oak trees in the districts I have named, very large and valuable supplies might be obtained ; but at the time spoken of no attempt had been made to fell them for the many purposes for which their quality and size would render them available. The principal, and almost the only use hitherto made of any of these noble trees, is to cut them down and cleave them into staves for casks. Bordering close upon the east side of Bosnia, but in the State of Servia, there are immense forests of Oak. These, however, I was unable to penetrate, owing to the lateness of the season and unfavourable state of the weather. Hungary also possesses large forests of Oak, stretch- ing from Resnek and. Kaniza to the Danube. These again might undoubtedly be worked with great advan- tage, the trees being mostly of good quality, and remarkable for their straight growth and noble dimen- sions. In Styria could be found only a scanty stock of Oak, the forests having been exhausted some few years prior to the date of my visit. New supplies are, however* springing up, and ere long a very valuable property in this description of timber will be found there. io2 TIMBER AND TIMBER TREES. [CHAP. xvn. I c< Passing now from Europe to America, it will be well fr> described ihreeW. four of the most valuable kinds of Oak which have been dealt with commercially and em- ployed in this country. There are many others, spread over that vast continent ; but, as they are little known here and not likely to be required, they will be only briefly noticed. CHAPTER XVIII. THE AMERICAN WHITE OAK TREE (QuerC2lS alba). THIS tree derives its name from' the pale ash colour of its bark, and is said to flourish in every variety of soil, but best upon open ground at a moderate elevation, some of the finest specimens being found in Maryland. It is abundantly spread over a very large tract of country, and, according to Michaux, it extends from the 28° to the 46° of North latitude, and towards the west to the State of Illinois. In the open grounds the trunk of this tree is of only moderate length, but in the forests it frequently attains the height of from 40 to 60 feet, clear of branches, with a circumference of from 7 to 8 feet, and very noble logs of timber are produced from it Those which I have seen imported into this country have invariably been straight, and hewn to correspond in appearance with our English Oak " sided " timber ; some of the logs were very large, but generally they varied from 25 to 40 feet in length, and from 12 to 28 inches in the siding or thickness. Thick-stuff of from 10 to 4j£ inches, and plank of 4 to 2 inches, of very superior lengths, fair growth, and free from knots, have usually formed part of the ship- ments. There is, however, scarcely any compass timber to be found beyond the little that can be obtained from io4 TIMBER AND TIMBER TREES. [CHAP. the branches, or from the spurs of the roots, which are often very large. The wood is of a pale reddish-brown colour, straight- grained, moderately hard and compact, tough, strong, and of fair durability. Being remarkable for its elas- ticity, planks cut from it may, when steamed, be bent into almost any form or curve, no matter how difficult, without danger of breaking or splintering them. This characteristic renders it especially valuable for ship- building purposes. This wood opens very sound ; and as it shrinks but little, and almost without splitting, during the process of seasoning, there is nothing to prevent its extensive use in railway carriage-building, civil architecture, and generally in the domestic arts. I have known it to stand the test of many years7 exposure in the open without being more than very slightly deteriorated thereby. It will therefore be safe to say that it is by far the best foreign Oak timber, of straight growth and large dimensions, for constructive purposes that has ever been imported. The American White Oak timber, introduced in 1861 by Mr. Donald McKay, of Boston, U.S.A., was used in the royal dockyards as a substitute for British Oak, chiefly for beams, keelsons, and other works requiring large scantlings. At the moment of its introduction, however, the great change took place by which iron was substituted for wood in ship-building ; consequently the demand for it fell, and, owing to the large stock of other woods at the time upon hand, it was difficult to employ it profitably. Ultimately it passed away in the repairs of ships and some minor services. Very little of this wood has ever been placed upon the London market for employment in the private trade. XVIII.] AMERICAN WHITE OAK. In the experiments that were made, it was found White Oak compared very favourably with all the foreign Oaks, but proved to be slightly inferior in strength to the English Oak. TABLE XXXVIII. — AMERICAN (OR PASTURE) WHITE OAK. Transverse Experiments. Number of the specimen. Deflections. Total weight required to break each ££ •g-S £•£ W3 bC Weight reduced to specific gravity Weight required to break i square With the apparatus weighing After the weight was At the crisis of 390 Ibs. removed. breaking. piece. j 1OOO. Inches. Inch. Inches. Ibs. Ibs. I I-65 •15 9'00 836 960 87I 209-00 2 1-50 •oo 8-50 826 988 836 206-50 3 175 •25 9^5 839 95° 883 20975 4 175 •10 10-15 882 IOIO 873 220-50 5 2'35 •35 9'35 ?44 935 795 186-00 6 2-50 •35 675 696 io54 660 I74-00 Total . II'5O I'20 53 'oo 4823 5897 4918 120575 Average I'9l6 •208 8-833 803-83 982-8 819-66 200-96 REMARKS. — Nos. i, 2, 5, and 6 broke with a splintery fracture, 10 to 12 inches in length ; 3 and 4, although splintered like the others, were not completely broken asunder. TABLE XXXIX. Tensile Experiments. Number of the specimen. Dimensions of each piece. Specific gravity. Weight the piece broke with. Direct cohesion on i square inch. Inches. Ibs. Ibs. I 9 10 ii 2x2x30 988 960 935 IOIO 950 28,004 31,076 26,600 31,228 23,512 7,001 7,769 6,650 7,807 5,878 Total . . Average . 4843 140,420 35,105 969 28,084 7,021 106 TIMBER AND TIMBER TREES. [CHAP. xvm. Ditto on i square inch. $$ o ^o ^- *^« o : 10 O ON ON co N N N N N P VO ^ VO fO CON _ 10 p O O O - N CO t^>» t^.00 N N CO "rt <£ O N II Qvp ON rj- §" 88 H CO N j 0 0 1010 0 co N § O 10 O 1O N : : : : : H CON b ' rf #8 a H CO N ON ' ,0 O 10 p r* CO N HH ?::::: O\ ' -\«x-^\ x x x N ON ON N o * I-» f 11 I OO ON O « N 1 N N CO CO CO CHAPTER XIX. THE AMERICAN LIVE OAK TREE (QuerCKS VtretlS.) THIS tree is of very moderate dimensions when com- pared with the White Oak, its usual height being only about 35 to 45 feet, with a diameter of 12 to 18 inches. It is an evergreen, and is found principally in the Southern States of North America, and near to the sea-coast, which it seems to prefer to the more inland and sheltered situations. The wood is dark brown in colour, hard, tough, strong, heavy, and very difficult to work, on account of the grain being wraved or twisted. Its pores are very minute and the medullary rays unusually bright and distinct. The largest logs of live Oak that I have seen im- ported did not exceed about 18 feet in length by 12 inches square, and generally they were of much smaller dimensions. They are usually of a crooked or compass shape, and are, therefore, very suitable for the framing of ships of from 300 to 800 tons burthen, in which only small scantlings are required. It is used extensively for this purpose in the Southern States; it makes good mallets for carpenters, and would be useful for cogs in machinery, and many other services where great weight is not an objection. Judging from the appearance of this timber, it is stronge r than any other known Oak, but, as it was im- possible to obtain a single straight specimen of the prescribed dimensions, viz., 2 X 2 X 84 inches, the usual tests could not be applied, and there are consequently no tables to show what it would actually bear. io8 TIMBER AND TIMBER TREES. [CHAP. THE BALTIMORE OAK TREE (Quercus), so called from the shipments being made chiefly from Baltimore, is a perfectly straight timber, and is brought to us in lengths varying from 25 to 40 feet, the squares, or sidings, being from 1 1 to 20 inches. The wood is of a reddish-brown colour, somewhat darker than the White Oak, and less hard and horny in texture; it is moderately strong, and the quality fair. It might be used with advantage for many minor fit- ments in ships, and for general purposes in carpentry, as it is easy to work, and stands well after seasoning. It is not, however, recommended for use where great strength is required, as, when thoroughly dry, it is scarcely so strong as the best Fir or Pine. The Baltimore Oak tree is of very slow growth (vide Table II., p. 17), and the timber would soon decay unless well protected by paint or varnish after seasoning. TABLE XLI. — AMERICAN (OR BALTIMORE) OAK. Transverse Experiments. Number of the specimen. Deflections. Total weight required to break each «e >> 11 in So Weight reduced to specific gravity Weight required to break i square With the apparatus weighing After the weight was At the crisis of 390 Ibs. removed. breaking. piece. 1000. Inches. Inch. Inches. Ibs. Ibs. I 1-25 •oo 5'00 65I 820 794 16275 2 1-25 •15 7-50 837 695 1200 209-25 3 1-35 •25 8-25 769 738 IO42 192-25 4 1-50 •JS 7-I5 729 736 990 182-25 1 I-85 I-65 -25 •35 7'65 7^5 627 723 734 758 1 I56'75 18075 Total . 8-85 *'iS 42-80 4336 4481 5847 1084-00 Average i '475 •191 7-133 722 -66 746-83 974'5 180-66 REMARKS.—NOS. i 3, and 6 broke quite short ; 2, 4, and 5 with a scarph-like fracture, about 8 inches in length. XIX.] CANADIAN OAK. 109 TABLE XLII. Tensile Experiments. Number of the specimen. Dimensions of each piece. Specific gravity. Weight the piece broke with. Direct cohesion on i square inch. Inches. Ibs. Ibs. 1 9 10 2 X 2 X 30 758 736 734 738 19,600 I95052 11,748 IO,92O 4,900 4,763 2,937 2,73° Total . 2966 61,320 15,330 Average ... 74I-5 15,330 3,832 TABLE XLIII. Vertical or Crushing Strain on cubes of 2 inches. No. ii. No. 12. No. 13. No. 14. No. 15. j No. 16. Total. Average. Ditto on i square inch. Tons. Tons. Tons. Tons. Tons. Tons. Tons. Tons. 1075 1075 I0'5 I0'5 10-5 10*125 63-125 IO-52I 2^630 E = 703230. S = 1897. THE CANADIAN OAK TREE (QuercUS Rubra). THIS tree is of perfectly straight growth, and yields the timber of commerce in logs varying from 25 to 50 feet in length by 12 to 24 inches square. The wood is brown in colour, has a fine straight clean grain, is somewhat porous, shrinks moderately without splitting, is easy to work, and stands well after seasoning. It is remarkable for its very slow growth. About 4,000 loads of this Canadian Oak timber are usually imported annually into London, and a far greater quantity into the Liverpool market, for the use of cabinet-makers and general dealers, who employ it for no TIMBER AND TIMBER TREES. [CHAP. the manufacture of furniture, and in the domestic arts ; but, as a building wood, it can never be in favour, and is quite unfit for architectural or engineering works requiring strength or durability. The Canadian or Quebec Oak is generally quoted in the market at about 20 per cent, higher than the Baltimore Oak, but probably this is chiefly owing to its superior dimensions rather than to any difference in the quality. America produces, besides the foregoing, the Swamp White Oak, Quercus bicolor \ the Rough or Post Oak, Q. stellata ; the Rock Chestnut Oak, Q. montana ; the Black Oak, Q. tinctora ; and the Scarlet Oak, Q. coccinea\ all these are largely used in architectural works, and for agricultural implements, both in the United States and in Canada. THE WALNUT TREE (Juglans) is found widely spread over Southern Europe, in many parts of Asia, and also in North America. That which is brought from Italy is a light-brown wood, close and fine in the grain, with occasionally dark veins, and some waviness of figure ; it is hard, heavy, solid, and with scarcely any disposition to split in seasoning. Planks 4 to 9 inches thick, square edged, 10 to 1 6 inches broad, and 5 to 12 feet in length, are imported and sold, sometimes by weight, at other times by the superficial foot of I inch thick. The Black Sea Walnut wood is imported in logs of 6 to 9 feet in length by 10 to 18 inches square, im- perfectly hewn, a considerable quantity of wane being usually left upon the angles. The wood is similar in colour and texture, but slightly inferior in quality, to the xix.] ' WALNUT. in Italian Walnut wood ; it is dealt with in the market under the same conditions. Burrs or excrescences, frequently measuring 2 to 3 feet across by 1 2 to 15 inches in the thicker part, and weighing 5 to 6 cwt. each, are common to the Walnut trees of Italy and the Black Sea ; they are often prettily mottled or figured, and make rich and splendid veneers for the cabinet-maker ; those of the best quality are con- sequently much prized, and have been known to realise ;£5° to £6° Per ton weight. The wood of the American Black Walnut tree is whitish-brown in colour, moderately hard, straight and plain in the grain, splits freely, and is easy to work. It will not bear comparison with the quality of either the Italian or Black Sea Walnut wood. The trees are large enough to yield building scantlings, the logs as imported being usually about 15 to 30 inches square, imperfectly hewn, by 10 to 20 feet in length. Owing to the liability of the logs to split from the centre, the ends have generally a red colouring matter put over them before shipment, to protect them against atmospheric influences. This wood is sold at per foot cube. There is only about ^ inch of sapwood on the Walnut trees above mentioned. The uses of Walnut wood are chiefly for furniture and pianoforte making. It is also much prized for gun-stocks ; but there are many .other ways of employing it profitably in place of mahogany and other furniture woods. CHAPTER XX. THE TEAK TREE (Tectona grandis). THIS tree is found principally in India; and from the southern limits of its range in Java it is distributed over about 2,000 miles, until it touches close upon the 23° of North latitude. Its range in longitude is also very considerable, since it is found to stretch across Hindustan, and through Burmah to near the frontier of China. It was formerly very plentiful in the Malabar district, but is now only sparingly met with there. At Bombay, where a few years since it was supplied in sufficient quantities from the adjacent province to meet all the demands for ship-building and other purposes, builders have now, owing to its almost complete exhaustion, to draw upon other sources to meet the local requirements. The most extensive, and probably the best, forests of Teak at present existing are in Burmah, where they lie spread along the banks of the Salween, Thongyeen, Irrawaddy, and other rivers. They also stretch very far inland to the countries occupied by the Shans, the Karens, and the Chinese. Other forests stretch con- siderably to the north, and there, upon some of the undulating and mountainous districts, it becomes dwarfed to a rather insignificant tree. Teak is also CHAP, xx.] INDIAN TEAK. 113 believed to be plentiful in Siam,* and is found on several of the islands in the Indian seas. The Teak is a deciduous tree, and prefers shelter to bring it to the greatest perfection. It is of straight growth, and is remarkable for its large drooping leaves, which are from 10 to 20 inches in length, and from 8 to 1 5 inches in breadth. It frequently attains the height of 80 or 100 feet, with a circumference of from 6 to 10 feet, and yields timber in the log 23 to 50 feet in length and 10 to 30 inches square, these being the sizes commonly shipped to this country. The wood varies from yellow or straw to a brownish colour ; is moderately hard and strong, clean, even, and straight in the grain, and is easily worked ; it shrinks very little in seasoning, and has no shakes upon the outer surfaces of the log. It will split, however, unless care is observed in applying the fastenings when brought into use. The quality of the timber depends very much upon the locality in which it is grown, and is exceedingly variable. Teak wood contains a resinous oil which clogs its pores and resists the action of water, and it often oozes into and congeals in the shakes which radiate * Since the foregoing was written, a sample of about 200 loads of Teak timber, the produce of Siam, has been imported into London from Bangkok (1873). In dimensions it compared favourably with the Burmah Teak, was quite straight, and of a pale yellowish colour, plain in the grain, moderately hard, and apparently of about the same specific gravity. As a parcel, however, it was faulty at the pith or centre, in having most injurious heart and star-shakes, only about 20 per cent, of the logs being fit for conversion into plank or board ; the remainder, owing to the defects referred to, could only be profitably employed in bulk, or reduced to scantlings, which would involve a heavy loss. The sound and solid wood in the logs, however, was very good ; and I am of opinion that if the timber is only carefully sorted over at Bangkok, good shipments might be made for the London market. ii4 TIMBER AND TIMBER TREES. [CHAP. from the pith, forming there a hard concrete substance, which no edge-tool can touch without losing its keen- ness. The oil also acts as a preventive against rust when iron is in contact with it, and for this reason it is preferred to all other known woods for the backing to the armour-plates of iron-clad ships of war. It pos- sesses, indeed, so many valuable properties, that it has long been held in great esteem as a material for con- struction, while its economical uses are so great, that there is no carpenter, or other worker in wood, who does not, after having once tried it, fully appreciate its value. In favourable situations the Teak tree grows to a sufficient height to furnish the lower masts for ships of 2,000 tons burthen, and it is commonly employed for this purpose in the East Indies. It is naturally a tall tree, and I am of opinion that greater lengths of timber might be produced from it than we generally receive, if only a little more care were taken to prevent waste in the forests. Ordinarily the practice is to cut off the bole or stem below the branches ; whereas, in many cases, it would be easy to include in it the knots of some of the lower ones, and thus gain a foot or two more of length in the log, which the ship-builders ^and many others would con- sider to greatly enhance its value. In the late contracts for this description of timber for the royal dockyards, it was stipulated that the minimum length of the log should be 24, and the average 28 feet, but as of late it has been found difficult to obtain this average from the Moulmein district (whence nearly all our supplies have been drawn for many years* past) the minimum and average length has been reduced respec- tively to 23 and 27 feet. The Burmese assign two reasons for not aiming to produce a better average length of log ; one is, that xx.] INDIAN TEAK. 115 the greater the length, the greater is the difficulty of moving and getting them out of the forests to the streams, and the increased danger when there of entanglement in the short bends of the water-courses. Another is, that the long logs were, until quite lately, liable to some trifling duty; while upon the short pieces coming from the forests, no charge whatever was levied on their arrival at Moulmein. It is the practice in Burmah to girdle the Teak trees three years before they intend to fell them ; a complete ring of the bark and sapwood being cut through and removed in order to kill the tree. This object is very soon obtained, as in a few days, or at most a few weeks, the tree is dead ; the natural juices contained in it are, therefore, gradually run off by the root while the tree stands. This and the great heat of the climate com- bined, seasons the wood, and renders the log — which, in its green state would have a specific gravity of at least i 'ooo, and be difficult to move if felled — so much lighter that it floats easily over the shallows of the streams or rivers to the port of shipment. And as usually about a year elapses between the felling and the delivery of the timber in England, it is commonly received in a fit state for immediate use. The practice of girdling is, I think, objectionable, inasmuch as the timber dries too rapidly, is liable to become brittle and inelastic, and leads frequently to the loss of many fine trees by breakage in falling ; further, it must be regarded as so much time taken from the limit of its duration, which is of great importance. Girdling has been discontinued in the Annamallay forests of Malabar, under the impression that it causes, or at least extends, the heart-shake ; it is, however, practised in Cochin, Travancore, and a few other places ; n 6 TIMBER AND TIMBER TREES. [CHAP. but, as the evidence of its utility goes no farther than to show the advantage gained in being able to float the timber immediately it is felled, it seems probable that before long it will be given up entirely. Experiments- have been made in Burmah* in felling green Teak, but, as out of 100 trees so felled, twenty-seven in number had extensive heart-shake, and ten others were less seriously affected, it was thought desirable to carry the experi- ments farther before determining the matter in question.. Although imported and known under the general name of Teak, there are many varieties, if not distinct species of it, the Burmese naming those found in their country after the districts in which they grow ; thus, in the Moulmein district there are the Thoungyeen, the Sal ween, the Karanee, the Attaran, and the Laingbooe Teak ; and in the Rangoon district, the Irrawaddy Teak, all differing slightly in colour, grain, texture, and specific gravity. The Thoungyeen and the Salween Teak timber are of a yellowish-brown colour, smooth and uniform in their texture, with a fine long grain. The Karanee Teak has alternate shades of dull brown and yellow colour, the grain being close and long, with occasionally a rowiness, or figure, in it, and is also very free from defects. The Attaran Teak is rather stunted in growth compared with the varieties just mentioned, but is of fully the same circumference. The wood is brownish in colour, dense, hard, and resembles very much the Malabar Teak. It is heavier than either the Thoungyeen or Karanee, and is also coarser and more knotty, owing to the branches occurring lower down the stem. Some of these, from accident or otherwise, get broken off, and defects, arising * Forest Reports. xx.] INDIAN TEAK. 117 from the moisture lodging in the ruptured parts, are not unfrequent in it. The Laingbooe Teak has a most peculiar growth, and deviates strangely from the ordinary cylindrical form, in having its stem twisted and deeply grooved, or fluted. It consequently takes a tree of rather large size to yield a small straight square log, and when obtained it is but an indifferent one, owing to the fibre of the grain having been cut and weakened by the hewing of an irregular form or shape into a regular one. In colour this wood is rather darker than any of the others, and it is also considerably harder and heavier. The Irrawaddy or Rangoon Teak timber is of a pale yellow colour, very closely resembling the Thoungyeen Teak of the Moulmein district in its uniformity of texture, and in having a long straight grain. It is a clean free kind of wood, with the centre commonly softer and more spongy than the outer annual layers. In consequence of this it cuts transversely, with a coarseness and fluffiness of surface near the pith which is remark- able; this, I consider, may be taken as indicative of poorness or inferiority in the quality.* It is also characteristic of the Rangoon or Irrawaddy Teak to be shaky at the centre, there being, besides the heart-shake, which is common more or less to Teak timber, a close, fine, star-shake, radiating from the pith, which is seriously detrimental to its value. Many of the logs cannot, therefore, on this account be converted into planks and boards without incurring a very considerable * The dealers in Rangoon Teak wood say that the soft spongy appear- ance is of no consequence, as it is merely caused by the workmen having used a coarse cross-cut saw for butting and topping the logs, in place of an ordinary fine-toothed one, that would be better fitted for it. n8 TIMBER AND TIMBER TREES. [CHAP. loss. If, however, it is used in bulk, or in stout scantlings> as for backing to armour-plates on ships, or in batteries, or any similar works, it answers equally well with the Moulmein Teak, the risk being in attempting to reduce it into thin planks. The Rangoon Teak is straight, and yields a better average length of log than is to be found in those of the Moulmein district ; the dimensions of the squares are, however, nearly alike. In Malabar, the largest forests of Teak trees are to be found upon the Annamallay hills, at an elevation of about 1,500 to 3,000 feet above the level of the sea. They consist, however, for the most part, of saplings and trees past their prime, the most useful having been felled and removed long since, a few trees of excessively large growth only being left available for the purposes of commerce. The Teak grown on the Annamallay hills is subject to extensive heart and other shakes about the centre of the tree, and this involves great waste of timber, as only the flitches taken from the outside part are available for use. Attempts have been made to produce " squares " and " planks " by the use of the saw upon pits, and by machinery, but it was found not to answer ; the logs were, therefore, cleaved by wedges along the run of the heart-shake into two segments, and from these " squares " " planks " and various scantlings were pro- duced by the axe, quite clear of shakes. The Malabar Teak is very good in quality, and is generally darker in colour, denser, and a trifle stronger than Burmah Teak, when tested, one piece against another. But, as the trees are so much less useful on account of the defects before mentioned, it is probable the Burmah Teak will always have the preference for xx.] INDIAN TEAK. 119 manufacturing purposes. Malabar Teak is a few pounds heavier per cubic foot than Burmah.* I tested, when in Burmah, all the varieties of Teak that were then drawn from the Tenasserim forests, and found a very considerable difference in their transverse strength ; this, however, may probably be attributed to the variations of soil, and to the length of fibre in the grain. Thus the transverse strength of the Thoungyeen was proved to be 284 Ibs., the Karanee 271 Ibs., the Attaran 20 1 Ibs., and the Laingbooe only 175 Ibs. per square inch, the mean strength being 233 Ibs. per square inch. The several specimens tried were each of them 2 x 2 X 84 inches, supported on props 6 feet apart, with the weight applied, as usual, in the middle ; the result being that the Thoungyeen and the Attaran both broke with a long splintery fracture, while the others snapped off very short. In some experiments more recently conducted in this country on twelve pieces of Moulmein Teak of the same dimensions as above, the results gave, as the mean breaking weight, 220 Ibs. to the square inch, which is less than the average of the four varieties just mentioned, and 32 Ibs. below the average of the three first named ; the Laingbooe being struck out as not likely ever to be imported in sufficient quantities to affect the results when applying Teak to building purposes. The dif- * An effort has recently been made to open up afresh the resources of the Annamallays ; but owing to the faulty character of the trees, and from having to convey the logs a distance of about forty miles by land-carriage to a port of shipment, it is thought to be extremely doubtful whether it can ever compete in the European market with the Teak timber of Burmah. 120 TIMBER AND TIMBER TREES. [CHAP. ference is against the specimens tried in England, but this may be attributed mainly to the more seasoned state of the pieces, and, perhaps, in part, to better appliances for testing. The mean deflections of the twelve pieces referred to, were, when weighted to 390 Ibs., 1*791 inch, and with the breaking weight of 878 Ibs., 5*916 inches. From these results it appears, by the application of the formulae used by Professor Barlow, that the strength is represented by 2303, and the elasticity by 530970. The same pieces being tested for tensile strength, took a strain nearly equal to 6 tons to overcome the direct cohesion, or about 3,301 Ibs. to the square inch. A number of cubes of this timber were subjected to a crushing force in the direction of the fibres, and these generally gave way under a pressure of about 2^ tons per superficial inch of base. Altogether, some fifty- three experiments of this kind were made upon Teak, four being on pieces 2 X 2 of various lengths, others were 3X3, varying by I inch from 8 to 18 inches in length, the piece of 16 inches proving to be the strongest, and taking 28*75 tons to crush it; then there were pieces 4X4, and severally varying by I inch from 15 to 24 inches in length, the piece of 20 inches proving to be the strongest, and taking 42 tons to crush it. Again, there were pieces 6x6, and severally varying by 3 inches from 12 to 30 inches in length, the piece 18 inches in length taking 174 tons to crush it ; and finally, there were other pieces 9X9j{, varying by 3 to 6 inches from 1 2 to 30 inches in length, the strongest of which, 2 1 inches in length, took 368*6 tons to cripple it; the details of these will, however, appear in Tables XLVIII. and XLIX. The following experiments were made in order to XX.] INDIAN TEAK. 121 test the deflections of Teak under given weights at various distances, viz. : — TABLE XLIV. Nos. i to 6. Specimen, 2 x 2 x 84 inches, supported on props, 3ft., 4ft., 5ft., 6 ft. apart. Weighted with 3oolbs., the deflections were „ ,, 40olbs., ,, „ •065 •300 •300 •600 750 1*150 I "250 ins. 2-050 „ Specimen, 2 deep X 1% broad X 84 inches, supported on props, 3ft-, 4ft-, 5ft-, 6 ft. apart. Weighted with 300 Ibs., the deflections were „ „ 40olbs., „ „ •300 •400 •400 •800 I -100 I-500 2 'looms. 2-800 „ This piece, tried the other way, viz.: — \yz" deep x 2" broad, supported on props, 3ft., 4 ft., 5ft-, 6 ft. apart. Weighted with 3oolbs. , the deflections were „ „ 400 Ibs., ,, „ •200 •500 •800 I'2OO I "6OO 2'600 3'2ooins. Broke. The specific gravity of these pieces was respectively '586 and "631 ; a proof that they were thoroughly seasoned. Upon the laws which govern these deflections, I offer no opinion, and the experiments are merely introduced here to show how near the results go to confirm Professor Barlow's theory that the strength varies as the cubes of the length. There is one other species of trial which it may be well to mention, namely, that to ascertain the elongation 122 TIMBER AND TIMBER TREES. [CHAP. of the fibres of Moulmein Teak in a length of 3 feet under certain strains. Three pieces, each 2 x 2 x 48 inches, were thus tested, at one of the royal dockyards, and it was found that the mean elongation was nearly a quarter of an inch. (See Table L.) The Teak tree is subject to a wasting away of the early annual layers long before it reaches maturity ; and the number of young trees found thus affected in the rafts brought from the forests to the shipping port is very remarkable. The surveyor judging only from the deliveries of Teak in this country would hardly be aware of this, as hollow trees would not be selected for the European market Teak timber is also subject to heart-shake, as before observed, and in many logs, especially if they are procured from old trees, it is found to extend to one- half, and sometimes to two-thirds the diameter of the tree, and stretching along the entire length of it. If this shake is in one plane throughout, the conversion of the log involves no greater difficulty or loss than that occasioned by dropping out a piece large enough to include it. When, however, as in other instances, the cleft or shake at the top is at right angles, or nearly so, to that at the butt end, it is rather more serious, as the log must either be used in its greatest bulk, or worked up for small scantlings, such as could be obtained if it were cut into two or more lengths. If the shake, extends only a few feet up from the butt end, the most profitable way of converting the log would be by cutting it into plank or board, taking care to work from the outside instead of the centre, and thus waste only a tapering or wedge-like piece, sufficient to include the defect. Many Teak logs are worm-eaten ; holes from a xx.] INDIAN TEAK. 123 quarter to half an inch in diameter are found upon the surface, which often penetrate deeply and in all direc- tions. Such logs have generally a dull appearance, and are invariably brittle and of inferior quality. This defect is, I consider, indicative of an unhealthy if not dead state of the tree, before it was cut down. The ravages of the worm are detrimental to the strength and value of the timber, and logs so affected are not fit to be reduced to plank for use on bottoms of ships. Teak, notwithstanding its defects, is extensively used for ship-building in this country, in place of English and other Oaks, African and Sabicu timber, &c., &c., and the objection that was formerly made against its use in ships of war, as being unsuitable, on account of its lia- bility to splinter if struck by a shot, is no longer allowed to stand in the way of its employment. Teak timber is also used, to a moderate extent, for ship-building in the arsenals of foreign countries. The quantities of Teak timber received here annually from Moulmein have hitherto been very large, and so greatly in excess of that which it was calculated a few years ago could be drawn from the Tenasserim forests, that fears have been entertained the supply from that source must soon fail, and we notice a falling off in the shipments. This has, however, been supplemented by the shipment of considerable quantities of Teak from Rangoon, and it seems probable that that port will soon become the chief timber station for the export of this important article of commerce.