LIBRARY

OF THE

UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA.

Class

TOBACCO:

GROWING, CUEING, AND MANUFACTURING.

TOBACCO:

GROWING, CURING, & MANUFACTURING,
A HANDBOOK FOE PLANTERS

IN ALL PARTS OF THE WORLD.
EDITED BY

C. G. WARNFORD LOCK, F.L.S.

E. & F. N. SPON, 125, STRAND, LONDON.

NEW YORK: 35, MURRAY STREET.

1886.

L- <*>

PREFACE.

TOBACCO growing is one of the most profitable branches of
tropical and sub-tropical agriculture; the "weed" has
even been proposed as a remunerative crop for the British
farmer, and is very extensively grown in continental
Europe. The attention recently drawn to the subject
has resulted in many inquiries for information useful to
the planter desirous of starting a tobacco estate. But
beyond scattered articles in newspapers and the pro-
ceedings of agricultural societies, there has been no
practical literature available for the English reader. It
is a little remarkable that while our neighbours have
been writing extensively about tobacco growing, of late
years, no English book devoted exclusively to this subject
has been published for nearly thirty years. A glance at
the bibliography given at the end of this volume will
show that the French, German, Swiss, Italian, Dutch,
Sicilian, and even Scandinavian planter has a reliable
handbook to guide him in this important branch of agri-
culture, while British settlers in our numerous tobacco-
growing colonies must glean their information as best
they may from periodical literature.
To supply the want thus indicated, the present volume

225797

VI PREFACE.

has been prepared. The invaluable assistance of tobacco-
planters in both the Indies and in many other tropical
countries, has rendered the portion relating to field opera-
tions eminently practical and complete, while the editor's
acquaintance with agricultural chemistry and familiarity
with the best tobacco-growing regions of Asiatic Turkey,
have enabled him to exercise a general supervision over the
statements of the various contributors.

CONTENTS.

CHAPTER I.

THE PLANT

CHAPTER II.

CULTIVATION

CHAPTER III.
CUEING .......... •• 67

CHAPTER IV.

PRODUCTION AND COMMERCE .......... 137

CHAPTER V.

PREPARATION AND USE ............ 231

CHAPTER VI.

NATURE AND PROPERTIES .. .. .. •• •• 253

CHAPTER VII.

ADULTERATIONS AND SUBSTITUTES .......... 267

Vlll CONTENTS.

CHAPTER VIII.

PAGE

IMPORTS, DUTIES, VALUES, AND CONSUMPTION 271

CHAPTEB IX.

BIBLIOGRAPHY .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 276

INDEX 281

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.

FIG. PAGE

1. CUBAN TOBACCO PLANT .. .. .. .. .. 4

2. MARYLAND TOBACCO PLANT .. ..5

3. AMEBSFORT TOBACCO PLANT .. 6

4. STRAW MAT FOR COVERING SEED-BEDS 47

5. SHADE FRAMES USED IN CUBA .. .. .. .. 49

6. QUINCUNX PLANTING .. .. .. .. .. .. 52

7. TOBACCO WORM AND MOTH 56

8. SHED FOR SUN-CURING TOBACCO .. .. .. .. 83

9. HANGING BUNCHES OF LEAVES '.. .i •' .. .. 95

10. TOBACCO BARN .. .. ,. ' .. 95

11. INTERIOR OF TOBACCO BARN 96

12. HAND OF TOBACCO ..„ .. .. 108

13. PACKING HOGSHEAD .. 133

14 to 17. TOBACCO-CUTTING MACHINE 234

18. MACHINE FOR MAKING PLUG TOBACCO 237

19 to 21. MACHINE FOR MAKING TWIST OR ROLL TOBACCO .. 238

22, 23. DIAGRAMS OF SEGMENT ROLLERS OF TWIST MACHINE 240
24 to 26. ANDREW'S IMPROVEMENTS IN TWIST MACHINE . . 243-4

27. MACHINE FOR CUTTING AND SIFTING SCRAP TOBACCO .. 246

28. MACHINE FOR MAKING CIGARETTES .. .. • 247

29. RESWEATING APPARATUS .. ... 249

30. MACHINE FOR WEIGHING OUT SMALL PARCELS OF

TOBACCO 250

31. TOBACCO-CUTTING MACHINE .. .... 252

TOBACCO:

GROWING, CUEING, AND MANUFACTURING,

CHAPTER I.

THE PLANT.

NEXT to the most common grains and pulses, probably no
plant is so widely and generally cultivated as tobacco. In
what country or at what date its use originated has little
to do with us from a practical point of view, though
interesting enough as a subject for the student of ethno-
graphy and natural history. Suffice it to say that it has
been grown and smoked since pre-historic times in many
tropical and sub-tropical countries, and has assumed an
importance in modern daily life only surpassed by a few
prominent food plants and cotton.

This long-continued and widespread cultivation has
helped to produce local varieties or races of the plant
which have sometimes been mistaken for distinct species,
and caused a multiplication of scientific names almost
bewildering. The following epitome comprehends the
species and varieties of Nicotiana possessing interest for
the cultivator : —

I. N. Tabacum macrophylla \lalifolia, lattissima, gigantea]
— Maryland tobacco. Of this, there are two sub-species

2 •. : «1 .", : ' TOBACCO.

— (1) Stalkless Maryland, of the following varieties : (a)
N. macrophylla ovata — short-leaved Maryland, producing a
good smoking-tobacco, (6) N. macrophylla longifolia — long-
leaved Maryland, yielding a good smoking-tobacco, and
excellent wrappers for cigars, (c) N. macrophylla pandurata
— broad-leaved, or Amersfort, much cultivated in Germany
and Holland, a heavy cropper, and especially adapted for
the manufacture of good snuff ; (2) Stalked Maryland, of
the following varieties : (a) N. macrophylla alata, (6) N.
macrophylla cordata — heart-shaped Maryland, producing a
very fine leaf, from which probably the finest Turkish is
obtained. Cuban and Manilla are now attributed to this
group.

II. N. Tdbacum angustifolia — Virginian tobacco. Of
this, there are two sub-species — (1) Stalkless Virginian
of the following varieties : (a) N. angustifolia acuminata,
grown in Germany for snuff, seldom for smoking, (6) N.
angustifolia lanceolata, affords snuff, (c) JV. angustifolia
pendulifolia, another snuff tobacco, (d) N. angustifolia lati-
folia — broad-leaved Virginian, used chiefly for snuff, (e)
N. angustifolia undulata — wave-like Virginian, matures
quickly, (/) N. angustifolia pandurata, furnishes good leaves
for smoking, produces heavily, and is much grown in
Germany, and said to be grown at the Pruth as " tempyki,"
and highly esteemed there ; (2) Stalked Virginian, of the
following varieties : (a) N. angustifolia alata, (6) N. angusti-
folia lanceolata [N. fructiosa], growing to a height of 8 ft.,
(c) N. angustifolia oblonga, (d) N. angustifolia cordata — E.
Indian, producing heavily in good soil, and well adapted
for snuff, but not for smoking. Latakia and Turkish are
now accredited to JV. Talacum.

THE PLANT. 3

III. N. rustica — Common, Hungarian, or Turkish tobacco.
Of this, there are two varieties: (a) N. rustica cordata —
large-leaved Hungarian, Brazilian, Turkish, Asiatic,
furnishing leaves for smoking ; (6) N. rustica ovata— small-
leaved Hungarian, affords fine aromatic leaves for smoking,
but the yield is small. Until quite recently, Latakia,
Turkish, and Manilla tobaccos were referred to this
species; Latakia is now proved to belong to N. Ta-
bacum, and Manilla is said to be absolutely identical
with Cuban, which latter is now ascribed to N. Tabacum
macrophylla.

IV. N. crispa. — This species is much grown in Syria,
Calabria, and Central Asia, and furnishes leaves for the
celebrated cigars of the Levant.

V. JV. persica. — Hitherto supposed to be a distinct
species, affording the Shiraz tobacco, but now proved to
be only a form of JV. Tabacum.

VI. JV. repanda. — A Mexican plant, with small foliage.
Long thought to be a distinct species peculiar to Cuba,
but none such is now to be found in Cuba, whether wild
or cultivated, and all the Cuban tobacco is now obtained
from JV. Tabacum macrophyllum.

Among the many other forms interesting only to the
botanist or horticulturist, the principal are JV. paniculata,
N. glutinosa, JV. glauca, attaining a height of 18 ft., and
JV. clevelandii, exceedingly strong, quite recently discovered
in California, and supposed to have been used by the
early natives of that country.

Thus the bulk of the best tobaccos of the world is
afforded by the old well-known species Nicotiana
Tabacum.

B 2

4 TOBACCO.

A good idea of the foliage and inflorescence of commonly
cultivated tobaccos may be gained from a study of the
accompanying illustrations.

Fig. 1 is a Cuban tobacco, and much grown on the
continent of Europe, notably in Holland, Germany, and
Switzerland, and there known as goundie, from the name

FIG. 1.

of an American consul who introduced the plant into
Germany in 1848. It has a broad yet somewhat pointed
leaf, with the ribs not arranged in pairs ; it is fine, soft,
thin, and esteemed for smoking in pipes and for wrappers
of cigars.

THE PLANT. 5

' One variety of the Maryland plant is shown in Fig. 2.
The leaves spring from a tall stem at considerable
intervals, and are broad and rounded at the end. This

FIG. 2.

kind is valued for cigar- wrappers, and assumes a fine light
brown colour when well cured.

A broad-leaved Cuban or Maryland growth long
naturalized in Germany, and now familiar as Amersfort,

6

TOBACCO.

is represented in Fig. 3. It is distinguished by unusual
length of leaf accompanied by a corresponding narrowness.
A stem and flower are shown at a, a leaf at fc, a flower in
section at c, a capsule at d, a seed at e, and a cross-section
of a leaflet at /.

FIG. 3.

d

These three examples represent the most successful
kinds grown in Europe and at the same time some of the
most marked diversities of form of leaf.

( 7 )

CHAPTEE II.

CULTIVATION.

THE following observations on the methods of cultivating
tobacco have reference more particularly to the processes
as conducted in Cuba, India, and the United States ; this
branch of agriculture has been brought to great per-
fection in the last-named country, and the supervision
of the operations in India is mostly entrusted to skilled
Americans.

Climate. — Of the many conditions affecting the quality
of tobacco, the most important is climate. The other con-
ditions that must be fulfilled in order to succeed in the
cultivation of this crop may be modified, or even some-
times created, to suit the purpose ; but cultivators can
do little with reference to climate : the utmost they can
do is to change the cultivating season, and this only in
places where tobacco can be grown nearly throughout
the year. The aromatic principles, on the presence of
which the value of a tobacco chiefly depends, can only
be properly developed in the plant by the agency of high
temperature and moisture. The fame that Cuban and
Manilla tobaccos enjoy is mostly due to the climate.
The article produced in Cuba is mo^t highly esteemed ;
up to this time, no other country has been able to com-
pete successfully with it. However it cannot be doubted
that there are many places whose climate justifies the
assumption that a tobacco could be grown there, not

8 TOBACCO.

inferior to that produced in the West Indies. The more
closely the climate of a place corresponds with that of
Cuba, the greater chance is there that a Havanna variety
will preserve its peculiar aroma. In such places, a fine
and valuable tobacco may be grown with less expenditure
on labour, &c., than it is necessary to bestow in raising
an inferior article in less suitable climes. In countries
where a low temperature rules, the plants must be raised
in hot-beds, and there is also a great risk that the young
plants may be destroyed by frost, or afterwards by hail-
stones. When damp weather prevails during the tobacco
harvest, it is often injured ; and to give the required
flavour, &c., to make the article marketable, macerating
has often to be resorted to, thus involving great risk and
expenditure. But in spite of these drawbacks, tobacco
cultivation is often very remuneratively carried out in
countries possessing an unfavourable climate. The defi-
cient climatic conditions are here partly compensated for
by making the other conditions affecting the quality of
tobacco, and which can be controlled by the cultivator,
the most favourable possible.

Soil. — The soil affects to a great extent the quality of
a tobacco. The plant thrives best in a soil rich in vege-
table mould ; this, however, is not so much required to
supply the necessary plant food, as to keep the soil in
a good physical condition. No other plant requires the
soil in such a friable state. A light soil, sand or sandy
loam, containing an average amount of organic matter,
and well drained, is considered best adapted for raising
smoking- tobacco ; such a soil produces the finest leaves.
The more organic matter a soil contains, the heavier is

CULTIVATION. 9

the outturn ; but the leaves grow thicker, and the aroma
becomes less. As, in tropical climates, the physical
properties of the soil play a prominent part in its pro-
ductive capabilities generally, and the presence of organic
matter in the soil tends to improve these properties, it
will rarely occur that in such places a soil will contain
too much humus. The more clay in a soil, the less is it
adapted to the production of fine smoking-tobacco, on
account of its physical properties being less favourable
to the development of the aromatic principles ; the leaf
becomes also generally thick and coarse, but the outturn
on such soils is commonly heavier than on a more sandy
one. A clay soil possessing a great amount of humus
may, if properly tilled, produce an ordinary smoking-
tobacco, and may even, if great attention be paid to the
selection of the variety, &c., produce leaves for cigar-
wrappers.

Of less importance than the physical properties of the
soil is its chemical composition. By proper tillage and
heavy manuring, tobacco is sometimes grown on com-
paratively poor soils. From analysis of the plant, it is
clear that it contains a large amount of ash constituents,
which it extracts from the soil ; the most important of
these are potash and lime. A soil destitute of these
constituents would require a great quantity of manure
to supply the wants of tobacco.

An experienced Ohio planter, Judson Popenoe, speaking
of soil, says " A rich, sandy, second bottom, I believe to
be the best for raising tobacco, although our chocolate-
coloured uplands, when very rich and highly manured,
will grow an excellent quality of tobacco, but will not

10 TOBACCO.

yield as much to the acre. Black river-bottoms will
yield more to the acre than any other kind of land, but
the tobacco is not of so fine a quality ; it grows larger,
has coarser stems, and heavier body, and consequently,
in my opinion, is not so good for wrappers or fine cut as
the second bottom or upland tobacco."

On the same subject, an Illinois grower observes, " for
us in the West, and for all the localities that have not
an over-amount of heat, experience has proved, that a
dry, warm soil (loam or sandy loam), rich, deep, and
containing lime, is most suitable for tobacco. The more
sandy, to a certain degree, the soil is, the better will be
the quality of the tobacco; the nearer the soil is to clay,
the poorer will be the crop under similar circumstances,
although the yield may yet be satisfactory. Clayey soil
will hardly produce tobacco suitable for cigars. Wet and
tough clay soils are under no circumstances suitable to
tobacco."

Situation. — Land intended for tobacco-culture should
have good drainage, and be sheltered from high winds.
In Holland, where tobacco-cultivation is carried out to
great perfection, each field is surrounded by a hedge
about 7 ft. high ; the fields are divided into small plots,
which are again bordered by rows of plants that are able
to break the force of the wind, which would injure the
leaves, and render them of comparatively little value.
To this circumstance must chiefly be attributed the fact
that Dutch growers succeed in getting as much as 50
per cent, of leaves of the first quality, whereas in most
other countries 25 per cent, is considered to be a very
good outturn.

CULTIVATION. 11

In the United States, several rows of pole beans, i. e.
scarlet runners, a few steps apart, are sometimes planted
as a wind-screen.

Manure. — In its natural state, the soil will rarely possess
the elements of plant food in such a form as is most con-
ducive to the production of a fine tobacco-leaf. Any
deficiency must be supplied in the shape of suitable
manure. Schlosing found that a bad burning tobacco was
produced on a soil containing little potash, on unmanured
soil, on soil manured with flesh, humus, calcium chloride,
magnesium chloride, and potassium chloride. A good
burning tobacco was produced on a soil manured with
potassium carbonate, saltpetre, and potassium sulphate.
More recent experiments carried out by other investigators
tend to corroborate these conclusions. It is generally
assumed that a soil rich in nitrogenous organic matter
produces a strong tobacco that burns badly.

The results of Nessler's experiments clearly show that
it is not sufficient to apply the element most needed by
the plant — potash — in any form, but that, to produce a
good tobacco, it is necessary to apply it in a particular
combination. It was found that potash carbonate applied
as manure produced the best tobacco : it burned for the
longest time, and its ash contained most potash carbonate ;
whereas potash chloride produced a much inferior tobacco.
The assertion of other experimenters that chlorides pro-
duce a bad tobacco is thus confirmed. Potash sulphate
and lime sulphate produced a good tobacco. It may be
noticed here that tobacco which was manured with gypsum
contained a great amount of potash carbonate in the ash,
probably due to the fact that gypsum is a solvent for the

12 TOBACCO.

inert potash salts. From the foregoing, it may be con*
eluded that in tobacco cultivation, the elements potassium
and calcium should be restored to the soil in the form of
carbonate, sulphate, or nitrate, but not as chlorides.
Poudrette, or prepared night-soil, generally contains a
considerable amount of chlorides, and is not well suited as
manure for fine tobacco. It has been found that fields
manured with chlorides produced heavily ; a small propor-
tion of chlorides may therefore be applied in this form,
whenever quality is of less importance than quantity.
Farmyard manure may suffice when tobacco is cultivated
in proper rotation, but here also, unless the soil be very
rich in potassium and calcium, the application of some
special manure will greatly enhance the value of the
outturn. Wood-ashes are a valuable supplement to stable
dung. Gypsum is an excellent dressing for soils in a
good manurial condition : it supplies the lime needed by
the tobacco, and acts as a solvent on the inert potash salts.
Gypsum applied on poor land, however, hastens the
exhaustion of the soil. It is said that crops manured
with gypsum suffer less from the effects of drought, and
require less irrigation, than when manured otherwise :
the leaves of plants that had been manured with gypsum
exhaling less water than when manured with other sub-
stances. If this assertion be correct, gypsum would be
invaluable to the Indian cultivator,

With regard to the amount of manure to be employed,
it may be observed that, with farmyard manure properly
rotted, there is no theoretical limit, especially when the
tobacco is intended for snuff", and is grown in a hot climate,
where the physical properties of the soil are of the utmost

CULTIVATION. 13

importance. It is said that some Rhenish-Bavarian soils
contain as much as 15 per cent, of organic matter, yet the
cultivator considers it necessary to heavily manure each
tobacco crop. Dutch growers apply to the rich alluvial
soil as much as 25 tons an acre of well-rotted cattle-
manure. In America, it is reported that the heaviest
crops are obtained on soil newly taken up, and very rich
in vegetable mould. It is considered nearly everywhere
that tobacco will pay best when heavily manured. The
first care of even the poorest peasant in the tobacco
districts of Germany, Holland, &c., as soon as he sells his
tobacco, is to purchase the manure which he considers
essential to his success.

The amount of any special manure which can be
applied without injury to the plants depends very much
on the solubility of the stuff, and the manner of applying
it. Highly soluble salts, such as soda or potash nitrate,
should be applied in smaller quantities than salts which
dissolve slowly. With regard to the manner of applying
concentrated manures, it is evident that, when a salt is
applied in close proximity to the plant, less will be
required than when strewn over the whole field. When
applied in solution, not more than 300 Ib. of nitrate per
acre should be used at one time. The amount to be
applied varies also with the soil ; a sandy soil, which has
little absorptive power, should receive less than a clay.
Salts easily disintegrating should not be applied before
tobacco has been planted, especially not before heavy
rains which would carry off the salt. To supply the
potash required by the tobacco plant, 200 Ib. of good salt-
petre per acre would be sufficient in most cases. Lime,

14 TOBACCO.

although removed from the soil in large quantities, is
rarely applied to tobacco as a special manure. Where
wood-ashes can be had at a moderate price, lime may be
applied in this form. Some ashes are very rich in lime.
It has been found that ashes obtained from beech- wood
contain 52 per cent, of lime, and those from oak-wood as
much as 75.

Whilst most growers are agreed that tobacco is a crop
demanding a rich soil, there is a want of uniformity of
opinion as to the best method of manuring. On this point,
C. Schneider, a successful Illinois planter, says " manur-
ing cannot be done too early, or too heavily. The
manures are very different, and equally useful for the
different kinds of tobacco. We may classify them as
follows : —

" To be applied shortly before planting, and in equal
quantities, for all kinds of tobacco : 1. Guano, 200 to 300
pounds on the acre ; 2. Poultry-droppings, 400 to 500
pounds ; 3. Green manure in any quantity ; 4. Sheep-
dung, 6 two-horse loads ; 5. Cattle manure, 10 two-horse
loads.

" For chewing-tobacco and snuff : 1. Sheep-dung, 10 to
12 loads per acre ; 2. Cattle manure, 20 to 30 loads ; 3.
Horse-dung, 15 to 25 loads; 4. Hog manure, 20 to 30
loads. The last two are useless for smoking-tobacco, or
for that to be used for cigars.

" The first three manures f guano, poultry-droppings,
and green manure) must be followed after the tobacco-
crop, by a plentiful supply of stable-manure. The tobacco-
stalks themselves, rotted or burned to ashes, sown over
the field before the transplanting, or in the planting-

CULTIVATION. 15

furrows, will act as a good manure, but are not sufficient.
In highly- worked farms, that is, where the soil is valuable,
and cannot remain idle, it will pay every way, to sow rye
for fodder on the tobacco-land in the fall ; this may be
made into hay, or turned under as manure at the beginning
of July, just as may seem most profitable. Deep ploughing
for the rye, and afterward for the tobacco, must not be
forgotten."

K. E. Burton, in the Sugar Cane, translating from
Mitjen's essay on tobacco growing in the most renowned
district of Cuba, has the following sensible remarks on the
all-important subject of manuring : —

" Each veguero or farmer should make a hole or rotting-
bin in which he should deposit as much muck and leaves
as he may be able to accumulate, and, before giving the
last ploughing to prepare his field for planting the tobacco,
he should spread over it all the prepared rotten manure
he can procure. Manure that is not thoroughly rotten
injures the plants more than benefits them. A piece of
land, well manured and thoroughly worked up, will
produce four times more tobacco than one badly prepared
would. Consequently no expense or labour is so remune-
rative as that which is applied to the soil. This is a
very important point which should fix the attention of
every agriculturist who desires to prosper.

" Agriculturists acknowledge the advantage of manur-
ing. In tobacco cultivation it produces the most brilliant
results, but in Vuelta-Abajo it is very difficult to procure
sufficient country manure. Yagues (i.e. strips of palm
bark used as screens, and for baling) and all the refuse
from palm trees are excellent ; grass from the savannahs

16 TOBACCO.

and all kinds of vegetables in a thoroughly putrid state
are very good, but it requires a great quantity, and the
immense labour to collect and prepare these, frightens the
greater number of vegueros, and few have sufficient con-
stancy to enable them to collect enough properly prepared
manure for their fields.

" The most which some manage to do is to spread
refuse over some portions of land, where it rots and
fertilizes the soil ; but this system is inefficacious, because
the vegetable substances being very light, the heavy rains
wash away the greater portion of the decomposed matter,
and fully nine-tenths are lost. If the system was adopted
of depositing this manure in holes or trenches, from which
it can be removed when thoroughly rotted and fit for the
fields, it would produce much more with much less labour ;
for although at first sight the labour appears to be
doubled, by having to carry it twice, it must be
remembered that one load of well-prepared manure is
better than ten or twenty of grass or bush that is not
rotten.

" But in every way there is great difficulty in collecting
vegetable manure in sufficient quantities ; recently,
guano has been tried with the most brilliant success.

" Peruvian guano is the most compact fertilizer known,
and a very small quantity suffices to manure a tobacco
field ; its cost is not excessive, and is very frequently less
than the carriage of other manures to the spot where they
are to be used. Its most active results are shown on
light and sandy soil j it quickens vegetation, and experi-
ence has shown that it increases prodigiously the quantity
and value of crops ; we therefore recommend the use of

CULTIVATION. 17

guano as a fertilizer of the first order for tobacco cultiva-
tion, and as light and sandy soils possess in themselves
the substances most suitable for the development of the
tobacco plant, on such soils guano acts as a stimulant to
the plant.

" Before using Peruvian guano, it should be sifted ; all
the stones and lumps remaining should be broken up, and
again sifted, so that nothing may be lost. After this,
three or four times its weight of dry sandy soil should be
thoroughly mixed with it, and it should remain thus
6-8 days before being used. This preparation should be
made under cover, to avoid the possibility of rain falling
on the mixture, and the heap should be covered with the
empty guano bags, or anything else, to prevent the
evaporation of the volatile alkali which it contains.

" It is better to prepare this mixture in detail, each heap
containing one bag of guano, whose weight is 150-160
lb., so as to facilitate the calculation of the quantity that
should be applied, and prevent mistakes. We will start,
therefore, on this calculation.

" On lands of good quality, but which, nevertheless,
require manure, from having been overworked, one pound
of guano should be applied to each 15-20 superficial
yards, or, say one heap of compost for each 2500-3000
yards, or, otherwise said, one heap of manure will suffice
for a surface that contains 5000-6000 plants.

" In sandy unproductive soil, and on sterile savannah
lands, 1 lb. of guano to 9-12 ;yards ; or a heap of compost
guano to 1500-2000 yards; or one heap for 3000-4000
plants.

" These are the proportions to be used for the first year ;

o

18 TOBACCO.

for the second, and forward, two-thirds of that employed
the first year will be sufficient.

" When crops of tobacco and corn are grown on the same
lands, half the guano should be applied to the corn and
the other half to the tobacco; but then a somewhat
larger quantity will be required. The manure should be
applied shortly before transplanting, and after the
ground has been well cross-ploughed and prepared, and
the ground should be plotted out into squares or beds of
50 yards square. The manure should then be spread and
ploughed in, and the land should at once be furrowed and
planted.

"Under this system of applying Peruvian guano as
manure for tobacco the best results have been obtained,
and, of all the various trials made, this is the most simple
and the easiest to execute."

The remarks of the last-quoted essayist are good so
long as guano is to be had. But there is a limit to the
supply, and in many places it would be unprocurable.

The necessity for more definite knowledge concerning
the actual wants of the tobacco plant in the matter of
food, led to an investigation of the subject some years
ago by Prof. S. W. Johnson on behalf of the Connecticut
State Board of Agriculture, and more recently by Schiff-
mayer for the Agricultural Department of the Madras
Presidency.

Prof. Johnson aptly observes it to be " a well-established
fact that plants may receive from the soil and retain a
larger portion of ash-ingredients than is needful for
nutrition. This is especially marked in case of the
lime, potash, and soda salts. The excess of these sub-

CULTIVATION. 19

stances thus taken up may either be deposited in the
solid state in the cells of the plant, or may remain
dissolved in the juices. In tobacco, a part of the nitrogen
usually exists as a nitrate, in combination with potash.
That is to say, portions of the nitrogenous food of the
plant — the nitrates of the soil — are not completely worked
over into albuminoids, and into nicotine, the nitrogenous
constituents of tobacco, but accumulate and remain in
considerable quantity in the sap. When a dry tobacco-
leaf is set on fire, it often burns like ' touch paper '
(paper soaked in a solution of saltpetre and dried) with
bright sparkles of fire, indicating the points where the
nitre has gathered in minute crystals as the juice of the
leaf evaporated. The quantity of superfluous salts in the
plant depends upon its succulence, and upon the supply
of them in the soil. Doubtless certain definite amounts
of potash, lime, magnesia, iron, sulphuric acid and phos-
phoric acid are absolutely necessary to produce a given
weight of tobacco. In case several or all these substances
are superabundant in the soil, the plant has no power to
exclude any unnecessary surplus of one or all of them
from its interior altogether, although there are good
reasons known to prevent their entrance beyond a certain
limit. In one soil potash may be relatively most abun-
dant, and may for that reason be found in the crop in
greater quantity than was necessary for the growth of
that crop. In another soil lime may be in surplus, and
there the crop may have the minimum of potash, and a
considerable excess of lime.

" The crop is a result of the working together of a
number of causes or conditions ; these are the heat and

c 2

20 TOBACCO.

light of the sun, carbonic acid and oxygen of the atmo-
sphere, water, nitrates and ammonia, and the ash-elements
enumerated in our table of analyses. The crop is limited
in quantity by that condition of growth, which is pre-
sented to it most sparingly. The richest and best pre-
pared soil without solar warmth, or without due supplies
of rain, cannot give a crop, and if weather be most favour-
able, then in one field it may be too little potash, in
another too little phosphoric acid, in another too little
nitrogen, which lowers the yield, or reduces the quality
of the product.

" It is usual in tobacco culture to manure very heavily,
and in many cases it is probable that all the various
forms of plant food are present in available abundance.
But soils differ in the nature of the supplies which they
are able to yield to crops, and fertilizers even, when the
same in name, may be very unlike in fact. The chief
reliance of the tobacco farmer is stable manure. This,
however, is by no means uniform in origin, appearance,
evident quality, or chemical composition. The manure
from bullocks, wintered on hay and roots, is very different
from that of horses maintained chiefly on oats or corn.
The yard manure that contains much strawy litter or
much wasted hay, differs again from that of the city
stables, from which the straw is carefully raked out to be
used over and over again for bedding. The farm-made
manure is likely to be much richer in potash and lime,
and the city manure is richer in phosphates and nitrogen.
Yet in the reports of the farmer, these two essentially
different fertilizers are designated as stable manure
simply.

CULTIVATION. 21

" Every one understands that a fertilizer acts upon the
plant to supply it with food, and to favour its growth ;
everybody is also convinced that some fertilizers act
upon the soil, improving its texture and composition and
increasing its fertility. It is an equally well ascertained
fact that the soil acts upon fertilizers to modify their
effect. A very wet or very dry soil is known to nullify
the benefit which might be expected of a fertilizer in a
simply moist soil ; but more than this, more than by the
accident of external circumstances, it is a fact that each
kind of soil has a special action of its own on fertilizers,
so that if it were asserted of two soils, which, unmanured,
were of equal fertility, that a given fertilizer applied to
both, greatly improved the crop on one, and had little
effect on the other, such a statement might not only be
accepted as a fact, but an explanation might be given in
general terms for such a fact.

" Now experiments have shown that different soils when
mixed with like quantities of various fertilizing elements
and then treated with water, in imitation of rain,
manifest very different behaviour toward the admixed
substances. One soil will lay hold of the potash in a
fertilizer, and fix it in a kind of chemical combination so
firmly that water can dissolve it but with extreme slow-
ness ; another soil puts its grasp on the lime of a fertilizer,
and at the same time allows potash which belongs to itself
to be dissolved out freely. There is, in fact, always a
complicated series of changes set in operation whenever
any fertilizer is incorporated with the soil, be it animal,
vegetable, or mineral ; be it alkali, acid, or saline ; be it
made on the farm or imported from abroad ; be it natural

22 TOBACCO.

or artificial. The fertilizer acts on the soil, and the soil
reacts on the fertilizer ; but the point we wish to make
prominent is this, that different soils are differently
affected by one and the same application, or in other
words, a given manure fertilizes a given crop unequally in
degree, and unlike in kind, on different soils, by virtue of
the different assimilating or fixing power, which the soil
exerts upon its ingredients.

" We know of the existence of these peculiarities of soils,
and something of their causes and of the laws by which
they act ; but the real necessities of the tobacco crop, or
of any other crop, as respects soil-ingredients, cannot be
arrived at by chemical analysis of a single sample, nor of
a dozen samples." Thus analyses of a dozen New
England tobaccos showed the following highest and
lowest percentages of each ash-ingredient, and of
nitrogen : —

Silica .. .. 0-05 to 0-30
Chlorine .. 0-08 „ 2-55
Sulphuric acid 0 • 52 „ 1 • 69
Phosphoric acid 0'47 „ 0-80
Lime .. .. 3" 17 „ 8'22

Magnesia .. 0' 94 to 2 '21

Potash .. .. 3-90 „ 7'45

Soda .. ..

Nitrogen .. 3-20 „ 5'11

" It appears that the percentages of nitrogen, phosphoric
acid and potash are nearly twice as great in some samples
as in others ; that the proportions of magnesia and lime
are about 2 J times greater in some samples than in others,
and that sulphuric acid is 3 times more in one case than in
another. The variation of silica is still greater, and the
disparity rises to its extreme in case of soda and chlorine,
whose maxima are respectively 20 and 30 times greater
than their minima."

CULTIVATION. 23

The three Ingredients chlorine, silica, and soda cannot
be considered in the light of essentials to tobacco culture ;
but the other substances are absolutely indispensable to
plant growth, and the absence of any one of these would
render a soil incapable of sustaining agricultural vege-
tation of any kind. " The variation in the percentage of
these ingredients depends somewhat upon the fact that
the leaves of different crops are unequally developed, and
therefore their nutritive needs are unlike ; but it is, no
doubt, chiefly connected with the fact that the plant
takes up from a highly fertilized soil more of each or
every element than is essential for growth. The nearly
certain conclusion is that every one of the crops analysed
contains more of some elements than belongs to its
nutrition. It is quite certain that the average of the
analyses of the New England tobaccos is fully up to the
mark as regards the necessities of the crop. It is, indeed,
not improbable that the lowest percentages of each in-
gredient are quantities sufficient for a perfect crop. Still,
it is not proved that lime may not partially take the
place of potash, or the reverse. The probability of such
a substitution is great upon the face of most of the
analyses. As a rule, those which show most potash show
least lime and vice versa ; but in one sample both ingre-
dients are considerably below the average. The practical
issue of these considerations is to give great probability
to the view that the tobacco crop is fed unnecessarily
(and wastefully ?) high." (Prof. Johnson.)

Tobacco is usually characterized as a very exhausting
crop. This is not true as regards the amount of nutri-
ment taken from the soil, for in this respect tobacco is less

24 TOBACCO.

exacting than hay, potatoes, or rye. It demands chiefly
potash and lime, with phosphoric acid and nitrogen.
Prof. Johnson recommends for the manuring of one acre,
besides ploughing in the stalks of the plants, 500 Ib.
rock guano or 800 Ib. fish guano, 500 Ib. kainit (potash
salts), and 50 Ib. quicklime. But surely it cannot be
advisable to mix quicklime with an ammoniacal manure
like guano ; it seems to the writer that gypsum, or spent
calcium oxide from gasworks, would be a far preferable
medium for conveying lime to the soil.

As observed by Johnson, the " demand made on the soil
or on fertilizers by the tobacco crop, is for certain reasons
greater than that made by other crops which receive more
of nearly every kind of plant food. Hay is more exhaust-
ing than tobacco as measured by total export from the
soil, but grass grows the whole year throughout, save
when the ground is frozen or covered with snow, or for
more than 8 months. The period of active growth which
is required to mature a hay crop, begins indeed in April,
and is finished by July, a period of 3 months, but during
the year previous, for at least 5 months, in case of the
first crop, the grass plants have been getting a hold upon
the soil, filling it with their roots, and storing up food in
their root-stocks or bulbs, for the more rapid aftergrowth.
Tobacco on the other hand cannot be set out in the field
before about the 10th of June, and should be in the shed
in about 3 months. Its growth then must be a very
rapid one, and the supplies of food in the soil must be
very abundant so that the quick-extending roots may be
met at every point with their necessary pabulum. A crop
of 1260 Ib. dry leaves requires about 1100 Ib. of dry stalks

CULTIVATION. 25

to support the leaves, making a total of 2360 Ib. of dry
vegetable matter. As new hay contains not less than one-
sixth of moisture, we increase the above dry weight of the
tobacco crop by one-sixth, to make a fair comparison, and
obtain as the yield of an average tobacco field 2750 Ib. of
air-dry vegetable matter, or more than 1J tons. The
matter stands then thus : An acre of first-rate grass
land yields as the result of 8 months' growth, 21 tons
of crop, while the tobacco land must yield 1J tons in
3 months.

" If the above data are correct, the average rate of
growth of tobacco is greater than that of a corresponding
hay crop, in the ratio of 9 : 7. The real disparity is, how-
ever, much greater. The principal growth of tobacco is
accomplished in the hottest summer weather, and in a
period of some 40-50 days. Very heavy manurings are
therefore essential to provide for its nourishment, and
the more so because the best tobacco lands are light in
texture, and may suffer great loss by drainage, evapora-
tion, and decomposition."

From these premises, Prof. Johnson advances to the
question of what should or should not be presented to
the plant in the form of manure. He commences with
a caution that, in general, growers must " avoid employ-
ing fertilizers which contain salt or other chlorine com-
pound in raising wrapping or smoking tobacco. It is
evident, also, that there is no occasion to use any fertilizer
for the special object of supplying phosphoric acid, since
the heaviest export of this substance does not exceed 10 Ib.
per acre, annually. It may be well to mention here that
phosphates which may be put upon a tobacco field, in

26 TOBACCO.

guano, &c., cannot suffer waste by washing out, and will
come to use when grain or grass shall follow in the
rotation."

He observes of gypsum (lime sulphate) that it is "a
valuable application to tobacco, not because it is very
largely taken up by the crop, for the greatest export of
sulphuric acid, viz. 20 Ib. per acre, is restored by 50 Ib. of
plaster, and the greatest export of lime, 120 Ib., is made
good by 400 Ib. of the sulphate, but because lime sulphate
dissolves in 400 times its weight of water, and may
rapidly wash out of the porous tobacco lands, and espe-
cially because the solution of lime sulphate in the soil is
a very effective agent in rendering soluble and accessible
to crops the potash and magnesia, which too often exist in
close-locked combinations. The average annual rainfall
(snow included) in our latitudes, is no less than 10,000,000
Ib. per acre. This enormous quantity of water would be
enough to dissolve and wash out of the soil 25,000 Ib. of
gypsum per acre if it had time to saturate itself, and
then flowed off. In fact, but a small proportion of the
rainfall runs through and out of the soil, not more than
10 to 20 per cent., according to its porosity and situation ;
but it is plain that there is nothing to hinder the waste
of a hundred pounds or more of gypsum per acre yearly,
since all investigations go to show that the soil has no
retaining power for lime sulphate as it has for potash and
for phosphoric acid. In Nessler's experiments, gypsum
had an excellent effect on the burning quality of the
tobacco raised under its application, an effect attributable,
he believes, to the fact that this fertilizer often liberates
potash in the soil, as Liebig and Deherain have demon-

CULTIVATION. 27

strated, and is therefore equivalent to an application of
potash, provided the latter actually exists in the soil.

" Potash is exported in the tobacco crop to the amount of
70-80 Ib. per acre yearly, and is required for the stalks to
the extent of some 50 Ib., making a total of 120-130 Ib.
As already intimated, potash does not commonly waste
from the soil by washing. It is seldom found in appre-
ciable quantity in well or drain water, and most soils
absorb it and fix it so firmly that water can remove it but
very slowly. It does, however, appear in the drain water
from very heavily dunged fields, though in small propor-
tion. Stable or yard manure on the average contains one-
half per cent, of potash, or 10 Ib. per ton. Twelve or
thirteen tons of stable manure would therefore contain the
potash needful to produce a crop. The dressing of 20 tons
of 10 cords of stable manure, per acre, which is often
employed on tobacco, is doubtless enough to fully supply
the crop, and the application of additional potash is
apparently quite unnecessary. The employment of potash
salts upon tobacco lands would therefore seem to be
uncalled for unless the amount of stable manure is greatly
diminished, or its quality is very inferior. In case potash
salts are to be applied, the best form to make use of is
potash sulphate, of which 250 Ib. contains 135 of potash.
Next to this is probably potash carbonate, i. e. the ordinary
potash of commerce, which contains some 70 per cent, of
potash ; 200 Ib. of this would be sufficient for an acre. To
apply it I would suggest breaking it up into small pieces
and soaking it in two or three times its weight of water
until the lumps crush easily, and mixing these with so much
ground gypsum as will make a mass dry enough to handle.

28 TOBACCO.

" Kainit, which contains some 15 to 20 per cent, of potash,
but also 10 per cent, or more of chlorine, is not so good for
leaf tobacco, and least of all to be recommended is potas-
sium chloride (muriate of potash) which is nearly half
chlorine.

" Magnesia is an element which is abundantly provided
for in stable manure, every ton of which, according to
analyses on record, contains some 3 Ib. of this substance.

" Lime is supplied in relative abundance in stable
manure, the average ton of which contains some 15 Ib.
We have seen that 600 Ib. of gypsum contain as much lime
as the average tobacco crop : guano, dry fish, and super-
phosphate, each contains some 5-10 per cent, of lime.
There is, furthermore, little likelihood that any soil
intended for tobacco would not of itself contain enough
lime to support the crop. Lime in the caustic state
has, however, a value independent of its direct nutritive
power, which is well worth the attention of the tobacco
raiser. Of this I shall write briefly in a subsequent
paragraph.

" Nitrogen in absolutely dry New England tobacco leaf
ranges from 3*2 to 5*1 per cent., or 4*24 as the average.
This is a larger proportion than exists in any of our
ordinary field crops, except the seeds of legumes. The
grain of wheat and red clover hay contain when dry
scarcely 2J per cent., and they exceed all other usually
raised vegetable products, except the leguminous seeds.
The pea and bean contain, when dry, 4-5 to 4 • 7 per cent,
of nitrogen. The acreage export of nitrogen is never-
theless not large according to the data of our tables. It
should be remembered, however, that the average is

CULTIVATION. 29

derived from 5 samples only. . . . There are reasons to
suppose that this result is too low. Furthermore it is
not improbable that tobacco loses nitrogen during the
curing process."

The advantages of artificial manuring have been made
manifest in all branches of agriculture, and there is no
doubt that the nitrogenous qualities of farmyard dung
may be replaced by soda nitrate, ammonia sulphate, &c.,
only it must be remembered that these have not nearly
the lasting effect of dung, the latter liberating its am-
monia but slowly. Indeed " when a soil has been heavily
dunged for a term of years, it accumulates a large quantity
of nitrogen, which is comparatively inert and therefore
nearly useless to crops. Quicklime assists to convert this
nitrogen into the active forms of ammonia or nitrates,"
hence Prof. Johnson's suggestion that an " application of
lime may sometimes be advantageously substituted for one
of stable manure. In fact, it is not improbable that
moderate doses of lime might be turned under with stable
manure or green crops, with the effect of exalting the
action of these fertilizers, and obtaining from them a
larger return of nitrogenous plant food. Lime, however,
gives effect to the nitrogen of the soil by causing the
destruction of the organic matters — humus — in which this
nitrogen lies in an inactive state. These organic matters
have themselves a value independent of their nitrogen,
which must be taken account of, and therefore the use of
lime must be undertaken cautiously, and with an intelli-
gent comprehension of the various effects which it may
produce."

Botation. — A proper rotation of crops is particularly

30 TOBACCO.

advantageous for the cultivation of tobacco, since it
requires a great amount of readily accessible inorganic
matter in the soil, especially potash and lime. Although
the importance of cultivating tobacco in rotation is
admitted, there may be circumstances that justify the
growth of this crop consecutively for several years in the
same field. In America, tobacco is grown successively for
several years on new land, where the elements of plant
food exist in such abundance that the crop may be thus
cultivated without for a time showing any notable decrease
in yield; it is even said that the outturn of the second
year is heavier than that of the first. In Hungary and
Holland, the best tobacco is grown for many years in
succession on the same land. There the plan is adopted
partly out of necessity and partly for convenience. The
small landholder is often obliged to grow tobacco on the
same field, because he has only one properly fitted for it ;
for convenience, he grows it every year on the same place
near his homestead, to allow of the closest attention to the
crop, but he manures heavily. Nessler, in Carlsruhe,
cultivated tobacco during six consecutive years in the
same field, without noticing any perceptible decrease in
yield or quality. To admit of such a system, the soil
must either be very rich in the essential elements, or be
heavily manured, as is the practice in Holland. It is
generally assumed that, when tobacco is grown on the
same field in succession, the leaves do not become so large
after the first year, but grow thicker and more gummy,
and contain less water.

From the foregoing, it would appear that, although
tobacco may be grown successfully on the same land

CULTIVATION. 31

uninterruptedly under special circumstances, the cultivator
will find it advantageous to adopt some plan of rotation.
Cereals and pulses are very well adapted for this purpose,
the reason being that tobacco removes but little phosphoric
acid from the soil, and thus leaves it rich in the element
most necessary for the growth of cereals. It has also been
found that hemp thrives particularly well after tobacco.

Judson Popenoe suggests that there " should be a good
coat of clover to plough under ; if the ground is naturally
rich, this alone will make a good crop, but hog and stable
manure, well rotted, is what the tobacco, as well as any
other crop, delights in, and the more manure the better
the tobacco. The plan that I am now experimenting on
is, as soon as I cut my tobacco in the fall I give the ground
a good harrowing, and then drill in wheat ; the ground
being well cultivated all the fall, is clear of weeds and
mellow and needs no ploughing. In the spring I sow \
clover, after the wheat is off ; I keep the stock off until
about September, to give the clover a chance to harden
and spread. I then let the stock eat as low as they want
to, which drives the clover to root, and causes the crown to
spread ; I do not suffer stock to run on the clover during
winter or spring ; about the last of May or first of
June I plough the clover under, which is now in blossom,
and so I alternately keep two fields in tobacco and wheat,
at the same time feeding the ground a crop of clover
every two years ; in this way I expect my land to increase
in fertility all the time. The clover turned under makes
food for the cut- worms, and they trouble the tobacco-plants
but little."

Selection of Sort. — The cultivator must carefully com-

32 TOBACCO.

pare the requirements of the different sorts, and the
means at his disposal to satisfy them, before making his
selection. Though tobacco is a hardy plant, and grows
under varied conditions, yet to become a remunerative
crop, the plant should not be placed under circumstances
very dissimilar from those to which it has been accus-
tomed. By importing seed of a fine sort directly from
its native land, the plants will not retain in the new
habitat all their special qualities, unless climate, soil and
treatment are nearly the same. Climate must first be
considered. Fine and valuable tobacco is a product of
tropical countries : in a warm and humid climate, by
employing common means, tobacco may be made to yield
a profit not attainable in less favoured regions. A warm,
moist climate permits the selection of those sorts that
command the highest prices ; if to this be added a
suitable soil, and proper treatment, the cultivation of
tobacco yields a profit not easily obtainable from any
other crop.

As the Havanna tobaccos command the highest prices,
the cultivator nearly everywhere attempts to introduce
and cultivate them. There is no great difficulty in
raising plants of these varieties, but they speedily de-
generate and form new varieties, if the climatic condi-
tions, &c., are not favourable. Virginian tobacco was
previously extensively cultivated, but has of late been
frequently replaced by the Maryland kind. It is still
much favoured by cultivators in temperate climates, as
it does not require a high temperature. On account of
its botanical characteristics, it is usually not much liked
by manufacturers of cigars; some varieties, however,

CULTIVATION. 33

that have less of the marked specific characters, yield
tolerably fine leaves for cigars. As the price of this
tobacco is rather low, it is not so well suited for export.
Hungarian tobacco is considered to be very hardy, but
is less valuable than the foregoing. The leaves are
generally small, and possess a peculiar aroma.

A high price is generally commanded, irrespective of
the species, by those tobaccos that possess a large, smooth,
thin, elastic leaf, possessing a fine golden colour and a
good aroma ; the ribs and veins should be thin, and the
former should branch off from the midrib at nearly
right angles, and should be far apart from each other.
The lower the percentage of the weight in ribs, the
thinner and broader the leaf, and the fewer the leaves
torn, the more wrappers can be cut out of 1 Ib. of tobacco,
other conditions being equal, and consequently the higher
is the price of the article. The cigar-manufacturer often
does not appreciate the aroma so much as the other
qualities. He can do nothing to improve the botanical
characters: the finest aromatic leaf would be of little
value to him if it were torn ; but he is to a certain extent
able artificially to improve defects in flavour. Of all
kinds, Maryland is considered to possess the qualities
that distinguish a good tobacco in the highest degree.
Some of the Havanna tobaccos belong to this sort, as
also the Ohio, Amersfort, Turkish, and Dutten tobaccos.
Its cultivation assumes larger proportions every year,
and the number of varieties and sub-varieties increases
accordingly. Perhaps the finest wrappers for cigars are
grown in Manilla.

On this subject, Judson Popenoe remarks that he has

34 TOBACCO.

** cultivated various kinds of tobacco, but have come to
the conclusion that what we call the Ohio seed-leaf is
the best and most profitable kind for general cultivation.
There are other kinds of tobacco that sometimes are
profitable, and do well, but most of these do not cure out
so well, nor colour so evenly, nor are they so fine and
saleable as t seed-leaf. The Havanna tobacco is too
small and has not the fine flavour of the imported. The
Connecticut seed-leaf I believe to be identical with our
Ohio seed-leaf ; the difference in the climate may make
a slight variation in the quality, but we plant the Con-
necticut seed-leaf here in Ohio, and I do not think they
can be told apart."

Schneider recommends the following varieties : "1.
Connecticut seed-leaf, principally for cigar- wrappers ; 2.
Cuba, for fillers and wrappers ; 3. Maryland ; 4. Virginia,
the last two principally for smoking and chewing
tobacco. For snuff everything may be used, the refuse
and even the stems. The Connecticut, Maryland, and
Virginia yield the largest crops, the Cuba the smallest
but best. The first varieties yield about one thousand
pounds, the latter five hundred pounds. In very favour-
able seasons double the amount may be raised. All
tobacco-seed, which is removed from its native clime and
soil, will deteriorate, and the seed must be renewed from
its native place, although the seed may, when it finds
favourable soil, &c., yield just as good, if not a better
variety."

