,l3-

Scriptoram, &J.

MORAL THEOLOGY
II

A HANDBOOK

OF

Vol I.

MORAL THEOLOGY

Introduction : Definition, Scope,
Object, Sources, Methods, His-
tory, and Literature of Moral
Theology. — Morality, its Sub-
ject, Norm, and Object, iv &
293 pp. $1.50.

Vol.

II.

Sin and the Means of Grace, vi
& 230 pp. $1.50.

In Press

Vol.

Ill

Man's Duties to Himself.
In Preparation

Vol.

IV.

Man's Duties to God.

Vol.

V.

Man's Duties to His Fellowmen.

A HANDBOOK OF

MORAL THEOLOGY

BY

THE REVEREND ANTONY KOCH, D.D.

Professor of Theology

Adapted and Edited by

ARTHUR PREUSS

VOLUME II

Sin and the Means of Grace

B. HERDER BOOK CO.

17 South Broadway, St. Louis, Mo.

and

68, Great Russell St., London, W. C.

1919

NIHIL OB ST AT
Sti. Ludovici, die I Nov., 1918

F. G. Holweck,
Censor Librorum

IMPRIMATUR
Sti. Ludovici, die 2 Nov., 1918

•i" Joannes J. Glennon,

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Sti. Ludovici

Copyright, 1919

by

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CONTENTS

PAGE

Part I. Sin I

Ch. I. Nature and Origin of Sin — Mortal and Venial

Sins — Temptations and Occasions of Sin . . I

§ I. Nature and Origin of Sin i

§ 2. Mortal and Venial Sins 16

§ 3. Distinctive Characteristics of Mortal and Venial

Sin 29

§ 4. Temptations and Occasions of Sin 36

Ch. II. The Principal Kinds of Sin 52

§ 1. General Division 52

§ 2. The Seven Capital Sins 67

§ 3. The Sins That Cry to Heaven for Vengeance . . 85

§ 4. The Sin Against the Holy Ghost 91

Part II. The Means of Grace 98

Ch. I. The Causes of Moral Regeneration 98

§ 1. The Supernatural Principle of Moral Regenera-
tion 98

§ 2. The Natural Requisite of Moral Regeneration . 104

Ch. II. The Sacraments as Divinely Instituted Means of

Grace 108

§ 1. The Moral Requisites of Valid Administration . 108

§ 2. The Moral Requisites of Worthy Reception . . 1 15

§ 3. Baptism and Confirmation 118

§ 4. The Holy Eucharist 123

§ 5. Penance 135

Art. 1. Contrition 140

Art. 2. The Purpose of Amendment .... 146

Art. 3. Confession 151

CONTENTS

PAGE

Art. 4. Questioning and Instructing Penitents . 162

Art. 5. The Seal of Confession 167

Art. 6. Sacramental Absolution 177

Art. 7. Sacramental Satisfaction 183

§ 6. Extreme Unction 188

§ 7. Holy Orders 197

§ 8. Matrimony 201

Ch. III. The Sacramentals 212

Appendix. The Marriage Impediments Under the New

Code of Canon Law 215

Index 225

PART I

SIN

CHAPTER I

NATURE AND ORIGIN OF SIN — MORTAL AND

VENIAL SINS — TEMPTATIONS AND

OCCASIONS OF SIN

SECTION i

NATURE AND ORIGIN OF SIN

I. Definition. — The terms sin,1 transgres-
sion,2 iniquity,3 offense,4 and disobedience,5 are
synonymously employed by Holy Scripture to
designate a wilful transgression of the law of
God, or voluntary disregard of His will.

"What is sin," says St. Ambrose, "but an of-
fense against the divine law and disobedience to
the heavenly precepts?"6 St. Augustine, who
employs the words "divine law" and "eternal law

»>

1 'A/iaprla, &fidprrjfj.a. Rom. V, II, 2. — Cfr. on the use of these
13, 20; Eph. II, 1; 1 John III, 4. terms K. Clemen, Die christliche

2 Jlap6.fia.0is- Rom. II, 23; IV, Lehre von der Siinde, Vol. I, Got-
15; V, 14; Heb. II, 2. tingen 1897. PP- 35 sqq.

3'Avo/j.la.. Matth. VII, 23; Rom. e De Paradiso, c. VIII, n. 39

VI, 19; 1 John III, 4. (Migne, P. L., XIV, 292): "Quid

* Tlap&irTWfia. Matth. VI, 14 est peccatum nisi praevaricatio legis

sq. ; Rom. V, 18; 2 Cor. V, 19; Eph. divini et caelestium inoboedientia

II, 1. praeceptorumf"

5 napoKoi}. Rem. V, 19; Heb.

2 SIN

alternately, declares that: "A sin is some deed,
word, or desire against the eternal law." 7
Since all temporal laws are derived from, or con-
tained in, the lex aetema, every sin manifestly
involves a violation of the will of God. St.
Thomas says: "Sin is nothing else than a bad
human act. Now, that an act is a human act is
due to its being voluntary. . . . Again, a human
act is evil through lacking conformity with its
due measure: and conformity of measure in a
thing depends on a rule, from which no thing
can depart without becoming incommensurate.
Now there are two rules of the human will. One
is proximate and homogeneous, viz., the human
reason ; the other is the first rule, vis., the eternal
law, which is God's reason, so to speak. Accord-
ingly Augustine includes two things in the defi-
nition of sin ; one pertaining to the substance of a
human act, and which is the matter, so to speak,
of sin, when he says, 'deed, word, or desire' ; the
other pertaining to the nature of evil, and which
is, as it were, the form of sin, when he says,
'against the eternal law.' " 8

7 Contra Faustum Manich., 1. Habet autem actus humanus quod sit
XXII, c. 27 (Migne, P. L., XLII, mains ex eo quod caret debita com-
418): "Peccatum est factum vel mensuratione. Omnis autem com-
dictum vel concupitum aliquid contra mensuratio cuiuscunque rex at-
oeternam legem." tenditur per comparationem ad

8 Summa Theol., ia, qu. 71, art. aliquam regulam; a qua si di-
6: "Peccatum nihil aliud est quam vertat, incommensurata erit. Re-
actus humanus malus. Quod au- gula autem Z'oluntatis humanae est
tern aliquis actus sit humanus, habet duplex: una propinqua et homogenea,
ex hoc, quod est voluntarius. . . . scil. ipsa humana ratio; alia vero

NATURE OP SIN 3

The definition given by St. Augustine and
adopted by St. Thomas applies alike to actual sins
(i. e., acts or omissions violating the moral law)
and sinful habits (habitus peccaminosi).

2. Characteristics. — Sin, being a wilful
transgression of the divine law, has the follow-
ing, partly positive and partly negative, notes or
characteristics :

a) Sin does not inhere in the nature of things,
nor proceed from the Divine Essence or some
other independent principle, but owes its exist-
ence entirely to free-will. "By the will," says St.
Augustine, "a man sins or lives a good life." 9
St. Thomas writes: "Sin consists essentially in
an act of free choice, which is a function of the
will and of reason." 10 And in another place:
"A man's will alone is directly the cause of his
sin." n

Being an act of a created agent, sin is not a sub-
stance but merely an accident. It is not some-

est prima regula, scil. lex aeterna, venture, Comment, in Sent., II, dist.

quae est quasi ratio Dei. Et ideo 35, dub. 6 {Opera Omnia, Quaracchi

Augustinus in definitione peccati 1885, Vol. II, p. 838).
posuit duo: unum quod pertinet ad 0 Retract., I, c. 9, n. 4: "Volun-

substantiam actus humani, quod est tas est, qua et peccatur et recte vi-

quasi materiale in peccato, quum vitur." (Migne, P. L., XXXII,

dixit, 'dictum, vel factum, vet concu- 596).

pitum;' aliud autem quod pertinet 10 Summa Theol., la 2ae, qu. 77,

ad rationem mali, quod est quasi art. 6: "Peccatum essentialiter con-

formate in peccato, quum dixit, 'con- sistit in actu liberi arbitrii, quod est

tra legem aeternam.' " — Cfr. Schee- facultas voluntatis et rationis."
ben, Dogmatik, Vol. II, pp. 522 sqq. 11 Summa Theol., ia 2ae, qu. 80,

— The various definitions of sin given art. 1 : "Sola voluntas hominis est

by the Fathers and leading Scho- directe causa peccati eius."
lastics will be found in St. Bona-

4 SIN

thing that is not (°v* ov)} but something that ought
not to exist (m w). In other words, it has no
substance of its own, but is a privation or corrup-
tion of goodness (privatio boni) ; not, of course,
a pure privation, but merely "an act deprived of
its due order." 12 "Evil," the Angelic Doctor
says, ", . . is nothing else than a privation of
that which a man is naturally apt to have and
ought to have; . . . but a privation is not an es-
sence; it is a negation in a substance." 13

Aristotle regarded sin as a necessary stage on
the way to goodness, or as goodness itself in so
far as it has not yet proceeded from potency to
act, and consequently is a mere imperfection or
minus bonum.14 This is a false view, for while
it cannot be denied that both in the life of indi-

12 Summa Theol., ia 2ae, qu. 72, (P. L., XLII, 201). — Cfr. Saint
art. I, ad 2: "Peccatum non est Thomas, Summa Theol., ia, qu. 63,
pura privatio, sed est actus debito art. 1 : "Peccare nihil est aliud
ordine privatus." quam declinare a rectitudine actus,

13 Summa contra Gentiles, III, c. quam debet habere, five accipiatur
7: "Malum . . . nihil est aliud peccatum in naturalibus sive in arti-
quam privatio eius quod quis natus ficialibus sive in moralibus." —
est et debet habere. . . . Privatio Idem, Summa Theol., ia 2ae, qu. 21,
autem non est aliqua essentia, sed art. 1: "Peccatum proprie consistit
est negatio in substantia." — Cfr. St. in actu, qui agitur propter finem ali-
Augustine, De Civ. Dei, XI, c. 9: quern, quum non habet debitum ordi-
"Mali nulla natura est, sed amissio nem ad Unern ilium." — Ibid., qu. 71,
boni malt nomen accepit." (Migne, art. 1: "Peccatum proprie nominat
P. L., XLI, 325). — Ibid., XII, c. 9 actum inordinatum, sicut actus vir-
(P. L., XLI, 355). — Idem, Contra tutis est actus ordinatus et debitus."
Epist. Manich. Fundam., c. 35, n. — Cfr. J. Nirschl, Ursprung und
30: "Quis dubitet totum illud, quod Wesen des Bosen, Ratisbon 1854,
dicitur malum, nihil esse aliud quam pp. 29 sqq.

corruptionemf . . . Quodsi non in- 1* Aristotle, Metaphysica, I. XIV,

venitur in rebus malum nisi corrup- c. 4: rb naKOv avrb rb bwa^ei

tio. et corruptio non est natura, dya06t>.
nulla utique natura malum est."

NATURE OF SIN 5

viduals and in the history of the human race evil
sometimes appears as the inciting cause of good,
it is equally true, and a matter of common ex-
perience, that such cases are the exception, not
the rule, and consequently prove nothing with
regard to the nature of evil. If an evil act acci-
dentally results in good, this is not imputable to
man, but to God. Cfr. Gen. L, 20: "You
thought evil against me, but God turned it into
good, that he might exalt me . . . and save
many people." 15

It would be a mistake, however, to conceive sin
as a simple negation. If it were merely the lack
or absence of good, sin would be a natural and
necessary result of creatural limitation, and its
real author would be God Himself. Deep down
in his heart every man knows that sin is not the
work of God but of man, and that it involves
guilt.16

b) God cannot be the author of sin as such.17

15 Cfr. St. Augustine, Enchiridion, (Migne, P. L., XL, 276). — Idem, De

c. 96: "Nee dubitandum est Deum Praedest. Sanctorum, c. 16, n. 33:

facere bene etiam sinendo fieri, quae- "Est in tnalorum potestate peccare.

cunque fiunt male. Non enim hoc Ut autem peccando hoc vel hoc Hid

nisi iusto iudicio sinit, et profecto malitia faciant, non est in eorum

bonum est omne, quod iustum est. potestate, sed Dei dividentis tene-

Quamvis ergo ea quae mala sunt, bras et ordinantis eas, ut hinc etiam

inquantum mala sunt, non sint bona, quod faciunt contra voluntatem Dei,

tamen ut non solum bona, sed etiam non impleatur nisi voluntas." (P.

sint et mala, bonum est. Nam nisi L., XLIV, 984).

esset hoc bonum, ut essent mala, 16 Cfr. Psalm L, 5-6; Matth.

nullo modo esse sinerentur ab omni- XXVII, 3-5.

potente bono, cui procul dubio quam 17 Cfr. St. Augustine, De Ordine,

facile est, quod vult facere, tarn facile II, c. 7, n. 23: "Malorum auc-

est, quod non vult esse non sinere." torem Deum fateberis, quo sacri-

6 SIN

For, in the first place, sin is not a substance but
merely a privation, and, secondly, Almighty
God punishes the sinner. "God in no wise wills
the evil of sin, which is the privation of right
order towards the divine good," explains St.
Thomas; "the evil of natural defect, or of pun-
ishment, He does will, by willing the good to
which such evils are attached." 18 In other
words, "God is the author of the evil which is pen-
alty, but not of the evil which is fault." 19

Holy Scripture frequently refers to God as the
Author of holiness, and the all-holy One who
is free from sin and tempteth no man.20 It
seems hard to reconcile this truth with the many
texts in which God is described as actively co-
operating in the sinful deeds of His creatures.
Thus St. Paul says of the gentiles that, because
they practiced idolatry, "God gave them up
(Trapc'SwKcv) to the desires of their heart, unto un-
cleanness, to dishonor their own bodies among
themselves," and "delivered them up to shameful

legio mihi detestabilius nihil occur- quod privat ordinem ad bonum di-

rit." (P. L., XXXII, 1005). — vinutn, Deus nullo modo vult. Sed

Idem, Enchiridion, c. 23, n. 8: malum naturalis defectus vel malum

"Nequaquam dubitare debemus, re- poenae vult, volendo aliquod bonum,

rum quae ad nos pertinent bonarum cut coniungitur tale malum."

causam non esse nisi bonitatem Dei, 19 Ibid., qu. 49, art. 2: "Deus

malarum vero ab immutabili bono est auctor mali, quod est poena, non

dedcientem boni mutabilis volunta- autem mali, quod est culpa." — Cfr.

tern." (P. L., XL, 244).— Cfr. K. Scheeben, Dogmatik, Vol. II, pp. 569

Clemen, Die christliche Lehre von sqq. ; Th. H. Simar, Die Theologie

der Siinde, Vol. I, pp. 123 sqq. des hi. Paulus, Freiburg 1883, pp. 82

18 St. Thomas, Summa Theol., ia, sq.

qu. 19, art. 9: "Malum culpae, 20 Lev. XI, 44; XIX, 2; Matth.

NATURE OF SIN 7

affections, ... to a reprobate sense/' etc.21 In
another place he declares that the heathen, ' 'hav-
ing their understanding darkened, . . . have
given themselves up to lasciviousness." 22 The
seeming contradiction cannot be solved by putting
an arbitrary construction upon the sacred text.
Being the first, universal, and immediate cause of
all things and all operations, God works in every
creature and has a share in every creatural act.
Every ethical act performed by man has two
causes — God and free-will. Though these causes
cooperate closely, they are essentially distinct in
their nature as well as in the relation they respec-
tively bear to the act performed. Free-will is the
efficient cause (causa efRciens) of every ethical
act as such. But sin is never an act of God. St.
Paul speaks of God as cooperating, not in the
sinful acts of the gentiles, but in punishing
them.23

It would not be correct, even so, to describe the
divine cooperation in the evil deeds of men as a
mere permission or toleration. God works in all
His creatures at all times, and no secondary cause,
whether it be spiritual or material, can operate
without His concurrence. Hence He not merely
permits sin, but somehow positively cooperates in
its commission (concur sus divinus). "God is

V, 48; XIX, 17; Jas. I, 13; 1 Pet. 22 Eph. IV, 19; cfr. Acts VII, 42.

I, 16. 23 Sib, dtd TOVTOt Kal KaO&s

21 Rom. I, 24, 26, 28. irapedwicev.

8 SIN

the cause of the act of sin," says St. Thomas;
"yet He is not the cause of sin [as such], because
He does not cause the act to have a defect." 24
"God is the author of all that exists," explains St.
Augustine, "but He is not the author of evil, be-
cause all things are good in so far as they exist." 2B
Again: "Every nature, even that which is cor-
rupted, is good qua nature, and evil [only] in so
far as it is corrupt." 2tJ God's contribution to a
sinful act is in itself good. He merely enables
man to employ the faculties which He has given
him for a good purpose. It is man who renders
the act evil by having a wrong intention. The
Scholastics express this truth as follows : "Deus
concurrit ad materiale, non ad formale pec-
cati." The Tridentine Council condemns the
assertion that "it is not in man's power to make
his ways evil, but the works that are evil God
worketh as well as those that are good, not per-
missibly only, but properly and of Himself, in
such wise that the treason of Judas is no less His
own proper work than the vocation of Paul." 27

24 St. Thomas, Summa Theol., ia "Mali auctor non est [Deus], qui
aae, qu. 79, art. 2: "Deus est causa omnium, quae sunt, auctor est; quia
actus peccati; non tamen est causa inquantum sunt, infantum bona
peccati, quia non est causa huius, sunt." (Migne, P. L., XL, 16).
quod actus sit cum defectu." — 26 St. Augustine, Enchiridion, c.
Ibid. (Sed contra): "Actus peccati 13: "Omnis natura, etiam vitiosa,
est qui Jam motus liberi arbitrii. inquantum natura est, bona est; in-
Sed voluntas Dei est causa omnium quantum vitiosa est, mala est." (P.
motionum, ut Augustinus dicit (De L., XL, 16, 28).

Trinit., Ill, c. 4 et 9). Ergo vo- 27 Cone. Trident., Sess. VI, can.

luntas Dei est causa actus peccati." 6: "Si quis dixerit, non esse in po-

25 De Divers. Quaest., 83, n. 21: testate hominis, vias suas malas fa-

NATURE OF SIN

Besides, God often employs sin as a means of pun-
ishing the sinner and thus indirectly causes good
to spring from evil.

28

Against the teaching just propounded the following
objection has been raised: "Some actions are evil and
sinful in their species (secundum suam speciem). Now,
that which is the cause of a thing, is also the cause of
whatever belongs to that thing in respect of its species.
If, therefore, God caused the act which is sinful, He would
be the cause of sin." This fallacy is tersely refuted by
St. Thomas as follows: "Acts and habits do not take
their species from the privation itself, wherein the nature
of evil consists, but from some object to which that pri-
vation is united ; and so this defect, which we say is
not from God, belongs to the species of the act as
a consequence, and not as a specific difference." 29 In
other words, God causes the act and its species, without
causing the defect that renders it evil.

Some theologians hold that God merely permits evil

cere, sed mala opera, ita ut bona, 29 Summa TheoL, ia 2ae, qu. 79,
Deum operari, non permissive so- art. 2, ad 3: "Videtur quod . . .
lum, sed etiam proprie et per se, aliqui actus secundum suam speciem
adeo ut sit proprium eius opus non sunt mali et peccata. . . . Sed quid-
minus proditio ludae quam vocatio quid est causa alicuius, est causa
Pauli, anathema sit." eius, quod convenit ei secundum suam
28 Cfr. Gen. XLV, 7 sq. ; L, 20; speciem. Si ergo Deus esset causa
Wisd. XI, 17; Matth. XIII, 29 sqq. actus peccati, sequeretur, quod esset
— St. Augustine, Enarr. in Ps., 54, causa peccati. . . . Actus et habitus
n. 4: "Ne putetis gratis esse malos non recipiunt speciem ex ipsa priva-
in hoc mundo et nihil boni de Mis tione, in qua consistit ratio mali,
agere Deum. Omnis mains aut ideo sed ex aliquo defectu, cut coniungi-
vivit, ut corrigatur, aut ideo vivit, tur talis privatio. Et sic ipse de-
nt per ilium bonus exerceatur." fectus, qui dicitur non esse a Deo,
(Migne, P. L., XXXVI, 630). — pertinet ad speciem actus consequen-
Idem, Enchiridion, c. 27: "Melius ter, et non quasi differentia sped-
[Deus} iudicavit de malis bene fa- fica." — Cfr. J. Mausbach, Die Ethik
cere, quam mala nulla esse permit- des hi. Augustinus, Vol. II, pp. 74
tere." {P. L., XL, 245). sqq.

io SIN

but never cooperates in its production. This view cannot
be squared with the Tridentine decision quoted above,
which refers to His action in the production of evil as
" permissive operari" so

c) Sin, being inspired by opposition to the will
of God, who is the Supreme Lawgiver and benevo-
lent Father of His creatures, is an act of dis-
obedience and ingratitude.31 As an act of disobe-
dience it is called an offense (offensa Dei, offen-
sio).

But if God is absolutely perfect and incapable
of suffering, how is it possible to offend Him and
provoke His anger,32 especially since the sinner
commonly lacks the animus iniuriandi, i. e., the
deliberate intention of offending? That this is
so may be admitted; yet the (metaphorical) desig-
nation of sin as an offense against God corre-
sponds so well with its nature and with our limited
human conception of Him, that it must be ac-
cepted as substantially correct.5

33

Being an act of disobedience to the will of God and a
denial of the moral order, sin is necessarily op-
posed to the sinner's own welfare, nay to his very nature.
Instead of the beatitude for which he was created, and
towards which his nature as well as the will of His Maker
compel him to tend, the sinner seeks his happiness in him-

30 V. supra, p. 8, n. 27. Vom Zorn Gottes, Gottingen 1909.

31 Deut. XXXII. 6; Is. I, 2-4; 33 Cfr. B. Dorholt, Die Lehre von
Jer. II, 32; V, 21-25. der Genugtuung Christi, Paderborn

32 Cfr. Ps. V, 5 sqq.; X, 4; 1891, pp. 269 sqq.
LXXVII, 17.— Cfr. M. Pohlenz,

ORIGIN OF SIN *i

self and other creatures. Hence every sin springs from
inordinate self-love 34 and must result in shame, discon-
tent, unhappiness, and spiritual suicide.35 The common
sense of mankind has embodied this truth in many prov-
erbs, e. g., "Every sinner is his own executioner," "Sin is
its own punishment," "It does not pay to be wicked," etc.

3. Origin. — For an explanation of the origin
of sin we must turn to Revelation.

a) The first sin, — the deliberate rebellion of
Lucifer and his angels against the will of God 36
— was purely spiritual. As these angels were
pure spirits, the decision they made was irrevoca-
ble, and their punishment will last forever. Man
also sinned, but his fall was not due to malice.
He was seduced by the devil, the prince or god of
this world,37 who is not yet fully subdued, but
continues to work havoc in the "children of
unbelief." 38

Man's sin, therefore, differs from the sin of
the fallen angels in several respects: (1) It is
not purely spiritual, but partly carnal, and hence
the result, not of pure malice, but of malice and
infirmity combined. (2) In man sin proceeds

84 St. Thomas, Summa Theol., ia Lateran. IV (a. 1315), c. 1: "Dia-
2ae, qu. 77, art. 4: "Inordinatus bolus et alii daemones a Deo quidem
amor sui est causa omnis peccati." natura creati sunt boni, sed ipsi
SB Cfr. Gen. Ill, 5, 10; Jer. II, per se facti sunt mali. Homo vero
13; Tob. XII, 10; Prov. VIII, 36. diaboli suggestione peccavit." (Den-
se Cfr. Matth. XXV, 41; Luke X, zinger-Bannwart, n. 428).
18; Apoc. XII, 7-9. 38 Wisd. II, 24 sq.; John VIII,
87 John XII, 31; XIV, 30; XVI, 44; Eph. II, 1 sq.; VI, 12; 1 John
11; 2 Cor. IV, 3 sq. — Cfr. Cone. Ill, 8.

12 SIN

not merely from a momentary decision of the will,
as in the case of the fallen angels, but likewise
from original sin, which is a cooperating factor
in every personal transgression. For this rea-
son sin in man is not punished by death but is
pardonable. True, man cannot redeem himself,
but he can be redeemed.39 Aside from the state
of final impenitence, moreover, the soul of the
human sinner is not utterly dead, but capable of
being revived. In the majority of cases sin, to
employ an Augustinian phrase, is "not nature,
but against nature," 40 and even the most griev-
ous offender still remains an object of compas-
sion in the eyes of God, who, while He hates sin,
desires that the sinner be converted and live.41

It is a characteristic fact of no small impor-
tance in judging the malice of sin that man was
named for the lower or mortal side of his na-
ture. Holy Scripture says: "As a father hath
compassion on his children, so hath the Lord com-
passion on them that fear him: for he knoweth
our frame." 42

39 Matth. I, ax; Acts XVII, 22-31; *2 Ps. CII, 13 sq.— Cfr. Gen. V, a;
Rom. V, 12; Gal. I, 4; cfr. Jas. I, Ps. LXXVII, 38 sq.; Is. LXIV, 8
14. sq. — St. Ambrose, De Noe et Area,

40 St. Augustine, Contra Epist. c. 4, n. 9: "Homo positus in terrae
Munich. Fundam., c. 35, n. 39: regione carnem portans sine peccato
"Videre iam facile est, [malum'] non esse non potest, terra enim velut
esse naturam, sed contra naturam." quidam tentationum locus est caro-
(Migne, P. L., XLII, 201). que corruptelae illecebra." (Migne,

41 Cfr. Ez. XVIII, 32; XXXI, 11; P. L., XIV, 366).— Cfr. the major
Wisd. XI, 24 sq. ; Matth. V, 45; 2 antiphon for Dec. 22 in the Roman
Pet. Ill, 9. Breviary: "O rex gentium et desi-

ORIGIN OF SIN 13

Theologians are at variance with regard to the nature
of the sin committed by the fallen angels and that of
our first parents.43 The crime of the angels probably was
pride. Some rationalists hold that Adam and Eve died
because the fruit of the tree of which they ate was pois-
onous. This theory is as untenable as that the first human
sin was an act of fornication.44

The question why God did not prevent the sin of our
first parents, is answered by St. Augustine as follows:
"God did not lack the power of creating man so that
he could not sin, but chose to make him so that he could
sin if he wished, or abstain from sin if he preferred, by
forbidding this and prescribing that; thus it was first a
merit not to sin, and later a just reward not to be able to
sin." 45

b) To understand the nature and gravity of
sin, we must remember that the disobedience of
our first parents was a very grievous, nay, in some
respects the most grievous offense a human being
could commit. And this for two reasons:

«) Adam and Eve sinned in spite of the ex-
traordinary natural and supernatural privileges
which they enjoyed;

/?) Their disobedience was an act of flagrant

deratus earum lapisque angularis, qui 45 De Continentia, c. VI, n. 16:

facts utraque unum: veni et salva "Non potestas Deo defutt, talent

hominem, quern de limo formasti." facere hominem, qui peccare non

43 Cfr. Scheeben, Dogmatik, Vol. posset, sed maluit eum talent facere,
II. PP- 578 sqq., 593 sqq. ; Pesch, cui adiaceret peccare, si vellet, non
Praelectiones Dogmaticae, Vol. Ill, peccare, si nollet, hoc prohibens, il-
3rd ed., pp. 220 sqq.; A. Schopfer, lud praecipiens, ut prius illi [Adae]
Geschichte des Alten Testamentes, esset bonum meritum non peccare, et
pp. 47 sqq.; Pohle-Preus, God the postea iustum praemium non posse
Author of Nature, p. 342. peccare." (Migne, P. L., XL, 359).