* I do not, with this new source of supply open to us, * Between 1865 and 1870, inclusive, Moulmein sent to Europe 147,421 loads, and Rangoon 28,821 loads of Teak timber. i24 TIMBER AND TIMBER TREES. [CHAP. apprehend that any serious difficulty is likely to arise for some time to come ; but, happen when it may, there are yet the forests of Siam, which are said to be very extensive, and also those of Java, almost untouched ; and from these, I imagine, the future supplies for the European market could be drawn. Teak timber is sorted into A, B, and C classes in the London market, according to dimensions, not quality, A class or pile being 15 inches and upwards on the larger side, and 23 feet and upwards in length ; B, ditto ditto, 12 and under 15 inches on the larger side, and 23 feet and upwards in length ; C, ditto ditto, under 12 inches on the larger side, and 23 feet and upwards in length ; D are damaged logs. B and C classes are usually sold at about 10 to 20 shillings per load under the price for A pile timber. The value of Teak in the London market has fluctu- ated very much. In 1859 and 1860, the market being overstocked, it stood as low as £10 to £11 per load of 50 cubic feet; but, in 1861, when there was a sudden and unexpected demand for timber generally, it rose to £16 per load ; it soon, however, declined again, and is now (1875), with a stock of about 8,000 loads of Moul- mein and Rangoon upon* hand in the London market, to be had at about £12 to £14 per load. XX.] INDIAN TEAK. 125 TABLE XLV. — BURMAH (OR MOULMEIN) TEAK. — No. i. Transverse Experiments. Number of the specimen. Deflections. Total weight required to break each piece. J5|? 11 Weight reduced to specific gravity IOOO. Weight required to break i square inch. With the apparatus weighing 390 Ibs. After the weight was removed. At the crisis of breaking. Inches. Inch. Inches. Ibs. Ibs. 7 2-05 "25 5-50 840 712 1179 210*00 8 I'35 •10 4'50 971 787 1233 242-75 9 175 "IS 475 867 840 1032 21675 IO I-65 •oo 5-00 915 724 1277 22875 II 175 •oo 7-5o 923 720 1282 23075 12 i '35 •oo 5-00 960 874 1098 240-00 Total . 9-90 •5° 32-25 5476 4657 7101 1369-00 Average 1-65 •083 5375 9I2'66 776-16 II83-5 228-I6 E = 576220. S = 2394. REMARKS. — Each piece broke short to the depth of about one-third, then with scarph- like fracture, 8 to 12 inches in length. TABLE XLVI. — BURMAH (OR MOULMEIN) TEAK. — No. 2. Transverse Experiments. Number of the specimen. Deflections. Total weight required to break each piece. ££ 1! Weight reduced to specific gravity IOOO. Weight required to break i square inch. With the apparatus weighing 390 Ibs. After the weight was removed. At the crisis of breaking. Inches. Inch. Inches. Ibs. Ibs. 13 1-25 •o 5^5 95° 910 1044 237-5 14 2'10 •o 7'00 850 821 1035 212-5 15 175 •o 7'00 920 8os 1018 230-0 16 I-90 •o 675 816 790 1033 204-0 17 I-50 •o 6-50 920 800 1150 230-0 18 3-15 '5 6-25 602 726 829 ISO'S Total . II-65 '5 3875 5058 4852 6109 1264-5 Average I-942 •083 6-485 843 808-66 1018-16 21075 E = 485720. S = 2213. REMARKS.— Each piece broke short to the depth of about one-fifth, then with scarph- like and fibrous fracture, 10 to 14 inches in length. 126 TIMBER AND TIMBER TREES. [CHAP. TABLE XLVII. Tensile Experiments. Number of the specimen. Dimensions of each piece. Specific gravity. Weight the piece broke with. Direct cohesion on i square inch. Inches. Ibs. Ibs. ' 19 787 H,564 3,641 20 800 16,240 4,060 21 22 2 X 2 X 30 724 805 I0,9l6 14,000 2,729 3,500 23 726 10,368 2,592 24 821 13,152 3,288 Total . ... 4663 79,240 I9,8lO Average . 777 13,207 3,3°I TABLE XLVIII. Vertical Experiments on Cubes of Number i Inch. 2 Inches. 3 Inches. 4 Inches. of the specimens. Crushed with Crushed with Crushed with Crushedwith Tons. Tons. Tons. Tons. 25 to 28 2'375 12-500 2375 37-5 29, 30 2'500 12-500 — — 31, 32 2-625 10-750 — — 33, 34 2-500 10-500 — — 35,36 2'125 10-750 — — 37,38 2-375 11-125 — — Total . . I4'500 68-125 — — Average . 2*4166 "'354 2J75 37-5 Do. per in. 2-4166 2-838 2-64 2-343 INDIAN TEAK. 127 TABLE XLIX. Vertical Experiments. Number of the specimen. Dimensions of the pieces. tl Cfl M Crushed with Ditto on the square inch. Inches. Length. Inches. Tons. Tons. 39 I 760 I3-750 3*437 40 2X2 2 3 730 770 II-354 12-875 2*838 3*219 42 4 780 13750 3'437 43 8 744 18*000 2-000 44 9 704 18*500 2-055 10 653 l8*000 2*000 46 ii 663 18-250 2*028 47 12 640 ig-OOO 2*111 48 3X3 1 13 635 2O'OOO 2*222 49 H 672 23-500 2*388 50 15 678 23-750 2*639 16 672 24-250 2-694 52 17 678 24-000 2*666 53 18 661 22-500 2*500 54 '5 662 33-5 2*094 55 16 682 34-0 2*125 56 17 724 38-25 2*387 57 18 744 40-25 2*515 58 59 4x4 19 20 699 756 37-00 42'OO 2*312 2*625 60 21 761 40-25 2-5I5 61 22 771 37-00 2*312 62 23 690 37-50 2-343 63 24 644 3O*OO 1-875 64 12 811 I53-0 4-250 11 15 18 831 831 163-8 I74-0 4-550 4-833 67 6x6 21 786 169*0 4-694 68 24 836 122*2 3'399 69 27 693 168*4 4-666 70 30 78i I53-0 4-250 71 9X9 12 889 307*0 3-776 72 9'x 9' 15 845 337-8 3-974 73 9x9 18 846 286*0 3-530 74 9'x 9' i 18 864 307*0 3*612 75 9'x 9' 21 828 368*6 4-572 76 9x9 24 757 276*2 3*410 77 9x9 30 835 307*0 3-790 The mean of Tables XLV. and XLVI. = E = 530970. S = 2303. 128 TIMBER AND TIMBER TREES. [CHAP. xx. TABLE L. Experiments on Specimens of Teak, to ascertain the elongation of the fibres in a length of 3 feet, under various strains, the dimensions of each piece being 2 x 2 x 48 inches. |li l°8. § w 1 1 1 1 (/>• 1 1 £ 1 o 1.^ IK 0 « g reaking strain. 0. 5*" pq 78 e 1/32 1/32 1/16 1/16 1/32 2/32 332 1/16 2/1 6 3(3? 2/16 $2 3/i 6 3A6 3/i6 3/i6 4/16 5/16 Inch. 3/i6 5/16 ^?/i6 Tons. 775 10-25 7 'CO u c) yj •0313 •0521 •0729 •"45 •1249 •187 •187 •25 •312 •229 8-333 CHAPTER XXI. BURMAH. THE Pyengadu, or Iron-wood tree, the Ingazylocarva of the botanists, is a species of Acacia, of straight growth, found in the Burmese forests, and also in the country occupied by the Karens, towards Western China, where it is often seen rising to 70 or 80 feet clear of branches, and of very large circumference. It yields timber in the log 12 to 24 and even 30 inches square, and of great lengths. The wood is of a reddish-brown colour, hard, heavy, tough, strong, rigid, and frequently possesses some figure in the grain, which has the appearance of being both waved and twisted ; its pores are rilled with a remark- ably thick glutinous oily substance, which oozes out upon the surface after the wood has been worked, leaving a clamminess which cannot be completely got rid of until the piece is thoroughly seasoned. This oily substance has probably a preservative property about it, and may be conducive to the durability of the timber. The Pyengadu was highly spoken of by the officers at Moulmein, who supplied considerable quantities of it to the Madras Government for the manufacture of gun- carriages, and also for other purposes. Although it was K i3o TIMBER AND TIMBER TREES. [CHAP. not extensively known then, it was a favourite wood in the East for works requiring strength and durability, and without doubt the samples I met with all looked remarkably well, and seemed fit to be employed in any work of construction where great strength is required. It is interesting to note that, subsequent to this, Lieut.-Col. H. W. Blake, the Commissioner at Moulmein, brought this wood to the notice of the Home Govern- ment. He says ; "It is one of the largest trees in Bur- mah, and is called Ingazylocarva, a species of Acacia, which combines in itself the properties of wood and iron, and is therefore very appropriately called Iron-wood by us and Pyengadu by the Burmans. It is heavier than water and more indestructible than iron. There is a piece of this wood which supported a Teak figure of 'Godama' taken from Rangoon in 1826, standing in a lake near. The Teak figure has long since mouldered away into dust, but at the pillar I fired a rifle shot, at 20 yards' distance ; the ball was thrown back, making no penetration whatever. The wood seems hardened by time and exposure, and it is also a fact that the teredo will not touch it. The Burmans do not girdle and kill this tree as they do the Teak, but fell and saw it up at once, and refuse to work it in a dry state." Dr. Hooker says : "It is found, not universally in India, but in widely distant parts. Throughout Tenasserim and the Malay peninsula it is called ' Peengado.' It is abundant in the Bombay Presidency, where it is called ' Jambea ' and ' Yerool ;' in the Godavery forests it bears the name of ' Boja ; ' it is common at Singapore, and I have ascertained that it is plentiful in the Philippine Islands. Everywhere the wood bears a high character XXL] PYENGADU. 131 for hardness and durability ; the white ant will not touch it ; it shrinks in seasoning one-eighth inch per foot of surface, and the density is 5 Ibs. IO oz. per foot super- ficial. It is one of seven or eight species of trees which Dr. Falconer, in his report of the Teak forests of Tenas- serim, earnestly requests the Indian Government to pre- serve." Five specimen logs of the Pyengadu, each about 20 feet in length, and 20 to 24 inches square, were sent to Woolwich Dockyard in 1863, for trial experimentally in ship- building ; but, as they were found to have exten- sive heart-shake, they were scarcely fit for constructive purposes. If, therefore, the heart-shake defect seen in these logs fairly indicates the character of this wood, its value as building timber would be seriously affected. I am, however, of opinion that this is not the case, and that these were probably some chance pieces which happened to be in the way when specimen logs were required. Three of the logs here referred to were kept for several years at Woolwich without any good oppor- tunity offering for their employment, and after this lapse of time they did not appear to have undergone any change, or to be in the slightest degree deteriorated. The specific gravity of these logs was about 1176, while that given by Dr. Hooker is 1080 ; the difference is therefore not very important. I found in the Commissariat Stores at Moulmein, besides the Teak and Pyengadu, many other valuable woods of building sizes, and the following are especially worthy of notice, namely, the Padouk (Pterocarpus) of a deep red colour ; the Parewah, and the Penthityah, both of a dark reddish-brown colour ; the Kammone ; the Annan (Fagrcea fragrans\ and the Kamonpew, each 132 TIMBER AND TIMBER TREES. [CHAP. reddish in colour, but rather paler than the Padouk. There is also the Thingan (Hopea species], a wood heavier than Teak, and which lasts under water far better. It grows abundantly on the Tavay coast and islands.* The above are all very compact woods, close and fine in texture, of good quality, and no doubt durable. They have long been in use in Burmah, and in the Madras Presidency, and are fit and suitable for use in works of construction, but, up to the present time, they are scarcely known in this country. Of a less useful character, but still of some value, is the Thitkado, the Toon of India, a kind of bastard Cedar, which yields timber 1 1 to 26 inches square, and 14 to 40 feet in length. The wood is of a pale red colour, clean and straight in the grain, moderately hard, and not difficult to work. It is not mild enough for pattern-making, but, for general purposes in the domestic arts, it might be used in lieu of the better kinds of Cedar from Cuba and Mexico, whenever these are scarce in the market The Thitkado is subject to heart and star-shakes, and in seasoning is very liable to split from the surface if left long in the round or unconverted state, consequently we need not look for any very extensive business to be done in it. There have been some importations of this wood into the London market, and to the Continent. Small quantities of Thitka or Kathitka, a kind of bastard Mahogany, have also been exported from Burmah, for furniture and other purposes, but I have not yet met with it in London. It is thought to be a species of Tiliaceae, and is named by Kurz as Pentace Burmanica. * Report of the officiating Inspector-General of Forests. XXI.] PYENGADU, ETC. 133 TABLE LI. — IRON-WOOD, OR PYENGADU (BURMAH). Transverse Experiments. Number of the specimen. Deflections. Total weight required to break each piece. Specific gravity. Weight reduced to specific gravity IOOO. Weight required to break i square inch. With the apparatus weighing 390 Ibs. After the weight was removed. At the crisis of breaking. Inches. Inch. Inches. Ibs. Ibs. I 75 •oo 4-50 1240 II5O 1078 3IO 2 I -00 •05 4-60 1250 1225 1020 3I2-5 3 I'OO "°5 4-90 1490 II5O 1291 372'5 4 •85 "OO 3^5 IIIO 1165 953 277*5 5 •90 •oo 3 '5° 1130 1225 922 282-5 6 1-25 •10 475 I42O H43 1242 355 Total . 575 •20 25-5 7640 7058 6506 1910 Average •958 *°33 4-25 1 273 '3 1176-33 1084-3 318-33 REMARKS. — Nos. i, 2, 3, and 6 broke with about 12 inches length of fracture, 4 and 5 with somewhat less. All were fibrous and wiry. TABLE LII. Tensile Experiments. Number of the Dimensions of Specific Weight the piece broke Direct cohesion on specimen. . each piece. gravity. with. i square in. Inches. Ibs. Ibs. 7 J' H43 35>840 8,960 8 1150 41,440 10,360 9 10 ss 40,320 38,640 I0,o8o 9,660 ii 1165 38,080 9,520 12 \ 1225 37,420 9,355 Total . ... 7058 231,740 57,935 Average 1176 38,623 9,656 TABLE LII I. Vertical or Crushing Strain on cubes of 2 inches. No. 13, No. 14. No. 15. Tons. No. 16. No. 17. No. 18. Total. Average. Ditto on i square in h. Tons. Tons. Tons. Tons. Tons. Tons. Tons. 20750 20-625 20-875 20-500 2I-250 2I'OOO 125*000 20-833 5-208 E = 1,031940. S = 3342. CHAPTER XXII. BORNEO AND THE CHINA SEAS. THE Chow, or Menkabang Penang tree, is found in the Island of Borneo, where it is said to be very abundant. It attains large dimensions, is of straight growth, and yields timber in the log of from 30 to 70 feet in length, and from 15 to 26 inches square. The wood is of a yellowish or straw colour, close and fine in texture, straight in the grain, hard, heavy, tough, and exceedingly strong. It is used in Borneo and the countries bordering on the China seas, for the masts of junks and other vessels, for house and ship-building, and for a variety of minor purposes. The earliest importation of the Chow, or Menkabang Penang timber, into this country was, I believe, in 1 860-6 1, when it came direct to the London market, and thence passed into Woolwich Dockyard, to be experimentally employed for beams, keelsons, and other purposes where strong, straight timber is required in ship-building ; and in this way it gave every satisfaction. One or two cargoes of Borneo timber, including the Chow, subsequently reached this country, and were delivered at the northern ports, where they were gradually absorbed, chiefly in ship-building ; but, owing to the more extended use of iron in ships, the wood is not now inquired for, and the importations appear, for a time at least, to have ceased. CHAP. XXII.] CHOW. 135 TABLE LIV. — CHOW,- OR MENKABANG PENANG (BORNEO). Transverse Experiments. Number of the specimen. Deflections. Total weight required to break each piece. L Specific eravity. Weight reduced to specific gravity IOOO. Weight required to break i square inch. With the apparatus weighing 390 Ibs. After the weight was removed. At the crisis of breaking. Inches. Inch, Inches. Ibs. Ibs. I I -00 •oo 275 904 1144 790 226-00 2 I -00 •05 4'10 1231 IIOO III9 30775 3 I'OO •oo 175 766 1136 674 191-50 4 75 •05 1 122 1124 998 280-50 I'OO •05 2-65 8l4 1070 761 203-50 6 75 •oo 2-25 1013 1 120 904 253-25 Total . 5-5o •15 17*00 5850 6694 5246 1462*50 Average •916 •025 2*833 975 III5-6 8743 ^4375 REMARKS. — Nos. i, 2, 4, and 6 broke with fractures about 12 inches in length ; 3 and 5, rather shorter. TABLE LV. Tensile Experiments. Number of the specimen. Dimensions of each piece. Specific gravity. Weight the piece broke with. Direct cohesion on i square in. I 9 10 ii Inches. 2 X 2 X 30 IIOO 1136 1144 II7O 1 120 Ibs. 25,760 25,760 31,640 31,360 29,456 Ibs. 6,440 6,440 7,910 7,840 7,364 Total . 5670 143,976 35,994 Average ... "34 28,795 7,199 TABLE LVI. Vertical or Crushing Strain on cubes 0/2 inches. No. 12. No. 13. No. 14. No. 15. Total. Average. Ditto on i square inch. Tons. Tons. Tons. Tons. Tons. Tons. 22-750 22-500 22-250 22-446 89-946 22-486 5-62I E = 1,013836. S = 2559. 136 TIMBER AND TIMBER TREES. [CHAP. THE PINGOW TREE is also found in the island of Borneo, where it is said to be plentiful. It is of straight growth and good dimensions, and yields timber of from 25 to 40 feet in length, and 1 1 to 1 8 inches square. The wood is of a dark brown colour, hard, heavy, tough, rigid, and remarkably strong ; it is straight in the grain, close in texture, and not difficult to work. It is used in Borneo for all the purposes to which the Chow is applied, except that, as the tree does not attain the same altitude, it will not furnish masts for any but the smaller junks. The characteristic properties of the Pingow are favourable to its introduction for any purpose where great strength is required ; and, of the sample logs brought to this country in 1 860-61 and at subsequent dates, the whole were passed either to Woolwich Dockyard or to the out-ports, to be employed in ship-building. TABLE LVIL— PINGOW (BORNEO). Transverse Experiments. Number of the Specimen. Deflections. Total weight required to break each piece. s.£ Q, rt Ul M Weight reduced to specific gravity 1000. Weight required to break i square inch. With the apparatus weighing 390 Ibs. After the weight was removed. At the crisis of breaking. Inches. Inch. Inches. Ibs. Ibs. I 75 •05 3 '50 1235 757 1631 308-75 2 75 'OS 3'65 1223 753 1624 30575 3 •65 •oo 4*25 1355 745 1819 33875 4 •90 •10 375 1237 742 1667 309-25 75 •15 4*35 1302 748 1740 325 '5° 6 •85 •oo 3'40 1228 740 1660 307-00 Total . 4*65 •35 22*90 7580 4485 IOI4I 1895-00 Average 775 •0583 3-816 1263-3 747'5 1690 3I5-83 NOTE.— All broke short. XXII.] PINGOW. 137 TABLE LVIII. Tensile Experiments. Number of the specimen. Dimensions of each piece. Specific gravity. 'Weight the piece broke with. Direct cohesion on i square in. Inches. Ibs. Ibs. 7 \ 745 22,400 5,600 8 742 20,440 5>110 9 10 2 X 2 X 30 757 748 28,000 25,480 7,OOO 6,370 ii 740 26, 600 6,650 12 { 753 28,560 7,140 Total . ... 4485 151,480 37,870 Average ... 747-5 25,246 6,3" TABLE LIX. Vertical or Crushing Strain on cubes of 2 inches. No. 13. No. 14. No. 15. No. 16. Total. Average. Ditto on i square inch. Tons. Tons. Tons. Tons. Tons. Tons. I7-I25 18-625 I8-I25 I8-750 72-625 18-156 4-539 E = 1,259690. S = 3316. THE KRANJI, OR RED KRANJI TREE, of which it is probable there are varieties of some other colour, is likewise found in the island of Borneo ; it is a tree of straight growth and noble dimensions, and com- pares favourably with the Chow ; it was imported in 1 860-6 1 with the latter wood, and ultimately sent to Woolwich Dockyard to be employed for naval purposes. The wood is red in colour, hard, heavy, exceedingly tough, and is one of the strongest with which we are acquainted, every one of the specimens, when tried trans- versely, taking a very heavy strain, and breaking with an unusually long fracture ; the grain is close and some- what resembles Cuba or Spanish Mahogany, but is very 138 TIMBER AND TIMBER TREES. [CHAP. plain. It would take a high polish, and, except for the almost total absence of "figure" to give it beauty, it would be valuable for the manufacture of furniture, or any ornamental purposes. The Kranji is chiefly used in Borneo for ship and house-building, but would be useful in a general way, and seems likely to prove fit for many of our requirements, TABLE LX.— RED KRANJI (BORNEO). Transverse Experiments, Number of the Deflections. With the apparatus weighing After the At the crisis of Total weight neouiTco :; fcrak each piece. It 11 Wefeitf rcdncei to Inches. *5<> 75 •65 •So Inch. •»5 •00 •oo "00 4-50 475 5 '-5 4x0 I.SJ9 1,382 1,347 275 1051 956 1046 998 1447 1424 1315 1409 IS* 38275 37975 414-25 365 -oo Total S73 •15 24*25 8,896 6176 8642 Aver.-.^e •025 1,482-6 1029 3 1440 3 370-66 REMARKS — Nos. x, 5, and 6 broke with very ! and scarph tike. Only one piece of Kranji was tested for tensile strength, and that proved equal to a strain of 10,920 Ibs. on the square inch. None were tried under the vertical or crushing strain. E = 1,504910. S = 3892. THE KAPOR OR CAMPHOR TREE is found also in the island of Borneo, and was imported XXII.] KRANJI AND KAPOR. 139 in 1860-61 with the Chow, Pingow, and Kranji ; it is of traight growth and very large dimensions, yielding timber from 25 to 45 feet in length, and from 12 to 24 inches square. It has no rich scent like that of the iphor wood of India. The wood is light red in colour, and has some resem- lance to Honduras Mahogany ; it is plain, close and straight in the grain, moderately hard and tough, and nearly as strong as the Pingow. The defects of this wood are, a sponginess about the early concentric layers, rhich, combined with the prevalence of star-shake, is rery detrimental to the quality and usefulness of it ; this account it would be most suitable for such con- irsions as admit of its use in the greatest bulk. Its employment being thus somewhat restricted, it will probably not be esteemed either among engineers or builders in this country. TABLE LXI. — KAPOR OR CAMPHOR (BORNEO). Transverse Experiments. Deflections. Total - . Weight Weight X— rer eft- specimen. With the apparatus weighing 390 Ibs. After the removed. At the crisis of breaking. 7c I V.'.':: Jl to break each piece. us tb to specific gravity IOOCX required to break i square inch. i! Inches. 75 •60 75 •C5 Inch. •08 •oo "OS *IO -oo Inches. 375 375 4-00 4-10 Ibs, ,213 & % ,127 910 965 I°53 977 936 895 1333 1149 1109 1265 1323 '1260 Ibs. 303-25 292-00 309-00 309-50 28175 Total . 3-90 •28 22*00 7,105 5736 7439 1776-25 I Average •65 -046 37^6 1,184-16 956 123983 296-04 REU ARKS.— All broke with splinters 4 to 8 inches in length. 1 40 TIMBER AND TIMBER TREES. [CHAP. TABLE LXII. Tensile Experiments. Number of the specimen. Dimensions of each piece. Specific gravity. Weight the piece broke with. Direct cohesion on i square in. 8 Inches. \ 2 X 2 X 30 | 965 977 Ibs. 25,760 28,560 Ibs. 6,440 7,140 Total . ... 1942 54,320 13,580 Average ... 971 27,160 6,790 TABLE LXII I. Vertical or Crushing Strain on cubes of 2 inches. No. 9. No. 10. No. ii. No. 12. Total. Average. Ditto on i square inch. Tons. Tons. Tons. Tons. Tons. Tons. 2175 21-25 21'00 21-25 85'25 2I-3I 5'33 E = 1,463000. S = 3108. Borneo produces several other species of trees, including the Tanjan, Meraha, Mirabeau, Panjan, and the Kampar. These all attain good building sizes, and, judging from the sample logs sent with the Chow, &c., to this country, I am inclined to think they would be found useful and valuable for constructive purposes. THE MOLAV& TREE ( Vitex geniculata*) is found in the Philippine Islands, and, judged by the parcel of 6 to 8 loads of selected wood imported here in 1863 or 1864, is of straight growth and moderate dimensions, although, according to Blanco, it is "very often crooked." * Blanco's " Philippine Flora." XXII.] MO LA VE. 141 The wood is yellowish or straw-colour, hard, heavy, strong, close in the grain, and possesses a figure or waviness that somewhat resembles satin-wood ; hence it may be found useful not only in building, but for cabinet purposes. It is said to be used extensively in the Philippines for all kinds of work. The Molave timber appears to be of good quality, and has the property of seasoning without much shrink- age or splitting ; it also stands exposure to the weather for a long time without showing any signs of being deteriorated by it. In the Philippines it is considered to be very durable. Judging from the appearance of the parcel referred to, it can be recommended to no'tice, as being fit to supplement any of the hard woods in present use for constructive purposes. TABLE LXIV. — MOLAVE (PHILIPPINE ISLANDS). Transverse Experiments. Number of the specimen. Deflections. Total weight required to break each piece. Ssl? els W bfl Weight reduced to specific gravity 1000. Weight required to break i square inch. With the apparatus weighing 390 Ibs. After the weight was removed. At the crisis of breaking. Inches. Inch. Inches. Ibs. Ibs. 2 3 1-25 1-25 1-25 TO •25 'IS 5'oo 575 475 I,2OO 1,320 I,2IO 972 987 I080 1235 1337 II2O 3OO'O 330-0 302-5 Total . 375 "SO i5'5o 3,730 3039 IOI3 3692 932'5 Average" 1-25 •166 5-166 I,243-3 1231 3IO-83 REMARKS. — Each piece broke with a long scarph-like fracture. 142 TIMBER AND TIMBER TREES. [CHAP. TABLE LXV. Tensile Experiments. Number of the specimen. Dimensions of each piece. Specific gravity. Weight the piece broke with. Direct cohesion on i square inch. Inches. Ibs. Ibs. 4 987 30,240 7,560 5 972 29,120 7,280 6 2 X 2 X 30 1080 34,720 8,680 7 954 20, 1 60 5>040 8 "15 42,000 IO,5OO Total . . ... 5108 156,240 39,060 Average . ... IO2I'6 31,248 7,812 E - 832990. S = 3264. The following woods are also found in the Philippine Islands, namely— 2. Lauan, 3. Banaba, 4. Dougon, 5- Ypil, 6. Lacolaco, 7. Acle, 8. Tindalo (two sorts), 9. Diladila, 10. Yacal, 11. Mangachapuy, 12. Karra, 13. Guigo, 14. Camayuan, 15. Malatapay, 1 6. Palo Maria, 17. Mapilia, 1 8. Mambog, 19. Bolongnita, and some of them are considered to be of a very useful description, Nos. 2 and 7 especially so. The Lauan timber (No. 2), after some experiments had been made on specimens 0*39371 inches square by 39'37i inches in length, with the following results, was XXII.] LA UAN. officially reported upon to the Spanish Government only a short time ago : — TABLE LXVI. Arc of flexion produced by a constant weight of 2,204 lt>s- hung from the centre. Arc at which fracture took place. Weight applied at centre of the arc. Distance between the supporters of the wood. Inch. 0'43 Inches. 3-I5 Ibs. 14-99 Inches. 23*62 and 2677 TABLE LXVII. 1 . Resistance Maximum elas- ticity to be allowed in construction of buildings. *! . 8 2. IT •** s i3 •&f Resistance to tortion co-efficient of iracture T. To pressure Tension of strength of cohesion. With the grain of the fibre. On the grain perpendi- cularly. Absolute strength. Applicable strength. Ibs. •948 Ibs. Ibs. 198-41 Ibs. 1529-99 Inch. •038 Ibs. 15299 Ibs. 158-16 Ibs. 168-43 Ibs. 16-84 REMARKS. — Weight producing fracture at the bend, 1^32 Ib. T co-efficient of fracture by bending, or of maximum bend. Father Gaspard de St. Augustine says, in his manu- script History of the Philippine Islands, that the outside planks of the old Manilla and Acapulco galleons were of Lauan wood, and that it was chosen because it does not split with shot. THE ACLE, No. 7 (Mimosa Acle, Juga xylocropd)* is without thorns or excrescences. The Indians use it for the construction of their houses, and prize it for its good quality. In working it causes sneezing. The bark is *Blanco's " Philippine Flora." 144 TIMBER AND TIMBER TREES. [CH. xxn. used in washing. Its leaves are not small like the generality of Mimosa, but about 8 or 9 inches long, by 3 inches broad. This wood is supposed to be identical with the Iron-wood or Pyengadu of Burmah. The forests* of Panay (Iloilo) and Negros abound with these excellent woods, in situations most favourable for shipment. * One of the present Chinese steam-frigates was built wholly of Philippine Island woods ; and the ribs, knees, Ac., &c., were cut in the forests from templates sent from the Foo-choo-foo Arsenal. CHAPTER XXIII. AFRICA. THE African Oak tree, the African Teak, or Mahogany timber of commerce — for it is known under a variety of names — is probably the Swietenia Senegalensis, or 6*. Khaya, the produce of which is brought from Sierra Leone, and appears to form a link between the Oak of Europe and America and the Teak of India, partaking largely of the characteristics of both species. The tree is of straight growth, and the height, as estimated from the logs imported, must be at least 30 to 40 feet clear of the branches, with a circumference of from 7 to 8 feet. This wood is of a dark red colour, very hard, strong, rigid, and difficult to work or cleave ; it has a fine, close, straight grain, is of remarkable solidity, has no injurious heart-shake, and shakes of the cup or star kind are extremely rare in it ; the centre wood, about the earlier concentric circles, is close and very compact, differing less from the outer layers in texture than in most other trees. In seasoning this timber 146 TIMBER AND TIMBER TREES. [CHAP. shrinks very little, it rarely warps, and stands exposure to the weather a long time without opening with surface shakes, or sustaining any apparent damage. African timber, possessing, as it does, so many good properties, is employed in ship-building for beams, keelsons, riding bitts, stanchions, &c., and in a variety of ways ; but in civil architecture, and in the domestic arts, it is only sparingly used, on account of its weight. This timber is brought upon the market in very roughly-hewn logs, intended, no doubt, to be square, but varying considerably from that form, and taking, generally, the most irregular shapes (Fig. 23). Some- FIG. 23. times they are angular, at other times they have a thick and a thin edge, resembling, in some degree, a " feather- edge " board ; again, we find they are neither tapered to the natural growth of the tree, nor made parallel longi- tudinally, but vary in thickness in that direction, leading to a most serious waste of the raw material in the neglect to preserve the fullest-sized square log obtainable from the tree. It will naturally be inferred that, being thus awk- wardly shaped, it is the most difficult of all timber to measure correctly. XXIII.] AFRICAN OAK. TABLE LXVIII.— AFRICAN (AFRICA). Transverse Experiments. Number of the specimen. Deflections. Total weight required to break each piece. ££ 1! Weight reduced to specific gravity 1000. Weight required to break i square inch. With the apparatus weighing 390 Ibs. After the weight was removed. At the crisis of breaking. Inches. Inch. Inches. Ibs. Ibs. I 2-25 •10 5-50 1,301 982 1325 325-25 2 2-50 'OS 4-25 971 1086 894 24275 3 2-50 'OS 575 1,231 1008 1221 30775 4 2 'DO •oo 5'35 1, 086 988 IO99 271-50 5 175 •oo 475 1,014 934 1085 253'50 6 2-50 •10 5 '25 1,046 962 1087 26l'5O Total . 13-50 •30 30-85 6,649 5960 6711 I,662-25 Average 2-25 •05 5 '142 1,108-16 993 '3 1118-5 277-04 REMARKS.— Nos. i, 3, and 4 broke with a long fracture ; 2, 5, and 6, short, but fibrous. TABLE LXIX. Tensile Experiments. Number of the specimen. Dimensions of each piece. Specific gravity. Weight the pieces broke with. Direct cohe- sion on i square inch. 8 9 10 Inches. \ 2 X 2 X 30 ,. 982 1008 934 962 Ibs. 30,800 43,400 19,040 19,600 Ibs. 7,700 10,850 4,760 4,900 Total . . 3886 112,840 28,2IO Average . ... 97i'5 28,210 7,052 i48 TIMBER AND TIMBER TREES. [CHAP. TABLE LXX. Vertical Experiments on cubes of— Number of the specimen. i Inch. 2 Inches. 3 Inches. 4 Inches. Crushed with Crushed with Crushed with Crushed with II — 14 15, 16 17, 18 19, 20 21, 22 23, 24 Tons. 5-OI3 4-875 4-875 4^37 * 4-875 4^75 Tons. 18-625 I7-875 18-500 18-000 18-500 18-250 Tons. 39'5 Tons. 64-0 Total . . 29-450 109-75 — — Average . 4-908 18-292 39 '5 64-0 Do. per in. 4-90 4-573 4-388 4-0 TABLE LXXI. Vertical Experiments. Number of the specimen. Dimensions of the pieces. Specific gravity. Crushed with Do. on the square inch. Inches. Length. Inches. Tons. Tons. 3 , 2X2 I 2 3 993 I7-000 l8'292 18-875 4-250 4-573 4-719 28 4 I8-I25 4-53I 29 } 7 .-. 39-500 4-390 30 3i [3*3 8 ii ... 38-500 4-277 3-944 32 ) 12 36-000 4-000 33 4x4 17 ... 63-000 3-938 34 9 x 10 24 ... 433*200 4'8ll E = 410430. S = 2909. XXIIL] AFRICAN OAK, ETC. 149 We have no very extensive knowledge of the woods of Western Africa, and that to which I have just referred is probably the only useful tree known to commerce in the markets of this country. At the Cape I obtained specimens of the Else and Red Else wood, the light, dark, and grey Stink wood, and the Yellow wood, and understood that all these grew to moderate dimensions, and were useful for building and domestic purposes in the colony ; but as there were none within easy reach of Cape Town, or then available for exportation, no oppor- tunity was afforded of judging from any large parcel of either as to their real merits. A few years since Mr. Macleod, formerly H.B.M. Consul at the Seychelles Islands, procured a great many specimens of woods from the district of the Zambesi, and sent them to the Admiralty. Annexed is a list of twenty-six varieties, with their names and the dimensions the trees are supposed to attain, as also their uses as given by Mr. Macleod ; observing that where an opinion of the quality is stated, it is the best that I could form from small pieces of 3"x3"xi". Some few of these would certainly be fit for any architectural or other works, but we have no informa- tion as to their abundance or otherwise, or even whether they could be easily brought out from the forests to a port of shipment. i5o TIMBER AND TIMBER TREES. [CH. xxm. TABLE LXXIL Trees found near the River Zambesi. No. Local Names. Dimensions of Stem. REMARKS. Length. Diameter. Feet. Inches. I Inhanpasse . 