In Virginia, remarks Thomas, there are " as many
varieties of tobacco-seed as of corn or wheat. I will
name a few : The Big Frederic, the Little Frederic, the

CULTIVATION. 35

Blue Stalk, the Brittle Stem, tlie Big Orinoco, the Little
Orinoco, and half-a-dozen others, each having, or supposed
to have, some characteristic distinguishing it from all
the others. But the Brittle Stem and the Orinocos were
the varieties mostly cultivated, the former for its early
maturity, the latter for its comparative heaviness. There
are several varieties, also, in this vicinity, such as the
Brittle Stem, the Graham Tobacco, and the Cuban, but
the names convey little certain information, as the same
varieties bear different names in different localities.
But some varieties are evidently to be preferred to
others — one noted for early maturity, all things else
equal, is preferable to another that ripens late. One
distinguished for fineness of texture, all things else equal,
is better than another of coarser fibre, &c. Upon the
whole, the surest and most profitable variety is that
which ripens earliest, and yields the largest number of
pounds, cured, to a given number of hills planted."

In the opinion of Perry Hull, a grower in Litchfield
county, Connecticut, " the variety best adapted to our
purpose is that known in this State as the Bull Tongue*
The leaf is neither too long nor too short ; the length
and width being in such good proportion that manu-
facturers considered there is less waste than there is to a
very long narrow leaf, or a very broad short leaf. It
yields well, and ripens at least one week earlier than-
many of the broader varieties. Almost any of the seed-
leaf varieties will do well ; but never patronize any of the
humbugs sent from the Patent Office, under the name of
Graham tobacco, Maryland broad leaf, &c. They are a
Southern tobacco, and when grown upon that soil, make

D 2

36 TOBACCO.

chewing-tobacco ; but here it is good for nothing for that
purpose, and is too coarse for cigar- wrappers."

According to Dennis, an Indiana planter, " selection of
seed depends upon the kind of land you have and the
quality of tobacco you wish to raise. Rich, fertile
bottom-lands will grow only heavy, strong tobacco, and
it is the interest of the farmer to select that kind of seed
that will produce the plant of the greatest weight ; in
other words, to make weight the prominent object in the
result of the crop. Thinner, poorer land will produce
tobacco of lighter weight, but of finer and more desirable
quality, and one that will bring a correspondingly higher
price. The Orinoco tobacco is raised extensively in
Missouri and Kentucky for heavy tobacco, and is known
in market as Kentucky Leaf. The seed for the finer
qualities passes (as does the other also) under different
names, but may be procured in Pike and Galloway
counties, Missouri, and in Virginia; the Orinoco, and
kindred kinds, in Howard and Chariton counties in
Missouri. I should suggest that the seed may be pro-
cured through the agents of express-companies at Glasgow,
Brunswick, and Renick for the Orinoco, and at Louisiana
or Fulton for the other qualities. I would recommend
the culture of the coarser, heavier kinds, for the reason
that the finer quality needs much more care and experi-
ence in the handling, in order that it may go into market
in a condition to command such a price as its quality,
when well handled, entitles it to."

In the words of Libhart, a Pennsylvanian farmer, the
" best variety for cultivation in a high northern latitude
is the Connecticut seed-leaf, as it ripens two weeks earlier

CULTIVATION. 37

than most any other variety, cures and colours better,
and commands the highest price in the market. The
Pennsylvania seed-leaf outstrips the Connecticut in size
and weight, but owing to its requiring a longer time to
mature in, is not so well adapted to climates north of 41°
or 42°."

An experienced Missouri grower, named Pursley, re-
marks that there " are more than twenty distinct varieties,
of which I will only mention the most valuable : — The
Yellow Prior, Blue Prior, Orinoco, Little Frederic, Big
Frederic, Cuba, and Spanish tobacco. These are con-
sidered the most valuable in this State. The Yellow Prior
and Orinoco are the most profitable.

" I prefer the Yellow Prior, as it is the easiest cultivated
and is the most fine and smooth of the many varieties.
Some growers prefer the Orinoco, on account of it being
the heaviest. I do not for various reasons : it has large
stiff fibres and rufHed stalks, which afford hiding-places
for insects; it moulds easier, is harder to cure, and
generally does not bring as good a price as the Yellow
Prior."

Seed. — The best and strongest plants are selected for
affording seed. These are not " topped " like the re-
mainder of the crop, and are left standing when the crop
is gathered. All suckers are carefully removed from the
stems, and sometimes from the leaves also. When the
crop is cut, the seed-stalks should be staked, to prevent
their destruction by the wind. As soon as the seed-pods
blacken, the seed is ripe ; the heads are then cut off below
the forks of the plant, and are hung in a dry and safe
place to cure. Care must be taken to gather them before

38 TOBACCO.

frost has impaired their vitality. During leisure time,
the pods are stripped from the stalks, and the seed is
rubbed out by hand, and winnowed. Its vitality is
proved by its crackling when thrown upon a hot stove.

Seed-beds. — A very light friable soil is necessary for
the seed-beds ; to obtain this, it should be broken up to a
depth of 1 J ft. some months before the sowing season. A
drain is dug around the beds, and the soil is utilized
in raising the surface. In America, a very warm and
sheltered situation, such as the south end of a barn, is
selected for the seed-beds. It is a common plan there to
burn a brush-heap over the ground, thus supplying potash
and killing weeds. The time for sowing in America is
usually from the middle of March to the 10th of April, or
as soon as the ground admits of working in the spring ;
in India, it depends upon the locality : when the monsoon
rains are very heavy, it should follow them; in other
cases, it may precede them.

Unless the soil be very rich in humus, it should be
heavily manured with well-preserved farmyard manure
soon after breaking up. The soil of a tobacco nursery
cannot contain too much organic matter ; the presence of
much humus will prevent, to a great extent, the formation
of a surface crust, which is so detrimental to the develop-
ment of the plants during their early growth, and will
also facilitate the extraction of the plants when trans-
planting takes place. After a few weeks have elapsed,
the soil should be dug over a second time, and the whole
be reduced to a fine tilth. The land may now remain
untouched until the sowing-time, unless weeds should
spring up : these must be eradicated.

CULTIVATION. 39

The area required for a nursery depends on the area of
ground to be planted, and on the distance separating the
plants in the field. About 1 sq. in. space should be
allotted to each of the young plants in the nursery.
Taking the number to be 7260 plants required for an
acre (at 3 ft. x 2 ft.), and giving each plant 1 sq. in. of
room, an area of 7000 sq. in. or 50 sq. ft. would raise
plants sufficient for an acre. But as some are injured
during growth, many rendered useless in lifting them for
transplanting, and more needed to replace those that die
after transplanting, double the number should be raised,
or 100 sq. ft. of nursery bed for an acre.

The amount of seed required for an acre depends chiefly
on its vitality. An ounce contains about 100,000 seeds,
or sufficient for nearly 7 acres if all grew ; but as even the
best has not a very high percentage of vitality, J-l oz. is
generally sown to produce the plants required for one acre.

Sowing-time having arrived, the nursery is divided into
beds, most conveniently, 10 ft. long and 5 ft. wide, making
50 sq. ft. each, on which plants for J acre can easily
be raised. As, even with a small tobacco plantation,
several days are required for transplanting, all the beds
should not be sown at one time, but at intervals of a few
days. This will also lessen the risk of the young plants
being all destroyed by a storm, insects, &c. Before sowing
the seed, the soil is dug over to the depth of 6 inches, and
levelled with a rake. The seed must then be sown evenly
on the surface, and beaten down slightly with the hand
or otherwise. The seed being very small, many cultiva-
tors mix it with ashes, or pulverized gypsum, in order to
distribute it regularly over the bed. The seed must be

40 TOBACCO.

covered only slightly, best done by strewing a little fine
compost manure over it. Ants, which often destroy the
seeds, may be kept off by sprinkling some ashes over the
bed. Finally cut straw may be scattered over the surface.
In India, to protect the nursery from the sun and rain,
the whole is covered with a roof made of straw, leaves, or
cloth, supported by poles, at only a few feet above the
ground. The soil must be kept constantly moist, but not
wet ; weak liquid manure may be used for watering.
Much time is saved by starting the seed in a warm room
before sowing.

The plants, which will appear about a week after sowing,
are very tender during the first stage of their growth, and
require frequent watering through a fine rose. The straw
will now prevent the water falling with any force immedi-
ately on the plants, and its tendency to wash the soil from
the fine rootlets. If the plants spring up thickly, they
are thinned out, when about a week or two old, leaving
about 1 sq. in. for each. Those taken out may be used to
fill blanks in the nursery bed, or, if more plants are taken
out than are required for this purpose, they should be
planted in a separate bed. It is universally acknowledged
that plants transplanted when very young develop more
roots, grow more vigorously, and become more hardy
afterwards, than when not transplanted at this stage.
When the plants are about two weeks old, they require
less attention, and should be watered less frequently, to
harden them before transplanting. Any weeds appearing
must be removed, and injurious insects must be killed.
In about 7-8 weeks after sowing, the plants will be fit
for transplanting.

CULTIVATION. 41

Bowie, a Maryland planter, gives Ms experience in the
following words : — " After a thorough burning of brush,
dig deep, and continue to dig, rake, .and chop until every
clod, root, and stone be removed ; then level and pulverize
nicely with a rake. As to the variety to plant, I think
the Cuba is a very good kind for our climate. The
Connecticut seed-leaf is the best, but culture has more
than anything else to do with the quality. Mix 1 gill
of seed for every 10 square yards with a quart of plaster
or sifted ashes, and sow it regularly in the same manner
that gardeners sow small seeds, only with a heavier
hand ; roll with a hand-roller or tramp it with the feet.
If the bed is sown early, it ought to be covered with
brush free from leaves ; but it is not necessary to cover
it after the middle of March. Tobacco-beds may be sown
at any time during the winter if the ground be not too
wet or frozen. The best time for sowing is from the
10th to the 20th of March, though it is safest to sow at
intervals, whenever the land is in fine order for working.
Never sow unless the land is in good order, for the work
will be thrown away if the land be too moist or be not
perfectly prepared. The beds must be kept free from
grass or weeds, which must be picked out one at a time
by the fingers. It is a tedious and troublesome operation,
therefore you should be very careful not to use any
manures on your beds which have grass or weed-seeds in
them. After the plants are up, they should receive a
slight top-dressing of manure once a week, sown broadcast
by the hand. This manure should be composed of J bushel of
unleached ashes (or 1 bushel of burnt turf), 1 bushel of
fresh virgin woods-earth, 1 gallon of plaster, J gallon of

42 TOBACCO.

soot, 1 quart of salt dissolved in 2 gallons of liquid from
barnyard, and 4 Ib. of pulverized sulphur, the whole well
intermixed. Let a large quantity be got together early
in the spring, or winter rather, and put away in barrels
for use when wanted. This, and other such mixtures,
have been found efficacious in arresting the ravages of the
fly — both from the frequent dusting of the plants and the
increased vigour which it imparts to them, thereby en-
abling the plant the sooner to get out of the tender state
in which the fly is most destructive to it. The fly is a
small black insect, somewhat like the flea, and delights in
cold, dry, harsh weather, but disappears with the mild
showers and hot suns of opening summer. If possible, the
plants should stand in the bed from J inch to 1 inch apart,
and if they are too thick they must be raked when they
have generally become as large as 5 or 10-cent pieces.
The rake proper for the purpose should be a small
common rake, with iron teeth 3 inches long, curved at the
points, teeth flat, and f inch wide, and set J inch apart."

Schneider, whose success as an Illinois planter has
already been mentioned, expresses himself thus : — u Eais-
ing tobacco-plants from seed is somewhat similar to
raising cabbage-plants, but is different in two important
things : It takes considerably more time for the seed to
sprout (six weeks), and, on account of disturbing the
roots, cannot well stand weeding. Therefore the prin-
cipal care in providing the seed-bed is, to prepare for the
early starting of the seed, and to have the bed free from
all weed-seeds. In the West we prepare the seed-bed in
the following manner: we take a plot of land — newly
cleared land is preferred — sloping southward, and pro-

CULTIVATION. 43

tected against winds. The bed should be 4 feet broad
and 8 feet long; on this we pile brush, wood, and heavy
logs, sufficient to keep up a strong fire for at least one
hour, and burn it. When the coals begin to die out, or
before the soil is cold, the bed is cleared off, and only the
fine ashes are left ; then it is hoed thoroughly and as deep
as the strongest heat has penetrated, after which it is
raked cross and lengthwise, until the soil is entirely
pulverized. Everything that might hinder the growing
of the plants, and their taking out afterwards, is carefully
removed. On this bed a thimbleful of seed, well mixed
with a few handfuls of ashes or earth, is sown broadcast,
and tramped in with the feet, or slapped with the under
side of the spade or any other suitable instrument. After
this, the bed is thoroughly wetted with a weak manure-
water, 12 Ib. of hen-droppings, or 1 Ib. of soot in 10
gallons of water, and lightly covered with straw. The
seed-bed does not need much attention at first, if the
weather remains mild ; but if there is danger of night-
frosts, a layer of brush must be made, and on this a layer
of straw 2 to 4 inches thick, according to the degree of
frost. The straw is removed in the morning, and put on
again at evening, leaving it off entirely when the nights
are mild. Although the seed-bed is ready now, it must
not be left to itself, and requires some care. The plants
must always have sufficient moisture, and if timely rains
do not fall, they must be watered with weak liquid
manure as often as needed. Should weeds appear, not-
withstanding all precautions, they must be removed with
the utmost care. The above-mentioned quantity of seed
is sufficient to raise plants for one acre.

44 TOBACCO.

" Whoever is in possession of a hot-bed can raise the
plants much easier; he can sow later and have plants
earlier and with more certainty. But even the common
bed may be made into a kind of hot-bed. The burned and
hoed surface soil is removed and put on one side, then one
foot of fresh horse-dung is laid on the subsoil, and the
surface soil put back again. Boards may be placed
around, cross-pieces laid over them, and the straw cover-
ing put on these.

" The earlier the young plants are ready for transplant-
ing the surer the tobacco crop will be. March is the latest
to make the seed-bed in the open air, and June the latest
for transplanting. Some time may be gained by keeping
the seed in damp earth in the room, and sow it in the
seed-bed just before it commences to sprout."

Having selected a suitable location, says White, a Con-
necticut grower, " next consider how large a bed you will
need. That depends on the surface you intend to plant
out. A bed 2 rods long, by 12 feet wide, will produce a
sufficient number of good plants to set an acre. On such
a bed you should spread a heavy coat of good, fine, well-
rotted manure, at least 2 inches thick ; let it be free
from straw or other litter. Then, with a good strong
back, and long-handled spade (or other as you prefer),
spade up the bed, mixing in the manure very fine. Have
ready some fine dry brush, or the like, and spread over the
whole surface; set it on fire and burn to ashes. A small
quantity will answer better than a very large one, for if
very much is burned, it is apt to do injury by burning
the soil. The less quantity will tend to destroy any
foreign seed turned up, and warm the ground. Having

CULTIVATION. 45

reduced the brush to ashes, take a fine iron or steel rake,
and proceed to pulverize very finely the whole surface
spaded up. After reducing it to as fine a state as possible,
and having made it flat and level, leave it till the next
day. Then, with your rake, carefully rake over the
whole bed ; it is now ready for the seed. Sow the seed
on broadcast ; be careful to sow it even and true. About
two thimblefuls, or a little less, will be sufficient for such
a bed. It is better to have too little than too much, as in
the first instance, the plants will have room to form thick
stalky roots and well-spread leaves, while in the latter
they will be crowded with spindling tops as well as small
roots. Having sowed your seed, take a good heavy
garden-roller and roll the surface down hard and smooth.
In the absence of a roll, a very good substitute can be
made by taking a piece of 2-inch plank, say 18 inches
long by 1 4 inches wide ; in the centre, place an upright
handle. With this spat the bed over, being careful to do
it evenly, and to leave the surface solid and level, the
reasons for which you will afterward discover in weeding
and taking out plants to set in the field. This should be
done in the spring, as soon as the ground will permit, say
first of April, if the frost is out and the ground settled.
The roll or spatter will cover the seed sufficiently without
any other covering. To be able to sow the seed with the
least trouble, mix it in thoroughly with wood-ashes or
plaster, before sowing. To obtain plants earlier, you can
mix your seed thoroughly in about a quart of light chip
dirt from under your wood-shed ; put it in some proper
vessel, and wet to the consistence of soft putty, with
water as warm as can be well borne by the hand. Set it

46 TOBACCO.

on the mantle-shelf in the kitchen, not too near the stove
or fire, "but where it will keep warm. In the course of a
week or ten days, the seed will have cracked the shell,
and will show the small white germ or sprout. It should
now be sowed broadcast very evenly, and treat as before
described. If properly wet at first, it will need no more
water to sprout the seed. Before sowing, pulverize the
mass containing the seed, to facilitate the sowing. Having
thus sown and rolled down your bed very nicely, it is
well to have something to protect it from the encroach-
ment of the fowls. For this purpose, spread a net of
twine or a few brush over the surface, covering it so that
they may not disturb the surface by scratching and
wallowing. It may now be left till the weeds begin to
make their appearance ; these you will need to extract by
the roots as soon as the plants can be distinguished ; these
last may be known by two very small nearly round leaves
opening over flat on the ground. Now procure a plank
or some substitute a little longer than your bed is wide,
also two blocks 6 or 6 inches square, as long or longer
than your plank is wide ; place one on one side of the
bed, the other on the opposite side ; on these two blocks
place your plank, and you will have a fine platform on
which you can sit and weed any part, or all, of your bed,
by moving it as occasion may require. To assist in
pulling out the weeds, procure a moderately sharp-pointed
knife, and with the same grasped in the hand with the
thumb near the point, pinch out the weeds, being careful
not to disturb the dirt any more than absolutely necessary.
The process of weeding must be repeated as often as
necessary, to keep the bed clean from weeds."

CULTIVATION. 47

Obviously, no frost must be allowed to reach the seed-
bed when once sowing has taken place. To prevent this,
and for another purpose to be described presently, Perry
Hull advises the construction of a straw mat, as shown
in Fig. 4, which is very light to handle, easily made, and

FIG. 4.

sufficiently strong to last one season. It is made " by
laying a scantling (6 feet long, 1J inches wide, f inch
thick) upon the barn floor ; place a layer of good straight
rye-straw upon it, so that the scantling will come about
in the middle of the straw, then another layer with the
tips the other way, that it may be of uniform thickness
in all its parts (about 1J inches thick). Place a similar
scantling exactly over it, and with sixpenny nails, nail
them tight ; with an axe trim both edges straight, and
to a width of 3 feet, and the mat is made. With these
the beds should be covered every night, cold or warm ; in
the daytime they should be set up at the north side of
the bed, at an angle of about 65 degrees, by driving
crotches just inside of the bed, for the end of the scant-
ling to rest in, the lower edge of the mat resting on the
ground, outside the bed.

" The plants, as soon as they are out of the ground,
which will be in a few days, require strict attention.

48 TOBACCO.

The beds should be made high enough, so that in fair
weather a little water can be applied every night. After
the fourth leaf appears, manure-water should be used.
Place an old barrel near the beds, and throw into it J
bushel of hen-manure, and fill with water; after it is
well soaked, use J pailful of it, and fill up with clear
water with the chill taken off. As the plants get larger,
the strength of the infusion can be increased, being
careful that it is not so strong as to turn the plants
yellow. As soon as the plants are large enough to be
readily taken hold of by the thumb and point of a knife,
they should be thinned to about 144 per square foot, and
kept free from weeds. This plan is decidedly preferable
to raising under glass. It is less expensive, the plants
are more hardy to set out in the field, are got fully as
early, and a little carelessness on a hot day will not ruin
the whole. It has been my method for the past 8 years,
and during that time I have never failed to have good
strong plants ready for the field between the 5th and
10th of June."

Mitjen, whose essay on tobacco-growing in Cuba has
been already mentioned, recommends a system of shade
frames borne on small tramway trucks, as illustrated in
Fig. 5 — (a) seed beds, raised above the surrounding level ;
(6) light pointed covers of thatch on a wooden frame, and
provided with grooved wheels; (c) rails on which the
frames run, facilitating their application or removal as
the vicissitudes of the weather may demand.

Preparation of the Field. — Land intended to be planted
with tobacco should receive several ploughings not less
than 9 inches deep. As a rule, clay requires to be more

CULTIVATION. 49

deeply ploughed than sandy or loamy soil. It greatly
conduces to success, if the land is allowed to lie fallow
for several months before planting the crop, to admit of
the proper preparation of the soil, by ploughing, rolling,
harrowing, &c., and to allow the attainment of as fine a

FIG. 5.

tilth as is usual in gardens. No crop will better repay
the expense of proper preparation of the soil than tobacco ;
the fineness of the leaf and the aroma of the tobacco
depend to a great degree upon this. The land should be
ridged immediately before planting. The distance apart
at which to make the ridges is governed by the quality

50 TOBACCO.

of the soil and the sort of plant to be raised. With good
soil, the ridges must be farther apart than in a poor one,
because of producing larger leaves. The ridges should
allow a passage between the rows, for the purpose of
weeding, hoeing, suckering, &c., without breaking the
leaves. In the lines, the plants may be 6 in.-l ft.
closer than the ridges. In some places, a plough is run
at right angles across the ridges before planting, at the
distance at which the plants have to stand in the lines,
thus forming small hills on which the seedlings are
planted.

Planting. — Planting should take place only in the even-
ing (or even at night in India), unless the weather be
cloudy, when it may be performed during the whole
day. Some hours before commencing to transplant, the
nursery should be thoroughly watered, to facilitate the
removal of the plants, without tearing their roots. If
the plants are of even size, so that all can be removed,
the best plan is to take them out with a spade, or trowel,
leaving a lump of soil on each. But in most cases, it
will be necessary to take up each plant separately ; this
should be done very carefully, holding with the thumb
and forefinger as near as possible to the roots, and draw-
ing out the plants, if possible, with a little soil adhering
to their roots. The plants are taken at once in a basket
to the field for planting. An attendant going between
two ridges places a plant on each hill, right and left.
One attendant is sufficient for two planters, who follow
immediately. The planting is nearly the same as with
cabbages, but requires more care, the plants being more
tender, and their roots and leaves springing nearly from

CULTIVATION. 5 1

the same point, they are more difficult to handle. The
plants should be placed in a hollow made on each hill,
which will serve as a reservoir for the water to be applied,
and also afford some shade.

In India, the plants are watered immediately after
planting; they should also by some means be shaded
during the first few days, which can easily be done when
only a small area is planted, but is rather difficult to
manage on a large scale. In the latter case, the shade
afforded by planting in a slight cavity must suffice. If
the plants have been taken from the nursery with some
soil adhering to their roots, and are kept sufficiently
moist during the first few days, few of them will die.
When the weather is dry, water should be applied at
morning and evening, and after that time, once daily
until the plants have taken root, after which, occasional
waterings, varying with soil, weather, and kind of plant,
must be given. In dry weather, and with a soil poor in
humus, one watering every second or third day may be
necessary, whereas with a soil rich in organic matter,
and in a moist atmosphere, watering may be entirely
dispensed with. During the first few days, the water
is applied with a watering-pot, held very low, otherwise
the soil would be washed from the plant-roots, and
expose them to the direct rays of the sun, causing death.
The arrangement of the plants in what is known as
quincunx order, as shown in Fig. 6, is generally adopted.

This part of the operations connected with tobacco-
growing is described at some length by Mitjen so far
as the practice rules in Cuba. His translator remarks
that " as soon as the land has been prepared, it should

E 2

52

TOBACCO.

be furrowed at a distance of 1 yard between each two
furrows. This operation should be simultaneous with
the planting, and should be done, if possible, after 3
o'clock in the afternoon, and on cloudy days, so as to

FIG. 6.

prevent the recently set plants from being scorched by
the sun. The furrows should run more or less from
north to south, as, by making them in this direction, the
plants are less injured by the sun, or the strong winds
which generally blow about the planting season. Im-
mediately, and behind the man who is furrowing, another
should follow, placing the plants at every ^ foot all
along the furrow, and behind them another should at
once set the plants, the first walking in the distance, or
bank, and the other in the furrow. The one should open
the land with his right hand, behind which, with his
left, the other will place the plant, being careful neither
to double the stalk nor the roots, and, letting the ground
fall directly on the roots, should press it lightly on them
with his hand. The plants should be buried half-way
up the stalk, or, if the plant is small, it should be covered
to where the leaves spread. Care should be taken that
the plants have no dry mould sticking to their roots, and
that no ground from the furrow falls in the centre or

CULTIVATION. 53

sprout, and when the planting is going on, the ground
should not be too wet. The plants should be set on the
side of the furrow, and on that side which is next the
setting sun, so that the rising sun may strike upon them,
and they may be somewhat protected from the rays of
the afternoon sun.

" Generally the plants wither after being transplanted,
but on the third or fourth day after they are set they
begin to shoot up, and on the fifth day or the sixth, those
that have not taken root can be distinguished. Then,
and without loss of time, others should be supplied, this
operation being repeated at the end of another 5 or 6
days, so that the whole field may be well filled with
living plants. This is one of the most important opera-
tions for securing a good crop, because the fields will
require as much cultivation and labour bestowed on
them if they have vacant spots as if they were full and
regularly planted, and, of course, the yield will be less,
besides many other evils well known to practical vegueros.

"According to the best opinions admitted among
vegueros, one man can take care of 12,000 tobacco plants,
and prudence dictates that no more land should be planted
than that which can be well attended to, as experience
shows that in exceeding this number for each man,
instead of proving advantageous to the planter, it is
frequently the cause of considerable loss. Excessive
planting produces, at once, an increase of labour, and if,
unfortunately, a hard year should occur, occasioned by
caterpillars or other causes, it almost always happens
that the man who has only planted 12,000 plants, for
each labourer he can command, produces four times as

54 TOBACCO.

much tobacco, and of a better quality, than he who may
have planted from 25,000 to 30,000 plants per labourer.

"When the plantations are out of proportion to the
strength of the labour which can be counted on, all the
work becomes slowly and badly done, and these faults
most sensibly prejudice both the yield and the quality of
the crop, and consequently the interest of the planter.
Immediately after supplying the fields, the tobacco
plants should be carefully inspected, almost daily, in
order to exterminate the caterpillars of every kind that
may be found, and this operation should always be made
during the morning, because in the heat of the day the
worms are accustomed to hide themselves from the sun,
and the wind agitates the leaves too strongly to permit
them to be handled without risk of being broken or torn,
especially when they are somewhat large."

After-cultivation. — After the plants have once taken root,
they grow rapidly They are hoed when about 6-9 in.
high, and the soil is drawn from the furrows to raise the
hills, maintaining a depression round the stems. If the
soil is not very rich, a special manure should be applied
at this stage of growth. The best manure generally will
be nitre in a liquid state, which can be applied in the
depression around the plants with a watering-pot. By
applying it in solution and close to the plant, less is
required than when spread over the whole field. Some
weeks afterwards, another hoeing and heaping of earth
round the plants will be necessary. It is most difficult to
say the number of hoeings which may be required by a
tobacco crop. The general rule to be followed is to keep
the soil loose, friable, and free from weeds. The more

CULTIVATION. 55

organic matter the soil contains, the more will it remain
loose and friable ; the less organic matter, the more
waterings will be required, which causes the soil to crust
over, and to assume a close texture, and necessitates
frequent hoeings. As long as the plants have not spread
much, the hoeing may be done by a cultivator, followed
by some men to perform the heaping. Insects which
attack the tobacco must be carefully sought for and killed
at once. They can easily be discovered in the mornings ;
if not killed, they may destroy the whole crop in a few
days. Turkeys are invaluable for their grub-eating
propensities.

Worms, in the American phraseology, here generally
known as caterpillars, are the bete noire of the tobacco
grower. The most common is highly destructive also to
the potato and tomato foliage. The worm as it comes
from the egg is so small as to be unobserved, but having
an enormous appetite, it devours rapidly, and soon grows
to a great size. When not feeding, it lifts up the head
and fore-part of the body, and remains apparently lifeless.
From its resemblance in this position to the Egyptian
Sphinx, Linnseus gave the name Sphinx to the genus.
The larva is of a light green colour, with whitish oblique
stripes, and has a horn upon the rear end of the body.
Though it is repulsive in appearance, it is perfectly harm-
less to touch, and may be picked off with the hands with-
out fear. After it has reached its full size, it leaves the
scene of its ravages and goes into the earth, where it
throws off its skin and becomes a brown-coloured
chrysalis. The curious projection, like a handle, at the
end of the chrysalis, is a sheath which holds the tongue of

56

TOBACCO.

the future moth. The moth or perfect insect is fully
2 in. long in the body and the spread of its wings reaches

CULTIVATION. 57

5 in. It is of a grey colour, with orange-coloured spots
on each side of the body. As there are five of these spots
on each side, it is called Sphinx quinque-maculatus, or Five-
spotted Sphinx. The moths may be seen towards night
flitting about the flowers, from which they suck the juices
by means of their remarkable tongue, which is 5-6 inches
long. When the tongue is not in use, it is closely coiled
up and hidden between the two feelers. From the
manner of their flight and feeding, they are frequently
mistaken for humming-birds, and are called " humming-
bird moths," and "horn-blowers." The moths should
always be destroyed if possible ; by so doing we prevent
the production of several hundreds of most destructive
worms. Naturalists make one or two other species, which
closely resemble the Five-spotted Moth, and are only
distinguished by characters which would not be noticed
except by the entomologist.

Judson Popenoe gives the following advice with regard
to these pests. " As soon as worms appear, which is
generally when the leaves are as big as a man's hand, go
over the tobacco, looking carefully at every plant. The
worms usually stay on the under side of the leaf ; if you
see a hole in the leaf, no matter how small, raise it up and
you will generally find a worm under it. Worming can
not be done too carefully. Miss one or two worms on a
plant, and before you are aware of it the plant is nearly
eaten up. When you find a worm, take hold of it with,
the thumb and forefinger, giving your thumb that
peculiar twist which none but those who are practised in
it know how to do, and put the proper amount of pressure
on, and my word for it you will render his wormship

58 TOBACCO.

harmless. Worming has to be continued until the tobacco
is cut ; the last worming to immediately precede cutting
and housing."

Schneider remarks that " from the first starting of the
tobacco plant, it has its enemies. First appears a cut-
worm that works in the soil and eats the roots off. Then
comes a little caterpillar which enjoys itself on the young
leaves, and lastly the beautiful and large tobacco-worm,
which eats into the leaf, and in a short time leaves
nothing but the leaf-stems and stalk. The only remedies
against these enemies are the vigilance and industry of
the planter — looking after them, digging up, picking, and
destroying once or twice a day, or as often as there are any
traces of them. Children, to whom premiums are offered,
will be very successful in destroying them. A herd of
turkeys, if given access to the tobacco-field, are a very
valuable help. A negro from South Carolina told me a
few days ago, that a solution of blue vitriol in water,
sprinkled over the plants, will kill the worms. The
remedy may be worth trying. Of course the solution
must be made weak enough, so that it will not destroy
the plants as well as the worms."

On the same subject, White recommends the planter
on the " next, or at farthest, the second morning after
having set your plants, go over to see that the worms do
not eat up one-half of them. You can tell where they are
and have been, by seeing a plant with a single leaf, and
sometimes the whole plant eaten off and drawn down into
the hole occupied by a large brown or black worm ; you
will see little ant-hills like, and round holes in the
ground ; by poking around a little in the dirt, you will

CULTIVATION. 59

find a worm very near the mouth of these little holes*
Destroy it, and all you can find, and thus save your crop.
This searching for worms must be kept up till they cease
to do mischief. All plants missing in the field should be
renewed from the bed at the first opportunity. The
morning is the best time to find the worms, as they are
near the surface of the ground ; later, they retire into the
ground to appear again near sundown, and work during
the night and' early morning."

Thomas describes tobacco worms as "hatched from
eggs deposited by what is called the • tobacco fly/ It is a
large, dusky-brown, winged miller, nearly as large as a
humming-bird. It lays its eggs on fair evenings and
moonlight nights in July and August. It can be seen
almost any clear evening, among what are called ' Jimson-
weeds,' sucking the flowers. The eggs will hatch out in
24 hours, and the worms commence eating when less than
J inch long, and continue to eat till they attain the length
of 4-5 inches. One worm, in 6 weeks, will destroy a
plant so completely as to render it utterly valueless. This
pest is .vastly more numerous in some seasons than in
others. Four years ago there were scarcely any ; but
for the last three years they have been destructively
numerous. The worming of the crop, when they are nu-
merous, is, by far, the most disagreeable and tedious labour
attending it. Much of the value of the crop depends
upon the care or inattention of performing this part
of the work. The crop may have been planted in good
time — ploughed, hoed, primed, suckered, topped, cut, and
cured well ; yet it may have been so riddled by worms
as to be comparatively good for nothing in market;

60 TOBACCO.

hence, they must be picked off and destroyed, and that
promptly."

Topping and Suckering. — The plants will commence to
flower about two months after planting, when 2-7 feet
high. When the flower-buds appear, they must be broken
off, and with them the top and bottom leaves. By
breaking off the flower-buds at an early date, the sap that
would be used in the formation of these organs flows to
the leaves, which thereby increase in size, and the outturn
becomes much heavier than when the plant is allowed to
flower. But it is generally admitted that the leaves lose
much in aroma. To what extent the early removal of the
flower-buds impairs the quality has not been properly
investigated. It is very probable that the greater yield
does not always compensate for the loss in quality. The
bottom leaves are generally of inferior quality, small, torn,
and dirty. The number of leaves to be left on the plant
varies greatly, according to species, quality of soil, and
method of cultivation. The minimum may be placed at
6, the maximum at 22. The only rule to be observed is
to retain as many leaves as the plants are able to mature.
Soon after the plants have been topped, suckers appear in
the axils of the leaves ; these should be broken off as soon
as they come, at least they should not be allowed to grow
longer than 4 inches. If the suckers are not removed soon
after their appearance, the size of the leaves will be
seriously impaired. After the plants are half-grown,
great care must be taken when going through the lines,
whether for the purposes of hoeing, watering, or suckering,
&c., not to tear the leaves. In India, hoeing and sucker-
ing should be performed only when the leaves have lost

CULTIVATION. 61

part of their turgescence, attained at night. Insects,
however, must be killed during the morning and evening ;
at other times, they are not easily found. Leaves which
are torn are not fit for cigar- wrappers, and must often be
thrown on the refuse heap as valueless, even if well deve-
loped and of good colour.

The plants commence to ripen about three months after
being planted ; this is indicated by the leaves assuming a
marbled appearance, and a yellowish-green colour. The
leaves also generally become gummy, and the tips bend
downwards. It is considered that tobacco intended for
snuff should have attained more maturity than tobacco for
smoking. Nessler found that the less ripe leaves contained
more carbonate of potash, and burnt consequently better,
than the more ripe ones, but the total amount of potash
was larger in the latter than in the former ; cigars made
from less ripe leaves kept the fire when lighted for a
shorter time than those made from more ripe leaves.

In the words of Judson Popenoe, the " tobacco is ready
to top when the button (as the blossom or top of the stalk
is called) has put out sufficiently to be taken hold of,
without injury to the top leaves. As tobacco is not
regular in coming into blossom, it is the usual practice to
let those stalks that blossom first, run a little beyond their
time of topping, and then top all that is in button as you
go. There is no particular height to top at, but as a
general thing 16 to 18 leaves are left; judgment is
necessary to determine where to top ; if topped too high,
2 or 3 of the top leaves are so small as not to amount to
much ; if topped low, the tobacco spreads better ; if just
coming out in top, reach down among the top leaves, and

62 TOBACCO.

with thumb and forefinger pinch the top or button off
below 2 or 3 leaves ; if well out in top, break off several
inches down from the button and 4 or 5 leaves below it.
As soon as the tobacco is topped, the suckers begin to grow ;
one shoots out from the stalk at the root of each leaf, on
the upper side. When the top suckers are 3-4 inches long,
the suckering should be done ; with the right hand take
hold of the top sucker, with the left take hold of the next,
close to the stalk, and break them off, and so proceed,
using both hands, stooping over the stalk, taking care not
to injure the leaf. Break the suckers about half-way
down the stalk, the balance being too short to need re-
moving until the second suckering. In about 2 weeks
from topping, the tobacco is ready to cut ; now give it the
last worming and suckering, breaking all suckers off down
to the ground, and remove every worm, if you don't want
your tobacco eaten in the sheds."

Another process, called " priming " by Schneider, is thus
described by him. " The object of priming is to break off
the leaves that come out too near the ground, which,
when large, lie flat on it, and therefore rot or get dirty.
This work should be done early, the sooner the better, so
that the plant does not lose much strength by their
growing. These leaves must not be torn off, especially not
downward, because the plant would be injured, and instead
of throwing the strength gained into the other leaves, it
would be thrown away to heal the wound. The distance
from the ground at which this priming should be done,
depends upon the variety grown and upon the time at
which the work is done : 4-6 inches is the right distance.
This priming is not done by every One. One farmer may

CULTIVATION. 63

practise it, while his neighbour does not ; but sorts the
lower leaves separately, and sells them as so-called ' lugs,'
for which he gets a little over half the price of the good
upper leaves. Those who do not prime, must generally
top lower, or they must risk that the whole plant, or at
least the upper leaves, will not mature fully.

" Topping is done to throw the strength, which would
go to develop seeds, into the leaves. It must, therefore,
be done as early as the seed-buds show themselves, if not
earlier. This work must be done, and the question is,
how to do it. If there are but few leaves on the plant,
even these will not ripen, if it is not topped ; if there are
many, then the grower has the choice either to break off
the flower-stalk only or to take off one or more leaves
also. This should be done in answer to the questions :
1st. Is there time enough to ripen even the upper leaves
fully? and, 2nd, Are the plant and the soil strong enough
to ripen all leaves, even the upper ones ? The answers to
these queries will decide the way of topping. If yes, he
takes off the flower-stalk only; if no, he tops to 8, 10, 12,
14, or 16 leaves, according tcf his judgment, that is, he
allows so many leaves to remain as will have a good fair
chance of reaching maturity."

As Bishop remarks, cultivators are not agreed on the
time and place for topping tobacco plants. " Some favour
the plan of topping as soon as the blossom-buds appear,
others prefer to wait until in blossom. I think there is
no harm in letting the earliest plants bloom before being
topped, but after once beginning, they should be broken
off as soon as the buds begin to look yellow, and the
latest plants as soon as the buds appear. A new beginner

64: TOBACCO.

will be apt to top the plants too high. The object is
to ripen and develop as many leaves as the plant can
support ; if topped too high, the top leaves are small, and
when cured are nearly worthless, and the other leaves
are not as large or heavy, whereas, if topped too low, then
you lose one, two, or three leaves, which the plant might
have supported. As a general rule, a plant just in
blossom should be topped down to where the leaves are
full 7 inches wide, leaving on the stalk from 15 to 18
leaves. This will leave the stalks about 2^ feet high in
good tobacco. Later in the season, top the plants sooner
and lower. Let as many of the earliest plants as will be
wanted remain for seed. One plant will furnish seed
enough to put out 5 acres, at least. These should be
wormed and suckered like the rest, only leaving the
suckers above where you would ordinarily break it off,
were you to top it. The piece should now be looked over
every other day, to break off the suckers and catch the
worms. This should be done as soon as the dew is off in
the morning, and towards night, as the worms are eating
then, and can be found more readily, while in the heat of
the day they remain hid. Great care should be taken not
to break off the leaves while going through it, as they are
nearly all wasted before the crop is ripe. As soon as the
top is broken off, the sap is thrown into the leaves, causing
them to expand rapidly. In the meantime suckers will
start out just above where each leaf joins the stalk ; these
must be broken off, or the growth of the leaf will be
checked, as the sap will be thrown into these young
sprouts. Those nearest the top will start soonest, and

CULTIVATION. 65

will require breaking off twice "before the plant is ripe ;
those at the bottom must all be broken off. This is
the hardest and slowest work of all. Not only will these
suckers check the growth of the plants, but if allowed to
grow will soon break or pry off the leaves, or cause
them to grow out at right angles from the stalk, rendering
them more liable to be broken off. It is a good plan to
have a piece of corn on the north side of a piece of
tobacco, or, at least, two or three rows, to shield the
growing plants from winds."

Priming is defined by Thomas as "pulling off the
bottom leaves to the number of 4 or 5," and he says that
any plant large enough to be topped ought to be primed
first. All conditions being favourable, he considers that
in Ohio, a " tobacco plant will ripen in as many weeks,
from the time of topping it, as there are leaves left on the
stalk. Consequently, if the topping is done early, it can
be topped high, if later, it must be done lower, and if still
later, still lower. Planters differ very much at this point.
Some will top as high as 16 leaves, others 10, and a great
many at 8 My own opinion is, that a plant topped at
10 will weigh as much as one at 16, topped at the same
time, and on the same kind of land. About a week after
a plant has been topped the suckers will begin to grow.
A sucker is only an auxiliary branch which shoots out at
the junction of the leaves to the stalk. If not removed,
they will grow, and bloom, and ripen seed, and in doing
so they will * suck ' the parent-stem of much of its
vitality. When the crop of suckers are about 1 inch long
they can be pulled or rubbed off, and it should surely be

F

66 TOBACCO.

done. In about a week or 10 days a second crop of them
will appear. These must also be promptly removed, and
then the third crop will show itself, which must be
similarly treated. The longer they are permitted to
remain on the plant, the more they retard its develop-
ment, and delay its maturity."

( 67 )

CHAPTER III.

CURING.

GROWING tobacco is only half the battle. Having raised
a crop to a state of perfection, the next object is to cure it
for the market. This branch of the business demands
fully as much care and skill as the purely agricultural
part preceding it, and is perhaps equally influenced by
the weather. The best crop ever grown may be com-
pletely spoiled by injudicious conduct during the dry-
ing, &c., while a growth of moderate quality may be
made the most of by extra care and trouble.

Harvesting. — The leaf being matured, it should be
harvested only after the dew is off the plants, and not
on a rainy day. There are two modes of harvesting —
gathering the leaves singly, and cutting down the whole
plant. Gathering single leaves admits of removing them
from the plant as they ripen ; the bottom leaves are
removed first, and the top ones are left some time longer,
until they have attained full maturity. The cultivator
is thereby enabled to gather his crop when it possesses
the greatest value. This plan necessitates, however, a
great amount of labour, and, in a hot climate, the single
leaves are apt to dry so rapidly as not to attain a proper
colour, unless stacked early in heaps. But stacking in
heaps involves great risk of the leaves heating too much,
and developing a bad flavour, whereby the tobacco loses
more or less in value. For Indian circumstances generally,

r 2

68 TOBACCO.

cutting the whole plants is "better than gathering the
leaves singly.

For cutting down the plants, a long knife or chopper
is used. A man takes the plant with his left hand about
9 inches from the ground, and with the knife in his right
hand, cuts through the stem of the plant just above the
ground. If the plants are sufficiently " wilted," he may
lay them on the ground and proceed to cut down others ;
if, however, they are so brittle as to cause the leaves to
be injured by laying them down, he should give them
to another person, to carry them at once under shade.
During bright weather, the plants should not be allowed
to lie exposed to the sun on the ground, or they will
become sun-burnt, and lose in value. A temporary shed
should be erected ; it might be simply a light roof ot
palm-leaves or thatched straw, supported by poles ; a
large tree standing near will also serve the purpose.
Under this shade, parallel rows of posts are put up, and
on the posts, light poles or strong bamboos are fixed
horizontally. The parallel lines should be about 4J feet
apart and the horizontal poles about 4-5 feet from the
ground, according to the height of the tobacco plants.
Rods are cut in lengths of 5 feet, and laid over the parallel
bars, so that they will project about 3 inches at each end.
A very light and convenient shelter sometimes used for
sun-drying in America, consists of rods laid crosswise,
supported on four upright poles, and covered with a
sloping roof of boards. The plants that have been cut
are immediately brought into the shade, tied in pairs, and
hung across the rods. They must not be hung so close
as to press each other, and the rods should therefore be

CUEING. 69

6-12 inches apart. The framework should be so large as to
allow of one day's cutting being hung. The plants are
left thus for one day, during which time they will be
wilted sufficiently to allow handling without tearing the
leaves. In a very dry wind, mats or other cover should
be laid against the plants most exposed to it, or their
leaves will dry rapidly, shrivel up, and remain green.
Next day the leaves are carted to the drying-shed. A
cart supplied with a framework, in order that the plants
may be hung as they were hung under the shade, is the
best means. Perpendicular uprights at each corner of a
cart or waggon are fixed together by horizontal poles.
The plants may be hung so close as not to press heavily
on each other, 200-400 being brought to the shed at one
time.

As a general rule, Judson Popenoe thinks " tobacco
should be cut in about 2 weeks from topping, at which
time the leaves assume a spotted appearance and appear to
have fulled up thicker ; double up the leaf and press it
together with thumb and finger, and, if ready to cut, the
leaf where pressed will break crisp and short. Do not
let your tobacco get over-ripe, or it will cure up yellow
and spotted : it is better to cut too soon than too late.
Take a hatchet or short corn-knife, grasp the stalk with
the left hand, bend it well to the left, so as to expose
the lower part of the stalk, strike with the knife just at
the surface of the ground, let the stalk drop over on the
ground without doubling the leaves under, and leave it
to wilt. The usual practice is to worm and sucker while
the dew is on in the morning, and as soon as the dew
is off to commence cutting. There are some who advocate

70 TOBACCO.

cutting in the afternoon, Bay 3 o'clock ; let it wilt and
lie out until the dew is off next day, and take it in before
the sun gets hot enough to burn it. I prefer the first
plan, because a heavy dew may fall on the tobacco, and
next day be cloudy, leaving the tobacco wet and un-
pleasant to handle. After cutting, allow the tobacco to
wilt long enough to make the leaves tough, so that they
can be handled without tearing. Great care is now
necessary to keep the tobacco from sun-burning ; cutting
should be commenced as soon as the dew is off, and all
that is cut should be housed by 11 o'clock, unless it is
cloudy; from 11 to 2 o'clock the direct rays of the sun
on the tobacco, after it is cut, will burn the leaves in
20 minutes ; after 2 p. M., as a general thing, there is no
danger of such burning, the sun's rays not striking direct
on the tobacco. Have a waggon at hand, with stiff boards,
12 feet long, laid on the running gears; as soon as the
tobacco is wilted so that it can be handled without
breaking, commence loading on both sides of the waggon
on the front end, lapping the tobacco the same as loading
fodder, keeping the butts out on both sides — build about
2 feet high, and so on until loaded."

Any one accustomed to the cultivation of the crop, says
Bishop, " knows when it is ripe, — the veins of the leaves
are swollen, the leaves begin to look spotted and feel
thick and gummy. The ends of the leaves will crack on
being doubled up. After it is ripe, the sooner it is cut
the better, as it is liable to injury by frost or hail, and
will not increase in weight as fast as the worms eat it,
and the leaves get broken by catching them. The plants
will generally ripen from the 1st to the 15th of Sep-

CUEING. 71

tember; they should not be cut immediately after a
heavy rain unless in danger of frost, as a portion of the
gum washes out, but should be allowed to stand 2-3 days.
The cutting should not begin until the dew is off; a
cloudy day is best, for when the sun shines hot, they
will not have time to wilt sufficiently before they will
sunburn, which may be known by the leaves turning
white and looking puckered. Commence on one side
of the piece, laying the plants all one way, in order to
facilitate loading. The plants may, most of them, be
broken off easily, by gently bending them over one way
and another. Small plants, which will not break, may
be sawed off with an old saw or cut with a hatchet. If
the sun shines too hot, the plants should be turned over
carefully to prevent burning. After lying an hour or
two to wilt sufficiently, so as not to break by handling,
they may be carted to the barn."

In the words of Schneider, " when the plant begins to
yellow, it is time to put it away. It is cut off close to
the ground, by turning up the bottom leaves and striking
with a tobacco-knife, formed of an old scythe — such knives
as are often used for cutting corn. Let it lie on the
ground for a short time to wilt, and then carry it to the
tobacco-house, when it may be put away in three dif-
ferent modes, by * pegging,' 'spearing,' and 'splitting.'
Pegging tobacco is the neatest way and best, yet the
slowest. It is done by driving pegs about 6 inches long
and \ inch or less square into the stalk, about 4 inches
from the big end of the stalk ; and these pegs are driven in
with a mallet, in a slanting direction, so as to hook on
to the sticks in the house. It is then put on to a ' horse,'

72 TOBACCO.

which, by a rope fixed to one corner, is pulled up in the
house and there hung upon the sticks, which are regulated
at proper distances. A ' tobacco-horse ' is nothing more
than three small sticks nailed together so as to form a
triangle, each side being 3-4 feet long. Spearing is the
plan I pursue ; because it is neat enough and decidedly
the quickest plao. A rough block, with a hole mortised
in it, and a little fork a few inches from the hole for the
tobacco-stick to rest upon, one end being in the hole and
a spear on the other end of the stick, is all the apparatus
required ; the plant is then, with both hands, run over
the spear and thus strung upon the sticks, which, when
full, are taken to the house and hung up at once. There
are 'dart-spears,' like the Indian dart, and 'round
spears.' Either will do. ' Splitting ' tobacco is admired
by many, who contend that it cures brighter, quicker, and
is less likely to 'house-burn' or injure from too thick
hanging. This mode is pursued easily by simply splitting,
with a knife made for the purpose, the plant from the top
to within a few inches of the bottom, before it is cut
down for housing."