44 Cfr. 2 Cor. XI, 3.

14 SIN

ingratitude and formal contempt, committed
with the full knowledge that it would injure not
only themselves but all their descendants.46

Moreover, Christ became man and suffered and
died because of sin.47

Again, men continue to sin, though their intel-
lect is enlightened by revelation and their will
strengthened by grace, and in spite of the incom-
prehensible love shown in the atonement.48

Every serious transgression of the divine law,
i. e., every actual mortal sin, deserves temporal
and eternal death and delivers the sinner into the
bondage of Satan.49 But not every transgres-
sion of the law is mortally sinful. There are
slight offenses, called "levia et quotidiana, quae
etiam venialia dicuntur peccata" by the Triden-
tine Council, and these do not destroy sanctifying
grace.50

It is to the important distinction between mor-
tal and venial sin that we must now turn our at-
tention.

Readings. — St. Thomas, Summa Theologica, ia 2ae, qu. 71-89.
— Suarez, Tractatus de Vitiis et Peccatis, disp. 1-6 {Opera Omnia,
Vol. IV, pp. 515 sqq.). — J. Miiller, Die christliche Lehre von der

46 Cfr. St. Augustine, De Civ. 48 John III, 16; XV, 13; Eph. I,
Dei, XXIV, c. 15, n. 1; Enchiridion, 3-14; III, 16-19; 1 John III, 16;
c. 27, 45, 48; De Corrept. et Gratia, IV, 9. — Cfr. St. Thomas, Summa
C. 12, n. 35. — St. Bonaventure, Com- Theol., 2a 2ae, qu. 14, art. 2.
ment. in Sent., II, dist. 21, art. 3, 49 Gen. II, 17; Rom. VI, 23; Jas.
qu. 1 and 2. I, 15.

47 Cfr. Matth. I, 21; Mark X, 45; so Cone. Trident., Sess. VI, c. It.
John III, 16 sq. ; Rom. V, 8 sqq.; Cfr. Cat. Rom., P. II, c. 6, qu. 14.
a Cor. V, 15; Eph. I, 7.

ORIGIN OF SIN IS

Stinde, 6th ed., 2 vols., Stuttgart 1877-78.— M. Merkle, Das Wesen
des Bosen, Dillingen 1847. — F. Teipel, De Peccati Natura, Coes-
feld 1847, pp. 10 sqq. — J. Nirschl, Ursprung und Wesen des
Bosen, Ratisbon 1854, pp. 23 sqq. — K. Clemen, Die christliche
Lehre von der Siinde, Vol. I, Gottingen 1897, PP- 2° sqq. — C.
Manzoni, De Natura Peccati, S. Angeli Laud., 1890.— J. B. Pighi,
Commentarius de Iudicio Sacramentali, 3rd ed., Verona 1904, pp.
97 sqq. — E. Janvier, Exposition de la Morale Catholique, Vol. V,
Paris 1907.— M. J. Scheeben, Dogmatik, Freiburg 1873, Vol. II, pp.
515 sqq. — Chr. Pesch, S.J., Praelectiones Dogmaticae, Vol. IX,
2nd ed., pp. 295 sqq.— Pohle-Preuss, God the Author of Nature
and the Supernatural, 2nd ed., St. Louis 1916, pp. 232 sqq. — A. C.
O'Neil, O.P., art. "Sin," in the Cath. Encyclopedia, Vol. XIV, pp.
4 sqq.— Card. Manning, 5m and Its Consequences, Am. reprint,
New York 1004. — A. B. Sharpe, Evil, Its Nature and Cause, Lotv-
don 1906.— Card. Billot, De Natura et Ratione Peccati Personalis,
Rome 1900.— Th. Slater, S.J., A Manual of Moral Theology,
Vol. I, pp. 133 sqq. — Wilhelm-Scannell, A Manual of Catholic
Theology, Vol. II, 2nd ed., London 1901, pp. 3 sqq.— H. Noldin,
S.J., Summa Theologiae Moralis, Vol. I, pp. 320 sqq., nth ed.,
Innsbruck 1914. — Aug. Lehmkuhl, S.J., Theologia Moralis, nth
ed., Freiburg 1910, Vol. I, pp. 186 sqq. — Ad. Tanquerey, Syno-
psis Theologiae Moralis et Pastoralis, Vol. II, Paris 1905, pp. 239
sqq. — Al. Sabetti, SJ. (ed. T. Barrett, S.J.), Compendium Theo-
logiae Moralis, 22nd ed., New York 1915, pp. in sqq.

SECTION 2

MORTAL AND VENIAL SINS

I. Importance of the Distinction. — The
distinction between mortal and venial sins is of
great practical importance, especially for the
tribunal of Penance, where the sinner is obliged
to state the kind and number of his mortal trans-
gressions, which constitute materia necessaria
for the validity of the Sacrament. Venial sins,
on the other hand, are materia libera, i. e., they
need not be confessed, though to confess them
is useful and advisable.1

The teaching of the Church with regard to the dis-
tinction between mortal and venial sins is clear and defi-
nite. Nevertheless, the scientific demonstration of this
doctrine is one of the most difficult problems of Moral
Theology and has given rise to many heated controversies
(e. g., Kleutgen vs. Hirscher; Frick vs. Linsenmann;
Pesch vs. Schell, etc.)

II. Proof from Sacred Scripture, Tradi-
tion, and Reason. — The distinction between
mortal and venial sins has a solid basis in Sacred
Scripture and ecclesiastical Tradition.

1 Cone. Trident., Sess. XIV, De Poenit., cap. 5 and can. 7;

Sess. VI, cap. 11.

16

MORTAL AND VENIAL SINS 17

I. Sacred Scripture distinguishes between sins
of greater or less gravity in such passages as:
"Whosoever is angry with his brother, shall be
in danger of judgment; and whosoever shall say
to his brother, Raca, shall be in danger of the
council ; and whosoever shall say, Thou fool, shall
be in danger of hell fire ;" 2 in the parables of the
moat and the beam,3 of the king who took account
of his servants,4 in the similitude of the blind
guides who strain out a gnat and swallow a camel,5
and so forth. The Bible moreover expressly
mentions sins that are "worthy of death," 6 the
doers of which "shall not possess the kingdom of
God;" 7 sins "that beget death," 8 and others that
are regularly committed by all men, even the just.9
Comparing the texts one cannot but see that there
is a difference, not only of quantity or degree, but
likewise of quality or essence, between different
sins {differentia in ipsa ratione peccati). Mortal
sin robs man of sanctifying grace, destroys the
supernatural life of the soul, and entails eternal
damnation; whereas venial sin merely weakens
grace and diminishes that love which is poured
out in the heart by the Holy Ghost.

We have purposely refrained from citing in support

2Matth. V, 22. Cfr. Matth. X, 6 Rom. I, 32; cfr. Ex. XXXII, 30

15; XI, 22; XVI, 10; John XIX, 11. sq.; 1 John V, 16.

3 Matth. VII, 3 sqq. 7 1 Cor. VI, 9 sq.; Gal. V, 19 sqq.

4 Matth. XVIII, 23 sqq. 8 Jas. I, 13 sqq.

6 Matth. XXIII, 24. »Jas. Ill, 2; 1 John I, 8.

18 SIN

of our thesis the oft-quoted text, "A just man shall fall
seven times and shall rise again;" for, as St. Augustine
pointed out many centuries ago, there is question here not
of sins but of misfortunes.10

In i John V, 16 "sin unto death" is probably not ordi-
nary mortal sin but that which is technically known as
the sin against the Holy Ghost.11

The scriptural locus classicus for our thesis is i Cor.
Ill, 8 sqq., in which the difference between mortal and
venial sin is developed very graphically and with a deep
insight into human nature. This text was made much of
by the Scholastics.12

2. Ecclesiastical Tradition furnishes a long and
uninterrupted series of testimonies in support of
the distinction with which we are dealing.

The ancient penitential discipline distinguished
between unpardonable and pardonable sins,13 and
among the latter classed some as more grievous
than others.

St. Augustine draws a sharp line between
"magna crimina" and unavoidable "quotidiana
peccata" which, he says, are wiped out by the
Lord's Prayer.14

lOProv. XXIV, 16.— Cfr. St Au- cateurs, 2nd ed., Paris 1906, pp. ioa

gustine, De Civ. Dei, XI, c. 31: sq.

"Septies cadit iustus et rcsurget, id 11 Cfr. A. Zahn, De Notione Pec-

est, quotiescunque ceciderit, non per- cati, Halle 1872, pp. 13, 28, 51.

ibit. Quod non de iniquitaiibus, 12 Cfr. St Thomas, Sumtna

sed de tribulationibus ad humilita- Theol., ia 2ae, qu. 89. art. 2; Schee-

tem perducentibus intellegi voluit." ben, Dogmatik, Vol. II, p. 53<>-

(Migne, P. L., XLI, 34s). Cfr. 18 Matth. XII, 31 sq. ; John XX,

Enarr. in Ps., 118, s. 31, n. 4 (P. L., 22 sq.

XXXVII, 1529).— J. V. Bainvel, 14 St. Augustine, Contra Jul., II,

Les Contresens Bibliques des Prcdi- c. 10, n. 33: "In hoc bello [cum

MORTAL AND VENIAL SINS

19

The Catholic Church has constantly insisted on
this important distinction and defended it against
heretics.15

3. Everyday experience as well as the common
sense of mankind and enlightened reason confirm
the distinction between mortal and venial sins.

concupiscentia] laborantes, quamdiu
tentatio est vita hutnana super ter-
rain, non ideo sine peccato non su-
mus, quia hoc, quod eo modo pecca-
tvm dicitur, operatur in membris
repugnans legi mentis, etiam non sibi
ad illicita consentientibus nobis,
. . . sed in quibus ab illo rebellante,
etsi non letaliter, sed venialiter ta-
men vincimur, in his contrahimus
unde quotidie dicamus: Dimitte no-
bis debita nostra." (Migne, P. L.,
XLIV. 696).— Enchir., c. 71: "De
quotidianis brevibus levibusque pec-
catis, sine quibus haec vita non du-
citur, quotidiana fidelium oratio sat-
isfit. . . . Delet omnino haec oratio
minima et quotidiana peccata."
(P. L., XL, 265). — Tr. in Ioann.,
26, n. 11: "Peccata etsi sunt
quotidiana, vel non sint mortif 'era."
(P. L., XXXV, 161 0-— De Symb.,
c. 7, n. 15: "Non vobis dico, quia
sine peccato hie vivetis, sed sunt
venialia, sine quibus vita ista non
est. Propter omnia peccata baptis-
mus inventus est; propter levia, sine
quibus esse non possumus, oratio in-
venta. Quid habet oratio? . . ,
Semel abluimur baptismate, quotidie
abluimur oratione. Sed nolite ilia
committere, pro quibus necesse est,
ut a Christi corpore separemini, quod
absit a vobis. Illi enim, quod videtis
agere poenitentiam, scelera commi-
serunt, aut adulteria aut aliqua facta
immania: inde agunt poenitentiam.
Nam si levia peccata ipsorum essent,
ad haec quotidiana oratio delenda
sufficeret.'* (P. L„ XL, 636).—

Serm., 58, c. 7, n. 8: "Sine debitis
in hac terra vivere non potestis.
Sed alia sunt ilia magna crimina,
quae vobis bonum est in baptismo
dimitti et a quibus semper alieni
esse debetis, alia quotidiana peccata,
sine quibus hie homo vivere non
potest, propter quae necessaria est
quotidiana oratio." (Migne, P. L.,
XXXVIII, 397)— With regard to
venial or daily sins, St. Augustine
calls the Lord's Prayer "quotidiana
nostra mundatio" (De Nupt. et
Coniug., I, c. 33, n. 38), "quo-
tidiana mundatio sanctae orationis"
(.Serm., 56, c. 8, n. 12), and "quasi
quotidianus baptismus noster"
(Serm., 213, c. 8). — On the Patris-
tic literature regarding this ques-
tion see Gerigk, Wesen und Voraus-
setsungen der Todsiinde, Breslau
1903, pp. 17 sqq.

15 Cfr. Cone. Milev. II, can. 6-8:
"Sanctos in oratione dominica non
tantum humiliter, sed etiam veraci-
ter dicer e: Dimitte nobis debita no-
stra." (Denzinger-Bannwart, n. 106
sqq.). — Among the condemned prop-
ositions of Baius is the following
(n. 20) : "Nullum est peccatum ex
natura sua veniale, sed omne pecca-
tum meretur poenam aeternam."
(Denzinger-Bannwart, n. 1020). —
Cfr. Cone. Trident., Sess. VI, c. 11;
c. 15; can. 23 and 27; Sess. VII, De
Bapt., can. 10. — On Luther's teach-
ing that all sins are by nature
mortal, see H. Denifle, Luther und
Luthertum, Vol. I, 2nd ed., pp. 501
sqq.

20 SIN

As there is a state of spiritual death and moral
infirmity, so there are external and internal acts
that produce death and infirmity; and as there is
a moral order which can be either grievously or
slightly violated, so there are grievous and slight
offenses against that order.1(X "Could anything
be more absurd or foolish," asks St. Augustine,
"than to consider one who has indulged in im-
moderate hilarity guilty of as great a sin as
the wretch who has brought ruin upon his na-
tive land?"17 "If two acts are equal because
they are both offenses," he continues, "then mice
and elephants are equal because they are both
animals, and flies and eagles are equal because
they can fly through the air." 18

"Not only Scripture, but mankind in general," says a
recent moralist, "recognize the fact that there are sins
which by their nature do not involve a real lapse from
morality, and which do not render the agent bad and
worthless, but are committed even by just and pious men.

16 Cfr. Prov. VI, 30 sqq. — St. Je- tius incenderit, peccasse iudicentur
rome, Adv. lovitt., II, c. 30: "Sunt aequaliterf"

Peccata levia, sunt gravia. Aliud 18 Ibid., n. 14: "Aut si prop-

est decern millia talenta debere, terea sunt paria, quia utraque delicto

aliud quadrantem. Et de otioso sunt, mures et elephanti pares erunt,

quidem verbo et adulterio rei tene- quia utraque sunt animalia, muscae

bimur, sed non est idem suffundi et et aquilae, quia utraque volatilia."

torqueri, erubescere et longo tempore (Migne, P. L., XXXIII, 394). — Cfr.

cruciari." (Migne, P. L., XXIII, Horace's Satires, I. 3, 96 sqq.:

327)- "Quis paria esse fere placuit pec-

17 St. Augustine, Epist., 104 (al. cata, laborant,

2S4), c. 4, n. 13: "Quid absurdius, Quum ventum ad verum est: sensus

quid insanius dici potest, quam ut moresque repugnant

ille, qui aliquando immoderatius Atque ipsa utilitas, iusti prope mater

riserit et ille, qui patriam truculen- et aequi."

MORTAL AND VENIAL SINS

21

. . . That there is an essential difference between an
offense against courtesy and battery and assault for the
purpose of robbery, between a falsehood told in jest and
a slander affecting a man's honor, every reasonable per-

• jj 10

son perceives. ia

The truth expressed by St. James .that "in many things
we all offend," 20 was perceived long before the Apostle's
day by Thucydides21 and others.

4. Speculative Argument. — To demonstrate
the distinction between mortal and venial sin spec-
ulatively was first attempted by the Schoolmen,
especially by SS. Thomas 22 and Bonaventure,23

19 J. Mausbach, Die kath. Moral,
2nd ed., p. no; English transla-
tion by Buchanan, pp. 259 sq. We
have modified the English version
somewhat in order to render the
sense of the original more accu-
rately.

20jas. Ill, 2: "JloWa yap
vralofiev airavres — In multis enim
offendimus omnes."

21 Hist., Ill, 45: ire(f>vKaaii>
airavres Kal Idla. /cat dtj/ioala
afiaprdveiv- — Cfr. Seneca, De
Clement., I, 6: "Peccamus omnes,
alii gravia, alii leviora."

22 St. Thomas, Summa Theol., 1a
2ae, qu. 72, art. 5: "Differentia
peccati venialis et mortalis consequi-
tur diversitatem inordinationis, quae
complet rationem peccati. Duplex
enim est inordinatio : una per sub-
tractionem principii ordinis; alia,
qua etiam salvato principio ordinis,
fit inordinatio circa ea, quae sunt
post principium; sicut in corpore
animalis quandoque quidem inor-
dinatio complexionis procedit usque
ad destructionem principii iritalis,
et haec est mors; quandoque vero
salvo principio vitae fit deordi-

natio quaedam in humoribus, et tunc
est aegritudo. Principium autem to-
tius ordinis in tnoralibus est finis
ultimus, qui ita se habet in opera-
tivis, sicut principium indemonstra-
bile in speculativis. Unde quando
anima deordinatur per peccatum us-
que ad aversionem ab ultimo fine,
scilicet Deo, cui unitur per carita-
tern, tunc est peccatum mortale;
quando vero fit deordinatio citra
aversionem a Deo, tunc est peccatum
veniale. Sicut enim in corporibus
deordinatio mortis, quae est per re-
motionem principii vitae, est irre-
parabilis secundum naturam, inor-
dinatio autem aegritudinis reparari
potest propter id, quod salvatur prin-
cipium vitae, similiter est in his,
quae pertinent ad animam."

23 St. Bonaventure, Brevil., P.
V, c. 8: "Quum peccatum dicat
recessum voluntatis a primo princi-
pio, inquantum ipsa voluntas nata
est agi ab ipso et secundum ipsum
et propter ipsum, omne peccatum est
inordinatio mentis sxve voluntatis,
circa quam nata sunt esse virtus et
vitium. Peccatum tgitur actuate est
actualis inordinatio voluntatis. In-

22 SIN

who emphasize the fact that sin is essentially a
turning away from God, due to a wrong tendency
of the will.

a) "When," says St. Thomas (I. c), "the soul
is so disordered by sin as to turn away from its
last end, God, to whom it is united by charity,
there is mortal sin; but when the disorder stops
short of turning away from God, the sin is venial.
For as in animal bodies the disorder of death,
which results from the destruction of the prin-
ciple of life, is irreparable in nature, whereas the
disorder of sickness can be repaired, because the
vital principle is preserved, so it is in matters con-
cerning the soul. For in speculative matters he
who errs in first principles is beyond the reach
of persuasion, whereas one who errs but retains
the first principles, may be brought back to the
truth by the aid of those same principles. And
so in matters of conduct, he who by sinning turns
away from his last end, suffers a fall that is, so
far as the nature of the sin goes, beyond repair,
and exposes himself to eternal punishment. But
he whose sin stops short of turning away from
God, is under a disorder that by the very nature
of the sin admits of repair; and therefore he is
said to sin venially, because he does not sin so
as to deserve never-ending punishment."

ordinatio autem ista aut est tanta, tale, quia natum est auferre z<itam
quod ordinetn iustitiae exterminat, separando ipsam a Deo, per quern
et hoc modo dicitur peccatum mor- vivificatur anima iusta. Aut est tarn

MORTAL AND VENIAL SINS 23

Hence the customary definition: "A mortal
sin is a turning away (aversio) from God and a
turning to (conversio) creatures with a change of
object." When the (final) object remains un-
changed, there is only venial sin.24

Mortal sin, therefore, is a complete turning
from God to the creature, whereby the crea-
ture becomes man's last end and the object
of his affection. Such an act necessarily de-
stroys the proper relation between God and
man, and consequently robs the soul of super-
natural life. Man is ordained towards his last
end by charity, and whatever runs counter to
charity (conceived either as the love of God or the
love of one's fellow-men for God's sake) is mor-
tally sinful. All such offenses are mortal sins
according to their species (peccata mortalia ex
suo genere). When the will is directed towards
an object that is not contrary to charity, though it
contain within itself some disorder {inordinatio
quaedam), the sin committed is venial according
to its species (peccatum veniale ex suo genere).

Since, however, human acts receive their speci-
fication not only from their objects, but likewise
from the end or purpose of the agent, a sin

modica, quod ordinem ilium non inimicitiam divinam incurrit homo."

perimit, sed tantum in aliquo per- 24 "Peccatum mortale est aversio

turbat, et tunc dicitur veniale pec- a Deo et conversio ad creaturas cum

catum, quia de ipso adipisci possu- mutatione centri; ubi vero centrum

mus cito veniam, pro eo, quod non mutatur, adest peccatum ve-

gratia non tollitur per ipsum nee niale." (St. Thomas, /. c.)

24 SIN

which is by nature venial, so far as its object
is concerned, may become mortal in respect of the
person who commits it, either because he inordi-
nately seeks his last end in that object, or because
he directs the object towards an end which is by
nature mortally sinful; — as when one employs a
useless word for the commission of a grievous
crime. Similarly, a sin which is by nature mortal
may become subjectively venial if the act remains
incomplete, because there is no full advertence and
consent; — as when one is tempted against the
faith.

To be mortal, therefore, a sin need not be committed
"with uplifted hand against God," as Schell was accused
of having taught, i. e., it need not be inspired by hatred
and malice or involve formal rebellion against the Al-
mighty. Nor need it be an act of obstinate and impeni-
tent opposition to divine truth and grace. The Church
would not have drawn up a long list of mortal sins 25 if
she believed that there is but one mortal sin, namely, re-
bellion or obstinate resistance to the will of God.26

25 Cfr. Cone. Trident., Sess. VI, the divine law in an important mat-
c. 15; Prop, damnat. ab Alexandro ter is a mortal sin. On the con-
VII., n. 23; sub Innocent. XL, 43, trary, I accept this definition: only
44, 47, 49, 51 sq. (Denzinger- it falls short of determining what
Bannwart, n. 1123, 1193 sq., 1197, is important or unimportant in each
1201 sq.) case. . . . Were I asked to define

26 Cfr. F. A. Gopfert, Moraltheo- the nature of mortal sin, I should
logie, 6th ed., Vol. I, p. 219. — It is say it was a voluntary or wilful
but just to add that Dr. Schell pro- transgression of a divine law in
tested against the construction put an important matter." (H. Schell,
upon his teaching by his opponents. Kleinere Schriften, edited by K.
"I have never denied," he says, Iiennemann, Paderborn 1908, pp.
"that every wilful transgression of 580, 587.)

MORTAL AND VENIAL SINS 25

b) The fact that every sin implies a disturb-
ance of the moral order does not suffice to estab-
lish an essential distinction between mortal and
venial sins. For this distinction is not (or, at
least, not entirely) based on the objective
consequences of sin (materia gravis et levis),
i. e., the greater or less degree in which the
moral order is disturbed, but primarily on the sub-
jective tendency of the will. "The external ob-
ject," says a modern theologian, "is merely the
proximate aim and motive. The ultimate cause
of sin is the ego, the gratification of self-love,
that inordinate seeking of one's own interest
which is directly opposed to the love of God.
This is true of all sins, even of those whose object
lies outside the sinner's own person (infidelity,
despair, presumption)."27

Hence, broadly speaking, it may be said that
whatever is done out of malice is mortally sinful,
whereas that which has infirmity for its motive is
merely a venial sin, though, strictly speaking,
there are sins of malice that are venial and sins
of infirmity that are mortal. No man is able to
fathom the secret motives of his fellow-men, and
consequently God alone can tell with absolute cer-
tainty how much malice has gone into any sin.28

27 H. Gerigk, Wesen und Vor- eventu, sed vitiis hominum metienda

aussetzungen der Todsiinde, p. 116. sunt."