6 8 2 Pingue or Pad preto . . 1 6 6 Resembles Lignum vitae. 3 Mocua . . H 8—io Forked knees. Good quality. 4 Imbila . . 15—18 12 Flexible, light. Middling do. 5 Murumanhama 18 12 Pale red colour, light. 6 Mocunca. . 15—18 8—io Grows crooked, heavy. 7 Mocoza . . 35—45 36-48 Yellow colour, light, wormed. Inferior quality. 8 Mucumite or Sandal-wood. J6-S •I Brown with light and dark shades of colour, heavy, crooked. Good quality. 9 Pamburo. . . Shrub 10 Peam. . . . 18 12 — 20 Red colour, shrinks and warps, heavy. ii Mussangara . . 12 10 Crooked, heavy, liable to split. 12 Taxa .... 2O 20—28 Yellowish colour, heavy. Good quali'y. 13 Mocundo-cundo 36 40 — 60 Yellow colour, light, porous, used for masts, bark yields quinine. 14 Mucorongo . . 18 12 15 Raiz -de -Pingue or Pao-preto . 1- Roots spreading, heavy, black as ebony. 16 Monangare . . 18 20—28 Resembles rosewood, heavy, crooked, used by wheel- wrights, and for blocks. 17 Mocasso-cassa . 18 20—28 Reddish-brown colour, hard, heavy, xised for joiners' work. Good quality. 18 Pao-ferra or Iron-wood I" 8 Red colour, hard, heavy, used for furniture and treenails. Good quality. 19 Pao-ferro or I 2* Q Dark brown, heavy, resembles Mais-is-curo . \ 4 o Sabicu. Good quality. 20 Pangira . . . 30 26 Brown colour, porous, used in house and ship-building. 21 Pao-fava . . . 22 12 Red colour, light, resembles mahogany. Good quality. 22 Metteral . . . 24 12 Ditto, heavier. Ditto, ditto. 23 Mugunda . . 40 — 60 12 — 24 Yellow colour, straight, light, used in ship-building. 24 Morrunda . . 15 5-8 Ditto, ditto, ditto. 25 Mouna . . . 15 12 Red colour, straight, mode- rately heavy. Good quality. 26 Luabo . . . 12 IO Ditto, heavy, ditto. I' CHAPTER XXIV. WEST INDIES, ETC. THE Greenheart tree, Nectandra Rodicsi, belonging to the natural order Lauracece, is found in Guiana, in the north-eastern portion of South America, and is an ex- ceedingly valuable tree, yielding timber of perfectly straight growth, of from 24 to 50 feet in length, and 1 2 to 24 inches square. Dr. Rodie detected in the bark of this tree an alkaloid called Bebeerine, which is used by the inhabi- tants of British Guiana as a remedy for fevers ; and it is said, that when used as a substitute for quinine, it does not produce the headache and other symptoms found to follow the use of that medicine. The wood is of a dark greenish or chestnut colour, the centre part being often nearly black ; it, however, varies slightly, and the darker kinds are considered the best in quality. It is clean and straight in the grain, very hard and heavy, tough, strong, and elastic. In a transverse section it resembles a cane in being very full of minute pores, and the concentric layers are only in rare instances distinguishable. The heartwood is considered very durable, and is generally believed to be proof against the ravages of the worm when used for piles, or other purposes under water, a property which would greatly enhance its value if it could be relied upon ; but its immunity under such circumstances is thought to be doubtful. 152 TIMBER AND TIMBER TREES. [CHAP. Of the durability of the Greenheart timber, we have had sufficient evidence in the large stock of this wood kept in the royal dockyards, where it stood the test of many years' exposure to the weather, without being in any but the least degree affected by it. At Woolwich, the only place, I believe, where any attempt was made to protect it for preservation, the experiment to some extent failed, the ends of the logs splitting open rather more in the covered stacks than in those which were left exposed, while, in other respects, there was absolutely no difference observable between the two parcels. It is characteristic, however, of the Greenheart timber to split in this way, and to open clean across the pith in seasoning, there being frequently two such splits crossing each other at nearly right angles, and cleaving the log, at the end, into four segments ; but these do not, usually, extend more than two or three feet up from the end. This serious defect is, to some extent, compensated for by the fact that the logs do not split and form deep shakes along the sides in the seasoning, as do most other woods ; so that there is not, after all, more than the ordinary amount of waste in the conversion of this kind of timber. Further, it is remarkable for its freedom from knots, and also for its general soundness, the only defect, beyond the splitting of the ends before mentioned, being a cross fracture of the longitudinal fibres, which is occa- sionally seen, but can seldom be detected before the log is under conversion. The alburnum, or sap of this wood, is of a dark greenish colour, and differs so little in appearance from the heartwood, that it is often difficult to distinguish the one from the other. In quantity it is usually excessive, frequently amounting to a fifth, and sometimes even to a third, of the diameter of the tree. Few people, however, xxiv.] GREENHEART. 153 regard it when appropriating this timber to works of construction. Owing to the difficulty of distinguishing the sap, many either dispute its presence altogether, or assert that if it exists it maybe safely employed the same as the sap of Lignum Vitae ; this is, however, by no means certain, as I have found that if it is placed in any damp or im- perfectly ventilated situation, it decays much sooner than the heartwood ; but, if used under more favourable circumstances, its durability is very great. In connection with this question, a merchant and importer of Greenheart timber said upon one occasion, when we had a parcel under survey, that he was confident a certain log had no sapwood upon it, for if it had, it would be liable to the attack of a small worm, but that the worm would not touch the heartwdod. The log referred to was accordingly tested by cutting off a thin cross section, and upon examination of the piece, there were found in it several marks or traces of the worm, which had penetrated to the depth of 2 to 3 inches; the heartwood, or duramen, had not, however, been touched. The gentleman at once admitted that, with such evidence, he would take it as conclusive that there was sap to the depth of 3 inches on the log, but that its appearance had entirely deceived him. The case was no doubt exceptional, as the worm is very seldom seen in this wood. Greenheart is extensively employed in ship-building for keelsons, engine-bearers, beams, shelf-pieces, &c., and for planking. It is also used for piles, and many other purposes, but its application to the domestic arts is some- what limited by its great weight. The strength of this wood exceeds that of most others, whether it be tried by the transverse or tensile 154 TIMBER AND TIMBER TREES. [CHAP. strain, or by a crushing force in the direction of its fibres. Tried by the latter process, it exhibits a peculiarity unshared, I believe, by any other timber except Sabicu. It bears the addition of weight after weight without showing any signs of yielding ; and, when the crushing force is obtained, it gives way suddenly and completely, with a loud report, nothing being left of the pieces but a loose mass of shapeless fibres. The Greenheart timber is not usually hewn in the perfect manner that Teak, Mahogany, and many other woods are when prepared for shipment to the markets of this country, but comes from Demerara only partially dressed, a great deal of wane being left upon the angles. The butts are also almost invariably left with the snapped ends, as prepared for drawing out of the forest, instead of being cut off square. Its form should therefore be considered with the price quoted per load, as it will not compare favourably with well-squared timber. TABLE LXXIII. — GREENHEART (DEMERARA). Transverse Experiments. Number of the specimen. Deflections. Total weight required to break each piece. Specific gravity. Weight reduced to specific gravity IOOO. Weight required to break i square inch. With the apparatus weighing 390 Ibs. After the weight was removed. At the crisis of breaking. Inches. Inch. Inches. Ibs. Ibs. I 2-15 •05 5'00 ,235 1180 1047 30875 2 2"OO •oo 475 ,656 H93 1388 414-00 3 2-25 •15 4-60 ,305 1079 1209 326-25 4 2'OO •oo 5-00 ,212 1152 1052 303-00 5 2-25 •15 4'i5 ,258 1172 1073 3I4-50 6 2-25 •05 4*25 ,329 1 122 1184 332-25 Total . 12-90 •40 2775 7,995 6898 6953 1 1998 75 Average 2-15 •066 4-625 1,332-5 1 149 -6 1158-8 333'i25 "REMARKS. — Nos. i, 2, 3, and 6 broke with splintery fractures, 12 to 15 inches in length ; 4 and 5 with similar fractures, but only 10 to 12 inches in length. XXIV.] GREENHEART. f TABLE LXXIV. Tensile Experiments. Number of the specimen. Dimensions of the pieces. Specific gravity. Weight the piece broke with. Direct cohesion on i square in. I 9 Inches. > 2 X 2 X 30 < H52 1079 "93 Ibs. 31,920 36,400 37,520 Ibs. 7,980 9, loo 9,38o Total . . ... 3424 105,840 26,460 Average . 1141 35,280 8,820 TABLE LXXV. Vertical Experiments on cubes of— Number of the specimen. i Inch. 2 Inches. 3 Inches. 4 Inches. Crushed with Crushed with Crushed with Crushed with 10—13 14—17 1 8— 21 22—25 Tons. 7'00 675 675 6*50 Tons. 27"OOO 27-362 27750 27-000 Tons. 57-I25 58-000 57'250 56-875 Tons. 93^50 92^75 92-625 93-500 Total . . 27-00 I09-II2 229-25 372-I50 Average . 675 27-278 5f3I2 93-037 Do. per in. 675 6-819 6-368 5-8I4 156 TIMBER AND TIMBER TREES. [CHAP. TABLE LXXVI. Vertical Experiments. — Four pieces, Nos. 26, 27, 28, and 29, each 2x2 inches, and respectively 123 4 Inches in length. Crushed with 27-25 127-2875! 25-875 | 25.862 Tons. £ = 436880. 8 = 3498. THE MORA TREE (Mora excelsa\ the produce of Demerara and the island of Trinidad, is a tree of straight growth, yielding timber in the log of 1 8 to 35 feet in length, and 12 to 20 inches square. The wood is of a chestnut-brown colour, hard, heavy, tough, strong, and generally straight in the grain, but has occasionally a twist or waviness in the fibre, which imparts to the logs possessing it a beautifully figured appearance, giving to them much additional value. As it takes a good polish, it would be useful as a substitute for Rosewood, or dark Spanish Mahogany in cabinet making, and might be employed for many purposes in the domestic arts. The economical uses of the Mora are somewhat restricted by the frequency of star-shake in the logs, and only the best trees can be advantageously converted into plank and board ; it may, however, be used with greater profit for beams, keelsons, engine-bearers, &c., in ship-building, and in a general way in large scantlings for either civil or naval architecture. The Mora possesses great strength, and contains an oily or glutinous substance in its pores, which is probably conducive to its durability. XXIV.] MORA. TABLE LXXVII. — MORA (DEMERARA AND TRINIDAD). Transverse Experiments. Number of the specimen. Deflections. Total weight required to break each piece. it Weight reduced to specific gravity 1000. Weight required to break i square inch. With the apparatus weighing 390 Ibs. After the weight was removed. At the crisis of breaking. Inches. • Inch. Inches. Ibs. Ibs. I 2-00 •10 475 1,353 1075 1258 338'25 2 2-00 •10 5-00 1,363 1088 1253 340-75 3 2-15 '15 5'oo 1,304 1094 1192 326'OO 4 2-00 'OS 5-00 1,284 1090 1178 321-00 Total . 8-15 •40 1975 5,304 4347 4881 I326-00 Average 2-037 •10 4'94 1,326 1086-75 I22O'25 33-5 REMARKS. — Each piece broke with about 12 inches length of fracture. TABLE LXXVIII. Tensile Experiments. Number of the specimen. Dimensions of each piece. Specific gravity. Weight the piece broke with. Direct cohesion on i square in. H Inches. 2 X 2 X 30 (1094 \ 1090 ( 1075 Ibs. 37,800 37,240 35,840 Ibs. 9,450 9,310 8,960 Total . 3259 110,880 27,720 Average ... 1086 36,960 9,240 TABLE LXXIX. Vertical or Crushing Strain on cubes of 2. inches. No. 8. No. 9. No. TO. No. u. No. 12. No. 13. Total. Average. Ditto on i square inch. Tons. Tons. Tons. Tons. Tons. Tons. Tons. Tons. 14^75 I4-750 I4-875 I5'750 15750 I5-500 9I-50 I5-25 3'8l2 E = 466570. S = 3481. 158 TIMBER AND TIMBER TREES. [CHAP. The island of Trinidad also produces the Carapo and the Balata trees, both of which attain moderate dimen- sions. Sample logs of the Carapo timber were a few years since sent to Woolwich Dockyard, with a view to their introduction for ship-building purposes. The wood was red in colour, straight in the grain, of moderate weight and hardness, and somewhat resembled inferior mahogany. It had, however, a strong tendency to split and tear to pieces in seasoning, and in only a few months it was so far deteriorated by shakes as to be unfit for almost any purpose in carpentry. The wood of the Balata tree was dark red in colour — fine, close, and straight in the grain — hard, heavy, strong, and somewhat resembled the African timber of com- merce, except that the centre of the logs was very shaky. Decay, with hollowness, had set in about the pith in some of the logs, indicating that it had commenced while the trees were still young, and otherwise strong and vigorous. When the logs referred to had been kept for only a few months to season, the ends split open very much, and as these splits or shakes crossed each other at nearly right angles, and extended rapidly, they seemed likely soon to separate the pieces into four quarters, a serious defect which disqualified them for use in large scantlings, and rendered them only fit for some inferior purposes. Judged by the samples of Carapo and Balata, it seems that neither are suitable for important works of construction; it is therefore doubtful whether any supplies will be now imported. The following woods, the growth of French Guiana, were selected under a commission appointed by the xxiv.] ANGELIQUE. 159 Colonial Government of St. Laurent du Maroni. They were imported into Havre-only recently (1874). I. Angelique. A species of Teak. This tree is of straight growth, and yields timber 12 to 22 inches square, by 20 to 54 feet in length, clear of branches. The wood is of a reddish-brown colour, clean and even in the grain, moderately hard, tough, strong, elastic, and not difficult to work, although it does not cleave readily. Occasionally a few logs are found with a waviness or figure in the grain, which would make them valuable to the cabinet-maker. There is little sap-wood. The timber is very sound and free from knots, and, except that a small percentage of the logs have a slight heart, or perhaps, star-shake at the pith or centre, there are no defects affecting the conversion of it into planks, boards, &c., as may be required. This wood, therefore, seems fit for employment in architecture for most of the purposes to which African, Mahogany, Oak, Teak, Sabicu, &c., &c., are used. It is reported to have been used for some time in the French dockyards as backing to armour plates on ships, and as it does not appear to contain any acid, it might be employed in lieu of Teak for a similar purpose in the royal dockyards in England. It has been said that it does not rot in water, that it is proof against attacks from many insects to which other timber is liable, and that it is durable. The specific gravity is estimated to be about 770 to 820 when seasoned.* * Since the above was written, an opportunity has offered of practically testing a few logs of partially seasoned Angelique timber, s. g. 916. They opened very sound, and were tough, strong, and elastic. There was very little waste in the conversion — in reducing it to planks, &c. In work- ing, however, it was found that some of the logs emitted an unpleasant odour, and — unless in seasoning the odour should evaporate — fhis may possibly prove detrimental to its value for general purposes, perhaps for the inside of ships, or in close, damp places. 160 TIMBER AND TIMBER TREES. [CHAP. 2. Balata. This wood is of a yellowish colour, hard, heavy, strong, plain in grain, with slight heart-shake at pith or centre. It appears to be of good quality, and fit for employment in architecture in lieu of other hard wood, or it might be used for furniture. The sample logs were 13 to 18 inches square, by 20 to 24 feet in length. 3. Ebene, This wood is greenish in colour, very hard, heavy, strong, plain and even in the grain, solid, and good in quality. The sap-wood is about \\ inch thick. It would be useful in turnery, or for any of the purposes to which the common or Ceylon Ebony is applied. 4. Ebene rouge. This wood is of a dark reddish colour, hard, heavy, strong, and straight in the grain, but is scarcely so solid at the centre as the last-mentioned wood. The dimensions of two sample logs were 12 to 14 inches square, by 14 to 17 feet in length. Both had cup-shakes at the ends. The uses for this wood would be similar to No. 3. 5. Grignon. This wood is red in colour, moderately hard, close and plain in the grain, and solid. It is of good quality, and fit to be employed in civil architecture, or in the domestic arts. The dimensions of sample logs varied from 14 to 17 inches square, and 14 to 27 feet in length. 6. Maconatari. Only one out of six pieces sent could be identified ; it was dark in colour, hard, and heavy. The dimensions given for the parcel varied from 14 to 20 inches square, and 14 to 23 feet in length. 7. Paccouri Soufri. This wood is of a reddish- yellow, or brimstone colour, of a moderate degree of hardness, straight in the grain, and disposed to split freely in seasoning. Three logs were sent as samples, and each had injurious heart and cup-shakes. The xxiv.] VARIOUS. 161 dimensions were 19 to 22 inches square, and 14 feet in length : longer timber could no doubt be obtained if it were worth while, but it seems to be only fit for very inferior purposes. 8. Rose male. This wood is of a yellowish colour, moderately hard, heavy, and straight in the grain. Only one sample log was sent ; the dimensions were 12 inches square, and 14 feet in length, both ends were covered with wood clamps, which was probably done to hide a faulty centre. It appeared to be only fit for inferior purposes. 9. Rose femelle. This wood, like the preceding, is of a yellowish colour, hard, of moderate weight, and straight in the grain. Only one sample log was sent ; the dimen- sions were 16 inches square and 14 feet in length, and this was touched with incipient decay at the centre. Like No. 8, it appeared to be only fit for inferior purposes. 10. Simarouba. This wood is light in colour, mode- rately hard, plain and free in the grain, and splits rather seriously in seasoning. The quality is not good, it there- fore could only be used for inferior purposes. The dimen- sions of the logs varied from 14 to 16 inches square, and 13 to 14 feet in length. 11. Satine. This wood is red in colour, hard, heavy, solid, and of good quality. It might be employed in either naval or civil architecture in lieu of other hard wood, and also for cabinet work, turnery, &c., &c. The dimensions of the logs varied from 13 to 15 inches square, and 14 to 28 feet in length. The sap-wood left upon the angles appeared to be about I ^ inch thick. 12. St. Martin. This wood is red in colour, hard, heavy, close and straight in the grain, and of good quality. It might be employed in either naval or civil architecture in lieu of other hard wood, and would be valuable for furniture and other purposes. The dimensions of the 1 62 TIMBER AND TIMBER TREES. [CHAP. two sample logs were 17 and 20 inches square, and 27 \ feet in length. 13. Violet. This wood is of a violet colour, very hard and heavy, close and fine in the grain, and solid. The quality is very good, and therefore it is likely to be highly prized by the cabinet-maker, turner, and others. The dimen- sions of the logs were n and 13 inches square, and 24 feet in length. 14. Wacapou. This wood is brownish in colour, straight, and clean in the grain, of moderate hardness and weight, and inclined to split or shake rather seriously from the pith or centre. It would not, therefore, be of much value for architectural purposes, but in the domestic arts it could be turned to account in many ways. The dimensions of the logs varied from 13 to 16 inches square, and from 14 to 21 feet in length. 15. Wacapou gris. This wood is darker in colour than the preceding, and has a slight resemblance to Rosewood, but is upon the whole pretty much of the same character as the Wacapou, and of no value except perhaps for the plainer description of cabinet work. The dimensions are the same as No. 14. 1 6. Ebene verte. This wood is dark green in colour, very hard, heavy, close in the grain, solid, and of good quality. Like No. 3, it has about \\ inch of sap-wood. The dimensions of the logs varied from 14 to 16 inches square, and were about 14 feet in length. It would be chiefly useful in cabinet work and turnery. 17. Boco. This wood is dark in colour, hard, heavy, straight, and of good quality. It might be useful in architecture as an article of general applicability in place of other hard and strong wood, or to the cabinet-maker for furniture, &c., &c. The logs were delivered at the docks in Havre in a round state, and were about 18 inches in diameter, and 29 feet in length. xxiv.] JUBA. 163 1 8. Panacoco. This wood is dark in 'colour, hard, heavy, straight, and of good quality, the sap-wood being about ij^j inch thick. It might be used as a substi- tute for other hard wood in architecture, or for general purposes. The sample log was in a round state, 17 inches diameter, and 32^ feet in length. All the woods, from 2 to 18 inclusive, were readily taken by the Parisian and local dealers at Havre for cabinet and other purposes, and realised good prices. A great many specimens of other woods growing in the French colony at Guiana were also sent with the foregoing ; but as they were quite small pieces it was difficult to judge of their fitness for employment in architectural or other works. Probably before long some of these may be supplemented by sample logs, similar in dimensions to Nos. 2 to 18, and if so, a better estimate may be formed of their commercial value. THE JUBA TREE (ErytJiroxylon) is found in Havana. Two sample pieces of plank, cut from the Juba tree, were sent by the Consul-General in Cuba, in 1858, to the Admiralty, with a view to the introduction of this wood into the royal dockyards for ship-building purposes. It was understood they were forwarded at the request of Mr. Donald, a gentleman of considerable experience in the timber business, who was of opinion that it would be found a useful wood. He reported that the tree attained the same dimensions as the Sabicu, and that it could be supplied in large quantities. It, therefore, appeared to be well worth a consideration, as the im- portation of Sabicu timber was very limited, and scarcely equal to the demand for it. The samples referred to, upon examination at Wool- 1 64 TIMBER AND TIMBER TREES. [CHAP. wich, were found to have been cut from small trees, but so far as could be judged from their appearance, the timber was suitable for use in architecture, and would probably be useful in the domestic arts. The wood of the Juba tree is yellow in colour, hard, heavy, strong, close in the grain, and apparently would work up well. The specific gravity is about 1072. I have not been able to ascertain that it has ever been brought upon the London market, and think it likely its uses are chiefly confined to the island of Cuba. THE SABICU TREE (Acacia Formosa} is a native of the West Indies, and is plentiful in Cuba. Its growth is somewhat crooked and irregular, but it yields excellent timber of from 20 to 35 feet in length, and from 1 1 to 24 inches square. The wood is of a dark chestnut colour, hard, heavy, strong, close in the grain, and is often twisted or curled in the fibres, which gives it a wavy, or, as it is technically termed, a figured appearance, imparting to it a rich dark colour, which resembles and is sometimes mistaken for Rosewood. It is often on this account of considerable value, and being capable of taking a high polish, is much prized by cabinet-makers and others, who employ it for furniture, &c. The Sabicu has very little sap, and is a remark- ably solid wood. It is characteristic of it that there is an almost complete absence of the heart, star, and cup -shakes. It seasons slowly, shrinks but little, and does not split, as do most other woods, while under- going that process. It also bears exposure to the weather without being in any but the slightest degree a fleeted, even if left without either paint or varnish to xxiv.] SABICU. 165 protect it ; further, it works up well, and there is only a trifling loss in its conversion. Therefore, as this wood is known to be durable, it has much to recommend it to the favourable notice of the manufacturer. There is one defect, however, occasionally met with in the Sabicu, which must be set against the good qualities before mentioned, as it is more common to this than to any other timber with which we are acquainted. This is a cross fracture of a very remarkable kind, and of the greatest importance, from the fact that it can rarely be detected until the log is in process of conversion. It is then sometimes found that the longitudinal fibres of the early and middle period of the tree's existence are completely broken, while the outer woody layers of both the duramen and alburnum are perfect. This defect will sometimes occur in several places in the same tree. It is difficult to conjecture the cause of this, since it cannot, one would think, be done by the concussion in the fall of the tree, as that would, if any injury were done, produce a more extensive fracture than has been noticed ; one which would be apparent upon a superficial exami- nation of the surface. I therefore incline to the opinion that it is produced by the storms and hurricanes that occasionally sweep over the island, swaying the trees to and fro, and snapping the longitudinal fibres of the stem, without breaking them completely off; the later growth apparently strengthening, and most effectually covering the defect. It may, however, be well to state, that in offering this opinion of the cause of the cross fracture in Sabicu timber, the same does not appear to affect the Mahogany and other trees, the produce of Cuba, since no instance of this peculiar defect has been found. Sabicu is used in ship-building for beams, keelsons, engine-bearers, and stern-posts, and for pillars, cleats, &c. 1 66 TIMBER AND TIMBER TREES. [CHAP. Officers have, however, hesitated to employ it for beams which are intended to carry heavy guns, lest it should contain some hidden defect of the character just mentioned. It is only sparingly used in works of civil architecture, on account of its great specific gravity. TABLE LXXX.— SABICU (CUBA). Transverse Experiments. Number of the specimen. Deflections. Total weight required to break each piece. Specific gravity. Weight reduced to specific gravity IOOO. Weight required to break i square inch. With the apparatus weighing 390 Ibs. After the weight was removed. At the crisis of breaking. Inches. Inch. Inches. Ibs. Ibs. I I '00 •oo 3*25 ,090 936 1165 272-50 2 I '00 TO 4'io ,510 928 1735 377*50 3 I '00 •05 3-I5 ,090 899 I2I3 272-50 4 •85 •oo 4-25 ,390 9IO 1527 347 '5° I '00 •05 3'5o ,280 923 1387 320-00 6 •90 •oo 4-25 ,395 904 1543 34875 Total . 575 •20 22*50 7,755 5500 8570 193875 Average •958 •033 375 1,292-5 916-66 I428-33 323-125 REMARKS. — Nos. i, 4, 5, and 6 broke with about 10 to n inches fracture; 2 and 3 broke with 8 inches fracture. TABLE LXXXI. Tensile Experiments. Number of the Dimensions of Specific Weight the piece Direct cohesion on specimen. the pieces. gravity. broke with. i square inch. Inches. Ibs. Ibs. 7 > / 923 17,360 4,340 8 904 24,360 6,090 9 10 \ 2 X 2 X 30 / 910 936 22,120 2I,28o 5,530 5,320 II 899 20,776 i 5,194 12 )_ ( 928 27,496 6,874 Total . . 5500 133,392 33,348 Average . 916-66 22,232 5,558 xxiv.] SABICU AND LIGNUM 167 TABLE LXXXIL Vertical Experiments on cubes of— Number of the specimen. i Inch. 2 Inches. 3 Inches. 4 Inches. Crushed with Crushed with Crushed with Crushed with I3—l6 17 — 2O 21, 22 23, 24 Tons. 3'OOQ 3 '250 3'125 2-875 Tons. I5-875 16750 l6'000 1475° Tons. 36-625 36-500 Tons. 6175 6375 Total . . 12-25 63-375 73-I25 125-50 Average . 3-062 I5-844 36-562 6275 Do. per in. 3-062 3-961 4-06 3-922 E = 972320. THE LIGNUM S = 3393- TREE (Guaiacmn) is found on several of the West India Islands, and in many other places, but the chief supplies come from St. Domingo and Bahama. It attains, in the former, the diameter of 22 inches, and some 30 to 40 feet in length ; but the Bahama is generally very small. The wood is dark brown, or rather greenish black, in colour, very hard, heavy, strong, and close and wiry in the grain ; it is difficult to work in any fashion, but there is nothing equal to it for the making of sheaves for blocks, and when employed in this way it wears well, and seems almost imperishable. I have examined some sheaves after they had been in use for 50 to 70 years, and found them perfectly good, and fit for further service. The sap-wood is yellow in colour, ^ to I inch in thickness, and, like the sap of English Elm, is of such exceptionable character, that it is equally as good and durable as the heart-wood. In sheave making, a belt of 1 68 TIMBER AND TIMBER TREES. [CHAP. this sap-wood is, if possible, left on to preserve the rest of it from splitting. The chief defect in Lignum Vitse is the cup-shake, and this occurs rather frequently in the wood of 10 inches and upwards in diameter ; it is, there- fore, often difficult to obtain a sufficient supply of the larger sizes suitable for the block-maker, who must have not only the roundest, but also the most solid, wood for his purpose. There are many demands, however, for this wood for less important services, and all that comes finds a ready sale. Lignum Vitae is imported in the round state, and in very short lengths ; pieces under 10 inches diameter are usually in lengths of 6 to 1 2 feet, and the larger wood in lengths of 3 to 6 feet. It is commonly sold by weight, and realises from £6 to £ 1 8 per ton, according to size and quality. That from the city of St. Domingo is the best. The specific gravity is 1248. THE ROSEWOOD TREE (Triptolomed) is found in Jamaica, Honduras, Bahia, Rio, and San Francisco. It attains large dimensions, but is often faulty in the centre, owing to decay setting in long before the tree reaches maturity. The wood is dark chestnut, or brown, in colour, streaked or veined, and generally figured in the grain ; it is hard and heavy, but in the hands of the cabinet and pianoforte makers it works up well ; it is highly valuable for all kinds of ornamental work, and for many purposes in the domestic arts. It takes a good polish. The chief defect in this wood, is heart-shake, or hollowness at the centre, which extends far up the tree, and this necessitates the cutting of the logs down the middle longitudinally; often a middle piece is wasted on this account, consequently we never see sound solid xxiv.] ROSEWOOD. 169 square logs, or even plank, but generally half-round flitches, i o to 20 feet in length, and varying from 5 to 12 inches in the thicker part, put upon the market, the inside or sawn surface being even then frequently deficient of wood in the centre, exhibiting in part the hollowness pertaining to the tree. Solid round Rosewood logs beyond the medium size, or 14 inches in diameter, are extremely rare, and the best that I have met with were brought from San Francisco. Owing to the difficulty there is in measuring half-round flitches of the nature and form herein described, this wood can only be sold by weight It realises, for the inferior, ^"10 to £12, and for the good, £20 to ^30 per ton ; the superior qualities fetch much higher prices. CHAPTER XXV. WEST INDIA AND CENTRAL AMERICA. MAHOGANY, SPANISH (Swietenid), Is the produce of the island of Cuba, and is indiscrimi- nately called the Spanish or Cuba Mahogany. It is a tree of perfectly straight growth, and yields timber for the market of from 1 8 to 35 feet in length, by from li to 24 inches, dressed quite square, and generally with two or three stops or joggles, with the view to preserve as much timber as possible in the stem of the tree. ( Vide Fig. 24.) FIG. 24. The wood is of a reddish-brown colour, hard, heavy, strong, close and straight in the grain, with occasionally a wavy or figured appearance ; it is also very solid, especially about the centre, or pith, the heart-shake in this variety of the Swietenia being quite insignificant ; the cup and star-shakes are also rare, and there is little sap-wood ; so that it need not give us any anxiety in dealing with it, whatever may be the, nature of the con- version required. It is susceptible of a very high polish, and with the wave or figure well marked, it possesses CHAP. XXV.] MAHOGANY. 171 great beauty ; indeed, if worked up for furniture, or used for any ornamental purposes whatever, we cannot fail to admire it. The figured logs, therefore, possess a consi- derably enhanced value over those of a plainer descrip- tion, and high, even fabulous prices are often realised for them. Cuba or Spanish Mahogany is durable, and is em- ployed for a variety of purposes. It has been very advantageously used in the building of ships of war in place of Oak for beams, planking, stanchions, &c. ; its strength and rigidity rendering it admirably fitted for these, while, being of moderate specific gravity, it was safe to use it either above, at, or below the line of flotation ; but in civil architecture it is not much used, on account of the high price it obtains over other woods. TABLE LXXXIII.— MAHOGANY (CUBA, OR SPANISH). Transverse Experiments. Number of the specimen. Dimensions. Total] weight required to break each .