Another planter observes that " when a plant begins to
ripen, it will gradually assume a ' piebald ' or spotted
appearance. As the ripening advances, the spots will
become more distinct and individualized. When the
spots can be distinguished at the distance of 10 steps,
and the leaves of the plant turn down, become stiff to the
touch, and their ends curl under, the plant is ripe, and
should be cut. From the moment it has arrived at
maturity, it begins to decay. Remember that all the
plants in your crop are to be hung after they are cut —

CURING. 73

hung on something, and by something. Prepare a knife —
a butcher-knife answers well — have it sharp — enter it at
the top of the plant, where the top was broken off.
Enter it centrally ; press it downwards, dividing the
stalk into two equal portions. Continue it downwards
till within 5 inches of the ground. Withdraw the knife,
and cut off the stalk close to the ground. The plant is
now cut. Lay it on the ground with the lower end
towards the sun. The plants should be placed in rows as
they are cut, in order to facilitate the labour of gathering
them. There is one caution to be heeded in cutting
tobacco, and that is, do not let it be burnt or blistered by
the heat of the sun. In some varieties of tobacco this
will be effected in one hour; in others, not so soon.
But this danger can be evaded in two ways : first, by
cutting late in the evening; second, by throwing it in
the shade, or covering it so as to weaken the power of the
sun. Some varieties of tobacco will wilt (that is, become
soft or limber) in 2 hours; others, in a longer time,
according to the degree of sun-heat."

Bishop tells us that when " the plant begins to yellow
or turn spotted, it is time to put it away. It is cut off
close to the ground, turning up the leaves, and cutting
off close to the roots, by a single stroke of a hatchet, or
tobacco-knife, made of an old scythe, such as are used in
cutting up corn. After cutting, let it lie on the ground
a short time to wilt, when it may be handled without
danger of tearing the leaves ; it is then to be taken to the
house to be ' hung.' "

The condition of the leaf, according to Pursley, may be
judged in the following manner : — " When the tobacco is

74 TOBACCO.

ripe, it has a yellow faded colour, and becomes brittle ;
the surface of the leaf is rough and ridged. By bending
the leaf short between the fingers, it will break before it
will double. The sticks to hang it on should be in readi-
ness. The best mode of hanging or stringing is with a
V-shaped spear, made of iron or steel. The spear has a
socket, large to admit the end of the stick. The sticks
should be sharpened at one end, to fit the socket ; should
be 4 feet 6 inches in length, 2 inches wide, and 1 inch
thick. A stick of these dimensions will hold 8 plants.
The tobacco should be cut off just below the bottom leaf,
then turn the plant upside down, and let it remain so till
the sun wilts it. When it is wilted it can be handled
without breaking ; then it should be taken up and laid in
piles of 8 stalks each, placing the butts of the stalks
towards the sun, to prevent it from sun-burning. When
it is sun-burnt it turns black, and it cannot be cured any
other colour than black, which ruins its sale. The sticks
should be strewed along, one stick to a pile ; place the
spear on the end of the stick, and set the stick upright ;
then take up the tobacco, one stalk at a time, and thrust
it on the stick, letting the spear pass through the stalk,
about 6 inches from the butt end ; then take the spear off
and take up the stick, and shake the tobacco out straight,
and set the stick up with the butts towards the sun."

Some tobacco-growers, remarks Pursley, "prefer split-
ting the stalk from the top down to within about 6 inches
of the butt, then hang it on the sticks. But I cannot
agree with them, for it is more difficult to handle, and is
apt to slip off the stick, when moving it; besides, the
tobacco cured in this manner is not so heavy as if it was

CUBING. 75

speared. It dries out quicker by being split, but the
substance evaporates instead of remaining in the leaf. I
am not certain that it injures the taste of the tobacco, but
I am certain that split tobacco is lighter than that which
is speared. Some prefer hanging the tobacco on scaffolds
in the field until it is ready to be put in the barn and
cured by fire. But it is the safest to house it as soon as
it is strung on the sticks. Scaffolding is done by placing
poles on forks, about 4 feet apart, and 4-5 feet from the
ground ; then hang the tobacco between the poles, letting
the ends of the sticks rest on the poles. This procedure
is unsafe, for the rain may come and saturate the tobacco
and wash off the gum, thus making it light and chaffy."

The maturity of tobacco is defined by Schneider as
when the leaves, which have hitherto been green, on
holding them " against the sun, show yellowish, reddish,
or brownish spots, feel sticky, and when bent break off
short and clean. Before this period sets in, the drying-
house should be in good order. This house is built to give
room for the free hanging up of the tobacco, so that it is
protected from the sun, wind, and rain, and is allowed to
dry by the free circulation of the air. Any building,
therefore, will answer which has a good roof, boarded
sides, and enough windows and air-holes (which can be
closed at will) to keep up a mild circulation of air inside,
and also to keep out strong and too quick drying winds.
If the tobacco is grown on a large scale, the house should
have large doorways to drive a waggon in and out. There
must be sticks all over the house, either cross or length-
wise, and these sticks must be ready and in their places.
Now the work of harvesting the crop is commenced on a

76 TOBACCO.

clear or cloudy but not rainy day. The mature plants
(those not ripe are left longer on the field if not too late
in the season) are cut off near the ground, two of them
tied together by the butt-ends and hung up in the field on
riders, which rest on two forks fastened in the ground,
and they are left there until evening to wilt ; then they
are brought to the drying-house and hung up. The
tobacco is hung up on the upper sticks first, and the work
continued downward; care is taken that the sticks are
6-8 inches apart, also that the plants are not too near
together on the sticks, because the air should have free
passage among the plants, and when they touch or rub
against each other, unsightly spots are produced. The
sticks must be pretty wide, so that the two plants which
are tied together, and one of which hangs on each side,
are held well apart. Later, when the tobacco has dried
off somewhat, the sticks and plants may be moved a little
nearer to each other ; but the plants on the upper sticks
must not touch those on the lower ; they should be so
arranged that one lower stick is just in the middle of the
space between two upper ones."

Another method of harvesting is recommended by
Schneider for those " who cultivate tobacco on a small
scale, or who have hands and time enough. As all the
leaves on the plant do not ripen at the same time, but the
under leaves are always a little earlier than the upper
ones, they may gather the crop in the leaf, that is, taking
only the matured leaves from the stalk; this must be
done daily, and so long as there are leaves on the stalk.
In this way the crop will be harvested slower, and it will
cost more, but the tobacco will be of more even quality

CUEING. 77

and better. The leaves are strung on strings instead of
being hung up on sticks, with the same care and precau-
tions as recommended for hanging up the whole plants.
After the leaves are off, the stalks must be cut off or
pulled up, for they would still vegetate, and needlessly
take away nourishment from the soil. No more tobacco,
leaves or plants should be cut than can be taken to the
drying-house and hung up the same day."

Perry Hull's instructions commence with a caution that
the plant should never be cut while the dew is on the
leaves ; " but wait until it is off, say 10 o'clock, and what
tobacco is cut from that time until 2 o'clock, if the day is
hot, will need close attention. In short, the whole opera-
tion, from cutting in the field, to the hanging upon the
poles in the barn, needs care, as a little carelessness or
inattention will damage many dollars' worth. No hand
should be allowed to handle it, who is unwilling to use
care, and perform every operation just as directed, or else
by breaking of leaves, or sticking fingers through them,
&c., he may do more damage than his wages amount to.
The plant to be cut should be taken by the left hand, not
carelessly by the leaves, but carefully by the stalk, and as
carefully leaned over, to give a chance to use the axe,
which should have a handle about one foot long. Cut the
plant with one blow, laying it carefully down, with the
top to the sun ; if it is laid otherwise, the leaf will burn
before the main stalk of the leaf will wilt sufficiently to
admit of handling. Even in that position, it may burn
unless attended to, but not as soon. After lying until
pretty well wilted, and before burning, turn it over and
wilt the other side. When so wilted that the main stem

78

TOBACCO.

has lost most of its brittleness, load as explained above ;
taking hold of the butt of the stalk, lay them carefully
upon the arm, and again as carefully upon the load. If
the day be very hot, use expedition in getting to the shed,
else, if the distance be great, the load may heat, which
will spoil the leaves for anything but fillers."

When the plants are carried into the shed, "if quite
warm, they should be left only one plant deep upon the
floor and scaffolds. If the day be cool, and they are to be
hung up soon, they may lie much thicker. They should
never be hung upon a pole less than 5 inches in width.
If sawed pieces are used, saw them just that ; if poles are
nsed, see that they are about that; for if anything of
less width is used, the plants will hang so close, that the
chances of * pole-burn ' are greatly increased. They are
fastened to the pole by a half hitch. (Their position is re-
presented by Fig. 9 on p. 95.) It requires two hands to hang
them, one to hand them, another to tie them. The poles
should be about 18 inches apart, and the number hung upon
a 12-foot pole will depend upon the size, from 24 to 30, so
regulating them, that when thoroughly wilted, they will
scarcely touch each other. If hung thicker than this, a
little unfavourable weather will cause more or less pole-
burn, sweat and mould. After the tobacco is hung, the
building should be so thoroughly ventilated that there
will be a circulation of air through every part. The
ventilators should be kept open during all fair weather,
until well cured down. During storms, shut the doors
and exclude as much wet as possible ; being cautious to
give it a thorough ventilation again, as soon as the rain
ceases. When it is cured enough to be husky in dry

CURING. 79

weather, exclude all hard winds, that will crack and
damage the leaves. When the leaves are so much cured,
that there is nothing about them green but the stem, a
moderate quantity of wet weather will not injure it, but
rather improve the colour ; as the sap of the stalk works
through the stems into the leaves, during moist weather
until the stalk has been well frozen ; after this takes place,
the tobacco should be picked."

White estimates that in l ' the course of 2 or 3 weeks after
topping, the plants will begin to ripen, which may be
known by the change in colour of the leaf. It will look
spotted with spots of lighter green, a yellowish green.
When fully ripe the leaf may be folded together, and
moderately pressed without breaking or cracking. Now
is the time to begin to harvest it. All this is supposed to
take place before there is any appearance of frost, as a
very light frost often does great damage. All touched by
it is ruined, and good for nothing. The crop must be cut
and hung, even if not fully ripe, before any frosts occur.
If there are strong appearances of a frost, you can secure
the crop by cutting it down, and putting it either under
your sheds, or by putting it in piles, not over 1 foot deep,
in the field, and covering with straw. It is well to let it
stand, if not fully ripe, as long as it can safely, for the
cool nights have a tendency to thicken up the leaves.
The cutting is best performed with a hay-knife, with a
sharp, rounding point, in the following way : stand at the
right-hand side of the plant or row ; with the left hand
grasp the stalk down 2 or 3 leaves from the top and lean
it back on the row ; now, with the point of your cutter
held in the right hand 2-3 inches from the stalk, close to

80 TOBACCO.

the root under the bottom leaf, with a sudden stroke or
dab, sever the same from the root ; lay it gently down
back in a line with the row. Proceed in like manner to
cut what you can take care of, and not get injured by sun-
burn. Have two rows of butts together, lying the same
way for after-convenience. This cutting is done after the
dew is off in the morning, or in the afternoon. Let it
remain until the top side is somewhat wilted ; then com-
mence to turn it over. Step between the two rows with
the butts lying toward you, and with each hand take a
plant on either side ; raise them from the ground, and by
twisting the hands in or out, turn the plants, laying them
either to the right or left, as most convenient, at right
angles to their former position. Go through with the 2
rows, and you have the next 2 with the butts the other
way ; take these and lay the tips directly opposite those
first turned, and you have an alley, with the butts of the
plants of two rows on either side, which will be convenient
to drive in to load. "When wilted sufficient to be handled
without breaking, if in the forenoon, you can load it from
the rows as they lie ; if in the afternoon, it is best to put
in hakes, which is done by putting five plants at the
bottom, and on these four, decreasing one on each layer,
and terminating with one on the top ; this will protect it
from dew and wet. The best cart for hauling the tobacco
is a one-horse waggon, geared long, with merely a platform
resting on the axles. Such a cart can be driven between
the rows and loaded from either side, having the butts of
the plants uniformly one way, and laid ciosswise on the
platform. Great care should be used, in all the handling,
not to bruise, break, or tear the leaves. Having cut all,

CURING. 81

excepting your seed-plants, strip all the leaves from these,
and set a stake to each to tie it up to ; let the stake be a
foot taller than the plant ; it will answer to keep a piece
of old carpet from breaking down the stalk when you wish
to cover it up on cold nights. Let the seed-plants stand
till the pods or bolls are cured to a brown, and the seed is
ripe ; then cut off the top of the seed-stalk, and hang it
up in some dry and safe place, where it will be ready to
shell and use the next season ; only the ripest and best
pods should be used."

Libhart alludes to the existence of several ways of
hanging cut tobacco plants, but specifies the two following
as the best and shortest : " first, splitting and hanging it
upon laths or poles and leaving it to partially cure in the
field ; secondly, nailing it to rails with lathing-nails, at
once in the shed. The former method, for high northern
latitudes, is by far the best, as it will cure in a much
shorter time (and thus prevent the destruction of the crop
by freezing in the shed), by the drying of the pith of the
stalk, which is the main reservoir of moisture. It is per-
formed as follows : — Have a chisel about 1 foot long and 3
inches broad, the sharp end not bevelled on one side, but
coming to an edge by a gradual taper on both sides (a
common tenon-saw will do pretty well) ; place the edge
of the chisel in the centre of the stalk upon the end where
it has been topped, and push it down, guiding it in its
course so as not to break or cut off any leaves, to within
3-4 inches of the ground ; the stalk may then be cut off
with a hatchet, or with the chisel if it be made pretty
strong. The splitting may be done in the morning when
the leaves are too brittle to admit of the stalk being cut

G

82 TOBACCO.

down, and then when the sun has sufficiently wilted the
leaves, the stalk may be cut and left to lie until it will
bear handling without breaking the leaves. The lath
being previously prepared, 4 feet in length and about 1
inch in thickness on one edge, and J inch on the other,
and 2 inches broad (or poles cut in the forest will answer
pretty well) ; then have trestles prepared high enough to
allow the stalks to hang suspended without touching the
ground, and set far enough apart in the field to admit of
the lath reaching from one to another; now place the
stalks of tobacco upon the lath (previously laid across the
trestles), by slipping them over and down until they will
hang perpendicular and 6-8 inches apart, so they will
merely touch, without crowding too much. It may be
left hanging thus exposed to the weather until the leaves
are so wilted that the stalks hang apart without touching,
and the lower leaves begin to dry, when it is taken off the
trestles, each lath entire, and laid upon a waggon and
hauled to the drying-shed."

Before the tobacco is ready for harvesting, Hudson
suggests the preparation of " a supply of sticks for hang-
ing. Sticks 4 feet long and 1 inch square are most con-
venient ; 12 sticks to every 100 plants will be sufficient.
For sun-curing, there should be a shed built at one or
more convenient points of the patch. This may be done
by placing posts in the ground to support the poles, as
represented in Fig. 8. The poles a being for the support
of the smaller poles c, upon which the tobacco-sticks are
placed, and b for the cover, when necessary that it should
be shedded."

Mitjen's translator gives the following account of the

CURING.

83

Cuban practice. " Tobacco should be cut during the
wane of the moon ; and although most vegueros say that it
is impossible to do this, because the leaves commence to
ripen both during the new and the full moon, and would
be over-ripe before its wane, we can, nevertheless, assert
that we know persons who never cut their tobacco during
the first quarter, or when rain has made it again green.
These persons have never experienced any difficulty;
rather, on the contrary, they are those who always obtain

FIG. 8.

the best prices and the greatest money results. Cutting
tobacco during the first quarter of the moon, or when
vegetation is renewed in the leaf, is one of the principal
reasons why the leaf becomes pricked with holes, and this
very frequently even before it is taken from the plantation
to the market. The system generally observed is, in
cutting tobacco, to take off, at once, all those parts of the
plants which may be really or apparently ripe, and to
load up the poles indiscriminately, without any division
between the pairs of leaves (mancuernas). This system is

G 2

84 TOBACCO.

highly prejudicial. The leaves of the same plant are not
all of the same quality, neither do they all at the same
time acquire the same degree of ripeness. Those of the
crown, or the pairs at the top of the plant, immediately
next the flower or seed, receive the sun direct on their
upper surface, and are the first to ripen, whereas the
lower ones, being shaded by the upper ones, remain still
in an unripe state ; moreover, the lower leaves at the foot
of the plant, and even those of the fifth or fourth pairs
(mancuernas), compared with those of the first, second,
and third pairs, are inferior in quality, and, comparatively
speaking, may be termed leaves without substance. The
contact of these leaves with the upper ones frequently
occasions putrid fermentation on the poles (cujes) and
in the packs (this is vulgarly called sdhorno\ especially if
there is much dampness in the atmosphere. When this
misfortune happens in a tobacco curing-house all the weak
leaves will be lost, and the strong ones will be so injured
that the best quality of capa would turn to tripa, and that
of bad consistency.

" The cause of this destruction, from which the veguero
suffers more or less in the best of crops, may be easily
explained. The curing of tobacco is nothing more than a
series of fermentations. It ferments on the poles (cujes),
ferments in the heaps (pilon), and ferments in the bales.
All these fermentations are requisite for obtaining a good
colour and smell, but it is better that each quality or con-
sistency of tobacco should ferment apart. Tobacco of
good strong quality, which is that produced by the upper
leaves, naturally suffers a much stronger fermentation
than the weak ones, because the former contain a larger

CUEING. 85

proportion of juice ; as the lower leaves have less sub-
stance, the fermentation is naturally weaker and lasts less
time ; but if the leaves are put in contact with those of a
stronger quality, the fermentation would be kept up by
the latter, and it would indispensably result that the
weak ones would rot, and their contact be injurious to the
stronger ones. But by separating, in the field, the leaves
of different consistencies which each tobacco stalk pro-
duces, this evil is avoided, and the dry rot is rendered
impossible, unless no care whatsoever is given in the
curing-house. Therefore, the mode of reaping should
be reformed. It is best to cut the tobacco when it is
thoroughly ripe, and in the wane of the moon, making
this operation in three sections or cuts, each of which
should always be placed on separate poles, in separate
rooms, heaps, and carefully picked.

" The first cut should consist only of the pair of crown
leaves, and for the poles which they are hung on, a special
corner in the curing-house should be set apart. After the
first cutting, and 3 or 4 days of sun, the second and third
pairs of leaves will be ripe, and may be cut at one and
the same time, care being taken to place them on separate
poles and rooms ; and, lastly, 3 or 4 days after the second
cutting, the remainder of the leaves may be gathered,
but the last leaf near the ground should not be taken, as
it has no consistency, and therefore no value as tobacco,
and only serves to increase the work and give discredit to
the class of tobacco.

" Tobacco should be cut during the hottest part of the
day ; each pair of leaves should be placed on the ground
face downwards, so that the sun may strike on the under

00 TOBACCO.

part of the leaf, and in this state it should be allowed to
remain a sufficient length of time to wither, after which
the pairs of leaves (mancuernas) should be picked up one
by one, placed evenly on the arm, with the upper side of
the leaf inwards, and each armful should be carried to and
placed on the poles (cujes), which should be prepared
beforehand near the spot where the tobacco is being cut.
Two forked sticks should be placed strongly in the
ground, and on these the pole should rest. After the
tobacco leaves have been placed carefully on these poles
and been allowed to wither, they should be carried to the
curing-house before the sun has time to dry them. This
operation must be performed by two labourers, who can
carry each time two poles, placing the end of each on
either shoulder, so that, in walking, the leaves on one
pole may not cut against those on the other. These poles
of leaves, when brought to the curing-house, should be
fixed or hung by the points on the lowest stages, but so
high that the points of the leaves do not touch the
ground, and sufficiently apart one from the other that the
leaves may not touch, because, being brought in from the
field warmed by the sun, it is not judicious to allow them
to touch. When the sun is not sufficiently strong to
wither the cut leaves, reaping should not be continued.
The tobacco should be so arranged on the poles that the
pieces of stalk should gently touch one with the other,
but without crowding." However, if the weather should
be damp, and the leaves large, space should be left
between the pairs.

Drying. — The drying-shed is prepared beforehand to
receive the tobacco. When cultivating tobacco on a small

CUEING. 87

scale, any shed will do, provided that it contains a suffi-
cient number of doors and windows to admit of regulating
the circulation of air. A roof made of straw seems to
answer very well. The shed should be high enough to
admit of hanging 3 rows of tobacco in it, one above the
other. The bottom tier for the first row should be about
3-5 feet from the ground, according to the size of the
plants, which should not touch the ground ; the second tier
should be 3-5 feet higher than the first ; the third, 3-5
feet higher than the second ; the whole being 10-17 feet
high from the bottom of the shed to the highest tier. The
tiers must be so arranged that the tobacco when hung on
the upper tier should not touch that of the lower one, and
that the rods on which the tobacco has been hung in the
field fit exactly. The windows must face each other, and
be placed between the tiers, so that the bottom part of the
window is on the same level as the tier. When cultivating
on a large scale, the same arrangements are made, but the
building is higher, and is provided with a cellar, in which
to place the tobacco for the purpose of stripping, &c.

The drying-shed being ready, the plants immediately
on arrival at the shed are transferred from the conveyance,
on the rods, to the lowest tier. No rule can be given
as to the distance the rods should be placed from each
other, as it varies according to the species of the plant, the
degree of ripeness, and especially the state of the weather.
The purpose of hanging the plant here on the lower tier
is to cause the leaves to dry gradually, and assume a good
yellow colour, and to create a slight fermentation in them,
while allowing such a circulation of air between the plants
as will facilitate the gradual escape of the moisture from

88 TOBACCO.

them, and prevent the injurious development of ammonia
and other combinations that give rise to bad flavour in
the tobacco. How to attain this, exercises the judgment
of the cultivator, who, by frequent examination of the
plants, and by careful observation of the changes going on
in the leaves, will soon find out the right way.

The rods should be placed closer together— (a) when the
plants are much wilted on reaching the shed ; (6) when
the air is very dry, and the temperature is high ; (c) when
the leaves of the plant are very thin and contain little
water. Plants which have the leaves closely arranged on
the stems must be hung farther apart. When the air is
very dry, and there is a strong breeze, the windows must
be closed. If this is not sufficient, water may be poured
on some heaps of sand, to create a moist atmosphere in the
shed. When the stems of the plant are very thick, and
consequently contain much sap, it is beneficial to open the
windows, especially at morning and evening, for some
hours, that the wind may pass over the butt-ends. As the
windows are situated above the lowest tier, the leaves will
not be much affected by it.

The leaves must be examined carefully every day ; one
plant may progress very well, whereas another close by
may decompose too rapidly, and another too slowly.
Although no change of weather occur, it may yet be
necessary to alter the position of the rods, in order that
each plant and leaf may receive air in such a degree as is
most conducive to its proper decomposition. Any change
in the weather necessitates different arrangements. The
plant should remain on the lower tier until the leaves
have turned yellow, which will take place within 6-10

CUEING. 89

days, according to circumstances ; after this, they are hung
on the upper tiers. There they should be more apart,
each plant hanging free. When on the upper tiers, the
tobacco may be said to be in the free-hang ; and when on
the lowest tier, in the close-hang. The object in hanging
the plants more apart on the upper tier is to dry them
more rapidly there, and for this purpose, the shutters may
be opened, unless there be a strong dry wind. The light-
yellow colour of the leaves should change into a dark
yellow-golden or light-brown colour. After hanging on
the upper tier for about a week, the veins of the leaves
will be nearly dry, leaving only the midribs pliant. The
drying of the leaf and the changing of its colour proceed
gradually, commencing from the margin and proceeding to
the midrib. At this time, the plants are hung closer
together, the evaporation from the leaves being little, and
the space and sticks being required. The plants hanging
on two or three sticks may be hung on one stick. All the
windows may be kept open from this time ; the tobacco
may also be brought into an open shed, or even hung
outside exposed to the sun. In about a week more, the
midribs will be entirely dried up, and the tobacco will be
fit for stripping. In some climates, it may be necessary to
facilitate the drying by the aid of artificial heat. For this
purpose, heated air should be conducted into the drying-
shed, without the fire, or the products of combustion,
being admitted.

Pursley warns tobacco growers that the plant should not
be exposed to the weather after it is cut, but should " be
immediately conveyed to the barn and hung up. As soon
as it gets about half yellowed, a slow fire should be started

90 TOBACCO.

under it ; if made too hot at first, the tobacco will turn
black. About the second day the ends of the leaves will
begin to curl up; then the fire should be gradually
increased, till it heats the tobacco blood warm ; it should
be kept up so till the leaf is thoroughly cured. If this
rule be strictly adhered to, the tobacco will be cured
bright. The brighter it is cured the better it sells.

"Our barns are generally built of logs, some have
frames. The barn should be made tight up to the tobacco,
which should hang about 8 feet from the ground ; above
this leave cracks or air-holes, sufficient for free ventila-
tion. A barn to hold 2J acres of tobacco, which is as
much as one man can attend to, should be 24 feet square.
It should have 5 tiers of poles, the lowest about 6 feet
from the ground ; these should extend across the barn, and
be fastened at each end into the walls. The poles should
be 4 feet apart, and the tiers directly one above another.
The sticks which contain the tobacco should be placed
within 8 inches of each other, on all the poles except the
bottom ones, which should be left vacant directly over the
fire. When tobacco is nearly cured, it very readily catches
fire. If there be a wet spell of weather before the stalks
are thoroughly dry, build a fire under the tobacco suffi-
ciently hot to keep it dry. It should not get damp and
pliant until the stalks are dry, then it may be allowed to
get damp."

Libhart recommends that the shed " be constructed of
timbers strong enough to resist storms, and boarded ' up
and down.' About every 3 feet one board should be
hinged, to readily open and shut. If it is intended to
split and lath the tobacco, the inside of the shed must be

CURING. 91

divided by rails into widths to accommodate the lath, and
likewise into tiers, one above the other, far enough apart
to allow the stalks to hang from, well separate. The frame
of rails and timbers inside the shed destined to sustain the
weight of the tiers of tobacco (which, when green, is
exceedingly heavy) should be strongly constructed, so as
to preclude the possibility of breaking down, for if this
should happen to the upper tier, in all probability the
whole would be tumbled to the ground."

The housing of the crop proceeds, says Dennis, " as
fast as it is cured up on the scaffold, or as the indications
of rain make it necessary, care being taken not to bruise
or tear it in hauling. The sticks of tobacco may be piled
upon the waggon or cart, and hauled to the barn and
hung up, commencing in the highest part of the building,
and filling up as you go downwards. If the leaves are
pretty well cured, you may hang it so as to touch, without
crowding it ; if not, there should be a little space between.
If a cold, rainy spell comes on, you will need to introduce
some means of artificial drying. A trench is sometimes
dug, and a log or two of wood placed in it, and a fire
made, taking care to remove the tobacco immediately
over the fire, and avoiding much blaze. This is dangerous,
and a better plan is to make a trench across the floor of
the barn, of mason- work, covered with sheet-iron, and
leading from a furnace outside the house on one side, to
a chimney at a safe distance on the other. The colour
and quality of tobacco may be improved by hanging it
closely and curing by artificial heat, watching that it
does not become * funked,' or moulded, while curing ; but
the best plan for a beginner is to dry it safely, and make

92 TOBACCO.

a sure crop, experimenting as he goes along, in order to
improve the quality, as he may safely do so. When the
stalk becomes dry and entirely cured, which will not
usually be for some weeks, the crop is ready to ' strip.'
The hanging tobacco yields to the influence of a rainy
day or a foggy morning, and ' comes in case,' or softens,
so it will not crumble. It must never be handled when
dry. When it is just soft, not damp, or when it is barely
so soft that it can be handled (if it is approaching that
softened state), it may be taken down and taken off the
sticks, and * bulked,' by piling it alongside a partition, or
by itself, with the butts of the stalks outward in every
direction, and the tops or leaves in the centre. Several
hundred pounds may be thus bulked down, and can be
worked up while the hanging tobacco has gone out of
case, and cannot be touched."

According to Bishop, it usually requires about 12
weeks to cure the plants thoroughly, that is, so that
there is no more juice in the leaves or leaf-stems; it
matters not if the main stalk is not dry, you need not
expect it, and there will be green leaves that will not
cure but freeze while green and are worthless. He calcu-
lates that to " hang an acre of good tobacco requires a
building about 30 by 24 feet with 15-feet posts. Two
girths should be framed into the posts on all sides of the
building ; one 5 feet above the sill, and the other 10 feet
above, to rest the poles on, also to nail the covering
boards to. This gives a space of 5 feet for each tier
of plants. Have a beam run across the centre of the
building, with a post in the middle with girths to
correspond with those on the side, extending lengthwise

CUEING. 93

through the middle of the building for the poles or rails,
each 12 feet in length, to be laid upon ; or if sticks are
to be used (as hereafter described) lay rails or poles once
in 4 feet for the sticks to rest upon. Place a ventilator
upon the centre of the roof, and have one board in every
4 feet hung on hinges, to be opened or closed at pleasure.
If made with a floor and a cellar underneath, to let down
the tobacco into when ready stripped, it is all the better.
We will now return to the crop, and commence hanging
it. A common way of doing it is by tying with common
twine. Tie the end of the string tightly around the butt
of one plant, and by placing it against the side of the
pole nearest you, put another plant on the opposite side
and carry the string over and around it, placing the plants
alternately on each side of the pole until filled, then
fasten the string, place the pole in the right place (it
should be nearly right before it is filled), and commence
on the next one in like manner, having some one to
hand the plants as wanted. As to how thick to hang it
depends upon the size of the plants, but in good-sized
tobacco about 9 inches on each side is close enough, that
will be from 30-32 on each pole of 12 feet ; place the
poles 15-18 inches apart. Another method of hanging,
much practised and approved by many, is to hang on
slats or sticks sawed out 4 feet long, 1J inches wide, and
-f inch thick. Chestnut timber is generally used here.
The common lath answers very well for this purpose.
An iron made something like a chisel is used to slip on
to one end of the sticks, which are sharpened a little at
one end to receive it. It is made about 8 inches long,
wedge-shaped at the small end, and a socket J inch by

94 TOBACCO.

1 inch, to slip on to the sticks. When ready for use have
a place fixed near where you unload, to hold one of these
sticks out at right angles from a post and about 4 feet
from the ground. Let the plants be handed you from
the load and slip them on the stick, piercing the stalk
about 6 inches from the butt ; put 6 or 7 plants of medium
size on each stick, thicker if smaller ; when hung it will
appear as in Fig. 9. As each stick is filled, it may be
carried to its place in the barn. In getting them to the
top of the barn, they may be handed up with a pitchfork,
lifting them by the middle of the sticks. These sticks
should be about 8 inches apart. I think a greater amount
can be put into a given space by this method without
danger of sweating, as it is more evenly distributed. The
loose leaves that have been broken off while handling, may
be cured by placing 4 or 5 together and securing to a
small pole, in the same way as plants are hung with twine."
Hanging is done in the following manner : — " The
' hanger ' stands in an erect position, having for a foot-
hold the poles on the tier below the one which he is
hanging ; he has a ball of tobacco-twine (a twine made of
flax, procurable at any seed-store) which for convenience
is carried in the bosom of the loose blouse generally
worn ; he stands with the left side to the pole on which
the tobacco is to be hung, left arm over it ; the stalk of
tobacco is handed to him by a boy whose duty it is to
pass it to him ; the stalk is then taken in the left hand
and placed against the side of the pole, the butt projecting
an inch or two, around which projection the twine is
wound from left to right (the twine having previously
been fastened to the pole); the next stalk is placed on

CUBING.

95

the other side of the pole, just far enough along so that
the leaves of the two stalks will not touch and 'pole-
burn/ and so continue, the stalks being hung alternately
on the sides of the pole, as seen in Fig. 9. After the
house is filled, some put fires under the crop to hasten its

FIG. 9.

FIG. 30.

Tobacco-house.

drying ; but it is found by experience that the practice is
not a good one."

Bishop describes the common size of tobacco-house as
about 100 feet long by 24 feet wide, posts 17 feet long,
and built upon a wall 18 inches high ; the buildings are
framed with girths from bent to bent, for boarding up
and down, the bents being 12 feet apart. The external
appearance is illustrated in Fig. 10. "The boards for

TOBACCO.

closing up the building should be 1 foot wide, and at
intervals of about 5 feet a board should be hung with
light strap hinges, to serve as a ventilator to admit light
and dry air, and to exclude damp. These ventilators or
doors must be closed on frosty nights, but in fair dry
weather should remain open. The tobacco poles, the
ends of which rest upon the bents, should be about

FIG. 11.

13 feet long, 2 inches thick by 6 inches wide, of some
light timber, such as elm or basswood, and when hung
with tobacco should be 8-10 inches apart. A large door
should be placed at either end for ingress and egress.
The poles, of which there should be 4 tiers, are laid from
bent to bent, resting the ends of the cross beams in the
bent, tiers 4 feet 4 inches apart." A sectional view of the
barn is shown in Fig. 11.

White suggests that stables, sheds, and barn floors can
be arranged " so as to hang up an acre or two by setting

CUEING. 97

stanchions with holes mortised in them to hold rests for
your poles about 4| feet apart. Set such ones on either
side with a very stout rail, one end in either post. Set
these as often as you may need them, depending on the
length of your poles. No poles should be so long as to
sag very much when filled with plants. But for another
reason I would build a house expressly for hanging and
storing tobacco. Make it of good, liberal dimensions,
30 feet wide, by 40 or more in length; posts, 14 feet,
with two tiers of girths for poles to rest on ; one tier can
hang on the beams, and another above on the purlin
plates, thus hanging 4 tiers under the same roof. Venti-
late by a ventilator in the roof, also by hanging every
other board of the siding on hinges. For such a build-
ing, I would have a tight floor to the whole, and under-
neath a good walled cellar lighted with suitable windows,
and chimney in one corner, with a stove, to keep fire in
in very cold weather, to work by when stripping the
tobacco. For poles to hang on, I would get, if possible,
straight, slim, white pine staddles about 4-5 inches in
diameter ; shave the bark off smooth, and we have poles
that will last and remain straight a lifetime, if kept housed.
"Having provided all required, even to the strong
cotton or hemp twine for tying up the tobacco, have a
good man to hand it to you. Commence by tying the
end of your twine around the butt of a plant, about
2 inches from the end, in a slip or loose knot ; place this
plant at one side of the pole near the end, your hand
carrying the twine over the pole ; on the opposite side of
the pole, about 6 inches along, place another plant, and
with a single turn of the twine around it from before,

H

98 TOBACCO.

round back, and by drawing it close, the plant is secure.
Proceed thus till you have filled your pole ; then with a
knife, cut a notch in the pole and draw your twine
through, and it is fast. You can now cut it off and com-
mence another pole. Place the poles far enough apart to
prevent the tobacco crowding ; about 1 foot will do. In
this manner you will have a row of plants hanging on
each side of the pole about 1 foot apart. The man, in
handing up, should take the plant by the butt, carefully
from the pile or load, raise it up and gently shake it side-
ways, to shake off dirt and loosen the leaves when stuck
together, and also adhering to the stalk ; with the other
hand, take hold about midways of the stalk and pass to
the one tying up, enabling him to receive the plant in
such a way as to not need to shift it in his hand, but to
place it immediately into its position beside the pole.
All leaves which are accidentally or otherwise broken
from the plants, should be gathered up each day, and
hung three or four in a bunch, the same way as the
plants, or string them on a string ; the latter is the best
way — with a large needle-thread, a suitable cord, and on
to this string the leaves one at a time, by running the
needle through near the end of the stem. These can be
hung by attaching the two ends to some suitable nail,
and having it remain stretched. In this way they will
cure very well.

" Having housed the whole of your crop, give it all the
air you can, by opening doors, shutters, &o. Let them
remain open during pleasant weather, remembering to
close them in wet, damp weather, as well as nights ; and
also shading the crop so far as may be from the direct

CURING. 99

rays of the sun, to prevent blanching. When it has
nearly cured, shut it up and let it remain till perfectly
cured. This may be known by the stem of the leaves
being dried up, so that no green sap will show itself. If
you have hung in your stables and other places that you
wish to use, it will be necessary to take it down and strip
it at the first favourable opportunity, which is described
farther along. The separate building elsewhere described
is to be preferred, as it does not necessitate any imme-
diate hurry in getting it down. In such it can be
allowed to hang and freeze and thaw two or three times,
which improves the colour and weight, and will give
more leisure in stripping, &c. Watch a favourable time,
when it rains and is damp, to open your buildings, and
let in the damp air till the tobacco is damped, so that it
can be handled without any danger of breaking the leaves.
It need not get too damp, as in that case it is liable to
injure in the pile before you can get it stripped. It will
gain dampness from the stalk."

The Cuban tobacco planter, according to Davis, " would
force the drying in wet weather and retard it in dry
weather, as either extreme is injurious; the wet is
injurious, as the leaves, when they change from the
natural colour to a pale yellow and light brown, easily
mildew; when dry, as before-named, it is taken down.
Damp weather is best, so as not to break the leaves, which
are immediately stripped from the stalks and sorted into
as many grades as the market may require, from one to
four and even more grades, as ' bright yellow, dull, seconds,
and ground-leaves.' But I see no necessity for but three
grades, as the over-ripe, the unripe, and the just ripe at

H 2

100 TOBACCO.

cutting, and when properly dried they show their grade
plain enough to sort. After being stripped and sorted,
they are to be separately piled (' bulked ' some say) in
courses of leaves — 2, 4, or 6 tiers of leaves, stems end out,
and 3-4 feet high. The leaves should be kept straight in
all these handlings. The heap should be made up each
day separate, as it begins to make tobacco in 12 hours or
so, by fermenting, which is variously called * curing,'
' sweating,' ' conditioning,' &n. Soon as the heap begins
to get warm it should be re-piled, putting the inner tier
out so as to equalize the fermentation ; some re-pile several
times and some none ; but the fermentation should be kept
equal, and if covered with old sail-cloth it can be regu-
lated. This fermenting is allowed to proceed for 4-6
weeks by careful manufacturers ; as it is the process that
makes the tobacco to suit the taste of tobacco-epicures it
should be carefully done, yet many do it in a careless
manner, and thus have an article so poor as to not find
many lovers. At the end of the 4-6 weeks the Cuba
grower would have one side of each leaf slightly moistened
with the decoction of tobacco, which is made by letting
some leaves rot in clean water, and then he would tie it
up in hanks of 25 or 30 leaves, and hang one day for dry-
ing, then take it down and pack it in tight casks as being
best. From these leaves he would make the best Cuba
cigars. The Yirginian grower would not wet his tobacco
after it had fermented, but simply tie it in hanks so that
5 or 6 would weigh a pound, and then pack it in his hogs-
heads for market ; and this, after it had lain from one to
six months in the f conditioning bulks.' "

Burton, translating from Mitjen, goes more fully into

CURING.

the Cuban practice. He advises firstly that the " shoots
and the sprouts should be put apart from the. principal
tobacco, with which it should never be mixed, neither in
the heaps nor in the packages. The day after the tobacco
has been cut and placed in the curing-houses, the poles
should be pushed together, making thus a compact mass,
with the object, that by means of the warmth, which
this contact produces, the fermentation should commence,
called maduradero. In this state it should remain 2 or 3
days, according to the consistency of the tobacco and the
state of the atmosphere. By means of this first fermenta-
tion it acquires an equal and a yellowish colour : by the
second or third day, at the latest, this colour should be
uniform, and then without loss of time the poles should
be spread apart, and given all the ventilation possible, so
that fermentation may not continue, and the drying of the
leaves may be facilitated — care being taken that they are
not exposed to the dew, the sun, nor to sprinkling of
water, should it rain. As the tobacco dries, the poles
should be hung on higher pegs, so as to leave the lower
ones unoccupied for the fresh leaves brought from the
fields. This operation should be performed early in the
morning whilst the leaves are flexible and soft ; because
later in the day they become crisper, and are more apt to
tear.

" It is not judicious to allow the tobacco to dry too pre-
cipitately, by exposing it to a very strong current of air,
because strong wind greatly injures its quality; many
leaves break, and that silkiness of appearance is destroyed
which good leaves should have, and which it is desirable
to preserve. During heavy winds the doors of the drying-

:.• \ • OBACCO.

house should be kept closed; they should also be kept
closed if there is much dampness in the atmosphere occa-
sioned by heavy and continuous rain. Dampness causes
mildew, which shows itself first in the points of the leaves,
and is the commencement of the rot. Under these circum-
stances, and to check this evil, it is convenient to spread,
or part the poles a little ; and if the rains, or the excess
of humidity continue, fires should be kindled and smoke
made in the curing-houses, opening at the same time the
doors and the windows, so as to facilitate the circulation
of air whilst the smoking is going on.

"After the tobacco is thoroughly dry, it should be
placed on the highest beams, or pegs, of the framework
which support the poles, squeezing them compactly
together. This must be done in the morning whilst the
leaves are soft, and all this should be done with a view of
protecting it from the effects of change in the atmosphere.
The house should, after this, be kept closed, until it is
time to make the heaps.

" The object of heaping up the tobacco is to produce a
second fermentation, so as to equalize the colour of the
leaf and wear out of it that excess of gluten or resinous
matter which is natural to the plant ; this fermentation
makes the leaves more silky and ductile, and gives them
a more agreeable flavour. The place for making the heaps
should be prepared beforehand, in one or more of the
rooms of the tobacco-house, by making a kind of box
lined with yaguas (sheets of palm-tree bark) at the bottom
and the sides, the base is a boarding on which should be
placed a sufficient quantity of dry plantain leaves, which
serve as a bed for the heaps.

CURING. 103

" In the months of April or May, when the rainy season
commences, the poles which are on the highest pegs of the
scaffolding should be taken down and placed somewhat
apart, one from the other, on the lower pegs. The doors
of the house should be left open at night, so that the
humidity from the atmosphere may enter, and when, in
the morning, the tobacco is found to be soft and silky, it
is fit to be placed in heaps. The pairs of leaves should
then be collected in armfuls, with all the bits of stalks
placed in one direction; the leaves that may be found
doubled or crooked should be smoothed out, and each arm-
ful should be placed in layers in the heaps, placing the
first layer at the bottom with all the woody pieces of the
stalk touching the yagua which forms the sides of the
case; other layers should be placed with the stalk
reversed, and in this manner, crossing the leaves, the pile
should be raised up level. When a pile has a sufficient
height, another, and another, is made until the tobacco is
finished or the case is full, so that each heap may form a
compact mass of leaves protected by the pieces of stalk all
round, which should never touch the leaves, but only
touch each other. When the heaps have been thus made,
they should be covered with dry plantain leaves, or palm
skins, and, in front, by palm leaves.

"Tobacco should not be packed thus when it is too
damp, because a very strong fermentation would ensue,
which, if kept up longer than necessary, would pass to
putrefaction. The tobacco only requires to be soft, or
flexible, before packing, so as to produce a certain degree
of heat, neither is it convenient to pack tobacco when
too dry, for then it would not ferment at all, nor would

104 TOBACCO.

any beneficial results be produced. When it has been
packed sufficiently soft, it undergoes after the second or
third day a degree of heat of 110° to 120° F. in the centre
of the heap, and if it does not acquire this degree of heat
it is because it has been packed too dry. >,

" We have already said that reaping or cutting tobacco
should be performed in three distinct sections, preserving
always a distinction, consequently the crown leaves should
form one heap, or one set of heaps ; the second and third
pairs another, or others ; the fourths and the fifths others ;
and lastly, the capaduras (second shoots from the same
plants) others. This system, besides having the advan-
tages which we have in another place described, greatly
facilitates the sorting of the leaves, as the different
qualities are from the first kept apart, and scarcely any
other work remains to be done than that of taking out
the broken leaves. Tobacco should be kept for at least
30 days in heaps, after which, sorting and choosing the
leaves may commence, beginning first with the heaps of
the inferior qualities."

Stripping. — Stripping may be performed at any time,
provided the leaves, after being once properly dried,
have again become pliable. For stripping, such a number
of plants as will furnish work for several days are taken
down on a morning, when the plants have absorbed some
moisture, and have become elastic ; they are put in a
heap, and properly covered, to check evaporation. If,
however, the night air should be so very dry that the
leaves cannot absorb sufficient moisture to become pliable,
a moist atmosphere can be created either by steam, or by
pouring water on the floor, or by keeping vessels with

CUEING. 105

water in the shed. If this cannot be done, the tobacco
must remain hanging until there is damp weather. Under
no condition should the tobacco be stripped when not
pliant, that is if the leaves are so brittle that they would
break when bent or rolled. The best arrangement is to
keep the drying-shed and stripping-room separate, since
the latter requires to be more moist than the former. A
cellar under the drying-shed is best suited for stripping.
It should be large enough to admit of the erection of a
scaffold to receive the tobacco.

Pursley looks upon stripping as being labour suited to
damp weather. He says, " the lugs, shipping, and manu-
facturing, which are worst, medium, and best qualities,
should be separated at stripping. The 'lugs,' or worst
quality, are found at the bottom of the plant ; they are
chaffy and light leaves, and should be stripped from the
stalk and tied in bundles by themselves with all of the
ragged, black, and injured leaves. The second quality,
or ' shipping tobacco/ is a grade above the lugs ; it is
the red or brown tobacco; this should also be tied in
separate bundles. The best, or 'manufacturing,' is the
finest and brightest leaves, and should be put in bundles
by itself. In stripping, the stems of the leaves should
be broken off as close as possible to the stalk ; this
adds to the weight of the tobacco. In forming a bundle,
the butts of the leaves should be placed evenly, and
closely together, and pressed tightly in the hand ; then
a leaf should be folded to form a wrapper 2 inches in
width; then wrap it tightly and smoothly around the
butts of the leaves, winding it from the end down, about
2J inches, then open the bundle in the middle, and tuck

106 TOBACCO.

the wrapper-leaf through the opening, and draw it snug,
so that when the opening is closed the wrapper-leaf will
remain ; this forms a bundle which we call a * hand of
tobacco.' The hands should be strung on sticks, and
hoisted up in the barn on the tier-poles ; 18-20 hands
may be put on each stick, at equal distances apart."

Libhart expresses his opinions on stripping in the fol-
lowing words. " At the setting in of a warm, drizzling,
wet, foggy spell of weather, the shed must be opened on
all sides to allow the damp atmosphere to pervade the
whole interior ; after the dry leaves have become damp
enough to allow handling in any degree without breaking,
the stalks must be taken off the lath or pulled down and
laid in heaps about 18 inches or 2 feet high, and any
desired length ; if it is not intended to strip it imme-
diately, it should be conveyed to a cellar or other apart-
ment, where it will remain damp ; it should not, however,
be suffered to remain longer than 2 or 3 days in heaps,
without examination, as there is sometimes sufficient
moisture remaining in the stalks or frozen leaves to
create heat and rot the good tobacco. If found to be
heating, it should be changed about and aired and be
stripped immediately. If found to be drying out, further
evaporation may be checked by covering the heaps with
damp straw or corn-fodder. Tobacco is usually stripped
into two qualities, ' ground-leaf,' or « fillers,' and « wrap-
pers ' ; the leaves that lie next the ground, generally
from 2 to 4, are always more or less damaged by sand
beaten on by the rain and other causes, hence they only
command about half the price of the good tobacco or
* wrappers.' The ground-leaves are taken off first and

CUEING. 107

tied up separately in bunches. With a bunch clasped
in one hand, take a leaf and wrap it around (beginning
at the end of the bunch), confining the end under the
first turn, continue to wrap smoothly and neatly until
about 3 inches of the leaf remains, then open the bunch
in the middle and draw the remaining part of the leaf
through. This forms a neat and compact 'hand,' that
will bear a great deal of handling without coming open.
After the ground-leaves have been removed, the good
leaves are stripped off and tied up the same as the ground-
leaves, with this exception : the leaves of each stalk
should be tied in a bunch by themselves, to preserve a
uniformity in colour and size, as tobacco is sold in the
market according to colour and size, therefore if the
leaves of a large and a small plant, or of a dark-coloured
and a light one, be tied up together, it at once diminishes
the appearance and value of the crop."

Dennis describes stripping as being "performed by
holding the plant, top down, with the left hand, while
with the right hand the leaves are pulled off, taking care
to have the stems all even in the hand, so that the ends
are together. When 10-15 leaves have thus been grasped
by the right hand, change the handful to the left hand,
and with the right, select a leaf and wrap it around the
stems at the end, so as to bind them altogether and cover
up the ends, then split the other leaves apart with the
finger, and pull the end of your wrapping-leaf through,
and you have a * hand ' of tobacco. A small « hand ' of
leaves, uniform in size and colour, will be found the most
desirable shape to tie it in, resembling Fig. 12. The
bottom leaves of the plant, and all torn and defective

108

TOBACCO.

FIG. 12.

leaves, should be tied up by themselves, and are known
as « lugs.' These « hands ' should be ' bulked ' again, with
the wrapped end out, and covered with straw, or any-
thing that will retain the ' case,' and if subject to imme-
diate sale, may be boxed up or hauled to market. If
boxed, it should be put in tight
boxes — if hauled, it should be
kept covered until unloaded.
Care must be taken to avoid
'high case' — extreme dampness
or softness in bulking tobacco
after it is stripped— as it may
be ' funked ' in bulk, and
ruined ; and it should not be
packed in that condition when
it is liable to remain long. It
is a crop that is never off of
hands."