— Cfr. Cicero, Parad., Ill, i: 28 Cfr. Jer. XVII, 10; i Cor. IV,

"Parva, inquis, res est; at magna 4; 2 Thess. II, 7; Deut. XVII, 8.
culpa. Nee enitn peccata rerum

26

SIN

St. Augustine says : "Which sins are venial and
which are mortal can be ascertained only from
Sacred Scripture, not from human wisdom." 29
And St. Thomas : "It is perilous to decide as to
the grievous character of a sin unless we have a
positive teaching to go by." 30 St. Raymond of
Pennafort, whom the Church honors as "the emi-
nent minister of the Sacrament of Penance," ad-
vises confessors to go slow in deciding any sin
to be grievous, lest they discourage their peni-
tents.31

A conscientious Catholic will strive to avoid
all sins, venial as well as mortal.32

29 Enchiridion, c. 78: "Quae sint
levia, quae gravia peccata, non hu-
mono, scd divino sunt pensanda iudi-
cio." (Migne, P. L., XL, 269). —
Cfr. ibid., c. 79: "Sunt quaedam,
quae lerissima putarentur, nisi in
Scripturis demonstrarentur opinione
gravia." (P. L., XL, 270). — Idem,
De Civ. Dei, XXI, c. 27, n. 5:
"Quae sint ipsa peccata, quae ita im-
pediunt pcrventionem ad regnum
Dei, ut tamen sanctorum mcritis
impetrent indulgentiam, di/Hcillimum
est invenire, periculosissimum dcfi-
nire. Ego certe usque ad hoc tem-
pus, quum inde satagerem, ad eorum
indaginem pervenire non potui." {P.
L., XLI, 750). — The reason why God
left this question unsolved, St. Au-
gustine finds in the salutary admo-
nition to avoid all sins: "Et for-
tassis propterea latent, ne studium
proficiendi ad omnia peccata cavenda
pigrcscat. . . . Nunc vero dum
z-enialis iniquitas, etiamsi perse~seret,
ignoratur modus, profccto et studium
in meliora prodciendi orationi in-

stando vigilantius adhibetur."
(Ibid.)

SO Quodlibet., IX, art. 15:
"Omnis quaestio, in qua de peccato
mortali quaeritur, nisi exprcssa
Veritas habeatur, periculose deter-
minatur." — Cfr. J. Gerson, De Vita
Spirit., lect. 4: "Doctores theologi
non debent esse faciles ad asseren-
dum, aliqua peccata esse mortalia, ubi
non sunt certissimi de re, nam per
huiusmodi asscrtiones rigidas in re-
bus universis nequaquam eriguntur
homines a luto peccatorum, sed in
Mud profundius, quia desperatius,
demerguntur."

31 "Unum consulo, quod non sis
nimis promts iudicare mortalia pec-
cata, ubi tibi non constat per cer-
tain scripturam, . . . alias possent
induci homines in desperationem."
(L. 3, tit. de Poenit. et Rem., § 21.)
— Cfr. M. Alphonsus, Homo Apost.,
tr. 16, n. 118; J. E. Pruner, Moral-
theologie. Vol. I, 3rd ed., p. 189.

32 Cfr. St. Augustine, De Bapt.,
II, c. 6, n. 9: "Non afferamus

MORTAL AND VENIAL SINS 27

Mortal sin, therefore, is a wilful transgression of the
law of God in a matter which one knows or believes to be
important. It robs man of sanctifying grace, deprives
him of the friendship of God, and renders him deserving
of eternal damnation.

Venial sin, on the other hand, is either a violation of
an important law without full advertence or consent, or
a transgression of a law of slight importance.33 Venial
sin does not destroy sanctifying grace and is more easily
pardoned than mortal sin because it does not involve for-
mal contempt (contemptus) but merely neglect of God
{neglectio Dei).

1

III. If there were no distinction between mor-
tal and venial sin, then either all sins would be
mortal or all would be venial. The former prop-
osition would entail Rigorism, the latter Laxism.

It has been objected that the Catholic teaching
on this subject is derogatory to virtue and breeds
lax opinions and carelessness. This accusation
is unfounded. The Church expressly teaches
that venial sin is incomparably worse than any
temporal injury or evil, and can be expiated only

stateras dolosas, ubi appendamus, amicitiam cum Deo solvit poenamque
quod volumus et quomodo volumus, aeternam meretur. Dicitur mortale,
pro arbitrio nostro dicentes: hoc quia spiritualis vitae principium, gra-
grave, hoc leve est, sed afferamus tiam scil. habitualem, tollit et mor-
divinam stateram de scripturis sane- tern animae affert. Veniale est, quod
tis tamquam de thesauris dominicis, ob suam levitatem gratiam et amici-
et in ilia quid sit gravius appenda- tiam non tollit, etsi fervorem cari-
mus, immo non appendamus, sed a tatis minuat et temporalem poenam
Domino appensa recognoscamus." mereatur. Dicitur veniale, quia sal-
(Migne, P. L., XLIII, 132). vo vitae spiritualis principio, scil.
33 Cfr. St. Alphonsus, Theol. gratia, languorem animae facile cura-
Mor., 1. V, n. 51: "Mortale est, bilem infert veniamque facile con-
quod ob sui gravitatem gratiam et sequitur." (Ed. Gaude, II, 747).

28 SIN

by sincere contrition and penitence, through the
merits of Jesus Christ. She exhorts her chil-
dren to avoid all venial sins by means of prayer,
self-discipline, and the grace of God, because
no man is allowed to commit even the slight-
est offense against the majesty and justice of
God.34

"No confessor," says Gury, "does his full duty
unless he tries to wean his penitents from fre-
quent venial sins, especially such as involve full
advertence, since a man who does not strive to
avoid venial sins easily falls into mortal sins." 35

Readings. — St. Thomas, Summa Theologica, ia 2ae, qu. 72,
art. 5; qu. 88-89. — Idem, De Malo, qu. 7, art. 1-2. — Idem, Summa
contra Gentiles, III, c. 143-144. — Scheeben, Dogmatik, Vol. II,
pp. 528 sqq. — F. X. Linsenmann, Lehrbuch der Moraltheologie,
pp. 156 sqq. — Chr. Pesch, S.J., Theologische Zeitfragen, II,
Freiburg 1901, pp. 47 sqq., 83 sqq. — J. Stufler, S.J., Die Heilig-
keit Gottes und der ewige Tod, Innsbruck 1903. — Idem, Die
Theorien der freiwilligen Vcrstocktheit, Innsbruck 1905. — H.
Gerigk, Wesen und V oraussetzungen der Todsiinde, Breslau
I903- — Ph. Kneib, Die "Jenseitsmoral," pp. 99 sqq. — Th. Slater,
S.J., A Manual of Moral Theology, Vol. I, pp. 136 sqq. — Wil-
helm-Scannell, A Manual of Catholic Theology, Vol. I, pp. 6
sqq. — J. Mausbach, Catholic Moral Teaching and Its Antagonists,
New York 1914, pp. 258 sqq.

34 Rom. Ill, 8. peccatorum venialium, maxime cum

35 J. P. Gury, Comp. Theol. Mor., plena advertentia commissorum,
Vol. I, n. 155: "Confessarius non quum poenitcns, qui non satagit ut
satisfacit muneri suo, si non curet, venialia vitet, cito plerumque in
ut poenitentem removeat a frequentia mortalia labatur."

SECTION 3

DISTINCTIVE CHARACTERISTICS OF MORTAL AND

VENIAL SIN

I. The Leading Criteria. — As mortal sins
are necessary matter for confession (materia
necessaria), the penitent who enters the sacred
tribunal must be able to distinguish them with
comparative certainty from venial sins. For this
purpose Catholic moralists have established the
following criteria :

a) Knowledge of the Importance of the
Precept Transgressed. — If the precept is of
great importance for the moral and social order
(materia gravis), and its transgression is likely
to entail serious consequences, the sin is grievous
(peccatum grave). If, on the other hand, the
precept is unimportant (materia parva), and the
matter divisible, the sin is light.

Note, however, ( i ) that this objective distinc-
tion between serious and light sin is not identical
with the distinction between mortal and venial sin,
for subjectively or individually a grievous sin may
be venial and a venial sin mortal, whereas a
grievous sin per se can never be light nor a mortal

29

30 SIN

sin venial. (2) Some precepts and some sins,
e. g., simony, blasphemy, murder, fornication, vio-
lation of the seal of confession, are essentially in-
divisible and therefore do not admit of parvitas
materiae. (3) The decision regarding the ces-
sation of parvitas materiae or the beginning of a
grievous sin is always more or less arbitrary. (4)
When a sin is materially grievous, the presump-
tion is that it is a mortal sin, and vice versa.

b) The Degree of Advertence Required
for a Mortal Sin. — No one who is unconscious
can sin, and one who is half asleep, or partly in-
toxicated, or feeble-minded, cannot sufficiently ap-
preciate the malice of mortal sin to be guilty of
it.1

However, to be guilty of mortal sin, a man need
not reflect explicitly on the malice of the contem-
plated act or be fully aware of the importance
of the law transgressed. It is sufficient for him
to know that the act is sinful. Culpable igno-
rance, therefore, when it results in the commis-
sion of a grievous sin, does not excuse from
guilt. Still less is it necessary to commit the
sinful act with the full consciousness of offend-
ing God. Some writers have construed a dis-
tinction between philosophical and theological sin.
They define the former as an act contrary to rea-

lCfr. Matth. XXV, 26; Jas. IV, 17; cfr. Gen. XIX, 33-35; XX, 4-6.

MORTAL AND VENIAL SINS 31

son and the natural law, but involving no con-
scious violation of a divine precept, and hold that
it may be grievous, but never mortal. This the-
ory has been formally condemned by the Church.2
c) The Free Consent of the Will. — To
make an act mortally sinful, the will must give
its full and free consent. This consent need not,
however, involve the actual and direct intention of
transgressing the moral law. All that is re-
quired is that it be full and free.3

Mortal sin, as we have seen, is a complete turning away
from God to the creature. No act is mortally sinful un-
less the agent clearly perceives its true character and
gives full consent. By committing a mortal sin man
renders himself guilty of eternal damnation. Now it
would be contrary to the goodness and mercy of God
to condemn a man to eternal punishment on account of a
slight transgression or for an act which was not entirely
free or wilful.4

2 Prop. Damnat. ab Alexandro Mis sublatis nulla mali cognitio et
VIII. (Aug. 24, 1690), n. 2 (Den- volitio et proinde nullum peccatum
zinger-Bannwart, n. 1290). esse potest; sufhciunt vero, quia Mis

3 Cfr. Gury, Compendium Theol. positis mali cognitio et volitio, quae
Moralis, Vol. I, n. 150: "Ad pec- ad peccatum constituendum neces-
catum mortale tria necessario re- sariae sunt, aliqua ratione haben-
quiruntur, scil. (1) materia gravis in tur."

se vel ob circumstantias, (2) adver- 4 Op. cit., n. 150: "Requiritur

tentia plena ad malitiam actus, (3) plena advertentia plenusque consen-

consensus plenus voluntatis in prae- sus, quia, quum per peccatum mor-

varicationem." — Ibid., n. 153: "Ad tale homo totaliter recedat a Deo, ut

peccatum veniale requiruntur et sufE- creaturis omnino adhaereat, id fieri

ciunt aliqua advertentia quantum- non potest nisi peccator deliberate

vis levis ad malitiam et aliquis con- obiectum peccati Deo praeferat et

sensus quantumvis imperfectus vo- absolute velit in eo Unern suum ulti-

luntatis: requiruntur quidem, quia mum constituere. Insuper a boni-

32 SIN

Some sins are mortal by their very nature or species
(peccata mortalia ex genere suo). They are those whose
object is important in itself, regardless of conditions or
circumstances, e. g., the theft of a large sum of money.
Others (peccata mortalia per accidcns) are rendered mor-
tal by the attending circumstances, e. g., grave scandal.

Those sins which are mortal by their nature or species
are subdivided into peccata mortalia ex toto genere suo
and peccata mortalia ex genere suo non toto. Sins of the
former class embody some grievous disorder, such as un-
belief, despair, etc. Those of the latter class have an ob-
ject that, though binding under pain of grievous sin,
admits of degrees because of the smallness of the matter
involved (parvitas materiae), e. g., theft, slander.

There is an analogous distinction between venial sins
ex genere suo and per accidens. The former involve an
unimportant object, whereas the latter have an important
object, but are rendered venial by circumstances.5

2. Practical Hints. — a) A venial sin can be-
come mortal, (i) by the action of an erroneous
conscience that wrongly judges a venial sin to be
mortal; (2) through a gravely sinful intention
(finis praznis), as when a lie is told in order to
enable one to commit adultery; (3) on account of

tate dh'ino prorsus alienum est, ho- etc.; (2) ex genere suo non toto seu

minem aeternae damnationi addicere simpliciter ex genere suo, quando

sire per transgressioncin levem sive eorum materia in eadem specie ma-

propter actum non perfecte liberum nens plerumque gravis est, quamvis

et voluntarium." etiam levis esse possit, ut sunt pec-

6 Ibid.: "Peccata mortalia talia cata contra iustitiam; (3) per acci-

sunt: (1) Ex toto genere suo, quan- dens, 1. e. quando mortalia sunt non

do eorum obiectum seu materia, ex obiecto suo, sed ex aliqua cir-

quaecunque ea demum sit, gravem cumstantia, v. g. ex conscientia er-

continet dcordinationem, ut in lu- ronea, etc." — Cfr. Gopfert, Moralthe-

xuria, blasphemia, periurio, haeresi, ologie, Vol. I, 4th ed., pp. 224-230.

MORTAL AND VENIAL SINS 33

the proximate danger of mortal sin; (4) be-
cause of formal contempt of the law or the
lawgiver, and (5) by reason of grave scandal
entailed.

In a similar way, an objectively mortal sin may
become subjectively venial, (1) on account of
the smallness of the matter involved (parvitas
materia) ; (2) through imperfect advertence or
consent to an act in itself gravely sinful (excus-
able ignorance, extreme haste, weakness) ; (3)
because of failure to consummate an intended
sinful action, though it would have been easy to
do so.

b) When positive doubt exists as to whether
an act was mortally sinful or not, this doubt may
be resolved in favor of the person concerned
if he was so disposed that he would not have
committed a mortal sin even though it was easy
for him to do so, but would have preferred to
die rather than grievously offend God, or if,
without his own fault, he was not entirely master
of his actions; or if he is uncertain whether he
consented to the sinful act or remembers that he
proceeded timidly or in doubt.

Though, strictly speaking, no mortal sin can
become venial, and no venial sin mortal, because
of the essential difference existing between the
two, a person who constantly commits venial sins
with full deliberation thereby forms evil habits,

34

SIN

which will sooner or later precipitate him into
mortal sin and rob his soul of sanctifying grace.
It is in this sense that the Scholastics say that
venial sin disposes the soul to mortal sin.6

6 Cfr. Ecclus. XIX, i ; Luke XVI,
10. — St. Augustine, Tract, in Ioa.,
12, n. 14: "Minuta plura peccata
si neglegantur, occidunt. Minutae
sunt guttae, quae ilumina implent,
minuta sunt grana arenae, sed si
multa arena imponatur, premit atque
opprimit. Hoc facit sentina neglecta,
quod facit Audits irruens, paulatim
per sentinam intrat, sed diu in-
trando et non exhauriendo mergit
navim. Quid est autem exhaurire
nisi bonis operibus agcre, ne obruant
peccata, gemendo, ieiunando, tribu-
endo, ignoscendot" (Migne, P. L.,
XXXV, 1492). — Idem, Serm., 56, c.
9, n. 12: "Ista omnia, si colligan-
tur contra nos, num ideo non pre-
munt, quia minuta sunt? Quid in-
terest, utrum te plumbum premat an
arena? Plumbum una massa est,
arena minuta grana sunt, sed copia
te premunt. Minuta sunt peccata.
Non vides de guttis mmutis ftumina
impleri et fundos trahi? Minuta
sunt, sed multa sunt." (P. L.,
XXXVIII, 383).— Idem, Serm., 58,
c. 9, n. 10: "Dimittantur peccata,
dimittantur praeterita, cessent fu-
tura. Sed non potes hie vivere sine
ipsis, vel minora vel minuta sint, vel
levta sint. Sed ipsa levia et
minuta non contemnantur. De mi-
nutis guttis flumina itnplentur. Non
contemnantur vel minora. Per an-
gustas rimulas navis insudat aqua,
impletur sentina, et si contemnatur
sentina, mcrgitur navis." (P. L.,
XXXVIII, 398).— Pseudo- Augustine,
Append. Serm., 292 (a/. 244 de
tempore), n. 6: "Noli despicere
peccata tua, quia parva sunt, sed

time, quia plura sunt. Nam et
pluviarum guttae minutae sunt, sed
flumina implent et moles trahunt et
arbores cum suis radicibus tollunt."

(P. L., XXXIX, 2999)-— St. Greg-
ory the Great, Moral., 1. 10, c. 11,
n. 21: "Ex vanitate ad iniquitatem
ducimur." (P. L., LXXV, 933) .—
St. Thomas, Summa Theol., la 2ae,
q. 88, art. 3: "Peccatum veniale
potest disponere per quondam con-
sequentiam ad peccatum, quod est
mortale ex parte agentis. Augmen-
tata enim dispositione vel habitu per
actus peccatorum venialium infantum
potest libido peccandi crescere, quod
ille, qui peccat, finem suum constituet
in peccato veniali. Nam unicuique
habenti habitum, inquantum huius-
modi, finis est opcratio secundum
habitum, et sic multotics peccando
veniahter dtsponetur ad peccatum
mortale." — Idem, ibid., art. 4:
"Non omnia peccata venialia de
mundo possunt habere tantum de
rcatu, quantum unum peccatum mor-
tale. . . . Si vero intellegatur, quod
multa peccata venialia faciunt unum
mortale dispositive, sic verum est

. . . secundum duos modos dispo.
sitionis, quibus peccatum veniale dis-
ponit ad mortale." — Idem, ibid., 2a
cae, q. 186, art. 9: "Peccatum
veniale est dispositio ad mortale, in-
quantum impedit ea, quibus aliquis
disponitur ad observanda principalia
praecepta legis Christi, quae sunt
praecepta caritatis." — Cfr. J. P.
Gury, Comp. Theol. Mor., Vol. 1, n.
153: "Peccata venialia quantumvis
multiplicata per se et ratione mul-
tiplicationis nunquam in mortale

MORTAL AND VENIAL SINS 35

Readings. — St. Thomas, Summa Theologica, ia 2ae, qu. 88. —
F. X. Linsenmann, Lehrbuch der Moraltheologie, pp. 161 sqq. —
Th. Slater, S.J., A Manual of Moral Theology, Vol. I, pp. 136
sqq. — H. Gerigk, Wesen und V oraussetzungen der Totsunde, Un-
tersuchung der Frage nach dem Wesensunterschiede zwischen
dem Peccatum Mortale und Veniale, Breslau 1903, especially pp.
96 sqq. — H. Noldin, S.J., Summa Theol. Mor., Vol. I, nth ed.,
pp. 328 sqq. — A. Lehmkuhl, S.J., Theol. Mor., Vol. I, nth ed.,
pp. 193 sqq. — Sabetti-Barrett, S.J., Comp. Theol. Mor., 22nd ed.,
pp. 113 sqq. — A. Tanquerey, Synopsis Theol. Mor. et Pastor., Vol.
II, pp. 253 sqq. — L. Billot, S.J., Disquisitio de Natura et Ratione
Peccati, Rome 1900, th. I sqq. — H. E. Manning, Sin and its Con-
sequences, Ch. I, sqq. (French tr. by Maillet, Le Peche et ses
Consequences, Avignon 1894, Ch. I sqq.).

coalescere possunt, quia singula in centis ad mortale deveniunt, ut in
specie inferiori manent. Quando- materia iustitiae praesertim accidit."
que tamen ratione materiae coales-

SECTION 4

TEMPTATIONS AND OCCASIONS OF SIN

The cause of personal sin (causa deficicns),1
as we have seen, is free-will. "If any one saith,"
defines the Tridentine Council, "that it is not in
man's power to make his ways evil, but that the
works that are evil God worketh as well as those
that are good, not permissibly only, but properly
and of Himself, in such wise that the treason of
Judas is no less His own proper work than the
vocation of Paul; let him be anathema."2 —
"Man's will alone," says St. Thomas, "is directly
the cause of his sin." 3 And St.

1 Cfr. St. Augustine, De Civit.
Dei, XII, c. 7: "Nemo quaerat ef-
Hcientem causam malae voluntatis,
non enim est efficiens, sed deficicns,
quia nee ilia effectio est, sed defec-
tio. Deficere nanique ab eo, quod
summe est, ad id, quod minus est,
hoc est incipere habere voluntatem
malam." (Migne, P. L., XLI, 355).

2 Cone. Trident., Sess. VI, can. 6:
"Si quis dixerit, non esse in po-
testate hominis, vias suas malas fa-
cere, sed mala opera, ita ut bona,
Deum operari, non permissive solum,
sed etiam proprie et per se, adeo ut
sit proprium eius opus non minus
proditio ludae, quam vocatio Pauli;
anathema sit."

36

Augustine

3 Summa Theoi, ia 2ae, qu. 80,
art. 1 : "Sola voluntas hominis est
directe causa peccati eius." — Cfr.
De Malo, qu. 3, art. 3: "Actus vo-
luntatis nihil aliud est, quam inclina-
tio quaedam voluntatis in volitum,
sicut et appetitus naturalis nihil
est aliud, quam inclinatio na-
turae ad aliquid. Inclinatio autem
naturae est et a forma naturali et
ab eo, qui dedit formam, unde dici-
tur, quod motus ignis sursum est ab
eius levitate et a generante, quod
talem formam creavit. Sic ergo
motus voluntatis directe procedit a
voluntate et a Deo, qui est volunta-
tis causa, qui solus in voluntate
operatur et voluntatem inclinare pot-

TEMPTATIONS 37

"It is written into every heart by the hand of God
that sin is impossible without the cooperation of
the will." * The will can excite concupiscence
and proceed from desire to act, thus producing
sin, as it were, out of itself. The will may also
be seduced by outside influences (causae occa-
sionales). Of these there are chiefly two, viz.:
temptation and occasion.

I. Temptations. — Temptation, broadly speak-
ing, is a testing or trial of the will. Defined
more narrowly, it is a direct incitement to evil
which stirs up concupiscence and thereby causes
a struggle between the good and the evil forces of
nature.

A temptation may be either internal or ex-
ternal, and it may proceed from God (tentatio
probationis) , or from the devil, or from the
world, or from concupiscence.5

1. Christ exhorts all men to pray, "Lead us not
into temptation." 6 St. Paul says that God suf-
fers all to be tempted.7 Hence there are temp-
tations that come from God. Not, of course, as

est in quodcunque voluerit. Deus c. 13: "Pugna, quae superest cum

autem non est causa peccati. Re- came, cum mundo, cum diabolo." —

linquitur ergo, quod nihil aliud sit Cfr. St. Augustine, Serm., 344 (al.

directe causa peccati humani nisi 31), n. 1: "Hie propositus nobis

voluntas." agon, haec lucta cum came, haec

4 De Duab. Anim. c. Manich., c. lucta cum diabolo, haec lucta cum
11, n. 15: "Peccatum sine volun- saeculo." (P. L., XXXIX, 1512).
tate esse non posse omnis mens apud 6 Matth. VI, 13.

se divinitus conscriptum legit." 7 1 Cor. X, 13. — Cfr. Gen. XXII,

(Migne, P. L., XLII, 105.) 1; Deut. XIII, 3; Tob. XII, 13.

5 Cfr. Cone. Trident., Sess. VI,

38 SIN

if God seduced His creatures to sin. "Let no
man, when he is tempted, say that he is tempted
by God, for God is not a tempter of evils, and he
tempteth no man." 8 "When He 'tempts' a man,"
says Dr. Pohle, "He simply 'tries his faith,' as
in the case of Adam and Abraham ; which is quite
compatible with His infinite holiness." 9 God
tries man's faith, not merely in a passive manner,
by allowing him to be tempted, but sometimes
actively, by sending him trials and worries
which may become a source of temptation and
thereby a means of probing his character. But
St. Paul tells us that God never allows man to be
tempted beyond his strength.10 And St. James
assures us: "Blessed is the man that endureth
temptation; for when he hath been proved, he
shall receive the crown of life which God hath
promised to them that love him." " Hence Au-

8jas. I, 13: '0 6e6s airetpaffrds lari a poire Ulium nee impleri hoc

iffriv KaKwv, ireipd^ei 8k avrbs munus volebat, qui ovem pro Alio

ovdiva. immolandam obtulit, sed tentabat

» Pohle-Preuss, God the Author affectum patris, si Dei praeccpta

of Nature and the Supernatural, praeferret Mo nee patemae pietatis

2nd ed., St. Louis 1916, p. 345. contemplatione vim devotionis in-

10 1 Cor. X, 13. fiecteret." (Mignc, P. L., XIV,

11 Jas. I, 12.— St. Ambrose, De 445)-— Idem, ibid., n. 76: "Affec-
Abraham, 1. 1, c. 8, n. 66: "Aliter turn tuum inquisivi, non factum ex-
Dcus tentat, aliter diabolus. Dia- egi. Tentavi mentem tuam, si etiam
bolus tentat, ut subruat, Deus ten- Alio dilcctissimo non parceres prop-
tat, ut coronet. Dcnique probatos ter me. Non aufero, quod donavi
sibi tentat. Unde et David dicit: ipse nee hcredem invideo, quern
Proba me, Deus, et tenta me (Ps. largitus sum non habenti." (P. L.,
138, 23). Et sanctum Abraham pro- XIV, 448).— Epist., 51, n. 1 1 : "Ho-
bat-it ante et sic tcntavit, ne si ante mo es et tibi venit tentatio, vince
tentaret quam probasset, gravaret. earn." (P. L., XVI, 1162). Expos.
. . . Non enim volebat Deus immo- Evang. sec. Luc, 1. 4, n. 41:

TEMPTATIONS 39

gustine's exhortation : "It is not good for us to
be without temptations, nor should we ask God
that we be not tempted, but rather that we be not
led into temptation." 12

2. The Devil. — Sin originated with the devil.
He "sinneth from the beginning." 13 He is "the
prince," 14 "the god of this world," 15 a mur-
derer and a liar,16 "the tempter" par excel-
lence,11 who seduced our first parents,18 and
tempted Job,19 Ananias and Saphira,20 Judas,21
nay our Lord Jesus Christ Himself.22 The
Apostles repeatedly warn the faithful against
this sinister foe, who is the more dangerous be-
cause, according to St. Paul, he transforms him-
self into an angel of light.23 In view of the plain
scriptural teaching on the subject no Chris-
tian needs to be assured that belief in the
evil one is not a "remnant of medieval supersti-
tion," or that the devil is not merely a "symbol
of evil." 24 On the other hand, we must not lose

"Qui vult coronam dare, tentationes 17 Matth. IV, 3.

suggerit. Et si quando tentaberis, 18 John VIII, 44.

cognosce, quia paratur corona. 19 Job I, 12.