> 11 C/J bO Weight reduced to specific gravity IOOO. Weight required to break i square inch. With the apparatus weighing 390 Ibs. After the weight was removed. At the crisis of breaking. Inches. Inch. • Inches. Ibs. Ibs. I 2-85 •10 4-50 987 753 18575 2 3^5 "IS 4-50 1049 608 I59'50 3 3'25 •15 5-00 977 677 165-25 4 3 '50 'IS 5'00 66 1 1039 636 I65-25 3-i5 *IO 4'5° 726 1006 722 181-50 6 3*25 •15 475 685 1 002 684 I7I-25 Total . 19-25 •80 28-25 4,114 .6060 4080 1028-50 Average 3'2I •133 471 685-66 IOIO 680 I7l'4l6 REMARKS. — Each piece broke short. now much sought after for railway sleepers and telegraph posts in India and the colonies. It is admirably adapted for dock gates, piles, and other purposes, and for keel-pieces, keelsons, and other heavy timber in ship- building. Vessels of considerable burthen are built entirely of this wood, the peculiar properties of which render copper sheathing unnecessary, althoug hthe sea- worm is most abundant in these waters." 196 TIMBER AND TIMBER TREES. [CHAP. TABLE XCVI. Tensile Experiments. Number of the specimen. Dimensions of each piece. Specific gravity. Weight the piece broke with. Direct cohesion on i square in. Inches. Ibs. Ibs. * | 2 X 2 X 30 j 987 1006 IO,o8o I3>440 2,52O 3,360 Total . ... 1993 23,520 5,880 Average ... 996 11,760 2,940 TABLE XCVII. Vertical or Crushing Strain on cubes of 2 inches. No. 9. No. 10. No. ii. No. 12. No. 13. No. 14. Total. Average. Ditto on i square inch. Tons. Tons. Tons. Tons. Tons. Tons. Tons. Tons. 12-875 13-000 12-625 12750 12750 12750 7675 I2-792 3-198 E = 296810. 1800. THE KARI TREE (Eucalyptus diversicolor) is found in Western Australia, and is said to be very abundant. It is of straight growth, and can be obtained of extraordinary size and length ; no reasonable limit to its dimensions being necessary, except that of the xxvi.] KARL 197 capacity of a ship to carry it. Governor Weld, of Western Australia, says he has estimated trees of this description at 300 feet ; and the learned botanist, Baron Van Mueller, of Melbourne, states that the Kari tree reaches the height of 400 feet. The wood is red in colour, hard, heavy, strong, tough, and slightly wavy or curled in the grain, but it has no figure to recommend it for cabinet purposes. Six logs of this timber, viz., two of 12" X 12" X 28', one of 12" x 12" x 34', two of 24" x 24" x 24, and one of 24" X 24" x 32', • were recently shipped at Freemantle by the Western Australian Government for delivery at one of the royal dockyards in England, for experimental trial in the navy, the colonists being of opinion that it will ere long be in great request for ship-building and other architectural works. Unfortunately, however, all these logs had the defect of star-shake, which rendered them unfit for almost any purpose except where they could be employed in very large scantlings. It was also noticed that the Kari had the peculiar blistery appearance of the annual layers which has been mentioned as common to the Jarrah, consequently this wood is not considered to be suitable for any work requiring nicety of finish, although no doubt it would be admirably suitable for piles for jetties, bridges, &c., and generally for heavy structures where large scantlings and great strength is required. It will not last between wind and earth, though, as far as is yet known, it resists the action of water. It is much to be regretted that a tree so noble in its dimensions should prove so disappointing in its character ; but, like the Jarrah, to which it has some resemblance, it is not, I think, likely to be in request for architectural works in this country. 198 TIMBER AND TIMBER TREES. [CHAP. TABLE XCVIIL— KARI (AUSTRALIA). Transverse Experiments. Number of the specimen. Deflections. Total weight required to break each piece. ;§£ '11 W W) Weight reduced to specific gravity IOOO. Weight required to break i square inch. With the apparatus weighing 390 Ibs. After the weight was removed. At the crisis of breaking. Inches. Inch. Inches. Ibs. Ibs. I 75 •oo 5'00 820 957 355 205-00 2 1-25 •oo 6-25 725 885 819 l8l-25 3 i'35 •10 4 '60 955 1023 934 238-75 4 75 •05 7'50 840 987 851 210-00 5 I'OO •05 6*50 920 1013 908 230*00 6 I '00 •05 6-50 915 1023 903 22875 Total . 6'io •25 3635 5175 5888 5270 129375 Average I -01 •04 6-06 862-5 98i-33 878-33 2I5-625 REMARKS. — Each piece broke with scarph-like fracture, 8 to 10 inches in length. TABLE XCIX. Tensile Experiments. Number of the specimen. Dimensions of each piece. Specific gravity. Weight the piece Droke with. Direct cohesion on i square in. Inches. Ibs. Ibs. 7 ... 31,080 7,770 8 30,800 7,700 9 10 2 X 2 X 30 ... 31,360 31,360 7,840 7,840 ii ... 22,120 5,530 12 . . 22,960 5,740 Total . ... 169,680 42,420 Average 981- 28,280 7,070 XXVI.] IRON-BARK. 199 TABLE C. Vertical or Crushing Strain on cubes of '6 inches. No. 13. No. 14. Total. Average. Ditto on Tons. Tons. Tons. Tons. inch. 175 *95 370 I85 5'H E = 93°95°- S = 2264. THE IRON-BARK TREE (Eucalyptus rcsiniferd) is found very widely spread over a large part of Aus- tralia, and is considered to be abundant. It is a lofty and erect tree of moderate circumference, and yields timber of from 20 to 40 feet in length, by from 1 1 to 16 or 1 8 inches square. It is believed to have been named as above by some of the earliest Australian settlers, on account of the extreme hardness of its bark; but it might with equal reason have been called iron-wood. The wood is of a deep red colour, very hard, heavy, strong, extremely rigid, and rather difficult to work. It has a plain straight grain, and the pores, which are very minute, are filled with a hard, white, brittle secre- tion. The tree is generally sound, but liable to the defect of both heart and star-shake, and on this account it is not usually very solid about the centre, consequently the timber cannot be employed with advantage except in stout planks or large scantlings. It is used extensively in ship-building and engineer- ing works in Australia, and in this country it is employed in the mercantile navy for beams, keelsons, and in many ways in the construction of ships, especially below the line of flotation, where a heavy material is not con- sidered objectionable. For civil architecture, the orna- mental and the domestic arts, it is not, however, likely to be in much request, its extreme hardness and great weight precluding it from general use. 200 TIMBER AND TIMBER TREES. [CHAP. TABLE CI. — IRON-BARK (AUSTRALIA). Transverse Experiments. Number of the specimen. Deflections. Total weight required to break each piece. 2 X 2 X 30 558 544 625 625 Ibs. 16,240 17,360 28,560 25,760 Ibs. 4,060 4,340 7,140 6,440 Total . . ... 2352 87,920 21,980 Average . ... 588 21,980 5,495 212 TIMBER AND TIMBER TREES. [CHAP. TABLE CXIII. Vertical or Crushing Strain on cubes of 2 inches. No. 7. No. 8. No. 9. No. 10. Total. Average. Ditto on i square inch. Tons. Tons. Tons. Tons. Tons. Tons. 7^5 775 1275 II-50 39*25 9'8l2 2-453 E - 343980. S = 1675. THE AMERICAN ASH TREE, OR THE WHITE ASH (Fraxinus Americana), is found chiefly on the banks of the rivers of North America. It is of straight growth, and frequently attains a height of 70 feet, with a circumference of from 3 to 5 feet. It is imported into this country, only sparingly, in logs varying from 10 to 18 inches square, and 18 to 35 feet in length ; but comes to us in considerable quantities in a partially manufactured state in the form of machine- made boat-oars, handspikes, &c. The wood is light brown or whitish in colour, of very moderate hardness and weight, is tough, elastic, clean and straight in the grain, and quite easy to work ; it stands well after seasoning, and hence we get from this tree the best material for oars for boats that can be pro- duced. They are much and eagerly sought after by foreign Governments as well as our own, and also by the great private steamship companies and the mercantile marine of this country, consequently there is often a very keen competition for the possession of them. The best quality wood has a clean, bright, uniform whitish colour, the second is slightly stained with red and yellow shades alternating, while the third, and most objectionable, quality is that in which the red and yellow colours predominate over the healthy shade. Any devia- XXVIL] ASH, BEECH. 213 tion, therefore, from the bright whitish colour may be taken as indicating a deterioration which will affect its strength and durability. The United States Ash is much slower in growth than the English, and is probably not so durable. THE BEECH TREE (Fagus sylvatica) is found in abundance in the central and southern districts of this country. It is also extensively spread over the middle and south of Europe, and varieties of this species are to be met with in America and Australia. It is of erect and straight growth, attains the height of 60 to 70 feet, with a circumference of from 10 to 12 feet, and being of very hardy habits, is often planted in the most exposed positions, to lend beauty and picturesqueness to the surrounding scenery. The wood is light brown in colour, hard, moderately heavy, close and even in texture, with a fine silky grain. It cleaves easily, works up well, and is remarkable for its minute pores, and for the distinctness with which the medullary rays can be traced. Beech is employed for chair-making, and it is estimated that at least 12,000 to 15,000 loads are annually required from the English forests for this purpose. Engineers use it for piles and works under water, and it is in great request by turners, tool-makers, and others, who use it extensively in the domestic arts. It makes excellent wedges. Formerly it was employed in ship-building, and found to answer admirably for the keel and garboard planking ; it was also used for the ladders between decks, shot cants, and for many minor services. Upon the Continent, owing to the important property the Beech has of not absorbing water readily, it is much used for making 214 TIMBER AND TIMBER TREES. [CHAP. shoes, and soles for shoes, these being considered far superior to any made of other descriptions of wood. It. is also a most valuable article of fuel. Beech is durable if kept wholly submerged in water or mud ; it is also durable if kept quite dry, but if left exposed to the alternations of the weather, it soon becomes doated over with yellowish spots, and rapidly decays. I had no suitable pieces available for experimental purposes, to try its transverse strength, but the tensile I ascertained by experimenting on three pieces, the average giving 4,853 Ibs. per square inch ; tried vertically upon four pieces the average was 3*812 tons per square inch. The specific gravity of the seasoned wood varies from 700 to 720, and averages about 705 . THE BIRCH TREE (Betula alba, or Common Birch) is found in nearly every country in Europe. In Bosnia, Turkey, however, I only met with it on the skirts of forests upon the mountains at a considerable elevation. The European Birch grows naturally a little crooked in the stem, with light, oblique branches, slightly droop- ing at the extremities, and attains, sometimes, the height of 50 feet, with a diameter of 18 inches, but generally it is of very moderate dimensions. It flourishes on a poor soil in any exposed situation, and is very hardy. The wood is of a light brown colour, moderately hard, plain and even in the grain, and is easily worked ; but it is neither strong nor durable, and is therefore unfit for building purposes. Its chief uses are for cabinet work, chair-making, turnery, and light wares generally. The bark is smooth, thin, white in colour, and is used in tanning. Birch timber is imported in a round state and with the bark on from the North of Europe to our xxvii. ] BIR CH. 2 1 5 northern ports, and passes into the manufacturing dis- tricts for use in a variety of ways. Very little, however, comes to the London market. There are several varieties of the Birch tree in America, and among the best are the following : — Betida rubra, or Red Birch, is found on the borders of rivers in the southern provinces of the United States, and according to Michaux, it delights as much in heat as many other species do in cold. It attains the height of 70 feet, with a diameter of 30 to 36 inches. Its uses are chiefly for cabinet work and turnery. Betula lenta, or B. nigra, the Black or Cherry Birch of North America, is, perhaps, the most valuable, and is abundant in the midland states. It differs, however, from the common Birch of Europe, and flourishes best in a rich soil. It is of straight growth, and, in favour- able situations, attains the height of 75 feet, with a dia- meter of 30 to 36 inches. The wood is of a yellowish colour, moderately hard, straight and even in the grain, close in texture, easy to work, and on account of its superior quality to the other species, it is sometimes in America called Mountain Mahogany. American Birch is imported into this country in logs varying from 6 to 20 feet in length, by 12 to 30 inches, pretty well squared, and having only I to 2 inches wane upon the angles. The sap is 2 to 4 inches thick. The heart-shake is small, and the wood near the pith is, for the most part, solid ; very little loss can, there- fore, arise from its conversion. It is used extensively for furniture, turnery, and in a variety of ways in the domestic arts. Dark, damp-looking spots and rings are often seen on the ends of the logs, which seem to indicate incipient 216 TIMBER AND TIMBER TREES. [CHAP. and early decay. I imagine, therefore, that it is un- suitable for building purposes. The specific gravity of European Birch is about 700, and that of American about 600 to 640. THE BOX TREE (Buxus sempervirens) is found nearly all over the South of Europe, from Spain to the Sea of Marmora ; but in this country only sparingly on warm, chalky hill-sides. It is also found in the West Indies. The Box tree seldom attains timber dimensions, and is not a building wood ; it is, however, invaluable to the mathematical instrument maker, the turner, and the wood engraver, on account of the closeness of its grain and evenness of texture ; and in the manufacturing districts it is in great request for bosses and boxes in connection with their machinery. Boxwood of excellent quality is imported from Abasia, in Circassia, and also from Turkey. It is brought in round logs or billets, 3 to 8 feet in length, by 3 to 12 inches in diameter, with the bark on, which is thin, smooth, and of a grey colour. It has no sap-wood. The wood is yellow in colour, hard, heavy, free from heart- shake, and about the most solid at the pith that can be met with. It works up smoothly and with a silky lustre. Boxwood is liable to split somewhat spirally from the outside of the log, but stands well after being worked, when thoroughly seasoned ; and as it is seldom required for use except in small dimensions, no great loss is ever sustained in its conversion. Boxwood is sold by weight, and in the London and Liverpool markets realises from £4 to ^"15 per ton, according to quality and dimensions. The specific gravity of Box varies from 95 o to 980. xxvii.] CHESTNUT. 217 THE CHESTNUT TREE (Castanea vescd). :•,' The sweet Chestnut attains to large dimensions, and is found thinly scattered over most of our English counties. It is abundant in the southern parts of Europe, and extends eastward to the Caucasus. It is also met with in the mountainous parts of Virginia, Georgia, and Carolina, in North America. The wood is brown in colour, of moderate hardness and weight, has a clean fine grain, and is rather porous. The medullary rays cannot be distinctly traced in it, and It has no alburnum or sap-wood. These two characteristic points serve to distinguish it from the British Oak, for which it has sometimes been mistaken. There is also this further difference between them, the Chestnut is of slower growth than the British Oak. The Chestnut timber stood in high favour at one time, and it is even supposed that preference was given to it over Oak for employment in some of our oldest and best specimens of civil architecture, but upon careful exami- nation of the woods during reparations it has generally proved to be Oak of native growth that had been used, and not Chestnut. The Chestnut is scarcely ever used now except for very common or ordinary works, such as posts, rails, palings, hop-poles, &c. ; but as it is durable when kept wholly submerged, it may be used for piles, sluices, &c., with advantage. It is on record that specimens of the sweet Chestnut have attained to a very great size and remarkable longevity ; one standing lately in Sicily is said to have measured 160 feet in circumference ; the centre part, however, was quite gone, and the cavity thus formed was considered to be sufficiently large to give shelter to a 2i8 TIMBER AND TIMBER TREES. [CHAP. troop of at least eighty men. Another, but much smaller, in the department of the Cher, France, measured over 30 feet in circumference ; this has been known for five or six centuries as the great Chestnut tree, and must be of very great age. THE ENGLISH ELM TREE (Ulmus campestris] is found growing in the hedgerows of most of the counties, and forming the avenues in many of the parks of England. It also occupies a wide range over Europe, preferring generally low lying, level ground, with a moderate degree of moisture. It thrives well in every variety of soil, provided the situation be open, but attains the greatest perfection when grown in a rich loam, reaching, under favourable circumstances, the height of 60 to 70 feet, with a circumference of from 7 to 8 feet. The wood is brown in colour, of moderate weight, hard, tough, porous, and much twisted in grain, which makes it difficult to work when thoroughly seasoned, and also next to impossible to split it. The medullary rays, if present in this species of wood, are not distin- guishable, and this in some measure accounts for its strong cohesive properties. The economical uses of the Elm are very great, since we find it extensively employed in engineering works for piles, pipes, pumps, blocks, &c. ; it is also used for keels and planks under rwater in ships. Carpenters, wheel- wrights, turners, and cabinet-makers also use it for so many purposes, that it would be very difficult to enumerate them. Elm timber, if used either where it is constantly under water, or in any situation where it is kept perfectly dry, excels almost every other kind of wood in durability. But under any other circumstances it decays rather XXVIL] ELM. . 219 rapidly ; therefore, the surveyor, in selecting this wood, should, if he requires it for any purpose where durability is an object, decline to take any but fresh-cut logs, since, if they have been left for more than about ten to twelve months exposed to the weather, they will be liable to prove doated, and very possibly may have changed from the natural brown to a yellowish colour, which is a sure sign of a deterioration in the quality. The bark of Elm usually falls off in about ten to sixteen or eighteen months after the tree is cut down, the surface after this gets blanched by exposure, and there are few logs that have been felled so long that are quite free from incipient decay. • There is almost no heart, cup, or star-shake in the common English Elm, but the defects are often neverthe- less of a very serious character, and are chiefly occasioned by the rough treatment it is subjected to in the way of pruning — the knots or root end of the branches being left exposed, decay and wet-rot frequently soon follow, then hollow places are formed in the centre, and the tree is ruined. Birds frequently build in these cavities, and on several occasions in the course of my experience in working this wood, perfect nests, with fresh-looking eggs, have been found deeply buried in the log. The sap of Elm timber is generally from i^ to 3 inches thick, but it forms an exception to the rule which forbids the employment of sap-wood in architecture, as all parts of it have been proved to be equally durable. The waste, therefore, to be incurred in the conversion of the log is very small, provided always that the planks and boards are only cut as they are required. This pre- caution is considered necessary, owing to the great liability of the planks to warp or twist, which would soon render them unfit for use. 220 2IMBER AND TIMBER TREES. [CHAP. As Elm timber is best and most durable when worked up soon after the tree is felled, it is not necessary to keep in store more than is required from year to year. If, however, it should be thought desirable to accumulate stock with the view to provide against emergencies, it will be most effectually preserved for future use by keeping it constantly under water, or burying it in mud. Table CXIV., showing the transverse strength of this wood, is not so full or satisfactory as could be desired, owing to the difficulty experienced in finding pieces sufficiently straight in the grain for experimental pur- poses. The Tables CXV. and CXVL, showing the tensile and vertical strength, are, however, more reliable. TABLE CXIV.— ELM (ENGLISH). Transverse Experiments. Number of the specimen. Deflections. Total weight required to break each piece. l! C/2 bO Weight reduced to specific gravity 700. Weight required to break i square inch. With the apparatus weighing 390 Ibs. After the weight was removed. At the crisis of breaking. Inches. Inches. Inches. Ibs. Ibs. I 3^0 578 ... 2 5'25 1*25 7-50 510 571 625 I27-5 3 ... 6-25 558 ... 4 4-00 ... 553 ... 5 475 I-30 5-50 350 ' 545 • 450 87*5 6 4-70 5-00 320 542 413 80-0 Total . 14-70 3-90 3175 1,180 3347 1488 295-00 Average 4-90 1-30 5-291 393 558 496 98-33 XXVII.] ELM. 221 TABLE CXV. Tensile Experiments. Number of the specimen. Dimensions of the pieces. Specific gravity. Weight the piece broke with. Direct cohesion on i square inch. Inches. Ibs. Ibs. 8 9 ) V 2 X 2 X 30 ) 690 625 611 21,060 26,880 18,480 5,040 6,720 4,620 Total . . ... 1926 66,420 16,380 Average . 642 22,140 5,460 TABLE CXVI. Vertical or Crushing Strain on ctibes of 2. inches. No. 10. No. ii. No. 12. No. 13. No. 14. No. 15. Total. Average. Ditto on i square inch. Tons. Tons. Tons. Tons. Tons. Tons. Tons. Tons. IO-I25 lO'OO 1075 10-50 10-25 10-375 j 62-00 10-333 ^•583 E = 250820. S = 1032. Contracts are annually made for the supply of English Elm timber for the royal navy, according to the follow- ing specification and conditions, the quantities of the several classes, and the quantity required for each of the dockyards, of course varying from year to year, to suit the works in hand. 222 TIMBER AND TIMBER TREES. [CHAP. SPECIFICATION. ENGLISH ELM TIMBER. Contents of each log. Loads. Price per load. Feet. Feet. IQO to 300 189 160 159 13° 129 100 99 70 99 60 (Wych) Under 60 ,, 75 to 250 (for Blocks) £ *• d. Total Of which are to be fit ) for keel-pieces . . \ • A premium price is paid for timber suitable for keel- pieces ; logs qualified for this purpose are not to exceed 250 feet cube. The conditions of the contract are — 1. That all the timber shall be felled in the winter ; that is, within the 1st November and the end of February. 2. The timber will not be required to be delivered of an octagonal form, but must be so hewn or squared as that at each of the measuring places no surface or square shall be less than one-fourth of the diameter of the piece where the measurement is to be taken (Fig. 26b) ; and in measuring at the yards, the contents of the butt-lengths will not be taken separately, but the lengths for measure- ment will be regulated by the several stops or joggles. XXVII.] ELM. 223 3. The common Elm timber to be fairly grown and free from sudden bends (Fig. 260) ; to be 24 feet in length and upwards, meeting at 28 feet; and each piece of timber to be measured for contents by calliper measurement, as far as the spire (which is not to be cut off from any tree) will hold 1 5 inches in diameter ; and no top will be received except the spire. No tops will be received at the yards detached from the log. 4. The Elm timber for keel-pieces to be straight, fairly grown, and to square 17 inches and upwards. The shortest length is to be 28 feet. FIG. FIG. 5. The Elm timber for blocks to be clean butt-lengths, free from knots ; to be 16 feet in length and upwards, meeting at 20 feet. The calliper measure of the mid- length to be not less than 26 or more than 36 inches. 6. The Wych Elm timber to be 16 feet in length and upwards, meeting at 20 feet ; each piece of timber to be measured for contents by calliper measurement as far as the spire (which is not to be cut off from any tree) will hold 8 inches in diameter ; no top will be received except the spire. No tops will be received at the yards detached from the log ; all the timber to be of fair growth, 224 TIMBER AND TIMBER TREES. [CHAP. free from sudden bends and knots, and suitable for con- version into plank and board. 7. All the timber to have the bark on the wanes, to be good, sound, merchantable, well conditioned, such as shall be approved of by the officers of the respective yards, and in every respect fit for the service of her Majesty's navy. THE WYCH ELM TREE (Ulmus montana) is most abundant in the North of England and in Scot- land, and is only sparingly scattered over the southern counties. Ordinarily this description of Elm is of very moderate dimensions, although instances are by no means rare of its attaining a great size. In Evelyn's " Sylvia," we are informed that a Wych Elm, which grew in the park of Sir Walter Bagot, in Staffordshire, measured 17 feet in diameter at the base, and was estimated to contain the large quantity of 97 tons of timber. The Wych is readily distinguished from the common Elm by its smoother and thinner bark, by the absence of heavy branches low down on the stem, and by the larger size of the leaves. The wood is of a light-brownish colour, rather more porous than the common Elm, tough, and moderately hard when seasoned. Being generally clean and straight in the grain, and very flexible when steamed, it is in great request for boat-building ; in other respects its uses are as varied and numerous as those of the common Elm. THE DUTCH ELM TREE closely resembles the Wych Elm, and is found growing in this country under the same conditions of soil, aspect, &c. XXVIL] CANADA ELM. 225 The wood is somewhat darker in colour than the Wych, is tough, hard, and of the same porous and flexible character, but being more frequently subject to star-shake, it is considered to be an inferior variety, and is consequently less sought after. It is not generally so suitable for boat-board as the Wych Elm, but for any ordinary purpose it might be used as a substitute for either of the other kinds. In commerce it is known as the Dutch or Sand Elm. The English Elm trees are remarkable as being among the first in leaf in the spring, and the latest in shedding them in the autumn. THE CANADA ROCK ELM TREE (Ulmus Americana) is found growing abundantly in the low woods of North America, from New England to the Carolinas. It attains moderate dimensions, with a clean straight stem, and few heavy branches, and yields timber for the market in logs of from 20 to 40 feet in length and from n to 16 inches square. The wood is whitish-brown in colour, hard, tough, and flexible, with a fine, smooth, close, silky grain ; and as it has only a small quantity of sap-wood it can be worked up closely and economically. It is necessary, however, to remove the sap in the conversion of the log, as, unlike that of the English Elm, it is of a perishable character. Rock Elm is often substituted for the English common Elm for garboards and planking in ship- building, as it is very durable when employed under water ; it is also used for ladder steps, gratings, &c., on account of its clean whitish appearance ; and owing to its flexible character it is frequently used in boat-building. It cannot, however, be used with advantage in bulk, or 226 TIMBER AND TIMBER TREES. [CHAP. even in plank, if exposed to a dry current of air, as under such circumstances it is very liable to split with fine deep shakes from the surface. Having this serious liability to rend in seasoning1, the logs should never be left a week exposed to the influence of drying winds without some kind of protection, for even less than that time is often sufficient to bring about an amount of deterioration which will greatly affect their value. Therefore, to preserve this timber for future use, it should be treated in the same manner as the English common Elm, namely, by immersing it in water ; or, if this cannot be done conveniently, it should be cut into planks of thicknesses which would be available for further conversion if required, taking care to store it in a dry, cool place, under cover, but quite free from draught. The star-shake, in a mild form, is rather common to this description of timber, but does not usually extend to more than 2 or 3 inches from the pith ; there is also another, and rather peculiar defect, consisting of seve- ral complete consecutive circles of the annual layers being softer and more spongy than the natural or healthy wood (Fig. 27). They are darker in colour, and contain much moisture, and are, as pointed out in Chapter VI., p. 34, considered detrimental to the quality, strength, and durability, and consequently, to the value of the tree. The surveyor should, therefore, in selecting this wood take only the logs with a uniform whitish colour for his best work, and leave those which are marked with the dark annular layers upon the ends for inferior purposes. In all other respects the Canada Rock Elm is a safe FIG. 27. XXVII.] CANADA ELM. 227 wood for the converter to deal with, the instances of defects being found in opening it, arising either from pruning or from accidental causes, being extremely rare. About 2,500 to 3,000 loads of this wood are imported annually into each of the London and Liverpool markets, to meet the wants of private dealers, who employ it for coach-making, turnery, boat-building, &c. The Govern- ment also take about 600 to 700 loads annually for the use of the royal dockyards, stipulating in their contracts that it shall be of the first quality, from 1 1 to 15 inches square, averaging 12^ inches; 20 feet and upwards in length, averaging at least 24 feet in length, and to be well squared, and free from knots. The Canada Rock Elm is a remarkably slow-growing tree, the slowest in fact with which we have to deal ; it makes only one inch of wood diameter in about fourteen years.* TABLE CX VII.— ROCK ELM (CANADA). Transverse Experiments. Number of the specimen. Deflections. Total .weight required to break each piece. Specific gravity. Weight reduced to specific gravity 700. Weight required to break i square inch. With the apparatus weighing 390 Ibs. After the weight was removed. At the crisis of breaking. Inches. Inch. Inches. Ibs. Ibs. I I -60 •25 8-55 935 760 861 23375 2 I-85 •30 875 946 753 893 236-50 3 175 •30 9-00 899 735 856 22475 4 I-QO '35 8-65 918 740 868 229-50 5 I-85 •25 875 927 738 879 23175 6 i-55 •30 9'°5 895 765 819 22375 Total . 10*50 175 5275 5,520 4491 5176 1380-00 Average 175 •29 879 920 748 863 230-00 REMARKS. — All fractured and crippled, but not completely broken asunder. * See Tabular Statement in Chapter II., on the comparative rate of growth of trees, p. 18. 228 TIMBER AND TIMBER TREES. [CHAP. TABLE CXVIII. Tensile Experiments. Number of the specimen. Dimensions of each piece. Specific gravity. Weight the piece broke with. Direct cohesion on i square inch. Inches. Ibs. Ibs. 7 740 32,480 8,120 8 738 31,920 7,980 9 IO 2 X 2 X 30 765 753 42,OOO 38,640 10,500 9,660 II 735 33,040 8,260 12 760 42,280 10,570 Total . . 4491 220,360 55,090 Average . 748 36,727 9,182 TABLE CXIX. Vertical or Crushing Strain on cubes of— Number of the specimens. i Inch. 2 Inches. 3 Inches. 4 Inches. Crushed with Crushed with Crushed with Crushed with I3—I6 17 — 20 21, 22 23, 24 Tons. 3'000 3^25 3 '5oo 3-625 Tons. 1575 1 6 '25 17-00 16*00 Tons. 37'125 36-625 Tons. 62-5 61-0 Total . . 13-250 65-00 7375 123-5 Average . 3-312 16-25 36-875 6175 Do. perin. 3-312 4-062 4-097 3-859 E = 618550. S - 2415. xxvii.] HORNBEAM. 229 THE HORNBEAM TREE (Carpinus betula) is an indigenous British tree, which thrives well even upon a poor soil, and attains the height of 40 to 50 feet with a circumference of from 30 to 45 inches. The wood is white in colour, close in the grain, hard, tough, strong, and of moderate weight ; its pores are minute, the medullary rays are plainly marked, and there is no sap or alburnum ; it may, therefore, be worked up to great advantage. Hence we find it employed for a variety of purposes ; it is useful in husbandry, and agricultural implements made of the sound and healthy wood wear well, as it stands exposure without being much affected by it. It is also used by engineers for cogs in machinery, a purpose for which it is well suited. The Hornbeam tree, if pollarded, becomes blackish in colour at the centre, owing to the admission of external moisture. This renders it unfit for many purposes where a clean, bright surface is required, and generally it proves detrimental to the quality and durability of the timber. This wood when subjected to vertical pressure cannot be completely destroyed, its fibres, instead of breaking off short, double up like threads, a conclusive proof of its flexibility and fitness for service in machinery. I was not able to secure suitable specimens of the standard dimensions to test the transverse strength of this wood, and consequently only the tensile and crushing or vertical strains appear in the tables. 