According to Perry Hull,
stripping, or, as he terms itr
" picking, " should not take
place till about December;
" at least not until the fat stems
(main stems of the leaves, which
are not thoroughly cured at

the butt-end) have mostly or all disappeared, which
they will have done by that time, if the crop reached
maturity before harvesting. The operations of picking
and assorting are by many, who make only two classes or
qualities of the tobacco, carried on at the same time. By
far the preferable way is, especially if there is a very

Hand of Tobacco.

CUEING. 109

large crop to pick, to take off the leaves during damp or
wet weather, tie them into bundles of 15-20 lb., with
twine, and pack it away into cellars, or wherever it can
be kept without drying up. It can then be assorted in
any kind of weather, thus gaining considerable time, as
two will pick and tie up in this way as much during one
wet spell as 6 hands would, assorting and hanking up, at
the same time. Another reason why the last practice is
preferable is, that, by the former, the assorting can be
but indifferently done ; whereas, by the last, it can be
done as carefully as desired. Tobacco should not be
allowed to get too wet before picking ; in fact, should not
be allowed to get wet at all, so as to feel wet, only just
damp enough to make the leaves pliable, so as to handle
and pack without breaking or feeling husky. If allowed
to get wet, before picking, it is next to impossible to get
it dried to the proper state again so uniformly but that
some of the leaves will still be too wet, while others will
be dry enough to crack and break. So if the rains are
long enough to get it too wet, which they often are, by
all means let it remain upon the poles until the next wet
spell."

Sorting. — Tobacco intended for smoking should be care-
fully sorted when stripped. There should be four sorts :
1st, large, equally good coloured, untorn leaves ; 2nd,
leaves of good size and colour, but torn; 3rd, leaves of
inferior colour, and bottom leaves ; 4th, refuse, shrivelled-
up leaves, &c., to which may be added the suckers
No. 1 leaves, when thin, elastic, and of good sorts, are
mostly valued as wrappers (outside covers) for cigars,
No. 2 may also be used as wrappers, but are less valued

110 TOBACCO.

than No. 1 ; they are adapted for fillers and cut tobacco.
The different sorts are kept separate. The best plan is to
let the most intelligent man strip the leaves from the
stem, and at once separate them according to quality.
The leaves should then be made into hands, i. e. 10-20
leaves should be tied together by twisting a leaf round
the end of the stalks, each sort being attended by a special
man, to avoid mixing. The leaves of the first sort being
large, 10-15 will be sufficient for a hand ; more are
required of the other sorts. When making the hands of
the two first sorts, each leaf is taken separately,
smoothened on a flat board, and left there while another
is treated in the same way, continuing thus until a sufn-
cient number is ready to make a hand. When the hand
is ready, it is laid aside, and a weight is placed upon it to
keep the leaves smooth.

To sell well, according to Perry Hull, tobacco " should
be assorted into three classes or grades, Wrappers,
Seconds, and Fillers. The wrappers will include the
soundest, best-coloured leaves, the colour (a dark
cinnamon) should be as uniform as possible ; this quality
should include nothing but what is fit for wrappers.
The Seconds, which are used as binders for cigars, &c.,
will include the small top leaves, of which, if the tobacco
was topped too high, there will be one or two to each
plant — the bad colours, and those leaves somewhat
damaged by worms and bad handling, but not so much so
as to be ragged. The third class, or Fillers, will include
the balance of the crop, bottom leaves, ragged leaves, &c.
The tobacco should be done up into hanks of about ^ Ib.
each, or about what can be encompassed by the thumb

CUBING. Ill

and fingers, winding at the butt with a pliable leaf,
drawing the end through the hank to secure it."

The Cuban system of sorting is described at considerable
length by Mitjen, whose remarks are interpreted by
Burton as follows. The operation consists in " separating
one from the other the different leaves, according to their
strength and quality, and dividing the produce of the
crop into various classes. These are, in practice, styled
Libra, 1st quality ; Quebrado, 2nd quality, broken ;
Injuriado de primer a; Injuriado de segunda, de tercera, de
cuarta, de quinta, de sexta, de setima; Libra de pie, and
capadura.

" Under this classification it is presumed that attention
has been bestowed, not only to the special quality of the
leaf, but also to its size, and its state, whether whole or
broken ; but it is very seldom that exactness is found in
this classification, because but very few persons possess
the requisite skill which such a complicated mode of sort-
ing requires. Moreover, by the abuse of mixing in one
heap all kinds of leaves, frequently brought in from the
fields all mixed together, the proper sorting of tobacco
becomes a very complicated affair.

" This kind of classification and nomenclature is, more-
over, absurd, and does not positively represent fixed
qualities, under the denomination of which, prices might
be arranged which would serve as a guide to the
merchant as well as the grower. In a word, the names,
with which the different qualities of tobacco are to-day
distinguished, signify nothing, and it is ridiculous to be
guided in business by them. Until this kind of classifica-
tion and nomenclature is changed, it is impossible to

112 TOBACCO.

quote the mercantile prices for the different qualities,
because the name does not represent the quality ; and this
confusion tends greatly to the prejudice of the planter,
and the merchant ; and hinders attaining the perfection
after which we should strive.

"We have shown that the practice of making a classifi-
cation of seven Injuriados must not be taken as absolute.
There are better modes of sorting in which a separation of
8, and even 9 Injuriados should be made, and others, and
by far the greater proportion, in which only 6 Injuriados
should be separated ; so that the quality which, in one
sorting, would appear under that of fifths — being the
lowest of the crop — would be equal to eighths, or ninths,
if picked more carefully; and the fifths, in a sorting,
whose lowest class may be sevenths, is about equal in
quality to that of thirds of other pickings, whose lowest
class would be fifths, if both crops had produced equal
kinds of tobacco.

" There is even more to confirm our opinion. Supposing
two crops equal in all respects, and that each planter
makes a separation of 7 Injuriados. This would not ensure
that the intrinsic value of each respective quality would
be equal ; for each Vegue.ro has his own particular mode of
considering the different classes, and some make a much
more careful sorting than others. In the supposed case it
may happen, as it frequently does, that the Veguero A
will take from his crop — which we will suppose to be
one hundred packages — 2 of the first, 3 of the second, 5 of
the third, 8 of the fourth, 12 of the fifth, 30 of the sixth,
and 40 of the seventh ; whereas the Veguero B will take
from his, 4 of the first, 6 of the second, 10 of the third, 16

CURING.

113

2 Bales

A.

, 1st .. at

120 = 240

4 Bal

3 „

2nd .. „

100 = 300

6

5 „

3rd .. „

80 = 400

10

8 „

4th .. „

60 = 480

16

12 „

5th .. „

40 = 480

32

30 „

6th .. „

25 = 750

21

40 „

7th .. „

20 = 800

11

100

$3450

100

of the fourth, 32 of the fifth, 21 of the sixth, and 11 of the
seventh ; and it would result, from the comparison of these
two supposed pickings, that each of these classes of the
Vega A would correspond to the immediate superior one
of the Vega B, as will be shown on the following calcula-
tion : —

B.

$ $
1st .. at 100 = 400

2nd . . „ 80 = 480

3rd .. „ 60 = 600

4th .. „ 40 = 640

5th .. „ 25 = 800

6th .. „ 20 = 420

7th .. „ 10 = 110

$3450

" Here it may be seen that the second of A is worth as
much as the first of B, the third of A as much as the
second of B, and so successively in the other classes ; and
as it is of importance that names should represent fixed
objects, and that each quality should represent a relative
value, we think that the sortings and the classifications
deserve a reform, which would undoubtedly bring with it
advantages to the planter, to the merchant, the manufac-
turer, and the consumer.

" The reform in the sortings should take its origin
from a reform in the plantation or field, and principally in
the manner of cutting. By observing a methodical and
well-calculated system, each one of the operations pre-
pares and facilitates the execution of the succeeding one.
In its proper place, we have recommended that the

114 TOBACCO.

tobacco planter should not attempt to plant more than
12,000 plants for each labourer employed, so that all the
plants may receive proper cultivation and attention. If
all these plants are equally well taken care of, if the land
has been properly prepared with manure, and all have had
the same advantage of season, it is a necessary consequence
that the fruit will be equally good. If afterwards the
cutting or cropping is made in 3 sections, preserving
always the separation we have recommended, we shall
have, naturally, not a capricious assortment of leaves, but
one in the order established by nature.

" None will, we think, question the fact that the pairs
of leaves on one stalk must be equal in quality to those
cut from an adjoining stalk, that is to say, all the crown
leaves must be of the same quality, all the second also, and
so successively. This admitted, we have the separation of
qualities made, almost, in the field, and it only remains to
separate the sizes, and the sound leaves from the torn
ones, an operation which any person can make ; and thus
it will be unnecessary to employ those workmen who
style themselves sorters, who are supposed to have an
exact knowledge of the properties of each leaf. The
sortings ought, therefore, to be made by classes, or by
bales, each containing the separate qualities beginning
with the bale of capaduras and mamones, which may be
mixed together in the same bale. Of this quality, how-
ever, not more than two classes should be made, which
may be called suckers and sprouts ; and in the class called
sprouts, the sound and larger leaves of good consistency
should be placed. The result would be a tripa of good
quality, and, after throwing away all those that are really

CUEING. 115

without substance, the remainder would form the second
class, and would make a useful tripa, although inferior to
the former.

" When these are made, the next "bales should be made
of tobacco chosen from the inferior class of leaves, of
which 3 classes ought to be made, and called sano, que-
brado, and desecho de tercera. In the first class of these,
which we will call third quality, should be placed all the
sound leaves which have any consistency ; and this would
form a weak capa, equal to that which is now called clear
fifths, quinta limpia, and this might be called sano de
tercera. The second class should contain the torn or
broken leaves of good consistency, but not so much
broken or injured as to merit only the name of shavings,
as the leaves which are very much torn, or small pieces of
leaves, are called. This class would be called quebrado de
tercera, and might be used for inferior tripa. The last
class of this quality, after throwing away all the useless
leaves, would be called desecho.

"After this, and in the same order as the preceding,
three classes should be made from the sortings for the
heaps of bad seconds and thirds, and called sano, quebrado,
and tripa of the second class. The first of these should
contain all the sound leaves, and should be called sano de
segunda, second-class sound. The second should be com-
posed of the damaged leaves, but good for making capa,
and should be called second-class broken ; and the third,
which will be the most broken, should be called second-
class tripa.

" Finally, the picking, or sorting for the pile of pairs of
crown leaves should be made; and of this quality there

i 2

116 TOBACCO.

should also be three classes, which will be denominated
* sano' ' quebrado,' and ( tripa de corona,' observing always
the same order as was done for the piles or heaps of
seconds and thirds.

" Sorting carried on in this order is so simplified that
we do not doubt it might be done in one-third the time
taken under the present system ; and the labour of the re-
sorters would be dispensed with, which most of the
vegueros have now to employ and pay, as many of them do
not consider themselves sufficiently expert in the matter to
classify their own tobacco. This classification and nomen-
clature represent exact qualities to which a relative value
can be fixed, and may serve as a base for mercantile
transactions.

" The manufacturer will not have to contend with bales
of mixed tobacco containing all the different classes which
the vega may have produced ; and he will find this divi-
sion very convenient to determine the time when each
class may be used without having any loss from finding
in them leaves that are not seasoned, whilst others of the
same bale, and perhaps of the same manojo, may have
become deteriorated from having remained too long in
fermentation. The manufacturer will, without any great
trouble, be able to make the assortment for strong and
weak tripa according to the quality of capa which is going
to be used, a most essential point in cigar making, and
thus he will be able to make cigars with all perfection.
All these advantages will result from adopting the reform
in the manner of sorting which we propose. And, in spite
of its simplicity, it is much more positive and extensive,
as it will be composed of four qualities subdivided into

CUEING. 117

eleven classes. The consumer, too, will have the advan-
tage of being able to procure cigars manufactured com-
pletely of the quality which he prefers, and the contents
of each box, or each set of boxes, will be all equal both in
flavour and colour, which, under the present system, it is
difficult to find. The classes will be styled : —

{1st class Sound crown.
2nd „ Broken „
3rd „ Stuffing „
1st class Sound seconds.

Second quality

2nd , , Broken

3rd „ Stuffing „

(1st class Sound thirds.
2nd „ Broken „
3rd „ Stuffing „
Fourth quality, 1st and 2nd Suckers and sprouts.

"It is scarcely necessary to add that, according to the
preceding system of sorting, only 3 divisions, cases, or
rooms, with yaguas, will be required for depositing the
respective qualities which the workmen may be assorting,
until sufficient quantity has been collected in each to com-
mence the seasoning or painting, betumeo, enmannillado, or
engavillado, manojo, and enterciadura.

" In all kinds of sortings, the fragments of broken leaves,
too small to use for cigars, should be collected, sponged,
and with them packages made of picadura. This should
be preserved, and the following year it will be useful for
making betun. Wash the tobacco, or rather sponge it, with
a solution made from these pieces of good leaves, and not
with a solution made from stalks and trash of new tobacco,
as some do. The wash (betun) has the same effect on

118 TOBACCO.

tobacco that yeast has on bread. It is the agent employed
to produce a strong and quick fermentation, from which
results that strong and agreeable aroma that may be ob-
served in old tobacco which has been well betumeado
(sponged with tobacco infusion). This infusion, made
with fresh tobacco, is not bad if made carefully, but we
consider that made with old tobacco is the best, because
it instantly imparts an agreeable odour to the leaves on
which it is used ; and, instead of the infusion which is
generally used, it would be cleaner and better, if a strong
decoction was made from picadura — the small pieces of
leaves of good tobacco — and used after it had become
cold, or on the day after the boiling is made.

" If the wash is made by infusion, at least two jugs
should be used to make it in, and it should be only used
on the third or fourth day, renewing it as often as it
appears to pass into a state of putrid fermentation, in
which state it is of no use, and on which account two
deposits are necessary, so that one at least may always be
in a fit state to use, whilst the other is acquiring the
necessary strength and a transparent golden colour, in
which state it is fit for use.

" Each tobacco leaf should be dyed separately, and not,
as some do, after it has been made up into gavillas — small
bundles tied at one end of the leaf. It is very important
that all the leaves should equally receive the benefit, and
this is impossible when several are tied together. The
good system of dyeing is used by all practical vegueros ; to
save labour some do it otherwise, to the great injury of the
aroma and quality, and no small risk of the tobacco be-
coming spotted, and full of holes ; for tobacco invariably

CURING. 119

commences to show these spots and small holes near the
heads of the gavilla, where the dye has not been able to
penetrate owing to the manner in which the leaves are
tied. Each leaf ought, therefore, to be dyed separately,
as the most intelligent people do. The leaves should be
placed separately in rows on a bench, having all the heads
in one line ; then the dye should be applied by means of
a sponge, which should be soaked in the dye or infusion,
and squeezed, so that a dampness only will be communi-
cated to the leaf.

" In passing the sponge over the leaf, it should be drawn
from the head or thick part near the stalk, down the large
vein to the point, so that the thick vein down the centre
of the leaf may receive the heaviest part of the infusion,
from which the dye pushes along the transversal veins,
and all parts derive benefit from it.

" After dyeing the first layer on the bench, another one
is placed above this, keeping always the leaves in the
same direction ; and this operation is repeated, and each
layer is sponged, until the pile from which they are taken
is exhausted. As this new pile of dyed leaves gradually
increases in height, it should be gently pressed down with
the hand, and, when finished, should be covered over with
green plantain leaves. This operation should be done in
the morning, and by nightfall the tobacco will have
acquired the necessary softness, and soaked up the infu-
sion, so that the leaves, although very flexible, will have
no signs of excess in moisture. If they have, they should
be spread to dry somewhat, because, when the bundles of
leaves are being tied up, they should not be excessively
wet, as the result would probably be so strong a fermen-

120 TOBACCO.

tation that it would degenerate into a putrid one. The
leaves should have a soft silkiness, but should have no
positive signs of water on them after they have been
dyed.

" When the tobacco is in a good state of softness, the
next operation is the ' cabeceo.' This operation consists in
uniting the leaves by the heads — putting them perfectly
even, and joining together a uniform number of each class.
The leaves should be collected in the palm of the left
hand, drawing gently the right hand over all the length
of each leaf from the head to the point, and tying them
at the heads with a piece of yagua or vine, or, as most
people do, by binding one of the leaves round the head of
the bundle. This operation is generally made in the
evening, and the following morning they should be placed
in the bales, as it injures the tobacco to allow it to dry in
manojos before putting it into bales, for, if too dry, fermen-
tation is retarded, or is incomplete in the bales.

" We have described the manner of washing or dyeing,
in making the gavillas, and tying them in bundles as the
most practical vegueros do. In this part we should not, we
think, advise any innovation, except that of using old
seasoned tobacco instead of fresh for making the infusion,
and substituting a decoction made by boiling, instead of
an infusion in cold water. But we strongly advise a
reform in the sorting and the classification ; and a fixed
number of each class of leaves should be put in each
gavilla, as a basis from which to start all calculations
for mercantile transactions. We believe, therefore, it
would be convenient to fix, after the following order,

CURING.

121

the number of leaves which each head * gavilla ' should
contain : —

Sound .. .. 25 leaves to each gavilla

First quality

Second quality

Third quality

Fourth quality .. \

Broken or torn . .
For stuffing

3

4

Sound
Broken or torn . .
Stuffing .. ..

a

8

4

Sound
Broken or torn . .

Desecho

4
4

Suckers
Sprouts

These three classes
may be added with-
out counting the
number of leaves,

but making the heads (gavillas) of a regular uniform size ;
and the manojos and bales of about the same size as those
of * sound ' and ' broken ' of the third quality, the latter
weighing 100-125 Ib.

" By following strictly this method, and by establishing
these quantities and qualities, as a basis for all contracts,
any defects found might easily be obviated; and very
exact calculations might be made of the number of cigars
each bale would yield, after having examined its special
condition ; and its real value might be estimated either
by bales or bundles, or by weight."

Bulking. — Bulking means placing the tobacco-leaves in
heaps for the purpose of heating, in order to develop
colour and flavour ; this is carried out in various ways,
nearly all involving great labour and risk, as in most
instances tobacco loses more or less in value during the
process called " curing." The more care is taken in raising
the crop, the less attention the tobacco requires in the

122 TOBACCO.

shed. With a good kind of tobacco, grown on light,
friable soil, treated as described, little care will be needed,
after the leaves are dried and stripped. By the drying
process, the leaves will have undergone a slow fermenta-
tion, which makes it unnecessary to watch or guide a
regular fermentation afterwards, hence bulking and fer-
menting, as generally understood, are not required.

After being made into hands, the tobacco is put into
heaps (bulked) before it again dries. Every evening,
the tobacco that has been stripped during the day is
bulked; but if the weather be very dry, it must be
bulked as soon as a certain number of hands is ready.
The heaps should be made 4-8 feet square and 4-8 feet
high ; all the stalks are outside, and the whole is covered
by mats, &c., to check evaporation. The drier the to-
bacco, the larger must the heaps be made, to encourage
a slight fermentation. The extent of the fermentation
can be easily controlled. If the colour of the leaves is
not uniform, or if it is desired to give them a browner
colour, the heaps must be made large, and a somewhat
moist atmosphere is required in the storing-room. This
will cause fermentation to set in after a short time, and
the heat to rise after some days, so much so that re-
bulking is required, which is done by putting the top
leaves of the old heap at the bottom of the new one.
Under such circumstances, the heap must be frequently
examined during the few first weeks, to prevent over-
heating. It is advisable to rebulk the tobacco also, even
when not much heated, after the first fourteen days, and
again a month later, to ascertain the exact state in which
it is. Sometimes the tobacco becomes mouldy ; this

CURING. 123

occurs especially with tobacco which, has been manured
with chlorides, which cause it to become more hygro-
scopic than when manured otherwise. If this occurs,
the mould must be brushed off, and, if necessary, the
tobacco be dried. The tobacco may now remain heaped
in the store-room until there is a chance for sale. It
must be remembered, however, that the best time for
selling varies very much. Some tobacco is fit for smoking
a few weeks after drying, whereas others may burn very
badly at that time, yet become a good burning article
after being stored for several months.

After assorting, Perry Hull advises that the tobacco
'* be corded up awhile, in a dry place, that the butts may
be thoroughly cured before packing in the cases. The
pile is made with the butts out, and tips interlapping
in the middle, at every other course, at the ends turning
the .butts toward the end. Get upon the pile upon the
knees, take hold of the butt of a hank with one hand,
drawing the leaves at the tip together with the other,
and placing it upon the pile in that position, immediately
putting the knee upon it. After the pile is finished, it
should be covered over with boards, to keep it from
drying up, and a few days before packing into the cases,
should be well weighted down, which will save a great
deal of pressing at that time. Such a pile should be
made only about 2 J-3 feet high, and then closely watched
to prevent a premature sweat, which often, if the weather
be mild, will take place in such a pile, which will not
be sufficient to render the tobacco fit for working, but
which, if not intercepted at the commencement, will be
sufficient to prevent a proper sweat afterwards. Check,

124 TOBACCO.

therefore, the first symptoms of heat in such a pile, by
opening the pile, and repacking it, shaking out the hanks
and giving them time to cool off."

Bowie gives a caution that the tobacco " should not be
too moist or * high,' as it is termed, when put in stalk
bulk, or it will get warm, the leaves stick to the stalk,
get a bad smell, and change colour ; besides, if left too
long, it will rot. To bulk tobacco requires judgment and
neatness. Two logs should be laid parallel to each other,
about 30 inches apart, and the space between them filled
with sticks for the purpose of keeping the tobacco from
the dampness of the ground. The bundles are then
taken one at a time, spread out and smoothed down,
which is most conveniently done by putting it against
the breast and stroking the leaves downward smooth and
straight with the right hand. It is then passed, two
bundles at a time, to the man bulking. He takes them
and lays them down and presses them with his hands ;
they are laid, two at a time, in a straight line — the broad
part of the bundles slightly projecting over the next two —
and two rows of bundles are put in a bulk, both rows
carried on together, the heads being on the outside, and
the tails just lapping one over the other in regular suc-
cession. The bulk, when carried up to a convenient
height, should have a few sticks laid across to keep it in
place. It must often be examined, and if getting warm
it ought to be immediately changed and laid down in
another bulk of less height, and not pressed as it is laid
down ; this is called ' wind-rowing ' ; being loose and
open, it admits the air between the rows of bundles, hence
the term. The next process in this troublesome, but

CURING. 125

beautiful crop, is to ' condition ' it for c packing.' The
* bright,' ' yellow,' and * second ' tobacco will condition,
but most generally in such bulks as I have just described,
but it is best to hang up the ' dull ' as soon almost as
stripped. If the bright or second do not dry thoroughly
in the bulks, that should also be hung up in the house to
become well dried. To properly hang up tobacco to con-
dition, small-sized sticks should be procured, and each
one nicely smoothed with the drawing-knife, and kept
for that purpose. After it has once been perfectly dry,
either hanging up or in bulks — so dry that the heads are
easily knocked off, and the shoulders of the bundles crack
upon pressure like pipe-stems — it should be taken down,
or if in bulks, removed, the first soft, moist spell of
weather, as soon as it is soft and yielding enough, as it
will become too dry to handle without crumbling or
breaking, and it must be put in 4 or 6 row bulks of any
convenient length and height, the higher the better, laid
down close, so that as little of the leaves or shoulders as
possible be exposed on the outside of the bulk. When
completed put sticks and logs of wood, &c., on the top
so as to weigh it down. Here it will keep sweet and in
nice order for packing at any time, no matter what the
weather be, if it was conditioned properly, it will not
change a particle while in the condition-bulk."

Packing. — Tobacco in America is commonly packed in
barrels, the layers being at right angles to each other
alternately, and the butt-ends being always towards the
outside. The usual size is about 4 feet 6 inches deep,
3 feet 6 inches in diameter at one end, and 3 feet 4 inches
at the other, to enable the contents to be uncovered for

126 TOBACCO.

examination without disturbing the mass. The packing
is effected under considerable hydraulic pressure. Else-
where all kinds of packages are employed, and their
weights are very various.

In Bishop's opinion the best size for boxes is the fol-
lowing : — " 3 feet 6 inches long, 2 feet 4 inches wide, 2 feet
6 inches in depth, manufactured from planed pine boards,
1 inch in thickness, with standards 2 inches square,
inside at each corner to nail to. Having thus your boxes
prepared, and the tobacco in good condition, the first soft,
mild day that comes proceed to packing ; the bundles or
' hands ' of tobacco must be taken from the bulk and laid
in courses in the box, laying the butts of the ' hands ' to
the outside of the box, allowing the ends to lap over each
other, and endeavouring to keep the centre of the box a
little higher than the edges — these courses to be packed
as solid as possible by the hand. If any of the bundles
are * soft ' or have an ill smell, they must be exposed to
the fire or sun until sweet and dry before being packed.
When the box is nearly full, a false cover (just large
enough to slip inside the box) must be placed on the
tobacco, and pressed as heavily as possible with the lever
or screw power ; remove the pressure and re-fill, pressure
finally being applied to the real cover, which may then
be tacked down. A box of the size I have mentioned,
when filled, should contain about 400 Ib. of tobacco, and
thus packed, will keep for years."

Another planter considers that parcels of " less than
1500 Ib. may be carried to market almost in any way ;
but more than that should be ' prized ' in hogsheads.
Several farmers might combine their crops for prizing.

CUEING. 127

As to the size, form, and materials of the hogsheads. In
Virginia, the size of the hogsheads is prescribed by law.
They must be made of seasoned pine or poplar. They
must be 4 feet 6 inches long ; 3 feet 6 inches in diameter,
at one end, and 3 feet 4 inches at the other. This
difference of diameter is to allow the tobacco to be in-
spected. This may be something new to persons of the
North, therefore I will explain the mode of inspecting
tobacco in the hogshead. An inspector is appointed by
law to inspect or examine the tobacco prized in hogsheads.
His first step is, to place the hogshead big end upward.
He then removes the lining, and takes out the head. He
next inverts the position of the hogshead, that is, puts
the little end up, and raises it entirely from the tobacco.
The mass of prized tobacco stands before him without a
covering. The outside may be all right, but his sworn
duty is to examine it through and through, as well as
round and round. For this purpose he drives an iron
bar to the middle, near the top of the mass, prises up and
takes out a handful of bundles. He repeats that operation
on two other points of the mass. He then inspects or
examines the parcels extracted, and rates the whole hogs-
head according to their quality. The hogshead is re-
placed and made secure. The hogsheads and the samples
taken from them bear corresponding marks, and the
former is sold by the latter. The staves of the hogshead
must not be wider than 5, nor narrower than 3 inches,
f inch thick, and dressed on the inside. The heading
must be seasoned pine or poplar, and 1 inch thick, with
8 hoops. Such a hogshead will well answer in other
States as well as in Virginia.

128 TOBACCO.

" Weigh out, say 300 Ib. It takes two hands to do this
work, one inside the hogshead and the other out. One is
called the ' packer/ the other the ' waiter.' The packer
so arranges the bundles, in placing them, as to make 4
courses in one layer. Repeat the layers until the 300 Ib.
are packed. The weight (lever-power) is then applied.
After 6 hours, put in 200 Ib. more and apply the weight ;
6 hours, and so on, until 1300-1500 Ib. have been put in.
The softer the tobacco, the more of it can be put in a hogs-
head. If the tobacco is of the first quality, 1500 Ib.
is enough. But if lower qualities, 1800 Ib. can be put in.
The finer the quality the less weight it can bear without
injury ; and vice versa. Having prized the crop, it is
ready for market."

According to Pursley, a hogshead " 4 feet in length, and
3 feet in diameter, is the medium size ; 1000 Ib. is con-
sidered a full hogshead ; but one of the above dimensions
can hold 1500 Ib. by hard pressing; but this blackens the
tobacco, and injures the sale of it. Packing in the hogs-
head is done by first laying a course or layer of bundles
straight across the bottom, keeping the butts even and
close together ; then fill up on each side of the centre
course, placing the butts against the staves; then the
butts of the hands that lie against the hogshead should be
covered up with 2 or 3 others, pressed closely down. The
next centre course should be laid across the first, and
done in the same manner as before, and so on, crossing
each course in succession, until the hogshead is two-
thirds full; when the press should be applied till the
tobacco is pressed down to within 1J foot of the bottom
of the hogshead. The press should remain on an hour or

CUEING. 129

more, in order that the tobacco may settle together ; then
the press should be raised, and the packing resumed as
before, till the tobacco is within 1^ foot of the top ; then
the press should again be applied till the tobacco is pressed
half-way down the hogshead ; the same proportion should
be observed until the hogshead is full. Then put the
head in, and it is ready for market."

Perry Hull would have packing-cases " made of cheap
pine lumber, 3 feet 8 inches long by 2 feet 6 inches wide
and high, outside measurement ; they should be made
tight and strong ; there should be corner-pieces nailed in
1J inch square, nailing to them well from both ways.
The tobacco is packed in, with the butts towards each
end ; taking hold of the butt with one hand, the tip with
the other, and giving the hank a slight twist, lay it in the
case in that position. A lever or screw can be used to do
the pressing, whichever is the most convenient. From
360 Ib. to 380 is the proper weight for packing ; though
if the tobacco is very dry, 400 Ib. will probably not sweat
too hard ; and if quite wet (which it never should be),
350 may.

" After being packed, the tobacco should never be kept
in a damp cellar ; a good tight barn or other outbuilding,
where the cases can stand on a floor, is the best place.
The crop usually passes from the hands of growers, into
those of speculators and dealers, before the sweating
season. The first symptoms of sweating appear about as
soon as settled warm weather comes, usually the fore part
of May ; it then commences to grow warm, and ' wet ' to
appearance, which increases for about 3 weeks, when it
reaches its culminating point and commences to cool off.

130 TOBACCO.

One unaccustomed to the crop, upon examining it at this
period, would be sure to think it was rotting, but if not
too damp when packed, there is no danger. Sometimes, if
a case is known to be too wet, the lids can be started, to
give a little vent to the steam and gases which are gene-
rated, and this is about all that can be done for it ; and it
is far safer to see that the proper condition is secured
before packing, than to do even this. The weight will
commence to decrease about as soon as 1 he heat commences,
and it has been ascertained by weighing at the various
stages, that more than half of the shrinkage is accom-
plished by the time that the sweat has reached its culmi-
nating point. About 10 per cent, is allowed for the
shrinkage of a crop, in just the right state when packed ;
if wetter, it will shrink as high as 12-13 per cent., and if
very dry, it may shrink less than 10 per cent. The
different grades usually bring about the following prices :
Wrappers, 14 cents per Ib. ; Seconds, 7-8 cents ; Fillers,
3-4 cents. The proportion of the different grades in a
good crop should be, Wrappers, three-fifths, and Seconds
and Fillers, each one-fifth."

Judson Popenoe thinks boxes "should be made 30
inches square by 42 inches in length outside ; saw the end-
boards 28 inches long, nail them to two 1 J-inch square slats
so that the head will be 28 inches square; when two
heads are made, nail the sides of the box to the heads so
as to come even with the outside of the head, the sides
being 28 inches wide ; then nail the bottom on firmly ;
the top can be nailed slightly until after the tobacco is
packed, when it can be nailed firm. Set your box by the
side of the bulk, and let one hand get in the box and

CUEING. 131

another pass the tobacco to him, one hand at a time,
taking care not to shake it out, but put in the box as it
comes from bulk, with the butt of the hand next the end
of the box. Place close and press with the knee firmly ;
lay alternate courses at each end, and if the tobacco is not
long enough to lap sufficiently to fill the centre, put a
few hands crosswise in the centre. When the box is full,
place it under a lever ; have a follower, which is a cover
made of inch boards, nailed to two pieces of scantling and
made to fit inside of the box ; lay this on the tobacco, and
build with blocks of scantling on it of a sufficient height
for the lever to be clear of the box when pressed. Press
down firmly with a strong lever, and, while kneeing in
another box full, let the lever remain, so that the tobacco
gets set in the box. When ready, take the lever off and
fill up as before, about 6 inches higher than the box ; press
it below the top of the box, take off your lever and nail
on the top as quickly as possible. Some use tobacco-
presses for packing, which are perhaps more convenient ;
they are of various patterns, but a lever saves the expense
of a press and is in the reach of all. If tobacco is sold at
the shed, it should be sold before packing, being easier
examined in bulk than box."

Mitjen is of opinion that, " except in cases where the
extraordinary size of the leaves will not permit it, all the
bales should be made up of 80 ' manojos ' ; but in the
former case 60 of the first classes of the first quality will
be sufficient. The fixed number of 80 manojos is con-
venient for making calculations. We have already said
that the day following that on which the manojos were
tied up, they should be packed in bales, so as not to allow

K 2

132 TOBACCO.

them time to dry too much. Bearing this in mind, the
dyeing and tying up of the manojos should not be com-
menced until there is a sufficient quantity of assorted
leaves to make a bale or bales ; should there be a surplus
of manojos after the bales are made up, they should be
kept protected from the air, until another set of bales is
about to be made up.

" We do not think it is necessary to further explain the
•manner of placing the yaguas, in order to make the bales,
but it is expedient to state that 3 layers of manojos should
not be put in one bale, because it makes a bad shape, and
the tierces or bales appear much smaller than they really
are. The bales should be made of 2 layers, having the
heads of the manojos placed towards the outside. When
the first layer of one of the heads of the bale is placed, the
heads of the other layer should be so arranged that they
will be about half-way over the points of the others ; and
if the tobacco is very small, to each row of manojos may
be laid crossways, two manojos with their heads touching
the yaguas, so that the tobacco placed in the bale may
for in a compact even mass, impervious to the air. The
same should be done in the other rows, care being taken
that the bale is made somewhat thicker in the middle, and
never have a hollow there, — a sure sign of loose packing,
— and into which the air finds its way, preventing fermen-
tation, proper curing, as well as aroma — the tobacco
becoming dry too soon. After the bales are tied up, they
should be placed in the sun or wind until the humidity of
the yagua is dry. They should then be placed on boards
in the storehouse, putting them two and two, one on the
other ; and after eight days they should be moved, placing

CURING. 133

them below those which had been above, so that they may
ferment and be equally pressed."

For pressing tobacco into the hogshead, Hudson suggests
that " a hole be mortised in a tree, in which the end of
the lever can be inserted, passing over the hogshead, and
working by a tree or post, in which should be pins at
intervals of 8-10 inches, by which a small lever may be

FIG. 13.

used to force the first lever down on the tobacco ; 50-100 Ib.
may be placed in the hogshead and firmly pressed a few
hours, and as much added again, and so on. Fig. 13 will
serve to represent the manner in which the hands (or ties)
may be placed in the hogshead — filling the middle first,
then the outer edges — placing the tops toward the centre,
and observing to keep the centre and edges full."

Improving. — It is sometimes the custom to subject the

134 TOBACCO.

tobacco-leaves to some sort of improvement. There is no
doubt that, by proper application of ingredients, the value
of tobacco may be much enhanced. The most costly
tobacco often commands a high price, not so much on
account of its inherent flavour, as from that given to it
artificially. In most instances, the best course to be
adopted is to leave the improvement of the leaves to the
manufacturer. Many ingredients are employed to im-
prove smoking-tobacco. They tend : — 1, to make the
tobacco more elastic and flexible ; 2, to remove the coarse
flavour ; 3, to add a particular flavour ; 4, to improve the
burning quality ; 5, to improve the colour. To make the
tobacco more flexible and pliant, the leaves are macerated
in, or sprinkled with, a solution of sugar. In hot coun-
tries, this process is often necessary, to give tobacco such
an elasticity as to fit it for handling, especially when
intended for wrappers. To remove the coarse flavour, it
is often macerated in water, or in very dilute hydro-
chl ric acid. In Holland, 4-8 oz. of hydrochloric acid,
diluted with 25-30 measures of water, is applied to 100 Ib.
of tobacco. The coarser the flavour of the tobacco, the
stronger is the solution used. The time of maceration
varies between \ and 1 hour. Sometimes tobacco is
steeped in a mixture of sugar solution and diluted hydro-
chloric acid. To extract the fatty matter, it is macerated
in alcohol or spirit of wine. To give a fine flavour,
numerous substances are employed, some of which are
kept secret. The following ingredients are mostly in
use : — Water, cognac, vanilla, sugar, rose-wood, cassia,
clove, benzoin, citron oil, rose-wood oil, amber, thyme,
lavender, raisins, sassafras-wood, saltpetre, orange, and

CURING. 135

many others. The burning quality is improved by
macerating in or sprinkling with solutions of carbonate
of potash, acetate of potash, acetate of lime, or saltpetre,
&c. Badly-burning cigars inserted for a moment in such
solutions are much improved. Tobacco treated with
acetate of lime yields a very white ash. The colour is
sometimes improved by fumigating the leaves with
sulphur, and by the application of ochre and saffron.

Although it may be said that fine tobaccos generally
do not require any impregnation with foreign matter for
the sake of flavour, yet the manufacturer frequently
endeavours to give the leaf a particular aroma. An
inferior tobacco, however, which often would not find a
market, is sometimes so much improved by artificial
means, as to compete successfully with the genuine fine
article. It is said that in Germany indigenous tobacco
is often so much " improved " that the cigars made from
it, after being covered with a fine tobacco leaf, are sold
as genuine Havanas. A special preparation of tobacco
for snuff is seldom attempted by the cultivator. With
reference to the preparation of tobacco for export, the
sorting of the leaf is of the utmost importance ; only first
and second sorts should be exported. It would be well
to remove the midribs, whereby the cost of transport and
customs duty would be greatly reduced.

The value of a cigar depends, not only on the intrinsic
value of the leaf, but to a great extent on the mode of
manufacture. Thus, the raw material may be of good
quality, but if the maker does not classify the leaves
properly, or if he rolls his cigars too hard, which must
vary according to the qualities of the leaves, the cigar

136 TOBACCO.

will burn badly. The best-burning leaves must always
be used for wrappers. If this should be neglected, the
inside of the cigar burns faster than the covering, the air
has no access to the burning parts, and the empyreu-
matical substances are volatilized without being decom-
posed. Such cigars therefore make much smoke, and
smell badly.

(137 )

CHAPTER IV.

PKODUCTION AND COMMEKCE.

DETAILS .concerning the different modes of cultivating
and curing, and of the extent of the production and com-
merce in tobacco in the various countries, will best be
given in the alphabetical order of the countries.

Afghanistan. — The tobacco grown at Kandahar is cele-
brated in all the neighbouring states for its mild and
agreeable flavour, and is largely exported to Hindustan
and Bokhara. Three kinds are grown, viz. : — Kandahari,
Balkhi, and Mansurabadi. Of these, the last named is
the most esteemed, and fetches the highest price, viz.
6 Ib. for 2s.-4s. The Kandahari sells for a little less than
half this price, and the Balkhi for a little more. The
Mansurabadi is not much exported, being mostly con-
sumed in the country. The cultivation is conducted with
great care, and the same plants yield two crops of leaves
in the year. Of these, the first, which is called sargul, is
the best, the leaves having a mild and sweet flavour ; it
is mostly consumed by the wealthy classes, or exported.
The second crop is called mundhai: the leaves have a
tough and fibrous texture, and a strong acrid taste ; it is
usually smoked by the poor people, and is also made into
snuff. The plants are raised from seed in small beds,
prepared for the purpose by careful manuring with wood-
ashes and stable-refuse mixed together. From these
nurseries, the young plants are transplanted into the

138 TOBACCO.

fields, previously prepared for their reception, the earth
being laid out in regular ridges and furrows. The plants
are fixed into the sides of these little ridges, and watered
by means of the intervening furrows. Often the young
plants, packed in moist clay, and bound up in straw, are
conveyed to distant parts of the country ; but the produce
of these, it is said, does not equal that of the plants reared
at Kandahar. About six weeks after transplanting, that
is, about May-June, the first crop is reaped, the whole
plant being cut away about 6 inches from the ground, and
only some 5 or 6 of the lowest leaves being left. Each
plant, as cut, is laid on the ridge, and here each side is
alternately exposed for a night and a day to the effects of
the dew and sun, by which their green colour becomes
brown. After this, they are collected in large heaps in a
corner of the field, and covered over with mats, or a layer
of straw, &c., and allowed to remain so for 8-10 days,
during which the stems shrivel, and give up their mois-
ture to the leaves. At the end of this time, the heaps are
conveyed away into the villages, where the stalks are
separated from the leaves, the latter are then dried in the
shade and tightly packed in bundles about 14 inches square,
and in this shape are sold by the grower. After the first
crop is gathered, the ground is turned with a spade, well
manured, and freely irrigated. In due course, the old
stems shoot up and produce fresh leaves, and in six weeks
or two months, the second crop is cut. Sometimes, though
seldom, a third crop is realized, but the quality of this
tobacco is very inferior, and it is only fit for making
snuff.

Africa. — The tobacco-plant extends throughout Central

PRODUCTION AND COMMERCE. 139

and East Africa, wherever the equinoctial rains fall. It
is cultivated to some extent in the Bondei of Usambara,
but seems to be the special product of the Handei district,
whence considerable quantities are sent to Pangani for
export. Usambara also exports to Zanzibar stiff, thin,
round cakes, which have been pounded in wooden mortars,
and neatly packed in plaintain-leaves. It is dark and
well-flavoured. The Cape of Good Hope, in 1865, had
933 morgen (of 2*116 acres) under tobacco, yielding
1,632,746 Ib. ; in 1875, 1243 morgen afforded 3,060,241 Ib.
Tobacco is grown considerably in Oudtshorn and other
districts of the Cape Colony, and on the warmer farms in
the Transvaal, but to the greatest extent on the coast.
The supply is already sufficient for local demands, and
tobacco promises to become a staple of South African
agricultural industry.

A recent writer on this portion of the British colonies
says, "tobacco, though cultivated as an article of com-
merce for export, has not met with much success, as the
passion for the weed has become deeply rooted in the
natives of the coast and interior, so that it is cultivated
by them in many parts of the province for their own con-
sumption, and forms a regular article of sale and barter
amongst themselves." The tobacco leaf is dried very
carelessly by the natives, and is made up in a peculiar
way, as follows : — It is first plaited, and when the plait
has reached a length of 3-4 feet, it is wound up in the
form of a spiral. Gradually drying in this shape, it
preserves its form without any binding, and it is unwound
and cut off in short pieces when required for use or sale.
This mode of preparation is invariable among the Makua

140 TOBACCO.

and Yao, between the Koouma and Zambesi. Consul
O'Neill says that "were the natives instructed in some
simple method of drying and pressing the leaf, the valu-
able product would be probably brought down by them
in considerable quantities, affording, as it would do, a
larger margin for profit than does the culture of oil seeds,
and it might become a regular article of colonial manu-
facture and export."

Tobacco-growing is a very important industry in
Algeria. The culture and manufacture are quite free,
but the French Government buys all the best produce, for
manufacture and sale by the State factory in Paris. The
cultivation continues to increase, and is highly remunera-
tive where the land is capable of irrigation. In 1876-7,
the 1889 Europeans engaged in it cultivated 2471 hectares
(of 2J acres), and produced 2,782,500 Mo. (of 2-2 lb.);
the 8021 natives cultivated 4154 hectares, which yielded
1,889,124 Mo. The year 1877-8 was less favourable, and
the area decreased by 425 hectares. Still worse results
were expected in 1878-9, owing to scarcity of water. The
kind most grown is called chebli. The produce per hectare
of fine and chebli is estimated at 6-8 quintals ; the other
kinds give 10-12. The exports in 1877 and 1878 respec-
tively were as follows: — Manufactured, 121,090 kilo,,
and 124,117 Mo. ; unmanufactured, 3,445,441 kilo, and
1,509,266 Mo. In 1879, 1087 Europeans planted 3180
hectares, and gathered 1,226,181 Mo.; 11,079 natives
planted 6584 hectares, and produced 1,384,802 kilo. ; the
exports were 2,481,218 kilo, unmanufactured, and 146,345
kilo, manufactured.

The figures for 1883 were : — 1240 European planters

PRODUCTION AND COMMERCE. 141

cultivated 2278 hectares and produced 2,250,671 kilo.,
whilst 8735 native planters cultivated 6416 hectares and
produced 2,977,067 Mo., the total product being 5,227,738
kilo. This does not differ to any great extent from the
result of the previous year. Tobacco is capable of being
produced in much greater quantity, says the British
Consul, but the market is limited. The colonists them-
selves and the Government appear to be the only
purchasers.

Australia.— In the year ending 31st March, 1879, New
South Wales had 835 acres under tobacco, and the crop
amounted to 7932 cwt. In the same year, Victoria culti-
vated 1936 acres, which yielded 15,662 cwt., valued at
43,853Z. Queensland grew 36 acres of tobacco in
1879.

Austro-Hungary. — The manufacture and sale of tobacco
is a Government monopoly in the Austro-Hungarian em-
pire, and the revenue thus derived is the most lucrative
item of the indirect income of the State. The only
tobacco-growing provinces of Austria are Galicia and
Bukowina, producing about 4 million kilo, from 2900
hectares', and South Tyrol, where 290 hectares yield almost
4 million kilo, of green tobacco. The respective approxi-
mate values of the two products are 18^ florin (of Is. 11 ^d.)
and 4| florin per 100 kilo. The chief supplies are furnished
by Hungary, which was once so noted for its tobacco, but
the industry is now completely crippled by the fiscal regu-
lations. The area (in acres) under cultivation fluctuates
remarkably; in 1860, it was 679| ; in 1865, 68,141; in
1869, 843|; in 1875, 26,817; in 1879, 7316. The total
areas (in acres) under cultivation in the whole empire in

142 TOBACCO.

1876, 1877, and 1878 respectively were, 144,493, 148,126,
143,447; the yields in Mo., 46,033,163, 44,164,038,
40,978,540; and the yield (in Mo.) per joch (of 1-43
acre), 445, 426, 408. Fiume, in 1877, exported by sea
2862 cwt, of manufactured tobacco ; and by land, 31,200
cwt. of leaf, and 53,712 cwt. of manufactured. In 1879,
it shipped 9900 kilo, of leaf tobacco direct to England. In
1883, the tobacco harvest was 26,560 metrical centners
(about equivalent to cwts.), being 1595 in advance of
1882. The total exports of raw tobacco were 55,842
metrical centners in 1883, and 74,475 in 1884. The port
of Fiume shipped 613 tons of tobacco leaf in 1883, of
which 189,300 kilo, value 75,720 florins, went to Gibraltar.
In 1884, the shipments from Fiume were 1673 tons.

Borneo. — Tobacco is grown in small quantities by the
Dyaks and people of Bruni ; but they are unskilful in its
manufacture, though the flavour of the product of Bruni
is much esteemed by Europeans. Under skilful manage-
ment, and by introducing a better kind if necessary, it
might become as profitable to this island as it now is to
the neighbouring ones of the Philippines, Java, &c. The
Dyaks might be more readily induced to cultivate this
plant, the nature of which they know, than plants which
are strange to them. More recently it is announced that
plantations have been commenced in British North Borneo,
and samples of the leaf sent to Europe have been favour-
ably reported on. The exports from Sarawak in 1884
were valued at 2020 dollars to foreign ports, and 34,257
dollars in coasting vessels, making a total of 36,277
dollars. In the same year, British North Borneo shipped
2113 dollars' worth ; and Sandakan, 1537 dollars' worth.

PKODUCTION AND COMMEKCE. 143

Bourbon. — Efforts are being made to successfully intro-
duce tobacco into the rotation of crops on the sugar estates,
with the object of supplying the article to the French
regie or Government monopoly, which buys annually
upwards of 40 million francs' worth of tobacco in the
islands of Cuba, Java, and other colonies. The results
hitherto obtained are not unsatisfactory, and this article
may shortly acquire importance among Bourbon products.
The exports in 1884 were 10,185 Mo., value 61,110 fr.

Brazil. — In Brazil, tobacco is chiefly cultivated in the
provinces of Bahia, Minas, Sao Paulo, and Para. The
town of Purificagao, in Bahia, is the centre of an important
district. The cultivation is increasing, and greater care is
being taken in the preparation. The common up-country
method is to pick the leaves from the stalks, dry them
under the hut-roofs, remove the midribs, and spread them
in superposed layers, amounting to 2-8 lb., for rolling to-
gether and binding with bark strips. These rolls are
bound very tightly with cord, and left for several days,
when the cord is replaced by strips of jacitara, the split
stem of a climbing palm (Desmoncus sp. div.), and have a
stick-like form 1 J inch in diameter. They are sold in masas
of 4-6 feet in length, but the tobacco is not considered good
till it has fermented for 5-6 months, when it is hard and
black, and shaved off as required for pipes, cigarettes, and
cigars, the last made with wrappers of tauari bark (Coura-
tari guianensis). The Tapajos tobacco is considered the
finest in the Amazon valley. The export of tobacco from
Bahia in 1877-8 was 17,272,678 Ho., and in 1878-9,
18,149,201 Mo., almost the whole being to Germany.
Santos, in 1878-9, shipped 381,310 kilo. Bahia sends

144 TOBACCO.

away immense numbers of cigars coastwise. Maceio ex-
ported 4336Z. worth, in 1876, but none in 1879.