Tolle martyrum certamina, tulisti 20 Acts III, 5.

coronas, tolle cruciatus, tulisti bea- 21 Luke XXII, 31; John XIII, 2.

titudines." (P. L., XV, 1625). 222 Cor. XI, 3.

12 Enarr. in Ps., 63, n. 1: "Non 23 1 Cor. VII, 5. Cfr. 2 Cor.
nobis expcdit esse sine tentationibus XI, 14; Eph. VI, 11-17; 1 Pet. V,
nee rogemus Deum, ut non tente- 8-9.

mur, sed ut non inducamur in ten- 24 Cfr. M. Hagen, S.J., Der Teufel

tationem." (P. L., XXXVI, 761). im Lichte der Glaubensquellen,

13 1 John III, 8. Freiburg 1899.— Th. H. Simar, Die

14 John XIV, 30. Theologie des hi. Paulus, 2nd ed.,

15 2 Cor. XI, 3; John XII, 31. pp. 67 sqq.; J. G. Raupert, Hell

16 Gen. Ill, 1-6. and its Problems, pp. 82 sqq.

40

SIN

sight of the fact that Satan is a creature depen-
dent upon God and limited in power. He is a
dangerous tempter, but he can compel no man to
do wrong. His power amounts to nothing unless
he can get man to consent to his evil suggestions.
"It is our will, not his power that delivers us into
his hands," says St. Bernard.25 "However great
the power and pertinacity of Satan," says the
Roman Catechism, "he cannot, in his deadly ha-
tred of our race, tempt or torment us as much or
as long as he pleases; but all his power is gov-
erned by the control and permission of God." 26
There is an apt comparison of the devil to a
chained dog in a sermon attributed to St. Augus-

tine

27

25 De Gratia et Lib. Arbitrio, c.
6, n. 18: "Diabolo nostra nos man-
cipat voluntas, non ipsius potestas."
(Migne. P. L., CLXXXII, ion).—
Cfr. St. Augustine, Enarr. in Ps.,
63, n. 1: "Alligatus est quidem
diabolus, ne faciat, quantum potest,
ne faciat, quantum vult, tamen tan-
turn tentare sinitur, quantum expedit
Proficientibus." (P. L., XXXVI,
761). — Idem, ibid., 103, s. 3, n. 22:
"Nee tentari quis potest a diabolo
nisi permittente Deo . . . out ad
damnandos impios aut ad probandos
pios." (P. L., XXXVII, 1375).—
St. Thomas, Summa Theol., ia 2ae,
qu. 80, art. 3: "Diabolus propria
virtute, nisi refraenetur a Deo, pot-
est aliquem inducere ex necessitate
ad faciendum aliquem actum, qui de
suo genere peccatum est; non autem
potest inducere necessitatem pec-
candi. Quod patet ex hoc, quod

homo motivo ad peccandum non re-
sistit nisi per rationem, cuius usum
totaliter impedire potest movendo
imaginationem et appctitum sensi-
tivum, sicut in arreptitiis patet.
Sed tunc ratione sic ligata quid-
quid homo agat, non imputatur ei ad
peccatum. Sed si ratio non sit to-
taliter ligata, ex ea parte, qua est
libera, potest resistere peccato.
Unde manifestum est, quod diabolus
nutlo modo potest necessitatem in-
ducere ad peccandum."

20 Catech. Rom., P. 4, c. 15, qu. 8:
"Non Satan in tanta et potentia et
pertinacia, in capitali odio nostri
generis nee quantum nee quamdiu
vult, tentare nos aut vexare potest,
sed omnis eius potestas Dei nutu et
permissu gubernatur." — Cfr. J.
Wirtz, Die Lehre von der Apolytro-
sis, Treves 1906, pp. 31 sqq.

27 Cfr. Pseudo-Augustine, Append.

TEMPTATIONS

4i

As regards the manner in which the devil
proceeds, note that he is himself a creature, and
therefore cannot read the souls of men, but
judges their state by the natural manifestations
of their thoughts and purposes.28 Nor can he
exercise a direct influence upon the human will.
His methods are necessarily indirect and cir-
cuitous, though for that reason no less effective.
He works upon the imagination, blindfolds rea-
son, stirs up the passions, etc. "The devil," says
St. Thomas, is a cause of sin, not directly or suffi-
ciently, but only by persuasion, or by proposing
the object of appetite." 29 He is "the enemy"

Serm., 37 {al. 197 de tempore), n.
6: "Alligatus est tanquam innexus
canis catenis et neminem potest mor-
dere nisi eum, qui se ad ilium ultro
mortifera securitate coniunxerit.
lam videte, fratres, quant stultus
homo Me est. quern canis in catena
positus mordet. Tu te ad ilium per
voluntates et cupiditates saeculi
noli coniungere, et Me ad te non
praesumet accedere. Latrare potest,
sollicitare potest, mordere non potest
nisi volentem. Non enim cogendo,
sal suadendo nocet, nee extorquet a
nobis consensum, sed petit." —
The last sentence is taken from the
Epistula Pelagii ad Demetriadem, c.
25 {ibid., XXXIII, 1 1 17).— Cfr.
Brev. Rom., Dom. IV post Pent.,
Lect. II Noct.

28 Cfr. St. Jerome, In Ps., 6,
20: "Diabolus in anima intrinsecus
nescit, quid cogitet homo, nisi per
exteriores motus intellegat."

29 St. Thomas, Summa Theol., ia
2ae, qu. 80, art. 1 : "Diabolus non
est causa peccati directe vel suf-

ficienter, sed solum per modum per-
suadentis vel proponentis appetibile."
— Cfr. De Malo, qu. 3, art. 2:
"Quum humana voluntas a nullo de
necessitate moveatur obiecto, sed a
se, diabolus non per se est causa pec-
cati, sed tantum per modum suaden-
tis vel proponentis obiectum
appetibile." — Ibid., art. 4: "Quam-
vis autem diabolus secundum
ordinem suae naturae posset
homini aliquid persuadere, intellec-
tum eius illuminando, sicut facit
bonus angelus, non tamen hoc facit,
quia intellectus, quanto magis illu-
minatur, tanto magis potest sibi ca-
vere a deceptione, quam diabolus in-
tendit. Unde relinquitur, quod per-
suasio interior diaboli et quaecunque
eius revelatio non fit per illumina-
tionem intellectus, sed solum per im-
pressionem quondam in vires sensi-
tivas interiores aut exteriores. . . .
Per modum autem disponentis potest
esse causa peccati, inquantum per
similem commotionem spirituum et
humorum facit aliquos magis disposi-

42 SIN

who came and "sowed cockle among the wheat
while men were asleep." 30

While it must be admitted that the devil,
"the prince of this world," has a share in every
sin, it would be wrong to assume that all tempta-
tions come from him. Sacred Scripture points
to concupiscence as the principal source of sin.
"Every man is tempted by his own concupis-
cence." 31 The fact that sin is often inspired by
the devil, does not, of course, render it less
culpable. Not to speak of concupiscence, which
exercises a powerful influence over every human
heart, man himself is but too often the tempter
and seducer of his fellowmen.32

3. The World. — "This present wicked
world," 33 which is full of sin and impiety,34 and
hates God and His servants,35 is another prolific
source of sin. The term world, as used in the
Scriptures, denotes either the physical universe
or the human race. In the former sense, i. e.,

tos ad irascendum vel ad concupi- pravis consiliis opprimant reluctan-

scendum vel ad aliquod huiusmodi. tern." (Expos. Evang. sec. Luc.,

Manifcstum est enim, quod corpore IV, n. 39; Migne, P. L., XV, 1624).
aliqualiter disposito est homo magis 81 Jas. I, 14 sq. ; cfr. Rom. VII,

pronus ad concupiscentiam et tram 20; Gal. V, 17.

et huiusmodi passiones, quibus in- 82 Cfr. the Catechism of the Coun-

surgentibus homo disponitur ad con- cil of Trent, P. IV, c. 15, qu. 10.
sensum. Sic ergo patet, quod diabo- 33 Gal. I, 4.

lus interius instigat ad peccatum per- 34 John VII, 7; XIV, 17.

suadendo et disponendo, non autem 30 John XV, 18 sq.; XVI, 20, 33;

periiciendo peccatum." XVII, 9, 14, 25. — Cfr. Simar, Die

SO Matth. XIII, 25. — On the temp- Theologie des hi. Paulus, 2nd ed.,

tation of Job St. Ambrose remarks: pp. 72 sqq. ; Tillmann, Die Wie-

"Adhibetur mulier, primae fraudis derkunft Christi, Freiburg 1909, pp.

illecebra; . . . amici adhibentur, qui 25 sqq.

TEMPTATIONS 43

as the aggregate of material things, "the world"
deceives and lures man away from His Creator.
Taken in the latter sense, i. e., as humanity, espe-
cially in the state of original sin and estranged
from the true Church, "the world" is full of
direct and indirect temptations — seduction, de-
nial of truth, scandal, heresies and perverted
ideals, a corrupt civilization, a mendacious press,
debased arts, etc. This sad state of affairs ac-
counts for St. John's warning: "Love not the
world, nor the things which are in the world;
if any man love the world, the charity of the
Father is not in him." 36

4. Concupiscence. — Concupiscence is the in-
ordinate leaning of human nature towards evil.
It results from the fall of our first parents 37 and
is the most prolific source of temptations. St.
James says : "Every man is tempted by his own
concupiscence, being drawn away and allured.
Then when concupiscence hath conceived, it
bringeth forth sin. But sin, when it is com-
pleted, begetteth death." 38 Concupiscence man-
ifests itself through the eyes and the flesh, and

38 1 John II, 15; cfr. Matth. Omnia ista bona sunt, sed malum

XVIII, 7; Rom. XII, 2; Col. Ill, 2. mundum mail homines faciunt."

—St. Augustine, Serm., 80 (a/. 23 (Migne, P. L., XXXVIII, 498).

de Divers.), n. 8: "Malus est mun- 37 Cfr. Pohle-Preuss, God the Au-

dus, ecce malus est et sic amatur, thor of Nature and the Supernat-

quasi bonum esset. Quid est autem ural, pp. 203, 217.

malus mundusf Non enim malum 38 Jas. I, 14-15; cfr. Jas. IV, 1;

est caelum et terra et aquae et quae Gen. II, 6; IV, 7. — Supra, Vol. I,

sunt in eis, pisces, volatilia, arbor es. pp. 116 sqq.

44

SIN

also in the form of pride. Though not a sin in it-
self, it is "of sin and inclines to sin." 30 It is "an
incentive" to sin, and becomes sinful only when
freely consented to.40

Concupiscence is in all human beings (with the
exception of the Blessed Virgin Mary41), but
manifests itself differently42 according to tem-
perament, age, sex, disposition, heredity, edu-
cation, training, association, manner of life, and
other factors. Every man has his own tempta-
tions according to his peculiar constitution of
body and soul. But each also has his own means
of fighting temptation. Hence, while no man is
free from concupiscence and temptation, no one
is tempted beyond his strength. Every man is
able, with the aid of grace, to overcome tempta-
tions. Nay, more, he can and should convert
them into means of spiritual progress. "Blessed
is the man that endureth temptation ; for when he
hath been proved, he shall receive the crown of
life, which God hath promised to them that love

39 Cone. Trident., Sess. V, can. 5.
— Cfr. 1 John II, 16; Rom. XIII,
23. — Prop. Damnat. Ban, n. 50 sq.,
74-76 (Denzinger-Bannwart, n. 1050
sq., 1073 sqq.). — Denifle, Luther
und Luthertum, Vol. I, 2nd ed., pp.
438 sqq.

40 Cone. Trident., Sess. V, can. 5.

41 Pius IX, Bull "Ineffab. Deus"
(Dec. 13, 1854). — St. Augustine, De
Nat. et Grat., c. 36, n. 42: "Ex-
cepta sancta Virgine Maria, de qua

propter honorem Domini nullam
prorsus, quum de peccatis agitur, ha-
beri volo quaesttonem." (Migne,
P. L., XLIV, 267). Cfr. Pohle-
Preuss, Marxology, pp. J2 sqq.

42 Cfr. St. Ambrose, Expos, in
Evang. sec. Luc., IV, n. 39: "Di-
versitas ipsa tentationum pro diver-
sitate certantium est." (Migne, P.
L., XV, 1624).— Cfr. Pius IX.
Bull "Ineffabilis Deus."

TEMPTATIONS 45

him." 43 Temptation, therefore, is designed to
test and steel the character.44

Christ allowed the devil to tempt Him in order to show
by His example how temptation should be withstood.
Moreover, He expressly designated the most effective
means of combatting it, viz.: watchfulness and prayer,45
the practice of the theological virtues, conscientious fidel-
ity to duty, faithful perseverance in one's vocation, mor-
tification, in short, imitating Him in all things. "If any
man will come after me," He says, "let him deny himself,
take up his cross, and follow me." 46

In many temptations, especially those against chastity,
salvation lies in flight.47

"Brethren," admonishes St. Paul, "be strong in the
Lord and in the might of his power. Put ye on the full
armor of God, that ye may be able to stand against
the wiles of the devil. For our wrestling is not against
flesh and blood, but against principalities and powers,
against the rulers of this world of darkness, against the
spirits of wickedness in regions above. Therefore take

43 Jas. I, 12; cfr. Gen. IV, 7; 1 incipio in Christo vincere, unde in
Cor. X, 13; Heb. II, 18; 1 Pet. V, Adam victus sum; si tamen mihi
9- Christus imago Patris, virtutis ex-

44 Cfr. Hense, Die Versuchungen, emplum sit. Discamus igitur cavere
3rd ed., pp. 114 sqq. gulam, cavere luxuriant, quia telum

45 Matth. XXVI, 41. — Cfr. St. est diaboli. . . . Didicisti igitur dia-
Ambrose, De Cain et Abel, 1. 1, c. boli telum, sume scutum iidei, lori-
5, n. 16: "Docuit te certe Dominus cam abstinentiae." (P. L., XV,
Iesus, quemadmodum adversus hu- 161 7).

iusmodi tentationes resistas." 46 Matth. XVI, 24; cfr. Luke

(Migne, P. L., XIV, 325).— Idem, XIV, 27; 1 Cor. IX, 27.

Expos. Evang. sec. Lucam, IV, 47 Cfr. Gen. XXXIX, 12; 1 Cor.

n. 17: "Tria praecipue docemur VI, 18; Pseudo-Augustine, Append.

esse tela diaboli, quibus ad convul- Serm. 293 (al. 250 de Temp.), n. 1:

nerandam mentem hommis consuevit "Contra libidinis impetum appre-

armari: gulae unum, aliud iactantiae, hende fugam, si vis obtinere victo-

ambitionis tertium. Inde autem riam." (P. L., XXXIX, 2301). —

coepit, unde iam vicit. Et ideo inde Cfr. Homer's Odyssey, XII, 120.

46 SIN

ye up the full armor of God, that ye may be able to resist
in the evil day, and to stand in all things perfect. Stand,
therefore, with your loins girt about with truth, and
having on the breastplate of justice, and your feet shod
with the preparation [to carry] the gospel of peace: tak-
ing up withal the shield of faith, wherewith ye shall be
able to extinguish all the fiery darts of the evil one.
And take unto you the helmet of salvation, and the sword
of the Spirit (which is the word of God). With all
prayer and supplication pray at all times in the spirit ; and
in the same watching with all instance and supplica-
tion . . ,"48

" When you are tempted," says the Venerable Don
Bosco, "shake off the thought of evil and do not wait un-
til temptation has gained possession of your heart, but
ward it off by work or prayer."

II. Occasions of Sin. — An occasion is an
external circumstance which leads one to commit
sin. An occasion, therefore, is not a tempta-
tion ; but it may become a temptation by causing
evil thoughts to arise in the mind and thus in-
citing concupiscence. However, not every oc-
casion necessarily entails temptation, and many-
temptations arise without any external incite-
ment whatever. It is important for the confes-
sor to keep this fact in mind, because habitual and
occasional sinners must be treated differently.49

48 Eph. VI, 10-18.— Cfr. St. Au- in cordibus vestris." {P. L.,

gustine, Enarr. in Ps., 136, n. 22: XXXVII, 1774).
"Si vultis armati esse contra tenta- 49 Cfr. Pighi, De ludicio Sacra-

tiones in saeculo, crescat et robore- mentali, pp. 39 sqq., 59 sqq.; E. Be-

tur desiderium Ierusalem aeternae rardi, De Recidivis et Occasionariis,

OCCASIONS OF SIN 47

Occasions, like temptations, are an indispensa-
ble test of virtue. "Who hath been tried . . .
and made perfect," says Holy Scripture, "he shall
have glory everlasting : he that could have trans-
gressed and could do evil things, and hath not
done them." 50

1. All men are in duty bound to avoid, or, if
they cannot avoid, to overcome or resist the oc-
casions of sin.51 To determine this duty more
definitely, the Scholastics have evolved the fol-
lowing distinctions:

a) Proximate and Remote Occasions. — An
occasion is proximate (occasio proximo) if it
leads a person to commit sin oftener than not.
It is remote (occasio remota) if it leads to the
commission of sin only once in a while.

A proximate occasion of sin may be either ab-
solute or relative. It is absolute or proximate in
itself (occasio absolute sive per se proximo) if it
constitutes a danger for every man and in all
circumstances. It is relative (occasio per acci-
dens sive relative proximo) if the danger it in-
volves differs according to individual character or
disposition. Relatively proximate occasions are,
e. g., strong drink, the theatre, a certain class of
books, plays, etc.

3rd ed., Faventiae 1882; Aertnys, 50 Ecclus. XXXI, 10; cfr. 1 Cor.

C.SS.R., Theol. Mor., Vol. II, 7th V, 10.

ed., pp. 192 sqq. ; Reuter-Lehmkuhl, 51 Ecclus. Ill, 27; XXXI, 10;

S.J., Neo-Confessarius, pp. 274 sqq. Matth. V, 29-30; Mark IX, 41-46.

48 SIN

b) VOLUNTARY AND NECESSARY OCCASIONS. —

An occasion is voluntary (occasio voluntaria) if
sought or wilfully persisted in after one has got-
ten into it involuntarily. A necessary occasion
{occasio nccessaria) is one that can be avoided
only by the use of extraordinary diligence or not
at all. In the latter case it is called physically
necessary (occasio physice necessavia). Such
temptations may grow out of the mutual inter-
course of parents and children, married persons,
soldiers, prisoners, etc. If it is more difficult to
avoid an occasion than to keep from sinning by
the use of proper precautions, an occasion is called
morally necessary (occasio moralitcr nccessaria) .
Occasions of this kind cannot, as a rule, be avoided
without great inconvenience or injury. They in-
variably involve a grave conflict of duties.52 On
the one side there is the duty of avoiding the
proximate occasion of sin; on the other are such
unavoidable professional obligations as, e. g.,
hearing confession, practicing medicine, etc.

Hence the further distinction between occasio
quae est in esse and occasio quae non est in esse.
Occasions of the former class entail immediate
danger of sin, whereas those of the latter leave
an opportunity of escaping the danger. As an
example of the former kind we may mention vis-
iting a house of prostitution.53

52 See Vol. I, pp. 211 sqq. 63 Cfr. St. Augustine, Enarr. in

OCCASIONS OF SIN

49

2. Practical Hints. — As a general rule it is
forbidden to seek an occasion of sin, even though
it be only remote, for "He that loveth danger
shall perish in it." 54 On the other hand no man
is bound to avoid all remote occasions, for this is
impossible.55 But every man is strictly bound :

a) To avoid all proximate and voluntary oc-
casions of (grievous) sin, and also those morally
necessary occasions that entail immediate danger
(occasiones in esse).5G It is a mortal sin to ex-
pose oneself voluntarily and without necessity
to the danger of committing a mortal sin or to
remain inactive towards such danger in a case
of necessity, even though the sin be not commit-
ted, for to remain voluntarily in the proximate
occasion of sin is deliberately to choose evil. In-
nocent XI condemned the proposition that it is
licit to absolve a man who remains in the proxi-
mate occasion of mortal sin, though able to get
away from it.57

b) If a man finds himself in a morally neces-

Ps., 50, n. 3: "Mulier longe, libido
prope. Alibi erat quod [David] vi-
deret, in illo unde caderet." (P. L.,
XXXVI, 587)-

64 Ecclus. Ill, 27.

65 Cfr. 1 Cor. V, 9-10; John
XVII, is.

66 Cfr. Prov. VI, 27-28; XVIII,
6-10; Matth. V, 29-30; Mark IX,
41-46.

57 Prop. Damnat. sub Innocentio
XI, n. 61: "Potest aliquando ab-
solve qui in proximo, occasione pec-

candi versatur, quatn potest et non
vult omittere, quinimo directe et
ex proposito quaerit aut ex se in-
gerit." No. 62: "Proximo, occasio
peccandi non est fugienda, quando
causa aliqua utilis aut honesta non
fugiendi occurrit." No. 63 : "Licitum
est quaerere directe occasionem pro-
ximam peccandi pro bono spvrituali
vel temporali nostro vel proximi."
(Denzinger-Bannwart, Enchiridion,
n. 1078-1080).

50 SIN

sary proximate occasion of sin, which does not in-
volve immediate danger (quae non est in esse),
he is in duty bound to convert the same into a re-
mote occasion by fervent prayer, devout reception
of the Sacraments, frequent renewal of the firm
purpose of not consenting to sin, and especially
by avoiding the company of those with whom he
has sinned before or of whom he has reason to
apprehend that they will tempt him. Should
these means prove ineffective, all other consider-
ations must be set aside and the occasion strictly
shunned, even at the risk of life.

c) A physically necessary occasion which can-
not be gotten away from, must be neutralized by
the use of extreme caution and other available
means. If a man is a proximate occasion of sin
to himself, he should mortify his body and try
everything in his power to control his passions.
"I chastise my body," says St. Paul, "and bring
it into subjection, lest perhaps, when I have
preached to others, I myself should become a
castaway." 58 A warning example to all is Pe-
ter's denial of Christ.59

Readings. — F. Hense, Die Versuchungen und Hire Gegenmit-
tel, 3rd ed., Freiburg 1902. — Th. Slater, S.J., A Manual of Moral
Theology, Vol. II, pp. 220 sq. — St. Thomas, Summa Theologica,
ia, qu. 114, art. 1-5. — Th. H. Simar, Die Theologie des hi. Pau-
lus, 2nd ed., pp. 67 sqq. — M. Hagen, S.J., Der Teufel itn Lichte
der Glaubensquellen, Freiburg 1899. — W. H. Kent, art. "Devil"

68 1 Cor. IX, 27. 69 Matth. XXVI, 69 sqq.

OCCASIONS OF SIN 51

in the Cath. Encyclopedia, Vol. IV, pp. 766 sq.— J. J. Ming, S.J.,
art. "Concupiscence," ibid., Vol. IV, p. 208.— J. F. Delany, art.
"Temptation," ibid., Vol. XIV, p. 504.— Idem, art. "Occasions
of Sin," ibid., Vol. XI, pp. 196 sq.— A. Tanquerey, Synopsis Theol.
Mor. et Past., Vol. II, pp. 248 sqq.— H. Noldin, S.J., Summa
Theol. Mor., Vol. I, nth ed., pp. 322 sqq., 360 sqq.— A. Lehm-
kuhl, S.J., Theol. Mor., Vol. II, nth ed., pp. 358 sqq., 364 sqq.—
Sabetti-Barrett, S. J., Comp. Theol. Mor., 22nd ed., pp. 751 sq.—
A. Konings, C.SS.R., Theol. Mor., 2nd ed., New York, 1876, Vol.
II, pp. 161 sqq. — St. Francis de Sales, Introduction d la Vie De-
vote, Part II, Ch. 18, Part IV, Ch. 3-6.

CHAPTER II

THE PRINCIPAL KINDS OF SIN

SECTION I
GENERAL DIVISION

To enable men to understand the nature of sin,
and for the practical purposes of catechetical in-
struction and Penance, Catholic moralists have
divided sins into classes.

The most important division is that of mortal
and venial sins, already dealt with in the previous
chapter.

Other divisions are based respectively on the
Decalogue, the duties violated by sin, the nature
of man, the intrinsic character of different sins,
man's relation towards himself and others, and
the development of evil in the soul.

i. Sins Against the Ten Commandments.
— The most popular division of sins is that which
follows the Decalogue or Ten Commandments.
This classification was confirmed by Christ Him-
self and adopted by St. Paul.1 The order is not
strictly logical, however, nor is it quite exhaustive,

1 Matth. V, 21 sqq.; XV, 19; XIX, sq. (different in Rom. XIII, 9) —
18; Mark X, 19 (a different order Cfr. N. Peters, Die alteste Abschrift
in Mark VII, 21 sq.); 1 Tim. I, 9 der sehn Gebote und dtr Papyrus

52

KINDS OF SIN 53

and hence the enumeration of sins based upon it is
more or less external and does not, in fact, tran-
scend the standpoint of the Old Law, except in so
far as it interprets the Decalogue in the light of
the New Testament. Nevertheless this division
is useful, especially for the examination of con-
science, which is one of the requisites of a good
confession.2

The sins against the Ten Commandments are enumer-
ated in the following verses, handed down by the School-
men:

Est Deus, est nomen, sunt sdbbata suntque parentes,
Mors, moechus, fur turn, testis falsus, domus (et) uxor.