230 TIMBER AND TIMBER TREES. [CH. xxvu. TABLE CXX. Tensile Experiments. Number of the specimen. Dimensions of each piece. Specific gravity. Weight the piece broke with. Direct cohesion on i square inch. I 2 3 4 Inches. 2 X 2 X 30 808 8l5 815 836 Ibs. 28,560 27,440 23,520 22,960 Ibs. 7,140 6,860 5,880 5,740 Total . . 3274 102,480 25,260 Average . ... 819 25,620 6,405 TABLE CXXI. Vertical or Crushing Strain on cubes of 2 inches. No. 5. No. 6. No. 7. No. 8. Total. Average. Ditto on i square inch. Tons. Tons. Tons. Tons. Tons. Tons. I4*25 IS' I5-I25 IS' 59'375 14-844 3711 CHAPTER XXVIII. FIRS. THE DANTZIC FIR TREE (Pinus sylvestris). THE wood of this tree takes its name from the port of .shipment, the forests from which it is drawn being spread over very large districts in Prussia proper, Prussian Poland, and upon the borders of Russia, whence the .timber, after being prepared partly in the round and partly in the square state, is floated in large rafts down .the River Vistula to Dantzic, advantage being taken of this mode of transit for bringing considerable quantities of J>corn from the interior to be shipped to foreign markets. These trees frequently grow to a great height, and throw out numerous branches; they yield the Dantzic Fir ][42 876-66 582 908 219-16 ' -\ Nos. i, 2, and 3 broke with a scarph-like fracture, io inches in length ; 4 and 5 a little longer and more splintery : 6 about 15 inches, and also splintery. 238 TIMBER AND TIMBER TREES. [CHAP. TABLE CXXIII. Tensile Experiments. Number Dimensions Weight the Direct of the of Specific piece cohesion on specimen. each piece. gravity. broke with. i square inch. Inches. Ibs. Ibs. 7 \ 534 13,664 3,4l6 8 673 17,920 4,480 9 2 X 2 X 30 639 12,880 3,220 IO 656 11,200 2,800 II / 512 8,960 2,240 Total . . ... 3014 64,624 16,156 Average . 603 12,925 3,^3. TABLE CXXIV. Vertical Experiments on cubes of— Number i Inch. 2 Inches. 3 Inches. 4 Inches. specimen, j Crushed with Crushed with Crushed with Crushed with Tons. Tons. Tons. Tons. 12 — 15 3^25 12-875 27-875 47^75 16, 17 2*625 12-750 — — 18, 19 3750 I2'5OO — — 20, 21 3^50 13-000 — — 22, 23 3^50 I2-I25 — — 24,25 2-375 12-875 — — Total . . 18-875 76-125 — — Average . 3-146 12-687 27-875 47^75 Do. per in. 3-146 3-172 3^97 2-992 XXVIII.] DANTZIC FIR. 239 TABLE CXXV. Vertical Experiments. Number of the specimen. Length in inches. Size in inches. § Weight of the specimen. Specific gravity. Crushed with Ditto on the square inch. Ibs. ozs. Tons. Tons. 26 I 0 2 756 10-875 2*719 27 2 o 3K 756 I2-687 3*I72 28 3 o 5 720 11-875 2-969 29 4 o 7 756 13750 3'437 30 5 o 7X 669 1375° 3'437 31 6 o 9 648 I3-000 3-250 32 7 O IO 6I7 12750 3-187 33 8 2X2 4 ( o iiK 621 I2-I25 3-03I 34 9 0 15 720 I2-I25 3-031 35 10 o 15^ 669 12*500 3'125 36 ii I 2^ 726 1 1 '625 2-906 37 12 i 5^ 774 12-000 3-000 38 18 I 10/2 636 II-5OO 2-875 39 24 2 6 684 IO-875 2-719 40 30 2 14 662 10*500 2-625 TABLE CXXVI. Vertical Experiments. Number of the specimen. Length in inches. Size in inches. ^ . 23S JrP Weight of the specimen. Specific gravity. Crushed with Ditto on the square inch. Ibs. ozs. Tons. Tons. 41 8 I 15 744 21750 2*417 42 9 i ISM 672 21*500 2*388 43 IO 2 I 634 21*625 2-403 44 ii 2 4 629 2I*5OO 2-388 45 12 3X3 9 • 2 15 752 21*875 2-431 46 13 2 I3K 672 I5-250 1-694 47 H 3 4 713 20-250 2*250 48 15 3 5 679 21*250 2*361 j 240 TIMBER AND TIMBER TREES. [CHAP. TAKLE CXXVII. Vertical Experiments. Number of the specimen. Length in inches. Size in inches. ft Weight of the specimen. Specific gravity. Crushed with Ditto on the square inch. Ibs. ozs. Tons. Tons. 49 15 C Q 576 37-500 2-343 5° 15 4 5 497 32-000 2-000 51 16 5 9 600 36-250 2*265 52 16 4 10 500 34-500 2-156 53 17 6 4 635 36-500 2-278 54 17 4 14 496 32-250 2*015 55 56 18 18 4x4 16 5 4K 5 91A 507 556 37;875 2-093 57 19 5 7 494 33*875 2-118 20 508 34-5oo 2*156 59 21 6 2 5°4 28-000 1-750 60 22 6 6 33'9oo 2-118 61 23 6 10 498 377oo 2-356 62 24 6 ii 495 344oo 2*150 TABLE CXXVIII. Vertical Experiments on pieces of various dimensions. Number of the specimen. Length in inches. Size in inches. rt |g J> .So ,0 Weight of the specimen. Specific gravity. Crushed with Ditto on the square inch. Ibs. ozs. Tons. Tons. 63 12) 8 15 571 I32-00 3-640 64 IS 6x6 16 15 4 654 I53-00 4-277 11 241 30) 17 4^ 24 4 554 622 I53-00 1 22 '2O 4-277 68 12 15 9'" x 10" 102-37 1 27 o 1 33 13 608 608 245-40 279*20 2-397 2-727 69 70 15 18 10" x 10" IIO*25 i 38 12 (48 6 648 673 214-80 183-80 1-953 1-671 7i 72 18 21 10' x 10'" I07-5 J39 8 i 45 i3 564 254-40 279-20 2-292 2 "600 E = 579190. S = 2301. XXVIII.] DANTZIC FIR. 241 Contracts for the supply of Dantzic Fir timber, Fir deck deals, and Oak plank for the royal navy, are made annually, the quantities of each kind varying according to the requirements of the several dockyards. The following is the specification and conditions under which they are obtained : — DANTZIC FIR TIMBER. Loads. £ s. . d. Best Middling ... At per load Good ,, .... Do. Common ,, .... Do. Deck Deals. T , I Crown .... Atper40-ft. run of 3 in. 4 Inches jCrownBrack _ ^ . \ T Do. . . T/ ( Crown Do. . */2 " \ Crown Brack Do. . ( Crown Do. . J " ( Crown Brack Do. . x/ j Crown Do. . 2/2 " ( Crown Brack Do. . ( Crown Do. . 2 " ( Crown Brack Do. . Stage Deals. 2 „ Do. . DANTZIC OAK PLANKS. Loads. ~~£ ~ ./ T ( Crown At per load 4X Ins. j Crown Brack ^ ^ j Crown Do. " ( Crown Brack .... Do. . „ x/ ( Crown Do. 0/2 " ( Crown Brack .... Do. . ( Crown Do. { Crown Brack .... Do. . &c. &c. &c. 242 TIMBER AND TIMBER TREES. [CHAP. CONDITIONS OF CONTRACT. I. — All the goods supplied under this contract to be imported direct from the Baltic ; to be fresh cut, good, sound, merchantable, well conditioned, and subject to the approval of the Receiving Officers of the respective dockyards. 2. — The Dantzic Fir timber to be n inches square and upwards, meeting at 24 feet, and none to be shorter than 18 feet ; the longest timber to be of the greatest scantling, and the spine to be seen from the butt to the top of each of the four sides. The whole to be fresh cut, and to be delivered in the following proportions of quality, viz. — 60 per cent, to be best middling quality, 20 per cent, to be good middling quality, and 20 per cent, to be common middling quality. The common middling quality is not to exceed 13 inches square. 3. — The Dantzic Deals for decks of 4 inches thick to be not less than 9 inches in breadth ; to average 8% inches in breadth clear of sap, not any to be under 7^ inches, and to be 26 to 40 feet in length, averaging 33 feet. The Deals of 3^ inches, 3 inches, and 2)4 inches thick to be not less than 9 inches in breadth, and to be not less than J*4 inches in breadth clear of sap, and 25 to 35 feet in length, averaging 30 feet. The Deals of 2 inches thick to be not less than 8^ inches in breadth, and to be not less than 7j£ inches in breadth clear of sap, and 20 to 30 feet in length, averaging 25 feet. All the Deals to be delivered in the proportion of not less than 70 per cent, crown quality, and the remainder crown brack quality, to be . clean, sound, yellow wood, converted in the country, of an equal thickness and square edged, and to be clear of sap, shakes, injurious knots, and defects. 4. — The Dantzic Deals for stages to be 2 inches thick, from 12 to 15 inches broad — the sap on the two edges not to exceed one-half of the breadth — and from 25 to 35 feet long, averaging 30 feet. The whole to be clean, sound, yellow wood, converted in the country, of an equal thickness and square edged, and to be clear of shakes, injurious knots, and defects. 5. — The Dantzic Oak thickstuff of 4^ inches thick, and planks of 4, 3^, and 3 inches thick, to meet at 32 feet, and none to be shorter than 24 feet, and to be from 10 to 13 inches broad, averaging n inches, clear of sap. The whole to be fresh, clean, free from defective wanes, cut regular, square edged and straight ; the breadth for measurement to be taken clear of sap at the middle of the length ; and 67 per cent, of each to be of first or crown quality, and the remainder of second or crown brack quality. We occasionally obtain from Dantzic some Fir timber, which is known in the London market under the names JCXVIIL] DANTZIC FIR, ETC. 243 of Eliasberg and Saldowitz, from the districts in Russia whence it is drawn. It is a very clean, sound, straight, and well-squared wood, of great average length, and more closely resembles the Riga Fir than any other in colour, tex- ture, general appearance, and even in its defects, the heart and star-shakes being common to it. This wood cannot, therefore, be safely reduced to thin planks near the centre of the log without incurring the risk of some faulty pieces being produced at that part. The classification for the market is similar to that of the Dantzic Fir, but there is very little of the common middling quality in it. When made up for sale it is generally arranged in parcels according to the size of the logs, those of 13 to 16 inches being kept distinct from those over 16 to 20 inches square, the latter being about the maximum size obtainable from the tree, while the lengths vary from 20 to 76 feet, and include many pieces of mast dimensions. The employment of this description of Fir for mast purposes does not, however, appear to be contemplated by the shippers, and it is not, in my opinion, suitable for it, owing to its free character and liability to split in seasoning. The clean, straight, and even grain is, never- theless, quite sufficient to recommend it to notice for furniture purposes, and its superior dimensions will always entitle it to preference over Dantzic or Riga Fir for works requiring long timber. The prices of "Eliasberg" and "Saldowitz" Fir timber in general rule somewhat higher than that of the best Dantzic Fir. There is also an inferior species of Fir brought in small quantities from Dantzic, and put upon the market under the name of Whitewood. It is white in colour 244 TIMBER AND TIMBER TREES. [xxvm. soft in character, and generally a little spongy near the centre. It has a dull shade, and appears to be poor in quality, but, being a light, clean, straight-grained wood, and easy to work, it is suitable for packing-cases and for any ordinary purpose ; it thus savesthe more expensive kinds of Fir. It is brought to this country in well-squared logs of rather superior dimensions to the Dantzic Fir. CHAPTER XXIX. FIRS — (continued]. RIGA FIR, A VARIETY OF THE Pinus sylvestris. THIS timber takes its name from the port of shipment, although many of the forests from which it is drawn are very far back in the interior of Russia. It is the produce of a tree of almost perfectly straight growth, with lighter branches than are usually found in the Firs of the same species brought into Dantzic ; it is consequently more free from injurious and objectionable knots. The Riga closely resembles the Dantzic Fir timber in being whitish in colour and tinged slightly with red, but is rather lighter looking. It is tough, flexible, mode- rately strong, and scarcely so heavy as the Dantzic Fir, the respective specific gravities being about 541 and 5^2. It has a clean, fine, straight grain, and is a little shaky at the pith. It cannot, therefore, be converted into plank and board so profitably as the Dantzic and some other Firs. With this exception it is a very valuable wood, and is in great request for architectural works of every description ; indeed, we find it used for nearly every purpose where light materials are required. After the felling of this timber, it passes through the process of selecting and sorting over, the same as pre- vails in the Polish and Prussian forests and shipping ports, with a view to bring out the best pieces for masts, and the coarsest for railway sleepers. The logs of the intermediate class, when hewn into squares, yield dimen- sions of about ii to 14 inches on the side, and. from 20 to 45 feet in length. This timber is seldom classified as 246 TIMBER AND TIMBER TREES, [CHAP. best, good, or common middling, but is placed upon the market unsorted, and without any particular distinguish- ing brand upon it. The selected spars generally come to us in a round state, under the name of Hand-masts. These are classed by the brackers at Riga alphabetically A to N, accord- ing to their size, the smallest being A, or 6 hands ; that is to say, it measures 6 hands of 4 inches each, or 24 inches in circumference, taken at 4 feet in length from the butt-end of the spar : the largest being N, or 1 8 hands, or 72 inches in circumference. The lengths of these two sizes are respectively 36 and 74 feet. The following very plain rule prevails by which the estab- lished length to the number of hands is calculated, viz., rough spars for masts, of 6 to 9j^ hands, the number of hands multiplied by 3, and 18 added, gives the length in feet ; and spars of 10 to 18 hands, multiplied by 3, and 20 added, gives the length in feet ; there being a small proportional increase of length required for vessels carrying the larger sizes. The straightest and best spars have simply the bark taken off them, and the knots dressed smoothly, with perhaps a few feet in length at the butt-end hewn, to remove the swelling which often occurs at the base of the tree. Beyond this, owing to their generally fair and even growth, very little is required, and, as the alburnum or sap upon this description of timber is not usually more than about I inch in thickness, the waste sustained in their conversion into masts is altogether insignificant. These Riga spars (their generally small and medium sizes being considered) are about the best to be met with, and are in great favour with the mast-makers of the royal dockyards, though somewhat less so in the private trade. XXIX.] ^ and fa circuit RIGA FIR. 247 There are, besides the hand-masts, many straight and fair-grown trees that measure less than 24 inches in circumference at the base, which are simply termed spars, or poles. There are also a few pieces occasionally met with that exceed the maximum size of the hand- mast, which are generally dressed approximately to an octagonal form, and then, as at Dantzic and elsewhere, they are called inch masts. In ordinary specifications for building, it is stipulated the Fir is to be from Dantzic or Riga, as if they were equal in quality ; but my experiments on Riga Fir, though not nearly so numerous as those on Dantzic, prove the former to be slightly inferior to the latter. Tables CXXII. to CXXVIII. and CXXIX. to CXXXII. show that the strength of the Riga is to that of Dantzic Fir as follows, viz. : — Transversely as 150 : 219 or, it is weaker by about 31 per cent. Tensilely ,,4051 : 3231 ,, ,, stronger „ 20 „ Vertically ,, 5247 : 6948 „ „ weaker „ 24 „ TABLE CXXIX.— FIR (RIGA). Transverse Experiments. Number of the specimen. Deflections. Total weight required to break each Specific gravity. Weight reduced to specific gravity Weight required to break i square With the apparatus weighing After the weight was At the crisis of 390 Ibs. removed. breaking. piece. 600. Inches. Inch. Inches. Ibs. Ibs. I 1-25 •10 3«00 580 524 664 145-00 2 I'OO •10 375 707 584 726 17675 3 I-50 •10 3-30 498 5l8 577 124-50 4 I-50 'OS 4 '5° 615 534 691 15375 5 3-85 677 570 712 169-25 6 1*15 •10 3'35 523 5i6 608 130-75 Total . 775 •55 2175 3,600 3246 3978 900-00 Average 1-292 •092 3-625 600 54i 663 150-00 REMARKS. — No. i broke a little short ; 2 and 3 with fractures 9 inches in length ; in 4, 5, and 6, the fractures were longer and splintery. 248 TIMBER AND TIMBER TREES. [CHAP. TABLE CXXX. Tensile Experiments. Number of the specimen. Dimensions of each piece. Specific gravity. Weight the piece broke with. Direct cohesion on i square inch. 8 9 IO Inches* I 2 X 2 X 30 584 524 570 534 Ibs. 17,920 12,320 19,600 14,980 Ibs. 4,480 3,080 4,900 3,745 Total . . ... ... 64,820 16,205 Average . ... l6,2O5 4,051 TABLE CXXXI. Vertical or Crushing Experiments on cubes of— Number of the specimen. 11 — 14 15,16 17, 18 19,20 21, 22 23, 24 i Inch. 2 Inches. 3 Inches. 4 Inches. Crushed with Crushed with Crushed with Crushed with Tons. 3^50 3-I25 3-500 3750 3-250 3'OOO Tons. 9'OOO 7-875 8-250 8-500 8-750 8-250 Tons. 16- Tons. 34-875 Total . . I9-875 50-625 — — Average . 3-3I2 8-437 16- 34^75 Do. per in. 3-3I2 2*109 177 2-179 XXIX.] RIGA FIR. 249 TABLE CXXXII. Vertical or Crushing Experiments. Number ofthe specimen. .c c' bjo-^ £ Scantling. Area in square inches. Weight of the specimen. tC £> &* 2 Cfl bo Crushed with Ditto on i square inch. Inches. Inches. Ibs. oz. Tons. Tons. 25 I 0 I 9-875 2*469 26 2 O 2 8-437 2*IO9 27 3 0 3% II-500 2*875 28 4 o 4)4 9'OOO 2*250 29 5 o 7 I0*500 2-625 30 6 o 8^ 11*250 2*8l2 3i 7 0 10 11*125 2*78l 32 8 2X2 4 o 10% II'OOO 2-750 33 9 0 12 IO*OOO 2*500 34 10 o 15 8*000 2-000 35 ii I I . 9-750 2-437 36 12 i 3 11-125 2*781 37 18 i 6 9-875 2*469 38 24 i 8^ 6-875 1719 39 3° 2 sK 7-375 1-844 40 12 28 i 647 367-80 15 qiZ x io/4 IOO 27 7 506 214-70 2-147 42 18 33 o 507 245-40 2-454 43 21 48 3 634 245-40 2-454 44 18 ( 46 6 646 307-00 2784 45 21 \Q>Yz x ioj4 110-25 \ 54 ii 654 307-00 2-784 46 24 ( 55 4 577 279*20 2-532 47 48 27 3° I 12x12 144 85 o 92 6 604 593 378*72 396*28 2*630 2*752 E = 752420. S = 1575. The Riga is of slower growth than the Dantzic Fir, the difference being about 0*4 layers per inch in diameter (vide Table II.) ; this, in view of the theory previously set up, indicates that it is inferior to the Dantzic Fir. Contracts for the supply of Riga Fir timber, and hand-masts for the royal navy, are made annually; the quantities of each kind varying according to the requirements of the several dockyards. They are received under the following specification and con- ditions, viz., the timber at per load of 50 cubic feet, and the hand-masts at each. 25° TIMBER AND TIMBER TREES. [CH.XXIX. CONDITIONS OF CONTRACT. All the goods supplied under this contract to be imported direct from the Baltic ; to be of the best quality, fresh cut, good, sound, merchantable, and well conditioned. The Riga Fir timber to be 1 1 inches square and upwards, averaging at least 12 inches, meeting in length at 24 feet, and none to be shorter than 1 8 feet ; the longest timber to be of the greatest scantling, and the spine to- be seen from the butfc to the top on each of the four sides. The Riga hand-masts to be of the dimensions specified, straight grown, and free from heart-shake and injurious knots. One-third of all the masts of 9 hands and under to be 4 feet longer than the prescribed length. TABLE CXXXIIL SPECIFICATION FOR HAND-MASTS (RIGA*). — Hands. Length. Diameter. Distance from butt, 8" to a hand. Diameter. Distance from top, 4" to a yard. Ft. in. Inches. Ft. in. Inches. Ft. in. N 18 74 o 22^ 12 0 *5X 8 2 M l7/4 72 6 22X ii 8 I4# 8 0 ' 1.7 71 o 2I# ii 4 14 5| 7 10 69 6 21 II 0 14 7 8 16 2 68 o 2O^£ 10 8 7 6 j. J5K 66 6 19^ 10 4 J3# 7 4 »5 65 o I9//8 10 0 7 2 ! 63 6 i8^£ 9 8 I2^| 7 o 1 j 14 62 o !7^ 9 4 llJ/$ 6 10 H 13* 13 60 6 59 o ^6X 9 o 8 8 II 6 8 6 6 57 6 15% 8 4 IOX 6 4 12 56 o I5X 8 o 10^8 6 2 F H/^ 54 6 I4>J 7 8 9% 6 o II 53 o 14 7 4 9^ 5 10 lO^z 51 6 13^ 7 o 8^$ 5 8 10 50 o I2X 6 8 8j^ 5 6 D 9K 46 6 12^ 6 4 8 5 2 9 45 ° MN 6 o 7^ ^ O c I 8^ 43 6 io# 5 8 7X 4 10 8 42 o 10^ 5 4 6^ 4 8 B 5 7/^ 40 6 9K c o 6^ 4 6 1 7 39 o 8j^ 4 8 5^ 4 4 . 37 6 8X 4 4 5/^ 4 2 6 2 36 o 7^ 4 o 5 4- O i * The above Specification will serve, with a slight modification of the hands to the length, for Dantzic Fir, Canada Red Pine, and also for Virginia Pitch Pine, due regard being paid to the difference in the quantity of sap-wood on each compared with Riga Fir. Hand-masts are frequently sold in the private trade at per load. CHAPTER XXX. FIRS — (continued}. THE SWEDISH FIR TREE Is, as its name indicates, a native of Sweden, where it is very abundant, and attains, under favourable circum- stances, a height of from 50 to 80 feet, with a circum- ference of from 4 to 5 feet ; it yields timber in logs of 20 to 35 feet in length by 10 to 16 inches square. From the smaller trees, deals 3 inches thick, by 7 to 9 inches broad, and 12 feet and upwards in length, are obtained. The wood is of a yellowish-white colour, soft, clean and straight in the grain, with only small knots, and very little alburnum or sap-wood on it. Of late it has been in great request for common building purposes, as as it is about 30 per cent, cheaper than Dantzic, and 15 to 1 8 per cent, cheaper than Riga Fir timber. Swedish Fir is liable to the heart and star shakes, and not unfrequently the cup-shake. On this account it is not suitable for conversion into board for joiners' work, but only for the rougher and more ordinary works in building operations. This species of Fir is of very slow growth, and, during the early stage of its existence, it makes wood at only about half the rate of the Dantzic, Riga, and Polish Firs, but gains slightly upon this rate as it approaches maturity. 252 TIMBER AND TIMBER TREES. [CHAP. In consideration of the defects mentioned, there is little to recommend the Swedish Fir to favourable notice, beyond the fact of its being cheap and suitable for the coarser purposes in carpentry. About 3,500,000 Swedish deals, 7,000 loads of timber, and 18,000 fathoms of firewood, were imported into London in 1874, besides a large quantity of boards for flooring, &c., &c. THE t NORWAY FIR TREE is of straight growth and small dimensions, and balks of about 8 or 9 inches square only are produced from it, but even these are not now shipped in any con- siderable quantity for the English market. The Norwegians appear to find it most advantageous to convert their Fir timber (which is generally of a coarse description and inferior in quality) into battens of 6 to 7 inches in breadth, by less than 3 inches in thickness, and into prepared flooring and match-boards, which are sold by the "square " of 100 superficial feet of I inch thick. They also produce a few deals of 3 x 9 inches, varying in length, for exportation ; and, as the whole of these are manufactured and sold at a very cheap rate, they pass readily into consumption for the building of the lowest and poorest class of houses. Norway supplies, in addition to the timber, deals, and battens, considerable quantities of small spars, and Fir for firewood, to the London market. THE SPRUCE FIR TREE (Abies excelsa) is very abundant upon the mountain slopes in Norway, and prefers generally a damp clayey soil to bring it to the greatest perfection. In such situations, it frequently xxx.] FIRS. 253 reaches to a height of 80 to 130 feet, with a circum- ference of 3 to 5 feet. It may also be found upon most of the mountainous parts of the North of Europe, and is abundant in North America. The Spruce Fir is an evergreen, and assumes in open ground a beautiful pyramidal form, with the lower branches drooping nearly to the ground ; the leaves are solitary and very short, and the cones long and pendulous, with the scales thin at the edges. It will thus be easily distinguished from the Pines, which have their leaves clustered in twos or threes. The wood is white in colour, straight and even in the grain, tough, light, elastic, and more difficult to work than Pine, owing chiefly to the excessive hardness of the small knots which are frequently found in it. When cut into deals it is somewhat disposed to warp, unless carefully weighted in the stacks or piles during the process of seasoning. The shrinkage is inconsiderable, and the sap, though generally only of moderate thick- ness, varies from half-an-inch, in some trees, to 2 or 3 inches in others. The Spruce Firs are not suitable for the best-finished carpenters' or joiners' work, but for framing and the coarser descriptions of work it may be used with advantage, and also in ships for any of the fitments in store-rooms, for lockers, shelves, mess-tables, &c. The trees are generally straight, and being strong as well as elastic, they are admirably suited for making the small spars required for ships and boats. They are also in great request for ladders and scaffold poles, and for stage-making in ship-yards. Norway spars are known under the following desig- nations, and are classified for the navy contracts according to their size, thus : — 254 IIMBER AND TIMBER TREES. [CHAP. TABLE CXXXIV. SPECIFICATION. No. Description. Length. Diameter. From the butt. Diameter. From the top. Feet. Inches. Ft. ins. Inches. Ft. in. 5 Cants 34 to 36 7 to 6^ at 3 4 4 at 3 8 4 Barlings 3i „ 33 6 „ 5K 2 8 3% 3 4 3 Booms 28 „ 30 5 „ 4>^ 2 0 2K 3 o 2 Middlings .. 23 „ 26 4 ,» 3K I 4 iH 2 8 I Smalls 19 „ 22 3 » 2 o 8 i 2 4 These spars are usually bought for the navy at a price each, but for the private trade they are not unfrequently sold at per foot run. / Nothing is done to these trees after they are felled, beyond removing the small branches, cutting off the top, -and making the ends even, to prepare them for the market. They are, therefore, brought to us with the bark on, and are measured over all. It is well, however, to take the bark off if they are not required for immediate use, otherwise they will suffer injury from the attack of a small worm which after a few months appears between the bark and the alburnum. The Spruce Fir has a further intrinsic value in yielding a resinous fluid which constitutes the foundation for the manufacture of pitch. The Spruce Firs are all of very slow growth, and not so durable as Pine. There are at least three kinds of Spruce in North America, namely, the Hemlock (A dies Canadensis), which has small, pointed, pendulous terminal cones, and thin, flat leaves ; the Black or Double Spruce (Abies nigrd), with dependant, egg-shaped cones, the scales being waved and jagged at the edges ; and the White or Single Spruce xxx.] FIRS. 255 (Abies alba), which has longer cones, spindle-shaped, also dependant, with the scales smooth and entire on the edge. The White Spruce are the only deals shipped to this country from Canada as a clearly-defined class, all others being simply known here as Canadian, St. John's, &c. Spruce. The London market was supplied with about 1,100,000 Spruce deals in 1871, 1,080,000 in 1872, 2,000,000 in 1873, and the immense quantity of 2,300,000 pieces in 1874, prepared generally in dimensions of 3 inches thick, 9 inches broad, and 12 to 21 feet in length. The bulk of these were sorted by brackers previous to shipment into first, second, and third qualities. Those of the first quality are perfectly clean, sound, and free from knots, sap, and defects ; the second quality are also sound, and tolerably clean, but include deals with a few knots and some sap upon the edges ; while the third quality includes and admits all the faulty and coarser descriptions of deals, and some of them are very rough indeed. As a rule, there is no brand other than a red chalk mark drawn once, twice, or thrice across the deal, to distinguish between the several qualities, and it is neces- sary that a careful inspection should be made before purchasing them. The relative values of the Canadian and New Brunswick Spruce deals in the London market are about as follows, viz., the 1st quality Canadian is to ist quality New Brunswick Spruce as ro : '82; the 2nd and 3rd quality Canadian is to 2nd and 3rd New Brunswick Spruce as ro : '90; and these figures indicate approximately the difference in their respective qualities. All these deals are employed extensively in carpentry, ship, and engineering works. 256 TIMBER AND TIMBER TREES. [CHAP. TABLE CXXXV.— SPRUCE (CANADA). Transverse Experiments. Number of the specimen. Deflections. Total weight required to break each piece. ££ 1! Weight reduced to specific gravity 600. Weight required to break i square inch. With the apparatus weighing 390 Ibs. After the weight was removed. At the crisis of breaking. Inches. IncK. Inches. Ibs. Ibs. I I'25 •06 6-25 696 451 926 II275 2 I'2O 'OS 5'00 719 48S 890 I21'25 3 I 'IS •04 375 556 5io 6S4 127-50 4 I-30 •07 575 709 490 867 122-50 Total . 4-90 •22 2075 2680 1936 3337 484-00 Average 1-225 •055 5-i87 670 484 834 121-00 REMARKS. — No. i broke with about 12 inches length of fracture ; 2, 3, and 4 with only a little less. TABLE CXXXVI. Tensile Experiments. (Dimensions of each piece, 2 X 2 X 30 inches, s.g. 484.) — No. 5. No. 6. No. 7. No. 8. Total. Average. Weight the piece ) broke with ) Ibs. I3»I04 Ibs. 19,040 Ibs. 13,440 Ibs. 17,360 Ibs. 62,944 Ibs. 15,736 Direct cohesion on j I square inch ) 3,276 4,760 3.360 4,340 I5»736 3,934 TABLE CXXXVII. Vertical or Crushing Strain on cubes of 2 inches. No. 9. No. ic. No. ii. No. 12 No. 13. No. 14. Total. Average. Ditto on i square inch. Tons. Tons. Tons. • Tons. Tons. Tons. Tons. Tons. 9-00 8-875 775 8-875 875 875 52-00 8-666 2-166 E = 771800. S = 1759. xxx.] FIRS. 257 The trade in foreign deals, battens, boards, &c., from the countries in the North of* Europe, is very great, and there were imported into the United Kingdom, in 1874, 2,800,000 loads; in 1873, 2,450,000 loads; in 1872, about 2,300,000 loads ; as compared with 2,140,000 loads in 1871 ; 1,900,000 loads in 1870, and 1,380,000 loads in 1866. Large as these quantities are, they seem likely to go on increasing, and will probably continue to do so, until the supply is exhausted. Sweden has contributed the larger portion of these, Norway and Russia come next, and are nearly alike in quantity ; Prussia follows, and Finland supplies least of all. To particularise and describe the various shades of difference to be found in the quality of these deals, battens, &c., would be next to impossible, drawn as' they are from so many ports of shipment in each of the countries referred to ; but, taking them in a general way, the order of quality would stand, first or best with Prussia, then with Russia, Sweden, and Finland, and lastly, with Norway. Each of these countries classify their goods by first and second, and sometimes third quality, the respective distinctions of classes being based upon the perfection or otherwise of the manu- facture, and freedom from shakes, sap, or defects. From whatever source these deals are obtained, they are usually branded with some fancy mark, letter or device, as varied in character as the names of the different merchants who produce them. These trade- marks are all liable to be changed, and the purchaser, unless he can make the selection for himself, must rely upon the reputation and integrity of the firm he treats with, for obtaining the particular article he may require. The following are samples of the trade-marks in present use upon deals and battens : — s 258 TIMBER AND TIMBER TREES. [CH.XXX. PQ pqE H PQ E ^ H- i i-3 p*[ E"1 T ..s pQ t"1 H M .. - ~ + o E E PQ .,S u - ., .„ -SM £ M o + + < Q O co K E PM PM ?§«-. a^ li«*ag3^ •*••*, H* B3 4t . . LJ rr * »»\ * . ^^^^ow^-s w it^ - -^ ^ • same col O" E •* O PQ - E - - /: w «o£ H m< < CQ ^ ^^j s«? •« o ^ o ^ PQ - 7 E .. PQ O O P u 1 1 O k ei _i g * ^ i 13 I a £'* % E E i-j co CHAPTER XXXI. LARCHES. THE LARCH TREE (Abies Larix). THIS is a deciduous tree, and is considered by many eminent botanists to be of the same genus as the Spruce ; the leaves grow in clusters and spread out in a brush or mop-like form, and in the spring, when quite fresh, they have a beautiful light-green tint, which make them very remarkable among other trees. The cones are of an oblong shape, and somewhat blunt. The Larch is a native of the European Alps and the Apennines, and is found abundantly in Russia and in Siberia. It thrives in dry, elevated, and almost barren land, and for this reason is perhaps the most profitable tree that can be planted in a poor soil. It grows at about the same rate, in such situations, as the Finns sylvestris does in more fertile localities, making i inch of wood in about 5^ years, or 2 feet in diameter in about 130 years (vide Table II., p. 18). In Scotland it has been planted by the Duke of Athol and others in immense quantities, and it has been stated that at elevations of upwards of 1,500 feet above the sea level, trees have been felled when only eighty years old that have yielded each from five to six loads of 260 TIMBER AND TIMBER TREES. [CHAP. timber, while in less elevated positions the produce is said to have been even more satisfactory.* The wood is of a yellowish- white colour, tough, strong, and occasionally a little coarse, but is generally straight and even in the grain. It works up tolerably well, and is considered to be very durable, but has the serious drawback of excessive shrinkage, with a tendency to warp in seasoning. The Larch tree yields the Venice turpentine of com- merce, which is procured in abundance from the trunks of old trees ; the bark also is of considerable value to the tanner. The Siberians make use of the inner bark, mixed with rye-flour, for preparing a sort of leaven, whenever the ordinary supply of the better article fails them. The Italian Larch timber, some time since imported into this country, was only of moderate dimensions, a little curved at the butt or root end, and straight from about the mid-length, tapering rather quickly towards the top. This timber was generally free from heart- shake, and very solid about the pith, clean and even in the grain over the lower part, but coarse and knotty higher up ; consequently, though not well adapted for the ordinary works in carpentry, it was very suitable for those parts of the frames of ships in which a light material is considered desirable. It seems probable that the timber above referred to was especially selected for ship-building purposes, but * To test the durability of the Scotch Larch, H.M.'s ship " Athol" was built of this timber in 1820, and about the same time the " Nieman," also a ship of war, was built of Baltic Fir. The former lasted for a long time without any extensive repairs, but the other decayed very rapidly, and from this comparison the superiority of the Scotch Larch over Fir, for durability, was considered to be pretty well established. xxxi.] LARCHES. 