Some interesting particulars are given in the last report
of the United States Consul-General at Eio de Janeiro, as
to the cultivation and manufacture of tobacco in Brazil.
It appears that the cultivation began about the year 1600,
in the province of Bahia, and from thence extended to all
the other districts along the coast. Among the localities
earliest known for their tobacco production was the lake
district of Pernambuco, now the province of Alagoas,
where an excellent quality was produced, which com-
manded very high, prices. During the following century
the cultivation increased so rapidly in Alagoas and Bahia,
that at the commencement of the succeeding century, the
average annual export had reached 2857 tons from the
latter, and 285 tons from the former province. The
earliest export statistics available for the whole empire,
are for the year 1839-40, in which the export amounted
to 295,966 arrobas, the arrdba being equivalent to about
92 lb.; and the value exceeded 65,OOOZ. For the next
thirteen years, the exports averaged 8,000,000 lb. annually,
with a value steadily increasing. During each of the
years 1853-55, the amount exported was 22,000,000 lb., of
the total value each year of 200,OOOZ. In 1879-80, the
export was 50,000,000 lb., of the value 659,OOOZ. ; in 1880-

81, 44,000,000 lb., of the value of 650,OOOZ., and in 1881-

82, 52,000,000 lb., of the value of 680,OOOZ. Though the
principal tobacco-producing province of the empire is
Bahia, tobacco of good quality is grown in every part of
Brazil, from the Amazon to the Bio Grande frontier.
Some localities in the province of Amazonas have long

PRODUCTION AND COMMERCE. 145

been known for the excellent quality of their tobacco,
while in the Eio market one of the brands most esteemed
comes from the province of Goyaz. The local consumption
of tobacco is very great, and principally in smoking.
Bahia tobacco used to be largely exported in rolls, weigh-
ing 8 arrobas, or 256 Ib. each ; of late years, however,
large quantities of the leaves in bales are exported to
Hamburg. Cigar factories are established in all large
cities throughout the tobacco-growing regions, which give
employment to a large number of men, women, and
children. The methods employed in the cultivation and
preparation of the plant are very much the same as they
were nearly 200 years ago. The labour employed is that
of slaves, to whom are assigned special descriptions of
work. In former times curing tobacco in rolls required
much constant labour, the ropes composing each roll being
unwound, twisted, and re-wound during a period varying
from 10 to 15 days. The Brazilian tobacco is generally
characterized by its strength and dark colour, particularly
in Bahia. In that province the practice is to manure
heavily, which occasions a very rank growth and strong
flavour. In Minas Geraes the tobacco is somewhat milder,
and some advance has lately been made in a few localities
towards improved processes of curing. This seed may be
germinated in any season of the year, but the months of
June, July, and August are generally preferred for plant-
ing, because germination and transplanting are brought
into or near the rainy season. Tobacco plants planted in
this season are considered the best growers, and produce
the largest leaves. Those, however, which are germinated
in the dry season, and sustained by irrigation, grow with

146 TOBACCO.

greater vigour, and possess a finer aroma. The land se-
lected for the plants is cleared, and the surface worked
with the hoe, after which it is marked off into parallel
rows about 3 feet apart, according to locality and the size
of the mature plants. In transplanting, the young plants
are set from 2 to 3 feet apart, and are manured heavily in
the pits opened for them. Great care is necessary for a
time to protect the shoots from the sun, and to irrigate
plentifully when the transplanting occurs in a dry season.
The work of cultivation and keeping down the weeds is
performed entirely with the hoe, and only two or three
times during the season. In gathering in the crops,
planters wait until the plants are fully matured, this
being determined by doubling and breaking one of the top
leaves. In Bahia and other Brazilian provinces the lower
leaf is often picked by itself, and in a few days the next,
and so on as long as the plant will develop the lower
leaves into what is classed first quality. These leaves are
hung up two and two, under cover and across poles, 24
hours after picking and sweating. When it is intended
to twist the leaves into ropes, they are left hanging about
2 days, when they are taken down, carefully freed from
the heavy parts of the midrib, doubled in halves, and laid
away for the rope twister. This operation requires con-
siderable dexterity, and is generally entrusted to the best
slave on the plantation. The operation requires a rude
windlass, which is slowly turned in winding the rope,
which is twisted by hand. A boy is usually employed
entirely to hand leaves to the twister. These ropes are
unwound and re- wound once or twice a day, for a period
of 10-15 days, according to the weather, and are twisted

PRODUCTION AND COMMERCE. 147

a little harder each time. In curing, the tobacco grows
darker and darker, until it becomes jet black. The juices
exuding from the rolls are carefully caught and preserved
until the last winding, when, mixed with lard, syrup, and
various aromatic herbs, they are used to pass the rope
through, previous to the final winding. The last step is
to cut the cured ropes in certain lengths, and to re-wind
them upon light wooden sticks, about 2 feet in length, the
winding being very compact and regular. The rolls are
then covered with leather or strong canvas, when they are
ready for market. Formerly, these rolls were made to
weigh 8 arrobas, or 256 lb., though rolls of 3 arrobas
made for the home markets. At the present day the
weights vary according to the locality. The large expor-
tation of tobacco in leaf has considerably changed the
character of tobacco-growing in Bahia, the process of
curing and packing the leaf being simpler than the old
process of manufacturing rolos. Tobacco-growing is
heavily protected and taxed in Brazil, nearly all the
provinces imposing separate protective taxes, in addition
to those imposed by the Government. Besides these, the
municipalities are permitted to levy taxes on the article.
The present export tax on tobacco, in Brazil, amounts to
as much as 18 per cent.

The local market quotations are thus given : —

s. d. s. d.
Patentes . . . . 6808-8170 real ( = 12 2-14 7) per 10 kilo. (= 22 lb.)

Santo Amaro, assorted 37-58 „ ,,

Alagrinhas.. .. 2791-5106.. .. (50-82)

Sao Felix .. .. 3745-4425 .. (6 8- 7 10 £) „ „

The Bahia export in 1883-1 was 15,644,010 kilo., value
400,2462.

L 2

148 TOBACCO.

Canary Islands. — With the declining importance of
cochineal, tobacco-growing is gaining ground, and the
quality of the article has been much improved, while
factories for drying and preparing the leaf have been
established in various localities. The exports for the
year 1883-4 were: — 27 lb., value 8Z., to France; 2268
cwt., value 9809Z., to Spain; 1753 lb., value 375Z., to
Germany; and 939 lb., value 189Z., to West Coast of
Africa.

China. — The chief tobacco-growing provinces of China
are Chihli, Hopih, Hoonan, Szechuen, and Shingking.
The use of tobacco is wide-spread and common, and con-
siderable local trade is carried on in it. The exports from
Amoy were 2573 piculs (of 133J lb.), value 13,561Z., in
1877 ; and 3994^ piculs, value 17,936Z., in 1878. Wenchow
exported 27| piculs of leaf in 1878, and 321J in 1879.
The exports and re-exports from Hankow in 1878 were
65,070£';>«c«tk of leaf, and 46,241| of prepared. In 1879,
Hankow exported and re-exported 63,180 piculs prepared,
value 311,754Z., and 58,094 of leaf, value 118,534Z. There
is an immense supply from the provinces, and the leaf is
fine in colour, texture, and fragrance, but though sent to
America and England for cigar-making, the trade has not
been remunerative. It is now used in cigarettes and
various cut mixtures as " Turkish," but when better
known, will be smoked on its own merits. Canton
exported 1730% piculs in 1877, 1742f in 1878, and 2397 in
1879. The exports of leaf from Ningpo were 407 piculs in
1874, 571 in 1875, 211 in 1876, 530 in 1877, 378 in 1878,
and 165 in 1879. Kiungchow -exported 449 J piculs of leaf
jn 1878 ; and 85J piculs, value 136Z., in 1879. Kiukiang

PRODUCTION AND COMMERCE. 149

exported 28,1201 piculs of leaf, value 35,678/., in 1878 ;
and 14,659 of leaf, and 802 of stalk, in 1879.

Chinkiang imported 13,328 piculs of leaf, and 1914 of
prepared, in 1879. Macao receives tobacco from the
Hokshan district, and prepares it for exportation to Java,
the Straits, and California, the annual export being about
10,000 piculs. The Newchwang imports of prepared native
tobacco were 8052 piculs in 1877, 8354 in 1878, and 6630
in 1879. Shanghai, in 1879, imported 58,460 piculs of
native leaf, 79,081J of prepared, and 1187J of stalk ; and
exported and re-exported 31,541 of leaf, and 29,672J of
prepared. Taiwan imported 3017J piculs of prepared
native in 1879. Tientsin exported 1047J piculs native
tobacco in 1878, and 693J in 1879. Tobacco is grown in
the hilly districts near Wuhu ; the leaves are gathered in
October, and sun-dried on wicker-work frames. The
exports in 1879 were 597J piculs of leaf, and 742 of pre-
pared.

Cochin-China. — The culture of tobacco is extending in
Cochin-China, and it is even said that a considerable
quantity is exported to China, but it improves little in
quality. The area reported to be under tobacco cultiva-
tion in 1878 (including coffee) was 2361 acres.

Costa Rica. — The free cultivation of tobacco was stopped
in January 1884, and its free sale only permitted till
December 31, 1885.

Ecuador. — The tobacco crop of Ecuador for 1879 was
not so large as usual, owing to an unfavourable season.
Esmeraldas, the most northerly port, and whence nearly
all the tobacco shipments are made, despatched about
3000 quintals in 1879. Guayaquil exported 150 quintals in.

150 TOBACCO.

1877, none in 1878, and 10 in 1879. In 1883, the exports
from Guayaquil were 1374 quintals, value 549 6 1. ; in 1884,
only 96 quintals, 192Z.

Fiji. — The Fiji Islands are well adapted to tobacco
culture. The natives produce a good deal, which nearly
approaches the American leaf. With careful curing, it
would find a market in England. The native product is
rolled, which prevents its being made into cigars.
Samples of leaf-tobacco in hands, raised from foreign
seeds, exhibited very unequal qualities, and a tendency to
revert to American forms, the Havana returning to the
Virginian type. Cut up for smoking, they were deficient
in flavour, but were considered satisfactory as a first
experiment.

France. — The area -occupied by tobacco in France in
1873 was 14,858 hectares (of 2J acres), yielding at the
rate of 12 quintals (of 220J lb.). The amount of land
authorized to grow tobacco in Pas de Calais in 1879 was
2100 acres, and the quantity furnished to the Government
was 3,659,636 lb., the prices (per kilo.) paid by the
Government being 1 fr. 45c. for Ists, 1/r. 12c. for 2nds,
88c. for 3rds, and 10-66c. for other inferior qualities-
The number of plants grown per acre is about 17,000.
The department Nord affords rather more than Pas de
Calais.

By the Imperial decrees of December 29th, 1810, and
January 12th, 1811, it was ordained that the purchase of
tobacco in leaf and the fabrication and sale, whether
wholesale or retail, of manufactures of tobacco, should be
exclusively confined to the Administration of Indirect
Taxes (Kegie des Droits Unis) in all the departments of

PRODUCTION AND COMMERCE. 151

France. At present the Regie has in operation 16 large
manufactories, 27 " magasins de culture," and 4 " maga-
sins de transit." It employs over 19,000 workpeople, of
whom about 80 per cent, are women and girls. The
usual daily earnings are, for men, from 2s. Id. to 3s. lie?.,
and for women, from Is. %d. to 2s. 4<Z. For faithful or
exemplary services, the workpeople receive annually
rewards, varying in amounts from 15s. to 20Z. Mr. Scid-
more, the United States Consular Agent in Paris, gives
the following description of the manner in which the
operations of the Kegie are carried on. At the begin-
ning of each year the Minister of Finance designates the
number of hectares upon which, and the departments
within which, the cultivation of tobacco may be under-
taken during the following season. The last ministerial
decree upon this subject confines the privilege to the
departments of the Alpes Maritimes, Bouches du Rhone,
Dordogne, Gironde, Ille-et-Vilaine, Landes, Lot-et-
Garonne, Meurthe-et-Moselle, Nord, Pas de Calais, Puy de
Dome, Hautes-Pyrenees, Haute-Saone, Savoie, Haute
Savoie, and Yar. In the month of October or November,
an agent of the Regie proceeds to the communes among
which the prefects have apportioned the allotments, and
receives the declaration of every proprietor desiring to
profit by the authorization. A Commission, composed of
the prefect, of the director of indirect taxes, a superior
agent of cultivation, a member of the council general, and
of a member of the council of the arrondissement, not
being planters, then examine the declarations, and admit,
reduce, or reject them. After a planter is accorded
permission to cultivate, he is subjected to close official

152 TOBACCO.

supervision, and to numerous stringent regulations con-
cerning details as to the prohibition to sow any other seed
than that furnished to him by the administration, the
mode of planting, &c. ; and, in addition to the surveillance
as to these matters, two official inventories are taken of
the growing crop — the first to ascertain the extent of land
under cultivation and the number of plants, the second to
determine the number of leaves for which the planter
will be held accountable. When the tobacco has been
gathered in a manner described by regulations of minute
detail, the planter takes it to the magazine of the
Regie, where it is subjected to the inspection of a
commission of five disinterested experts, who separate the
leaves into three portions, according to quality; the
planter is then paid for each portion in accordance with
the tariff of prices promulgated by the Minister of
Finance. Foreign tobacco is obtained through contract
with private parties, after published proposals by the
Minister of Finance through the French Consular Corps
abroad, and through a special government agency estab-
lished at Havana. At present a little over one-third of
the tobacco purchased by the Regie is of French
growth; over one-half consists of foreign leaf, mostly
obtained from the United States, and the remainder is
made up by importations of cigars from Havana and
Manilla, and by cigarettes and miscellaneous productions
of various countries, and by custom-house seizures. The
magazines distributed throughout the country are of two
sorts, " magasins de transit " for foreign tobacco, and
"magasins de culture" for indigenous tobacco. In the
" magasins de transit " the foreign leaves have not to

PRODUCTION AND COMMERCE. 153

submit to any other manipulation than the sampling of
packages, after which they are forwarded to the factories
in such quantities as may be demanded. With the
indigenous tobacco the course is different; this when
received from the hands of the French grower is usually
very imperfectly dried, and has to be subjected to a
curing process. After the bundles are thoroughly
thrashed, they are put in heaps according to maturity, and
fermented in a temperature as high as 30° to 40° Centi-
grade. This maturation lasts from six to nine months,
depending upon the locality, and the condition of the
leaves as received, and is interrupted from time to time
by the operation of shaking and turning in order to pre-
vent too great fermentation. "When this fermentation is
concluded, those leaves containing less than twenty per
cent, of water are ready to be packed. At this point cer-
tain of the leaves undergo a stemming process ; they are
then packed by hydraulic pressure in bales and hogsheads
weighing from 400 to 500 Mo. each, and in this state
they remain stored in the magazine for some months to
acquire further ripeness. It is usually 15-18 months
after they are gathered that the leaves are considered to
be in a fit condition to be sent to the manufactory. Upon
arrival at the manufactory, the packages are sorted and
emptied; the leaves are spread out in large bins or receive
a preparatory wetting with water containing 10 per cent.
of sea salt, in order to produce flexibility and prevent
powdering. This process occupies 24 hours. Then
follows the sorting according to quality, and the distribu-
tion to the various workrooms for composition.

When intended for the manufacture of snuff, the leaves

154 TOBACCO.

are put into machines and chopped into strips of the
width of a finger; they are then moistened with pure
water or tobacco juice of various strengths, the necessary
quantity and quality of which is determined by chemical
analysis. These strips are then piled up in masses con-
taining from 35,000 to 40,000 kilogrammes, in rooms
where a high and even temperature is maintained by
steam-pipes and ventilators. Here they remain to ferment
during a month or six weeks, when they are dried, ground
into powder, and sifted. This powder then receives a
wetting, is packed in stout wooden bins, in quantities
ranging from 25,000 to 30,000 kilo., and so remain to
ferment for several months. During the course of the
final fermentation, the powder is tested and moved from
one bin to another from time to time, in order to ensure a
successful issue of the process. When the samples taken
from the bins indicate maturity, the snuff is packed in
barrels and casks, and is ready for the market. For the
manufacture of smoking-tobacco, the leaves, after the
stemming process, receive their first moistening, which
lasts 24 hours. They are then neatly arranged, with
their edges parallel, and are taken to the chopping
machines ; the machines in use at the Regie are
capable of chopping 220 Ib. per hour, the knives being
renewed twice during that time. The tobacco, on leaving
the choppers, contains about 25 per cent, of humidity, and
is immediately conveyed into one end of a revolving
drying cylinder, heated to a uniform temperature of
203° Fahrenheit, from the opposite end of which it issues,
at the expiration of fifteen minutes, in a dried state and
freed from albumen. It is then put through a second
cylinder, similar in construction to the last, but which

PRODUCTION AND COMMERCE.

155

subjects the tobacco to a strong draught of cold air to eli-
minate all dust and heat. The tobacco is then packed
in well-aired bins, where it remains from four to six
weeks, after which it is carefully overhauled by hand to
remove the pieces of stems and foreign matter that may
have escaped notice in the previous operations. It is then
put up in packages, varying in weight from 40 grammes
upwards. These packages are surrounded with a paper
band, upon which are printed the Government tax stamp,
the date of manufacture, the weight, the price, and the
letter " H," followed by figures. The last mark signifies
the amount of humidity contained in the tobacco at the
time it was put into the packets. Consul Scidmore says
that in no instance since its inauguration has there been
a year without enormous profits to the tobacco monopoly
in France, and in a table appended to his report, it appears
that from the date of its foundation (1811) to the end of
1878, the net total gain to the French Government
amounted to 287,703,8812.

The following table from a recent report shows that the
consumption of tobacco in France has been steadily
increasing : —

Year.

Population.

Amount consumed.

Amount per
Head.

Kilogrammes.

Grammes.

1815

29,250,000

8,981,403

307

1826

31,673,853

11,595,084

366

1831

32,731,256

11,071,088

338

1841

34,018,715

16,461,934

484

1851

35,546,919

19,718,089

555

1864

37,133,424

28,019,803

755

1866

37,807,203

30,627,663

810

1872

35,844,414

27,031,000

754

1876

36,643,087

31,188,846

851

156 TOBACCO.

The amount consumed in the different departments
varies very much. Snuff-taking is most practised in
Oise, Seine Inferieure, Eure, and Eure-et-Loir, at the
maximum rate of 375 grm. per head ; and least in the
departments of Doubs, Pyrenees Orientales, Nord, Haut
Rhin, and Haute Savoie, where the average is but
100 grm. In smoking, however, there is rather a reverse
order of things, the Nord, Haut-Rhin, and Pas de Calais
consuming at the rate of 2 kilo, per head, while the
minimum is found in Haute Savoie, Cantal, Correze,
Creuse, Aveyron, Dordogne, Lot, and Lozere. Ten
departments only consume tobacco above the average,
while 70 are actually below it. If all France smoked the
same quantity as do the people of Nord, Haut-Rhin, and
Pas de Calais, the consumption for the whole country
would be 73,286,174 Mo. instead of 31,000,000; and
vice versa it would be only 6,265,968 kilo, if calculated
according to the average of Lozere, which is only at the
rate of 171 grm. per head.

The department of the Nord, in 1884, had 449 hectares
(of 2-47 acres) under tobacco, the yield of which was
1,168,206 Mo.

Germany. — The total area of land engaged in growing
tobacco in Germany in 1878 was about 44,520 acres;
nearly two-thirds of this total was distributed among
Rhenish Bavaria, Baden, S. Hesse, and Alsace-Lorraine.
The total consumption of tobacco in the German empire
in that year was 2,196,000 cwt. The home production
was 596,776 cwt., the remainder being imported.

The aggregate area of land cultivated with tobacco in
the States of the German Customs Union did not vary

PRODUCTION AND COMMERCE. 157

considerably during ten years, being 21,509 hectares in
1863, and 20,918 in 1872, to which must be added the
newly annexed provinces of Alsace and Lorraine, which
bring up the total to 24,745 hectares. It appears that,
with particular regard to the year 1872, the cultivation
was carried on in 4067 different localities, by 94,916
taxable growers, and by 83,675 smaller growers, whose
production, owing to its limited extent, was exempt from
taxation. By far the larger number were small growers,
the area cultivated by each not exceeding an average of
10 ares. In Prussia the aggregate of land cultivated
during the year 1871 amounted to 5925 hectares, or 26
per cent, of the entire territory of the kingdom; the
aggregate yield of the harvest in the same year was
198,890 centners. It appears that the extent of tobacco-
growing land has, during the last fifty years, been
gradually diminishing in Prussia, and that accordingly
the expectations entertained in the beginning of that
period of a great future development of this branch of
agriculture have not been realized. The reasons for the
gradual decline are considered to be, on the one hand, the
growing competition of the South German growers, and
the increase in the importations of American tobacco ; on
the other hand, the fact that the cultivation of beetroot
for sugar, and of potatoes for distilling purposes, has
proved to be a more profitable business than tobacco pro-
duction. It has, moreover, been found by many years'
experience, that whilst the quality of the tobacco culti-
vated in most parts of Prussia is not such as to enable the
growers to compete successfully with the importers of
foreign, particularly North American sorts, the labour

158 TOBACCO.

attending its cultivation and its preparation for the
market, as well as the uncertainty of only an average
crop, are out of proportion, as a rule, to the average
profits arising therefrom. The cultivation of the plant
has consequently gradually become restricted chiefly to
those districts of the country where either the soil is
peculiarly adapted for the purpose, or where it is carried
on for the private use of the producer.

In Bavaria, as is well known, tobacco is cultivated
very extensively, particularly in the Palatinate and in
Franconia, viz. the districts around Nuremberg and
Erlangen. The area of land in 1871 was 4721 hectares,
which produced 144,153 centners. In Saxony but little
tobacco is grown, the total area planted therewith in 1871
not having exceeded 6 hectares, upon which 130 centners
were produced. Although in parts of Wirtemberg the
soil and climate are said to be very favourable to the
growth of the plant, the area of land cultivated is, upon
the whole, a very limited one, and did not exceed 178
hectares. The yield of the harvest is given at 5571
centners. In the year 1858 the extent of production in
Wirtemberg is stated to have been four times as great as
it is at present. The Grand Duchy of Baden has at all
times been the chief tobacco-growing part of Germany,
and as far back as the end of the seventeenth century
special laws for regulating the cultivation, preparation,
and warehousing of this article were in force. The great
importance accordingly attaching to this branch of
agriculture and industry for so large a proportion of the
inhabitants of Baden, renders it but natural that any
project of increasing the tobacco tax should meet with

PRODUCTION AND COMMERCE. 159

very strong opposition amongst most classes of the Grand
Duchy. The most prominent tobacco-growing districts
of Baden are those of Carlsruhe, Mannheim, Heidelberg,
Badenburg, Schwitzingen, and Lahr; the quality of the
plant grown in these parts being a very inferior one.
The produce of the districts mentioned is therefore
applied chiefly to the manufacture of " cigar- wrappers,"
and is exported in considerable quantities to Bremen,
Hamburg, Switzerland, Holland, and even to America,
for the use of the cigar-makers. The prices of the best
kinds of Baden tobacco are consequently also, on an
average, much higher than those realized by other
German growers. The area in Hesse was 979 hectares,
the chief district being around- the town of Darmstadt ;
the production was 31,311 centners. The most prominent
amongst the Thuringian States as regards tobacco pro-
duction, is the Duchy of Saxe-Menningen ; the land
cultivated in 1871 in all of them put together was 202
hectares, the yield of the harvest in that year having
been 4806 centners. In the two German states of
Mecklenburg, 6106 centners were raised from 165 hectares
of land. The most important district is that of Neu-
Brandenburg, in Mecklenburgh-Strelitz. Only a small
extent of land, viz. 69 hectares, is used for tobacco in the
Duchy of Brunswick, the same being situated near the
town of Helmstadt ; the amount raised was 2391
centners.

In the recently acquired provinces of Alsace-Lorraine,
tobacco cultivation has been extensively carried on for
many years, more especially in the country around Stras-
burg, Miilhausen, Schirmeck, and Miinster, and to a

160 TOBACCO.

smaller extent near Metz and Thionville. The aggregate
area of land cultivated in 1871 in both provinces is given
at 3159 hectares, upon which 115,518 centners of tobacco
were raised. According to the statistics and information
furnished by Consul Ward, the quantity of tobacco pro-
duced in Germany in the year 1871 amounted to 713,845
centners, the whole being estimated in value at 60,284,210
dols., or about 9,042,6 131 sterling.

A Consular report of March 31, 1885, remarks that one
of the most prominent branches of agriculture in Baden is
that of tobacco, of which about 300,000 to 350,000 cwt.
annually are grown, whereof large quantities are exported.
Owing to the comparatively high tax on production of
22J marks per 50 kilo., the grower has been forced to
seek a more rational system of cultivation, and a more
careful treatment of the plant and the curing of the leaf.
Government pays particular attention to this culture. A
Commission has been appointed for the purpose of study-
ing and investigating the treatment of tobacco in Holland,
and the results are to be adopted and propagated, so far
as the climate admits.

It is very doubtful whether the labours of the Commis-
sion will greatly influence the farmers, who are of a very
conservative disposition; moreover, there is a greater
obstacle to struggle against, namely, their desire to
increase the quantity of the production, and with it their
income, without regard to the question of deterioration of
the quality of tobacco ; the peasantry, like other classes,
participates in the desire to better its material condition.

The surface of land occupied by tobacco plantations re-
presented in 1883 for the whole of the empire the con-

PRODUCTION AND COMMERCE. 161

siderable figure of 22,068 hectares ; this year a reduction
is to be noted, as official reports bring the total to 21,108
hectares only. ..%

The Grand Duchy of Baden participated in the above
figures with 7788 hectares for 1883, and 7647 hectares
for 1884.

Notwithstanding this difference, the result of the crop
will not essentially be smaller (as regards the weight of
the total), the new produce proving heavier in weight and
in substance. While in 1883 the hectare produced about
1900 kilo., it is supposed that for 1884 it will yield from
1800 to 2000 Mo. These figures tend to prove that the
1884 tobacco is richer in quality, and consequently more
durable, and less capable of treatment than that of the
preceding years ; although the quality is somewhat
inferior to that of 1882 and 1883 it may fairly be con-
sidered as good.

The subjoined remarks deal with the tobacco trade of
Bremen. The number of casks of Kentucky tobacco sold
in 1884 fell considerably below that disposed of in 1883.
This is explainable by the circumstance that lugs and
cuttings were altogether wanting. The prices of leaf
on the whole remained steady, except in October and
November, when they soon regained their firmness
through no more supplies from America being expected,
owing to the continued demand for strong tobacco in that
country. Business in Virginia tobacco also suffered from
the want of inferior qualities. Prices, considered high
from the beginning, showed even a rising tendency at the
end of the season. Transactions in Maryland and scrubs
exceeded the average of the last five years. Ohio and Bay

162

TOBACCO.

suffered, as hitherto, from the protection afforded to home
growths. Operations in stems were, considering the de-
pression in trade, not unsatisfactory.

A good business was done in almost all descriptions of
tobacco in serons, chests, bales, and baskets, and sales sur-
passed those of previous years.

The subjoined table presents a comparison of the trans-
actions in the various sorts of tobacco during the last two
years : —

Description of Tobacco.

Description of
Packing.

Imports.

Sales.

1883.

1884.

1883.

1884.

Kentucky .

Casks

20,828

12,084

20,012

12,514

Virginia . ...

J)

3,937

5,250

4,848

5,196

Maryland .

55

4,929

5,615

4,579

5,811

Scrubs

55 •

383

1,363

383

1,027

Ohio

5»

581

1,155

566

1,174

Bay

j) •

101

136

234

134

Stems . ...

59 '

5,013

7,332

8,163

5,403

Havana . ...

Serons

16,127

15,027

13,121

11,967

Cuba and Yara

»

22,467

22,259

29,297

17,383

St. Domingo

«

83,836

59,665

58,121

44,065

Seed-leaf

Chests .

17,070

18,723

77,000

18,203

Porto Kico

Bales

1,133

300

1,137

2,210

Esmeralda

'»

705

549

776

599

Columbia

( Serons and \
\ bales /

11,862

21,041

14,032

22,659

Varnias

\ Leaves and)
[ rolls /

922

2,065

3,174

2,065

Brazil, in leaves

Bales

131,982

185,061

139,397

189,246

Paraguay

» • •

2,672

2,601

2,879

2,819

Rio Grande

i) . .

4,571

..

10,199

1,340

Manilla

5) • •

50

77

21

106

Mexican

,, • •

10

ft

10

Turkish and Greek

»»

6,'i55

6,825

8, '235

8,105

Other varieties

» • •

1,496

2,017

1,441

3,357

Good qualities of Havana fetched adequate prices. The
demand for Cuba, Yara, Carmen, and Domingo was brisk ;

PRODUCTION AND COMMERCE. 163

Brazilian and Felix found ready buyers, owing to the last
good crop, the prices rising towards the close of the year.
The stock of Porto Eico was realized at a low figure. In
seed-leaf Pennsylvania plants were chiefly imported, and,
being of a good quality, were for the most part promptly
disposed of. Much inclination was shown for Turkish
tobacco, and the same remark applies to business in
Paraguay, of which the supplies might have been greater.
Chinese tobacco, very brisk at first on account of its fine
quality, later on fell off again considerably.

The value of the tobacco consumed in Germany in 1878
is calculated to have been 353 million marks, or 17,650,OOOZ.
sterling, the total return to the revenue being 26,383,966
marks, or 1,319,198Z. The quantity consumed in that
empire in the year is stated at 2,196,000 cwt., or rather
more than 100,000 tons. Of this quantity 582,600 cwt.,
or upwards of 29,000 tons, were consumed in the form of
cigars. Beckoning a hundred cigars to a pound in weight,
the number of cigars consumed in Germany in 1878 would
be upwards of seven thousand millions, which would give
two cigars a day all the year round to ten million smokers.
But besides cigars the Germans smoked in the year
1,327,200 cwt., or upwards of 60,000 tons of tobacco more
or less manufactured. In the form of snuff they took
160,600 cwt., or 8000 tons, in the course of the year, while
in. the way of chewing-tobacco they limited themselves to
the moderate quantity of 14,200 cwt., or about 700 tons.
Eather more than one-third of the total weight of tobacco
consumed was grown within the limits of Germany, the
quantity so produced in 1878 being 596,776 cwt., while
the imports amounted to 1,768,855 cwt. of tobacco leaves,

M 2

164 TOBACCO.

4827 cwt. of roll tobacco, 14,170 cwt. of cigars, 8321 cwt.
of stems for snuffs, 513 cwt. of snuff, and 101 cwt. of
chewing-tobacco. The total area of land engaged in
growing the plant in 1878 was 18,016 hectares, or about
44,520 acres. Two-thirds of that quantity was grown in
Ehenish Bavaria, Baden, South Hesse, and Alsace-Lorraine,
in which districts 11,623 hectares were employed in the
cultivation of the plant.

Great Britain. — The proposal to re-establish tobacco
culture in the United Kingdom has called for the following
sensible article in the Planters' Gazette.

" The question of growing tobacco in the United
Kingdom is not so simple as patriotic Irishmen and
enthusiasts of acclimatization might think. Tobacco has
been classed, like tea and coffee, as among those necessaries
of life which could not be grown with any advantage in
the United Kingdom, and might therefore be freely taxed
for revenue purposes. It is, indeed, true that a passable
herb may be grown and called tobacco, in many parts of
the United Kingdom, but the fact has been generally re-
cognized that competition with more tropical countries is
practically fruitless, and therefore to be abandoned. It is
easily to be understood that so aromatic a crop, monopo-
lizing so many of the best and rarest qualities of the soil,
would require high manuring ; and that, just as is the
case of any other crop — such as hops, or even wheat — one
could get nothing of the special excellence of the herb
required but what one has previously put into the soil.
But, to be profitable, the plant requires good heat as well
as good soil. This, therefore, is the whole economical
question, and upon that the matter mainly hinges. The

PRODUCTION AND COMMERCE. 165

claim to grow real tobacco in England or Ireland is based
upon the allegation that the herb can be grown at a profit.
The best evidence furnished to the House of Commons on
Monday evening on this point was that of Lord Harris,
who affirmed boldly that Ireland and parts of England
were prepared to enter into a fair competition with the
recognized productive colonies. The Government, and
with them, Lord Iddesleigh, are in favour of an experiment
largely granting all that is asked, and carefully observing
the result. Then, when the British tobacco comes upon
the ordinary market, let it be taxed as any other similar
product would be. The Government could not view with
anything but dismay the prospect of a fall in revenue ;
and there is no question, therefore, that the home-grown
tobacco must pay duty to the full. The crux of the
question is how such duty can be enforced without an
army of revenue officers, whose practical duties would
bear no reasonable proportion to their probable cost. Our
own impression is that tobacco can never be grown in
these islands on any large scale to compete with the
growers within the tropics, and that the expense of col-
lecting revenue would be out of all proportion to the
amount collected. At the same time, it ill becomes us as
a Free-trading nation to shut out any class of our own
countrymen, by duties distinctly prohibitive, from follow-
ing a branch of agriculture which they think they could
make profitable. It is against our principle to offer a
bounty on the forced cultivation of exotics, such as tobacco
undoubtedly is when grown in these islands, but it would
be still worse to maintain, on merely pedantic grounds, a
prohibitive import on a crop which many men think the

166 TOBACCO.

smaller tenants could produce to the great advantage of
their holdings. We are by no means sanguine of their
success; but that is no reason why they should not
try."

Greece. — The production of tobacco in Greece is about
4 million oJces (of 2J- Ib.) annually. Patras, in 1878,
exported 300 tons to Holland, Austria, and Turkey, at a
value of 25-30Z. a ton. The values of the exports from
Syra, in 1879, were 3503/. to Great Britain, 2325Z. to
Turkey, 88Z. to the Danubian Principalities, 236Z. to
France, 554Z. to Austria, 436Z. to Egypt, 1605Z. to Russia ;
and in 1878, 1528Z. to Turkey, 1875Z. to Great Britain,
93Z. to the Danubian Principalities, 441Z. to Austria, 334Z.
to France, 266Z. to Eussia, 39Z. to Egypt.

In 1884, Nauplia exported 13,OOOZ. worth of tobacco ;
and Calamata, 2400Z. worth. The value at Patras was
45s. per cwt. Syra imported 439Z. worth of tobacco and
305Z. worth of tumbeki from Turkey; but exported
10,459Z. worth of tobacco to Turkey, 697Z. worth to Great
Britain, 17,723Z. worth to Egypt, 200Z. worth to Russia,
120Z. worth to Roumania, 2963Z. worth to Italy, 1176Z.
worth to France, and 200Z. worth to Austria.

Holland. — There were 4117 acres under tobacco in Hol-
land in 1878, which produced 3,132,875 kilo. The imports
of tobacco into Holland in 1878 were as follows : — Mary-
land, 5249, Kentucky, 500, and Virginian, 107 hogsheads ;
Java, 87,998, seed-leaf, 100, Sumatra, 33,671 packages. In
1876 and 1877, there were 5900 and 3993 packages respec-
tively from Rio Grande. The exports of leaf from Holland
in 1879 were 3,900,000 kilo.

PRODUCTION AND COMMERCE.

167

COMPARATIVE STATEMENT OF THE IMPORTS OF THE VARIOUS KINDS
OP TOBACCO DURING THE FIVE YEARS 1879-83.

Virginia

Maryland.

and

Java.

Seed-leaf.

Brazil.

Sumatra.

Kentucky.

Hhds.

Hhds.

Packages.

Packages.

Packages.

Packages.

In 1879

7,284

85

102,791

192

1,548

44,477

1880

4,775

147

34,037

1,007

339

52,151

1881

2,989

151

81,225

454

1,098

59,468

1882

3,405

26

103,384

905

Nil.

73,444

1883

4,240

976

30,975

2,500

675

10,111

India, — An immense area is occupied in producing
tobacco in India. In Madras, Dindigul is the great tobacco
district, and cheroots are manufactured at Trichinopoli.
The islands in the delta of the Godavari also yield lunka
tobacco, the climate being suitable, and the plants being
raised on rather poor, light soil, highly manured and
well watered. Manilla seeds have been tried on the lower
Palnai Hills, but the Wynaad has proved to be the best
locality. In Bombay, the Kaira and Khandesh tobaccos are
superior; altogether over 40,000 acres were under the
crop in this presidency in 1871-2, and the exports were
3 million Ib. Shiraz and Manilla seeds yield good plants
in Gnjrat and Khandesh. The total areas under tobacco
in 1871-2 were thus returned :— Bengal, about 300,000
acres; Punjab, over 90,000; Oudh, 69,500; Eungpore,
60,000 (affording the so-called " Burma cheroots ") ; Cen-
tral Provinces, 55,000; Tirhoot, 40,000; Cooch Behar,
24,000 ; Mysore, 20,000 ; Dinagepore, 20,000 ; Purneah,
20,000; Behar, 18,500; Burma, 13,000; Monghyr,
9-10,000 ; Nuddea, 9-10,000. The best tobacco districts
are said to be Sandoway and the island of Cheduba, in

168

TOBACCO.

Arracan ; Bungpore, in Bengal ; and Bhilsa, in the Cen-
tral Provinces. The results of many analyses of South
Indian tobaccos show that their ash seldom contains more
than 5-6 per cent, of carbonate of potash, while American
range from 20-40 per cent., indicating the poverty of
the Indian soils in this important ingredient. It might,
however, be supplied at moderate cost in the shape of
saltpetre, which is actually exported largely from the
tobacco-growing districts.

The bulk of the Indian tobacco exported consists of
leaf, the kinds chiefly shipped being the " Bispah " and
" Poolah " varieties of the Kungpore kind ; the quantities
of cigars and other manufactured tobacco exported are
very small. The exports in Ib. for the four years 1875-79
were : —

Unmanufactured

Manufactured :
Cigars ..
Other sorts . .

Total ..

1875-76.

1876-77.

1877-78.

1878-79.

22,861,711

152,189
232,720

10,508,720

190,136
205,033

10,594,604

189,742

317,887

13,279,158

196,759
247,743

23,246,620

10,903,889

11,102,233

13,723,660

On the other hand, a considerable quantity of manu-
factured tobacco, averaging over 1J million Ib. yearly,
is imported, showing that India is still merely a producer
of raw material, and is dependent upon other countries
for the manufactured article in a condition fit for con-
sumption. Even as regards the raw material, India
might do a great deal more than at present, for there
would be a large and constant demand on the continent

PRODUCTION AND COMMERCE. 169

of Europe for Indian leaf, if it could be obtained of some-
what better quality. The French and Italian tobacco
departments are prepared to take Indian tobacco in large
quantities, if it can be supplied of a quality suited to
their purposes ; and there would also be an extensive
demand from Austria and Germany. Although the ship-
consist mainly of leaf tobacco, and that not of good
uality, tobacco manufacture is now making a promising
nning. In the enterprise being carried on at Ghazi-
pore, in the North- West Provinces, and at Poosah, in
Bengal, both the cultivation and manufacture are under
the supervision of skilled American growers and curers.
Some of this tobacco sent to the Administration des Tdbacs
in Paris has been very favourably reported on. The
factory at Ghazipore is now turning out about 500 Ib.
a day of all classes, the greater part being black cavendish
and honeydew, for the army. The machinery is capable
of turning out 3500 Ib. a day, as soon as sufficient hands
have been trained.

Hitherto no Indian tobacco has realized any valuation
approaching that of American. The average price of the
American " shipping tobacco " is 5-6c?. a Ib., higher classes
of bright leaf from Virginia realize as much as 7-13d. a
Ib., while the price of Indian tobacco has generally been
l-2d. a Ib. But the 15,000 Ib. of Poosah leaf from the
1877 crop reached England when American shipping
leaf was at 4-5d. a Ib., or 25 per cent, below the normal
rate. The consignment was, moreover, packed in rather
damp order, and contained a quantity of moisture which
caused it to be assessed under the highest rate of the new
tariff, which imposes 3s. lOd. duty when the moisture is

170 TOBACCO.

over 10 per cent., against 3s. 6d. under 10 per cent. This
made a difference in the value, estimated at Id. a Ib.
The price obtained was 3jcL, which would have been
4fd. had the tobacco been drier, and the sale has been
followed by orders of large shipments.

The high prices, too, realized for the best samples of
the 1876 and 1877 crops, indicate that Indian leaf can
be turned out equal to the best shipping tobacco from
America. A tierce of strips from the 1876-77 crop from
Ghazipore sold for Id. a Ib., and the greater part of the
rest for 5d. or more, while a portion of the Poosah leaf
of 1877-78 was valued at 5c?. when the market was 25
per cent, below normal rates. These facts seem to
guarantee future success, since the quantity of the higher
classes can be largely increased, and a greater portion of
the crop be brought to the same higher level. The chief
point to be ascertained was whether a sufficiently high
level could be attained at all. It has been attained.
The cured leaf of 1878 is very much superior to any
hitherto turned out, especially that from Ghazipore. A
new market is not unlikely to open in France. The
French Government have already asked for a consignment
for trial of 1000-1500 Ib.

The reason why the manufacture of smoking-tobacco
for Indian consumption has occupied so large a share in
the operations is, that the Indian market, though small,
pays far more handsome profits than the English
market.

The price paid for reasonably good American manu-
factured tobacco in India ranges from one to three rupees
a Ib. Ghazipore and Poosah tobacco is sold at half that

PRODUCTION AND COMMERCE.

171

price, at a much higher profit than can be obtained by
sending cured leaf to England.

While Indian cured leaf can find a sale in the English
market at prices which will enable it to compete there
with American cured leaf, Indian manufactured leaf is
proved to compete successfully with American manu-
factured leaf in India itself, with a fair prospect of suc-
cess in a similar competition in the colonies. It may be
stated in general terms that 4d. a Ib. for cured leaf in
England, and 6-10 annas for manufactured leaf in India,
will secure sufficient or even handsome profits. The
opening for profits will perhaps be better understood if
it is explained that Id. a, Ib. represents an asset of about
5Z. an acre. The one great advantage which India has
over America is cheap labour. It is now proved that the
leaf is, for all practical purposes, as good as the American
leaf, and there is hardly any doubt that America cannot
afford to send home leaf at the price at which India can
sell.

The exports of tobacco from British India during the
years 1874-5 to 1878-9 have been as follows : —

Unmanufac-\ -,,
tured / •'

Manufactmed. |-VT *

1875.

1876.

1877.

1878.

1879.

33,411,504

425,040
2,999,940

22,861,711

384,909

10,508,720
395,169

10,594,604
507,629

13,279,158
444,502

The following letter from the manager of the Poosah
tobacco farms, Tirhoot, describes the system of growing
and curing now adopted in India.

172 TOBACCO.

"Preparation of Soil. — Tobacco land should be well-
drained upland which has lain fallow some time or that
has had some light crop in it ; this land should be well
manured with well-rotted manure. We plough our lands
twice monthly. Just before the time for transplanting the
soil is ploughed up and well pulverized by a henger or
beam of wood drawn by bullocks over the upturned soil
so as to bend it and to break up any lumps of earth. The
soil should be sufficiently dry for this purpose so as not to
cake and harden.

" Seed-beds. — These should be made up in a suitable
situation, that is, protected from the afternoon sun, having
some building or grove of trees on the west side. The
seed-beds should be raised some six inches off the ground
and have trenches dug all round so as to carry off any
superfluous moisture, the beds should be well worked with
a kodalie and good, rotted manure well worked in. After
pulverizing the soil and levelling it, pick off any stones
or other rubbish and it will be ready for sowing the seed.
The size of the bed should be about 4 feet by 15 feet ; this
is more convenient than square beds, as it enables the
plants to be attended to without risk of destroying them
by trampling on them.

" Sowing the Seed. — The seed is sown broadcast with the
hand, mixed with some sand or ashes so as to sow evenly ;
care should be taken not to sow too thickly. About one
chittak of seed ought to be found sufficient for one of these
beds which would furnish enough plants for one beegah
of land. After having sown and if there is a hot sun, it
would be advisable to cover the beds with light mats.
This seed should germinate in seven or ten days at least.

PRODUCTION AND COMMERCE. 173

American seed does; Sumatra takes much longer. The
plants may require watering, which should be done with
a watering-can with a rose, when the plants are well up
and large. Only water seed-beds in the evening. As soon
as the seedlings have leaves of the size of a penny, they
are capable of bearing transplanting. Before taking up
the seedling to transplant, water the beds well an hour
beforehand; this is done to loosen the earth about the
roots so that the plants may be taken up without injury.
To take up the seedlings they should be seized by the
under side of the two largest leaves by the finger and
thumb, having one leaf on each side, not by the stem, then
pull up gently, taking care not to break the leaves. They
may then be placed in an open basket. When the basket
is full it should be covered with a cloth if the sun is hot,
and the seedlings slightly sprinkled with water and then
carried off to transplant. The seedlings are planted out
in rows 3 feet by 2 feet apart, for which purpose a knotted
cord is used, the knots being 3 feet apart. This cord is
drawn by two men — one at each end. Across the field or
portion of the field at a distance of 2 feet from the outer
edge, the cord is drawn out and then trampled upon by
coolies. The knots leave an impression in the soil where
the seedlings have to be planted. The cord is then raised
and put down again at another distance of 2 feet from the
first, and so on till sufficient land has been marked off.
This work can be done during the day, and the transplant-
ing in the evening.

<e Transplanting. — Transplanting should be done in the
evening if there is any sun ; in cloudy weather it can be
done all the day long. Eainy weather is most suitable as

174 TOBACCO.

it dispenses with watering and the plants settle better. A
boy takes a basket of seedlings and walks up the row,
dropping a plant here and there where the marks have
been made ; he is followed by a man who makes a hole
with a kurpie, into which he places a seedling, and then
presses the soil around the roots firmly with his fingers,
and then goes on with the rest. As transplanting can
hardly be done here without watering, a boy carrying a
can without a rose follows the man who is transplanting,
and waters each plant he comes across ; but, as I men-
tioned above, if the transplanting could be done in rainy
weather, the watering would be unnecessary. When
growing the young plants require some attention. After
the plants have been planted a week or so, weather per-
mitting, it is advisable to loosen and open the soil around
them with a kurpie, and also to eradicate weeds which
may appear. Later on a kodalie may be used to work the
earth between the rows. As soon as the plants have
made growth and begin to throw out flower or seed-heads,
which will take place in about eight weeks or so, they
should be topped, viz. the flower heads should be broken
off" before they flower in this way. The stem on which the
head was found should be seized about two to three feet
from the ground and snapped clean off by the hand or
fingers. This topping will cause the plant to throw out
heavy leaves. The higher up the stem is broken off, so
will the leaves of the plant become thinner and smaller.
We generally leave about ten to twelve leaves to each
plant. After topping, numerous suckers and offshoots will
spring up ; these should be promptly broken off as soon as
they appear, as they take a lot of nourishment from the

PRODUCTION AND COMMERCE. 175

plant. The plant ripens in about three months. We cut
here in January, and none but ripe plants should be
cut.

" How to Cut Ripe Plants.— A tobacco plant is known to
be ripe if the leaf cracks when taken between finger and
thumb and pressed, and also when the leaves present a
swollen appearance and have a heavy look. The stem
when cut is full of sap, very thin rind on edge, the leaves
are carved over and look mottled, the ribs of the plant
get brittle, and are easily broken off; when fully ripe,
the plant is cut at one stroke close to the ground. The
best instrument to cut the plant with is a kurpie. When
cut, the plant is allowed to hang over on its side and wilt
or droop in the sun. This wilting takes from one to two
hours according to the strength of the sun. When suffi-
ciently wilted (which is known when the plants look droop-
ing and the ribs can be bent slightly without breaking) the
plants are placed in a cart and taken to the curing-house.
Plants should not be cut in rainy or cloudy weather,
as it is obvious the sun would not be hot enough to wilt
were the weather cloudy, and the rain washes off the
gum and thereby decreases the weight of the plant. Plants
should not be cut after the rain unless the gum has
returned to the leaves, which is known by their sticky,
gummy feeling."

The results of many analyses of the tobacco of South
India show that the ashes of these tobaccos seldom contain
more than 5 or 6 per cent, of potash carbonate, while the
ashes of American tobacco contain from 20 to 40 per cent.,
proving the poverty of Indian tobacco soils in this impor-
tant plant-food — a plant-food, however, easily obtainable

176 TOBACCO.

in the shape of saltpetre, and at a moderate cost. But,
though saltpetre is largely exported from the tobacco-
growing districts, it is never employed as a manure for
tobacco.

Italy. — Tobacco is cultivated in Italy in the provinces
of Ancona, Benevento, Terra di Lavoro, Principato
Citeriore, Terra d'Otranto, Umbria, Yicenza, and Sardinia.
The area and produce in the following years were: — in
1870, 9544 acres, 67,192 cwt. ; 1872, 12,256 acres, 82,349
cwt. ; 1874, 8202 acres, 90,300 cwt. The exports from
Naples in 1879 were 2006 Mo., value 401Z.

The British Consul at Cagliari reports that the cultiva-
tion of tobacco is only carried on in the district of Sassari,
and in the plains of Sassari, Portotorres, Nurra, Sorso, and
Sennori. No positive data on this branch of industry can
be had, it having been exclusively carried on till 1883 by a
private company, called the Eegia Cointeressata. Without
fear of being wrong, it may be calculated that the tobacco
cultivators reach the number of 100, who employ during
the period of five months from 600 to 700 labourers ; the
plantation varies from 4,000,000 to 5,000,000 plants, pro-
ducing a harvest from 2000 to 2500 quintals of tobacco
leaves, at a value of about 125,000 lire.