Or, in amplified form:

Idola sperne, Dei non sit tibi nomen inane,
Sabbato sanctifices, habeas in honore parentes,
Non occisor eris, moechus, fur, testis iniquus,
Non alii nuptam, non rem cupias alienam.

2. Sins of Commission and Omission. — This
classification is purely formal and of no particu-
lar value for judging the nature of sin.

a) When all other conditions are equal, a sin
of commission is worse than a sin of omission
because the negative precepts of the law bind un-
der a more serious penalty than those which are
affirmative, and to transgress them involves a

Nash, Freiburg 190s; M. Hetzen- 2 This division is adopted by Sa-

auer, Theologia Biblica, Vol. I, Frei- betti, Slater, Noldin, and other
burg 1908, pp. 634 sqq. present-day moralists.

54 SIN

more determined effort of the will. Since, how-
ever, sins of omission suppose a positive act of the
will — refusal to obey God — and hence are volun-
tary, they, too, may be mortal.3 Sins of omission,
f uthermore, are often more dangerous to the soul
than sins of commission, because less attention
is paid to them, and they are rarely made the ob-
ject of contrition and penitence by the careless.

b) The division of sins into sins against God,
against oneself, and against one's fellowmen 4 is
likewise purely external, because every sin is by
its very nature an offense against God and one-
self, and in a certain sense also against one's fel-
lowmen. Nevertheless, this classification is use-
ful, and derives additional justification from the
fact that some sins are more directly opposed than
others to the duties which man owes to God,
to his fellowmen, and to himself.

3. Sins of the Spirit and Sins of the
Flesh. — This distinction is based on the com-
posite nature of man and is mentioned in Sacred
Scripture. St. Paul writes to the Corinthians:
"Let us cleanse ourselves from all defilement of
the flesh and of the spirit." 5 Man is a compound
of body and soul, and hence none of the sins
that he is able to commit is either entirely spirit-

8Cfr. Matth. VII, 19; XXV, 30. 4 Cfr. Matth. XXII, 36-40; Tit.

— St. Thomas, Summa Theol., la II, 12. — tst. Thomas, ibid., art. 4.
aae, qu. 72, art. 6. B 2 Cor. VII, 1. — Cfr. Matth. IV,

1-11; 1 Pet. II, 11; 1 John II, 16.

KINDS OF SIN 55

ual or entirely carnal. True, the Bible some-
times applies the term "flesh" (o-a/>£) to human
nature as corrupted by sin, and St. Paul enumer-
ates envy, wrath, dissension, etc., among "the
works of the flesh." 6 But this cannot alter the
obvious fact that a real distinction exists between
spiritual sins {pec cat a spiritualia) and carnal
sins (peccata carnalia) .

A carnal sin is one by which man gratifies some
disorderly inclination of his sensitive nature —
concupiscence of the eyes or concupiscence of the
flesh. By the commission of such a sin man,
who is a rational creature, subjects himself,
as it were, to matter. The chief sins of the flesh
are fornication, luxury, gluttony, avarice, greed,
idolatry, and witchcraft.

Sins of the spirit are committed by indulging
the disorderly inclinations that have their seat in
the mind, e. g., pride, envy, hatred.7 These, to
borrow a phrase from St. Thomas, are "the sins
which consist in spiritual pleasure." 8

Which of these two species is the more dangerous or
the more grievous is difficult to say. Sins of the flesh
easily develop into habits and attain consummation; but

6 Gal. V, 19-21; cfr. 1 Cor. Ill, 8 St. Thomas, Summa Theol, ia
3-— Cfr. H. H. Wendt, Die Begriffe 2ae, qu. 72, art. 2: "Ilia peccata,
Fleisch und Geist im biblischen quae perRciuntur in delectatione spi-
Sprachgebrauch, Gotha 1878, pp. 42 rituali, vocantur peccata spiritualia;
sqq., 78 sqq. ilia vero, quae perficiuntur in delecta-

7 Matth. IV, 1-9; Gal. V, 20; I tione carnali, vocantur peccata car-
John II, 16. nalia, sicut gula, quae perficitur in

56

SIN

their guilt is diminished by the weakening of the will due
to concupiscence. Sins of the spirit, on the other hand,
involve greater malice and self-deception, — a circum-
stance that renders conversion more difficult, nay often
impossible. Christ Himself assured the haughty Phari-
sees: "The publicans and the harlots shall go into the
kingdom of God before you." 9 No sin is greater or more
dangerous than pride and excessive self-esteem. St. Au-
gustine observes that "A humble sinner is better than a
just man puffed up with pride." 10 Christ says that the
publican "went down into his house justified," whereas
the Pharisee did not; and He adds: "Every one
that exalteth himself, shall be humbled, and he that hum-
bleth himself, shall be exalted." Broadly speaking, we
may say that the sins of the flesh are less culpable than
those of the spirit, but involve greater shame.

11

delectatione ciborum, et luxuria, quae
perficitur in delectatione venereorum,
Unde et Apostolus dicit (2 Cor. VII,
l): 'Emundemus nos ab omni ini-
quitate carnis et spiritus.' "

9 Matth. XXI, 31 ; cfr. Matth.
XXIII, 13-33; Luke VII, 36-48;
XVIII, 14; John VIII, 3-1 1.

10 Serm., 170, n. 7: "Melior est
peccator humilis, quam iustus super-
bus." (Migne, P. L., XXXVIII,

93°)-

11 Cfr. Luke XVIII, 14. St. Au-
gustine, Enarr. in Ps., 93, n. 15:
"Vidcte, fratres, placuit Deo magis
humilitas in malis factis quam su-
perbia in bonis factis: sic odit Deus
superbos." (P. L., XXXVII, 1203).
— St. Thomas, Summa Theol., ia
2ae, qu. 73, art. 5: "Peccata spiri-
tualia sunt maioris culpae, quam pec-
cata carnalia. Quod non est sic in-
tellegendum, quasi quodlibet pecca-
tum spirituale sit maioris culpae
quolibet peccato carnali, sed quia

considerata hac sola differentia spi-
ritualitatis et carnalitatis, graviora
sunt, quam cetera peccata ceteris
paribus. Cuius ratio triplex potest
assignari: prima quidem ex parte
subiecti, nam peccata spiritualia per-
tinent ad spiritum, cuius est con-
verti ad Deum et ab eo averti, pec-
cata vero carnalia consummantur in
delectatione carnalis appetitus, ad
quern principaliter pertinct ad bonum
corporate converti, et ideo peccatum
carnale, inquantum huiusmodi, plus
habet de conversione, propter quod
etiam est maioris adhaesionis, sed
peccatum spirituale habet plus de
aversione, ex qua procedit ratio cul-
pae, et ideo peccatum spirituale, in-
quantum huiusmodi, est maioris cul-
pae. Secunda ratio potest sumi ex
parte eius in quern peccatur, nam
peccatum carnale, inquantum huius-
modi, est in corpus proprium, quod
est minus diligendum secundum or-
dinem caritatis, quam Deus et

KINDS OF SIN 57

4. Sins of Thought, Word, and Deed. —
Psychologically, we may distinguish between sins
of thought, word, and deed. The Angelic Doc-
tor explains the underlying process as follows:
"The first beginning of sin is its foundation, as
it were, in the heart; the second degree is the
sin of word, in so far as man is ready to break
out into a declaration of his thought. The
third degree consists in the consummation of the
deed. Consequently these three differ in re-
spect of the various degrees of sin. Neverthe-
less it is evident that all three belong to the one
complete species of sin, since they proceed from
the same motive. For the angry man, through
desire of vengeance, is at first disturbed in
thought, then breaks out into words of abuse,
and lastly goes on to wrongful deeds; and the
same applies to lust and to any other sin." la

proximus, in quos peccatur per pec- corporis corruptionem cadere, quam
cata spiritualia, et ideo peccata cogitatione tacita ex deliberata ela-
spiritualia, inquantum huiusmodi, Hone peccare, sed quum minus tur-
sunt maioris culpae. Tertia ratio pis superbia creditur, minus vitatur.
potest sumi ex parte motivi, quia Luxuriant vero eo magis erubescunt
quanto est gravius impulsivum ad homines, quo simul omnes turpem
peccandum, tanto homo minus peccat, noverunt. Unde fit plerumque, ut
peccata autem carnalia habent vehe- nonnulli post superbiam in luxuriam
mentius impulsivum, id est, ipsam corruentes ex aperto casu malum cul-
concupiscentiam carnis nobis inna- pae latentis erubescant; et tunc
tarn, et ideo peccata spiritualia, in- etiam maiora corrignnt, quum pro-
quantum huiusmodi, sunt maioris strati in minimis gravius confundun-
culpae." — Idem, De Verit., qu. 25, tur. Reos enim se inter minora con-
art. 6, ad 2: "Peccata irascibilis spiciunt, qui se liberos inter graviora
sunt graviora, sed peccata concu- crediderunt." (Migne, P. L., LXXVI,
piscibilis turpiora." — St. Gregory the 688).

Great, Moral., 1. 33, c. 12, n. 25: 12 Summa Theoh, ia 2ae, qu. 72,

"Scimus, quia aliquando minus est in art. 7: "Peccatum dividitur per

58 SIN

Thus every sin is a sin of thought (peccatum
cordis), because every sin originates in the
mind.13 But not every evil thought "breaks out
into words," much less does it culminate in sinful
deeds.14

a) A thought, as such, is mortally sinful if the
will consents to, and takes pleasure in, the evil
suggestion offered by the senses or the imagina-
tion. The technical term of Scholastic theology
for such wilfully entertained evil thoughts is
morose pleasure (delectatio morosa). "Pleas-
ure is said to be morose, not from a delay of time
{mora), but because the mind in deliberating
dwells (immoratur) thereon, and fails to drive it
away, 'deliberately holding and turning over what
should have been cast aside as soon as it touched
the mind,' as Augustine says." 13 To take pleas-

haec trio, scilicet peccatum cordis, vero procedit usque ad facta iniuri-

oris et operis, non sicut per divcrsas osa; et idem patet in luxuria et in

species completas, nam consummatio quolibet alio peccaio." — Cfr. St.

peccati est in opere, unde peccatum Gregory the Great, Moral., 1. 4, c.

operis habet speciem completam, sed 27, n. 30: "Peccati modi vel in

prima inchoatio eius est quasi fun- corde latenter fiunt vel patenter in

datio in corde ; sccundus autem opere perpetrantur." (P. L., LXXV,

gradus eius est i» ore, secundum 661).

quod homo prorumpit facile ad mani- 18 Cfr. Matth. IX, 4; XII, 34;

festandum conceptum cordis; tertius Xv, 18-19; Mark VII, 20-23. — St.

autem gradus iam est in consumma- Jerome, In lerem., I, c. 4. — P. A.

tione operis. Et sic haec tria dif- Kirsch, Zur Geschichte der kath.

ferunt secundum diversos gradus Beicht, Wvirzburg 1902, pp. 50 sqq.

peccati. Patet tamen, quod haec trio 14 Cfr. Ps. XXXIII, 13 sqq.;

pertinent ad unam perfectam peccati Prov. XVIII, 21; Matth. XII, 36

speciem, quum ab eodem motivo pro- sq. ; XXIII, 3; Rom. II, 6; Gal. V,

ccdant. Iracundus enim ex hoc, quod 19; Eph. IV, 29; V, 4; Jas. I, 26;

appetit vindictam, primo quidem III, 2; 1 Pet. Ill, 10.

pcrturbatur in corde, secundo in 15 St. Thomas, Summa Theol., ia

verba contumeliosa prorumpit, tertio 2ae, qu. 74, art. 6, ad 3: "Delec-

KINDS OF SIN

59

ure in an evil thought deliberately and with full
advertence, is always a sin, — whether mortal or
venial depends on the character of the thought it-
self. Not every thought of evil is in itself sinful.
There is a distinction between taking pleasure in
the thought of evil (delectatio de cogitatione rei
malae) and taking pleasure in an evil object
{delectatio de re mala cogitat a) . Thinking about
a sin for a good and sufficient reason, e. g., to
study its nature and effects, to find an antidote
against it, to protect others from its ravages,
is not delectatio morosa.1Q Nor is it sinful

tatio dicitur morosa non ex mora,
sed ex eo quod ratio deliberans circa
earn immoratur, nee tamen earn re-
pellit, 'tenens et volvens libenter,
quae statim ut attigerunt animum,
respui debuerunt,' ut Augustinus
dicit {De Trinit., XII, c. 12, n. 18)."
(Migne, P. L., XLII, 1008).

16 St. Thomas, Summa Theol., 1a
2ae, qu. 74, art. 8: "Quum omnis
delectatio consequatur aliquant opera-
tionem, et iterum quum omnis delec-
tatio habeat aliquod obiectum,
delectatio quaelibet potest cotnparari
ad duo, scilicet ad operationcm, quain
consequitur, et ad obiectum, in quo
quis delectatur. Contingit autem,
quod aliqua operatic sit obiectum
delectationis sicut et aliqua alia res,
quia ipsa operatio potest accipi ut
bonum et finis, in quo quis delecta-
tus requiescit. Et quandoque qui-
dem ipsamet operatio. quam conse-
quitur delectatio, est obiectum delec-
tationis, inquantum scilicet vis appe-
tiva, cuius est delectari, reflectitur in
ipsani operationem, sicut in quoddam
bonum, puta quum aliquis cogitat et

delectatur de hoc ipso, quod cogitat,
inquantum sua cogitatio ei placet;
quandoque vero delectatio consequent
unam operationem, puta cogitationem
aliquam, habet pro obiecto aliam ope-
rationem quasi rem cogitatam, et
tunc talis delectatio procedit ex in-
clinatione appetitus, non quidem in
cogitationem, sed in operationem
cogitatam. Sic igitur aliquis de for-
nicatione cogitans de duobus potest
delectari: uno de ipsa cogitatione,
alio modo de ipsa fornicatione cogi-
tata. Delectatio autem de cogita-
tione ipsa sequitur inclinationem
affectus in cogitationem ipsam, cogi-
tatio autem ipsa secundum se non
est peccatum mortale, tmmo quando-
que est veniale tantum, puta, quum
aliquis inutihter cogitat de ea, quan-
doque autem sine peccato omnino,
puta, quum aliquis utiliter de ea co-
gitat, sicut quum vult de ea praedi-
care vel disputare, et ideo per conse-
quens affectio et delectatio, quae sic
est de cogitatione fornicationis, non
est de genere peccati mortalis, sed
quandoque est peccatum veniale,

60 SIN

to reflect with pleasure on the adroitness with
which a sin has been committed, or other cir-
cumstances surrounding the same. Note, how-
ever, that the line of demarcation between what
is sinful and what is permitted in such thoughts
is difficult to draw. To rejoice over a sin (gau-
dium de peccato), whether it be one's own or that
of another, is always forbidden.17

b) A thought becomes sinful as soon as the will
harbors a desire to commit the evil deed (de-
siderium pravum inefiicax). However, there is
a distinction between conditional and uncondi-
tional desires.

A conditional desire (desideriam conditio-
natum) is sinful unless the condition takes away
the malice of the act. Father Slater explains
this as follows : "There is no harm, for example,
in saying: T should like to eat meat on a Friday,
unless the Church forbade it;' and the same is
true generally whenever the condition, Tf it were
lawful,' is annexed to a merely positive prohibi-

quandoque nullum, unde nee con- tui eius. Quod autem aliquis ex de-
sensus in talent delectationem est liberatione eligat, quod affectus suus
peccatum mortale. . . . Quod autem conformetur his, quae secundum se
delectetur de ipso actu cogitato, hoc sunt peccata tnortalia, est peccatum
aliquis cogitans de fornicatione mortale." Cfr. St. Alphonsus, Theol.
contingit ex hoc, quod affectio eius Mor., 1. 2, n. 12-29.
inclinata est in hunc actum. Unde 17 Prov. II, 14. — Cfr. Prop. Dam-
quod aliquis consentiat in talem nat. sub Innocentio XL, n. 15:
delectationem, hoc nihil aliud est, "Licitum est filio gaudere parricidio
quam quod ipse consentiat in hoc, parentis a se in ebrictate perpetrato
quod affectus suus sit inclinatus in propter ingentes dkitias inde ex
fornicationem, nullus enim delcctatur haereditate consccutas." (Denzin-
nis% in eo, quod est conforme appeti- ger-Bannwart, n. 1032).

KINDS OF SIN 61

tion. If this condition is annexed to a desire
against the natural law, as 'I should like to steal if
it were lawful/ or 'I should like to commit forni-
cation if it were not forbidden/ the condition does
not remove all the malice of the vicious will, for
the very tendency of the will toward such objects
is against right reason. Such conditional de-
sires then are sinful, unless they indicate a mere
propensity towards such sins without any volun-
tary affection of the will. In any case, however,
they are dangerous, and should not be indulged
or expressed." 18

c) A sin of thought, lastly, is a complete sin,
divided from the external act only by an accident,
if there is present an efficacious desire (deside-
rium pravum efficax) and a definite intention to
take the necessary means to accomplish the de-
sired end (decretum peccandi) ,19

Sins of word, taken generically, receive a specific malice
when they are accompanied by deeds, as in contumely,
lust, and the like, or when they give scandal.

St. Augustine, St. Gregory the Great, and other Fa-
thers compare the evolution of sin from thought through
word to deed with the three different ways in which our
Lord raised the dead to life.20 The analogy is striking
and offers food for meditation.

18 Th. Slater, S.J., A Manual of 19 Cfr. Ex. XX, 17; Matth. V, 28.

Moral Theology, Vol. I, p. 150. — 20 Cfr. St. Augustine, De Serm.

Cfr. Gen. Ill, 6; 1 Cor. X, 6; Gal. Dom. in Monte, I, c. 12, n. 35

V, 24. (Migne, P. L., XXXIV, 1247);

62 SIN

5. Cooperation in Injustice. — Man, as a so-
cial being placed in the midst of his fellowmen,
may become an occasion of, or accessory to, the
sins of others.21 The distinction between pec-
cata propria and peccata aliena is popular rather
than scientific, for in the last analysis every sin is
a peccatum proprium, inasmuch as it is caused by
the ego of the sinner. But a man may share
the guilt of another's sin by becoming accessory
to it, i. e., by lending formal cooperation. This
he may do negatively, by failing to prevent the
other's sin, or by concealing or omitting to punish
it if he is in duty bound to do so; or positively, by
directly or indirectly seducing others, participat-
ing in, or at least consenting to, their evil actions,
or glossing them over.

The different ways in which one may become accessory
to the sins of others have been brought into hexameters as
follows :

Iussio, consilium, consensus, palpo, recursus,
Participans, mutus, non obstans, non manifestans;

or:

Qui suadet, iubet, assentit, stimulat, mala laudat,
Qui silet, indulget, iuvat et defendere tentat.

As we know from the Catechism, a man may become
accessory to the sins of others:

Serm., 98, n. 5-7 (XXXVIII, 593); 22; 2 John 10-11; Apoc. XVIII, 4.

Serm., 128, n. 14 (P. L., XXXVIII, —St. Augustine, De Morib. Eccl.,

720). — St. Gregory the Great, Mo- II, c. 17, n. 57: "Nihil interest,

ralia, I. 4, c. 27, n. 52. utrum ipse scelus admittas an propter

21 Cfr. Prov. XXIX, 24; Matth. te ab alio admitti velis." (Migne,

XVIII. 6; Rom. I, 32; 1 Tim. V, P. L., XXXVI, 162).

KINDS OF SIN 63

a) By counsel (consilium), i. e., by giving advice or
urging motives, or by showing how an evil deed may be
done, or the punishment due to it escaped.22

b) By command (iussio), i. e., by inducing another to
do an injury, especially if one is a superior.23

c) By consent (consensus), i. c, by agreeing to sinful
proposals or suggestions.24 As Father Slater points out,
this sin is committed by members of legislative bodies
when they agree together to pass an unjust law, and also
by jurymen who concur in a wrong verdict.23

d) By provocation (irritatio), i. e., by employing
anger or ridicule for the purpose of persuading another
to commit an injustice or to omit to make reparation for
an injury committed. This sin is also committed by
those who dress indecently, exhibit obscene pictures, sell
or loan bad books, carry on unchaste conversations, etc.,
thereby causing others to sin.26

e) By praise or flattery (palpo), i. e., by commending
the wicked conduct of others, instigating them to rebellion
against lawful authority, eulogizing their crimes, etc.27

f) By silence (reticentia), i. e., by omitting to dissuade
others from sin or failing to censure their misdeeds, if one
is in duty bound to do so; tolerating evil company or
dangerous occasions, etc.28

g) By connivance (conniventia), i. e., by neglecting to
punish sinful conduct in children or subjects. Heli was
punished ''because he knew that his sons did wickedly,
and did not chastise them." 29

22 As when Caiphas advised the 25 A Manual of Moral Theology,
Jews to put Jesus to death. (John Vol. I, pp. 420 sq.

XI, 50). 26Cfr. Gen. Ill, 1-6.

23 Cfr. Ex. I, 15 sqq.; 2 Kings 27 Cfr. Ez. XIII, 18; Rom. I, 32.
XI, 14; Matth. II, 16. 28 Cfr. Lev. V, 1; Is. LVI, 10;

24 Cfr. Gen. XXXIX, 10; Acts Prov. XXIX, 25.

VII, 57; XXII, 20; Eph. V, 6 sq, 30 Cfr. 1 Kings III, 13; II, 23 sqq.

64 SIN

h) By sharing in unjustly acquired goods (participatio,
rccursus), i. c, by knowingly buying them, accepting,
receiving or selling them for the thief or robber, afford-
ing protection to wrong-doers, permitting one's property
to be used for sinful purposes, assisting in forbidden com-
merce by carrying letters and messages, making or fur-
nishing articles designed to destroy human life, etc.30

i) By defense of the evil done (prava defensio), i. e.,
by excusing the evil conduct of others by word of mouth
or in writing (novels, poems, plays), representing vice as
mere weakness, etc.31

The gravity of these sins depends upon the degree of
cooperation furnished. Positive is always more culpable
than negative cooperation. Among the various forms of
positive cooperation the most reprehensible are those
which exercise the greatest influence upon the conduct of
others. Thus, to command a sinful act is a greater sin
than merely to counsel it, and to counsel it is a greater sin
than merely to consent to its commission.

6. Genetic Division. — Sins may also be di-
vided with respect to the various stages of malice
through which they pass from their first begin-
ning to the moment of consummation. There are
three such stages.

a) The first is represented by what are com-
monly known as the seven so-called capital sins,
in which all others have their wellspring and root.
Every sin is essentially an inordinate desire mani-
fested in a "lusting of the flesh against the

SoCfr. Matth. XXVIII, 12; Luke 'XXII, 3 sqq.
81 Cfr. Luke XI, 47 sqq.

KINDS OF SIN 65

spirit" 32 through concupiscence of the eyes,
concupiscence of the flesh, or pride of life, ac-
cording to each man's character or social posi-
tion.33 Concupiscence of the flesh reveals itself
as gluttony and unchastity; concupiscence of the
eyes, as avarice and envy; pride of life, as con-
ceit and anger. To these palmary forms of in-
ordinate desire must be added sloth, i. e., that
lack of moral energy which enters into every sin
and sometimes assumes the character of moral
indifference. Actual sins, explains St. Bonaven-
ture, have one beginning, a twofold root, a three-
fold stimulus, and a sevenfold source. The be-
ginning is pride; the two roots are false respect
and misdirected desire; the threefold stimulus is
concupiscence in its three distinct forms; the
seven sources are pride, envy, anger, sloth, ava-
rice, intemperance, and unchastity, of which the
first five are spiritual and the last two carnal
sins.34

b) The second stage is characterized by the
sins of which Sacred Scripture says that they cry

32 Rom. VII, 14-23; Gal. V, 17; tium, scilicet superbia, iuxta quod

1 Pet. II, 11. dicit Scriptural 'Initium omnis

S3 Cfr. 1 John II, 16; Matth. IV, peccati superbia' (Eccles. X, 75).

1-10, Duplex radix, scilicet timor male

34 Brevil., P. Ill, c. 9: "Circa humilians et amor male accendens.

ortum peccatorum capitalium hoc est Triplex f omentum secundum tria,

in summa tenendum, videlicet, quod quae sunt in mundo, scilicet 'concu-

peccatum unum, inquam, est ini- piscentia carnis, concupiscentia ocu-

tium, duplex radix, triplex fomen- lorum et superbia vitae' (1 loa. ii,

turn, septiforme caput sive capitale 16). Septiforme vero caput, scilicet

peccatum. Unum, inquam, est ini- superbia, invidia, ira, acedia, avaritia,

66 SIN

to heaven for vengeance. They mark the height
of viciousness and are absolutely opposed to man's
rational nature.

c) The third stage consists in that wilful mal-
ice and impenitence which is known as the sin
against the Holy Ghost.

Readings. — St. Thomas, Summa Theologica, ia 2ae, qu. 72,
art. 1-7. — Th. Slater, S.J., A Manual of Moral Theology, Vol.
I, pp. 149 sqq. ; 418 sqq. — H. Noldin, S.J., Summa Thcol. Mor.,
Vol. I, nth ed., pp. 320 sqq. — A. Tanquerey, Synopsis Thcol.
Mor. et Pastor., Vol. II, pp. 276 sqq., 282 sqq. — A. Lehmkuhl,
S.J., Theol. Mor., Vol. I, nth ed., pp. 199 sqq.

gula et luxuria. Inter quae quin- Fructibus Carnis et Spiritus, c. 3-10

que praecedentia sunt pcccata spiri- (Migne, P. L., CLXXVI, 999); St.

tualia, duo vcro ultima sunt car- Thomas, Summa Theol., la 2ae, qu.

nalia." (Opera, ed. 2a, Vicetia, p. 84, art. 4.
325).— Cfr. Hugh of St. Victor, De

SECTION 2

THE SEVEN CAPITAL SINS

The so-called capital sins (peccata capitalia)
must not be conceived as transient acts. They
are rather the fundamental vices from which all
sins flow, or the bad habits that manifest them-
selves in actual sins.1 Hence the capital sins
are neither by nature nor in their concrete mani-
festation always mortal, and it is a mistake to
call them "deadly." The specific character and
gravity of each may be determined by the pres-
ence or absence of certain marks or characteris-
tics.