261 there are, doubtless, many Larch trees of straight growth in Italy, since it is stated on good authority that the greater number of the houses in Venice are built upon piles of this timber, particularly those of which the supports are alternately exposed to wet and dry ; many of these piles, after being in place for ages, are said not to have the least appearance of decay. This wood evidently stood in high favour in early times. Julius Caesar — who called it l( Lignum igni im- penetrabile," because he could not burn it with the same facility as other timber — used it for every purpose when- ever he could obtain it. Tiberius Caesar brought it over long distances from the forests of Rhaetia for the repara- tion of several bridges, and Pliny relates that a Larch tree, measuring 120 feet long and 2 feet in thickness, from end to end, was intended to be used in one of these. It was, however, preserved for a long time as a curiosity, and ultimately employed in the building of a large amphitheatre. The Polish Larch tree is generally of straight growth, and of dimensions rather exceeding the Italian variety. It is also coarser in the grain, more knotty, and has a larger amount of alburnum, or sap-wood. The Russian Larch tree attains dimensions superior to either of the foregoing descriptions. A cargo of this timber, very long and straight, was imported into this country a few years since from the district of the Petchora, a river flowing from the Ural Mountains into the Arctic Ocean. This parcel passed into the hands of the Government for the service of Woolwich Dockyard, where a portion of it was employed experimentally in ship-building, for 262 TIMBER AND TIMBER TREES. [CHAP. deck and planking purposes (for which it was judged to be especially suitable), in place of Baltic Fir and Pine timber. It disappointed, however, the expectations of the officers, as it was soon found to shrink so excessively, that it was impossible to keep it weather or water-tight ; in consequence of this it was removed from the ship- The remains of the parcel therefore passed into conver- sion for the most common and ordinary services, and, of the board produced, much was used for berthing in the timber sheds. It stood the test of exposure in such situations for fully eight years without showing any signs of decay, but exhibited a disposition to warp and shrink far exceeding that of any other wood in present use in carpentry. The subjoined Table, No. CXXXIX., shows that the Russian Larch is slightly deficient in transverse strength, as compared with the Firs and Pines ; but, otherwise, it is above their average. TABLE CXXXIX.— LARCH (RUSSIAN). Transverse Experiments. Deflections. Total o »• Weight Weight Number of the specimen. With the apparatus weighing 390 Ibs. After the weight was removed. At the crisis of breaking. required to break each piece. HJ? tfi W M to specific gravity 600. required to break i square inch. 1 2 3 4 6 Inches. •25 •5 •5 75 s Inch. •15 'IS 'GO •25 •15 *35 Inches. 4'5 5'0 475 3-85 4*15 375 Ibs. 743 714 708 5°4 568 519 688 697 645 618 647 583 648 615 658 489 527 534 Ibs. I«57S 178-50 I77-00 126-00 142*00 12975 Total . 9-40 1-05 26-00 3756 3878 347i 939-00 Average 1-566 •175 433 626 646-3 578 156-5 REMARKS.— All broke with a moderate length of fracture. XXXI.] LARCHES. 263 TABLE CXL. Tensile Experiments. Number of the specimen. Dimensions of each piece. Specific gravity. Weight the piece broke with. Direct cohesion on i square inch. Inches. Ibs. Ibs. 8 9 10 2 X 2 X 30 618 645 647 688 14,000 13,440 19,936 I9,880 3,500 3,360 4,984 4,970 Total . . 2598 67,256 16,814 Average . 649 16,814 4>203 TABLE CXLI. Vertical Experiments on Cubes of Number of the specimens. i Inch. 2 Inches. 3 Inches. 4 Inches. Crushed with Crushed with Crushed with Crushedwith II — 14 15-18 19, 20 21, 22 Tons. ' 2-875 2750 2-875 3-000 Tons. 10750 10-875 10750 IQ'375 Tons. 19-625 I9'500 Tons. 4275 42-50 Total . . »'S 4275 39-I25 85-25 Average . 2-875 10-687 19-562 42-62 Do. per in. 2-875 2-672 2-174 2-663 E = 649130. S = 1643. North America also produces a species of Larch, the well-known Hackmatack (Larix Americana) ; it is said to be tolerably abundant, and is found to range from the mountains of Virginia to Hudson's Bay. In deep forests it sometimes attains a height of 60 and 264 TIMBER AND TIMBER TREES. [CH. xxxi. even 80 feet, but it is generally of small dimensions. The wood is of a reddish-grey colour, moderately hard, heavy, strong, and as durable as Oak. It is extensively employed in America in the framing, and generally in the construction of ships. Great curves and knee-pieces, however, can only be obtained from the spurs of the root and from the branches. The American Red Larch (Larix microcctrpd) is less abundant, and as a building wood is not much known. It is believed to be equal in strength and durability to the Larix Americana, with which, indeed, it occasionally passes without being detected. CHAPTER XXXII. CEDARS. THE CEDAR TREE (Abies Cedrus), THE CEDAR OF LEBANON, Is found upon Mount Lebanon, the Taurus, and also upon many of the mountains in Asia Minor. It is a very stately and majestic evergreen tree, with heavy wide-spreading branches thrown out horizontally from low down the stem, bearing clustered leaves and erect obtuse oblong cones. Very extraordinary accounts have been given of the longevity of these trees, but these, I think, should be received with some little reserve. It is stated in a small work on useful and ornamental planting, that at Highclere Park, in Hampshire, the Earl of Caernarvon planted seeds in 1739, from a cone gathered upon Mount Lebanon. Only two germinated, which, after being planted out, remained rather stunted, and without showing any signs of vigour. In 1767 they were trans- planted into a poor soil, in a bleak situation, being at that time 17 inches in girth at one foot from the ground, and from that date their growth was considered to be satis- factory. No I in 48 years measured 35 inches in girth at 3 feet from the ground. 73 82 3 No 93 2 in 48 73 93 in „ 3 22 „ 3 72 „ 3 102 „ 3 These two Cedar trees, therefore, when 93 years old, 266 TIMBER AND TIMBER TREES. [CHAP. measured respectively about 37 and 34 inches in diameter, and were making wood at the rate of I inch of diameter in about 2^ years. If this rate of growth is applied to the largest of the trees which Maundrell mentions that he saw upon Mount Lebanon, it would show them to be only about 350, or, at the most, 400 years old ; and it is probable that this is somewhere about the limit of age which the Cedar trees attain, and not 3,000 years, as has been asserted. The rapid growth of the Cedar tree is borne out by the careful examination of some logs brought from Hon- duras, which were found to exhibit a rate of growth even quicker than those mentioned, the concentric rings show- ing that I inch of wood diameter was made in rather less than two years. We know very little of the quality of the timber of the Cedar of Lebanon ; it is too scarce to find its way in any quantity into the markets of this country. THE CUBA, HONDURAS, AND MEXICAN CEDARS are varieties of the Ccdrela odorata, but in their nature and condition of growth are very different from the Abies Cednis of Lebanon, which flourishes best with plenty of room and in open grounds, whilst those of the West Indies and Central America appear to prefer a closer situation, and attain the greatest perfection in the forests. Many of these are very fine trees, capable of yielding well-squared logs of timber, 12 to 24 inches on the side by 18 to. 40 feet in length, and even these dimensions are occasionally exceeded. Smaller timber is brought in considerable quantities into the market, the whole finding a ready sale among cabinet-makers and with those engaged in the manufacture of cigar- boxes and similar articles. XXXIL] CEDARS. 267 The wood is reddish-brown in colour, open and straight in the grain, very porous, soft and spongy in the centre, of light weight, and rather brittle ; large and injurious heart and cup-shakes frequently occur in it. It is deficient in strength, whichever way it is tried, but it works up easily, shrinks only moderately, and stands exceedingly well when seasoned. It is, therefore, of great value to the modeller, the carver, the toy-maker, and the general dealer in light and small wares. Large scantlings cannot, however, be worked out of it for framing in carpentry, neither is it suitable for such employment Cedar timber has long enjoyed the reputation of being durable ; and there is no doubt that Solomon obtained the Abies Cedrus for employment in the fitments, if not in the more solid structure, of the Temple at Jerusalem. The wood has a pleasant though peculiar odour, which is obnoxious to insects and vermin, and articles made of this material are practically free from their attacks. The specific gravity of well-seasoned Cuba Cedar is about 439. The specific gravities of moderately- seasoned Cuba, Mexican, and Honduras Cedars are respectively 564, 640, and 664. THE BERMUDIAN CEDAR (Juniperus Bermudiana) is very small, and much lighter than that of Cuba. It was tried experimentally, a few years since, in the building of several brigs and schooners in the royal dockyards, but with only partial success, and the use of it was soon discontinued. It is used in the Bermudas for the building of boats and small vessels, and is in request in this country for the making of pencils. The Cedar of Florida is similar in quality and 268 TIMBER AND TIMBER TREES. [CHAP. texture to the Bermudian, and is well adapted for the same kind of employment. The Spaniards formerly used Cedar to a great extent in ship-building ; and the " Gibraltar " and other large ships of theirs were found, on being taken to pieces, to have much of this wood in them, in a sound state. Cedar is found in India, Japan, Australia, and Van Diemen's Land. The same rule prevails in the market with reference to the sale of Cedar as with Mahogany, namely, that of deducting about one-third from the calliper, measure- ment for irregularity of manufacture, shakes, defects, centres, saw-kerfs, &c. Pencil Cedar is classed No. 3 ; Red Cedar, No. 6 ; and White Cedar, No. 17, among timbers used in ships, in Lloyds' rules for ship-building. TABLE CXLII.— CEDAR (CUBA). Transverse Experiments. Deflections. Total Weight Number of the specimen. weight required to break each £* II reduced to specific gravity Weight required to break i square With the apparatus weighing After the weight was At the crisis of 390 Ibs. removed. breaking. piece. 600. Inches. Inch. Inches. Ibs. Ibs. I 2-25 'OS 4'35 530 372 855 132-50 2 2'35 •30 4'35 555 386 863 13875 3 2'00 •25 4^5 630 530 713 I57-50 4 2-25 •25 4^5 560 504 666 I40-00 5 2-25 •35 4'35 55o 416 793 1 37 '5° 6 2-50 •35 4*65 535 425 755 13375 Total . 13-60 i'55 26-20 336o 2633 4645 840-00 Average 2-266 •258 4-366 560 439 774 140-00 REMARKS. — All broke with a short fracture. XXXII.] CEDARS. 269 TABLE CXLIII. Tensile Experiments. Number of the specimen. Dimensions of each piece. Specific gravity. Weight the piece broke with. Direct cohesion on i square inch. Inches. Ibs. Ibs. 7 ) 4l6 11,760 2,940 8 9 / > 2 X 2 X 30 425 504 11,200 I2,32O 2,800 3,080 IO ) , 530 10,640 2,66o Total . . 1875 45,920 11,480 Average . ... 469 11,480 2,870 TABLE CXLIV. Vertical or Crushing Strain on cubes 0/2 inches. No. ii. No. 12. No. 13. No. 14. Total. Average. Ditto on i square inch. Tons. Tons. Tons. Tons. Tons. Tons. 8-00 775 9-00 7^5 32-00 8'OO 1 2'OO ! = 4497 10. = 1470. CHAPTER XXXIII. PINES. THE RED PINE TREE (Pinus resinosa, Aiton). IN an official report, published in Boston in 1846, on the trees growing naturally in the forests of Massachusetts, it is stated that "The bark of this tree is much less rough than that of the Pitch Pine, and consists of rather broad scales of a reddish colour. The long leaves are in twos, and the cones are free from the bristling, rigid, sharp points which distinguish those of the Pitch Pine. It may also be distinguished at a distance by the greater size and length of the terminal brushes of leaves. It is known in New England by the name of Norway Pine, although it is entirely different from the tree so called in Europe, which is a kind of Spruce ; it is known in Canada as Red Pine." This description of timber, unlike the Dantzic and Riga Firs, which take their title from the port of ship- ment, derives its name from the reddish colour of its bark. It is a native of the United States and Canada, in North America, where it attains a height of from 70 to 100 feet, with a circumference of from 4 to 5 feet. It is more slender than the Pitch Pine, and yields the timber CHAP, xxxin.] RED PINE. of commerce in logs of from 10 to 18 inches square, and from 1 6 to 50 feet in length. The tree is of erect growth, with a tendency to slight curvature at the butt or root end of the stem, and, like most other Pines and Firs, has numerous though not usually heavy branches. The wood is white, tinged with yellow or straw colour ; it is tough, elastic, moderately strong, and pos- sesses a clean fine grain, which works up well, leaving upon the surface a smooth silky lustre. It is not apt to shrink, split, or warp much in seasoning, and, technically speaking, it stands well, which renders it a choice and very valuable wood for all kinds of construction, while in the dbmestic arts there need not be any limit to its application. The Red Pine is very solid about the pith or centre of the log, and has but little alburnum or sap-wood. There is, therefore, only a small amount of loss in its conversion, even if reduced to planks and boards ; while it can further be worked with great advantage in ship- building, for deck purposes, for cabin, and for other fitments. With every season's fall of this timber there are a few rough spars selected for hand-masts, holding about the same dimensions as those obtained from Riga. These spars, however, are very few in proportion to the number of trees felled, owing to the fact before men- tioned, that the trees are not generally quite straight, although fairly grown. On this account the selected spars nearly all require to be dressed to a straight form, and simply taking off the knotty tops of the trees and removing the bark is not sufficient to constitute the hand-mast of this species of Pine. The surveyor and mast-maker will, therefore, find it necessary to examine these spars very carefully to ascer- 272 TIMBER AND TIMBER TREES. [CHAP. tain the amount of dressing to which they have been subjected, and whether or not the fibre has been cut or destroyed to a degree that would impair its trust- worthiness for mast purposes. If the spar is found to be straight and free from injurious knots, and exces- sive dressing, it may be accepted as likely to do good service, the strength and elasticity of this wood com- paring favourably with those of the Riga and Dantzic Firs. The trees that remain after the spars are withdrawn are hewn into a square form, and have a small amount of wane left upon each angle (Fig. 28). They are also FIG. 2&JT. FIG. dressed to follow the natural taper of the tree, which is rather more rapid and noticeable than in other Pines. No particular classification is made of this wood for the market, beyond the separation of the larger from the smaller or building scantlings, and the quotations of prices for the timber are generally for "large," or for " mixed," and "building " sizes. The Red Pine of Canada is dearer than the Fir timber of the North of Europe by at least the difference in the cost of freight, and, hence, it does not find quite so ready a sale, the quality of the article to be employed in ordinary building operations not being so much a consideration as the quantity to be obtained for money. XXXIII.] RED PINE. 273 TABLE CXLV.— RED PINE (CANADA). Transverse Experiments. Deflections. Total Weight Weight Number of the specimen. With the apparatus weighing After the weight was At the crisis of required to break each £ £ £'! Cfl 00 to specific gravity required to break i square 390 Ibs. removed. breaking. piece. 600. Inches. Inch. Inches. Ibs. Ibs. j •85 •15 4*50 590 536 660 147-5 2 75 "IS 4^5 572 525 654 143-0 3 'So *IO 3^5 588 576 612 I47-0 4 '65 •15 575 7OO V* 727 I75-0 5 'So •10 5-5o 724 552 7*7 181-0 b 75 •15 4'5° 746 554 808 186-5 Total . icroo •80 2775 3920 3321 4248 980*0 Average 1-666 •133 4-625 653-33 553-5 708 I63-33 REMARKS. — Nos. i, 2, and 6 broke with a moderate length of fracture ; 3, 4, and 5, rather short. TABLE CXLVI. Tensile Experiments. Number of the specimen. Dimensions of each piece. Specific gravity. Weight the piece broke with. Direct cohesion on i square inch. Inches. Ibs. Ibs. 7 536 II,2OO 2,800 8 525 11,200 2,800 9 10 2 X 2 X 30 552 554 II,2OO 6,832 2,800 1,708 ii 578 I3,3OO 3,325 12 576 11,200 2,800 Total . ... 3321 64,932 16,233 Average . ... | 553 10,822 2,705 274 TIMBER AND TIMBER TREES. [CH. xxxm. TABLE CXLVII. Vertical Experiments on cubes of— Number of the specimen. i Inch. 2 Inches. 3 Inches. 4 Inches. Crushed with Crushed with Crushed with Crushed with 13—16 17, 18 19, 20 21, 22 23, 24 25, 26 Tons. 2'375 3'500 3-250 3-500 3750 3'500 - Tons. 8-000 8-500 8-250 8-750 8-375 8-875 Tons. 21*875 Tons. 34-00 Total . . I9-875 5075 — — Average . 3-312 8-46 21-875 34-00 Do. per in. 3-3I2 2-115 2-431 2T25 Nos. 27 TO 30. — Four pieces, each 2x2 inches, and respectively I, 2, 3, and 4 inches in length, crushed with 9 '375, 8*460, 8*250, and 9*50 Tons. = 588900. = 1715. Contracts are annually made for the supply of Canada Red Pine timber for the Royal Navy, according to the following specification and condition, namely : — The Red Pine timber to be of the first quality, fresh cut, good, sound, merchantable, and well-conditioned, from II to 15 inches square, averaging 12^ inches, 20 feet and upwards in length, and the spine must be seen from the butt to the top on each of the four sides. CHAPTER XXXIV. PINES— (Continued). THE YELLOW PINE TREE (Pinus Stroblls). THIS tree occupies a very wide range in North America, and is found to spread from near the Saskatchewan River, in about 54° N., to the ridges of the Alleghany Mountains in Georgia, and from Nova Scotia to the Rocky Mountains. It is found in every part of New England, growing in every variety of soil, but flourishing best in a deep, moist, loamy sand. In England it is called by botanists the Weymouth Pine, in compliment to Lord Weymouth, who first intro- duced it into this country ; but in America it is com- monly known as the White Pine, while the timber it yields is best known in commerce as the Yellow Pine. This tree may be distinguished by its leaves growing in tufts of five, by its very long cones composed of loosely- arranged scales, and, when young, by the smoothness and delicate light-green colour of the bark. The trees are of erect growth and noble dimensions, many of them being 100 to 150 feet in height, and from 9 to 12 feet in circumference. The wood is of a pale straw colour, soft, light (the specific gravity being only 435), and moderately strong. It has a clean, fine grain, works up with a smooth and 276 TIMBER AND TIMBER TREES. [CHAP. silky appearance, and is, on this account, in great favour with carpenters. It is very valuable for every description of joinery, where lightness may be desirable, and may be applied with advantage to many ornamental uses in both naval and civil architecture. For more substantial works of construction, it is not, however, con- sidered to be so well adapted, as it is not sufficiently strong or durable for employment in them. In every season's felling of the Yellow Pine trees, the straightest, longest, and finest pieces are sorted out and dressed or hewn nearly to the octagonal form ; they are then called " Inch masts," and these rough spars serve for employment for the lower masts, yards, and bowsprits of ships. It is essential to the qualification of the stick for mast, yard, or bowsprit purposes, that it be straight, sound, free from sudden bends and injurious knots. Further, it is important that the grain be straight, and especially it should be free from any spiral turn, as timber of that growth is liable to warp or twist out of shape after being worked. Nearly all the lower masts, yards, and bowsprits of large ships are made of Yellow Pine ; but, for the lower masts of small vessels, and generally for the top-mast, topsail-yards, and other light spars where the strain is often sudden and great, this descrip- tion of Pine is not strong enough, and is therefore seldom employed. The employment of Yellow Pine for large spars is chiefly owing to the difficulty experienced in obtaining the stronger Pines of Sufficiently large dimensions, and it is only since the introduction of the " Douglas Pine " spars from the Oregon district of Columbia, that they have been in some measure superseded. Still, the Yellow Pine wood, when made into masts, has gene- xxxiv.] YELLOW PINE. 277 rally proved equal to the strains brought to bear upon it ; the stays, shrouds, and other rigging being quite sufficient to hold it against any ordinary amount of pressure.* After the spars have been withdrawn from each season's fall of trees, the remainder are hewn into a square form, producing logs varying from 14 to 26 inches square, and from 1 8 to 40 feet in length (Fig. 29). These pass through a sorting for quality, to suit the market, but there are no official brands by which the surveyor could at once identify them. Good, sound, practical judgment is therefore most essential for making a selection of this wood. Occasionally we see quoted some " waney " timber for board purposes, or "waney board timber." These logs are not so perfectly hewn or squared as the ordinary timber, and are usually short butts of trees, which are very clean in the grain, free from knots, and solid at the centre. These are probably procured from fine trees that * Masts made of Yellow Pine can seldom be relied upon after eight or ten years' work, especially if they have been used in the tropics, where the intense heat and rains deteriorate them very rapidly. Every care should therefore be taken to preserve them, first by painting them only after thorough seasoning, and then at intervals of a year or so. The covers at the wedging decks should also be carefully looked to, and kept in good condition, to prevent damp from affecting the mast at that part. The introduction of iron for the lower masts of ships is now fast superseding the use of wood, both in the royal and the mercantile navy. 278 TIMBER AND TIMBER TREES. [CHAP. have been broken in their fall, and are doubtless about the best that can be obtained for conversion into board. In addition to the masts and timber, a few deals are imported. These are cut 3 inches thick, and vary in breadth from 9 to 24 inches, and occasionally even to 32 inches. In length they vary from 10 to 20 feet. They are sorted in Canada into three parcels, and designated first, second, and third quality, according as they are found free from knots, sap, defects, &c., &c., or otherwise. They are further denominated "bright," when passed direct from the saw-mills to the craft for shipment, in contradistinction to others, termed " floated," which are often brought over long distances on rafts, and get a little discoloured in their transit. They are commonly sold at per 120, St. Petersburg standard, and the price of the " floated " usually stands depreciated in the market to the extent of about 10 or 12 per cent, below the price of " bright " deals. A simple red chalk mark, thus — I., II., and III., drawn across the middle or side of the deals, is the only distinguishing brand they have to denote their quality. Yellow Pine timber is subject to the cup and heart shake defects, and there is also a slight degree of spon- giness about the centre or early annual layers of the older trees, which detracts a little from their value. Further, the top end of the logs are often coarse and knotty, which renders that part unfit for conversion into small scantlings ; but, otherwise, it is a good and profit- able description of timber for use, in substitution for the heavier and harder Pines. The subjoined tables of experiments on the strength of Yellow Pine will afford a means of comparison with other species. XXXIV.] YELLOW PINE. TABLE CXLVIIL— YELLOW PINE (CANADA). Transverse Experiments. Number of the specimen. Deflections. Total weight required to break each piece. ££ 11 CO M Weight reduced to specific gravity 600. Weight required to break i square inch. With the apparatus weighing 390 Ibs. After the weight was removed. At the crisis of breaking. Inches. Inches. Inches. Ibs. Ibs. I 2'00 175 4 '5° 630 424 891 I57-5 2 2 'GO I-65 5-00 636 432 882 I59-0 3 2'00 I-85 4 '5° 684 464 884 I7I-0 4 175 I-65 4'5o 660 444 892 165-0 5 2-25 2'00 375 552 435 76l 138-0 6 275 2*IO 575 598 411 873 H9-5 Total . 1275 II'OO 28-00 3760 2610 5183 940-0 Average 2'125 I-833 4-66 626*6 435 864 156-66 REMARKS.— The whole of these broke with a moderate length of fracture and splintery. The above-mentioned specimens were all of good quality, well seasoned, and taken from trees of 6 to 8 feet in circumference. It will be observed that the specific gravity and breaking strains varied only in a slight degree. By the formulae — E = 309240. S = 1645. Experiments were also made to test the transverse strength of a series of seven pieces (Table CXLIX.) cut from a plank 2 inches thick, taken out of the middle or centre part of the butt-end of a tree, the centre piece O being made to include the pith (Fig. 30). FIG. 30. 280 TIMBER AND TIMBER TREES. [CHAP. We are thus enabled to compare the strength of the earlier and the later growth of this wood. TABLE CXLIX.— YELLOW PINE (CANADA). Transverse Experiments. — 2nd Example. o Deflections. •* •o • Tensile Number of th specimen. Total weight required to bre each piece. c 05 Weight reduce to specific gravity 600. Weight require to break i square inch. Experiments. With the appa- ratus weighing 390 Ibs. After the weight was removed. !<2 fcb M •5 5 g.a Number of the specimen. Inches. Inches. Inches. Ibs. Ibs. Ibs. • 7- 3 I-50 •50 4-25 ; 508 568 537 I27-0 2660 3- 22 8. 2 1-25 •50 4-25 562 600 562 140-5 2800 2. 23 9. i I-50 •50 2-25 480 537 536 I2O'O 2485 I. 24 10. Q 2-25 I'lO 275 360 43° 502 90-0 O ii. i' I-8S '85 3-00 480 588 490 I2O'O 2730 I'. 25 12. 2' I-90 •90 4-25 512 568 54i 128-0 2800 2:26 !3- 3' 175 •65 3-00 478 566 507 II9-5 3080 3'- 27 Total 12-00 5-00 23-75 3,380 3857 3675 845-0016,555 — Aver. I-7I4 714 3-393 482-85 551 525 12071! 2759 ~ The mean results of the experiments are as follows, viz. : — The centre piece Q s.g. 430 broke with 360 Ibs. E = 785170. S = 945 ,, next pieces i and i' „ 562 „ 480 ,, E = 902950. S = 1261 2 » 2' „ 584 „ 537 „ E - 577020. S = 1425 outer ,, 3,, 3',, 567 ,, 493 „ £ = 822740.8-1294 The mean of the 7 pieces being E = 902950 and S = 1267. In the above example, there is something like a xxxiv.] YELLOW PINE. 281 direct proportion existing between the specific gravity and the strength, the densest wood having borne the greatest strain before breaking. Instead, however, of this point of density lying at the centre of the tree, as in the specimens of Oak that were tested in a similar manner, we find it, as is generally the case with other woods, about midway between the pith and the outer layers of duramen. The results, if compared with the mean of the first- mentioned set of experiments on Yellow Pine (Table CXLVIII.), which were upon pieces taken from several trees, show that the tree from which the seven specimens were obtained possessed a little less strength, and rather less elasticity, than the former ; but then it must be borne in mind that they were selected pieces, and probably did not include the weaker wood of either the oldest or the newest layers. Further experiments were tried on six out of seven of the specimens, to ascertain their relative tensile strength (Table CLXIX., column 9). The following are the average results : — The pieces I and i' s.g. 562 broke with 2,607 Ibs. on the square inch. 2 ,, 2' „ 584 „ 2,800 „ „ 3 ,t 3' it 567 »» . it The centre piece O was not tried for tensile strength, as it was too much crippled under the transverse strain to be of any further value for experimental pur- poses. The denser layers 2 and 2', were not in this case quite so strong as 3 and 3', which were of a less specific gravity. 282 TIMBER AND TIMBER TREES. [CHAP. TABLE CL. — YELLOW PINE (CANADA). Transverse Experiments. — yd Example. Deflections. •a T3 -o Tensile .** c &* 'i Lj .£ -g Experiments. F» Number o: specime With the app ratus weighi 390 Ibs. After the weight wa removed. At the crisi of breaking. Total wei required to each pie B- o «3 1 III fl Pi §2| Direct cohesion on i square in. Number of the specimen. Inches. Inches. Inches. Ibs. Ibs. Ibs. 14. 4 2 '00 •65 3*°O 504 562 «8 126-00 2485 4. 28 15- 3 175 •65' 3-50 556 564 59i 139-00 2800 3- 29 16. 2 I-50 "5° 475 665 530 753 166-25 2870 2. 30 17. I 2*25 •85 4 '5° 498 56o 533 124-50 2240 !• 31 18. i' 2 '25 75 3*25 513 526 585 128-25 1610 I'. 32 I9. 2' 2-25 '85 275 419 566 444 10475 2150 2'- 33 20. 3' 2-50 75 2-85 421 544 464 105-25 2100 V- 34 21. 4' 2-25 •65 3-00 460 564 490 1820 4'- 35 Total 1675 5-65 27-60 4036 4416 4398 1009*00 18075 — Aver. 2-093 706 3-45 5°4 '5 552 54975 126-125 2259*37 — E = 650960. S = 1324. These experiments are similar to the last, but the specimens were taken from a larger tree, and the soft wood about the pith, including the heart-shake, was allowed to drop out. In this case the woody layers were placed vertically in the machine for testing them transversely (Fig. 31). The mean results of the transverse experiments are as follows, viz. : — The pieces i and I ', s.g. 543, broke with 505 Ibs. £=622720. 8 = 1327 2 „ 2', ,, 548, „ 542 „ £=752450. 8 = 1423 Z „ 3', „ 559, „ 488 „ £=976160. 8=1282 4 „ 4', ,, 5<>3> „ 482 „ £=612170. 8=1265 FIG. 31. XXXIV.] YELLOW PINE. 283 And of the tensile : The pieces I and I ', s.g. 543, broke with 1,925 Ibs. 2 ,, 2', ,, 548, ,, 2,510 „ 3 „ 3'. » 559, „ 2,450 „ ,t 4 „ 4', „ 563, „ 2,152 ,, We find here that the denser layers are at 4 and 4', near the outside of the log, but we are not sure as to the amount of wood removed in hewing it, so that it may perhaps compare with the specimens in Table CXLIX. as to position of growth. It will be seen that the point of greatest transverse strength is at or near 3 and 3', and that of the tensile at or near 2 and 2'. There is a marked difference in the strength of the wood on the two sides of this tree, since I, 2, 3, and 4 have a mean transverse strength of 556, and i', 2', 3', and 4' of 453 only, the difference being 103, or about 18 per cent. This is further remarkable in the tensile strength, since I, 2, 3, and 4 have a mean strength of 2599, and i', 2', 3', and 4' of 1920 only, the difference being 679, or about 26 per cent. TABLE CLI. Tensile Experiments. Number of the specimen. Dimensions of the pieces. Specific gravity. Weight the piece broke with. Direct cohesion on i square in. 36 % Inches. 2 X 2 X 30 464 444 506 Ibs. 7,280 7,840 9,205 Ibs. 1,820 1,960 2,301 Total . . ... 1414 24,325 6, 08 1 Average . ... 471 8,108 2,027 TIMBER AND TIMBER TREES, [CHAP. TABLE CLII. Vertical Experiments on cubes of— Number of the specimen. i Inch. 2 Inches. 3 Inches. 4 Inches. Crushed with Crushed with Crushed with Crushed with 39—42 43, 44 45, 4^ 47, 48 49, 5° 5i, 52 Tons. 3^25 3'OOQ 2-125 2-250 1-875 2-250 Tons. 6-750 6-875 7-250 8-000 8-000 7'75° Tons. 1575 Tons. 22-875 Total . . I5'I25 44-625 — — Average . 