Japan. — Japanese tobacco is well known in the London
market, but it* is often in a soft condition, and then
scarcely saleable. More care is needed in drying it before
packing.

Java. — Tobacco, termed by the natives tombaku, or sdta,
is an article of very general cultivation in Java, but is
only extensively raised for exportation in the central
districts of Kedu and Banyurnas. As it requires a soil of

PRODUCTION AND COMMERCE. 177

the richest mould, but at the same time not subject to in-
undations, these districts hold out peculiar advantages to
the tobacco-planter, not to be found on the low lands.
For internal consumption, small quantities are raised in
convenient spots everywhere. In Kedu, tobacco forms,
after rice, by far the most important article of cultivation,
and, in consequence of the fitness of the soil, the plant
grows to the height of 8-10 feet, on lands not previously
dressed or manured, with a luxuriance seldom witnessed
in India. Cultivated here alternately with rice, only one
crop of either is obtained within the year ; but after the
harvest of the rice, or the gathering of the tobacco leaves,
the land is allowed to remain fallow, till the season again
arrives for preparing it to receive the other. The young
plant is not raised within the district, but procured from
the high lands in the vicinity, principally from the
district of Kalibeber, on the slope of the mountain Die"ng
or Prahu, where it is raised and sold by the hundred to
the cultivators of the adjoining districts. The transplan-
tation takes place in June, and the plant is at its full
growth in October. The exports in the year 1877-8 were
212,500 piculs to Holland, and 213 to Singapore; in
1878-9, they were 248,566 piculs to Holland, and 872 to
Singapore. The value of the export to Holland in 1879
was stated at 1,250,OOOZ. The exports in 1884 were
140,351 piculs to Holland, and 2490 to Great Britain.

New Zealand. — This colony has not yet figured as a
tobacco grower, but the duty on locally produced tobacco
is only Is. a lb., and this is expected to stimulate the
home industry.

Nicaragua. — It appears that the total exports of tobacco

N

178 TOBACCO.

were 13,787 Ik, value 4830 dollars, in 1883, but only
300 lb., value 240 dollars, in 1884. At present it is a
Government monopoly.

Paraguay. — Consul Baker, of Buenos Ayres, states that
one of the most valuable crops of Paraguay is tobacco ; in
1829, its production amounted to only 2,675,000 lb., while
in 1860, the crop amounted to 15,000,000 lb. ; but the war
with the allies almost ruined this source of wealth. It
has, however, somewhat recovered its importance, the
exports ' alone last year amounting to 8,975,000 lb. A
large proportion of the crop is annually worked up into
cigars, a branch of industry which is almost entirely in
the hands of the women. The tobacco planted in Paraguay
originally came from Havana, with the exception of a
particular kind which is called in Paraguay, blue tobacco,
peti-hoby, the origin of which is unknown. The favourite
leaf is a yellow tobacco, peti-para, grown chiefly in Villa
Rica, which possesses about 6 per cent, of nicotine.

Persia. — The whole of the eastern coast of the Black
Sea, i. e. Mingrelia, Lazistan, Abkhasia, and Circassia, is
admirably suited for tobacco cultivation. The country
between Poti and Siikhum Kale contains admirable sites
for tobacco plantations, labour for which can be got from
Trebizond. A great demand for tobacco of good quality
exists in the country, and a practical planter should do
well. A quantity of coarse, badly-cured tobacco, of no
commercial value, is produced in Imeritia and Georgia.
Great success has attended the culture in Ghilan. The
first seed introduced was from Samsoun ; since then Yenija
seed has been tried, and some parcels attained the standard
of the best Turkish tobacco. It can be produced at about

PRODUCTION AND COMMERCE. 179

20s. a pood (of 36 lb.), giving a profit of 22s. a cwt.
Hitherto the cultivation has been confined to the plains,
where both soil and atmosphere are damp, but it might
be worth trying the hill-skirts. About 2000 cwt. were
produced in 1878. The exports of tobacco, the produce
of Ghilan, from Eesht to Russia, were valued at 4615Z. in
1878, and 6154/. in 1879. The values (in rupees) of the
exports in 1879 were 13,000 from Bushire, 73,500 from
Lingah, and 35,000 from Bahrein.

At the time when I wrote the article on tobacco in
Spons' Encyclopedia, the true source and history of an
article called " tumbeki " was still in doubt. From re-
searches made at the instigation of my friend E. Morell
Holmes, F.L.S., the Curator of the Pharmaceutical Society's
Museum, it is now clear that it is a Persian tobacco, and
as such calls for mention here. The following paragraph
reproduces what I said on the subject in Spons' Encyclo-
paedia.

" Tumbeki.— This word, under a multitude of forms, is
the common name in several Eastern languages (Bengali,
Hindustani, Telugu, Sunda, Javanese, Malayan, Persian,
Guzerati, Deccan) for ordinary tobacco. But in Asia
Minor, it is applied to a narcotic leaf which is spoken of
as distinct from tobacco, and is separately classified in the
Consular Keturns. Botanical authorities are at variance
as to the plant which affords it, some attributing it to a
Lobelia, while others consider it a kind of tobacco. The
latter appears to be the more correct supposition. The flower
resembles the tobacco in being trumpet-shaped ; the leaf
is broader, larger, and rounder than that of the tobacco
raised in Turkey, and is also wrinkled like the inner leaf

N 2

180 TOBACCO.

of the cabbage. The plant is raised from seed in nurseries,
and when it has 4 or 5 leaves, is planted out in April in
the prepared field, and watered sparingly. It is ' set ' in
a day or two, and is then hoed occasionally to free it from
weeds. After inflorescence, and when the plant is suffi-
ciently « cooked,' it is cut down, or pulled up bodily, and
re-set in the ground till the leaves are wilted. These
leaves are dried, and, after exposure to the dew, are pressed
heavily, when they undergo a kind of fermentation which
develops the aroma. It is exceedingly narcotic : so much
so, that it is usually steeped in water before use, and
placed in the pipe (a narghile or water-pipe) while still
wet. The exports of this article (the produce of Persia)
from the port of Trebizonde are considerable : — In 1877,
they were 13,342 bales (of If cwt.), value 106,736Z., to
Turkey; in 1878, 11,571 bales, 92,568/., to Turkey; in
1879, 9659 bales, 77,272?., to Turkey, and 866 bales, 6928Z.,
to Greece. Aleppo, in 1878, sent 4 tons, value 320/., to
Turkey, and 11 tons, 880Z., to Egypt. The exports of the
article, the produce of the interior of Persia, from Eesht to
Russia, were valued at 5000Z. in 1877, and 3846Un 1878."

It will be interesting to compare this with Holmes'
paper read before the Pharmaceutical Society on February
10, 1886 :—

"Tumbeki is the name under which an article of
regular commerce between Persia and Turkey is men-
tioned in the consular reports, especially in that for
Trebizonde.

" Two or three years ago an inquiry was made at this

institution concerning the nature and botanical source of

umbeki, and the only information I was then able to

PRODUCTION AND COMMERCE. 181

give was that in the ' Treasury of Botany ' tumbeky is
stated to be the narcotic leaf of a species of lobelia.

" From its frequent occurrence in the Blue Books in the
same list with tobacco, and from the large quantities men-
tioned as an export from Trebizonde, my correspondent sug-
gested that it was probably something used for smoking
like tobacco. In the hope that tumbeki might prove
to be some drug possessing important narcotic or possible
medicinal properties, I wrote to Mr. A. Biliotti, Consul at
Trebizonde, for information. In reply, he forwarded
samples of tumbeki of different growths and qualities.
This proved on examination to be unquestionably some
kind of tobacco, and being puzzled to know why it figured
in the Blue Books as a distinct article, I asked Mr. Thomas
Christy, F.L.S., to make inquiries for me in Persia. He
received the following note through Mr. Zanni, the well-
known chemist at Constantinople, from whom I received
the following information : —

" ' There are three qualities of the teymbeki, all derived
from the Nicotiana persica.

" « 1. Shiraz teymbeki, valued at twenty gold piastres
per oke.*

" ' 2. Kechan teymbeki, valued at ten gold piastres.

" * 3. Teheran teymbeki, equal in value to No. 2.

" c The Shiraz is the best quality, the leaves are four
decimetres long and half a decimetre wide. The leaves
of the two other qualities are not so large. The quantity
of alkaloid in the leaves of teymbeki is more than in the
leaves of Nicotiana Tabacum ; it is much used in Constanti-
nople, but more so in Egypt, Syria, and particularly in
* The oke equals ten kilogrames ; a piastre, 2%d.

182 TOBACCO.

Persia. Teymbeki is smoked in a special apparatus known
as the narghileli.* The apparatus is found in every
coffee-house and even in a great number of private houses.
It resembles somewhat the wash bottle used in labora-
tories for washing niters with distilled water, but is often
made of metal. The teymbeki is placed in a small
reservoir on the top of the flask and burns in contact with
a piece of incandescent charcoal. The vapour is drawn
through the tube, which passes to the bottom of the
water and collects above it, whence it is inhaled through
the longer tube.f It is in fact a water-pipe.'

" Having ascertained then that tumbeki was a species of
tobacco, I sought for further confirmation of the statement
that it is the produce of N. persica, and wrote on the
subject to Professor Hausknecht, who is well known as
one of the best authorities on the botany of Persia. He
kindly replied as follows : —

" ' Tumbeki is the produce of Nicotiana rustica, and is
almost exclusively used for the water-pipes called kalian
or narghileh. The plant is cultivated throughout the
whole of Persia, especially in Ispahan and Shiraz, whence
the best kind comes/

" But the statement of M. Zanni that tumbeki contains
more alkaloid than tobacco, and that of Professor Hausk-
necht that tumbeki is the produce of N. rustica, seemed to
conflict with the statements in books that N. rustica is
less active than N. Tdbacum.

* So called from its resemblance in shape to a narghil or coconut.

f A full and interesting account of the forms and uses of the varieties
of the kalian and narghileh is given in the ' Land of the Lion and the
Sun,' p. 29.

PRODUCTION AND COMMERCE. 183

"In the 'Commercial Report/ No. 25, 1883, p. 1056,
tinder 'Smyrna,' Consul Dennis confirms M. Zauni's
statement concerning tumbeki. He says : — ' It is much
stronger than ordinary tobacco, and cannot be smoked in
the usual way, therefore it is exclusively used for the
narghili.' He also adds that a large quantity is con-
sumed in the district of Smyrna, but much is also re-
exported to Egypt and other parts of Turkey. It is im-
ported from Persia, both through Trebizonde and Bushire
on the Persian Gulf.

" Mr. J. B. Fraser, in his work on Persia (1826), remarks,
' The tobacco smoked in the kalian is called tumbaku in
distinction to tootoon, or that smoked in pipes or cigar-
ettes. It is sold in the leaf, which is packed dry in layers,
and is preserved in bags sewn up in raw hide. It im-
proves by age, but is quite unsmokable the first year.
The best comes from Jaroum, south of Shiraz.'

" In an interesting article in * Harper's Magazine '
(January 1886, p. 224) on the 'Domestic and Court
Customs of Persia/ the writer remarks concerning tum-
beki :— ' The kalian or water pipe differs from the Turkish
narghileh by having a short straight stem. In it is
smoked the tobacco called tumbakee — a species grown
only in Persia. That of Shiraz is very delicate in flavour
and is the best. The tumbakee must be first soaked in
water and squeezed like a sponge or it will cause vertigo.
A live coal, made from the root of the vine, is placed on
the tobacco, and the smoke is drawn through the water
with a gentle inhaling, depositing the oil in its passage
through the water.'

" In De Candolle's ' Prodromus/ vol. xii., pt. 1, p. 567,

184 TOBACCO.

it is stated under Nicotiana persica, that it yields the
celebrated tobacco of Shiraz. This species closely re-
sembles N. Tdbacwm in the form of its leaves, which are,
however, rather acute than acuminate ; but the flowers
are different both in shape and colour. In N. Tdbacum
the stem leaves are sessile, and the corolla is funnel-
shaped or inflated below the limb, and is of a pinkish-red
colour; in N. persica, the tube of the corolla is club-
shaped and the limb more spreading ; the colour is white
inside and greenish outside. When in blossom, therefore,
the two plants are easily distinguished. N. rustica, on
the other hand, has stalked cordate leaves and a short
yellowish corolla, with the tube and limb both short.

"The leaves of tumbeki which I have received from
Trebizonde and Constantinople both correspond with
N. persica in character, but not with N. rustica, since they
have no trace of a petiole. So far as it is possible to
ascertain therefore, in the absence of flowers, the weight
of evidence is in favour of tumbeki being the produce of
N. persica. In order to ascertain the correctness of the
statement that tumbeki is stronger than tobacco, I handed
some specimen to Messrs. E. J. Eastes and W. H. Ince for
chemical examination, which they kindly undertook at
my request."

Following is the report of these gentlemen on the
chemistry of the subject : —

" Four samples of tumbeki were brought under our
notice by Mr. Holmes, Curator of the Museum of the
Pharmaceutical Society, being of interest on account of
their reported greater strength in nicotine as compared
with tobacco. The following are the results of our in-

PRODUCTION AND COMMERCE. 185

vestigations. We may state that so far as we have been
able to ascertain no previous researches have been under-
taken on the subject.

" Preliminary Examination. — The presence of an alka-
loid was demonstrated on the addition of the usual
reagents to the acid infusion.

" Isolation of Alkaloid for Physical Examination. — The
powdered tumbeki was placed in a retort with milk of
lime and steam passed through it till the distillate was
no longer alkaline. Alkaloid in abundance was found in
the distillate, which had a distinct odour of nicotine.
The distillate was then extracted with ether, and the
ether slowly driven off. The residue obtained was a
light straw coloured oily liquid of powerful odour, giving
off irritating fumes when heated.

" Estimation of Nicotine. — In the estimation of nicotine
much difficulty was experienced, owing to imperfect
knowledge of the alkaloid, and to the imperfect methods
recommended in various papers on the subject. The only
method we found reliable was by using a standard solu-
tion of Mayer's reagent, obtained by mixing 13-546
grams of mercuric chloride in solution with 49*8 grams
of potassic iodide, in solution, and adding water to make
1 litre.* One c.c. of this solution represents '003945
grams of nicotine, the precipitate having the formula
C10H16N2I2.HgI2.

" The method we adopted of working with this solution
was as follows : — One or more grams of dried and
powdered tumbeki were treated with diluted sulphuric

* Dragendorff, 'Chemische Werthbestimmung starkwirkender
Droguen,' § 63, p. 52 et seq.

186 TOBACCO.

acid (2*5 per cent.) for several hours on a water-bath,
filtered, and the leaves washed with hot 1 per cent, acid
till the filtrate was colourless.

" The filtrate was then either evaporated to a low bulk
and extracted with alcohol, to get rid of albuminous
matters which interfered with the reaction, or neutra-
lized with sodic hydrate and the alkaloid extracted with
chloroform, the chloroformic solution being shaken with
diluted sulphuric acid as in the ordinary methods of
alkaloid extraction.

" The objection to the first method is that the alcohol
has to be driven off before the Mayer's reagent can be
added, which is troublesome and lengthens the process.

" The solution of the alkaloid in excess of sulphuric acid
having been obtained, Mayer's reagent was carefully
added till no more precipitation was observed, the end
of the reaction being ascertained when on filtering
some of the nicotine solution into a watch-glass and
adding a drop of the reagent, no precipitate was formed.
With careful manipulation concordant results were
obtained.

" Other methods tried were as follows :

" Volumetric method. — Ten or more grams of powdered
tumbeki were distilled with a solution of sodic or potassic
hydrate, the distillate being passed into a known volume
of decinormal standard solution of sulphuric acid, and the
amount of acid neutralized by the nicotine was determined
by a standard decinormal solution of soda and the nicotine
calculated.

" By this method the results obtained were invariably
too high owing to an appreciable quantity of ammonium

PEODUCTION AND COMMERCE. 187

salts contained in the leaves. Dr. Kissling * has also
noticed the high percentages obtained by this method of
estimating nicotine.

" Kosutany treats the leaves with milk of lime till all
the ammonia is driven off, and then extracts with water ;
shakes the aqueous solution with petroleum ether and
proceeds as before.

" This method was not found to give good results,
for though the ammonium salts do not interfere with
the reaction, yet the petroleum ether does not extract
the whole of the alkaloid, and thus a low percentage is
obtained.

" Extraction by Ammoniacal Ether. — This consists in
extracting the powdered leaves in an upright extractor, by
an ethereal solution of ammonia, and either driving off the
ether and weighing the residue as nicotine ; or volumetri-
cally estimating the residue by decinormal solution of
sulphuric acid, or precipitating the alkaloid by platinum
perchloride. In either case, whichever way the residue is
estimated, the results are too high, owing to the difficulty
of entirely getting rid of the ammonia.

" The following are the percentages of nicotine in the
tumbeki : —

' Ispahan' — I. By Mayer's Eeagent.

A. (midrib) 8 -156 percent.

B. (leaf)-. 5-508 „ „ *

C. (leaf and midrib) 5 '589 „ „

D. (leaf) 5-3865 „ „

5-4945 per cent, average.
* The ' Analyst,' January 1886, p. 16 ; « Chem. Zeit.,' ix., 1886.

188 TOBACCO.

II. By Volumetric Method.

By working on 10 grams = 7-2 per cent.
By working on 50 grams = 7 ; 228 „ „

4 Hidjaz.' — I. By Mayer's Reagent.

A. (leaf and midrib) 2-025 percent.

B. (leaf and midrib) 2-268 „ ^

C. (leaf and midrib) 2-028 „ „

D. (leaf and midrib) 1'863 „ „

2 • 046 per cent, average.

II. By Volumetric Process.
A 2-37 per cent.

III. By Ethereal Solution of Ammonia.

3-6 percent.

* Kechan.' — By Mayer's Solution.

A. (leaf and midrib) 2 -83 5 percent.

B. (leaf and midrib) 3-0375 „ „

C. (leaf and midrib) 2 -85525 „ „

2-90925 per cent, average.

' Shiraz* — By Mayer's Solution.

A. (leaf and midrib) 5 • 8725 per cent.

B. (leaf and midrib) 5 -7975 „ „

5 • 835 per cent, average.

" Estimation of Saccharoid Matter ; calculated as cane
sugar. — The fermentation process was the one adopted,
not that we consider it by any means a good one, but
because it was the only one practicable. Fehling's solu-
tion was inadmissible, owing to the precipitation of
colouring and other matters, and the polariscope gave no

PRODUCTION AND COMMERCE. 189

indication. The objections to the fermentation process
are due to the small amount of alcohol produced in the
relatively large bulk of liquid. This renders the solution
liable to Rectification, and the ultimate distillate obtained
is very weak in spirit, making it extremely difficult to
obtain the correct specific gravity; the specific gravities
obtained were always between *998 and unity.

" We worked as follows : — 200 grains of dried tumbeki
were exhausted by repeated infusion in boiling water.
The filtered liquid when cool was mixed with 100 grains
of German yeast and allowed to stand three days in a
warm place to ferment.

" About one-third was then distilled, the distillate being
redistilled and three successive fractions of 500 fluid
grains collected, the alcohol in each being estimated ; the
third portion contained little if any spirit.

" It being stated that basic acetate of lead removes
saccharoid matter from the kindred plant tobacco; we
tried its action on the infusion of tumbeki.

" At the onset it was found impossible to thoroughly
wash the bulky precipitate caused by the lead; so, to
ensure a definite result, sufficient basic acetate of lead was
added to the infusion of 200 grains of tumbeki and the
whole made up to 30 fluid ounces with distilled water and
well mixed. An aliquot part (20 fluid ounces) was then
filtered off, excess of lead removed by sulphuretted
hydrogen, the sulphide filtered out, the solution boiled to
diive off the sulphuretted hydrogen and the infusion,
when cool, was fermented in the usual way. But acetic
acid was necessarily present from the decomposition of
the lead salt by the sulphuretted hydrogen, and this on

190

TOBACCO.

distilling would tend to raise the specific gravity. To
remedy this, slaked lime, or preferably potassic hydrate,
was added before redistilling, but considering that from
one to three per cent, of ammoniacal salt is contained in
the original tumbeki, it is probable that some might still
remain and by the action of the fixed alkali furnish a
trace of free ammonia which would lower the specific
gravity, and thus apparently raise the percentage of
alcohol. As far as we can judge basic acetate of lead does
not seem to remove fermentable matter from infusion of
tumbeki.

I.

II.

Pb treatment.

Pb treatment.

Ispahan

2-64

2-67

—

2-35

Hidjaz ..

3-00

2-8

2-7

—

Kecban

5-58

5-33

Shiraz

3-48

3-88

3-23

3'1

" Ash. — The following bases and acids were uniformly
found in the ashes : — Sodium, potassium, lithium, magne-
sium, calcium, iron, aluminium, silica, chlorine, phosphoric
acid, sulphuric acid, carbonic acid.

GENERAL TABLE OF RESULTS.

Ispahan.

Hidjaz.

Kechan.

Shiraz.

Nicotine
Saccharoid matter
Saccharoid matter after Pb
treatment
Soluble in water
Insoluble in water
Ash

5-4945
2-64

2-51
42-0
58-0
22-0

2-046
2-85

2-80
42-3
57-7
28-5

2-909
5-58

5-33
39-9
60-1

28-5

5-835
3-355

3-49
55-6
44-4
26-15

PRODUCTION AND COMMERCE. 191

" The foregoing work has been carried out in the labora-
tories of the Pharmaceutical Society."

Philippines. — The soil and climate of the Philippines
are eminently suited to tobacco culture ; but the unjust
Spanish monopoly cripples the industry, and it is de-
clining. Next to the Cuban (Vuelta abajo) and a few
prime Turkish sorts, Manilla tobacco is admitted to be
the best. Most of the Philippines produce it. According
to the quality of the produce, the provinces rank as
follows: — (1) Cayagan and Ysabel, (2) Ygorrotes, (3)
Island of Mindanao, (4) Bisayas, (5) New Ecija. On
the average, over 400 million cigars, and a quantity of
tobacco sufficient to bring up the total weight to 56,000
cwt., are annually exported. The advantage of the
plantations in Cayagan lies in the annual deposit of
alluvial matters by the overflowing of the large streams.
The cultivation in Bisayas promises to become extinct,
whereas if the natives were free to sell in the best
market, the industry would increase immensely. The
yield of the Cebu district in 1878 was 8780 quintals, the
whole of which went to the cigar factories of Cadiz and
Alicante. The exports from Manilla were : — in 1877
17,526,700 Ib. tobacco, value 525,80U. ; 87,007,000 cigars,
value 243,619Z.; 1878, 15,630,400 Ib. tobacco, value
468,9182. ; 136,835,000 cigars, value 383,1362. ; 1879, 9971
quintals (of 10.1J Ib.) tobacco leaf to Great Britain, and
74,490 quintals to Spain; cigars, 10,571,000 to Great
Britain, 6,557,000 to Australia, 44,586,000 to the Straits
Settlements and India, 25,861,000 to China and Japan,
693,000 to the United States, 100,000 to California,
1,521,000 to Spain and the Continent; the total values

192 TOBACCO.

amounted to 480,263Z. The exports of tobacco from
Yloilo were 25,454 piculs (of 133£ Ib.) in 1878, and 20,600
quintals (of 101J Ib.) in 1879, all to Spain.

Roumania. — Tobacco was extensively cultivated at one
time, with success, near Macin and in other parts ; but
the monopoly has greatly affected the condition of the
industry.

Russia. — As regards the production of tobacco, Eussia
ranks second among continental countries, but the con-
sumption is less per head than in other lands. Consul
Stanton says that smoking began in the latter part of the
sixteenth century, and the habit steadily increased, not-
withstanding the fact that it was punished by the knout,
slitting of the nostrils, and banishment to Siberia. It
is most extensively cultivated in Tshernigoff, Poltava,
Bessarabia, and Samara. In Poland, the production is not
large, and is mainly confined to the vicinity of Warsaw.
It is chiefly cultivated by the peasants and is often their
only occupation.

In 1883, Eiga exported 70,722 pouds of leaf tobacco,
valued at 194,486 rubles. Sevastopol shipped 59 pouds,
value 1100 rubles. Tobacco is now cultivated largely
in all parts of the Crimea, and is likely to become an
export of considerable importance. In Taganrof planta-
tions are on the increase, and the culture promises well.

San Salvador. — The exports of tobacco in 1884 were
16,113 dollars' worth of leaf, 5898 dollars' worth of manu-
factured, and 826 dollars' worth of other sorts.

Servia. — It is estimated that there are 4000 acres
under tobacco culture in Servia.

Spain. — The port of Cadiz is a great centre of the

PKODUCTION AND COMMEKCE. 193

tobacco industry. The imports here in 1878 were : —
123 Jcilo. from Germany, 304,538 kilo, from the United
States, and 6,776,900 kilo, from Spanish colonies; the
exports were 15,600 kilo, to Germany, and 213,846 kilo.
to France. Corunna exported 58,280 Mo., value 87,420
pesetas, in 1884. Cadiz exported 514,817 HZo., value
2,574,085 pesetas, in the same year.

Sumatra.— This great island is assuming a first-rate
importance in the tobacco industry.

The year 1883 was an exceptionally favourable one,
as the harvest in Sumatra was very good, while prices
for Java tobacco were higher than of late years, in con-
sequence of the short harvest of 1882.

Large quantities of Sumatra tobacco found buyers in
the United States, in consequence of the protectionist
measure introduced in that country in favour of the
home tobacco producers. The duty was raised from 35 c.
to 75 c. per Ib. on and after the 1st July, 1883, and great
efforts were made to import as much as possible at the
lower duty before that date.

The principal owners of the plantations are Dutchmen,
and the labour employed is Chinese coolies, brought to
the island principally from the Malaya peninsula. The
crop, according to one of these successful planters, is
scarcely ever reared two years in succession on the same
lands. The jungle is first cleared, and then the seed
planted. After the first crop of tobacco is gathered, it
is the next season used for rice, or something else, and
tobacco is not planted again until the sixth or seventh
year after the jungle is cleared. By adopting this method,
a better result is obtained.

o

194 TOBACCO.

The drying-house is thus described by a recent visitor
to the island : —

"The interior is very much like a rick-yard, with
tobacco stalks instead of hay-ricks, among which a perfect
army of half-clad Chinese coolies, 400 strong, are hard
at work sorting, ranging and stowing. So overpoweringly
strong is the scent of the half-dried tobacco leaves that a
smoker would have nothing to do but to take in an empty
pipe with him and enjoy a good hard smoke gratis, merely
by inhaling the air through it. But the Chinamen,
whether habituated to it by long use, or fortified against
it by the superior power of opium, breathe this perfumed
atmosphere as easily as if it were the purest air of the
sea. ' That is how we measure the heat, you see/ says
our host, calling our attention to the hollow bamboos
thrust through the heart of each stack, with a stick inside
it, which, when pulled out, is almost too hot to touch.
' It must never be above or below a certain point, you
know. Instead of stripping off the leaves at once, we
hang up the whole plant to dry, and do not strip it till
it is quite dried. The Sumatra tobacco, however, will
not do for cigars. It is only used for what we call the
'deckblatt' (cover leaf), which covers the outside of the
cigar.'"

Consul Kennedy reports that "the main cause of the
prosperity in Deli is the tobacco, the first crop of which
was shipped in 1869.

" The crop for 1884 will turn out about 122,000 bales,
valued at 2,080,0002.

" The accompanying table shows the export during the
last 11 years : —

PRODUCTION AND COMMERCE.

195

Year

Bales.

Value.

£

1873

9,238

208,333

1874

12,811

250,000

1875

15,147

291,666

1876

28,947

520,833

1877

36,167

541,666

1878

48,155

750,000

1879

57,544

875,000

1880

64,965

937,500

1881

82,356

1,187,500

1882

102,032

1,750,000

1883

92,000

1,583,333

[Estimated.]

NOTE. — One bale equals 176 English Ib.

" Prices for Deli tobacco have ruled on the whole fairly
high, the special quality of the leaf lying in the fact of its
being light and elastic in texture, with thin fibres, so that
it is admirably adapted to serve as cover-leaf, and as such
is a good substitute for Havana tobacco. As a smoking -
tobacco it lacks flavour. There is a pretty general con-
currence of opinion that the seed of the Deli tobacco was
indigenous, and obtained from Batak tribes in the interior ;
and although many experiments have been made with seeds
from Java, Manilla, and other places, the planters have
invariably come back to the original seed, finding that the
new kinds develop a coarseness of leaf attributed to the
extraordinary richness of the virgin soil, a soil partly
alluvial and partly volcanic, but covered throughout with
dense forests.

" The tobacco estates consist of grants of land taken out
by individuals or companies, and are as a rule of such an
extent that every year a new district can be cleared and

o 2

196 TOBACCO.

used for the coming crop, and this state of things will
continue for many years to come ; indeed, hitherto only a
small portion of the ground cultivated (not one-fifth) has
borne two crops, although it is expected that, unless fresh
ground is taken up by the planters, a time will arrive
when use must be made of old fallow lands, and then
guano will be required.

" The planters consist of three or four large companies,
principally Dutch — such as the Deli Company, the Amster-
dam Deli, and the Batavia Deli — as well as of individual
planters of many nationalities, Germany and Switzerland
being strongly represented, while there are also a good
sprinkling of Englishmen, the principal English firm being
the Langkat Plantations Company, with its headquarters
in London.

" The grants of land are taken direct from the chiefs
before mentioned, and are only valid after confirmation
at Bengkalis. The term is for 75 years, and for such a
grant a sum of money, by way of premium, amounting to
from 1 dol. to 2 dol. per bouw (equal to an acre and two-
thirds), is paid in cash, while an annual rent of 40 c. a
bouw, payable at the expiration of the fifth year, is also
reserved. Such at least are the terms of the last recog-
nised agreements. The whole of the conveniently-situated
land in the three districts before-mentioned has now been
taken up, and it is only in the outlying regions that fresh
ground can be obtained ; but as in such outlying regions
settled government is not so well established, the Dutch
authorities are now very chary in confirming grants in
places where the tobacco-growing community would be
less under control.

PRODUCTION AND COMMEECE. 197

"It is estimated that at least 2,000,0002. sterling is
now invested in the tobacco industry in the Deli
districts.

" The tobacco when ready for shipment is all sent to
Clambia on the Langkat river, to the Deli river, or the
Sirdang river (as the case may be), and is despatched
thence via Penang or Singapore to Amsterdam, which
is the tobacco mart for the continent of Europe. The
United States have also bought the Deli tobacco in
the Amsterdam market in late years. Very little of the
tobacco goes to England. The leaf remains so moist thai
the English, import duty would press it heavily in
comparison with other tobaccos, and this circumstance
operates as a check on the import of tobacco from Sumatra
into England as compared with tobacco from Java. The
principal purchasers are German manufacturers and
Dutch middlemen. The latter retail the tobacco over the
continent, and supply the several Eegies, amongst others
the Austrian, Italian, and French. The Americans confine
their purchases to dark-leaved, heavy tobacco, requiring
100 leaves or less to the Ib.

" It is worth remarking that the whole of the carrying
trade in connection with the Deli tobaccos is in the hands
of Messrs. Holt's line, the rate of freight from Deli
to Amsterdam being about 3Z. 2«. 6d. per ton. The
shipping season may be said to last from January to
June.

u The tobacco crop of 1884 is estimated to yield about
20,000 bales in excess of that of 1883, but the crop in
1883 was a short one owing to unfavourable weather.
The 1884 crop is the best one ever obtained, both as

198 TOBACCO.

regards quantity and quality. Koughly speaking, the
Deli tobacco in the Amsterdam market fetches Is. 4c?. per
Ib. English, and the profits realized may be judged from the
dividends given by the most flourishing companies;
the shares of the Deli Company being now quoted at 500
per cent, premium. Of course there are exceptions where
unsuitable soils have been met with, and losses have been
sustained of no inconsiderable amount. These losses have
occurred principally on Sirdang lands, where the tobacco
grown is reputed not equal to that produced in the other
two districts. This comparative defect is disclosed in the
burning, the Sirdang tobacco yielding a brown instead of
a white ash, and being probably therefore lacking in
potash.

" The forests when cleared for the tobacco plantations
afford splendid timber, and this is utilized for constructing
drying-sheds and coolies' quarters, but a good deal of the
wood which might be exported for building or fuel
is wasted for want of conveyance and burnt on the ground.
As a compensation there can be no doubt that this burnt
timber, or rather the ashes of it, supply an excellent
manure.

" The labour employed may be distributed under three
classes. There are, firstly, Malays and Batak tribesmen,
who fell heavy timber, do general clearance, and build
sheds; then come the Klings from the Madras districts,
who occupy themselves with drainage and road-making ;
and lastly, we have the Chinese for planting, sorting, and
preparation of the weed. The planting is conducted on
a co-operative system. Coolies have their fields allotted

PRODUCTION AND COMMEECE. 199

to them, and plant at their own risk under supervision.
Their payment depends on the yield. Beckoning from
the estimated out-turn of last year's crop, and that one
coolie will raise seven piculs of tobacco in the season, we
arrive at the figure 23,000 as representing the total
number of Chinese engaged at Deli in tobacco cultivation,
to which number 7000 extra hands must be added,
employed in pursuits incidental to the industry. 3000
additional Chinese coolies are reported to have been
engaged for the coming year. The strength of the Kling
community may be taken at about 3000. The Chinamen
go into their clearings and begin work during January
and February: those not actually in service on the
tobacco estates earning money as shopkeepers, pedlars,
or gardeners, many of the latter being old hands who,
under advances, have taken to planting patches of tobacco
on their own account, for which they find a ready sale in
Penang. The Klings are also to be met with as drivers
of carts and carriages.

" An industrious coolie would, on an average, net in the
course of a year 100 to 150 Dutch florins, and on this sum
he pays to the Dutch Government 2 per cent, by way of
income tax. The coolie, however, arrives in the country
with a debt of from 100 fl. to 150 fl., and thus as a rule is
not clear and able to leave with a balance in hand till the
end of the second year. The coolie is engaged for a year,
but he generally re-engages, and takes his departure in
the beginning of the third year.

" The Dutch Government regulations with regard to
the maintenance of a medical man by every estate and

200

TOBACCO.

to the erection of hospitals for sick coolies are stringent ;
and, on the whole, the coolie-lines, considering their
temporary nature, are adequate, so that the lot of the coolie
in Deli may be regarded as a favourable one, even when
compared with places where he is under British control.

" The importing of British Indians, as is well known, is
not tolerated, though many have found their way into
the country under the stimulus of high wages, the latter
running from 7 dol. to 10 dol. a month, according to
capacity."

The following report by Consul Eckstein on the export
of Sumatran tobacco to the United States, and Dutch
dealings in the same in 1882 will be of interest.

Consul Eckstein says " it is not quite three years since a
few dealers in tobacco and manufacturers of cigars in the
United States had first their attention attracted to
Sumatra tobacco, with a view of introducing and using it
for cigar- wrappers.

" From this port shipments of the article began to be
made during the latter half of the year 1880, and, con-
sidering that this trade has only so recently taken its
rise, and that by this time it has already assumed rather
important proportions, I felt called upon to prepare the
present report, giving some information concerning the
same.

"In order to show, as nearly correct as possible, the
course this trade has taken from its commencement to the
present time, I made up the following statement, which
exhibits the quantity and value of such tobacco shipped
from Amsterdam to the United States during each quarter
since such shipments first began to be made, viz. : —

PRODUCTION AND COMMERCE.

201

Quarters ending —

Quantities.

Value.

September 30, 1880

Bales.
311

1

37,694

December 31, 1880

454

52,113

Total

765

89,807

March 31, 1881

None.

None.

June 30, 1881

558

56,958

September 30, 1881
December 31, 1881

1,162
1,059

128,474
114,758

Total

2,779

300,190

March 31, 1882

496

52,203

June 30, 1882 ...

1 464

140,184

September 30, 1882

2,245

254,372

December 31, 1882

2,785

333,254

Total

6 990

780,013

" From this statement it will be observed that the export
of the article to the United States is constantly and very
largely increasing ; and when it is further taken into
account that certain quantities of it were invoiced and
shipped from Rotterdam and Bremen as well, it may
safely be stated that about 9000 bales of Sumatra tobacco
entered our markets in 1882.

" What has created, increased, and what sustains this
trade appears to be :

" 1st. That certain qualities of Sumatra tobacco in
certain dark colours have been found to be peculiarly and
advantageously adaptable for cigar-wrappers, and are
gaining more and more in favour with manufacturers of
cigars in the United States ; and

202 TOBACCO.

" 2nd. The ever-increasing crops of the article, thus also
increasing the supply of the particular sorts especially
suitable for the American market.

" The recent animation in this trade has undoubtedly
furthermore been stimulated by the removal of the 10 per
cent, discriminating duty, formerly payable thereon, being
a product of the East Indies, exported from the west of
the Cape of Good Hope.

" This will be clearly evident when I state that many
shipments, aggregating large quantities of this tobacco,
purchased or ordered for months last past, were purposely
delayed until late in December, so as not to arrive until
after the law abolishing the discriminating duty had gone
into effect.

" This unlooked-for introduction and now so considerable
export of this staple into the United States has begun to
be viewed with great disfavour by cultivators or growers
of ' seed-leaf ' tobacco in the United States.

" They apprehend, as I am informed, that the imports of
Sumatra tobacco into our country will increase still
further in the near future, and seem to consider this
would prove greatly detrimental to their interests.

"I am hardly in position or prepared to express an
opinion as to how well grounded or justified their fears
really are, and, moreover, am inclined to believe that the
interested parties are the better judges of this matter, but
so far as I can possibly make myself serviceable by giving
information which may assist them in reaching correct
conclusions on the subject I deem it my duty to do, and
do cheerfully.

" Such information may possibly also be of some value to

PRODUCTION AND COMMERCE. 203

Congress in its present consideration of our tariff when
the article of ' leaf-tobacco ' is reached.

" Thus I would report that up to the present the produc-
tion of the article has increased from year to year without
any intermission from the beginning of its cultivation in
Sumatra in 1865, when it amounted to only 189 bales.

" In this connection I would respectfully refer and call
attention to my report on 'The tobacco trade of the
Netherlands in 1881,' dated March 7, 1882, and printed
in the volume of monthly consular commercial reports
No. 18, of April last, as it contains a statement showing
the crops of Sumatra tobacco each year from 1865 to 1880,
inclusive, and the average prices realized from its sale.

"The crop of 1881 is represented to have footed up
82,356 bales, valued (approximately) at 5,791,880 dol.,
being an increase over the crop of the previous year
(1880) of 17,433 bales as to quantity, and of 15260,000 dol.
as to the approximate value thereof.

" From the foregoing it will be seen that about one-ninth
of the whole crop of 1881 has been exported to the
United States.

" The entire crop, excepting about 1700 bales remaining
in the hands of the original importers or consignees here,
on December 31, 1882, was disposed of at an advance of
about 1 cent, United States currency, in the average price
as compared with that realized in 1881 for the crop of
1880 ; or, in other words, the total crop of 1880 brought
on the average about 45| cents, whereas the crop of 1881
averaged about 46| cents, United States currency, per
half-kilogram.

" This refers to the prices originally obtained at the

204 TOBACCO.

various sales throughout the year by the importers or
consignees, first hands.

" As regards the prices for the particular sorts which
during the year found their way to the United States,
and which are usually purchased from quite a number
of firms in the wholesale tobacco trade through the
mediation of brokers, they diifered all the way from
about 45 cents to 95 cents, United States currency, for
the half-kilogram.

" Thinking it might prove interesting, if not important,
to parties in the United States in any way concerned in
this matter, to be informed as to the extent and quality
of the crop of 1882, I made inquiries relating to it, and
ascertained as follows, viz. : — « That whilst it is im-
possible to state, at this early day, with accuracy the
yield of the crop, it is generally considered and expected
to have been again in excess over the previous one, and
that it amounts to about 90,000 bales.'

" Its quality is represented by the planters to be very
good, as far as they are able to judge ; but this can, of
course, only be determined later on, after the tobacco has
gone through the process of fermentation.

" The first parcels of this new crop will arrive here
about the month of March next, and will be offered for
sale about a month or six months thereafter.

" In concluding this report, I would remark that the
year 1882 has been a most favourable one for tobacco
planters in Sumatra and for those interested in tobacco
plantations there, and so have those connected with the
trade here realized handsomely by the year's operations.

" I am, therefore, induced to state that so long as the

PKODUCTION AND COMMERCE. 205

present general demand for the article continues there
will be neither lack of capital nor labour, so long as either
can contribute to an increase in its production, and it
would seem to be more a question as to the extent of
acreage in Sumatra adapted for its cultivation, as only
once in four or five years a crop can be raised on the
same soil without danger of producing a very inferior
quality of tobacco."

Turkey.— The Turkish empire has long been known
as producing some of the finest tobaccos in the world.
In the sanjac of Drama, which forms the vice-consular
district of Cavalla, tobacco is the staple article of produc-
tion and industry, and some 75,000 acres were devoted
to its culture in 1873. The whole crop of 1871 was
reckoned at 11,200,000 lb., the exports having been
7,600,000 lb., value 37,825Z. The tobacco of this district,
though derived entirely from one species, is divided into
two classes, known as Drama and Yenidji. The former
leaf is larger, stouter, and more potent, and generally of
deep reddish-brown colour ; the latter is smaller, slighter,
less narcotic, with a peculiarly delicate aroma, and the
best is of a rich yellow colour, whence its name " golden-
leaf." The Drama kind is principally grown in the
western portion of the district, and is the class supplied
to European markets. The differences in the two kinds
seem to be due solely to the soil.

The plantations in the Drama district proper occupy
both plain and hill-side. The produce of the former is
much the more considerable, and superior. The best
leaves, distinguished by a stronger and more substantial
texture, and a dark-red hue, go to Constantinople; the

206 TOBACCO.

inferior and lighter-coloured find a sale in Russia. The
mountain product is much inferior in quality and is sent
chiefly to Europe. When the leaves are petiolate, or
furnished with stems, they are made up in manoJcs
("hands"") of 10-15, and termed bashi-baghli ("head-
tied ") ; when the leaves are sessile, or devoid of stems,
they are simply pressed together in small numbers, and
called bassma. The whole produce of this locality varies
from 2,100,000 to 2,450,000 Ib. yearly. The growth
obtained in the Vale of Pravista is known as Demirli. It
is inferior, unsubstantial, and dark-coloured, and usually
made up as basM-baghli. The annual production is about
2 million Ib. ; the exports to England were 1,600,000 Ib.
in 1871. Cavalla affords yearly about 300,000 Ib. of
inferior quality, chiefly as bashi-baghli, and mostly con-
sumed locally. The shipping port for all these places is
Cavalla.

The district of Sarishaban produces on the average
about 2,000,000 Ib. annually, but the crop of 1871
reached 2,800,000 Ib. About £ is as basM-baghli. That
grown on the plain and hills is termed gTiyribek, and forms
the bulk ; that from the slopes, about 500,000 Ib. a year,
is the best, and is known as gJiubek. All is packed up
in small boghchas (parcels), of 30-50 Ib., which are dis-
tinguished as beyaz, from the white cotton wrappers used
for the best sort, and kenavir, from the canvas coverings
of the inferior kinds. The best goes to Constantinople,
secondary to Smyrna and other home markets, and the
worst to Europe. The district of Yenidji, near the Gulf
of Lagos, affords some 3,500,000 Ib. per annum, chiefly
as bassma, and bearing a very general resemblance to the

PEODUCTION AND COMMERCE. 207

produce of Sarishaban. The best goes to Constantinople
and Russia. Ghiumirgina (Ghumurdjina, or Komuldsina)
grows about 300,000 Ib. yearly of dark-coloured bassma,
of the Drama class, which is used locally ; and Sultan-
Yeri gives 400,000 Ib. of still darker basM-baghli. The
produce of these districts is shipped at Lagos (Karagatch)
or Cavalla.

The most delicate and valued of all the tobaccos raised
in this portion of European Turkey is the celebrated
"golden leaf" from the caza of Yenidji, on the Vardar
(Nestus) river. After it, in declining order, come the
products of Drama, Persoccian, Sarishaban, Cavalla, and
Pravista. Of the whole Drama and Yenidji produce, it
is estimated that Austro-Hungary takes 40 per cent.
Italy buys annually about 150,000-200,000 Mo. France,
Germany, and Switzerland receive very little. Russia
is a large customer. Before the war, considerable quanti-
ties were sent to the countries on the Lower Danube.
England imports every year some 10,000 bales, or 400,000
okes (of 2*83 Ib.) of Pravista tobacco. The refusa, or
waste leaves, &c., is sent everywhere for making into
cigarettes, most largely perhaps to Egypt. A kind of
tobacco known as ayiasoulouk is grown in considerable
quantities in the opium districts, almost exclusively for
export to Europe, the natives having a strong prejudice
against it.

The necessity for manuring is well understood by the
Turks. They dress the seed-beds with goat- and sheep-
dung, and manure the fields during winter with horse-
and cattle-dung. In the spring, sheep and goats are
folded on the land. The soil of tobacco lands will be

208 TOBACCO.

found quite impregnated with ammonia and nitrate of
potash, both absorbed by the plant ; the former is thought
to influence the aroma, and the latter may be seen in
crystals on the surface of the dried leaf. In order to
keep the leaves small and delicate, the planting is per-
formed very close, the usual distances being 5 inches
apart, and 9 inches between the rows.

The district of Latakia, in the northern part of Syria,
has long been celebrated for its tobacco, which is the
chief product of the mountainous part. There are several
kinds : — (1) Abu EiTia or Dgebeli, found in its best state
among the mountains of the Nesseries (Ansaries), which
possesses a peculiar and much-admired aroma, derived
from its being exposed, from November to April, to the
smoke of fires of ozer (Quercus Ilex, or Q. Cerris)-, (2)
Dgidar, including a number of kinds, of medium strength,
and in great favour locally on account of its low price ;
(3) Scheik-el-Bent, almost equal to Abu-Eiha, and often
substituted for it.

The plain of Koura is remarkable for its tobaccos, which
are rather strong, but much admired. The villages of
Lebail and Serai produce better tobacco than Koura.
The district of Gebail (Gebel) in Kesrasan (Castravan)
affords the best and dearest tobacco in Syria ; it is very
brittle, and its ash is quite white. The country south of
Lebanon yields very ordinary qualities, known as Salili,
Tanone, and Tcikibe, or generically as Berraoni ; these are
mixed with stronger kinds for use. The best of the Abu-
Hilia is yielded by the plant called Karn-el-Gazel ; the
second quality is termed Bonati.

The exports of tobacco from Alexandretta in 1879

PRODUCTION AND COMMERCE. 209

were :— To Egypt, 91 tons, value 6380Z. ; Turkey, 24 tons,
1920?.; England, 51 tons, 2550Z. ; France, 1 ton, 80Z.
The exports from Aleppo in 1878 were 30 tons, value
1200Z., to Great Britain. The yield of the crop in
Thessaly was 1,116,000 okes (of 2-83 Ib.) in 1877, 210,000
in 1878, and 890,000 in 1879. The crop of Prevesa in

1878 was 4000 okes, value 215Z. The exports from
Dedeagatch were about 260 bales, value 1000Z., in 1878 ;
and 600 bales, value 2400Z., in 1879. Considerable quan-
tities are grown around Sinope. Tobacco is one of the
principal products of the district of Samsoun, and is of
good quality. The average yield is 7,000,000 Ib. yearly.
It is grown near the sea-shore, and not eastward of
Yomurah, at Matchka and Trebizonde, and especially at
Akche-Abad. But the aggregate crop in these localities
is hardly ^ of the quantity produced at Samsoun, and the
quality is far inferior. The Samsoun product is usually
purchased largely on account of the French Government.
The exports from Samsoun in 1878 were : — To Turkey,
2,680,000 kilo., value 160,800Z. ; France, 583,500 kilo.,
28,008Z.; Eussia, 57 5,000 KZo., 57,500Z.; Germany, 400,000
kilo., 7200Z. ; Austria, 327,220 kilo., 31,266Z. ; Great Britain,
87,567 kilo., 1576Z. ; total, 4,653,287 kilo., 286,350Z. The
exports of Turkey-produced tobacco from Trebizonde in

1879 were:— To Turkey, 14,864 cwt., value 44,592Z. ;
Russia, 866 cwt., 2598Z. ; Great Britain, 490 cwt., 1470Z. ;
Austria and Germany, 204 cwt., 612Z. ; total, 16,424 cwt.,
49,272/.

In 1884, Damascus imported 1313 sacks of tumbeki,
value 1674Z., from Bagdad. In the same year Erzeroum
imported 9000 okes, value 1090Z., from Persia.

p

210

TOBACCO.

The leaf grown by the Herki Kurds and other cultiva-
tors in and around the district of Shemdina is highly
prized in Persia. In 1884, the first year of their opera-
tions, the employes of the tobacco Kegie only succeeded in
registering a yield of 25,000 okes, but this amount repre-
sents less than a fifth of the estimated produce of the
vilayet. It is believed, however, that 8000-10,000?.
Turkish worth of Shemdina tobacco annually crosses the
frontier into Persia.