The capital sins are usually enumerated in the
following order : Pride, covetousness, lust, envy,

1 Cfr. Hugh of St. Victor, Summa alia vitia oriuntur et praecipue se-

Sent., tr. 3, c. 16: "De istis quasi cundum originem causae Unalis, quae

septem fontibus omnes animarum est formalis origo, et ideo vitium

corruptiones emanant. Nee dicuntur capitale non solum est principium

haec capitalia, quod maiora sint aliis, aliorum, sed etiam est directivum

quum alia aeque magna sint vel ma- et quodammodo ductivum aliorum.

iora, sed capitalia a quibus oriunUir Semper enim ars vel habitus, ad

omnia alia. Nullum enim est, quod quern pertinet -finis, principatur et

ab aliquo horum non est exortum." imperat circa ea quae sunt ad finem.

(Migne, P. L., CLXXVI, 113). — Unde S. Gregorius huiusmodi vitia

St. Thomas, Summa Theol., ia 2ae, capitalia ducibus exercituum com-

q. 84, art. 3: "Dicitur peccatum parat." {Moral., 1. 31, c. 45, n. 87-

capitale, prout metaphorice significat 88; Migne, P. L., LXXVI, 620

principium vel directivum aliorum. sq.).
Et sic dicitur vitium capitale, ex quo

67

68

SIN

gluttony, anger, and sloth. From the initials of
the Latin words superbia, avaritia, luxuria, in-
vidia, gula, ira, acedia, the Schoolmen formed the
catch-word saligia as an aid to the memory.

This septenary number, which may be traced back to
St. Gregory the Great, became established at the time of
Peter Lombard. Previously, theologians were wont to
count eight or even nine capital sins.2

I. Pride. — Pride {superbia, cenodoxia) is in-
ordinate self-esteem or love of one's own pre-
eminence, coupled with a desire of inducing oth-
ers to accept the exaggerated opinion one has
formed of oneself. This vice manifests itself in
as many different ways as there are objects which
man is able to claim as real or supposed excel-
lences or prerogatives.3

Pride may take the form of vanity, presump-
tion, ambition, or arrogance.

I. Vanity. — Vanity is pride inspired by an overween-
ing conceit in one's personal appearance, attainments or
characteristics, especially when coupled with an excessive
desire for notice or approval. This vice makes a man

2Cfr. Greg. M., Moral, XXXI,
c. 45 ; O. Zockler, Evagrius Ponti-
cus, Munich 1893, p. 104.

3 Cfr. Luke XVIII, 9-14.— St. Au-
gustine, Enarr. in Ps., 93, n. 15:
"Quis est superbusf Qui non con-
fessione peccatorum agit poeniten-
tiam, ut sanari per humilitatem pos-
sit. Quis est superbusf Qui ilia
ipsa pauca, quae videtur habere

bona, sibi vult arrogare et derogat
misericordiae Dei. Quis est super-
bus!' Qui etiamsi Deo tribuat
bona, quae facit, insultat tamen
eis, qui ilia non faciunt, et extollit
se super illos." (Migne, P. L.,
XXXVII, 1203).— Cfr. S. Hai-
dacher, Des hi. Johannes Chry-
sostomus Biichlein iiber die Hoffart,
pp. 34 sqq.

THE CAPITAL SINS

69

foolish in the eyes of his fellowmen, injures the moral
character, favors sensuality and extravagance, and often
entails poverty and want. Intentional neglect of one's
personal appearance or of the rules of taste and good
breeding may also be put down as a kind of vanity.

2. Presumption. — Presumption is an exaggerated no-
tion of one's intellectual or moral excellence, talents, vir-
tues, etc., attended by the wish to undertake things that
are above one's capacity. Intellectual presumption ren-
ders a man ridiculous, while moral presumption is de-
structive of religion and morality and often entails hy-
pocrisy.4

3. Ambition. — Inordinate ambition (prava ambitio) is
an unreasonable striving after dignities, honors, or power.
Ambition is commonly only a venial sin, but becomes
mortal when it employs grievously sinful means and dis-
regards the distinction between true and false honor.5

There is a just ambition which moves a man to desire
dignities and honors with moderation for the purpose
of being able to accomplish more for the glory of God
and the welfare of his fellowmen. "If a man desire the
office of a bishop, he desireth a good work," says St.
Paul.6

4. Arrogance (superbia completa sive perfecta) is that
haughtiness and proud contempt of others which leads
a man to despise and transgress human and divine laws.

4 Cfr. Matth. VI, 1-6; VII, 1-5;
Luke XVIII, 10-14; 1 Tim. VI, 4.
— St. Jerome, Epist., 148 (al. 14), n.
20: "Aliud est virtu tern habere,
aliud virtutis similitudinem; aliud
est rerum umbram scqui, aliud veri-
tatem. Multo deformior ilia est
superbia, quae sub quibusdam hu-
militatis signis latet. Nescio enim,
quomodo turpiora sunt vitia, quae

virtutum specie celantur." (Migne,
P. L., XXII, 1214).

5 Cfr. St. Thomas, Summa Theol.,
2a 2ae, qu. 131 sq.

6 1 Tim. Ill, 1.— Cfr. C. Gennari,
Consultazioni Morali-Canoniche , Vol.
I, 2nd ed., Rome 1902, p. 638. —
Homer, Iliad, VI, 208. — It is not
honors and titles as such that are
forbidden, but the inordinate desire
for them.

70 SIN

This vice frequently accompanies wealth, high social po-
sition, noble birth, etc., and sometimes develops into
tyranny, nay rebellion against God and self-deification.7
Arrogance often leads to boastfulness, which is the
habit of bragging inordinately about one's own good
qualities or talents, nay, even defects or sins, and to hy-
pocrisy, i. e., feigning virtues that one does not possess.

Pride "is so serious an evil because it strikes
at the root of the primary obligations of reverent
obedience towards our Lord God and love of our
neighbor, because it is opposed to the truth, and
because of its universality; it is in the heart of
every man and quickly grows to fearful dimen-
sions unless corrected or subdued." 8

That there is a legitimate pride appears from I
Cor. XV, 10: "By the grace of God I am what I
am, and the grace he gave me hath not been fruit-
less; nay, I have labored more than all of them,
yet not I, but the grace of God with me." 9 Still
the Apostle warns against "being more wise than
it behooveth," 10 and "being wise in your own
conceits." "

Opposed to pride is the virtue of humility,

7 Cfr. Gen. Ill, 5; Is. XIV, 14; i\ X&PLS o-vtov if els ifie oi Kev^i
Judges VII, 2; IX, 38; 1 Mace. iyevridi], dXXa irepiacroTepov avT<l>i>
VII, 34; 2 Mace. V, 21; Matth. IV, ndvrwv tKoiriaoa. ovk eyu> 8e, dXXd
9. — St. Thomas, Summa TheoL, 23. i] x<*pts TOl~ 9e°v a^v ^M0'-

2ae, qu. 162; Ovid, Metamorphoses, 10 Rom. XII, 3, 16.

VI, 193, sqq.; Horace, Satyrae, I, 6, 11 1 Tim. VI, 17. — Cfr. Homer,

5, 10, 64; Idem, Epod., IV, 5 sq. Iliad, I, 244; Odyssey, IX, 20; Hor-

8 Th. Slater, S.J., A Manual of ace, Carmina, IV, 2, 40: "Sapere
Moral Theology, Vol. I, p. 155- aude," i. e., boldly strive for wis-

» \6piTi de deov elfil 6 elpa, Kal dom.

THE CAPITAL SINS 71

which keeps a man in his proper place both with
respect to God and his fellowmen. Humility is
highly recommended by our Divine Lord as
the fundamental virtue of the Christian life,
and He has set Himself up as a model thereof.
Matth. XI, 29: "Learn of me, because I am
meek and humble of heart." 12

II. Covetousness. — Covetousness or avarice
{avaritia, philargyria) is an inordinate love of
earthly things, an immoderate desire to possess,
keep, and increase them (tenacitas). With re-
gard to no other sin is it so difficult to draw a line
of demarcation between what is licit and what is
forbidden as with regard to avarice, which loves
to hide under the cloak of duty, frugality, and
other virtues. It is sinful to attach one's heart
to earthly goods, to serve Mammon instead of
God,13 to be niggardly toward one's fellowmen
and unscrupulous in the choice of means to sat-

12 Cfr. Ecclus. X, 15; Matth. V, superbia, quam amor propriae excel-

3; XVIII, 3; Luke XIV, i; John V, lentiae? . . . Qui ergo plene veri-

14; James IV, 6. — St. Bernard, tatem in se cognoscere curat, necesse

Tract, de Gradibus Humilit. et Su- est ut semota trabe superbiae, quae

perbiae, IV, n. 14 sq.: "Trabes in oculum arcet a luce, ascensiones in

oculo grandis et grossa (Mt. vii, corde suo disponat, per quas seipsum

5) superbia in mente est, quae qua- in se ipso inquirat, et sic . . . pri-

dam corpulentia sui vana, non mum veritatis gradum pertingat."

sana, tumida, non solida, oculum (Migne, P. L., CLXXXII, 949).

mentis obscurat, veritatem obum- 13 Cfr. Matth. VI, 21, 24; Eph.

brat, ita ut, si tuam occupaverit V, 5; Col. Ill, 5. — Cfr. St. Polycarp,

mentem, iam tu te videre, iam te Epist. ad Philipp., c. 11: 'Ed? tis

talem, qualis es vel qualis esse potes, fi-q d7rexr?T<:» TV* (pi\apyvplas. vird

non possis sentire, sed qualem te eldo/KoXarpeias fiiavOriaeTai Kal

amas, talem te vel putes esse vel ucirepel ev rol iOveoiv \oyia6riae-

speres fore. Quid enim aliud est rau otrives ayvoovaiv icplaiv

72

SIN

isfy one's greed. Avarice leads to mendacity,
deceit, perjury, treason, theft, and every other
kind of injustice.14 St. Paul no doubt had these
consequences in mind when he censured avarice
as "the root of all evils." 15

Among the consequences of covetousness are insatia-
bility, discontent, fear of persecution and poverty,16 and
that "infatuation of self-love," as Blair calls it, which so
often ends in impenitence.17

Ordinary sins of covetousness are in themselves venial,
but become mortal if they lead to the transgression
of precepts that bind under pain of grievous sin. Al-

Kvplov- (Ed. 2a, F. X. Funk, p.
308).

i4Cfr. Gen. XXXI, 7; Ecclus.
XXXI, 5-7; Is. V, 8; Jer. XXII,
17; Am. VIII, s-6; John XII, 4-6.

15 1 Tim. VI, 10.— Cfr. St.
Thomas, Suinma Theol., ia 2ae, qu.
84, art. 1. — Sophocles, Antigone, 221
sq.

16 Cfr. Matth. XIII, 22.— Ps.-Au-
gustine, Append. Serm., 293 (al. 250
de Temp.), n. 1: "Contemnenda
est, inquam, avaritia, quae velut
ignis, quanto magis acceperit, tanto
amplius quacrit." (Migne, P. L.,
XXXIX, 2301). — Horace, Carm,, III,
16, 17: "Crescentem sequitur cura
pecuniam." — Idem, Satyrae, I, 1, 28
sqq. — Juvenal, Satyrae, XIV, 28-29.
— When these pages were being pre-
pared for the printer, the Fort-
nightly Review (St. Louis, Mo.,
Vol. XXIV, No. 9) published the fol-
lowing: "Mrs. Hetty Green, who died
not long ago, leaving an estate of
about $100,000,000, according to tes-
timony filed in a surrogate's court by
her son, lived under at least six as-
sumed names, and probably many
others, hoping thus to elude sche-

mers who might be seeking her
money, and murderous cranks, such
as the one who tried to kill her
friend Russell Sage. She never
owned in New York so much as a
three-legged stool in the way of fur-
nishings for what men call a home,
and moved from one $10 to $15
boarding-house to another, in con-
stant fear that her fellow-board-
ers would learn her identity.
This immensely wealthy woman,
who possessed the means to gratify
her every whim, lived almost
like a criminal dreading arrest.
She dreaded to lose the very wealth
which oppressed her, and the world's
richest woman was perhaps more
familiar with the fear of poverty
than many a penniless clerk on the
pay-roll of her estate. ... If she
had labored to reduce her own for-
tune by wise and unselfish giving,
her journey might have been more
cheerful, for thus she might have
escaped the limitations of poverty
and at the same time divested herself
of the heaviest burdens of wealth."
17 Cfr. Luke XII, 15-21; 1 Tim.
VI, 9.

THE CAPITAL SINS 73

though covetousness is in itself but a venial sin, "yet it is
very dangerous because of man's proneness to it, and
because the vice is apt to grow fast by what it feeds upon,
until it becomes mortally sinful. Holy Scripture fre-
quently condemns it and warns us against it." 18

III. Lust. — Lust (luxuria) 19 is an inordi-
nate desire for the pleasure which has its seat in
the organs of generation. Sins of lust may be
internal (thoughts and desires) or external
(words and acts). In these sins there is no
smallness of matter (parvitas materiae), but
every act of wrongful indulgence in venereal
pleasure, if directly sought or consented to, is
grievously sinful. No sin against chastity is
venial except that which remains internally
incomplete (actus imperfectus), not on account
of outward circumstances, but because the will
resists.

Not all sins against the Sixth and Ninth Command-
ments, therefore, are mortal. If an impure thought,
word, or act is freely willed, or, a fortiori, if it is delib-
erately excited, it is a mortal sin. Not so if it arises
in the mind against one's will or without one's deliberate
consent. External acts, such as immodest touches, looks,
etc., are mortally sinful if due to lust; they are venially
sinful if due to curiosity or inadvertence, and transient

18 Th. Slater, S.J., A Manual of ma Theologica, 2a 2ae, qu. 153 sq.:
Moral Theology, Vol. I, pp. 157 sq. St. Alphonsus, Theol. M oralis, 1.
— Cfr. 1 Tim. VI, 9, etc. Ill, n. 412 sqq. (ed. Gaude, Vol. I,

19 Cfr. St. Thomas Aquinas, Sum- pp. 665 sqq.).

74 SIN

in character; and they are not sinful at all if performed
for some reasonable cause, even though accompanied by
venereal pleasure, provided, of course, no consent is given
to such pleasure.

1. Some sins of lust or impurity are according
to the order of nature, others are against nature.

a) Sins according to the order of nature (in
or dine naturae) are all acts of sexual intercourse
committed by unmarried persons, e. g., fornica-
tion, concubinage, etc.

b) Sins against the order of nature (contra or-
dinem naturae') are those which frustrate the di-
vinely ordained purpose of sexual intercourse,
e. g., onanism, self-pollution, pederasty, sodomy,
etc.20

Certain sins of impurity derive additional grav-
ity from the attending circumstances, e. g., dou-
ble adultery, incest, fornication committed by per-
sons vowed to celibacy,21 seduction practiced by
persons in authority upon their subjects, etc.

2. Lust or impurity is a sin which ought "not
so much as be named" among Christians.22 It
involves most serious consequences for the indi-
vidual as well as for society.

a) "Know you not," says St. Paul, "that your

20Cfr. Gen. XIX, 5-7; XXXVIII, 21 Cfr. Gen. XIX, 31 sqq.;

9; Ex. XXII, 19; Lev. XVIII, 22 XXVIII, 13 sqq.; 2 Kings XLI, 4;

sq.; XX, 13, is sq.; Judg. XIX, 22 XIII, 11 sqq. — Cfr. 1 Cor. VI,

sqq.; Wisd. XIV, 26; Rom. I, 26 15, 19; St. Thomas, Sumtna Theol.,

sq.; 1 Cor. V, 1; VI, 9 sq.; 1 Tim. 2a 2ae, qu. 154, art. 6-10.

I, 9 iq. 22 1 Cor. V, 1 ; Eph. V, 3.

THE CAPITAL SINS 75

bodies are members of Christ? Am I then to
take the members of Christ and make them the
members of a harlot? God forbid! Or know
you not that he that cleaveth to a harlot is one
body [with her] ? 'The two,' it is said, 'shall be-
come one flesh.' But he that cleaveth to the Lord
is one spirit [with him]. Flee from impurity.
Every [other] sin that a man committeth is [a
thing] outside the body; but the impure sinneth
against his own body. Know you not that your
body is the temple of the Holy Spirit who is within
you, whom you have from God? And you are
not your own, for you have been bought at a price.
Glorify God, then, in your body." 23 With every
other sin (avarice, pride, anger, gluttony, etc.)
either the object, or the means of its attain-
ment, lie outside of the subject, whereas in the
case of impurity the sinner makes his own body
the direct means of wrong-doing (materia pec-
candi). This vice is especially offensive in a
Christian whose body has been raised to the su-
pernatural order by Baptism. God has not only
redeemed us from the servitude of the devil and
ransomed us at a tremendous price (the life of
His only begotten Son), but He has made us tem-
ples of the Holy Ghost and members of the mys-
tical body of Christ. For this reason impurity in
a Christian involves a kind of sacrilege, a dese-

23 1 Cor. VI, 15 sqq. (Westminster Version).

\

76 SIN

cration of the temple of God and a violation of the
property rights of Jesus Christ.24

These considerations will explain why of all
the capital sins impurity is most injurious to the
body and the moral character.

b) Impurity not only causes concupiscence to
grow stronger,25 but leads to self-deception, in-
constancy in the keeping of good resolutions, in-
difference toward considerations of honor and
property, intemperance in eating and drinking,
disgust for spiritual things, dread of eternity,
hatred of God, unbelief, and suicide.26 The ef-
fects of this vice on the bodily and spiritual health
of its victims and the welfare of their descendants
are incalculable. "Sexual intercourse outside of

24 Rom. Ill, 23-25; 1 Cor. Ill, vera. Ita duo committit maxima
16; VI, 13; Eph. V, 30; 1 Thess. crimina, opprobria carnis et mentis
IV, 7 sq.; 1 Pet. I, 18 sq. sacrilegia." (P. L., XVI, 1182).—

25 Cfr. St. Jerome, Epist., 123 St. Bernard, In Cant., s. 39, n. 7:
(a/. 11), n. 14: "Libido transacta "Luxuriae currus quadriga nihil-
semper sui relinquit poenitudinem; ominus volvitur, ingluvie videlicet
nunquam satiatur et extincta reac- ventris, libidine coitus, mollitie ve>
cenditur. Usu crescit et deficit; nee stium, otii soporisque resolutione.
rationi paret, quae impetu ducitur." Trahitur equis aeque duobus, pro-
(Migne, P. L., XXII, 1055). speritate vitae et rerum abundantid,

26 Os. IV, 11; 2 Kings XI, 4 et quis his praesident duo, ignaviae
sqq. ; XIII, 11 sqq. ; Prov. V, 1 torpor et infida securitas." (P. L.,
sqq.; XXIX, 3; Ecclus. XIX, 2 sq.; CLXXXIII, 980).— St. Thomas,
Luke XV, 13, 30. — St. Ambrose, Summa Theol., 2a 2ae, qu. 153, art.
Epist., 27, n. 2: "Opus virtutis de- 5: "Per vitium luxuriae maxime ap-
testatur luxuriosus, heluo refugit. petitus inferior, scilicet concupisci-
Aegyptium itaque corpus, quod ille- bilis, vehementer intendit suo obiec-
cebras diligit, adversatur anitnae to, scilicet delectabili, propter vehe-
virtutcs, abominatur imperium, refu- mentiam passionis et delectationis.
git virtutum disciplinas et omnia Et idea consequens est, quod per
opera, quae huiusmodi sunt." luxuriant maxime supcriores vires
(Migne, P. L., XVI, 1047). — Idem, deordincntur, scilicet ratio et volun-
Epist., 58, n. 16: "Ubi coeperit tas." — J. Gerson, De Examinatione
quis luxuriari, incipit deviare a fide Doctr., P. I, consid. 6 {Opera, I,

THE CAPITAL SINS 77

marriage," says a modern penologist, "is the
cardinal crime from which, directly or indirectly,
most other crimes spring." 27 There is an inti-
mate connection between lust and cruelty, espe-
cially rape and murder.28

"It is vanity to follow the lusts of the flesh and
to desire that for which thou must afterwards
be grievously punished. . . . For they who fol-
low sensuality, defile their conscience and lose
the grace of God," says Thomas a Kempis.29

IV. Envy. — Envy (invidia) is denned as sad-
ness on account of another's good (tristitia de
alienis bonis). To be sad because an unworthy
man has obtained a post of honor or wealth, of
which he is sure to make wrong use, or to which
we ourselves have a better claim, or which will be
employed to our disadvantage, is not envy. Such
sadness generally results from shortsightedness
or a mistaken idea of Providence; but it does
not exclude charity; in fact there is a species

18) : "Sicut nulla affectio est vehe- "Nam fuit ante Helenam cunnus de-

mentior qitam luxuriosa libido, sic terrima belli causa. . . ."

ad errandum falsumque docendum 28 Cfr. Ez. XVI, 49 ; Am. II, 7. —

nulla perniciosior." Jos. Miiller, Die Keuschheitsideen

27 Beneke, Gefdngnisstudien, p. in Hirer geschichtlichen Entwicklung

54. — Horace says (Carm., Ill, 6, 17 und praktischen Bedeutung, May-

sqq.): ence 1897, pp. 152 sqq.

.,_ , ,t , ... 29 Thomas a Kempis, De Imit.

Fecunda culpae saecula nupttas _, . .. T ,rT. T. .

_ . . . Christi, I, 1 : Vanttas est carnis

Prxmum xnqumavere et genus et

desideria sequi: et illud desiderare
unde postmodum graviter oportet
puniri. . . . Nam sequentes suam
sensualitatem maculant conscientiam :

Cfr. the same writer's Satyrae, et perdunt Dei gratiam." (Ed.

Book III, 3, 107 sq.: Pohl, Vol. II, p. 659.)

domos:
Hoc fonte derivata clades

In patriam populumque fluxitj

78 SIN

of sadness which is extolled as a virtue. Cf r. Ps.
CXVIII, 136: "My eyes have sent forth springs
of water, because they have not kept thy law."
Matth. V, 5 : "Blessed are they that mourn, for
they shall be comforted." 2 Cor. VII, 9 sq. :
"Now I am glad, not because you were made sor-
rowful; but because you were made sorrowful
unto penance. For you were made sorrowful ac-
cording to God. . . ." 30 Sadness combined with
selfishness, however, is always sinful because in-
compatible with, nay directly opposed to, charity.
The envious man seeks to injure his neighbor
rather than advantage himself, whereas charity
inclines us to rejoice in the wellbeing of others.
Through the envy of the devil sin and death came
into this world.31 Envy inspired the first re-
corded murder and the crucifixion of Christ.32
It is the lowest form of selfishness because it aims
solely at destruction. This vice is mortally sin-
ful in itself, but admits of a parvitas materiae.

Envy engenders hatred, revenge, malignant joy at the
misfortunes of others, calumny, slander, and crimes
against life and property.33 More than any other vice
envy entails its own punishment, for it destroys peace of
mind and sometimes even injures the body.34 Sacred

30 Cfr. St. Augustine, Serm., 254 32 Cfr. Matth. XXVII, 18; 1 Cor.

(a/. 151 de. Temp.), n. 2; St. X, 24; XIII, 4 sqq.; Gal. V, 26.

Thomas, Summa Theol., 2a 2ae, qu. 83 Matth. XXVII, 18-25; cfr.

36, art. 1-4. Gen. IV, 8; XXVI, 14 sq. ; XXVII,

si Cfr. Gen. Ill, 1; IV, 5; Wisd. 41; XXXVII, 4. «.

II, 24. 34 Matth. XXVII, 18-25. Cfr.

Gen. IV, s-6; XXXI, 2-5.

THE CAPITAL SINS 79

Scripture graphically compares this vice to "rottenness of
the bones" 35 and intimates that it consumes its victim
body and soul.36

V. Gluttony. — Gluttony (gula) is an in-
ordinate desire for earthly goods in general and
food and drink in particular.37 Man is expected
to use food and drink according to right reason.
Inordinate use of these things (as if they were
an end in themselves), degrades him to the
level of the brute. Besides this grosser form
of gluttony (voracitas, ingluvies, ebrietas), there
is a more refined though equally sinful variety,
which consists in craving for food and drink
solely for the pleasure they give and making them
the principal object of one's thoughts and desires
(cupedia). This epicurean gourmandise (syba-
ritism), like the grosser forms of gluttony, con-
fuses the end with the means. Saint Paul says
of those addicted to it that their "God is their
belly." 38

A very common form of gluttony is drunkenness
(ebrietas). Complete drunkenness (ebrietas perfecta)
temporarily deprives man of the use of his highest pre-
rogatives— reason and free-will. Voluntarily to put one-

35 Prov. XIV, 30. quo bonum virtutis moralis consistit.

36 Wisd. VI, 25. Ex hoc autem dicitur aliquid esse

37 Cfr. St. Thomas, Summa Theol., peccatum, quod virtuti contrariatur.
2a 2ae, qu. 148, art. 1: "Gula non Unde manifestum est, quod gula est
nominat quemlibet appetitum edendi peccatum."

et bibendi, sed inordinatum. Dicitur 38 Phil. Ill, 19; cfr. Rom. XVI,

autem appetitus inordinatus ex eo, 18.
quod recedit ab ordine rationis, in

80 SIN

self into this condition is, as a rule, mortally sinful. Sins
committed in the state of drunkenness are morally im-
putable (voluntarium in causa) unless indeed one could
truthfully claim, like Noe, that he knew not the strength
of wine. To drink to excess, but not so as to lose the use
of reason, is per se a venial sin, but may become mortally
sinful per accidens, e. g., on account of serious harm to
one's health, grave scandal, neglect of important duties, or
when a man knows that excessive drinking is for him a
proximate occasion of grievous sin.