2-52I 7H37 1575 22-875 Do. per in. 2-52I 1-859 175 I-430 Vertical Experiments. — Four pieces, Nos. 53, 54, 55, and 56, each 2x2 inches, and respectively 1234 Inches in length. Crushed with 8-5 | 7-454 | 8-25 | 7-875 Tons. Contracts are annually made for the supply of Canada Yellow Pine timber, deals, and masts, yards, and bow- sprits for the Royal Navy, according to the following specifications and conditions : The Yellow Pine timber to be of the first quality, 16 inches square and \ipwards ; 20 feet long and upwards, and the spine must be seen from the butt to the top on each of the four sides. The Yellow Pine deals to be of the first quality, bright, 3 inches thick, not less than n inches broad, and 12 feet long and upwards. The whole to be clean and bright in quality. All the Yellow Pine masts, yards, and bowsprits to be perfectly straight, well and in a workmanlike manner wrought ; the masts, yards, and bow- sprits not to be hewn into eight squares, but all to be left in the square, similar to mast timber, and to have most of their sap taken out. The masts, yards, and bowsprits are not to be tapered from their partners downwards, but to be kept as big at the heel as they are at the partners, and in their four squares as aforesaid ; nevertheless, it is not expected that no sap shall remain at the edges of the said four squares ; but it will be judged sufficient if such masts, yards, and bowsprits are capable of being cleared of sap when brought into their usual squares. of the partners. xxxiv.] YELLOW PINE. 285 No mast, yard, or bowsprit to have large or sudden bites, or large knots, or any defects that may render them unfit to serve for the use for which they are required. The diameter and length of the Yellow Pine masts, yards, and bow- sprits to be in the following proportion : — Mast pieces, 25 inches and upwards diameter, the length to be at least three times the diameter considered as feet ; and under 25 inches to be three times the diameter considered as feet, with 9 feet added. i.e. 25 x 3 = 75 feet. | 24 x 3 + 9 = 81 feet. | 20 x 3 + 9 = 69 feet. Yellow Pine masts. — Heads, or upper part. . . £ Hounds, or lower part... ... ... |- 3rd \ -« 2nd |- Quarter ... ... ... ... f£ Ist ) - «*! Heel ... ... ... ... as partners ) N.B. — Both partners are the bigness of the mast. Length of the head, 4^" inches to every yard the mast is long; from the heel to the lower partners, one-sixth of the mast ; ditto, upper partners, five-eighteenths. The four quarters are divided between the upper partners and upper part of the hounds. Yard pieces, the length to be at least 4 feet 3 inches for every inch of diameter in the slings. i.e. 24 x 4-25 = 102 feet. | 20 x 4-25 = 85 feet. Yards, 1st Quarter ... ... ... ff \ 2nd „ A 3rd „ I Yard arms \ ) Bowsprit pieces, the length to be 2 feet for every inch of diameter at the bed, with I foot added. i.e. 24 x 2 + i = 49 feet. | 20 x 2 + I = 41 feet. End 43rd) 2nd ( Quarter ff } of the bed. ist ) Heel For setting off the lengths. From the heel to the lower end of the bed, one-seventh of the bowsprit ; to the upper end of the bed, three-eighths of the bowsprit. I. Quality. — All the goods to be supplied under this contract to be of the best quality, fresh cut, good, sound, merchantable, and well-conditioned. CHAPTER XXXV. PINES — (Continued). THE AMERICAN PITCH PINE TREE (Finns rigidci). THIS tree is found spread over a wide tract of country lying between the Penobscot and the Mississippi rivers in North America. It is of erect and almost perfectly straight growth, and may be readily distinguished from others by its leaves being in threes, by the rigidity and sharp edges of the scales of the cones, by the extreme roughness of its bark, and by the density of the brushes of its stiff and crowded leaves. It requires a good supply of moisture to bring it to the greatest perfection, and flourishes well on a sandy soil if mixed with loam. The Southern States produce the best spars for masts, square timber, and plank, and these are shipped to this country chiefly from the ports of Savannah, Darien, and Pensacola, in the States of South Carolina, Georgia, and Alabama. The mast-pieces are generally of moderate dimensions, and take the place of Riga or Dantzic spars of 18 to 16 hands, whenever there is any difficulty in procuring either of those descriptions, and except that the Pitch Pine has a greater specific gravity, there is little to prevent it from being used more exten- sively than hitherto, in lieu of the Baltic Firs. The timber is usually imported in well-hewn logs of II to 1 8 inches square by from 20 to 45 feet in length, CHAP. XXXV.] PITCH PINE. 287 the planks in thickness varying from 3 to 5 inches by 10 to 1 5 inches in width, and from 20 to 45 feet in length. Pitch Pine is extensively employed in ship-building for beams, shelf, and bottom planking, &c., &c., and also in civil architecture wherever long, straight, and large scantlings are needed. It will not, however, make good board for joiners' general purposes, although we find it is used to some extent for cabinet work. The wood is of a reddish- white colour, clean, hard, rigid, highly resinous, regular and straight in the grain, and, compared with most other Pines and Firs, is rather more difficult to work ; it is good in quality, and con- sidered to be durable. The principal defects in Pitch Pine are the heart and cup shake, the latter often extending a long way up the tree. Hence, as far as possible, logs having these defects should be used in large scantlings, to guard against a waste of wood near the centre. TABLE CLIII. — PITCH PINE (AMERICAN). Transverse Experiments* Number of the specimen. Deflections. Total weight required to break each Specific gravity. Weight reduced to specific gravity Weight required to break i square With the apparatus weighing After the weight was At _ the crisis of 390 Ibs. removed. breaking. piece. 600. Inches. Inch. Inches. Ibs. Ibs. I 1-25 'IS 5-05 1,068 65I 984 267-00 2 1-25 75 375 902 630 859 225-50 3 I -00 •oo 5 'oo 1,145 693 991 286-25 4 I'OO •oo 4-65 1,005 662 911 25I-25 5 1-25 •15 5'i5 968 620 937 242-00 6 I'OO •oo 5'iS I,2O7 698 1038 30175 Total . 675 •45 2875 6,295 3954 5720 157375 Average 1-125 •075 479i 1,049-16 659 953 '3 262 '29 REMARKS. — All the specimens broke with a short fracture. E = 859950. S = 2754. 288 TIMBER AND TIMBER TREES. [CHAP. The specimens Nos. I to 6 were selected pieces, but not all taken from the same tree. The following were taken from a continuous strip cut the whole length of the tree. TABLE CLIV. — PITCH PINE (AMERICAN). Transverse Experiments. — 2nd Example. (Butt to Top, inner part of the tree. Fig. 32<7.) ; Deflections Total o o Weight Weight Number of the specimen. With the apparatus weighing 390 Ibs. After the weight was removed. At the crisis of breaking. weight required to break each piece. «: fr il V. bfl reduced to specific gravity 600. required to break i square inch. Inches. Inch. Inches. Ibs. Ibs. 7 •25 •10 975 860 932 554 2I5'OO 8 •25 •oo 5-00 1020 764 80 1 255-00 9 •25 *OO 4*5° 990 682 871 247-50 10 '35 •oo 4-25 874 6S2 804 218-50 ii •25 'IS 4-50 876 632 833 219-00 12 '4 •oo 3-25 715 586 732 17875 Total . 775 •25 3i'25 5335 4248 4595 133375 Average 1*291 •0416 5-208 889-16 708 766 222-29 REMARKS. — No. 7 fractured but not broken asunder, highly resinous ; Nos. 8, 9, 10, and ii broke a little short ; 12 broke with a long splintery fracture. E = 722360. S = 2334. Specimens Nos. 7 to 12, with the early layers or growth, were taken at about 3 inches from the pith of a centre plank cut from a log 42 feet in length. (Fig. 32.) FIG. 32.— a, b, c. XXXV.] PITCH PINE. 289 TABLE CLV. — PITCH PINE (AMERICAN). Transverse Experiments. — yd Example. (Butt to top, outer part of the tree. Fig. 32^.; Deflections Total Weight Weight Number of the specimen. With the apparatus weighing 390 Ibs. After the weight was removed. At the crisis of breaking. weight required to break each piece. «£ 11 O) bO reduced to specific gravity 600. required to break i square inch. Inches. Inch. Inches. Ibs. Ibs. 13 "IS •oo 375 1,035 840 740 25875 14 'IS 'IS 275 985 788 725 221 '25 15 •oo *oo 5-00 1,110 760 876 277-50 16 •25 •15 375 92O 655 843 230-00 17 •25 *oo 475 925 613 905 231-25 18 *35 •20 475 845 610 831 2II-25 Total . 7-15 •50 2475 5,820 4266 4920 1,430 Average I-I9I •0833 4*125 970 711 820 238-33 REMARKS. — No. 13 broke short and split ; 14, curl in the grain and broke short ; 15 and 1 6 broke short and split ; 17 and 18 broke with short fracture. E = 815070. S = 2546. Specimens Nos..i3 to 18, with the later layers or growth, were taken from the outside of the same plank, the object being to ascertain in the two sets of experi- ments—Tables CLIV. and CLV.— in which part of the length the maximum of strength lay. Table CLIV. shows that in the early layers it is in specimen 8, the second piece from the butt-end ; and Table CLV. shows that in the wood of later growth it is in speci- men 15, the third piece from the butt-end. We also see in the mean results of the experiments that the strength of the inner is to the outer wood as 889 : 970. Further experiments on the transverse strength of the inner and outer layers of wood of another Pitch Pine tree were then carried out, with the following results : — u 2 90 TIMBER AND TIMBER TREES. [CHAP. TABLE CLVI. — PITCH PINE (AMERICAN). Transverse Experiments. — 4//& Example. (Butt to top, inner part of the tree.) 3eflections. Total Weight Weight Number of the specimen. With the apparatus weighing 390 Ibs. After the weight was removed. At the crisis of breaking. required to break each piece. «c £> 11 to specific gravity 600. required to break i square inch. Inches. Inch. Inches. Ibs. Ibs. 19 •25 •oo 4'50 760 SS3 782 190*00 20 'SO 'IS 5'00 778 55° 849 1 94 '50 21 •25 •oo 375 752 53i 850 i88'oo 22 *5° •25 475 705 505 837 176-25 23 'SO •25 475 695 5oi 832 17375 24 'SO •10 4'5o 710 498 855 177-50 Total . 8-50 .75 27-25 4400 3168 5oo5 1 100 -00 Average I'4l6 •125 4*54i 733-33 528 834 183-33 REMARKS. — Specimens all broke with fracture of a few inches in length. E - 701530. S = 1925. TABLE CLVII. — PITCH PINE (AMERICAN). Transverse Experiments. — $th Example* (Butt to top, outer part of the tree.) Deflections. Total Weight Weight Number of the specimen. With the apparatus weighing 390 Ibs. After the weight was removed. At the crisis of breaking. required to break each piece. <& £> 11 y? tb to specific gravity 600. required to break i square inch. Inches. Inch. Inches. Ibs. Ibs. 25 'SO *IO 475 805 601 803 201 -25 26 •25 •15 5-00 778 572 816 I94*50 27 •25 •05 4-25 742 533 835 I85-50 28 'SO •15 4-00 725 530 82! I8I-25 29 'SO 'OS 4*00 739 S28 839 18475 30 'SO •oo 375 741 5i8 858 I85-25 Total . 8-50 •50 2575 4530 3282 4972 II32-50 Average 1-416 •083 4-291 755 547 829 188-75 REMARKS. — Specimens all broke with fracture of a few inches in length. E •— 677270. S = 1982. XXXV.] PITCH PINE. 291 Specimens 19 to 24, with the early layers, also 25 to 30, with the later layers of wood, were taken from a log of the same dimensions as the last, and under precisely the same conditions as those referred to in Tables CLIV. and CLV., the results being nearly as before; that is, specimen 20, or the second piece from the butt-end of the early growth, and specimen 25, or the butt length of the later growth, are the two strongest pieces of the respective series. We also see in the mean results of the experiments that the strength of the inner is to the outer wood as 733 1755. Thus the outside is as before, the strongest. The mean of Tables CLIII. and CLVL, with early layers or inner wood, £-=711945. 8 = 2130. The mean of Tables CLV. and CLVIL, with later layers or outer wood, E = 763800. S = 2264. TABLE CLVIII. Tensile Experiments. Number of the specimen. Dimensions of each piece. Specific gravity. Weight the pieces broke with. Direct cohe- sion on i square inch. Inches. Ibs. Ibs. 31 693 16,800 4,200 32 630 17,640 4,410 33 34 2 X 2 X 30 651 620 19,320 17,920 4,830 4,480 35 662 I9,600 4,900 36 698 20, 72O 5, 1 80 Total . . ... 3954 112,000 28,000 Average . ... 659 18,666 4,666 TABLE CLIX. Vertical or Crushing Strain on cubes of 2 inches. No. 37. No. 38. No. 39. No. 40. No. 41. No. 42. Total. Average. Ditto on i square inch. Tons. Tons. Tons, Tons. Tons. Tons. Tons. Tons. 10-875 H'I25 "'5 11*625 12-00 I2'I25 69-25 II-542 2-885 CHAPTER XXXVI. PINES— (Continued). THE OREGON OR DOUGLAS PINE, OR FIR TREE (Abies Douglasii). THIS noble and gigantic species of Pine, or Fir, is, accord- ing to Mr. Douglas, to be found in large forests in North- Western America, stretching from 43° to 52° of North latitude. It is an evergreen of erect growth, varying from 100 to fully 200 feet in height, and from 5 to 25 feet in circumference, and occasionally even exceeding this measurement in girth. The bark is rough, and varies from i to 2 inches in thickness. The wood is reddish-white in colour, close, straight, and regular in the grain, tough, elastic, has very little alburnum or sap-wood, and is remarkably free from knots, it being no uncommon thing to find pieces 70 to 80 feet in length without a single one upon the surface. In general appearance it more closely resembles the Red Pine (Finns resinosa) of Canada than either of the other Pines and Firs with which we are acquainted. It is, however, slightly harder than the Red Pine, and less firm in texture. The Oregon Fir or Pine is rather more rapid in its rate of growth than the Firs and Pines generally are, CHAP, xxxvi.] OREGON PINE. 293 and makes about 24 inches in diameter in a hundred years, or, as I have proved by an average of several specimens, it makes I inch diameter of wood in 4:32 years. Cargoes of Oregon Fir spars are occasionally brought to this country, together with a little timber and plank ; but it can scarcely be said that there is as yet any regular trade kept up in this wood, owing chiefly to the great cost of transport, the heavy freight charges preventing its importation and successful competition with the Canadian and Baltic Firs, which can be put upon the London market at less expense. The Oregon spars are generally well dressed, or manufactured for the market, are perfectly straight, and vary from about 10 inches in diameter and 40 feet in length, to 32 inches in diameter and no feet in length. They are much sought after, and are well adapted for lower-masts, yards, and bowsprits, &c., &c. ; for yachts, and for the royal and mercantile marine. For top-masts, however, where there is often much friction, they are not so well suited as Riga or Dantzic Fir, or the Kauri Pine of New Zealand, owing to the want of cohesion in the annual layers. A good specimen of the Oregon Fir, 159 feet in length, was placed in the Royal Botanic Gardens at Kew for a flagstaff, about the year 1861, and seems likely to do good service there. One or two such spars, suitable for flagstaffs, the dimensions varying from 9 to 14 inches in diameter, and 80 to no feet in length, are commonly brought with each cargo. The present price (1875) of these Oregon Pine spars for masts, &c., varies from £7 los. to £11 los. per load of 50 cubic feet, according to size. This is in excess of that usually charged for the Yellow Pine of Canada, but, 294 TIMBER AND TIMBER TREES. [CH. xxxvi. looking to the superior manufacture of the Oregon spars, the actual difference in cost is very small indeed. For the square timber and planks, which are brought as stowage goods with the spars, no quotations are given, and, in a general way, they must always be ruled by the market price for Canadian and Baltic square Fir timber. The clean appearance and straightness of the Oregon Fir timber are quite sufficient to recommend it for many purposes in carpentry, and it certainly may be used with advantage in both naval and civil architecture, in lieu of the more well-known Firs. The specific gravity of this wood, when seasoned, is about 605. CHAPTER XXXVII. NEW ZEALAND TREES. THE KAURIE, OR COWDIE PINE (Dammar a Australis), Is a native of and is found only in New Zealand. It is most plentiful about the middle part of the northern island, where there are very extensive forests of it, but it is only moderately abundant a little farther south, and towards Wellington, and in the middle island, it is only sparingly met with. It is a tall and very handsome tree, with a slightly tapering stem, and reaches, in sheltered situations, a height of 100 to 140 feet, with a circumference of from 9 to 1 5 feet ; and even much larger specimens are occa- sionally met with. At Wangaroa, a little to the north- ward of the Bay of Islands, I measured one that was 48 feet in circumference at 3 feet from the ground. It was a well-grown, healthy-looking tree, with a heavy cluster of branches thrown out at about 66 feet from the base, and these, spreading obliquely, covered a large space. Many others approximating in dimensions to this magnificent specimen were seen, but the largest that I ever met with was one standing near to Mercury Bay, which measured 80 feet to the branches, and 72 feet in circumference. 296 TIMBER AND TIMBER TREES. [CHAP. The Kauri is a slower-growing tree than most other Firs and Pines; it is slower even than the Pitch Pine of America, and makes only I inch of wood diameter in about 6 or 7 years. Thus, the two noble trees to which I have referred were, by computation, respectively about 1,300 and 2,000 years old; they were, however, almost unavailable for any industrial purpose, as it would be impossible to move these excessively large trees if they were cut down. The Kauri has a dense foliage of tough leathery leaves, resembling in shape those of the Box plant ; they vary from ^ to i % inch in length, are sessile, and the fruit is a cone of a spherical form of about 3 inches in diameter, enclosed in which are the winged seeds. The bark is quite smooth, and about I inch in thickness. It is a peculiarity of this species of Pine, that a fluid gum, or resin, of a milk-like character, oozes spontaneously out from every part of the tree, and hardens upon the surface by exposure to the air, immense masses of this opaque gum being often seen on old trees, suspended from the stem at the forked part of the branches. Some few years since the British Government sent out several expeditions in succession to New Zealand, to procure spars fit for top-masts for line-of-battle ships, and it was while engaged on this special service that I first became acquainted with the properties of the Kauri Pine timber. Since the colonisation of that country, however, the business has been left to private enterprise, and spars, timber, and gum have occasionally formed part of the return cargoes of store and emigrant ships. Much more timber would, no doubt, have been shipped, were it not for the great expense that attends the work- ing of the forests, and the cost of freight for so long a voyage. These two very costly items effectually pre- xxxvii.] KAURI PINE. 297 elude the Kauri Pine timber from competing with the Fir timber brought to this country from the Baltic, for ordinary building purposes. Kauri Pine, when used for masts, yards, &c., is un- rivalled in excellence, as it not only possesses the requisite dimensions, lightness, elasticity and strength, but is much more durable than any other Pine, and will stand a very large amount of work before it is thoroughly worn out. All the thriving and healthy trees have from 3 to 5 inches of alburnum or sap-wood very distinctly marked in them, even when fresh cut. The duramen or heart- wood is of a yellowish-white or straw colour, moderately hard for Pine, strong, clean, fine, close, and straight in the grain. It has a very pleasant and agreeable odour when worked, planes up well, and leaves a beautiful silky lustre upon the surface, resembling, in some degree, the plainest Satinwood. It shrinks very little, and stands well after seasoning ; further, it takes a good polish. It is, therefore, valuable for conversion into planks and boards, and is very suitable for cabin and other fitments in ships, for joiners' work generally, or for ornamental purposes. It is also employed for the decks of yachts, as, from the regularity of its grain and the absence of knots, it looks much better than the Dantzic Fir that is commonly used. It wears, besides, more evenly, and does not require the reconciling or planing over, which is frequently found necessary if other woods are worked. The Kauri Pine is generally sound, and free from the defects common to many other descriptions of timber ; it very rarely has more than a slight heart-shake, even in old trees ; the star and the cup shake are also rare ; it is, therefore, a remarkably solid timber, and may be 298 TIMBER AND TIMBER TREES. [CHAP. considered one of the best woods for working that the carpenter can take in hand. There are many experiments on the strength of the Kauri Pine, and the first to be noticed are on specimens taken from the butt-end of a log that was fully 60 feet in length and 22 inches square. A plank 2 inches thick having been taken out of the middle, it was cut to produce six pieces of 2 x 2 x 84 inches, four upon one side FIG- 33- of the centre or pith and two upon the other (Fig. 33). The centre piece was excluded from the test as being of too weak a nature to bear com- parison with the rest of the wood. TABLE CLX.— KAURI (NEW ZEALAND). Transverse Experiments. Deflections Total Weight Weight Number of the specimen. With the apparatus weighing 390 Ibs. After the weight was removed. At the crisis of breaking. weight required to break each piece. «!& 11 C/2 W> reduced to specific gravity 600. required to break i square inch. Inches. Inch. Inches. Ibs. Ibs. i d •25 •00 375 818 525 934 I3I-25 2 C •25 'IS 4 '25 875 529 992 132-25 3 t> 'IS •io 4*20 820 529 930 I32-25 4 a 'OS •oo 375 750 520 86 S I30-00 5 a< "IS •io 3 '40 760 515 885 128-75 6 b1 'SO •15 4-I5 870 562 929 140-50 Total . 7'35 •50 23*5° 4893 3180 5535 795-00 Average I'225 •083 3-916 815-5 530 917 132-50 REMARKS. — These specimens broke with a moderate length of fracture. E = 790810. S = 2141. The table shows that transversely the strongest point was much nearer to the more recently-formed con- XXXVII.] KAURI PINE. 299 centric circles than to the centre or pith of the tree. Subsequently, from the specimens above-mentioned, I obtained four serviceable pieces, 2 feet 6 inches in length, for the purpose of ascertaining their tensile strength, and found the maximum to lie in the piece marked c as before. TABLE CLXI. Tensile Experiments. Number of the specimen. Dimensions of each piece. Specific gravity. Weight the piece broke with. Direct cohesion on i square in. Inches. Ibs. Ibs. 7 d 8 c 9 b 10 a 2 X 2 X 30 525 529 529 520 16,244 20,440 17,920 18,080 4, 06 1 5,110 4,480 4,520 Total . . ... 2103 72,684 18,171 Average . ... 526 18,171 4,543 TABLE CLXII. Vertical Experiments on cubes of— Number of the specimen. i Inch. 2 Inches. 3 Inches. 4 Inches. Crushed with Crushed with Crushed with Crushed with 11—14 15—18 19, 20 21, 22 Tons. 3-125 3 '5oo 3-125 3-000 Tons. 1075 10*00 10-50 1075 Tons. 24-5 24-5 Tons. 4575 48-00 Total . . 1275 42-00 49-0 9375 Average . 3-I9 10-50 24-5 46-875 Do. per in. 3*19 2-625 2-722 2-929 300 TIMBER AND TIMBER TREES. [CHAP. Relatively considered, they stand as follows, viz. : — TRANSVERSE STRENGTH. a = '86 b = -97 C = I '00 d= 93 TENSILE STRENGTH. a = '88 b = '88 c = i 'oo d= 78 The specimens referred to in Table CLX., after being prepared for the experiments, lost 9 per cent, of their weight in the twenty days prior to breaking them, and seemed then to be in good-seasoned condition for use. A further series of experiments were made in a somewhat similar manner to that adopted with the ^Section. Bidt Mid Top length FIG. 34. Pitch Pine ; but in this case only three lengths were taken from a long Kauri tree — viz., one at the butt, one at the middle, and one at the top end, the intermediate pieces, each about 20 feet in length, being allowed to •drop out. Six pieces were, however, taken from the breadth of each plank, three on each side of the pith (Fig. 34)- XXXVII.] KAURI PINE. 301 TABLE CLXIIL— KAURI (NEW ZEALAND). Transverse Experiments. — Top length. Deflections. # T) -o Tensile *> Number oft specimen. With the appa- ratus weighing 390 Ibs. After the weight was removed. At the crisis of breaking. '111 IfS Specific gravi Weight reduc to specific gravity 600 cr1 rt-S SIS *°\ penmen. Direct cohesion on i square in. Number of the specimen. Inches. Inch. Inches. Ibs. Ibs. Ibs. *&£ •50 •15 3-50 660 534 741 165-0 — — 24 b', •65 '2O 3-50 630 560 675 I57-5 — — 25 a1 •60 •oo 2-25 490 580 507 122-5 — — 26 a •40 •oo 37S 690 595 696 I72-5 3,412 41 27 b •15 4-25 660 540 733 165-0 3,220 42 28 c •60 •oo 475 700 545 771 I75-0 2,485 43 Total 9-25 •50 22'0 3830 3354 4123 957-5 — — Aver. 1-541 •083 3-666 638-3 559 687 I59-58 — — REMARKS.— These specimens broke with a moderate length of fracture. £ = 636440. 8 = 1676. TABLE CLXIV. Transverse Experiments. — Mid length. Number of the specimen. Deflections. Specific gravity. Weight reduced to specific gravity 600. Weight required to break i square inch. Tensile Experiments. i?? |f| 3 g $ > « After the weight was removed. At the crisis of breaking. Direct :ohesion on [ square in. Number of the specimen. £ Z I ches. Inch. Inches. Ibs. Ibs. Ibs. 29 c' •50 '25 4-75 655 498 788 16375 — — 30 b1 •65 •25 680 528 773 170-00 — — 31 a1 -40 '20 5*00 695 553 754 17375 — — 32 a •25 •15 4-50 740 560 793 185*00 3290 44 33 b "35 "15 4*25 680 545 749 170-00 3045 45 34 c •35 •25 4-00 705 556 76i 176-25 3045 46 Total 8-50 1-25 2675 4155 3240 4618 I038-75 — — Aver. 1-416 •208 4-458 692-5 540 769 173-125 — — REMARKS.— These specimens broke with a moderate length of fracture. E = 735920. S = i8i8. TIMBER AND TIMBER TREES. [CHAP. TABLE CLXV. Transverse Experiments. — Butt length. Deflections. ^ • ^3 Tensile «-" •*-* CJ 0 ^J 4J • rt b" 'S-fi *^ '> 0 s.y s • bo xp Number o) specime With the app ratus weighii 390 Ibs. After the weight was removed. At the crisis of breaking. HI Specific gra Weight red to specif gravity 6 r* Direct cohesion on i square in. Number of the specimen. Inches. Inch. Inches. Ibs. Ibs. Ibs. 35 * •50 •15 4*00 760 550 829 190-00 — — 3!*' •40 •15 375 710 580 734 177-50 — — 37 a! •50 '2O 4-00 705 560 755 176-25 — — 38 a •25 •oo 375 765 595 771 191*25 3325 47 39 b •25 •15 3-00 640 580 662 160-00 3080 48 40 c '35 •io 810 555 876 202-50 3920 49 Total 8-25 75 2375 4390 3420 4627 1097-50 — — Aver. 1-375 •125 3-958 731-66 570 771 182-91 — — REMARKS. — These specimens broke with a moderate length of fracture. E = 722360. S = 1 922. The mean of the whole being E = 698240. S = 1 805. Relatively considered, these experiments stand as follows : — TRANSVERSE STRENGTH. Top -length. b - b< - -87 •95 C - C1 = I'OO Mid-length. a — a1 = I'oo b - b1 = -95 c - c1 = -95 Butt-length. a - a! = '94 b - b! = -86 C — C1 = I'OO TENSILE STRENGTH. Top -length. a - a' =i'oo b - b1 = '94 c - c1 = 73 Mid-length. a - a1 = I'oo £ - ^ = '93 c - c1 = ;93 Butt-length. a - a' = '85 * - J' = 79 79'66 1 12 -08 REMARKS. — No. i broke with scarph-like fracture, 7 inches in length ; 2 broke in three pieces, each scarph-like, 7 inches in length ; 4 broke with scarph-like fracture, 14 inches in length ; 5 broke rather short, with small splinters ; 6 broke with scarph-like fracture, 8 inches in length. All the specimens that were kept dry, whether carbonised or not, were apparently in good condition ; but those which had been placed .in manure or damp earth, were more or less in a state of decomposition, the softer parts of the concentric layers being slightly wasted away with rot on the surface. The difference in strength between the carbonised and non-carbonised pieces was not very great, but the tables show that of the pieces kept dry, the loss of strength was greatest by about 8 per cent, in the carbonised specimens ; and of those kept in manure,, the loss was about i^ per cent, in excess on the non-carbonised pieces. When the experiment for testing the strength was completed, XXXIX.] CARBONISING. 325 the broken pieces of Nos. 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, and 9 were again placed in the box of manure. The weight of the specimens, taken on five occasions in nine years, was as follows : — TABLE CLXVIII. Number of the specimen. December, 1862. June, 1863. September, 1867. July, 1869. April, 1871. Ibs. oz. Ibs. oz. Ibs. oz. Ibs. oz. Ibs. oz. I 12 3 7 13 # 7 13 — — 2 12 6^ 8 0% 7 15 — — 3 12 2 7 JIX 7 9X — — 4 12 9K 13 i* 12 15 9 2 7 2 5 12 2>£ 12 10^ 13 5 IO 12 7 8^ 6 12 8 12 7X 13 3 II 2 § o3^ 7 12 8 12 12^ 12 9^ 10 14 7 3X 8 12 12 12 9X '3 5/^ ii 6 7 12 9 12 6 12 9>£ I3 2 9 12 7 5 10 12 3K 7 IOX 7 9 — — ii 12 &% — — 12 12 I3# — ii 8 — — Nos. ii and 12 were left in the ground in 1863, but No. ii was missing in 1867. Nos. I, 2, 3, 10, and 12 were lost at the closing of the dockyard in 1869, but the broken pieces in the box of manure were safe, and these I kept until the yard was completely cleared of all its stores in 1871. At that time their condition was as follows : — No. 4. Both pieces were considerably wasted. No. 5. One piece much wasted, the other less so. No. 6. Neither piece much wasted. No. 7. Both pieces much wasted. No. 8. On one piece some carbon remained ; the other was much wasted. No. 9. Ditto ditto. 326 TIMBER AND TIMBER TREES. [CHAP. The decay and waste between July, 1869, and April, 1871, was very rapid, but the condition of the carbonised and non-carbonised specimens was much the same ; it leaves, therefore, little to say in favour of the charring process, and I should not myself be inclined to use it on timber for works of construction, except as a possible means of preventing the generation of moisture or fungus where two unseasoned pieces of wood are placed in juxtaposition. An experiment in carbonising was tried on a piece of plank 5 feet in length, one-half the breadth being charred, the other not ; this was set in the ground under the drip of a roof. In another case a piece of plank was charred over half its length, the other not. Plates of iron were then secured to each end, and the whole immersed in water to ascertain whether the carbonising of the surface would prevent oxidation. When, however, each of these were examined, some six months later, it could not be seen on which side to give the preference. The wood backing to the armour plates on the star- board side of H.M.S. " Caledonia " was charred by M. de Lapparent's process, with the view to test its efficacy thoroughly, and when this ship comes under repair it will be ascertained by comparison with the other side how far it is useful in preventing decay. The Admiralty also ordered the faying surfaces of the frame timber and planking of the " Tenedos " and " Spartan," the former building at Devonport, and the latter at Deptford Dockyard in 1868, to be carbonised by this process, in the hope that it will retard the formation of fungus on the surfaces, on which it frequently forms with rapidity ; but, as neither of these ships have yet been opened for repairs (1875), it is uncertain whether any good results have come of the experiment. XXXIX.] ABSTRACT TABLES. 327 f! 11 o ^s U= — ' 'o *« c; o ^§ t. '^3 2-c . il 1 1 ^^ -g ^ d '•» o s -i « si; rt ^S -3 O N O\ Tj- I I I I I l#p!r I* I I CO N W 10 I | | | | | C\ O M C\VO ON w t>»O(O'-''-< ON w ** OO O .Cox S'a^ "> C X ^ ,_, 1 -XgiABaS oypadg Ji I! "I I! g « 2 g •§3 ^g I* 2^.2 CO H-I CO - « O^OO ^ CO C\ t** O f>.vo'OOQ O CO\O O ON COOO CO >-< 10 rJ-00 ^ -Ills .u-. .giggg-i -P5UUW "h " "OSM^^^ ON O "-• 328 TIMBER AND TIMBER TREES. [CHAP. "V X .9 * +- CJN COGO O ^ M "*• C^ §5T Pi | | | VO 3-GO p | | | P p | 1 P [ | i X H£ M NMNM CON CO § 'S< X "TO .2 O| T$" ^" ^+- CN ^O t"^ ^ Mli it^N1^-'^- l|C-)i-i| |VO| !^ 1 1 1 r P P y> 1 1 « r« 1 1 s* • 1 i c o X ^ OJ CN NCOCOM CON ,co M .s ro Pi g s ~c* g S T5 X "N & to C^OOpNotHQ i^iorf- VO 1 1 vo M t^\Q oo vo rh "-1 >o 1 co 1 VO X 4) N O 10 xo O "O r^vo "O O O l*» t^CO OO ON O CO •-< O^ X H • — • in § g-rs- | 7— 7 > r_JHSfQ § e ^H W 0 M Cj *& .H .S CH S-i C 'rt ^ C X CX_, o N CO M S fe £ §'! - ^S^.sJI ^ ^ ^'B Sis '§ - -fit " sle -M ^ P^^ M M^S sssa ™ OO ON O •* N co Tf tovo t^ 00 ON O »-" 1-1 MCNCNCNCSMNM w NNCOCO xxxix.] ABSTRACT TABLES. 329 1 1 1 X 3 u 1 < H 0 h 1 D H X O i s i Vertical strain on pieces — "••*• X "V x c ui"! |5f 1 1 ll? 1 1 SI I | | | i H| 2 | N N •-" CON -tf- ~rO X X ~ro .5 4) Q t- O O O « 11 lOCOi ilOi i i I |Tj-TT|CO| i I \ Y^^- 1 1 {^ 1 1 1 1 1 r*> ! p^ 1 1 X X C Jsr 1s** o^ -LTJ r^) vr> I-H oo *-O ^\OO ^^ 1 1 O ^ i i VO i CO i i i i ^O f O i O^* ro O rf 1 1 M r 1 | cp I cp 1 1 1 1 usqp 1 r .0 N N CON 1-1 N CON Tj-T^-to X x 1: O ON M N vo ON . i i * c^ C4 ^d~ *o co O vO ON Transverse strain If i? C ai-ivo»--irot^i-ivo i CsJCJtoroON'-'OO« t^oo rt- rJ'VO O VO "*s~* W W 1 VO CS ^"OO OO CO C^ HH u~i HH c^ I •XjiABaS oypadg O w vo ro c>i i-o HH Tj~vo O^co >•* OO t*>» r-^vo i^^* ON t^-vo 1 s s 61-11 " J^ «X ^ *V rt • **** zj QJ < x G -t: c -s W b] c X c ji *lr^---^S'^ 's «.s ^ O P-t c/: H H PH PH — N CO ^- 1OVO i>.OO ON Q f N CO rj- cococococo co co co 330 TIMBER AND TIMBER TREES. [CHAP. I 'I 2 jj ^ w **' CJ fcT*» CO LH Cjj C +* G g W C 'ZJ 0 *• Jl t— i • 1> rt .y ^ .> '3 O) >- ^ V5 Illl S O S rt a o o > I'M I 5^ i I- ^ g *J3 II •< 02 S --S8 lit* 9*3 g II ' ^f- to c$ HH \o O w co O co is* O t-H O co c$ co ON OO vo OO i-OOO W ro 10 O W ^J-00 ON O ON O GNOO OOOOOOOOQOOVOOOOOO •-" ^cx) t^i-o^j-ONONO PO O\fO vr> ^" «•* O\ *o ON t^ao »-O m ONVO ON O TIU ONOO w> C^ ON w ON 1-1 ONfOrOOO COCX) ^O O ON O *^ hH c^ ^•|O i-o ^H *o *o ^d" ^^ co o\ to ^"^ r^ O OO ^O ON i>* CS OO *—i ts* >— i i>*oO -ts, '. ON ^^ O 'O lO^OMD 00 Strength per formula Iw OO rO OO VO «OO Th>O CX) 1-1 ONOO r^ ON \Q rj-vo t^.t^O •^'OOOOO^O LO'-OTj-rOM M >-< >-c o O O « rO N VO rf ON ONOO ONTJ-I-IVO fOW Weigh cubic '-' i-o'O vo i-nmt^t~»t^t-i Q P^P p r* ?* r* i* r* r* P t^OO ON O « N rO rj- u~>vO t^OO •*i IHIII ^ » « *o t**» ^J* CO O O QQ'O ^O O i-iMDQO Ol iO. vr> ON ro I-H ONC^vO -S p , - &8 Scg aag aa^i? § O O O Q O O Q Q O Q O Q • S g 8 *G O t^ ^^O VO u-i 1-1 Tj- ON N CO COOO OO vc <« O m <3 M W O ^-00 W ^O COOO CO"-«OO^C> "-i^OOO COONN ONON ~ i* ^ r^vo -^ TJ- u-> ri-oo COM t^i>.r^c4 t~»cs 10 coo •r.S JJ o f^ ^o\O cooo "J O O co O O O ^^(O tr>ioO « 0 -^ J2 VOOO ONOO cOiONO'COO>-''-iOO'-iNr^cOMi-ivOCOi>lON g « S g .^r f «<» P !§4JB*2 cot^vovooo Q rt'o"' « ^40 > 4) , rt Q 13 "-SO -° i-iOMJ^O^^ThOO ONVO NCOO'-|VOO>-"1O " ° M <- t? vo^O^QONONt^Ti-coCN ONOO »-OCO>-i i-i ONr^^ON ONVO OO OO rt ^ c *S II OOppONONpNpN ONOJO 000000000000 f^J^ f^p S3 ^ h° ^*" CJ" W^ °5 "P r^ P r* r5*" M r0^ P *P F5 P r* .w r y° P r°9P ^ r^ P r* 9P cyj.^4 ^ CO Tt" ON t—c HH *-i c^ *^ ^O^O ^" ^i" CO O ^T" ^ O O CO ^-O t^» M d ^* In ^ "^*vO VO ^-OVO ^" ^t"*O VO ^" CO^O ^O COO CO CO ^}" COO M .CO ^O CO S?M ONO'-'NCOT}- vr>o ^^OO ON O "-• N CO. rj- y?O_ r^C<5_ O\ O "-; •^C^C^C^C^C^C^CNlC^C^C^ CO CO CO CO CO § • • • • • -a 2 c • • • ^ • SJ n S'S 'S ^ c . . ._ ^ rt o H ° .r 8 "_j- S o g j- o- W 'rf H s - r'S Is ^ : 3 J |:!?3 .S SO S O 332 TIMBER AND TIMBER TREES. [CHAP. 11 •g g «§ g j II If ^ 2i y i« ,£3 a, w £ ~ ^ CO H 8 H 13 T3 o r^ O •" w •ijoui sjvnbs i ! uo uoisaqoo i _g rt- T(-VO in N « O -uaj jo jgpa •000.1=: Suiaq ' qoui sj^nhs i uo iioisaijoo 503J'a -us} jo japao O i-i N co TJ- in-o r^co ON O w M en ^t- mvo t^oo MMNNNNMMC^NrororOcocnrocoeor 1 §••! 8 e fil S| § r>. N i-i vo O 00 *>• t>. CS CO >-o ^J~OO c^ J>- O '"^ ^* ON t^» ^-o C1^ ON O HH ^" '-o O 0&& cKoo «f «f t^ tC rC tC t^ tCvo"vo"vo"vdv in HH N ro TJ- »nvO t^CO ON O i-i N m rj- mvo t^OO ON XXXIX.] ABSTRACT TABLES. 