Trebizonde exports in 1884 were 20,167 cwt., value
56,849Z. Inferior qualities are sent to Europe, good ones
remain in Turkey, and the best go to Egypt.

The shipments from Samsoun in 1884 were as follows : —

Price.

cwt.

£ s. d.

£

To Turkey

29,210

400

116,840

Austria

8,540

500

42,700

France

5,756

142

11,512

Egypt

4,176

400

16,704

Germany

3,579

186

5,096

Russia

1,730

600

10,380

Great Brita

n

832

1 4 2

1,002

Holland

712

1 12 0

1,140

Greece

416

300

1,248

54,951

206,622

United States. — The United States of America occupy
the foremost rank among tobacco-growing countries.
The areas and productions have been as follows : — 1875,
559,049 acres, 379,347,000 lb.; 1876, 540,457 acres,
381,002,000 lb.; 1877, 720,344 acres, 489,000,000 lb.;
1878, 542,850 acres, 392,546,700 lb. The crop of 1875
(in millions of lb.) was thus contributed : — Kentucky,
130 ; Virginia, 57 ; Missouri, 40 ; Tennessee, 35 ; Mary-
land, 22 ; Pennsylvania, 16 ; N. Carolina, 14| ; Ohio,

PRODUCTION AND COMMERCE. 211

13£ ; Indiana, 12£ ; Connecticut, 10 ; Massachusetts, 8J ;
Illinois, 8. The average yields (in Ib. per acre) of the
various districts in 1875 were: — Connecticut, 1600;
Pennsylvania, 1600; New Hampshire, 1600; Massachu-
setts, 1350; Missouri, 850; Arkansas, 822; New York,
800; Florida, 750; Ohio, 700; W. Virginia, 680; Mary-
land, 675 ; Tennessee, 675 ; Kansas, 670 ; Texas, 650 ;
Kentucky, 630; Virginia, 630; Illinois, 550; Georgia,
550; N. Carolina, 500; Indiana, 500; Wisconsin, 500;
Alabama, 465 ; Mississippi, 317. The exports from
New York in 1878 were : — 37,484 hogsheads, 2561 bales,
and 2,218,200 Ib. manufactured, to Great Britain ;
15,570 hh., 207 bales, and 14,800 Ib. manufactured, to
France ; 35,700 hh., 78,331 bales, and 147,400 Ib. manu-
factured, to N. Europe ; 23,150 hh., 6058 bales, and
120,000 Ib. manufactured, to other Europe; 4628 hh.,
14,360 bales, and 4,780,200 Ib. manufactured, to
S. America, E. and W. Indies, &c. Baltimore exported
66,039 hh. in 1878. The shipments from New Orleans in
1877-8 were :— 1226 hh. to Great Britain, 743 to France,
4552 to N. Europe, 3222 to S. Europe, Mexico, &o., and
4500 coastwise. Philadelphia, in 1879, exported 9,564,171
Ib. of leaf tobacco, 52,000 cigars, and 515 Ib. of snuff.
The total American export of unmanufactured leaf in
1879 was 322,280,000 Ib.

The census bulletin on this branch of industry, recently
issued, is of a very interesting nature. The tobacco pro-
duct in the United States is divided into classes, types and
grades, the basis of a class being its adaptation to any
specific purpose ; of a type, to certain qualities or proper-
ties in the leaf, such as colour, strength, elasticity, body

p 2

212 TOBACCO.

or flavour. It also applies to the method of curing, such
as sun, air or flue curing. Grades represent the different
qualities of a type, and vary much in the several types.
The classification of American tobacco is threefold, viz.
domestic cigar tobacco and "smokers," chewing- tobacco,
export tobacco. The domestic tobacco trade comprises
the various kinds of seed-leaf of Connecticut, New
England, Pennsylvania, Wisconsin, Illinois, New York,
Florida and Ohio, as well as the sorts known as White
Burley " lugs," fine-fibred wrappers, Indiana kite foot, and
American-grown Havana. In the chewing class are
included the fine-cut and the plug fillers, principally of
the White Burley type from Kentucky, while under the
head of export tobacco are the Virginian bird's-eye cutting
leaf, and the spinning fillers or shag. It is curious to
notice how each market for export tobacco differs in its
requirements. The " closed " markets, or those in which
the tobacco trade is a monopoly of the Government, are
France, Italy, Austria and Spain. The French " Eegie "
is supplied by wrappers, binders and fillers from Ken-
tucky, Maryland and Ohio ; the Italian Eegie from
Kentucky and Virginia ; the Austrian Eegie by " strips "
from the same States, and the Spanish Eegie by common
" lugs." The open markets are Germany, to which are
sent the tobaccos known as German saucer and spinners ;
Ohio and Maryland, spangled cigar-wrappers and
" smokers " fat lugs ; Switzerland, which is supplied with
Virginian or Western wrappers and fillers ; Holland, with
Dutch saucer (a mottled Virginia, Kentucky or Tennessee
leaf) ; Belgium, with Belgian cutter (a light, yellowish-
brown leaf, well fired) ; Norway and Sweden, with heavy

PRODUCTION AND COMMEECE. 213

types, mainly used for spinning and "saucing." Ken-
tucky, which stands first of all the States for production,
the annual produce being 171,120,784 lb., gains her
chief profits from the white burley and yellow wrapper ;
Illinois, from the production of the seed-leaf; Missouri,
from sweet fillers and white burley; Virginia, from
yellow wrappers, bright "smokers," sun, air and flue-
cured fillers. Decidedly the most prosperous tobacco
States are those that grow types suitable for domestic
consumption, while those that grow it mainly for exporta-
tion stand low in the scale, the margin of profit under this
head being reduced very low. According to the researches
of Dr. Gideon Moore, the largest amount of nicotine is
contained in the Virginian heavily manured lots (5 '81
per cent.), while the Virginian heavy English shipping
has 4-72, the New York domestic Havana but 2*53, the
Connecticut seed-leaf 1 • 14, while the smallest amount of
all is found in the little Dutch tobacco of the Miami
valley, 0 • 63. Profits in the culture of tobacco have been
in direct proportion — first to its suitableness to domestic
consumption ; and, secondly, to the amount of fertilization
practised by the growers in its cultivation. This is true
in every case, except the yellow tobacco districts of North
Carolina and Virginia, where poverty in the soil is a
condition of success in the production of quality.

Professor J. T. Eothrock is of the opinion that the
early natives of California smoked the leaves of Nicotiana
clevelandii — a species only quite recently described by
Professor Asa Gray. It is a small plant with small
flowers, and it was found by Professor Kothrock only in
association with the shell heaps which occur so abundantly

214 TOBACCO.

on the coasts of Southern and Central California. He
states that perhaps of all the remains of extinct races so
richly furnished by that region, none were so common as
the pipes, usually made of stone resembling serpentine.
The tobacco of N. clevelandii Professor Kothrock found by
experience to be excessively strong.

A recent report of the Commissioner of Agriculture
contains a few pages of sound advice to American planters
on the management of this crop, which is worthy of
reproduction here.

"The principal points to be attended to if the best
results are to be attained may be stated in a few para-
graphs— paragraphs which, while referring mainly to
shipping, manufacturing, and smoking tobacco as consti-
tuting nine-tenths of the tobacco grown in the United
States, embody principles and prescribe modes of manage-
ment nearly identical with those to be considered in the
treatment of other tobaccos.

" I. Select good land for the crop ; plough and subsoil it
in autumn to get the multiplied benefits of winter's freezes.
This cannot be too strongly urged.

" II. Have early and vigorous plants and plenty of them.
It were better to have 100,000 too many than 10,000 too
few. They are the corner-stone of the building. To
make sure of them give personal attention to the selection
and preparation of the plant-bed and to the care of the
young plants in the means necessary to hasten their
growth, and to protect them from the dreaded fly.

" III. Collect manure in season and out of season, and
from every available source — from the fence corners, the
ditch-banks, the urinal, the ash-pile. Distribute it with

PKODUCTION AND COMMERCE. 215

a liberal hand ; nothing short of princely liberality will
answer. Plough it tinder (both the home-made and the
commercial) in February, that it may become thoroughly
incorporated in the soil and be ready to answer to the
first and every call of the growing plant. Often (we
believe generally) the greater part of manure applied to
tobacco — and this is true of the * bought ' fertilizer as well
as of that made on the farm— is lost to that crop from
being applied too late. Don't wait to apply your dearly-
purchased guano in the hill or the drill from fear that, if
applied sooner, it will vanish into thin air before the
plant needs it. This is an exploded fallacy. Experience,
our best teacher, has demonstrated beyond cavil that
stable and commercial manure are most efficacious when
used in conjunction. In no other way can they be so
intimately intermixed as by ploughing them under — the
one broadcasted on the other — at an early period of the
preparation of the tobacco lot. This second ploughing
should not be so deep as the first ; an average of three to
four inches is about the right depth.

" IV. Early in May (in the main tobacco belt to which
this article chiefly refers, that is to say, between the thirty-
fifth and fortieth parallels of north latitude), re-plough
the land to about the depth of the February ploughing,
and drag and cross-drag, and, if need be, drag it again,
until the soil is brought to the finest possible tilth. Thus
you augment many fold the probabilities of a * stand ' on
the first planting, and lessen materially the subsequent
labour of cultivation. Plant on 'lists' (narrow beds
made by throwing four furrows together with the mould-
board plough) rather than in hills, if for no other reason

216 TOBACCO.

than that having now, if never before, to pay wages in
some shape to labour, whenever and wherever possible
horse-power should be substituted for man-power — the
plough for the hoe.

"V. Plant as early as possible after a continuance of
pleasant spring weather is assured. Seek to have a
forward crop, as the benefits claimed for a late one from
the fall dews do not compensate for the many advantages
resulting from early maturity. Make it an inflexible rule
to plant no tobacco after the 10th of July — we mean, of
course, in the tobacco belt we have named. Where one
good crop is made from later planting ninety-nine prove
utter failures. Far better rub out and start afresh the next
year. Take pains in transplanting, that little or no re-
planting may be necessary. The cut-worm being a prime
cause of most of the trouble in securing a stand, hunt it
assiduously and particularly in the early morning when
it can most readily be found.

"VI. Keep the grass and weeds down, and the soil
loose and mellow by frequent stirring, avoiding as much
as possible cutting and tearing the roots of the plant in
all stages of its growth, and more especially after topping.
When at all practicable — and, with the great improve-
ment in cultivators, sweeps, and other farm implements,
it is oftener practicable than generally supposed — substi-
tute for hand- work in cultivation that of the horse. The
difference in cost will tell in the balance-sheet at the close
of the operation.

" VII. Attend closely to ' worming,' for on it hinges in
no little degree the quality and quantity of tobacco you
will have for sale. A worm-eaten crop brings no money.

PRODUCTION AND COMMEECE. 217

So important is this operation that it may properly claim
more than a passing notice. Not only is it the most
tedious, the most unremitting, and the most expensive
operation connected with the production of tobacco, but
the necessity for it determines more than all other causes
the limit of the crop which in general it has been found
possible for a single hand to manage. Therefore bring to
your aid every possible adjunct in diminishing the number
of worms. Use poison for killing the moth in the manner
so frequently described in treatises on tobacco, to wit, by
injecting a solution of cobalt or other deadly drug into the
flower of the Jamestown or 'jimson' weed (Datura
stramonium), if necessary planting seeds of the weed for
the purpose. Employ at night the flames of lamps, of
torches, or of huge bonfires, in which the moth may find
a quick and certain death.

" In worming, spare those worms found covered with a
white film or net-like substance, this being the cocoon
producing the ichneumon-fly, an enemy to the worm
likely to prove a valuable ally to the planter in his war
of extermination.

" Turn your flock of turkeys into the tobacco- field, that
they, too, may prey upon the pest, and themselves grow
fat in so doing.

" If these remedies should fail, sprinkle diluted spirits
of turpentine over the plant through the rose of a
watering-pot, a herculean task truly in a large crop, but
mere child's play to the hand-picking process, for the one
sprinkling suffices to keep off the worms for all time,
whereas the hand-picking is a continual round of ex-
pensive labour from the appearance of the first worm

218 TOBACCO.

until the last plant has been carried to the barn. We
have no idea that such sprinkling will at all affect the
odour or flavour of the tobacco when cured.

" If, as stated by a writer in a California paper, the
well-known * yellow-jacket ' be useful in destroying
tobacco-worms, by all means win it as an ally. As
proving its usefulness, the writer asserts that one of his
neighbours, a Mr. Gulp, during fifteen years growing
tobacco, has never expended a dollar for labour to destroy
the worm, trusting all to this little workman, who, he
says, carefully searches the plants for the worms, and
never allows one to escape its vigilance.

" We cannot speak from our own experience as to many
of these suggested means for overcoming the horn-worm,
but we have no hesitation in saying to the farmer, try
any, try all of them rather than have your crop eaten to
shreds, and the labour of more than half the year brought
to naught in a few days, it may be, by a single * glut ' of
worms.

"VIII. 'Prime high and top low.' While open to
objection in particular cases, even with the character of
tobacco chiefly under consideration, and altogether inad-
missible, it may be, in the management of other varieties
of tobacco, this is a safe rule, we think, to follow in
general practice.

"We favour 'priming' by all means; for when no
priming is done the lower leaves (made worthless by
constant whipping on the ground) serve only as a harbour
for worms, which are the more difficult to find because of
the increased burden of stooping. Moreover, if the bottom
leaves be saved on the cut stalk, as most likely they will

PRODUCTION AND COMMERCE. 219

be, there is always the temptation to put them on the
market ; and against a sacrilege like this we are firmly set,
let others say and think what they may.

" Yet another advantage to be gained by the removal of
these bottom leaves, which is what the planter terms
'priming,' is the increased circulation of air and dis-
tribution of light thereby afforded, both essential factors,
the merest tyro knows, to the full development of plant
life.

" * Topping ' (the pinching off with the finger-nail
the bud at the top of the plant) is an operation requiring
considerable skill and judgment. Let it be performed
only by hands having these prerequisites.

"That as many plants as possible may ripen at the
same time (a desideratum not to be undervalued in
aiming, as all should, at a uniform crop) wait until a large
number of plants begin to button before commencing to
top. Going about through the crop, topping a plant
here and there because it may chance to have buttoned
before its fellows, is a damaging process not to be
tolerated.

" No inflexible rule can be given for the number of
leaves that should be left on a plant. All depends upon
the variety of tobacco, the strength of the soil, the promise
of the particular plant, the probable seasons and time left
for ripening, &c.

" One of the most successful growers of heavy dark
tobacco we have ever known, once stated to us his con-
viction, after years of observation and practice, that one
year with another, taking the seasons as they come, eight
leaves would give a better result than any other number.

220 TOBACCO.

Our own experience has tended to confirm this judg-
ment.

" IX. See to it that the suckers are promptly removed.
It is work quickly done, and with worming may constitute
a single operation.

" X. We come now to consider the last operation in the
field, ' cutting ' the crop. In this, as in topping, a man of
judgment, experience, and fidelity is needed. An inex-
perienced hand, one without judgment, and particularly
one who is indifferent to the interests of his employer,
will slash away, right and left, not knowing or not caring
whether the tobacco he cuts be ripe or green, doing more
damage in a few hours than his whole year's wages would
compensate for, even could they be garnished.

" Therefore, be on hand to see for yourself, and do not
delegate the duty to any less interested party, that a crop
managed well, it may be, so far, from the initial plant-
bed, should not be spoiled in the closing work by an
incompetent or unfaithful cutter.

" Be there, too, to see, in this supreme hour, that injury
from sunburn is warded off by the timely removal, to the
shade, of the plants that have been cut, or by a proper
covering, where they lie, against the scorching rays of
the sun. The neglect of this precaution has played havoc
with many a crop when brought under the auctioneer's
hammer.

" XI. We should have no space to describe the different
methods of * curing ' tobacco, as, for instance, ' sun-
curing,' ' air-curing,' ' flue-curing,' ' open-fire-curing,' &c.,
even though the whole subject had not been gone over
again and again in previous reports of this Department.

PKODUCTION AND COMMEECE. 221

We can only say of this operation, as of all others con-
nected with the production of tobacco, that much depends
on its proper doing, and that, as much as possible, it
should have the personal superintendence of the owner.

" But the crop may have been brought along successfully
even to the completion of this operation and 'lack one
thing yet,' if it be not now properly manipulated.

" Therefore, go yourself, brother planter, into your barns,
see with your own eyes, and not through the medium of
others ; handle with your own hands, and know of a
surety that the tobacco hanging on the tier-poles is in
proper order for « striking ' and ' bulking,' and act accord-
ingly.

" When, later on, it is being ' stripped/ * sorted,' and
tied into bundles, or ' hands,' as they are often called, be
there again, propria persona, to see that it is properly
classed, both as to colour and to length, the * lugs ' going
with lugs, the ' short ' with short, the * long ' with long,
&c. Instruct those sorting that when in doubt as to
where a particular leaf should be put, to put it at least one
grade lower than they had thought of doing. Thus any
error will be on the safe side.

"Prize in hogsheads to weigh what is usually called
for in the market in which you sell, and, above all, ' let
the tobacco in each hogshead be as near alike as possible,
uniform throughout, so that the ' sample,' from whatever
point it may be taken, can be relied on as representing the
whole hogshead,' and that there be left no shadow of
suspicion that ' nesting ' has been attempted, or any
dishonest practice even so much as winked at.

" We sum up the whole matter by repeating :

222 TOBACCO.

" 1. That overproduction, the production at all, of low
grade tobacco is the chief cause of the present extremely
low price of the entire commodity.

" 2. That the planters of the United States have the
remedy in their own hands; that remedy being the
reduction of area, this reduction to result, from the em-
ployment of the means here suggested, in increased crops ;
and, paradoxical as it may seem, these increased crops to
bring greatly enhanced values.

" The whole world wants good tobacco, and will pay
well for it. Scarcely a people on earth seeks poor tobacco
or will buy it at any price.

" In a word, then, one acre must be made to yield what
it has hitherto taken two or three acres to produce ; and
this double or treble quantity must be made (as, indeed,
under good management it could not fail to be) immea-
surably superior in quality to that now grown on the
greater number of acres. Either this or the abandonment
of the crop altogether — one or the other."

The exports from Baltimore were 46,239 hogsheads in
1882, 43,620 in 1883, 43,192 in 1884. The State of New
York, in 1883, had 5440 acres under tobacco, producing
9,068,789 lb., value 1,178,943 dollars ; and Connecticut,
8145 acres, 9,576,824 lb., 1,292,871 dollars. The produc-
tion of Minnesota was 65,089 lb. in 1879, 48,437 lb. in 1880,
79,631 lb. in 1881, 62,859 lb. in 1882, 14,744 lb. in 1883.

Venezuela. — The exports from Ciudad Bolivar were,
in 1884, 1318 kilo., value 1037 bolivares, to the British
West Indies; 9618 kilo., 6691 bolivares, to the United
States; 275,329 kilo., 192,188 bolivares, to Germany. The
exports of tobacco from this port in decades have been : —

PRODUCTION AND COMMERCE. 223

7,650,656 Ib. in 1850-59; 2,134,711 in 1860-69;
3,170,812 in 1870-79.

West Indies. — The Spanish possessions in the West
Indies are well known for their tobacco. The best is
produced on the vuelta abajo, or low-lying districts of
Cuba, near Havana, which are yearly flooded during
the autumn, just before the tobacco is transplanted.
To this fact, and the peculiar suitability of the seasons,
the excellence of this particular product is attributed.
The exports from Havana in 1878 were : — 93,603 bales
tobacco, 75,212,268 cigars, 203,581 bundles cigarettes, to
the United States ; 6169 bales tobacco, 66,795,330 cigars,
5,034,774 bundles cigarettes, to England ; 32,582 bales
tobacco, 9,541,498 cigars, 133,008 bundles cigarettes,
to Spain ; 582 bales tobacco, 3,861,700 cigars, 8206 bundles
cigarettes, to N. Europe; 5671 bales tobacco, 18,327,025
cigars, 797,513 bundles cigarettes, to France; 41 bales
tobacco, 900,850 cigars 5,709,442 bundles cigarettes,
to other countries. The totals for 1878 were 7,078,904
kilo, of tobacco, 182,356 thousand cigars, and 12,816,903
packets of cigarettes ; in 1879, 6,371,014 Mo. of tobacco,
145,885 thousand cigars, and 14,098,693 packets of cigar-
ettes. The tobacco exports in 1879 from St. Jago de
Cuba were 9658 bales to Bremen, 4015 to the United
States (chiefly for Bremen), and 1809 coastwise, total
15,477, against 10,249 in 1878. In the island of Puerto
Eico, the tobacco-plant thrives well, and the quality,
especially in the Rio de la Plata district, is very good.
In 1878, the island exported 8 quintals (of 101J Ib.) to the
United States, 32,109 to Spain, 4198 to Germany, and
18,123 to other countries.

224 TOBACCO.

The British West Indies have only recently appreciated
the importance of tobacco cultivation. Many portions of
Jamaica seem as well fitted for it as the vuelta dbajo of
Cuba, and already Jamaica tobacco in the Hamburg
market ranks next to the best Havana, and is considered
superior to such Cuban growths as St. Jago, Manzanillo,
Yara, &c. Tobacco cultivation may now be said to have
a place in the industries of Jamaica, a fact mainly due to
Cuban refugees. The most extensive plantations in
the island are Potosi in St. Thomas Parish, and Morgan's
Valley in Clarendon. Much of the produce goes to
the German market, the remainder being made into cigars
for local consumption, and said to be quite equal to some
of the best Cuban brands. Some experiments made with
Bhilsa tobacco have given great satisfaction, on account
of the robust habit and immense yield of the plant. It is
especially adapted for very wet districts, and its cultiva-
tion will be widely extended, if justified by its market
value. Tobacco is, and for very many years has been,
grown by the peasantry in small patches ; from this, they
manufacture a smoke-dried leaf, which, twisted together
in rope form, sells readily in the home market. The
acreage occupied by the crop was 297 in 1874-5, 442
in 1875-6, 331 in 1876-7, and 380 in 1877-8. The
slopes of valleys in many parts of Dominica, too, are
eminently suited to this crop, particularly the district
between Koseau and Grand Bay. The experiment of
tobacco culture in New Providence on a large scale has
not proved satisfactory, owing to the difficulties encoun-
tered in curing and preparing the leaf ; the cigars made
are fit only for local consumption.

PRODUCTION AND COMMERCE. 225

The exports from San Domingo in 1884 were
10,513,940 lb., value 669,500 dollars.

According to a recent Consular Report, it would seem
that " Cuban tobacco has lost its prestige through forcing
and artificial manures, and has to sustain sharp compe-
tition from abroad where it formerly commanded the
market; and probably some years must elapse before
the soil can recover from the excessive and indiscriminate
use of artificial fertilizers.

" A few years ago the leaf harvested in the Vuelta Abajo
was not sufficient to meet the large demand, and in order
to increase the yield, growers made use of guanos of all
sorts, and with such bad results that they find it now
difficult to place on reasonable terms more than half, and
sometimes less, of their crops, at very low prices ; in few
localities only the soil has not been spoilt by spurious
manures, and the leaf grown there commands very high
prices and is warmly competed for by local manufacturers
and buyers for the United States.

" Notwithstanding the last crop has been of a better
quality than heretofore, growers were compelled to
abandon the tobacco cultivation for a certain time, and
devote the ground to other purposes.

" It appears that this change of cultivation is absorbing
the fertilizers, and restoring to the soil its former good
qualities, and, if one can judge from the splendid appear-
ance of the leaf and the ready sale it now meets with,
it would seem that the Vuelta Abajo fields are regaining
their former renown.

" This has been a hard but healthy lesson the Vegueros
are not likely to forget. The soil cannot and should

Q

226 TOBACCO.

not be taxed beyond a reasonable and natural yield;
any attempt to the contrary would only be a repetition
of the fable of the golden eggs, as the tobacco growers
in the Vuelta Abajo have had occasion to learn to their cost.
" Towards the end of the year buyers, influenced by the
pending negotiations of the Spanish-American Treaty,
entered the market and operated extensively in the
expectation of a great reduction of duties in the United
States, paying prices above the established one, and
which, a few weeks later, they were utterly unable to
obtain.

" Cuban growers complain much of heavy purchases made
in the United States for account of the Spanish Govern-
ment for Peninsular consumption ; they say that however
low the class of the Cuban leaf may be, it must necessarily
be superior to that of the Virginia and Kentucky tobacco,
and that they might easily cultivate here the quality
required, and place it in the markets at as low a price as
any other country.

" Growers are unanimous in denouncing the action of
some local merchants and cigar manufacturers in for-
warding at the opening of the last season samples of leaf
tobacco and cigars in condition that by no means gave a
true idea of the quality of the crop, and which necessarily
gave a result contrary to the interests of all parties
engaged in the trade ; and they earnestly protest against
a repetition of this injudicious haste.

" The total tobacco production is estimated at between
400,000 and 500,000 quintals (one quintal about 100 lb.),
chiefly from the following districts : —

PRODUCTION AND COMMERCE. 227

Tercios.
Vuelta Abajo and semi Vuelta Abajo . . 150 , 000 to 200 , 000

Parlida 30,000 50,000

Remedies 60,000 85,000

Cuba and Java 25 , 000 35 , 000

Gibara 20,000 30,000

Total .. .. 285,000 400,000
(One tercio about 124 Ib.)

" As is well known, that grown in the Vuelta Abajo or
district west of Havana is the best kind, and has given
Cuba its well-earned reputation. About 67,000 acres are
cultivated under the denomination.

" I have no reliable statistics to show how much of the
raw produce is manufactured in the island, probably not
more than one-fourth. Very large quantities of the leaf
are exported in bales and rolled abroad.

" It is evident, however, that, given the total production
and corresponding result in the manufactured form, but a
small portion of the cigars sold in Europe and elsewhere
as Havana cigars have the slightest claim to a connection
with Cuba.

" The chief and only important manufactories of these
cigars are in Havana, and much care and money is
expended in producing a handsome-looking article. As
much as 40 dollars gold are paid to skilled labourers per
1000 for making up first-class goods. About 17,000 opera-
tives are employed in this manufacture in Havana alone.
One of the largest establishments here is that supplying
the Henry Clay brands, which is stated to turn out from
80,000 to 120,000 cigars daily ; and there are many others

Q2

228 TOBACCO.

of considerable importance with, a well-earned and old-
established reputation for fine goods.

" The quality of tobacco, like other agricultural produce,
depends on seasons, soil, and many natural causes, which
may baffle the most careful cultivator.

" There are good and bad years ; abundant and scanty
crops in succession.

" Except in the case of the few rich owners of plantations
in the best districts, brands and names are no guarantees
for a permanently good article. Even these favoured few
are exposed to bad seasons, if in a minor degree than less
fortunate holders.

" There has been no really fine-flavoured aromatic leaf
harvested since 1881. Much of that since garnered has
been simply bad.

" Great hopes are entertained of the coming 1885 crop,
and present indications are in favour of this assumption.

" The manner in which the wholesale trade is carried on
in Havana is incomprehensible to an ordinary outsider,
to whom it would appear that the manufacturers prefer a
prospective loss abroad to a present and certain gain here.
They will only execute orders, large or small, for cash
over the counter, giving no, or in some cases the smallest,
discount. No manufactured goods are kept in stock, but
are made to order after sample, and, unless examined in
warehouse before delivery, and that means little, must be
paid in full on delivery, and the consequence but too
frequently is that, on arrival at their destination, they do
not correspond with the sample, and the deluded buyer finds
that he has made a bad bargain, and (if an Englishman)
discovers that he could have bought the same article

PRODUCTION AND COMMERCE. 229

cheaper in the English market with the additional
advantage of examining and testing the goods before
purchase.

" I leave the solution of this enigma to the initiated : it
probably is that the makers consign very largely, and
London importers are too experienced and too wary to
pay the full invoice price until well acquainted with the
wares, or they get large discounts refused to the cash
purchaser in Havana.

" Complaints are heard of the depressed state of the
Cuban tobacco trade and of the large unsold stocks on
hand. I do not think the traders deserve sympathy,
nor have they done anything to -earn the confidence of
foreign customers. My experience leads me to advise
intending purchasers to put (I do not advise regular
traders) themselves in the hands of reliable London
dealers and avoid all direct purchases.

** Intelligent smokers with sensitive palates will find no
cheap tobacco here fit to smoke ; 50s. per 100 and upwards
is what must be paid at present for really fine-flavoured
aromatic cigars ; beyond 80s. or 85s. prices become fancy
ones, and are paid for the smart cases and envelopes.
Even at the rates I quote it is not easy to find what is
wanted. There is abundance of dark powerful tobacco of
fine quality at much lower rates, but not light tobacco
with flavour or aroma or without strength, such as the
educated (I allude to taste) Englishman seeks. I believe
that only about 10 per cent, of the tobacco harvested in
ordinary years is of the light colour I refer to, hence the
difficulty in supplying the demand, and the artifices
resorted to to supply the deficiency.

230 TOBACCO.

" Cuba's annual tobacco crop may be estimated as between
300,000 and 400,000 tercios of 125 Ib. each. About
30,000 persons are employed in its cultivation, and its
value when harvested may be fixed (according to year's
quality) at between 8,000,000 and 12,000,000 dol. of 4s.

" I cannot estimate the number of persons engaged in
working plantation (Vegueros) and other cigars for home
consumption, nor the quantity thus consumed ; but the
higher class of operatives employed in cigar-making for
export number about 20,000, and turn out at present pro-
bably 200,000,000 cigars annually.

" The export trade has fallen off considerably of late
years. In the five years, 1870 to 1874, about 350,000,000
cigars were annually shipped to foreign ports, whereas in
the period between 1879 and 1884 the annual average
export was only 200,000,000.

" Probably larger quantities have been exported in each
period owing to under valuations to escape export duty ;
but relative bulk proportions between the two export
periods will hardly be affected by this."

The exports from Havana in 1884 were 11,767,200 Ib.
to the United States, 613,000 to Spain, 252,600 to France,
37,500 to Mexico and South America, 70,000 to Belgium,
and 500 to the Mediterranean.

( 231 )

CHAPTEK V.
PEEPAEATION AND USE.

THIS chapter embraces the manufacture of cut, cake and
roll tobacco, cigars, cigarettes, and snuff. It is impossible
to indicate the precise form in which each kind of tobacco-
leaf is manufactured for use ; indeed, no well-defined line
marks the qualifications of each sort, and the great art
of the manufacturer is to combine the various growths
in a manner to produce an article suited to the tastes of
his customers, at a price suited to their pockets. But, in
a general way, it may be said that Havana and Manilla
are probably exclusively consumed in the form of cigars ;
Virginia is a favourite for cavendish, negrohead, and
black twist, and is largely converted into returns, shag,
and snuff; Kentucky, Missouri, and Ohio are used for
cavendish, brown twist, bird's-eye, returns, and shag ;
Dutch and German make the commonest cigars, k'naster,
moist snuffs, and smoking-mixtures ; Java and Japan
are selected for light cigars, mixtures, and light moist
shag ; Latakia, Turkey, Paraguay, Brazil, China, and
the remainder, are used up in cigarettes, mixtures, imita-
tions, and substitutes.

Damping. — The tobacco-leaves are received by the
manufacturer in all kinds of packages, from a hogshead
to a seron (raw hide), and of all weights from 1 to 12
cwt. The first process they undergo is "damping,'
which is necessary to overcome their brittleness, and

232 TOBACCO.

admit of their manipulation without breaking. For this
purpose, the bunches (" hands ") are separated, and the
leaves are scattered loosely upon a portion of the floor of
the factory, recessed to retain the moisture. A quantity
of water, which has been accurately proportioned to
the absorbing qualities of the leaf used, and to the
weight present, is applied through a fine-rosed watering-
pot, and the mass is left usually for about 24 hours, that
damped on one morning being ready for working on the
following morning. In England, water alone is ad-
missible (by legislative enactment) for damping, except
in special cases to be noted subsequently; but abroad,
many " sauces " are in vogue, their chief ingredients
being salt, sal ammoniac, and sugar.

Stripping and Sorting. — Quantities of leaf- tobacco are
shipped in a condition deprived of their stem and midrib,
and are then known as " stripts." Those which are not
received in this state, after having been damped, are
passed through the hands of workmen, who fold each
leaf edge to edge, and rip out the midrib by a deft twirl
of the fingers, classifying the two halves of each leaf,
and ranging the sorts in separate piles as smooth as
possible. The value of the leaf greatly depends upon
the dexterity with which the stripping is done, as the
slightest tear deteriorates it. Stripts require sorting
only. The largest and strongest leaves are selected for
cutting and spinning; the best-shaped are reserved for
the wrappers of cigars ; broken and defective pieces form
fillers for cigars ; and the ribs are ground to make snuff.
For the manufacture of " bird's-eye " smoking- tobacco,
the leaves are used without being previously stripped.

PREPARATION AND USE. 233

Cutting. — Cutting is the process by which the damped
leaves, whether stripped or not, are most extensively
prepared for smoking in pipes and cigarettes. The
tobacco-cutter which is in general use in -this country is
shown in Figs. 14 (side elevation), 15 (sectional eleva-
tion), 16 (front elevation), and 17 (plan). The main
frames a are united by stretcher-bolts 6; d is a wooden-
surface feeding-roller, on which the tobacco is pressed
and cut ; c are the upper compressing- and feeding-rollers,
mounted in e, carriage-plates extended backwards, forming
the sides of the feeding-trough, and hinged to the axle
m ; f are levers ; #, links by which the weight w presses
down the upper rollers ; h, a crank, and *, a connecting-
link for working ; j, the cross-head to which the knife k
is fixed ; Z, side-levers or radius-bars for guiding the knife,
hinged on the eccentric ends of the axle ; m, an axle held
in bearings at the back of the machine; on its middle
part, which is concentric with its own bearings, are hinged
the top roll carriage-plates e, whilst on its projecting
ends, which are slightly eccentric, the knife-levers I are
hinged; n is a worm-wheel segment; o, a worm; p, a
hand-wheel for turning the eccentric spindle m through
a part of a revolution in its bearings, for adjusting the
contact of the knife with the nose-plate q ; r, a worm ;
s, a worm-wheel ; t, a worm-pinion for giving simul-
taneous movement to all the rollers ; u, a spindle, " uni-
versal jointed " at both ends, for driving the upper rollers
in positions varying with the thickness of the feed ; v, a
saw-toothed ratchet-wheel, moved intermittently by a
catch x, link y, and stud-pin z, v being changeable, and
the eccentricity of z variable, for the purpose of regu-

234

TOBACCO.

lating the fineness of the cutting. Both ends of the
knife move at the same speed, and its surface is made to
clear the work by describing a slight curve. The knife

FIG. 14.

FIG. 16.

FIG. 15.

FIG. 17.

PKEPARATION AND USE. 235

is adjusted accurately to the nose-plate, while the machine
is in motion, by varying the direction of eccentricity of
the axis of the knife-levers to that of the roller-levers.
The fineness of the cutting is regulated by varying the
eccentricity of a movable stud-pin in a plate on the
crank-shaft which gives motion, through a train of speed-
reducing gear, to the several rollers. The knives are
easily removed and replaced, and require sharpening after
every 4-6 hours' working. Two men attend the machine,
one to keep the feed-rollers supplied, the other to watch
that the knife is doing its work, and to remove the tobacco
as fast as it is cut.

Drying. — The cut tobacco, as removed from the machine,
is placed loosely in a layer several inches deep in a large
trough, provided with a canvas false bottom ; steam is
introduced between the true and false bottoms, and finds
its way up through the tobacco, which is thus rendered
more easily workable. It is next transferred to a similar
trough having no false bottom, but a steam-jacketed floor
instead ; here the tobacco is dry-heated, and at the same
time lightened up by hand. Finally, it is taken to a
third trough, where cold air is forced through the canvas
false bottom, by means of a blower or fan. This last
operation dries the tobacco ready for use in the course of
some hours ; but it has the disadvantage of dispersing
part of the aroma, and is therefore generally resorted to
only when time presses. In other cases, the drying is
conducted on canvas trays. However performed, the
drying operation needs the greatest attention, to prevent
the moisture being extracted to such a degree as to de-
stroy the profit which its presence confers upon the

236 TOBACCO.

manufacturer. With drying, the preparation of cut
tobacco for smoking in pipes is completed.

Cake or Plug. — The manufacture of " cake " or " plug "
is little carried on in this country, as the Excise laws ex-
clude the use of sweetening matters, except when carried
on in bond. The process is sufficiently simple. Virginian
leaf, with or without the addition of flavourings, is
sweated for a day or two, to deepen the colour, worked
into a soft mass, and next placed in moulds, and subjected
to sufficient pressure to ensure the cohesion of the mass.
Each cake is then separately wrapped in perfect leaf, and
passes through a series of moulds, each smaller than the
last, and under increasing pressure in steam-jacketed cup-
board-presses, of which there are many forms. The com-
bined effect of the heat and pressure is to thoroughly im-
pregnate the whole mass with the natural juices of the
leaf and the flavouring (if any has been used), and to pro-
duce a rich dark colour.

A machine for turning out plug-tobacco in ribbons,
made by the McGowan Pump Co., New York, is shown
in Fig. 18. The tobacco is first weighed out in the
proper quantities, and spread in a box placed in spaces in
a heavy iron table a. When the latter is filled, it is
passed to and fro under the heavy iron wheels b, which
are loose on the shaft, and which can be adjusted to exert
any desired pressure. Twice passing through suffices.
The ribbon is made in lengths of 10 feet, and either 5|
inches or 2| inches wide, as desired.

Roll or Twist. — Eoll- or twist-tobacco is made by spin-
ning the leaf into a rope, and then subjecting it to hot
pressure. Until recently, the spinning was performed by

PREPAKATION AND USE.

237

hand, much after the manner of ordinary rope-making by
hand. But this slow process is now superseded by a

PREPAEATION AND USE. 239

machine made by Eobinson and Andrew, of Stockport ; it
is spoken of in very favourable terms by English manu-
facturers, and received a diploma of merit at the Phila- ,- >
delphia Exhibition. The machine consists of a combina- I •"
tion of 3 rollers, whose surfaces are made of segments, to
which lateral to-and-fro motions are given by cams
attached to the stands on which the axles of the rollers
rotate. The tobacco occupies the central space between
the 3 rollers, and it is carried through the machine by the
lateral to-and-fro motions given to the segments. The
fillers and wrappers are laid on a table joined to the
machine. The filler is placed in the cover, and they pass
together between the rollers, whose action twists and
compresses the tobacco into a roll ; this is carried forward
and wound on a bobbin, revolving in an open frame, and
provided with a guide for equalizing the distribution of
the tobacco.

The machine is shown in Figs. 19 (elevation), 20
(plan), and 21 (end view). The tobacco is laid on the
table a, provided with a rib n, on which the sliding rest b
is free to move to and fro ; c d are the two lower
segmental rollers, the axles of which revolve in stationary
bearings ; e is the top roller, the axle of which revolves
in sliding bearings, fitting in the swing-frame /, and each
acted upon by a spring o, pressing on a pin communica-
ting with the bearing, and putting an elastic pressure on
the tobacco.

Each segment-roller consists of an axle with four
segments, best shown in Figs. 22 and 23. The outer
shell of the segments is made of hard wood, fitting
an inner shell of malleable cast-iron, the projections on

240

TOBACCO.

which suit grooves on the cast-iron axle. The segments
of the rollers c d are moved laterally to and fro by the
wedge-shaped cams pqrs, fixed to the bearings of the

FIG. 22.

FIG. 23.

PKEPARATION AND USE. 241

roller-axles ; and the segments of the roller e are moved
in the same manner by cams tu, fixed to the swing-
frame /. The tobacco occupies the central space between
the 3 rollers, and the cams p r t move the segments in the
direction of the arrow where they touch the tobacco,
while the cams q s u move them back. After the tobacco
has passed beyond the segment-rollers, it goes through the
hollow trunnion of the open frame g, in which the bobbin h
revolves ; the other trunnion of the frame g is provided
with fast and loose pulleys, by which the whole machine
is driven. To this trunnion, are also fixed an ordinary
friction-break pulley, and a grooved pulley, around which
latter passes a band for driving the pulley on the axle
of the bobbin h. To the other end of the axle of the
bobbin, is fixed a pinion, which, by means of a toothed
chain, gives motion to another pinion fixed to the double
screw t ; this double screw gives a traversing to-and-fro
motion to the guide j, for distributing the tobacco
evenly on the bobbin, by means of a swivel T-headed
stud, connected with the guide, and taking into the
thread of the double screw. The guide is provided with
two horizontal grooved rollers, between which the tobacco
passes, and with two other rollers to guide the tobacco on
to the bobbin.

Eotary motion is communicated to the segment-rollers
cde as follows: — To the hollow trunnion of the open
frame g, is affixed a pinion, which drives the wheel &,
on the same shaft as the change-pinion that drives
the wheel gearing into the pinions on the axles of
the rollers c and <?, and one of which pinions gears
into the intermediate pinion /, which drives the pinions

B

242 TOBACCO.

on the axle of the roller e. The driving-strap is
held upon the fast pulley by a drop-catch acting on
a weighted lever, one arm of which is connected by
a link to the lower end of a strap fork-lever. When
it is requisite to stop the machine, the attendant kicks
the point of a catch off the end of the lever, which
is then raised by the weight, and so moves the driving-
strap from the fast to the loose pulley, the stoppage
being virtually instantaneous. The mode of working is as
follows : — The spinner and assistants stand at opposite
sides of the table ; the fillers and wrappers being placed
on the table, one assistant spreads out the wrapper and
pushes the end towards the filler, which the spinner
supplies and holds against the sliding-rest 6 ; the rotary
motion of the segment-rollers c d e twists the tobacco, and
causes the wrapper to be wound over the filler, and
the rest 6, being movable, enables the spinner to regulate
its position according to the quantity and quality of the
filler and wrapper. The lateral motion of the segment-
rollers passes the roll towards the bobbin, on which it is
wound, as described. The combined rotary and traversing
motions of the rollers consolidate the tobacco, and put the
desired face upon the twist. The roller e is supported in
a swing-frame, which is lifted off the tobacco when
starting the machine. When the machine is at work, the
swing-frame is held down by the stud m (Fig. 19).
The figures represent a machine suitable for manufac-
turing Limerick roll ; for pigtail and other small descrip-
tions, it is necessary to reduce the diameter of one or
more of the segment-rollers.

A more recent improvement in this machine, by

PREPARATION AND USE.

243

J. E. A. Andrew, is shown in Figs. 24 (side view),
25 (transverse section), and 26 (plan). The table a,

FIG. 24.

FIG. 25.

rib w, and sliding-rest b, and two lower segment-rollers c d,
are constructed as usual ; but the axles of the segment-
rollers revolve in bearings ght bolted to the flanges

B 2

244

TOBACCO.

of swivel-frames i Jc, hinged upon the fulcrum-shaft x ; the
object of thus supporting the bottom rollers cd is to
be able to vary the distance between them according
to the thickness of the twist of tobacco that is being
rolled. When the distance between the rollers is fixed,
the bearings are secured by bolts passing through
segmental slots. The solid top roller e revolves in centres
in sliding bearings fitting in the swing-frame /.

FIG. 26.

As the bobbin is filled, it is removed, and replaced by
an empty one. The rope is then unwound, and formed
into rolls, by the aid of a spindle with flanges at the
sides, worked by a treadle, under a cushioned weight
which squeezes the coils closely together as they are
wound. The completed rolls are subjected to great
pressure in steam-jacketed presses, in the same way, and
with the same object, as the cakes or plugs.

Cigars. — Cigars are composed of two parts, a core

PREPARATION AND USE. 245

formed of pieces of leaf placed longitudinally, known as
" fillers," and a covering formed of perfect leaf, called the
" wrapper." Probably all the best cigars are made by
hand, the only tools required being a short-bladed sharp
knife, a receptacle containing an emulsion of gum, and a
square wooden disc or " cutting-board." A portion of
perfect leaf is first shaped to form the wrapper of
the cigar ; then a bunch of fillers is moulded in the hand,
and rolled up tightly in the wrapper, the taper end being
secured by gumming. Expert workmen make the cigars
remarkably uniform in weight and shape. When made,
they are sorted according to colour, deftly trimmed at the
thick end, and placed in their boxes in cupboards heated
by gas-stoves to finally dry or season before being stored
for sale.

In America, machinery is introduced wherever possible.
Moulds for shaping the cigars are made of hard wood,
sometimes partially lined with tin, and of every possible
size and form. A machine is made by Dubrul and Co., of
Cincinnati, for working 3 sets of moulds at once, 2 being
kept filled up under pressure while the 3rd is being filled,
or the bunches are being rolled up. A handy little
machine for rolling the fillers for cigars is that known as
Henneman's, made by Dubrul and Co. The demand for
scrap- made cigars, or those manufactured with short
fillers, has caused the introduction of machines for
cutting and sifting scrap. One made by Dubrul and Co.
is shown in Fig. 27. It consists essentially of a cy-
linder formed of hook-shaped, double-edged steel blades,
revolving against 3 series of fixed but adjustable steel
blades, thus permitting the size to be regulated at will.

246 TOBACCO.

Cigarettes. — Cigarettes consist of paper tubes filled with
cut tobacco, with or without an external wrapper of leaf
tobacco. Preference is usually given to those made by
hand, but machines have been introduced with some

FIG. 27.

success for making the commoner kinds. A French
machine for making cigarettes is shown in Fig. 28.
Its work consists in making the paper tubes, and filling
them with tobacco. The paper, previously prepared, in
a band about 3 inches wide, is unrolled from the coil a by
means of the carriage b, and cut off in pieces about 1 inch
long for presentation to the mandrel c, temporarily intro-
duced into one of the tubes of the mould-carrier d. The
mandrel has a clamp which grasps the paper and rolls it,
and, at the moment when the latter escapes from the
carriage, its free end is brought upon a rubber pad
covered with gum, hidden in the illustration. The paper

PREPARATION AND USE.

247

tube is left in the mould, the mandrel being extracted by
means of the cam e; the mould-carrier is then turned
| revolution by the cam /, a new tube comes into line,

248 TOBACCO.

and the operation is repeated. When 6 paper tubes are
completed, the first one is pushed by a small piston,
actuated by the cam g, upon the end of the filling-tube ;
and immediately the rod h, actuated by the cam e, drives
into this tube a portion of tobacco already prepared in the
compressor i. In preparing the tobacco, a workman, occu-
pying the seat m, is necessary to dispose the material in
regular layers on a carrier, by which it is transported into
the compressor. When the cigarette-envelope is filled,
the mould-carrier again makes part of a revolution, and
the finished cigarette is pushed out of the mould by the
rod &, also actuated by the cam e ; a device finally lodges
the cigarettes in the box I. One workman is said to be
able to turn out 9600 cigarettes in 10 hours by the aid
of the machine.

Snuff. — Snuff is entitled to the last place in the series of
tobacco manufactures, as it is largely made up of the scraps,
cuttings, and rejections of the preceding processes. The
materials are chopped very fine, placed in heaps in warm
damp cellars, " doctored " with various flavourings, left to
ferment for several weeks, and then ground to powder in
edge-runner mills, some kinds even undergoing a slight
roasting. When ground, the mass is passed through
" mulls," wood-lined, bottomless bowls, let into a bench,
where the snuff is softened and rendered less powdery
means of pointed pins, resembling domestic rolling-pins,
which slowly travel around the sides of the bowls. Snuff
represents a highly profitable article manufactured from
materials that are otherwise useless, and depending for its
favour chiefly upon the perfumes and flavourings used.

PREPARATION AND USE.

249

FIG. 29.

Hence these last are kept profoundly secret by the
manufacturer.

From refuse tobacco which is unfit for any other pur-
pose, is made a decoction for washing sheep and destroying
vermin ; often the waste is ground very fine, and used
by gardeners, presumably to keep noxious insects away.

Miscellaneous Appliances. — The customary ingenuity of
the Americans has invented a profusion of admirable
labour-saving machines for almost all the operations of
the tobacco manufacturer. A few of these only can be
noticed in the present article.

Fig. 29 shows a portable resweating-apparatus, in-
tended for darkening the colour
of tobacco to suit the dealer's
market. It measures 4 feet
long, 3 feet wide, and 5 feet
high, being just large enough
for one case (400 Ib.) of tobacco,
including the case ; it consists
of a water-tank a, a pipe b for
conducting the water into the
metallic pan c, at the bottom of
the apparatus, which is heated

by gas-jets d. The tobacco is introduced by the door e,
which is fitted with a thermometer. The roof is sloped so
as to determine the flow of the water of condensation. The
steaming occupies 3-5 days, and needs occasional watching.
The apparatus is made by C. S. Philips and Co., 188
Pearl Street, New York.

Fig. 30 illustrates a complicated machine, introduced

250 TOBACCO.

by C. C. Clawson and Co., of Raleigh, N. Carolina, for
putting up large quantities of tobacco in parcels of 2 oz.
upwards. It consists of a central table provided with
automatic scales for weighing out the portion ; four equi-
distant guides which determine the form of the package ;

FIG. 30.

a plunger for packing, and a follower for raising the
package; a side-table carrying tongs for holding the
empty bags; and another to receive the packages, and
hold them during tying. The hopper being supplied
with tobacco, and the machine put in motion, each form

PREPARATION AND USE. 251

takes a bag from the tong-table, and the article having
been weighed, is carried to the form by a shute, when it
drops into the bag, is packed by the plunger, and trans-
ferred to the tying-table. With 2 girls or boys, it is said
to weigh, pack, and tie 30 bags a minute.