The sinful character of intemperance in all its forms
is evident from the consequences to which this vice leads.
It involves a senseless destruction of food and drink, of
which others may stand in need, and injures both body
and soul by exciting the animal appetites, especially lust,
blunting the moral judgment, warping the finer sensibili-
ties, and ultimately destroying all interest in spiritual
things.39

39 Cfr. Gen. XXV, 29-34; Is. V, quis est, magnus est; magnidcet no-

11, 22; Am. VI, 6; Prov. XX, 1; men tuum. Ego autem non sum,

XXIII, 29-35; Eph. V, 18. — St. quia peccator homo sum." (Migne,

Augustine, Confessiones, X, c. 31, n. P. L., XXXII, 798, 799).— Cfr. Ps.-

44: "Quum salus sit causa edendi Augustine, Append. Serm., 294

et bibendi, adiungit se tamquam pe- (a/. 231 de Temp.), n. 2-3 (P. /-.,

dissequa periculosa iucunditas et XXXII, 2304). — St. Bernard, Epist.,

plerumque praeire conatur, ut eius II, n. 10: "Quomodo potest esurire

causa fiat, quod salutis causa me fa- vel sitire Christum plenus quotidie

cere vel dico vel volo. Nee idem siliquis porcorum? Non potes bibere

modus utriusque est, nam quod sa- simul calicem Christi et calicem

luti satis est, delectationi parum est." dacmoniorum (1 Cor. X, 20). Calix

— Ibid., n. 47: "In his ergo tenta- dacmoniorum superbia est, calix

tionibus positus certo quotidie adver- daemoniorum dctractio et invidia

sus concupiscentiam manducandi et est, calix daemoniorum crapula et

bibendi; non enim est, quod semel ebrietas est; quae quum impleverint

praecidere et ulterius non attingere vel mentem vel ventrcm tuum,

decemam. Itaque freni gutturis Christus in te non invenit locum."

temperata rclaxatione et constric- (Migne, P. L., CLXXXII, 8s). —

tione tenendi sunt. Et quis est, Terence, Eunuch., IV, 5, 6:

Domine, qui non rapiatur aliquantu- "Sine Cerere et Libero iBaccho]

lum extra metas necessitatisT Quis- friget Venus." — Ovid, Rem. Am.,

THE CAPITAL SINS 81

Drunkenness as a habit (ebriositas) is deserving of the
severest censure, because it involves waste, destroys fam-
ily life, creates dissensions, causes crimes and diseases,
and entails the physical and moral ruin of individuals,
and sometimes of entire nations. "Drunkenness," says
Origen, "seduced him whom Sodom had not seduced." 40
Hence the Apostle's admonition : "Be not drunk with
wine, wherein is luxury ; but be ye filled with the holy
Spirit." 41

VI. Anger. — Anger (ira, iracundia) , broadly-
speaking, is a craving for vengeance. It is not
necessarily sinful, because, to quote St. Thomas,
"vengeance may be sought either well or ill." 42

a) There is a righteous anger which inveighs
against evil and in favor of goodness. Holy
Scripture frequently attributes such anger to
God. John the Baptist angrily denounced the
Pharisees and Sadducees as a "brood of vipers,"
who "flee from the wrath to come."43 "With
anger" (/«*■ 6Py^) and grief "for the blindness of
their hearts," 44 Christ pronounced woe upon
the Pharisees,45 drove the money changers from
the temple and overthrew their tables.46 Filled

805 sqq. — Seneca, Epist., 95, 23: The Cure of Alcoholism, St. Louis

"Innumerabiles esse morbos non 1913.

tniraberis: coquos numera." 41 Eph. V, 18; cfr. Luke XXI,

40Cfr. Gen. XIX, 32 sqq.; Prov. 34; 1 Pet. V, 8.

XXXI, 4. — Homer, Odyssey, IX, 42 Summa Theol., 2a 2ae, qu. 158,

360 sqq; Iliad, VI, 258 sqq. — Hor- art. 1-7.

ace, Carm., Ill, 21, 9 sqq. — A. Eg- 43 Matth. Ill, 7.

ger, Der Klerus und die Alkohol- 44 Mark III, 5.

frage, 4th ed., Freiburg 1909. — Jos. 45 Matth. XXXIII, 13 sqq.

Keating, S.J., The Drink Question, 46 Matth. XXI, 12.
London 1914. — Austin O'Malley,

82 SIN

with righteous indignation St. Peter invoked the
judgment of God upon Ananias and Saphira,47 St.
Stephen rebuked the Jews for resisting the Holy
Ghost,4S and St. Paul upbraided the Athenians.40
Righteous anger is no sin, and parents and su-
periors are justified in reprehending and punish-
ing their children or subjects for a just cause.
"If one is angry according to right reason," says
the Angelic Doctor, "then to get angry is praise-
worthy." 50

b) To be angry, even for a just cause, be-
comes sinful when a man loses control of himself
and indulges in feelings of hatred or enmity.
This is true a fortiori when anger lacks a just
cause. Note, however, that as long as anger
remains internal, it is as a rule not sinful, but
merely a temptation. Only when it vents itself
in oaths or blasphemies, or leads to acts of vio-
lence and destruction, is it more or less grievously
sinful.

Man is bound under pain of mortal sin to keep the
mighty passion of anger under control. "Be angry and
sin not," says St. Paul, "let not the sun go down upon
your anger ; give not place to the devil." 51 The meaning
obviously is that man should not permit his anger to ex-

47 Act9 V, 3 sqq. Tract, in Epist. loa., VII, n. u:

48 Acts VII, si sqq. "Amor saevit, caritas saevit; saevit

49 Acts XVII, 1 6 sqq. quodammodo sine idle, more co-
BO Summa Theol., 2a 2ae, qu. 158, lumbino, non corvino." (Migne,

art. 1: "Si aliquis irascitur secun- P. L., XXXV, 1235).
dum rationem rectam, tunc irasci est 61 Eph. IV, 26 sq.

laudabile." — Cfr. Saint Augustine,

THE CAPITAL SINS 83

ceed the bounds of reason, nor nurse grievances.52 St.
James says : "Let every man be swift to hear, but slow
to speak, and slow to anger ; for the anger of man worketh
not the justice of God." 53

VII. Sloth. — Sloth (acedia) is frequently
caused by an abnormal condition of the body. It
may be defined as a sluggishness of the soul that
makes it dread physical and mental labor in the
exercise of virtue. Sloth, as a vice, may be ac-
companied by great energy of mind and body in
matters not pertaining to the spiritual domain.
Sloth usually begins with lukewarmness, espe-
cially neglect of prayer and religious exercises.
It manifests itself:

(1) As indifference to virtue and spiritual
things (desidia, inertia), accompanied by distrac-
tion and neglect of duty and by pleasure in senti-
mentalities and day-dreaming. The ordinary
symptoms of this form of sloth are: mental un-
rest, frequent change of work or profession, shift-
lessness, inconstancy, etc.

(2) As disgust (taedium) for the moral and
religious duties which every man is bound to per-
form. This disgust may develop into positive
aversion for Catholic principles and practices and

52 Cfr. St. Augustine, Enarr. in fieri pridiana. Eiice Mam [iraw]

Ps., 25, s. 2, n. 3 (Migne, P. L., de corde, antequam occidat lux ista

XXXVI, 189): "Etsi ex ipsa hu- visibilis, ne te deserat lux ilia in-

mana conditione et iniirmitate mor- visibilis." (Migne, P. L., XXXVI,

talitatis, quam portamus, subrepit ira 189).

christiano, non debet diu teneri et 63 Jas. I, 19 sq.

84 SIN

regret of having been received into the Church.
At this stage sloth is generally accompanied by-
loss of courage and results in spiritual and mor-
al decay.

Sloth is a mortal sin whenever it leads to the
neglect of duties to which one is obliged sub grain.
The dire consequences of religious indifference
are adumbrated in the Apocalypse : "I know thy
works, that thou art neither cold nor hot. I
would thou wert cold or hot! But because thou
art lukewarm, and neither cold nor hot, I will
begin to vomit thee out of my mouth.

» !S4

"Think not that one who falls deeply, strikes bottom
at once. Do you wish to learn the cause? For a long
time this man was very lukewarm, and as a consequence
his soul lost strength unnoticed, while the evil inclinations
grew stronger." 53

Readings. — St. Thomas, Summa Theol., ia, 2ae, qu. 84, art. 2
sq. — Idem, De Malo, qu. 8 sqq. — Th. Slater, S.J., A Manual of
Moral Theology, Vol. I, pp. 154 sqq. — O. Zockler, Das Lehrstiick
von den sieben Hauptsilnden, Munich 1893. — Ph. G. Laborie, Les
Pcchcs Capitaux, Paris 1908. — A. Tanquerey, Synopsis Theol.
Mor. et Pastor., Vol. II, pp. 287 sqq. — Natalis Alexander, De
Peccatis (Migne, Theol. Curs., XI, 707-1168). — Paulhan, Les
Caractcrcs, Paris 1903. — H. Noldin, S.J., Summa Theol. Mor.,
Vol. I, nth ed., pp. 375 sqq. — Sabetti-Barrett, Comp. Theol. Mor.,
22nd ed., pp. 129 sqq.

64 Apoc. Ill, 15 sqq.; cfr. Matth. noverca virtutum." (Migne, P. L.,

XXV, 26 sqq.— St. Bernard, De CLXXXII, 756).

Consideratione, II, c. 13: "Fu- 65 John Cassian, Collationes, VI,

gienda est otiositas, mater nugarum, 17.

SECTION 3

THE SINS THAT CRY TO HEAVEN FOR VENGEANCE

There are four sins that are said to cry to
heaven for vengeance, vis.: (i) Wilful murder;
(2) Sodomy; (3) Oppression of the poor; (4)
Defrauding laborers of their hire.

The Schoolmen enumerate these sins in the
following distich :

Clamitat ad caelum vox sanguinis et sodomorum,
Vox oppressorum, merces detenta laborum.

This classification is based upon Scripture.
Gen. IV, 10: 'The Lord said to Cain: . . . What
hast thou done ? the voice of thy brother's blood
crieth to me from the earth." Gen. XVIII, 20
sq. : 'The Lord said: The cry of Sodom and
Gomorrah is multiplied, and their sin is become
exceedingly grievous." Gen. XIX, 13 the angels
tell Lot that they will destroy Sodom, "because
their cry is grown loud before the Lord, who hath
sent us to destroy them." Ex. Ill, 7 Jehovah
says to Moses : "I have seen the affliction of my
people in Egypt, and I have heard their cry be-
cause of the rigor of them that are over the

85

86 SIN

works." According to Ex. XXII, 22 sq. the
Mosaic law prescribed: ''You shall not hurt a
widow or an orphan," adding: "If you hurt
them they will cry out to me, and I will hear their
cry." Deut. XXIV, 14 sq. : "Thou shalt not re-
fuse the hire of the needy and the poor . . . ; but
thou shalt pay him the price of his labor the same
day, before the going down of the sun, because
he is poor, and with it maintaineth his life: lest
he cry against thee to the Lord, and it be reputed
to thee for a sin." James V, 4: "Behold the
hire of the laborers, who have reaped down your
fields, which by fraud has been kept back by you,
crieth : and the cry of them hath entered into the
ears of the Lord of sabaoth."

If we study the nature of the sins thus charac-
terized as crying to Heaven for vengeance, we
find that they form a category separate and dis-
tinct from the capital sins. For whereas the lat-
ter spring from an inordinate craving of the nat-
ural appetites, and are sinful only when they
involve a lack of rational self-control, the distin-
guishing note of the so-called peccata clamantia
is violent suppression of certain natural instincts
and conscious frustration of their ends and ob-
jects. In other words, besides a trangression
of the moral order, they entail a violation of
the laws of nature, thus provoking divine wrath
in a special manner. This fact is well expressed

SINS THAT CRY TO HEAVEN 87

in the phrase, "sins that cry to Heaven for ven-
geance."

It goes without saying that every sin of this kind is
by its very nature mortal because it involves the trans-
gression of an important law with full advertence and
knowledge.

The sins that cry to Heaven for vengeance vio-
late or suppress ( 1 ) the instinct of self-preserva-
tion, which tends to conserve individual life; (2)
the sexual instinct, which was instituted for the
perpetuation of the race; and (3) the social in-
stinct, which tends to the protection of private
property.

a) Murder is the unlawful killing of a human
being with malice aforethought. This sin may be
direct or indirect, it may be committed against
oneself (suicide) or against another, even the
unborn (procuratio abortus, malicious destruc-
tion of the embryo or fetus).1 The term murder
includes every species of unnatural cruelty,
such as exposing a child to the danger of death,
maltreating prisoners and slaves, engaging in
piracy, waging war without sufficient reason, and
killing another in the intellectual or moral sense,
i. e., robbing him of his good name by slander or
calumny.

The unlawful killing of a human being with malice
aforethought is a terrible crime because it interferes

1 Cfr. Codex luris Can., can. 2350, § 1.

88 SIN

with the sovereignty of God, who is the Master of life
and death and has created man as His own image and
property,1 and because it undermines the foundation
of society and brings upon its victim the greatest temporal
misfortune and sometimes even causes his eternal dam-
nation. Justly, therefore, is cold-blooded murder pun-
ished by death (capital punishment).

Murder is often committed for petty motives, such as
revenge, jealousy, or avarice. The gravity of this crime
may be judged by the fact that murderers often become
their own accusers.

b) Sodomy is the sin for which Sodom and
Gomorrah were destroyed by God. The term in-
cludes all sins of unnatural lust, particularly
those committed between persons of the same sex,
and all practices aiming at the prevention of con-
ception.2 Sodomy is closely related to murder.
Both crimes are directed against the preservation
of the human race, and, moreover, cruelty and
lust, heartlessness and debauchery, bloodthirst
and unchastity (Sadism, Masochism) usually go
hand in hand.3

Holy Scripture condemns the conduct of Onan, not

l Gen. I, 26 sq.; IX, 6; Deut. (crudelitas activa) and Masochism

XXXII, 39. (crudelitas passiva) cfr. Familler,

2Cfr. Gen. XIX, 5; XXXVIII, Pastoralpsychiatrie, Freiburg 1898,

9; Lev. XVIII, 22; XX, 13; pp. 157 sq.; Krafft-Fbing, Psychofa-

Judges XIX, 22 sqq.; Rom. I, 26 tliia Sexualis, 13th ed., pp. 158 sqq.;

sq. ; 1 Tim. I, 10. A. Eulenlmrg, Sadismus und Maso-

3 Cfr. Ez. XVI, 49; Am. II, 7. — cliismus. Wiesbaden 1902; O'Malley

H. Rau, Die Grausamkeit tnit be- and Walsh, Essays in Pastoral Medi-

sonderer Besugnahme auf sexucllc cine. New York 1906, pp. 338 sq. —

Faktoren, Berlin 1003. — On Sadism F. a Barbens, Intr. Pathol, ad Stud.

Thcol. Mor., pp. 255 sqq.

SINS THAT CRY TO HEAVEN 89

only because he had a wicked intention, but "because he
did a detestable thing." 4

c) Oppression of the Poor, especially of
widows and orphans, is a dastardly crime be-
cause it violates the natural law and runs counter
to a sentiment deeply ingrained in the human
heart. This crime is committed in various ways,
by dishonestly administering an estate, by fraud
in drawing up a man's last will, by unjust ap-
propriation of that which belongs to the poor, by
the employment of trickery in lawsuits, bribing
judges and other officials, etc.5

d) To Defraud a Laborer of His Just
Wage is a crime against the fundamental right
of private property. It is the sin of oppression
of the poor in an aggravated form, for it injures
those who are compelled to make a living in
the sweat of their brow. This sin is perhaps
more often committed indirectly than directly,
e. g., by carelessly incurring bankruptcy, by re-
ducing wages without necessity, by cooperating
in the establishment of monopolies or trusts, by
adulterating food or raising its price without ne-

4 Gen. XXXVIII, 7 sqq.; I affluens in tantatn eruperat super-

Paralip. II, 3. biam, ut manuin egeno et pauperi

C Is. X, 1-2; Matth. XXIII, 15; Lazaro non porngeret, et stc oblitus

Mark XII, 40. — Cfr. St. Jerome, sit conditionis suae, ut ne hoc qui-

In Ezech., V, c. 16: "Dives ille in dem misero daret, quod proiicien-

evangelio purpuratus (Luc. XVI, dum erat." (Migne, P. L„ XXV,

19) nihil aliud refertur habuisse 154).
critninis nisi quod opibus et divitiis

90 SIN

cessity ("profiteering"), by practicing usury,6 by
defrauding workingmen of their earnings, by
compelling them to purchase their supplies at ex-
orbitant prices in company stores (truck system),
and in many other ways.

We shall have more to say of these sins in later
volumes.

Readings. — F. X. Linsenmann, Lehrbuch der Moraltheologie,
pp. 180 sqq. — J. A. Ryan, A Minimum Wage, New York 1906. —
Idem, Distributive Justice, New York 1916. — Th. Slater, S.J.,
Questions of Moral Theology, New York 1915, pp. 78 sqq.; 176
sqq. — H. Noldin, S.J., Summa Theol. Mor., Vol. I, pp. 391 sqq.

6 Cfr. C. Elliott, Usury, Millers-
burg, O., 1902.

SECTION 4

THE SIN AGAINST THE HOLY GHOST

I. Name. — Broadly speaking, every sin is a
sin against the Holy Ghost, because every sin is
opposed to sanctity, of which the Holy Ghost is
the author. But the name "sin against the Holy
Ghost" is specifically applied to a certain class of
transgressions described in Holy Scripture.
When the Pharisees attributed the miracles
of Christ to the devil, Our Lord declared:
"Every sin and blasphemy shall be forgiven men,
but the blasphemy of the Spirit shall not be for-
given ; and whosoever shall speak a word against
the Son of man, it shall be forgiven him : but he
that shall speak against the Holy Ghost, it shall
not be forgiven him, neither in this world, nor in
the world to come." * Here is a clear distinction
between blasphemy against the Son of man, i. e.,
Jesus Christ, and blasphemy against the Holy
Ghost. To be scandalized at the former in His
lowly human appearance is pardonable,2 but to
blaspheme the Holy Spirit, who manifests Him-

1 Matth. IX, 34; XII, 24, 31 sq.; 2ae, qu. 14, art. 1, ad 2: "Pecca-
Mark III, 28-30; Luke XII, 10. turn in Ulium hominis erit peccatum

2 Matth. XI, 4; cfr. Matth. XXVI, ex ignorantia vel ex infirmitate."
31. — St. Thomas, Summa Theol., 2a

91

92 SIN

self through the miracles of Christ, is a sign of
malice and obstinacy and therefore unpardonable.
2. Definition. — Hence there is a class of
transgressions which may be embraced under
the collective term, "sin against the Holy Ghost."
They all involve a deliberate and obstinate oppo-
sition to the manifestations of the Holy Spirit as
witnessed in the exercise of Christ's power over
nature and the demons, and continued in the mira-
cles of grace. He still works in the souls of the
faithful. Consequently, the sin against the Holy
Ghost consists in openly opposing divine Revela-
tion and the operation of the Holy Spirit both in
and outside of man, more particularly in deliber-
ately despising or rejecting supernatural grace.
And as the Holy Ghost operates in souls espe-
cially through the theological virtues of faith,
hope, and charity, the sin against the Holy Ghost
is opposed to these three virtues in particular.
With this idea in mind, St. Augustine and Peter
Lombard enumerated six distinct sins against
the Holy Ghost, which may, however, be reduced
to one, i. e.} deliberate apostasy or final impeni-
tence (impoenitentia finalis) .3 The other five are

8 Cfr. Is. XXII, 14. — St. Jerome, mia, quae non remittetur neque in

In Is., VII, c. 22 (Migne, P. L., hoc saeculo neque in futuro. Contra

XXIV, 272). — St. Augustine, Serm., Spirilum enim sanctum, quo bap-

71 (at. 11 De Verbis Domini), c. 12, ticantur, quorum peccata omnia di-

n. 20: "Contra hoc donum gratui- tnittuntur, et quem accepit Ecclesia,

turn, contra istam Dei gratiam lo- ut cui dimiscrit peccata, dimittantur

quitur cor impoenitens. Ipsa ergo ei, verbum valde malum et nimis

impoenitentia est Spiritus blasphe- impium, sive cogitatione sive etiam

SIN AGAINST THE HOLY GHOST

93

merely preliminary acts of impenitence, which
may be forgiven, whereas final impenitence is by
its very nature unpardonable (peccatum irremis-
sibile),4 not because it is beyond the reach of di-
vine mercy, or on account of its objective enorm-
ity, but because the impenitent man deliberately
rejects grace. He who sins against the Holy
Ghost cannot obtain forgiveness for the simple
reason that he refuses to be forgiven.5

lingua sua dicit, quern patientio Dei,
quum ad poenitentiam adducat, ipse
secundum duritiam cordis sui et cor
impoenitens thesaurizat sibt iram in
die irae, et revelationis iusti iudicii
Dei, qui reddet unicuique secundum
opera eius {Rom. ii, 4-6). Haec
ergo impoenitentia, sic enim uno
altquo nomine possumus utcunque
appellare et blasphemiam et verbum
contra Spirttum sanctum, quod remxs-
sionem non habet in aeternum."
(Migne, P. L., XXXVIII, 455)— St.
Thomas, Summa Theol., 2a 2ae, qu.
14, art. 1.

4Cfr. Matth. XII, 31 sq.; 1 John
V, 16; Heb. VI, 4-6; X, 26; 2 Pet.
II, 20.— Chr. Pesch, S.J., Praelect.
Dogmat., Vol. I, 3rd ed., p. 586.

6 Cfr. John VIII, 21, 24; Rom.
II, 4-8. — St. Augustine, De Serm.
Dom. in Monte, I, c. 22, n. 74:
"Ista differentia peccatorum Iudam
tradentem a Petro negante distinguit,
non quia poenitenti non sit ignoscen-
dum, . . . sed quia illius peccati
tanta labes est, ut deprecandi hu-
mtlitatem subire non possit, etiamsi
peccatum suum mala conscientia
et agnoscere et enuntiare coga-
tur." (Migne, P. L., XXXIV,
1266). — St. Bonaventure, Brevil.,
P. Ill, c. 11: "Quia directe
impugnat gratiam Spiritus Sancti,

per quam fit remissio peccati, ideo
dicitur irremissibile , non quia nulla
modo possit remitti, sed quia quan-
tum est de se, directe est impugna-
tivum medicamenti et remedii, per
quod fieri habet remissio peccati."
(Ed. 2a, Vicetia, 233). — St. Thomas,
Summa Theol., 2a 2ae, qu. 14, art.
3 : "Secundum diversas acceptiones
peccati in Spiritum Sanctum diversi-
mode irremissibile dicitur. Si enim
dicatur peccatum in Spiritum Sanc-
tum finalis impoenitentia, sic dicitur
irremissibile, quia nullo modo remit-
titur. Peccatum enim mortale, in
quo homo perseverat usque ad mor-
tem, quia in hac vita non remittitur
per poenitentiam, nee etiam in fu-
turo dimittetur. Secundum autem
alias duas acceptiones dicitur irre-
missibile, non quod nullo modo re-
mittatur, sed quia, quantum est de se,
habet meritum, ut non remittatur, et
hoc dupliciter. Uno modo quantum
ad poenam; qui enim ex ignorantia
vel infirmitate peccat, minorem poe-
nam meretur, qui autem ex certa
malitia peccat, non habet aliquam
excusationem, unde eius poena mi-
nuatur. Similiter etiam, qui blasphe-
mabat Filium hominis, eius divinitate
nondum revelata, poterat habere ali-
quam excusationem propter infirmi-
tatem carnis, quam in eo aspiciebat.

94

SIN

The sins against the Holy Ghost according to the Cate-
chism are: (i) Presumption of God's mercy; (2) De-
spair; (3) Resisting the known Christian truth; (4)
Envy at another's spiritual good; (5) Obstinacy in sin;
and (6) Final impenitence.

This division is popular rather than scientific, but it cor-
rectly describes the psychological stages of the malice that
leads to final impenitence. The so-called sin against the
Holy Ghost, therefore, is not a single sin but the sum-total
of a bad life.6 At what stage actual impenitence sets in,
God alone knows.7 The Church assumes that every

et sic minorem poenam merebatur.
Sed qui in ipsam divinitatem blas-
phemabat, opera Spiritus Sancti
diabolo attribuens, nullam excusa-
tionem habebat, unde eius poena di-
minueretur. . . . Alio inodo potest
intellcgi quoad culpam. Sicut aii-
quis dicitur morbus incurabilis se-
cundum naturam morbi, per quern
tollitur id, per quod morbus potest
curari, puta quum morbus tollit vir-
tutem naturae vel inducit fastidium
cibi et medicinae, licet talem mor-
bum Deus possit curare, ita etiam
peccatum in Spiritum Sanctum dici-
tur irremissibile secundum suam na-
turam, inquantum excludit ea, per
quae fit remissio peccatorum. Per
hoc tamen non praecluditur via re-
mittendi et sanandi omnipotentiae
et misericordiae Dei, per quam ali-
quando tales quasi miraculose spi-
ritualiter sanantur."