333 d ^! .s-g .9 ^4 16 s-s I - •si | in "£ 'vj T3 H i t^ t^ t>»vo "O O ON O >-« N ro ^- lOVO t^OO ON O >-"McsN«NMNc« ^»OO rOONN»Oi-i O O ^10 ^J"O ON O\ t"» f) « ^ ^O OO O O CJ >-i mOOOiorO ONVQ 10 N M w o cToN ONOO oooo HH N CO "tf- 10VO t^»OO O\ O "-i ; =l£ 334 TIMBER AND TIMBER TREES. [CHAP. g5 rt JH . '£ 8 d l-l PQ ||||| ^VO ^^fO CNfO1-r>O fO O O O r}-00 111 £>.s 8 t»]1g a •§ 1 .2 « £ & $5 is 3 S.-3 < llll -rgHstgg.Hr^ 1 i °. 3^1 HP "?. ,r T? jy y £ rt c<5 5 S ~ "* *2 *3 1 III* .. rO C " rt i 5 U Id _3 H s T d s ^^ « * •* -S '» "3 2i-*i « rt 2 « PQ 1 « fesl J_ t/) P< O •*-• >-( CI ^* O^ ^O ^" O O^vO ^-O i-O w t>-) xo vn ^O t^. t^»OO HH CS O ^-OO *a a "S -s .H^ S S -2 £ 13 £ S ^ ..2 ££«!£ « 8 g - J?**- § ^ IM '%• O_j |-*«l .o-^£ S O*^00 *O ^-^ t^-^vO O |~' ^J" 1-/") ^-O ON t°1 § "-" n3 o TJ ^3^5^ g'S's! i § a * o,og^ r- ^ CO ^ o w .H ^ '2 rt1 « ° (L) >-i p, ° v (J § ^^6 " « 8«« 1 a, ^ Showing that in the descriptions, th stated against e cubic contents TIMBER 1:111*91 ItiJ'g jlilll O co xxxix.] PRODUCE AND WASTE. 335 " Well-squared timber," as understood in the trade, is nearly die square, and admits of little wane on the angles at any part of the log. The yield of this is about *68 per cubic foot of raw material, as shown in the table against Tewart. Some woods, when exceed- ingly well squared, will often yield a little more ; as Mexican Mahogany. Others again, which are imper- fectly manufactured, yield considerably less per cubic foot ; as African. The figures against Oak, English, were obtained from the conversion of both " rough " and " sided," not square timber. Also the figures against Elm, English, were obtained from " rough," and not square timber. The results given in the table were obtained from the conversion of timber for ship-building at Woolwich Dockyard. For civil architecture and engineering purposes the yield per cubic foot would probably be better, as there would be less waste in cutting to straight than to curved lines. The advantage of the table will be manifest on trial, since, if the figures in column A, which stand against any one of the woods mentioned in the list, are used as divisors of the net quantity of converted timber material required for any purpose, the quantity of hewn or square timber, i.e., raw material, which it is necessary to purchase to produce it, is readily found. Example : — If 5,600 cubic feet of converted timber material (Dantzic Fir) are required, how much hewn or square timber will it be necessary to purchase to produce it ? In column A, against Dantzic Fir, is 700 ; therefore f| = 8,000 cubic feet. Also, if the figures in column A are used as multipliers, the converted produce can be ascertained 336 TIMBER AND TIMBER TREES. [CH. xxxix. approximately of any known quantity of raw material upon hand. Example : — 8,000 cubic feet of hewn or square timber (Dantzic Fir) is . • . 8,000 X 700 = 5,600 cubic feet of converted timber. Also, if the figures in column B are used as multi- pliers with the hewn or square timber, the approximate waste in the conversion of it will be obtained. Example : — Dantzic Fir, 8,000 X -300 = 2,400 cubic feet waste in slabs and sawdust. TABLE CLXXIV. SHOWING THE USES OF THE PRINCIPAL WOODS DESCRIBED IN THIS WORK. SPECIES. WHERE GROWN. USES. Acle Philippine Islds. Naval and civil architecture. Aki . New Zealand Turnery, agricultural implements, clubs, and spears. Alder . .' . Britain Carpentry, piles, packing cases, turnery. Angelique . French Guiana . Suitable for constructive purposes in lieu of African, Mahogany, or Teak. Angelim-vermetho Brazil Naval construction. Annan . Burmah . . Constructive purposes generally, gun carriages, &c. Araribo - ou - poto- muju Brazil i . , Cabinet work, domestic arts. Araribo-roza 99 * • 99 99 Ash, British. Britain Coach and wheelwrights' work, agricultural implements, do- mestic arts, turnery. ,, Canadian Canada . As Ash, British, boats' oars, &c. ,, American . North America . ,, ,, boats' oars, best sort, &c. Balata. ..... Trinidad . A substitute for plain or inferior African or Mahogany. OF PRINCIPAL WOODS. 337 TABLE CLXXIV. SPECIES. WHERE GROWN. USES. Balata . . ; i- French Guiana . A substitute for hard woods in architectural works, furniture, &c. Beech . . . Britain Cabinet and chair making, piles, wedges, turnery. Beefwood, or She Oak . Australia . Furniture, domestic arts. Blackwood . » • • Wheelwrights' and turners' work. Blue Gum . » • • Architectural works, piles, fences, general purposes. Boco . French Guiana . Constructive purposes, furniture, turnery. Boxwood Australia . Sheaves for pulleys, mallets, turnery, &c. Camara Brazil Boat -building. Camphor, or Kapor Borneo Planks, beams, piles, constructive purposes generally. Canella-preta Carapo Brazil Trinidad . Constructive purposes generally. A substitute for plain and inferior Mahogany. Cedar, Cuba, Mexi- \ \ Cabinet work generally, cigar boxes, can & Honduras \ '" \ patterns, &c. Cedar, Bermudian. ,, boat-building, &c. ,, Florida ... 99 99 „ Pencil ,, pencil making. Celery-topped Pine Chestnut V. Diemen'sLand Britain See Pine. Carpenters', wheelwrights', and coachmakers' work, domestic arts, &c. Chow . Borneo Planks, beams, piles, constructive purposes generally. Ebene . French Guiana . Furniture, domestic arts, turnery. ,, rouge » j> »> ,, verte . »> " Elm, Common Britain Ships' keels, bilge planks, wheel- wrights' and carpenters' work, carving and turnery. „ Wych . » • • • Do., specially adapted for boat- 1 building. „ Dutch j> » , , Canada Rock Canada Ship -building, coach and wheel- wrights' work, domestic arts, &c. Emu . Australia . Turners' work. Fir, Dantzic Prussia Constructive purposes generally, deck deals, masts, &c. ,, Eliasberg North Europe . ,, cabinetwork. ,, Saldowitz ,, • 5> J> " 338 TIMBER AND TIMBER TREES. TABLE CLXXIV. — continued. SPECIES. WHERE GROWN. USES. Fir, white wood . North Europe . j Common purposes in carpentry, ,, Riga . . Russia packing cases, &c. Constructive purposes generally, superior for masts. ,, Swedish • . Sweden . . , Constructive purposes generally, inferior to Dantzic or Riga. ,, Norway Norway » „ Spruce . Forest light wood . ( N.Europe and ) 1 N. America j Australia . Light framing, floor boards, boats' oars and spars, scaffold poles, &c. Cabinet work. Greenheart . Demerara . Keelsons, shelf pieces, and plank- ing in ships, excellent for piles, &c. Grignon French Guiana . Civil architecture, domestic arts. Grapiapunha Brazil Naval and civil architecture. Guarabu 99 • * 99 99 Gum, White Australia . Constructive purposes in carpentry. , , Brown Curly . " ,, Red . » a 5» , , Swamp » Hackmatack North America . See Larch, American. Honeysuckle Australia . Furniture work, boat-building. Hornbeam . Britain Cogs in machinery, wheelwrights' work, turnery, &c. Incaranda-tan Brazil Furniture and ornamental work. ,, cabiuna » 11 Iron-bark . , Australia . Ship-building, piles, agricultural implements, fencing, &c. Iron-wood . Burmah See Pyengadu. Jarrah . Australia . Ship - building, piles, railway sleepers, agricultural imple- ments. Tenipapo Brazil Carpentry, domestic arts. Juba . . . Havana A substitute for Sabicu, in ship- building, furniture, &c. Kahikatea . New Zealand . Indoor work in houses, packing- cases, &c. Kahikatoa . » • > Architectural works, piles, do- mestic arts, &c. Kammone . Burmah . -». Constructive purposes generally. Kamonpew . ,, ,, ,, Kapor . Borneo See Camphor. Karra . Philippine Islds. Constructive purposes generally. Kari . . . West Australia . Piles, railway sleepers, agricultural implements, &c. USES OF PRINCIPAL WOODS. 339 TABLE CLXXIV. — continued. SPECIES. WHERE GROWN. USES. 1 Kaurie or Cowdie , New Zealand See Pine. Kathitka Burmah A substitute for Mahogany. Kiwideah New Zealand Wheelwrights' work, agricultural implements. Kohekohe . » • A substitute for Cedar, cabinet work, domestic arts. Kowai . ?> Turnery, agricultural implements, clubs and spears. Kranji . Borneo Planks, beams, piles, constructive purposes generally. Larch, Italian Europe All kinds of frame-work in archi- tecture, piles, &c. , Polish ,, Russian 5 > • • 5 J 5 > ,, American . North America . ,, ,, and ship -build ing. Lignum Vitse West Indies, &c. Sheaves for pulleys, turnery, do- mestic arts, &c. Lauan . Philippine Islds. Naval and civil architecture, fur- niture, &c. Maconatari . French Guiana . A furniture wood, &c. Macaranduba Brazil Employed in ship-building. Mahogany, Spanish Cuba Cabinet work, turnery, domestic arts, ship-building. ,, Honduras ... J> 5» ,, Mexican. ... >» " ,, Nassau . ... Cabinet work, turnery, domestic arts. ,, St. Domingo Malatapay . Philippine Islds. 5> >» Constructive purposes generally. Mambog » » • » »> Mangachapuy » >» >» Mapilia m j> " Mangalo Matteral Borneo Zambesi . Naval and civil architecture. Substitute for Mahogany. Matai . New Zealand Constructive purposes generally, furniture. Meriquitiara . Mida . Brazil New Zealand . Agricultural implements, clubs, spears, &c. Miro . 5> * Cabinet work, turnery, civil archi- tecture. Mocasso-cassa Mocua . Zambesi . 5 , Constructive purposes generally. Ship and boat building, a crooked wood for knees. Mocunca ?> » »» Mocundo-cundo . >» * Constructive purposes generally, masts. Molave Philippine Islds. Cabinet work, ship-building. 340 TIMBER AND TIMBER TREES. TABLE CLXXIV. — continued. SPECIES. WHERE GROWN. USES. Monangare . • Zambesi . • . Wheelwrights' and block makers' work, furniture. Morrunda . . »» ' • • Ship and boat building, Mora . . . Trinidad . Cabinet work, ship -building, piles, &c. Mugunda Zambesi . . Ship and boat building. Musk . Australia . Furniture and turners' work. Myrtle, scented . ,, Carpenters' & wheelwrights' work. Red . ,, White » • • > 5» ,, Yellow ' Oak, African Ship -building, carpentry, cabinet work, turnery, &c. ,, British ... Allkinds of constructive work,naval, civil, and military engineering. „ Belgian ... 5> J> ,, French ... 5 > 5> ,, Piedmont . ... ' J> 5» ,, Turkey ... » » ,, American white ... » J> „ Italian ... Similar to British, but not so generally useful. ,, Dutch ... »> » ,, Dantzic Deck and outside planks for ships, cabinet work, domestic arts. „ Riga . . ... Cabinet wainscot work, domestic arts. ,, Spanish ... Constructive purposes of the second class. „ Live . North America . Ship-building, sills to window and door frames, mallets, &c. ,, Swamp white . j» »> ,, Rough or post . J> 3> „ Black . . >» J> ,, Scarlet 5J J» ,, Baltimore . , Cabinet and church furniture, 0 general purposes. ,, Canadian . 5) » Oregon or Douglas • .StePine. Pacouri-soufri French Guiana . Furniture wood, domestic arts. Padouk Burmah . *.: Constructive purposes generally, piles, &c. Palo Maria . Philippine Islds. ?> » USES OF PRINCIPAL WOODS. TABLE CLXXIV.— continued. WHERE GROWN. Panacoco Pangira Pao-preta ,, ferra ,, ferro ,, fava Pao-de-pezo . ,, setim Parewah Penthityah . Peguy . Peppermint, brown , , \vhite Peroba-pardu ,, branca „ vermetho . Pine, Red . ,, Yellow ,, Pitch . ,, Oregon ,, Kaurie „ celery-topped Pingow Pingue Pink wood . Piquea-marnm Plum tree . Pohutukawa . Puriri . Pugatea Pyengadu Raiz-de-Pingue . French Guiana Zambesi Brazil Burmah Brazil Australia Brazil Canada North America . j West Coast of I N. America New Zealand V. Diemen'sLand Borneo Zambesi . Australia . Brazil Australia . New Zealand Burmah Zambesi A strong wood for constructive purposes, furniture, &c. For ship and house building. Cabinet work, turnery, &c. A ship-building wood, also for furniture. A substitute for Sabicu. ,, Mahogany. ,, Lignum Vita?. Generally in the domestic arts. Constructive purposes generally, piles, &c. » » Ship-building, carpentry, &c. Constructive purposes generally, charcoal, &c. 5> » Ship -building. ,, furniture, domestic arts. A substitute for Cedar or Maho- gany. Constructive purposes generally, masts, &c. Cabinet and joiners' work, fittings, patterns, masts, &c. Cabinet and joiners' work, outside planks for ships, masts, &c. Constructive purposes generally, masts, &c. Cabinet and joiners' work, fittings, patterns, masts, £c. Constructive purposes in carpentry. Planks, beams, piles, constructive purposes generally. A substitute for Lignum Vitse. Constructive purposes, cabinet work. Cabinet work, a substitute for satin wood. Furniture, gun stocks, &c. Ships' frames, carpentry, agricul- tural implements. »> » Civil architecture, domestic arts. Constructive purposes generally, piles, &c. See Pao-preto. 342 TIMBER AND TIMBER TREES. TABLE CLXXIV.— continued. SPECIES. WHERE GROWN. USES. Rata . .. . New Zealand Cabinet work, naval and civil architecture. Rewarewa . 3> „ carpentry, piles, shingles, &c. Rimu . 33 ,, civil architecture. Rosewood . Brazil Cabinet and pianoforte makers, domestic arts, turnery. Rose, male . French Guiana . A furniture wood, useful in do- mestic arts. ,, female 3> 33 33 Sabicu Cuba Cabinet work, ship-building, do- mestic arts, turnery. Santa Maria . Central America 33 33 Sassafras Australia . Carpenters' and cabinet work, do- mestic arts, &c. Satine . French Guiana . Naval and civil architecture, cabi- net work, turnery. Securipa She Oak . Brazils Australia . Constructive purposes generally. See Beefwood. Simorouba . French Guiana . A furniture wood, useful in do- mestic arts. St. Martin . 33 • Naval and civil architecture, cabi- net work, turnery. Stinkwood . Australia . Cabinet work, domestic arts. Stringy bark " • • Constructive purposes in carpentry, piles, fences, domestic arts. Tanakaha . New Zealand Constructive purposes generally, masts, &c. Tarata . . . ,, Agricultural implements, domestic arts. Tawa . 33 • Carpenters' and wheelwrights' work. Tawada 33 Cabinet work, turnery. Tapinhonho . Brazils Ship-building. Teak, Burmah . i ) ( Applicable to all kinds of naval, ,, Malabar ,, Siam . i 1 civil, and military engineering, cabinet and carpenters' work. Tepow Tewart New Zealand Australia . ;. Carpentry and wheelwrights' work. Ship-building, piles, civil archi- tecture. Thingan Burmah . . Constructive purposes generally. Thitkado or Toon 3 J • • Substitute for Cedar or Mahogany for furniture purposes. Thitka or Kathitka 33 5 j j y Tongiho . ... Toraira New Zealand » j • Boat-building, carpentry, &c. Carpenters' and wheelwrights' work. USES OF PRINCIPAL WOODS. 343 TABLE CLXXIV.— continued. SPECIES. WHERE GROWN. USES. Totara . Towai . Vinhatico Violet . Wacapou Wattle, Black ,, Prickly ,, Silver Wawaku New Zealand Brazils French Guiana French Guiana Australia Cabinet work, ship-building, sub- stitute for Mahogany in do- mestic arts. Constructive purposes generally. A substitute for Cedar. Much prized by cabinet-makers, turners, &c. Substitute for Rosewood for fur- niture, &c. Agricultural implements, boats' oars. New Zealand . i Carpentry, wheelwrights' work. THE END. ALPHABETICAL INDEX. A. Abstract of experiments, tables 327 "Achilles," H.M.S., winter- felled timber ' . . .69 Acid, pyroligneous, in Oak . 48 Acle timber, description . . 143 Africa, trees, various . .149 African Oak (see Oak) . .145 Ages of trees (Decandolle) . 16 Aki, description . . .313 Akipero, ,, ... 313 Alburnum, or sap-wood . . 4 Alder, description . . . 207 „ use of bark . . . 207 American Larch (see Larch) . 263 „ Oak (see Oak) . 103 ,, Pitch Pine (see Pine) 286 Angelique, description . .159 Angelim-vermetho, description 181 Annan, ,, .132 Annamally hills, Teak on . 118 Annual layers, uniform thick- ness . . 8 ,, plainly marked. 8 ,, top and butt . 14 , , irregular growth 34 Araribo-ou-putumuju, descrip- tion . . . . . 185 Araribo-roza, description . 185 Ash, American, ,, . .212 ,, ,, handspikes and oars from . 212 ,, „ quality, colour. 212 ,, British, description . . 208 ,, ,, small quantity of sap-wood . 208 ,, ,, experiments, tables 209 /AGE Ash, Canadian, description . 210 ,, ,, oar rafters, from 2 10 ,, ,, experiments, tables .211 Asia Minor, survey of forests . 100 "Athol," H. M. S., built of Larch 260 Attaran Teak (see Teak) . .116 Australia, trees of . . . 187 Axis, ascending, stem so called 3 B. Balata timber, description 158, 160 Baltimore Oak (see Oak) . 108 Banaba, description . . 142 Bark, or liber .... 4 ,, expansive in character , \ 8 Bark-wood, description . . 206 Barlow's formulae . . . 52 Beech, extensive growth . .213 ,, description . . .213 ,, experiments. . . 214 Beefwood, or She Oak . . 206 Belgium, survey of forests . 97 Belgian Oak (see Oak) . . 97 Bermuda Cedar (see Cedar) . 267 Birch, description . . .214 Blue Gum, ,, . . .201 ,, disease destroying . 201 ,, log in Exhibition (1862) . 202 ,, experiments, tables 203 Boabab tree, size and age of . 15 Boards, mode of preserving . 320 Boco, description . . .162 Bolongnita, ,, . . . 142 Borneo, trees, various . .140 ALPHABETICAL INDEX. 345 PAGE Box, description . . .216 Boxwood, ,, . . 206 Bracker, sworn, for Dantzic goods 91 Branches, direction of .3 ,, broken, cause of de- fects ... .36 Brazil, trees, various . .181 British Oak (see Oak) . . 43 Bright Pine deals . . .278 Broussa district, survey of forests . . . .100 Burmah, Teak forests . .112 C. Cabbage tree, description . 206 "Caledonia," H.M.S., wood backing carbonised . . 326 Camara, description . .185 Camayuan, ,, . .142 Cambium .... 7 Camphor tree, description . 138 ,, experiments, tables . 139 Canada Rock Elm (see Elm) . 225 „ Red Pine (see Pine) . 270 ,, Yellow Pine (see Pine). 275 ,, Oak (see Oak) . . 109 Canella-preta, description . 184 Carapo, ,, .158 Carbonising, M. Lapparent's plan . .321 ,, tried at Woolwich 322 ,, experiments, tables 323 Cedar, Bermudian . . . 267 ,, Florida . . . 267 ,, Cuba, Honduras, and Mexican . . . 266 ,, Cuba, experiments, tables . . . 268 ,, of Lebanon, majestic trees . 265 ,, ,, at Highclere Park . 265 , , , , rapid growth of . . 266 ,, „ age of . 15 Cedro, description . . .185 Celery- topped Pine, description 206 Cherry tree, ,, .206 Chestnut, ,, . .217 ,, similarity to Oak . 217 Chestnut, great size and age . 217 Rock Oak (see Oak) . no Chow tree, description . .134 ,, experiments, tables. 135 Concentric rings, uniform thick- ness 8 Cook's (Capt.) tree, stringy- bark 205 Copse-grown trees . . -23 Cowdie Pine (see Pine) . . 295 Cup-shake, description . . 31 ,, varieties . . 32 ,, local character . 33 D. Dantzic Fir (see Fir) . .231 ,, Oak (see Oak) . .90 Deals, &c., trade of North Europe . .257 ,, trade-marks . . 258 ,, how to select. . 39 Dean Forest, large Oaks . . 44 Decandolle's ages of trees . 16 Diladila, description . . 142 Dogwood, ,, . . 206 Dougon, ,, . 142 Douglas Pine (see Pine) . . 292 Druxy knot, cause of . 36 Dry rot, treatise on 68 Duhamel's plan of seasoning . 321 Duramen, or heart-wood . . 4 Durmast Oak (see Oak) . . 44 Dutch „ . . 97 ,, Elm (see Elm) . . 224 E. Ebene, description . . .160 ,, rouge, description . .160 ,, verte, ,, . . 162 Eliasberg Fir (see Fir) . . 243 Elm, Canada Rock, description 225 ,, ,, defects . 226 „ ,, importations 227 Elm, Dutch, resembles Wych . 224 ,, English, description . 218 ,, ,, defects in . 219 ,, ., sap -wood durable 219 ,, ,, mode of pre- serving . . 220 ,, ,, experiments, tables . . 220 „ ,, Navy contracts . 221 346 TIMBER AND TIMBER TREES. PAGE Elm, Wych, description . . 224 Emu, „ . . 206 European Turkey, survey of forests ..... 101 Exogenous trees, stems of . ' 3. Experiments, numerous . . 40 ,, specimens well seasoned . 41 ,, specimens, di- mensions . 42 ,, transverse tests . 42 ,, tensile tests . 42 F. Felling, proper time for . . Fincham's plan of seasoning . Fir, Dantzic, description . . ,, ,, spars, deals, £c. 21 321 231 231 sap- ,, quantity of wood . . 232 ,, sorting round wood 232 ,, hand and inch masts . . 232 ,, deals for decks . 233 ,, sorting square wood . . 233 ,, classes of quality. 234 ,, variety of marks . 234 ,, description of tests 235 ,, experiments, tables 237 ,, Navy contracts . 241 ,, Eliasberg . . 243 ,, white wood . 243 ,, Mauer latten . 234 Norway, articles produced 252 ,, spars, Navy con- tracts . . 254 Riga, description . . 245 selection of spars . 245 classed by brackers . 246 spars in great favour 246 experiments, tables. 247 Navy contracts . 249 specification for hand masts * . 250 Spruce, description . . 254 ,, of North America 254 ,, Hemlock . . 254 ,, white or single . 254 , , black or double . 254 , , deals, quantity imported . 255 PAGE Fir, Spruce, deals, qualities . 255 ,, ,, experiments, tables 256 ,, Swedish, description . 251 ,, ,, quantity imported 252 Florida Cedar (see Cedar). . 267 Forest light wood, description . 206 Formulae, Barlow's . . . 52 French Guiana, trees of . . 159 French Oak (see Oak) . -77 "Foxiness," signs of . . 20 G. Grapiapunha, description . 184 Greenheart, alkaloid in bark . 151 description . . 151 qualities and de- fects . .152 sap-wood, quantity 152 ,, proof of 153 shape as imported 154 experiments, tables 154 Grignon, description Guarabu, ,, Guigo, ,, Gum, Brown, description „ Curly, ,, Red, ,, „ Swamp, „ White, Guiana, French, trees of. 1 60 182 142 206 206 206 206 206 159 H. Hackmatack (see Larch) . . 263 "Hawke," H. M. S., winter- felled timber . . 70 He Oak, description . . 206 Heartwood, or duramen . 4 Heart-shake, description . . 26 ,, trees affected . 26 ,, common to Exogens 27 ,, various forms of 28 Hedge-grown trees . . 22 Hemlock (see Fir, Spruce) . 254 Highclere Park, Cedars planted 265 Hinau, description . . -313 Honduras Mahogany (see Ma- hogany) . . . .174 Honduras Cedar (see Cedar) . 266 Honeysuckle, description . 206 Hornbeam ,, . 229 ALPHABETICAL INDEX. 347 Hornbeam, experiments, tables. 230 Hungary, survey of forests . 101 I. Imbila, description . . .150 Incaranda-tan, description . 182 ,, cabiuna, ,, .186 Inhanpasse, ,, .150 Iron-bark, „ . 199 ,, experiments, tables. 200 Ironwood, description . .129 glutinous oil . .129 Col. Blake's report. 130 Dr. Hooker's ,, . 130 specimen logs -131 experiments, tables- 133 Irrawaddy Teak (see Teak) . 117 Italian Larch (ste Larch) . . 260 ,, Oak (see Oak) . . 83 Jarrah, description . . . 189 peculiar defect . .190 report of Lloyd's agent. 192 ,, clerk of works 193 mode of flitching . -193 time for felling . .194 experiments, tables . 195 Jenipapo, description . . 185 Juba tree, sample pieces . . 163 ,, description . .164 Kahikatea, or Kakaterra . . 304 ,, description . . 305 ,, inferior to Kaurie . 305 Kahikatoa, description . .313 Kammone, ,, . .132 Kamonpew, ,, . .132 Kapor (see Camphor) . .138 Karaka, description . .313 Karra, ,, . .142 Karanee Teak (see Teak) . 116 Kari, description . . .197 ,, experiments, tables . 198 Karoa, description . . .313 Kathitka, a bastard Mahogany. 132 Kaurie, or Cowdie (see Pine) . 295 Kew Gardens, specimens of Oregon . -293 ,, specimens of Rimu . 307 Kiwideah, description . .31^ Kohehu „ . . 313 Kohekohe, ,, . .313 Kohutuhutu, description . .313 Kowai, „ 313 Kranji, ,, . .137 ,, experiments, tables . 138 Lacolaco, description . . 142 Laingbooe Teak (see Teak) . 117 Larch, rate of growth . . 259 ,, planted in Scotland . 259 ,, H. M. S. "Athol," built of . . . 260 ,, description . . . 260 ,, American, or Hackma- tack . 263 ,, ,, description . 264 ,, Italian, as piles, at Venice . . . 260 ,, Polish, description . 261 ,, Russian, tried at Wool- wich . .261 ,, ,, excessive shrink- age . . 262 ,, ,, experiments, tables . 262 Lauan 143 Laurel, description . . . 206 Liber, or bark . . • 4 Lignine, or woody matter . 8 Lignum Vitae, description . 167 ,, sap-wood, durable 167 ,, sold by weight . 168 Live Oak .... 107 Luabo, description . . .150 M. Macarauduba, description . 182 Maconatari, ,, .160 Mahogany, Honduras, first im- portation 174 „ descrip- tion . 174 experi- ments, tables 170 ,, Mexican, description 177 ,, ,, chief defects 178 ,, ,, experiments, tables . 179 ,, Nassau, description 173 TIMBER AND TIMBER TREES. Mahogany, Spanish, description ,t ,, experiments tables ,, St. Domingo, de scription Malabar Teak (see Teak) . Malatapay, description . Mambog, Manawa, Mangachapuy, Mangalo, Mapilia, Matai, Matteral, Mauer latten (see Fir, Dantzic). Maximum strength, position of Medullary rays, on silver grain ,, trees, distinct in Meriquitiara, description. Mexican Cedar (see Cedar) Mida, description Miro, Mocasso-cassa Mucorongo, Mocoza, Mocua, Mocunca, Mocundo-cundo description Mohoi, Molave tree, ,, ,, experiments, tables Monangare, description . "Montague," H. M.S., winter- felled timber Mora, description . ,, experiments, tables Morranda, description . - . Mouna, ,, . Moulmein Teak (see Teak) Mucumite, description . Mugunda, Murumanhama, Mussangara, Musk tree, Myrtle, Brown „ Red ,, Scented „ White ,, Yellow N. Nana, description . PAGE 170 171 173 "5 142 142 3i3 142 186 142 313 150 234 19 6 6 182 266 313 179 150 150 150 150 150 150 313 140 141 150 69 156 157 150 150 112 150 150 150 I5? 206 206 206 206 206 206 313 Nassau Mahogany (see Maho- gany) . Navy contracts, I' AGE 173 71 92 86 221 241 249 British Oak Dantzic Oak Italian Oak English Elm Dantzic Fir Riga ,, Norway spars 254 Red Pine . 274 Yellow Pine . 284 New Zealand, trees of . . 295 Norway Fir (see Fir) . . 252 O. Oak, variety and extent . . 43 ,, or Teak, African . .145 ,, ,, description . 145 ,, ,, logs as imported 146 , , , , experiments, tables . 147 ,, American, white . . 103 ,, ,, description . 104 ,, ,, experiments, tables . 105 ,, „ black, descrip- tion . .no ,, Baltimore, description . 108 ,, ,, of slow growth 1 08 ,, ,, experiments, tables . 108 ,, British, description . . 44 ,, ' ,, best soil for . 45 , , , , standard of quality 46 ,, ,, specific gravity . 47 ,, ,, qualities . . 47 ,, ,, contact with iron. 48 ,, ,, supply inadequate. 48 , , , , stores at Woolwich 49 ,, ,, stores of substitutes 49 ,, ,, tables of experi- ments . . 50 ,, ,, elasticity . .51 ,, ,, deflections . . 55 ,, „ tensile strength . 58 ,, ,, vertical ,, .60 ,, ,, elongation of fibres 66 ,, ,, time for felling . 67 ,, ,, tannin in bark . 67 ,, ,, winter-felled . 68 ,, ,, Navy contracts . 71 ,, ,, thickstuff and plank 75 ALPHABETICAL INDEX. 349 PAGE Oak, Belgian, description . 97 ,, Canadian, ,, . .109 ,, Chestnut Rock, description no ,, Dantzic, description . 90 ,, ,, valuable for decks 91 ,, ,, classification . 91 ,, ,, Navy contracts . 92 ,, ,, experiments, tables 93 ,, Dutch, description . . 97 ,, Durmast, ,, . -44 ,, French, resemblance to British . .77 ,, ,, loss in conversion 78 ,, ,, method of hewing 79 ,, ,, used in H. M. S. " Pallas " . 80 ,, ,, classed at Lloyd's. So. ,, ,, experiments, tables 81 ,, Italian, several varieties . 83 ,, ,, inferior to British 83 ,, ,, description . .84 , , • , , valuable for ships' frames . . 84 „ defects . . 85 ,, ,, Navy contracts . 86 ,, „ experiments, tables 87 ,, live, description . .107 „ , , medullary rays, dis- tinct . . .107 ,, Piedmont, description . 97 ,, rougher post, description no , , Riga, moderate dim ensions 95 ,, ,, London imports . 95 ,, ,, similar to Dantzic . 95 ,, ,, form when hewn . 96 ,, ,, mode of selling . 96 „ Spanish, description . 98 „ Scarlet ,, .no ,, S wamp- white ,, . no „ Turkey, ,, -99 ,, other varieties (Europe) . 99 Oregon, or Douglas Pine (see Pine) 292 Oroaka, description . . 313 P. Pacouri-soufri, description . 160 Paouk, ,, .131 "Pallas," H.M.S., French Oak used 80 Palo Maria, description . . 142 Pambura, „ .. .15° PAGE ranacoco, description . .163 Pangira, . .150 Pao-de-pezo, , . .183 Pao-fava, . .150 Pao-preta, . .150 Pao-setim, . .186 Pao-ferra, . .150 Pao-ferro, . .150 Parewah, . .131 Peam, . .150 Peguy, . .185 Pencil Cedar, . . 206 Penthityah, . .131 Peppermint, brown, description 206 ,, white, ,, . 206 Peroba-branca, ., .183 ,, pardu, ',, . 183 ,, vermetho, ,, .183 Philippine Islands, trees of .142 Piedmont Oak (see Oak) . . 97 Pillars, Oak, sectional area . 65 Pine, Canada Red, description 270 ,, ,, small quantity of sap-wood 271 ,, ,, hand-masts. 271 ,, ,, experiments, tables . 273 ,, ,, Navy con- tracts . 274 ,, ,, Yellow, extensive in America. 275 ,, ,, known as White Pine 275 ,, ,, description 275 ,, ,, inch masts, . • qualities . 276 "Waney" timber . 277 ,, ,, deals . 278 ,, ., defects . 278 ,, ,. experiments, tables . 279 ,, ,, Navy con- tracts . 284 ,, Kaurie or Cowdie . . 295 ,, ,, rate of growth . 296 ,, ,, description . .297 ,, „ yields an opaque gum . . 296 ,, ,, unequalled for masts, £c. . 297 ,, ,, experiments, tables 298 350 TIMBER AND TIMBER TREES. PAGE Pine, Pitch, North America . 286 description . . 287 for mast pieces . 286 experiments, tables 287 Oregon or Douglas . 292 description . . 292 rate of growth . 292 specimen at Kew . 293 Pingow, description . .136 ,, experiments, tables . 136 Pingue, description . .150 Pink wood, ,, . 206 Piquea-marfim, description . 184 Pith, first formed ... 4 ,, cellular tissues . . 4 ,, position in carpentry . 4 ,, sometimes snake-like . 24 Planks, how to select . . 39 ,, method of preserving . 320 Plum tree, description . . 206 Pohutukawa, „ . .310 Pruning, proper mode of -37 Pugatea, description . .313 Pukapuka, „ . .313 Puriri, ,, . .311 Pyengadu (see Ironwood). . 129 Pyroligneous acid in Oak . 48 R. Raiz-de-Pingue, description . 150 Ramarama, ,, . 313 Rata, ,, .310 Red Pine (see Pine) . . 270 Re ware wa, description . 313 Riga Oak (see Oak) . . 95 ,, Fir (see Fir) . . 245 Rimu, description . . 306 ,, specimens at Kew . 307 Rindgall, description . 38 Rose male, ,, .161 ,, femelle, ,, .161 Rosewood, ,, .168 „ defects . 168 ,, sold by weight . 169 "Royal William," H. M. S., winter-felled timber . . 68 Russian Larch (see Larch) . 261 S. Sabicu, description . . .164 ,, qualities, defects . . 165 „ peculiar cross fracture . 165 PAGE 166 116 180 7 7 7 Sabicu, experiments, tables . Sal ween Teak (see Teak) . Santa Maria, description . . Sap, capillary attraction . . , , ascent and descent of . ,, chemical change . . Sap-wood or alburnum . . ,, conversion into heart - wood ... 9 ,, exceptions to regular conversion . .10 ,, proportion in young trees . . ir ,, colour of . . .12 Sassafras, description . . 206 Satine, ,, . . 161 Seasoning, natural process . 21 time required . . 316 by submergence , 317 Duhamel's plan . 321 Fincham's ,, .321 by steaming . .321 in heated chambers 321 Securipa, description . .182 She Oak, ,, . .206 Siam, Teak forests . . .113 Silver grain, or medullary rays. 6 Simarouba, description . . 161 '* Sovereign of the Seas," H. M. S. , winter-felled timber 68 Spanish Oak (see Oak) . . 98 ,, Mahogany (see Mahogany) 170 Spars, how to select . . 38 "Spartan," H. M. S., timbers carbonised .... 326 Spots, indications of decay . 34 Spruce Fir (see Fir) . . .252 St. Martin, description . .161 Stag-headed appearance of branches .... 20 Star-shake, description . . 30 ,, trees most frequent in 31 Stems, forms of . .3 Stinkwood, description . . 206 Stringy bark, ,, . . 204 ,, Capt. Cook's tree. 205 ,, white, description. 206 Swamp Tea-tree, ,, . 206 Swedish Fir (see Fir). . .251 Swellings, indicating defects . 35 ,, exception to defects . 35 ,, by removal of branches 35 ALPHABETICAL INDEX. PAGE PAGE T. Timber, stacking, plan at Wool- Tanakaha, description . . 306 wich . 319 Tapinhonho, . .184 ,, seasoning, Duhamel's Tarata, . .313 plan . 321 Tawa, . .313 ,, ,, Fincham's Tawada, . .313 plan . 321 Taxa, . .150 „ ,, by steaming 321 Teak, extensive ranges . .112 ,, ,, in heated , forests in Burmah . .112 chambers 321 , ,, Siam . . 113 „ carbonising, Lapparent's description . . . 113 patent . 321 quality variable . . 113 ,, ,, tried at resinous oil . . . 113 Woolwich 322 girdling . . . 115 ,, ,, experiments 323 many varieties . .116 Tindalo, description . .142 on Annamallay hills . 118 Attaran, description . 116 Tongiho, ,, . .313 Torairo, ,, . .313 Irrawaddy, ,, . 117 Totara, „ . .308 Karanee, ,, . 116 Tototo, „ . . 313 Laingbooe, ,, . 117 Towai, ,, . 313 Salween, ,, . 116 Treatise on dry rot, extracts Thoungyeen, ,, .116 from 68 experiments in India . 119 Trees, stems of Exogens . . 3 ,, England. 119 ,, size and age . 15 ,, deflections . 121 ,, ages of (Decandolle) . 16 quantity unfit for expor- ,, rate of growth . .17 tation . . .122 , , past maturity, signs of . 20 supply falling off . .123 ,, time of felling . .21 market value . . .124 , hedge grown . . 22 Te experiments, tables . 125 a-tree, description . . 206 , copse grown . . .23 , effects of soil . . 23 Tee, „ . . 313 , affecting water supply . 23 "Tenedos," H. M. S., timbers , forms when young . 24 carbonised .... 326 , pith, snake like . . 24 Tepow, description. . • 3J3 Tewart, ,, . . .187 , defects . . .26 , natural colour . . 34 ,, experiments, tables . 188 , Africa, various . . 149 Thingan, description . . 131 , Australia ,, . .187 Thitka, ,, . 132 ,, Brazil ,, . . 181 Thitkado or Toon, description. 132 ,, Borneo ,, . . 140 Timber, how to select . . 38 ,, French Guiana, various 159 , experiments, numerous 40 , opportunities for testing 40 , surveyed at home and ,, New Zealand „ . 295 „ Van Diemen's Land ,, . 206 „ Zambesi, list of . .150 abroad . . . 41 ,, examined at Moulmein . 131 winter-felled . .314 Turkey Oak (see Oak) . . 99 conditions of durability 315 seasoning . . .316 V. cause of decay . .317 Van Diemen's Land, trees of . 206 suggestions for stack- ing . . . . 318 Vinhatico, description . .186 Violet timber, „ . .162 352 TIMBER AND TIMBER TREES. PAGE PAGE w. Woburn Abbey Park, large Wacopou, description 162 trees in ... • 45 , , gris, „ 162 White Oak (see Oak) . 103 Walnut, no Wych Elm (see Elm) . 224 Wattle, Black, 206 „ Prickly, 206 Y. „ Silver, Wawaku, Willow, Black, , , Brown, 206 3i3 206 206 Yacal, description . Ypil, „ . . Yellow Pine (see Pine) . 142 . 142 • 275 ,, White, 206 Winter - felled timber, ships Z. built with . . . .68 Zambesi, list of trees . 150 CHARLES DICKENS AND EVANS, CRYSTAL PALACE PRESS. . v •* 793290 library UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LIBRARY