The New York Tobacco Machine Co. make two forms
of machines for granulating tobacco, chiefly for making
" Killickinick " and cigarettes, their working capacity
ranging from 200 to 2000 Ib. a day. The cutting-rollers
are covered with cross-millings at right angles to each
other, those running lengthwise being deep; the fixed
cutters are adjustable, so that the cutting may be either
coarse or fine. When working, the action is like that of
a pair of shears, except that the cross-millings reduce the
strips to a granular state. Both stems and leaves may
be worked up. The great advantage claimed for these
machines is that, though the tobacco should be dry, the
percentage of dust escaping is reduced to a nominal figure.

A cutting-machine made by the same Co. is shown in
Fig. 31. It is adapted to cut leaf, stem, scrap, plug, or
any form of tobacco, to any required degree of fineness,
turning out 300-400 Ib. a day. The action is almost
precisely that of a chaff-cutter. The Co.'s sif ting-machine
consists of an adjustable cylindrical wire sieve, with a
rattan-broom screw-roller revolving inside. The stems
are stripped and worked out at one end, while the re-
mainder is broken up, and passed through the sieve,
falling upon a perforated tray, through which pass the
finest particles for snuff-making. A machine largely used
in America is the stem-roller, for crushing and flattening
the stems so that they may be used like leaves for making

252

TOBACCO.

cigars. Great benefit is anticipated in the United States
from the adaptation of Eyerson's " attrition mill " to
snuff-grinding, owing to the fact that the pulverization
is accomplished without the particles being heated in the
least degree. Of cigarette-making machines, there are
many kinds; the best are those which deal with the
tobacco in a comparatively dry state, thus preventing
shrinkage after packing.

Indebtedness is acknowledged to Hy. Archer and Co.,

FIG. 31.

Borough, S.E., and T. Brankston and Co., Carter Lane,
Doctors' Commons, for opportunities of inspecting their
thoroughly representative works, and for much informa-
tion readily given concerning the manufacture in this
country; to W. Jollyman, of W. D. and H. 0. Wills'
London house, for having revised these sheets before
going to press ; and to Hy. A. Forrest, 61 Broadway, agent
of the New York Tobacco Machine Co., for valuable
material relating to American machines and processes.

( 253 )

CHAPTEE VI.
NATUEE AND PEOPEETIES.

THE active principle of tobacco is a volatile, highly
poisonous alkaloid, called Nicotine (C10HUN2). Although
green tobacco-plants contain generally more nicotine than
the leaves after they have been prepared for the market,
yet the odour is only perceptible after the fermentation
of the leaves has set in. It has been ascertained that
young leaves 2 inches long contained 2*8 per cent., and
leaves 10 J inches broad and 16 inches long, as much as
5 • 6 per cent, of their weight of nicotine. The amount
increases as the plants become ripe, and decreases on
their becoming overripe.

Though the narcotic effects of tobacco experienced by
the smoker must partly be attributed to nicotine, it
cannot be said that they are solely due to it. It is well
known that the products of combustion of quite harmless
substances are often stupefying. Good Syrian tobacco
contains no nicotine, yet smokers consider cigars made
from this tobacco to be strong. It is evident that the
strength of a cigar, as judged by the smoker, depends
greatly on the circumstance whether the tobacco burns
well or not. If it burns well, a greater amount of
nicotine is consumed and decomposed, and less of the
narcotic products of combustion are created, than when it
burns badly. Cigars of the latter description, containing
little nicotine, are more narcotic in their effects when

TOBACCO.

smoked than well - burning cigars containing much
nicotine.

The amount of nicotine in tobacco varies very much,
according to the sort of plant, the climate, the nature of
the soil in which the plant grew, the treatment received
during its growth, and the course adopted to prepare the
leaf for the market. Dr. Nessler found that good Syrian
tobacco contained no nicotine, Havana tobaccos between
0*6 and 2-0 per cent., and German tobaccos between 0*7
and 3'3 per cent. Schlosing found in French tobacco
nearly 8 • 0 per cent, of nicotine. Fine tobaccos contain
generally little or no nicotine. Broughton found that
the amount of nicotine in Indian tobaccos varies very
much. The conditions favourable to the development of
nicotine in the plants are : — Soil in a bad physical state,
strong nitrogenous manure, a dry atmosphere, and pro-
bably a low temperature during the growth.

According to Nessler, green and newly-cut tobacco-
plants contain no ammonia ; it is developed during the
drying and fermentation of the leaves, especially when
they assume a brown colour. Tobacco-leaves, which have
undergone a strong fermentation, contain more ammonia
than those slightly fermented. Fine tobaccos contain
generally less ammonia than coarser ones. In various
smoking- tobaccos, Nessler found : — Havana, 0 • 2 per cent,
of ammonia ; Cuba, 0*3; Syrian, 0*6; German, 0 • 9 per
cent. Schlosing found Havana tobacco to contain 0-8
per cent.

Nitric acid, consisting of nitrogen and oxygen, is
formed in animal and plant substances when decomposed
under the influence of atmospheric air and a sufficiently

NATUKE AND PROPERTIES. 255

high temperature ; whereas ammonia, consisting of nitro-
gen and hydrogen, is formed when those substances
decompose in the absence, or nearly so, of atmospheric
air. Organic substances decomposing under the latter
condition emit an objectionable pungent odour, which
must partly be attributed to the formation of ammonia.
Tobacco, soon after harvesting, commences, according to
the conditions under which it is placed, one of these
decompositions. The extent of the decomposition the
tobacco has gone through may be partly judged from the
colour the leaves have attained. If leaves be dried so
rapidly as to remain green, the decomposition is probably
confined to the formation of carbonic acid. A yellow
colour indicates the formation of nitric acid ; and a dark-
brown or black colour, that of ammonia. The conditions
under which nitric acid and ammonia are formed being
known, it is possible to control their development. When
the tobacco is hung far apart, so that the air has free
access, the formation of nitric acid will take place ; but if
the air be excluded more or less, by hanging the tobacco
very close, or pressing it in heaps or pits, the formation
of ammonia is engendered.

Nitric acid generally promotes the combustion of plant
substances, by supplying a portion of the needed oxygen,
and has undoubtedly a similar effect in tobacco ; its oc-
currence in the tobacco is therefore a desideratum with
the cultivator and manufacturer, and to supply any
deficiency, the manufacturer often resorts to impreg-
nating his tobacco with a solution of saltpetre. From
this, however, it must not be concluded that every
tobacco containing a large amount of nitric acid will

256 TOBACCO.

necessarily burn well. Schlosing and Nessler have
shown that the well-burning of a tobacco does not
always correspond with a great amount of nitric acid,
thus indicating that other substances or other conditions
also affect the combustibility. The effect of the nitric
acid will most probably vary with the base with which
it is in combination.

The nitrogen in the forms of nicotine, ammonia, and
nitric acid, constitutes only a small portion of the total
amount present in tobacco ; by far the greater portion
(f-|) exists in the form of albuminoids. Nessler found
that the nitrogen under this form varies from 2 to 4 per
cent., which is equal to 13-26 per cent, of albuminoids.
Substances rich in albuminoids generally burn badly,
and emit a pungent noxious odour. On the condition
of these albuminoids, and on the presence of other sub-
stances, as nitric acid, alkalies, &c., in the tobacco, mostly
depend the burning qualities of the leaf, and the flavour
of a cigar. The Eastern habit in smoking, from Malaysia,
Japan and China, through India, Persia and Turkey, even
to Hungary, is to inhale the smoke into the lungs, and
natives of these countries maintain that a tobacco should
be of full flavour without burning the throat or catching
the breath. Western nations do not admit the smoke
further than the mouth, and therefore require a strong,
rank flavour.

Whilst drying and fermenting, the tobacco undergoes
great changes. Some substances are decomposed, others
are newly formed. The highly complicated compounds,
the albuminoids, undergo first decomposition, and in
doing so give rise to more simple combinations. Nitric

NATURE AND PROPERTIES. 257

acid, ammonia, and other substances less known are
chiefly, if not entirely, derived from the products of the
decomposition of albuminoids. The substances that
cause the objectionable pungent smell in tobacco are
formed from the broken-up constituents of these high
combinations. The conditions under which these bad-
smelling combinations originate are not properly known ;
but it is probable that they are developed with, and
under the same conditions that cause the formation of,
ammonia, as the disagreeable pungent flavour is found
generally in tobacco that has undergone fermentation to
a great extent. It is believed that the conditions that
favour the development of nicotine are also conducive
to the formation of albuminous substances in the leaf,
viz. fresh nitrogenous manure, bad physical state of the
soil, &c.

According to Nessler, the quality of tobacco depends
to a great degree on the amount of cellulose it contains.
He found that a good tobacco invariably contained more
than a bad one, Havana yielding as much as 46 per cent.
The fact that tobacco burns better after being stored for a
time may be partly due to an increase of cellulose
in it.

Every tobacco contains more or less fat, gum, ethereal
oil, &c. It is not properly known in what way fatty
matters affect the quality of tobacco. Many other
organic matters exist in tobacco in combination with
substances from which it is most difficult to separate
them; they have not as yet been quantitatively ascer-
tained, and are therefore little known. Most of them
are only developed during the drying and fermenting

s

258 TOBACCO.

of the leaf; their presence, however, considerably affects
the quality of the tobacco.

The amount of ash constituents in the tobacco is con-
siderable, varying between 16 and 28 per cent. There
cannot be said to exist a definite relation between the
total amount of ash in the tobacco and its quality, as
tobaccos yielding much ash are sometimes of good, and
at other times of bad, quality ; a good tobacco may yield
much or little ash. The relative proportion in which
the ash constituents exist is, however, of the greatest
importance. It has been ascertained that the presence
of some special mineral elements modify to a great
extent the quality of the tobacco. Of all ash consti-
tuents, potash (K20), more correctly speaking potassium
carbonate (K2C03), affects the quality of tobacco in the
highest degree. Schlosing has pointed out that the good
burning qualities of a tobacco depend on the presence in
it of potash in combination with a vegetable acid ; that
a soil deficient in potash is unfit to produce tobacco of
good quality. Numerous analyses have tended not only
to corroborate the assertion made by Schlosing, but to
demonstrate also, that it is not the total amount of
potash, but the potash found as a carbonate, which
existed in the plant in combination with a vegetable
acid, that is the constituent chiefly affecting the com-
bustibility of a tobacco. The complete analyses of
Nessler have shown that, although a tobacco may contain
a great amount of potash, it does not necessarily follow
that the tobacco burns well. He found that some German
tobaccos contained more potash than Havana, although
the latter burned much better than the former ; and that

NATUKE AND PROPERTIES. 259

a great amount of potash did not always indicate a great
amount of carbonate of potash. Although tobaccos
yielding a great amount of carbonate of potash in their
ash generally burn well, there may be conditions which
neutralize the good effect of this combination, as a large
proportion of albuminoids. It may therefore be said
that the combustibility of a tobacco is improved in pro-
portion as its ash yields more carbonate of potash, other
conditions being equal.

Among the minor salts, the chlorides deserve most at-
tention. It has been found that they generally retard the
burning of tobacco, and that as they increase, carbonate of
potash decreases. Lime is invariably found more or less
in the ash, but it has not been ascertained to what extent
its presence affects the quality of the tobacco; good
tobacco may contain much or little, so that its presence is
probably not of great importance. The same may be said
of soda, magnesia, and phosphoric acid. According to
Nessler, their proportions may vary thus : — Potash,
1*95-5 per cent.; lime, 6-5-9*2; soda, 0-1-63;
magnesia, 0 • 12-0 • 99 ; phosphoric acid, 0 • 57-1 • 39.

In connection with the chemistry of tobacco, and the
rational manuring of the crop, the name of Prof. S. W.
Johnson, Chemist to the Connecticut State Board of
Agriculture, must be placed in the foremost rank. In-
debtedness is acknowledged to Prof. Johnson for a copy
of his valuable report, quoted in the Bibliography at the
end of this work.

In November, 1884, a paper was read by Dr. John
Clark, on the composition of tobacco, before the Society

s 2

260 TOBACCO.

of Chemical Industry, which is sufficiently interesting to
be quoted at length.

Dr. Clark remarks that the " tobacco plant is very ex-
tensively cultivated in various parts of the world, and
after it has reached its maturity it is cut and dried on
poles. When the plant is in proper condition, the leaves
are stripped from the stalk, sorted and cured, by which
means they are converted into the tobacco of commerce.
The good leaves are called ' wrappers,' and the infirm or
defective ones, which are separated from the others, are
called ' mediums and fillers.' The term ' strips ' is
applied to tobacco leaves, from which 20 to 25 per cent, of
the stem or midrib has been removed to suit the require-
ments of manufacturers in this country more especially.
Tobacco is largely imported into the United Kingdom,
partly in the manufactured state, but principally in the
unmanufactured or leaf form.

" Through the kindness of a well-known firm of tobacco
manufacturers, I have been furnished with authentic
samples of the principal varieties of leaf tobacco, imported
into this country, and the accompanying table gives the
proportions of mineral matter or ash, alkaline salts, and
sand, which these contain. For the sake of comparison
the results are all stated in the dry tobacco, and in order
to ensure greater accuracy, the analysis was, in each case,
made with several leaves, which were separated into
laminae and stem, and the whole of each incinerated.
The difference in the composition of the laminae and the
stem is very marked, especially as regards alkaline salts,
and is of importance more especially to the snuff
manufacturer.

NATURE AND PROPERTIES.

261

»0 <N CO T* <N T* <N <N CO CO l> <» <N (» O «0 rH l> 10 (} CO

O5 i-H 1> (M T-I O O IO 1-" l> IO O5 00 CD O Oi -rfl CO O
CO CC O CO 00 10 OS rH O CO O r-t 05 00 'l ^H iO <M

262

TOBACCO.

Average

Average

Average

of

of

of

Whole Leaf,

Laminae,

Stem,

per cent.

per cent.

per cent.

Ash or Inorganic
Alk. Salts

20-32
6 47

19-21

4-98

21-92
11-41

Sand

2-48

2-86

1-15

" The unmanufactured tobacco which is imported into
this country, is converted into roll or spun tobacco, cut to-
bacco and cigars, and the refuse is used for making snuff.
Koll tobacco is the staple manufacture in Scotland and
Ireland, and cut tobacco the staple article in England.

" In the manufacture of roll tobacco, the leaves are
moistened with water, spun into various sizes of twist,
made up into rolls, and pressed. The liquid or juice
which exudes under pressure is used as a sheep dip. Cut
tobacco is made by moistening the leaves, cutting them
into the desired size, and drying on plates. Sometimes
it is made into cakes in the first instance, and afterwards
cut.

" When we compare the composition of roll and cut
tobaccos with that of the leaf from which they are
made, we find that the difference lies almost entirely in
the amount of moisture, and as manufacturers are not
allowed to add anything but water and a little oil to
tobacco, you will not err very much in assuming that as
a rule the cheapest qualities of roll and cut tobaccos
contain most water. Thus in 15 samples of the cheapest
roll tobacco I found an average of 41*66 per cent, of
water.

" The lowest qualities of cut tobacco, such as are

NATURE AND PROPERTIES. 263

largely manufactured and consumed in England, con-
tain as much water as the cheapest roll tobacco, whereas
the finer qualities of cut tobacco contain as a rule from
14 to 22 per cent. Cigars, even the cheapest, are com-
paratively dry, and contain, as a rule, only from 10 to 12
per cent, of water.

" The difference in cheap cigars is due chiefly to the
weight of the material, but also to the quality of the
tobacco and the labour, machinery being used in the
manufacture of the lower qualities, whereas the higher
qualities are nearly all hand made.

" The large quantity of water contained in the cheapest
tobacco, and which frequently amounts to about 50 per
cent., is not, in my opinion, introduced to please the
palate of the working man, but simply on account of the
keen competition between rival manufacturers, and the
low price at which tobacco is sold ; and in the interest
both of the working classes and of tobacco manufacturers
themselves, I think it is very desirable that some limit
should be placed to the amount of water which may be
sold as tobacco.

" Snuff. — I stated that the refuse tobacco was employed
in the manufacture of snuff. This refuse consists of
stems, tobacco smalls, and sweepings. These are mois-
tened with water, subjected to a process of fermentation,
which lasts from about six weeks to two months, then
ground, mixed with alkaline salts to preserve the snuff,
and flavoured when desired. Nothing is allowed to be
added to snuff except the carbonates, chlorides, and sul-
phates of potash and soda, and carbonate of ammonia.
It is also provided by Act of Parliament that any snuff

264 TOBACCO.

found to contain, after being dried at 212° F., more than
26 per cent, of such salts, including those naturally in
the tobacco, will be liable to forfeiture and a penalty of
50Z. From my table of analyses you will observe that
not only does the proportion of alkaline salts vary in
different tobaccos, but the stem contains a much larger
proportion than the leaf. On this account it is necessary
that the snuff manufacturer should know the quantity of
alkaline salts in his snuff material, in order to obtain an
article of uniform composition. Some manufacturers go
by rule of thumb, and in attempting to work close to the
legal limit, they run a serious risk of unintentionally
incurring the penalty. As a matter of fact, three samples
of snuff, in 1883, were condemned by the Somerset House
authorities because they contained an excessive propor-
tion of alkaline salts, and the manufacturers were
prosecuted. The more intelligent of the snuff manu-
facturers, however, analyse their snuff material, and are
thus able to keep within the legal limit.

" The principal alkaline salts which are added to snuff
are chloride of sodium or common salt, carbonate of
potash, and carbonate of ammonia, all of which are
allowed by Act of Parliament, and therefore no exception
can be taken to their addition, so long as the total
quantity does not exceed 26 per cent, in the dry snuff.
In addition to alkaline salts, snuffs usually contain from
25 to 45 per cent, of water, with the exception of a kind
of snuff called ' High Toast or Irish Blackguard,' which
is very dry and contains from 5 to 8 per cent. Sometimes
they also contain a considerable quantity of sand. In the
several hundred samples of snuff which I have had occa-

NATURE AND PROPERTIES. 265

sion to examine for different manufacturers the average
quantity of sand was about 5 per cent, in the dry snuff,
and sometimes fell as low as a half per cent., but in many
samples the quantity exceeded 10 per cent., and in one case
I found as much as 30 • 94 per cent, of sand in the dry
snuff. The greater part of this sand is probably derived
from the sweepings of tobacco, on which duty has been
paid, and I have no doubt the snuff manufacturer con-
siders himself justified in selling it as snuff. But it
appears to me to be very desirable in the interest of
snuffers, that some limit should be placed on the quantity
of sand which may be sold as snuff : more especially as
the particles of sand are frequently very sharp, and have a
tendency to produce inflammation of the mucous membrane
of the nose, and it is to this, probably, that we owe the
popular notion that snuff is sometimes mixed with ground
glass to give it additional piquancy.

" When from any cause snuff is spoiled, the manufac-
turer may export it, and obtain a drawback of 3s. Id.
per Ib. on the real tobacco which it contains.

" The Government standard for tobacco is as follows :

Per cent.

Organic matter 70-52

Inorganic 15'48

Water 14-00

100-00

" This is equal to 18 per cent, of ash or inorganic
matter in the dry tobacco. This standard is in my
opinion too high, as the average percentage of inorganic
or ash in the dry leaf tobaccos which I have examined is

266 TOBACCO.

20 • 32, and the stem from which snuff is largely made
contains still more. The result is that the tobacco manu-
facturer not only loses the value of the tobacco over and
above the duty, but also a part of the duty which he has
paid. This matter concerns the tobacco manufacturer
alone, but I would point out that the authorities in
Somerset House in fixing such a high standard for tobacco
are benefiting the public at the expense of the manufac-
turer, whereas in the case of milk the low standard which
they employ is a loss to the public and gain to the
dishonest dealer."

( 267 )

CHAPTER VII.
ADULTERATIONS AND SUBSTITUTES.

IT is said that in Thuringia, over 1000 tons yearly
of dried beetroot-leaves are passed off as tobacco. These
leaves, and those of chicory and cabbage, are similarly
employed in Magdeburg and the Palatinate. Many of the
Vevey cigars of S. Germany are entirely composed of
cabbage- and beetroot-leaves which have been steeped
in tobacco-water for a long time. Other leaves, such
as rhubarb, dock, burdock, and coltsfoot are also used.
These are all principally for cigars. For smoking-
tobacco, chamomile flowers, exhausted in water, then
dyed and sweetened with logwood and liquorice, and
dried, have been mixed with tobacco in such proportions
as 70-80 per cent. In America, a specially-prepared
brown paper, saturated with the juice expressed from
tobacco-stems and other refuse, is most extensively
used, not only for the " wrappers " of cigars, but also for
"filling." Various ground woods, starches, meals, and
pigments are introduced into snuff.

A New York paper mentions that a great quantity
of brown straw paper lately reached Havana, which
was to be employed in the manufacture of Havana
cigars. Straw paper impregnated with the juice of
tobacco stalks is wound up with the leaf in such a
way that it is often impossible to detect the adultera-
tion. Dr. Jacobson, writing in the Industrie Blatter,

268 TOBACCO.

remarks that there is no difficulty in escaping detection,
if the paper be specially prepared for the purpose out
of suitable raw materials. It has long been known that
cigar paper soaked in a solution of soluble glass gives
forth no smell of paper on being burnt.

Patent No. 210,538, issued from the United States
Patent Office, December 3, 1878, states the ingredients
of a " substitute " to be — spikenard, red clover, hyssop,
hops, slippery-elm bark, tarred rope, pennyroyal, mullein
leaves, kinnikinic, wild cherry bark, and ginseng. This
is an ingenious combination intended to approach in
effect, appearance, and aroma, tobacco; and in so far
it might be said to be a success: as mullein leaves are
reputed to be feebly narcotic, hops are known to possess
anodyne properties, clover and hyssop are pectoral in
effect, and slippery-elm febrifuge. Ginseng is aromatic
and pungent, and has a great reputation among the
Chinese as a stimulant and restorative. The tarred rope,
we presume, is intended to add to the pyrognostic value
of the mixture. The great point in selecting material for
the fabrication of a mixture of this description is to get
leaves containing a fair percentage of nitrate of potass, as
does tobacco ; on this depends its pyrognostic value,
and that, next to aroma, is everything.

" Tobacco, like those who smoke it, is credited with
many sins of which it is guiltless. The ' loss of health '
so often laid at its door is probably due in many instances
not to tobacco itself, but to some villainous compound
bearing its name. A story told by the principal of the
laboratory of the Inland Eevenue Department in his
report for the past year shows how easily this may

ADULTERATIONS AND SUBSTITUTES. 269

happen. The supervisor at Birmingham, observing that
an article was being sold at a very cheap rate in packets,
under the name of * smoking mixture,' sent a sample
to the Inland Eevenue laboratory for examination, and it
being found to contain a large proportion of vegetable
matter resembling the broken-up heads of camomile
flowers, further inquiry led to the discovery of the manu-
factory. The process of manufacture consisted in
exhausting the bitter principle of camomile flower-heads
with water, and then dyeing and sweetening them with a
solution of logwood and liquorice, which brought them,
when dried, somewhat to the colour of tobacco. The
heads, when broken up, were then mixed with from 20 to
30 per cent, of cut tobacco, according to the price at
which the mixture was to be sold. The mixture was
supplied to retailers in packets labelled ' The New
Smoking Mixture, Analysed and Approved,' and as
agencies had already been established in several towns,
an extensive trade would no doubt soon have arisen had
the manufactory not been suppressed at an early stage
of its existence."

The United States Consul at Smyrna puts the following
statement in his report of January 15, 1883.

Since the establishment of the tobacco monopoly in
Turkey, snuff may be said to be one of the several articles
that undergo the most unscrupulous adulteration. Owing
to the high amount of duties imposed on tobacco by the
Turkish Government, and the large profits licensed
manufacturers expect to make on the same, the poorer
classes cannot afford to use the products of doubtful
purity coming from the factories, and so are altogether

270 TOBACCO.

at the mercy of the clandestine manufacturer and retailer,
who, in order to make the most he can of his vile industry,
adulterates his snuff to such an extent that it can be safely
said that his products contain on an average from 60
to 70 per cent, of inferior Persian tobacco (tumbeki),
fragments of country tobacco leaf, and tobacco of cigar-
ettes picked up in the streets by beggars, the 30 to 40 per
cent, consisting of walnut sawdust, terra umbra, fine sifted
sand, and scum of lead (lead oxide), covered with inferior
black writing-ink.

The snuff is manufactured in Smyrna, as follows :

The conscientious manufacturer uses Persian hookah
tobacco (tumbeki) and the fragments of country tobacco
leaf coloured with black ink. These tobaccos, ground as
fine as possible and mixed with grape molasses, are put in
a covered barrel to ferment. Two or three days later the
snuff is taken out and spread in the sun to dry partly, and
then rubbed with the hands and passed through iron wire
sieves to be granulated.

The product is afterwards scented with powdered orris
root, tonka beans, and geranium oil ; the superior qualities
are scented with essences of roses and jessamine and put
up in packages.

The adulterated article is manufactured in the same
manner with the addition of the above-named substances.

The only persons using genuine snuff in this city are
the Catholic priests, who import it directly from France,
Italy, Spain and Holland, and enjoy the privilege of paying
no custom-house duties.

( 271 )

CHAPTER VIII.
IMPORTS, DUTIES, VALUES, AND CONSUMPTION.

A COMPARISON of the taxation of the chief nations of the
world for the consumption of tobacco has been published
in the Imperial Statistics of Germany. Of the countries
where the sale is a Government monopoly, France last
year stood first, the gross duty, with profits, amounting to
7s. IJd. per head of the population annually, the net
revenue from the article being 5s. S^d. per head. In
Austria the gross was 5s. 5£ d.t the net, 3s. 5d. ; in
Hungary, the gross 3s. 3Jd., the net Is. Id. ; in Italy, the
gross 3s. lid., and the net 2s. 8Jd. In Great Britain, the
duty and licenses brought in 4s. 10£d. per head of the
population for the year, and in the United States 4s. 4Jd.
In Germany, on the other hand, where the duty was very
light, the average was no more than l^d. per head of the
population.

The duties on unmanufactured tobacco are 3s. 6d. a Ib.
when it contains 10 per cent, or more of moisture ; 3s. Wd.
a Ib. when it contains less than 10 per cent, of moisture.
Snuff containing no more than 13 per cent, of moisture,
4s. lOd. a Ib. ; 13 per cent, and upwards, 4s. Id. a Ib.
Cigars pay 5s. 6d. a Ib. Cavendish of foreign manufacture
pays 4s. Wd. a Ib. ; that manufactured in bond, 4s. 4d.
Other sorts, including cigarettes, pay 4s. 4d. a Ib.

The approximate relative values in the London market
are as follows: — Maryland, fine yellow, fine, and good

272 TOBACCO.

coloured, 7-9 ^d. a Ib. ; colory, 5-7d. ; light-brown and
leafy, 5-7Jd. ; ordinary and brown, 4-4Jd. Virginia :
Fine Irish and Scotch spinners, 7-1 OcL ; good and
middling, ordinary light and dry, 6-1 Od. ; fine black
sweet scent, and middling do., 6J-7JcL ; part blacks,
5-6d. ; ordinary and heated, 3-5d. ; mixed parcels, ordi-
nary and good, middling and fine, 5J-6Jd. ; stripped leaf,
4c?.-ls. Kentucky: fine long light leaf, 7-lId. ; good to
middling do., 5^-7^d. ; fine and middling blacks, Q-8d. ;
ordinary and mixed, 2-5d. ; stripped leaf, fine, light leafy,
middling and ordinary, 4J-lld. Negrohead, lld.-ls. 6d.
Cavendish, 4Jd.-ls. Amersfort and German, 2|d.-ls. 6d.
St. Domingo, 5-7%d. Havana, Cuba, and Yara, Is. 2d.-6s.
Turkish and Greek, 2J-9dL E. India, Japan, and China,
2-9<2. Java, 5d.-2s. Colombia (New Granada), 5d.-2«. 6d.
Manilla, 8c?.-4s. Manilla cheroots, 4s.-7*. 6d. Havana
cigars, 5-40s.

Imports, Duties, and Values. — Our imports of tobacco in
1879 were as follows : —

(a) Unmanufactured: From United States, 25,743,880
Ib., value 682,253Z.; Holland, 6,215,930 Ib., 266,109/. ;
China, 1,444,192 Ib., 36,265Z. ; Turkey, 1,214,319 Ib.,
32,627Z.; Japan, 805,928 Ib., 24,003Z. ; France, 651,350 Ib.,
14,585Z. ; Belgium, 515,009 Ib., 15,501Z.; Argentine
Eepublic, 470,309 Ib., 10,8707.; Germany, 426,139 Ib.,
25,602/. ; Straits Settlements, 267,258 Ib., 29,718Z. ; Bri-
tish India, 246,305 Ib., 3605Z. ; New Granada, 241,638
Ib., 9621Z. ; Canada, 121,920 Ib., 3473Z. ; other countries,
497,043 Ib., 14,256Z. ; total, 38,861,220 Ib., 1,165,488Z.

(b) Snuff: From all countries, 7719 Ib., value 92Z.

(c) Cigars: From Spanish W. Indies, 495,518 Ib.,

IMPORTS, DUTIES, VALUES, AND CONSUMPTION. 273

value 494,974Z. ; Germany, 150,460 lb., 46,318Z. ; Holland,
116,218 lb., 31,8481.; Philippines, 80,199 lb., 21,7881.;
France, 73,348 lb., 24,071Z. ; Straits Settlements, 51,191
lb., 13,822Z. ; China, 48,762 lb., 11,240Z. ; Belgium, 46,536
lb., 14,211Z. ; British India, 33,208 lb., 10,898Z. ; United
States, 14,625 lb., 5461Z.; other countries, 43,978 lb.,
19,1841. ; total, 1,154,043 lb., 693,2652.

(<Z) Cavendish or Negrohead : From United States,
2,247,557 lb., value 84,422Z. ; other countries, 45,052 lb.,
1964Z. ; total, 2,292,609 lb., 86,386Z.

(e) Cavendish, manufactured in bond : 33,069 lb., 712ftZ.

(/) Other sorts, including cigarettes: From United
States, 52,206 lb., value 7999Z.; Holland, 25,273 lb.,
1372Z. ; Channel Islands, 15,470 lb., 1279/. ; Germany,
14,474 lb., 4472Z.; France, 9497 lb., 2368Z.; Belgium,
7939 lb., 2086Z. ; other countries, 12,328 lb., 3845Z. ; total,
137,187 lb., 23,421Z.

Following are statistics of the imports of tobacco for the
year 1884, being the latest available.

UNMANUFACTURED TOBACCO.

Quantity.

Value.

From

lb.
1 464350

£
574QS:

)>

Holland
Belgium

5,728,744
299 863

246,795
10 994

733 207

23 975

Spain

1 265 347

24 370

Malta .

81 026

1 Ififl

Turkey

1,114 143

46 545

Algeria

85 580

3 081

5,

»

British East Indies
Philippine Islands

918,066
45,989

11,082

3,785

Carried forward

11,736,315

429,222
T

274

TOBACCO.

UNMANUFACTURED TOBACCO— continued.

Quantity.

Value.

Brought forward ..
From China and Hong Kong
Japan .

Ib.
11,736,315
1,813^221
1 876 787

429,222
63,566
46081

„ British North America
„ United States of America
„ Spanish West India Islands
„ United States of Colombia
.. Ecuador

150,056
37,186,980
361,095
122,570
76642

5,188
1,183,102
17,972
3,589

2085

„ Argentine Kepublic
„ Other Countries

131,013
75,728

2,970
2,476

TOTAL

53,530,407

1,756,251

CIGARS.

Quantity.

Value.

Ib.
2,349

£

1 243

151 650

46 512

Holland

78 471

22 231

109 388

32 789

„ Channel Islands

2,501
49313

1,645
24061

Gibraltar

1 437

982

Malta ,

1,008

390

1 750

600

„ British Possessions in South Africa
„ British East Indies
„ Philippine Islands
„ China and Hong Kong
Australasia

1,615
188,354
201,652
25,659
3740

687
45,218
56,208
6,242

883

„ United States of America
„ British West Indies and Guiana
„ Spanish West India Islands
„ Danish West India Islands
Mexico

166,740
2,313
467,315
2,448
59727

98,510
1,198
453,610
1,519
37249

„ United States of Colombia
Brazil

1,004
4,519

686
2089

„ Other Countries

4,127

2,008

TOTAL .. ..

1,527,080

836,560

IMPORTS, DUTIES, VALUES, AND CONSUMPTION. 275

CAVENDISH OB NEGROHEAD.

-

Quantity.

Value.

Ib.

£

From Channel Islands

78,569

5,156

„ British North America

64,910

3,244

„ United States of America
„ British West India Islands

1,243,720
16,332

59,780
2,764

„ Other Countries

32,315

1,646

TOTAL

1,435,846

72,590

SNUFF.

Quantity.

Value.

From Brazil

Ib.
4,099

£

830

„ Other Countries

96

24

TOTAL

4,195

854

OTHER MANUFACTURED TOBACCO.

Quantity.

Value.

From Germany

Ib.
9,993

£

2920

„ Holland

20657

1 173

7740

1 616

„ France .. ..

17985

2818

„ Malta

5,968

1,592

„ Turkey ..

5444

1 674

,, Egypt .

31 662

13306

„ Algeria

„ United States of America
„ Spanish West India Islands ..
„ Other Countries

6,410
76,472
6,259
9,625

1,580
20,039
865
1,968

TOTAL

198,215

49,551

T 2

276 TOBACCO.

CHAPTEE IX.

BIBLIOGRAPHY.

J. Neander.

Tabacologia. Lugduni-Batavorum : 1622.

B. Stella.

II Tabacco. Eome : 1669.

S. Paulli.

Treatise on Tobacco, &c. London : 1746.

P. Winther.

Tobaks-plantning. Kjoebenhavn : 1773.

J. Carver.

Culture of the Tobacco-plant. London : 1779.

Villeneuve.

Culture, Fabrication et Vente du Tabac.

Paris: 1791.
W. Tatham.

Culture and Commerce of Tobacco.

London: 1800.
Jens Fr. Becker.

Kort anviisning til tabaks-platning.

Viborg: 1809.
J. E. Normann.

Tobaksplantens dyrkning i Norge.

Christiania : 1811.
M. de Truchet.

Culture du Tabac en France. Paris: 1816.

"M. E. Flor.

Om Tobakavl. Christiania : 1817.

BIBLIOGRAPHY.

277

Hermbstadt.

Griindliche Anweisung zur Cultur der Tabakpflanzen.

Berlin: 1822.
T. Brodigan.

Art of Growing and Curing Tobacco in the British
Isles. London: 1830.

J. Jennings.

Practical Treatise on Tobacco.

H. J. Meller.

Nicotiana.
K. C. Antz.

Tabachi historia.

L. A. Demersay.

Du Tabac du Paraguay.

Babo und Hofacker.

Der Tabak und sein Anbau.

V. P. G. Demoor.

Culture du Tabac.

F. Tiedemann.

Geschichte des Tabaks.

C. Fermond.

Monographie du Tabac.
A. Steinmetz.

Tobacco.

H. B. Prescott.

Tobacco and its Adulterations.

F. W. Fairholt.

Tobacco ; its History.

London: 1830.
London: 1832.
Berolini: 1836.
Paris: 1851.
Karlsruhe: 1852.
Luxembourg: 1853.
Frankfurt: 1854.
Paris : 1857.
London: 1857.
London: 1858.
London : 1859, 1876.

278 TOBACCO.

M. C. Cooke.

The Seven Sisters of Sleep. London : 1860.

H. Kaibaud L'Ange.

Du Tabac en Provence. Paris : 1860.

Nessler.

Der Tabak. Mannheim : 1860.

J. L. P. Fevre.

Le Tabac. Paris: 1863.

C. E. Guys.

Culture of Latakia Tobacco.

Technologist, London : 1863.

Maling.

Tobacco Trade and Cultivation of the District of
Cavalla. Technologist, London : 1863.

E. de Coin.

History and Cultivation of Cotton and Tobacco.

London: 1864.
Holzschuher.

Der Tabakbau. Gotha : 1864.

G. A. Henrieck.

Du Tabac. Paris: 1866.

A. Imbert-Courbeyre.

Legons sur le Tabac. Clermont-Ferrand : 1866.

S. W. Johnson.

Tobacco ; Eeport of Chemist to the Connecticut State
Board of Agriculture. 1873.

A. de Bee.

Culture du Tabac en France. Aix: 1875.

BIBLIOGKAPHY. 279

F. A. Allart.

Culture du Tabac. Abbeville : 1876.

B. T. Creighton.

Culture of Tobacco in Ohio.

Pharmaceutical Journal, London : 1876.
D. Decobert.

Culture du Tabac. Lille : 1876.

Hofacker und Babo.

Der Tabakbau. Berlin : 1876.

A. Nouvel.

Le Tabac. Brive : 1876.

Notes sur la Culture des Tabacs. Paris : 1876.

B. E. Burton.

Cultivation of Tobacco.

Sugar Cane, Manchester: 1877.
G. Cantoni.

L'Industria del Tabacco.

Annali di Agricoltura, Borne : 1879.
K. Schiffmayer.

Tobacco and its Culture; Beport of Agricultural
Department, Madras Presidency.

Madras: 1879.
F. Alfonso.

Tabacchi della Sicilia. Palermo : 1880.

F. Anderegg.

Tabakbau in der Schweiz. Chur : 1880.

O. Comes.

Tabacco in Italia.

L'agricolt. meridionale, Portici : 1881.

280 TOBACCO.

K. W. van Gorkom.

De Oost-Indische Cultures. Amsterdam : 1881.

J. H. Zimmermann.

Tabaksbaubiichlein. Aarau: 1881.

J. Clark.

Composition of Tobacco.

Journal Soc. CJtem. Industry, Manchester : 1884.

A series of Prize Essays on Tobacco Culture in the

Southern States of America, published in pamphlet form

by the Orange Judd Co., and containing much valuable

information.

( 281 )

INDEX.

XJLDULTEEATIONS of tobacco, 267-

70

Afghanistan, tobacco in, 137
African tobacco, 138
After-cultivation, 54-60
Albuminoids in tobacco, 256
American tobacco, 210-22
Amersfort tobacco, 6
Ammonia in tobacco, 255
Analyses of tobacco, 261
--- plants, 22
Area of nursery, 59
- to plant, 53
Artificial heat for drying tobacco,

89, 91

Ash of tobacco, 258
Australian tobacco, 141
Austro-Hungarian tobacco, 141

JJAEBELS for tobacco, 125, 127
Best kind of tobacco to grow, 33
Betun, 117

Bibliography of tobacco, 276
Big Frederic tobacco, 34, 37

- Orinoco tobacco, 35, 37
Black soil for tobacco growing,

10
Blue prior tobacco, 37

- stalk tobacco, 35

- vitriol for killing caterpillars,
58

Books on tobacco, 276
Bornean tobacco, 142
Bourbon tobacco, 143
Boxes for tobacco, 126
Brazilian tobacco, 143-7
British tobacco, 164-6

Brittle stem tobacco, 35
Building drying-sheds, 86, 90, 95
Bulking tobacco, 121-5
Bull tongue tobacco, 35

C

AKE tobacco, 236

Calabrian tobacco, 3

Californian tobacco, 3

Canary Island tobacco, 148

Cases for tobacco, 129

Caterpillars, destroying, 55-60

Cellulose in tobacco, 257

Central Asian tobacco, 3

Chemical ingredients of tobacco
soils, 9

Chemistry of tobacco, 259-66

Chinese tobacco, 148

Chlorine compounds to be avoided
in tobacco manures, 25

Choosing sort of tobacco, 31-7

Cigarettes, 246-8

Cigars, 244

Classifying tobacco, 109-21

Clay as a tobacco soil, 9, 10

Climate for tobacco growing, 7

Cochin China tobacco, 149

Commerce in tobacco in Afghan-
istan, 137

Africa, 138

Australia, 141

Austro-Hungary, 141

Borneo, 142

Bourbon, 143

Brazil, 143-7

Canary Islands, 148

China, 148

Cochin China, 149

Costa Rica, 149

282

INDEX.

Commerce in tobacco in Ecuador,

149

Fiji, 150

France, 150-6

Germany, 156-64

Great Britain, 164-6

Greece, 166

Holland, 166

India, 167-76

Italy, 176

Japan, 176

Java, 176

New Zealand, 177

Nicaragua, 177

Paraguay, 178

Persia, 178-91

Philippines, 191

Rou mania, 192

Russia, 192

San Salvador, 192

Servia, 192

Spain, 192

Sumatra, 193-205

Turkey, 205-10

United States, 210-22

Venezuela, 222

West Indies, 223-30

Conditions of drying-house, 78
Connecticut seed-leaf, 34
Consumption of tobacco, 271
Corn as a shelter for tobacco, 65
Costa Rica tobacco, 149 ^
Crops adapted for rotation with

tobacco, 31
Cuban drying practices, 101

harvesting practices, 83-6

manuring practices, 15

planting practices, 51-4

tobacco, 2, 3, 34, 37

Cultivation of tobacco, 7-66
Curing practices in Cuba, 83-6

tobacco, 67-136

Cutting machine, 251

tobacco for smoking, 233-5

plants, 68

.L/AMPING tobacco, 231
Destroying insects, 55-60
Distance in planting, 50
Doctoring tobacco, 133-6

Drying-house, 75

sheds, building, 86, 90, 95

, sizes of, 90

tobacco, 86-104

for smoking, 235

Dung for tobacco soils, 14
Dutch tobacco, 166
Duties on tobacco, 271
Dyeing the leaves, 119

JQJCDADOR tobacco, 149
Elements needed by tobacco, 11-

29

European tobacco plant, 4
Examining tobacco while drying,

88

Jj ERMENTING tobacco, 121-5

Fertilizers, principles of, 1 8-22
Field, preparing, 48-50
Fiji tobacco, 150
Filling vacancies, 53
Flavouring tobacco, 133-6
Flowers of tobacco plants, 3-6
Foliage of tobacco plants, 3-6
Fowls, protecting seed-beds from,

46

French tobacco, 150-6
Frost at harvest time, 79
, protecting seed-beds from,

43,47

\JERMAN tobacco, 156-64
Grades of tobacco, 109-21
Graham tobacco, 35
Granulating machine, 251
Greek tobacco, 166
Green-soiling for tobacco, 14
Guano for tobacco soil, 16
Gypsum for tobacco soil, 26

HANDS of tobacco, 107
Hanging leaves in sheds, 88, 93, 95

split leaves, 81

tobacco, 72

Harvesting for small planters, 76
tobacco, 67-86

INDEX.

283

Hoeing plants, 54
Hogsheads for tobacco, 126, 128
Hot-bed for seedlings, 44
Hungarian tobacco, 3

IMPORTS of tobacco, 271-5
Improving tobacco, 133-6
Indian tobacco, 167-76
Italian tobacco, 176

eJ APANESE tobacco, 176
Javanese tobacco, 176
Judging condition of leaf, 74

JAAINIT for tobacco soil, 24
Kentucky leaf, 36

JLJATAKIA tobacco, 2, 3
Levant tobacco, 3
Lime for tobacco soil, 28
Literature on tobacco, 276
Little Frederic tobacco, 34, 37

Orinoco tobacco, 35, 37

Loading cut tobacco leaves, 70
Loam as a tobacco soil, 10

IGNESIA for tobacco soil, 28
Manilla tobacco, 3
Manuring, principles of, 18-22

seedlings, 41

tobacco, 11-29

Maryland tobacco, 1 .

as a crop, 33

Mat for keeping frost off, 47
Mexican tobacco, 3
Moth of tobacco worm, 56

N

j.i ATURE of tobacco, 253-66
New Zealand tobacco, 177
Nicaraguan tobacco, 177
Nicotine, 253

Nitrates for tobacco soils, 13
Nitric acid in tobacco, 255
Nurseries, 38-48
- — , shelter for, 38

Nurseries, situation for, 38
- , soil for, 38
Nursery, area of, 39

U

RGANIC matter in tobacco
soils, 8

JT ACKING tobacco, 125-33
Paraguay tobacco, 178
Pegging tobacco, 71
Pennsylvania seed-leaf, 37
Persian tobacco, 3, 178-91
Philippine tobacco, 191
Picking tobacco, 1 04-9
Planting out, 50-4
Plug tobacco, 236
Pole-burn, 78
Potash for tobacco growing, 11,

Preparation of tobacco, 231-52
Preparing field, 48-50

- seed-beds, 38, 41, 43, 44
Pressing tobacco in casks, 128,

131, 133
Priming, 62, 65
Principles of manuring, 18-22
Production of tobacco in Afghan-

istan, 137

- Africa, 138

- Australia, 141

- Austro-Hungary, 141

- Borneo, 142

- Bourbon, 143

- Brazil, 143-7

- Canary Islands, 148

- China, 148

- Cochin China, 149

- Costa Eica, 149

- Ecuador, 149

- Fiji, 150

- France, 150-6

- Germany, 156-64

- Great Britain, 164-6

- Greece, 166

- Holland, 166

- India, 167-76

- Italy, 176

- - Japan, 176

- Java, 176

284

INDEX.

Production of tobaoco in New Zea-
land, 177

Nicaragua, 177

Paraguay, 178

Persia, 178-91

Philippines, 191

Koumania, 192

Russia, 192

San Salvador, 192

Servia, 192

Spain, 192

Sumatra, 193-205

Turkey, 205-10

United States, 210-22

Venezuela, 222

West Indies, 223-30

Properties of tobacco, 253-66

DUALITIES of tobacco, 109-21
Quantity of manure for tobacco,

12

Quicklime. for tobacco soil, 24
Quincunx planting, 52

K

ATE of growth of tobacco, 24
Removing superfluous leaves, 62,

65

Resweating apparatus, 249
Ridging land, 49
Ripeness, influence on tobacco, 61

of tobacco, judging, 70

Ripening, 61

River bottoms for tobacco growing,

10

Roll tobacco, 236-44
Rotation for tobacco soils, 29-31
Roumanian tobacco, 192
Russian tobacco, 192

S

ALTPETKE as tobacco manure,
13

Salts added to snuff, 264

in tobacco, 259

Sandy bottoms for tobacco grow-
ing, 9

San Salvador tobacco, 192

Saving seed, 37

Scaffolding for tobacco, 75

Seed, 37

-beds, 38-48

, area of, 39

, preparing, 38, 41, 43, 44

, protecting from fowls,

46

, frost, 43, 47

, shade frames for, 48

, shelter for, 38

, situation for, 38

, soil for, 38

, time for sowing, 41

Seedlings, hot-bed for, 44

, planting out, 50-4

, thinning out, 40, 48

, top-dressing, 41

, watering, 40

, weeding, 40, 46

Seed required for an acre, 39

, sowing, 39, 45

Servian tobacco, 192
Setting out plants, 50-4
Shade frames for seed-beds, 48
Sheds for holding tobacco as

gathered, 68
Shelter for nurseries, 38
Sheltering tobacco from wind, 10

lands with corn, 65

Shiraz tobacco, 3
Signs of ripening, 72
Situation for nurseries, 38

plantations, 10

Sizes of tobacco barns, 90
Snuff, 248, 263

tobacco, 61

Soil for nurseries, 38

plantations, 8-10

Sorting tobacco, 109-21

for use, 232

Sort of tobacco to grow, 31-7
Sorts of tobacco grown in

America, 33-7
Sowing seed, 39, 45
Spanish tobacco, 37, 192
Spearing tobacco, 72
Species of tobacco, 1-3
Splitting tobacco, 72
Sponging the leaves, 119
Stacking gathered tobacco leaves,

67
Straw mat for keeping frost off, 47

INDEX.

285

Stripping tobacco, 104-9

for use, 232

Substitutes for tobacco, 267-70
Suckering plants, 60-6
Sumatran tobacco, 193-205
Sun-curing shed, 83

drying cut tobacco leaves,

68
Sweating tobacco, 121-5

J.AUARI wrappers, 143
Temporary hanging for tobacco.

68

Teymbeki, 179-91
Thinning out seedlings, 40, 48
Time for harvesting tobacco, 69

topping, 60, 61, 63

of day for cutting tobacco,

77

required for curing, 92

Tobacco horse, 72

plant, 1-6

Top-dressing seedlings, 41
Topping plants, 60-6
Tumbeki, 178-91
Turkeys as grub-eaters, 55
Turkish tobacco, 2, 3, 205-10
Twist tobacco, 236-44
Tying tobacco for hanging, 97

U NITED States tobacco, 210-22
Use of tobacco, 231-52

V ALUES of tobaccos, 271
Varieties of tobacco, 1-3
Venezuelan tobacco, 222
Ventilating drying-sheds, 88
Virginian tobacco, 2, 34-7

W ASHING tobacco when sorting,

117
Watering plants when setting out,

51

seedlings, 40

Water in tobacco, 262
Weeding seedlings, 40, 46
Weighing and packing machine,

250

West Indian tobacco. 223-30
Windr owing tobacco, 124
Wind shelter for tobacco, 10
Wood-ashes as tobacco manure,

14
Worms, destroying, 55-60

. ELLOW prior tobacco, 37

LONDoJT:
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