6 Cfr. St. Thomas, Summa Theol.,
2a 2ae, qu. 14, art. 4: "Peccare in
Spiritum Sanctum two modo est pec-
care ex certa malitia. Ex certa
autem malitia dupliciter peccare con-
tingit. Uno modo ex inclinatione
habitus, quod non est proprie pec-
care in Spiritum Sanctum, et hoc
modo peccare ex certa malitia non
contingit a principio. Oportet enim

actus peccatorum praecedere, ex qui-
bus causetur habitus ad peccandum
inclinans. Alio modo potest ahquis
peccare ex certa malitia abiciendo
per contemptum ea, per quae homo
retrahitur a peccato, quod proprie
est peccare in Spiritum Sanctum.
Et hoc etiam plerumque praesuppo-
nit alia pec cat a. . . . Potest tamen
contingere, quod aliquis in primo
actu peccati in Spiritum Sanctum
peccet per contemptum, turn propter
libertatem arbitrii, turn etiam propter
multas dispositiones praecedentes vel
etiam propter aliquod vehemens mo-
tivum ad malum et debilem affectum
hominis ad bonum. Et ideo in viris
perfectis hoc vix aut nunquam ac-
cidere potest, quod statim a prin-
cipio peccent in Spiritum Sanctum.
. . . Si vero per peccatum in
Spiritum Sanctum intellegatur finalis
impoenitentia secundum intellectum
Augustini, quaestionem non habet,
quia ad peccatum in Spiritum Sanc-
tum requiritur continuatio peccato-
rum usque in finem vitae."

7 St. Augustine, Serm., 71 (a/. it
De Verbis Domini), c. 13, n. 21:
"Ista impoenitentia vel cor im-
poenitens quamdiu quisque in hac
came vivit, non potest iudicari. De
nullo enim desperandum est, quam-

SIN AGAINST THE HOLY GHOST 95

man wishes to die in the state of grace. St. Augustine
says that as long as there is life there is hope, that "the Al-
mighty Physician knows no incurable disease," and while
grace has a chance to work, no sinner need be given up.8
A man may be addicted to some evil passion or vice,
though morality, faith, contrition, and penance are by no
means extinct in his soul. Conversely, he may be in the
state of impenitence without having entirely relinquished
the practice of religion and virtue, for he may keep up a
semblance of piety out of selfishness or hypocrisy. . . .
On the other hand, there is a state of the soul which logi-
cally and psychologically, though only by gradual and
almost unnoticeable stages, superinduces complete im-
penitence. As every sin committed by a Catholic re-
ceives added gravity from the fact that it is the act of
one who possesses the true faith and has access to the
means of grace, so the sin against the Holy Ghost begins
with an abuse of divine truth and grace, with resistance
to the inspirations that come from above, especially the
call to conversion or to a more perfect state of life. This
initial stage is followed by habitual neglect of the duties
of one's vocation, and, finally, by sacrilegious reception
of the Sacraments.9

diu patientia Dei ad poenitentiam P. L., XXXVI, 370). — Ibid., 102, n.
adducit nee de hac vita rapit im- 5: "Sanabuntur omnes languores
pium, qui non mortem vult impii, tui, noli timere. Magni sunt, in-
quantum ut revertatur et vivat." quies, sed maior est medicus.
(Migne, P. L., XXX VIII, 456). — Omnipotenti medico nullus languor
Idem, De Catech. Rud., c. 26, n. 50: insanabilis occurrit." (Migne, P. L.,
"De nullius hominis correctione XXXVII, 1319). — Idem, Serm., 128
desperet, quern patientia Dei videt (al. 43 De Verbis DomJ, c. 12, n.
vivere, non ob aliud, sicut Aposto- 14: "De nullo iacente desperan-
lus (Rom. II, 4) ait, nisi ut adduca- dum est sub tali suscitatore."
tur ad poenitentiam." (P. L., XL, (P. L., XXXVIII, 720).— Cfr.
345)- Serm., 17 (al. 28 inter Horn. 50), n.

8 Cfr. St. Augustine, Enarr. in 3 (P. L., XXXVIII, 125).
Ps., II, 36, n. 11: "De nullo vi- 9 F. X. Linsenmann, Lehrbuch der

vente desperandum est." (Migne, Moraltheologie, pp. 183 sq.

96 SIN

3. Devil Worship. — Sometimes the sin
against the Holy Ghost culminates in a deliberate
and complete surrender of the soul to the evil
one, resulting in actual devil worship.10 The
leading characteristic of this terrible sin is hatred
of God, which manifests itself in deadly antago-
nism to all that is good, joy in evil things, a
burning desire to seduce others and to commit
sin for its own sake.11 Devil worship is the
climax of human malice and embraces all the
capital vices, the sins that cry to Heaven for ven-
geance, and especially those by which a man
becomes accessory to the sins of others. Some-
times the soul sinks so low as to enter into a
formal union with the powers of darkness
(demonism, deification of evil). This relation
is, as a rule, purely moral, but it may develop into
a mystic marriage of the human mind with
Satan, accompanied by a desire to employ dia-
bolic help in unraveling the mysteries of life and
eternity (astrology, fortune-telling, necromancy)
or performing feats that exceed the ordinary
powers of nature (black magic, sorcery),

12

Readings. — St. Augustine, De Serm. Domini in Monte, I, c.
22. — Idem, Enchiridion, c. 83. — Idem, Sermones, 71 (al. 11 De
Verbis Domini), c. 13, 14, 21. — Richard of St. Victor, Tractatus

lOCfr. Matth. XII, 43 sqq.; John Germania, XIX: "Corrumpere et

VI, 70; VIII, 44; XIII, 2; 1 John corrumpi saeculum vocatur."

Ill, 8, 10. 12 "Flectere si nequeo superos,

11 Cfr. Gen. IV, 3-5, 8; Is. V, 20; Acheronta movebo." (Aeneis, VII,

1 John III, 12-13. — Cfr. Tacitus, 312).

SIN AGAINST THE HOLY GHOST 97

de Spiritu Blasphemiae (Migne, P. L., CXCVI, 1885).— Peter
Lombard, Sententiarum Libri Quatuor, II, dist. 43. — St. Thomas,
Summa Theologica, 2a 2ae, qu. 14. — Idem, De Malo, qu. 3, art.
14 sq. — St. Bonaventure, Breviloquium, P. Ill, c. 11. — M. Ger-
bert, De Peccato in Spiritum Sanctum, Blasii 1766. — J. I. Hoff-
mann, Die Sunde und Siinden gegen den hi. Geist, Ratisbon
1847, pp. 16 sqq. — Alex, ab Oettingen, De Peccato in Spiritum
Sanctum, Dorpat 1856, pp. 49 sqq. — H. Noldin, S.J., Summa
Theol. Mor., Vol. I, pp. 393 sqq. — J. Knabenbauer, S.J., Comment.
in Quatuor S. Evangelia, Paris 1892, Vol. I, pp. 487 sqq. — J.
Forget in the Cath. Encyclopedia, Vol. VII, pp. 414 sq.

PART II
THE MEANS OF GRACE

CHAPTER I

THE CAUSES OF MORAL REGENERATION

SECTION i

THE SUPERNATURAL PRINCIPLE OF MORAL
REGENERATION

The moral order originally established by God
was, as we have seen, disturbed by the sin of our
first parents and restored by Jesus Christ. The
principle of its restoration in general, and of the
moral regeneration of each human individual in
particular, is supernatural grace.1

i. We can acquire no supernatural merits
without grace.

a) Reason enables man to perceive the truths
of the natural order. For the knowledge of
the supernatural truths, however, he needs a
stronger light.2 "The human intellect," says
St. Thomas, "has a form, namely, intelligent

l Cfr. John I. 17; Rom. V, 20 sq.; Cfr. Pohle-Preuss, Grace, 2nd ed.,
2 Cor. V, 19-21; Eph. II, 8-10. St. Louis 1017.

2 1 Cor. XIII, 3; 2 Cor. Ill, 5.
98

MORAL REGENERATION

99

light, which of itself is sufficient for knowing cer-
tain intelligible things, namely, those we can come
to know through the senses. Higher intelligible
things the human intellect cannot know unless it
be perfected by a stronger light, vis.: that of
faith or prophecy, which is called the light of
grace, inasmuch as it is added to nature." 3 Nor
is it the intellect alone that depends on God for its
operation ; but the will also. No man can will or
perform a supernaturally good act except by the
aid of a higher power ; 4 nor can any man, with-
out this power (which we call divine grace),
love God above all things 5 or keep the com-

3 Summa Theol., ia 2ae, qu. 109,
art. 1 : "Intellectus humanus habet
aliquam formam, scilicet ipsum in-
tellegibile lumen, quod est de se
sufhciens ad quaedam intellegibilia
cognoscenda, ad ea scilicet, in quo-
rum notitiam per sensibilia possu-
tnus devenire. Altiora vero intelle-
gibilia intellectus humanus cogno-
scere non potest nisi fortiori lumine
perficiatur, sicut lumine fidei vel
prophetiae, quod dicitur lumen gra-
tiae, inquantum est naturae super-
additum. Sic igitur dicendum est
quod ad cognitionem cuiuscunque
veri homo indiget auxilio divino, ut
intellectus a Deo moveatur ad suum
actum."

4Cfr. Rom. IX, 16; Phil. II, 13.
— St. Augustine, De Corrept. et
Grat., c. 2, n. 3: "Intellegenda est
gratia Dei per Iesum Christum Do-
minum nostrum, qua sold homines
liberantur a malo et sine qua nullum
prorsus sive cogitando sive volendo
et amando sive agendo faciunt bo-
num, non solum ut monstrante ipsa

quid faciendum sit sciant, verum
etiam ut praestante ipsa faciant cum
dilectionc, quod sciunt." (Migne,
P. L., XLIV, 917).— St. Thomas,
Summa Theol., ia 2ae, qu. 109, art.
2: "In utroque statu [naturae in-
tegrae et corruptae] indiget homo
auxilio divino, ut ab ipso moveatur
ad bene agendum." — Cfr. Prop. Baii
Damnat., prop. 37: "Cum Pelagio
sentit, qui boni aliquid naturalis, hoc
est, quod ex naturae solis viribus
ortum ducit, agnoscit." — Prop. 65:
"Nonnisi Pelagiano errore admitti
potest usus aliquis liberi arbitrii
bonus sive non malus, et gratiae
Christi iniuriam facit, qui ita sen-
tit et docet." (Denzinger-Bann-
wart, n. 917, 945)- — Cfr. J. Ernst,
Die Werke und Tugenden der Un-
glaubigen nach St. Augustin, Frei-
burg 1871, pp. 19 sqq.

5 Cfr. Rom. V, 5.— St. Thomas,
Summa Theol., ia 2ae, qu. 109, art.
2, n. 3: "Homo in statu naturae
integrae non indigebat dono gratiae
superadditae naturalibus bonis ad

100

THE MEANS OF GRACE

mandments perfectly,6 or attain eternal salva-
tion.7

b) God is the immediate principle of all
supernatural operation, including that by which

diligendum Deum naturaliter supra
omnia, licet indigeret auxilio Dei ad
hoc eum moventis, sed in statu na-
turae corruptae indiget homo etiam
ad hoc auxilio gratiae naturam sa-
nantis."

6Cfr. John XV, 4 sq.— St. Au-
gustine, De Haeres., 88: "Pelagi-
ani in tantum inimici sunt Dei
gratiae, ut sine hac posse hominem
credant facere omnia divina man-
data." (Migne, P. L., XLII, 47) —
St. Thomas, Summa Theol., ia 2ae,
qu. 109, art. 4: "Implere mandata
legis contingit dupliciter. Uno modo
quantum ad substantiam operum,
prout scilicet homo operatur iusta
et fortia et alia virtutis opera, et
hoc modo homo in statu naturae in-
tegrae potuit omnia mandata legis
implere; alioquin homo non potuisset
in statu illo non peccare, quum nihil
aliud sit peccare quam transgredi
divina mandata; sed in statu naturae
corruptae non potest homo implere
omnia mandata divina sine gratia
sanante. Alio modo possunt impleri
mandata legis non solum quantum
ad substantiam operis, sed etiam
quantum ad modum agendi, ut scili-
cet ex caritate fiant ; et sic neque in
statu naturae integrae neque in
statu naturae corruptae potest homo
implere absque gratia legis man-
data. . . . Indigent insuper in utro-
que statu auxilio Dei moventis ad
mandata implenda."

7 Cfr. Rom. VI, 23: T6 xapur/jct
roil Qeoii fwr; alwvios iv Xpicru
'lr]ffov Tto Kvptio ijixuv. — St. Thomas,
Summa Theol., ia 2ae, qu. 109, art.
5: "Vita aeterna est finis excedens
proportionem naturae humanae, et

ideo homo per sua naturalia non pot-
est producere opera meritoria pro-
portionata vitae aeternae, sed ad hoc
exigitur altior inrtus, quae est virtus
gratiae. Et ideo sine gratia homo
non potest mereri vitam aeternam."
— Idem, Summa contra Gentiles, III,
c. 148, n. 2, 3: "Res inferioris
naturae in id quod est proprium
superioris naturae non potest perduci
nisi virtute illius superioris naturae,
sicut luna quae ex se non lucet, fit
lucida virtute et actione solis, et
aqua quae per se non calet, fit calida
virtute et actione ignis. [And dogs
and horses, parrots and monkeys,
learn tricks by contact with man,
which they never would have learnt
in their wild state. And savages
are civilized by coming in contact
with a culture higher than their own,
but for which contact with a higher
race they would have remained
perennial savages. As man human-
izes the brute, and civilizes his sav-
age brother, so does God divinize
man. — Jos. Rickaby, S.J., Of God
and His Creatures, London 1905, p.
319]. Videre autem ipsam primam
veritatem in seipsa [in which pre-
cisely eternal beatitude consists] ita
transcendit facultatem humanae na-
turae, quod est proprium solius Dei.
Indiget igitur homo auxilio divino
ad hoc quod in dictum finem [i. e.,
ad beatitudinem] perveniat. Una-
quaeque res per operationem suam
ultimum finem consequitur. Opera-
tio autem virtutem sortitur ex prin-
cipio operante, unde per actionem
seminis generatur aliquid in deter-
minata specie, cuius z-irtus in semine
praeexsistit. Non potest igitur homo

MORAL REGENERATION

IOI

man prepares himself for the reception of
grace. Hence divine grace is indispensably
necessary for this preparation.8 This is all
the more evident when it is considered that God
alone had it in His power to redeem mankind
after the fall, to restore the moral order, and
to forgive the eternal punishment incurred by
sin.9 Even if put in the state of grace man can-
not remain therein without continuous help
from his Maker. Hence it is quite true to say
that man can do nothing towards securing his
salvation except by the grace of God.10 In this

per operationem suam pervenire in
ultimum finem suum, qui transcendit
facultatem naturalium potentiarum,
nisi eius operatio ex divina virtute
efficaciam capiat ad finem praedic-
tutn."

8 John VI, 44; XV, 5.— Cfr. Cone.
Trident., Sess. VI, can. 3: "Si
quis dixerit, sine praeveniente Spi-
ritus Sancti inspiratione atque eius
adiutorio hominem credere, sperare,
diligere aut poenitere posse, sicut
oportet, ut ei iustificationis gratia
conferatur, anathema sit." — St.
Thomas, Summa Theol., ia 2ae, qu.
109, art. 6: "Hoc est praeparare se
ad gratiam quasi ad Deum converti,
sicut Me, qui habet oculum aversum
a lumine solis, per hoc se praeparat
ad recipiendum lumen solis, quod
oculos suos convertit versus solem.
Unde patet, quod homo non potest se
praeparare ad lumen gratiae susci-
piendum, nisi per auxilium gratui-
tum Dei interius moventis."

9 Gal. II, 21. — Cfr. Cone. Arausic.
II., can. 14: "Nullus miser de
quacunque miseria liberatur, nisi qui
Dei misericordia praevenitur." —

Can. 19: "Quum [natura humana]
sine Dei gratia salutem non possit
custodire, quam accepit, quomodo
sine Dei gratia poterit reparare,
quod perdidit?" (Denzinger-Bann-
wart, n. 187, 192). — St. Augustine,
Enarr. in Ps., 95, n. 5: "Vendere
se [homines] potuerunt, sed redi-
mere non potuerunt." (Migne, P.
L., XXXVII, 123 1). —St. Thomas,
Summa Theol., ia 2ae, qu. 109, art.
7: "Homo nullo modo potest resur-
gere a peccato per seipsum sine
auxilio gratiae. Quum enim pec-
catum transiens actu remaneat reatu,
non est idem resurgere a peccato
quod cessare ab actu peccati, sed
resurgere a peccato est reparari ho-
minem ad ea quae peccando amisit.
. . . Et ideo requiritur auxilium
gratiae ad hoc, quod homo a peccato
resurget, et quantum ad habituate
donum et quantum ad interiorem
Dei motionem." — Cfr. Seneca, Epist.,
52, 2 : "Nemo per se satis valet, ut
emergat."

10 Phil. II, 13. — Cone. Arausic.
II., can. 9: "Divini est munerie,
quum et recte cogitamus et pedes

102

THE MEANS OF GRACE

sense it has been truly said that the only thing
man can do is to sin.11

2. The process of justification, by which a sin-
ner is restored to the friendship of God, cannot
take place without grace. It was in man's power
to offend God, but it is not in his power to redeem
himself.12 The omnipotent Creator alone can
revive a dead soul.13 Reconciled to the human
race by the atonement, in which His only Son

nostros a falsitate et iniustitia con-
tinemus; quoties enim bona agimus,
Deus in nobis atque nobiscum, ut
operemur, operatur." Can. 10:
"Adiutorium Dei etiam renatis ac
Sanctis semper est implorandum, ut
ad finem bonum pervenire, vel in
bono possint opere perdurare."
(Denzinger-Bannwart, n. 182, 183).
Cfr. Cone. Trident., Sess. VI, can.
22 (Denzinger-Bannwart, n. 832). —
St. Thomas, Summa Theol., ia 2ae,
qu. 109, art. 8-10.

11 St. Augustine, Contra Duos
Epist. Pelagian., Ill, c. 8, n. 24:
"Liberum arbitrium captivatum
nonnisi ad peccatum valet, ad iu-
stitiam vero nisi divinitus liberatum
adiutumque non valet." (Migne,
P. L., XLIV, 607).— Idem, De Cor
rept. et Grat., c. 11, n. 31: "Li
berum arbitrium ad malum sufficit
ad bonum autem parum est nisi ad
iuvetur ab omnipotent bono." (P
L., XLIV, 935)— Cfr. St. Thomas
Comment, in Sent., II, dist. 28, qu
1, ad 4: "Secundum fidem catho
licam in medio contrariarum haere
sum incedendum est, ut scilicet di
camus, hominem per liberum arbi-
trium et bona et mala facer e posse,
non tamen in actum meritorium
exire sine habitu gratiae."

12 St. Augustine, Er.arr. in Ps.,
95, n. 5: "Vendere se potuerunt
[homines], sed redimere non potue-
runt. Venit redemptor et dedit pre-
tium; fudit sanguinem, emit orbem
terrarum." (Migne, P. L., XXXVII,
123 1 )• — Cfr. the same author's Ser-
mones, 20, n. 1 (P. L., XXXVIII,

137)-

13 St. Augustine, Epist., 155 (<»'•
52), c. 1, n. 2: "Neque facit bea-
turn hominem, nisi qui facit ho-
minem." (Migne, P. L., XXXIII,
667). — Idem, Contra Julian., I, c.
105: "A peccatis omnibus, sive
originalibus sive moralibus, vel quae
facta sunt, vel ne fiant, non liberat
nisi gratia Dei per lesum Christum,
Dominum nostrum, in quo regenerati
sumus et a quo didicimus orando di-
cere non solum: 'Dimitte nobis de-
bita nostra,' id est, quia peccavimus,
verum etiam : 'ne nos inferos in
tentationem,' id est, ne peccemus."
(P. L., XLV, 1 1 19).— Idem, En-
chirid., c. 48, n. 14: "Illud unum
peccatum [originate] . . . non solvi-
tur ac diluitur, nisi per unum media-
torem Dei et hominum, Christum
lesum (/ Tim. it, 5), <3«« solus po-
tuit ita nasci, ut ei opus non esset
renasci." (P. L., XL, 25s).— Cone.
Trident., Sess. VI, can. 1.

MORAL REGENERATION 103

gave up His life for the love of men,14 God justi-
fies the individual sinner by infusing sanctifying
grace into his soul and forgiving him his sins.16
The first requisite of justification, therefore, is
divine grace, and the moral regeneration of
the sinner is God's work, — a work more wonder-
ful than the creation of heaven and earth, be-
cause grace implies a participation of the creature
in the divine nature and consequently transcends
all natural agencies.16

Readings. — St. Thomas, Summa Theologica, ia 2ae, qu. 110-
114. — Pohle-Preuss, Grace, Actual and Habitual, 2nd ed., St.
Louis 1917, pp. 272 sqq. — A. Rietter, Die Moral des hi. Thomas
von Aquin, Munich 1858, pp. 275 sqq. — J. H. Newman, Lectures
on the Doctrine of Justification, 8th impression, London 1900.

l4Cfr. Matth. XX, 28; XXVI, 18 Cfr. Ps. CXLIV, 9.— St. Au-

28; Mark X, 45; XIV, 24; Luke gustine, Tract, in Ioa., 72, n. 3:

XXII, 19; Rom. V, 10; 2 Cor. V, "Prorsus mains hoc [opus] esse

18 sq.; Eph. II, 16; Col. I, 20; 1 dixerim, quam est caelum et terra et

Tim. II, 6; Tit. II, 14; 1 Pet. I, quaecunque cernuntur in caelo et in

18 sq.; II, 24. terra. Et caelum enim et terra

15 Cfr. 1 Cor. VI, 11; Tit. Ill, transibit <Mt. xxiv, 35), praedesti-

5-7. — Cone. Trident., Sess. VI, c. natorum autem, id est, eorum quos

7: "Iustificatio . . . non est sola praescivit, salus et iustificatio per-

peccatorum remissio, sed et sancti- manebit. In Mis tantum opera Dei,

Hcatio et renovatio interioris ho- in his autem etiam est imago Dei."

minis."— Can. 11: "Si quis dixerit, (Migne, P. L., XXXV, 1823).— The

homines iustificari vel sola imputa- Roman Missal contains this oration

tione iustitiae Christi, vel sola pec- for the tenth Sunday after Pente-

catorum remissione, exclusa gratia et cost: "Deus, qui omnipotentiam

caritate, quae in cordibus eorum per tuam parcendo maxime et miserando

Spiritum Sanctum diffundatur atque manifestos, multiplica super nos mi-

illis inhaereat, . . . anathema sit." sericordiam tuam," etc.
(Denzinger-Bannwart, n. 799.,, 82 1).

SECTION 2

THE NATURAL REQUISITE OF MORAL
REGENERATION

Though "the justification of the sinner is
brought about by God moving man to justice," '
moral regeneration in the case of adults is not a
compulsory, much less a magical process, but
one that takes place in a manner corresponding to
human nature, i. e., by the free cooperation of the
will with grace.2

1 Cone. Trident., Sess. VI, can.
1-3. — Cfr. Saint Thomas, Summa
Theol., 1 a 2ae, qu. 113, art. 3:
"lustificatio impii fit Deo movente
hominem ad iustitiam. Ipse enim
est, qui iustificat impium (.Rom. iii,
24)."

2 St. Augustine, Sertn., 169 (al.
15 de Verbis Apost.), c. 11, n. 13:
"Esse potest iustitia Dei sine volun-
tate tua, sed in te esse non potest
praeter voluntatem tuam. . . . Qui
fecit te sine te, non te iustificat sine
te. Ergo fecit nescientem, iustifi-
cat volentem." (Migne, P. L.,
XXXVIII, 923).— The Angelic Doc-
tor continues as follows in the pas-
sage quoted above (Summa Theol.,
1a 2ae, qu. 113, art. 3): "Deus au-
tem movet omnia secundum modum
uniuscuiusque, sicut in naturalibus
ridemus, quod aliter moventur ab
ipso gravia et aliter levia propter
diversam naturam utriusque. Unde

et hominem ad iustitiam movet se-
cundum conditionem naturae hu-
manae. Homo autem secundum
propriam naturam habet quod sit
liberi arbitrii. Et ideo in eo qui ha-
bet usum liberi arbitrii non fit motio
a Deo ad iustitiam absque tnotu li-
beri arbitrii, sed ita infundit donum
gratiae iustificantis, quod etiam simul
cum hoc movet liberum arbitrium ad
donum gratiae acceptandum in his
qui sunt huius motionis capaces." —
Contra Gent., 1. 3, c. 148, n. 2: "Di-
vinum auxilium sic intellegitur ad
bene agendum homini adhiberi, quod
in nobis nostra opera operatur. sicut
causa prima operatur operationes
causarum secundarum et agens prin-
cipal operatur actionem instruments
(Is. XXVI, 12). Causa autem prima
causat operationem causae secundae
secundum modum ipsius. Ergo et
Deus causat in nobis nostra opera
secundum modum nostrum, qui est

104

MORAL REGENERATION

105

Justification, therefore, presupposes a rational
creature endowed with free-will and voluntarily
subjecting itself to God.3 This movement of the
will towards God takes place by faith,4 which
turns the soul away from sin and directs it to-
wards God.5

Because concupiscence remains in the soul even

ut voluntarie et non coacte agamus.
Non divino igitur auxilio aliquis
cogitur ad recte agendum."

3 Cone. Trident., Sess. VI, can.
4: "Si quis dixerit, liberum ho-
minis arbitrium a Deo motum et ex-
citatum nihil cooperari assentiendo
Deo excitanti atque vocanti, quo ad
obtinendam iustificationis gratiam se
disponat ac praeparet, neque posse
dissentire, si velit, sed veluti inanime
quoddam nihil omnino agere, mere-
que passive se habere, anathema sit."
(Denzinger-Bannwart, n. 814).

4 St. Thomas, Summa Theol., ia
2ae, qu. 113, art. 4: "Motus liberi
arbitrii requiritur ad iustificationem
impii, secundum quod mens hominis
movetur a Deo. Deus autem movet
animam hominis convertendo earn
ad seipsum (Ps. LXXXIV, 7). Et
ideo ad iustificationem impii requiri-
tur motus mentis, quo convertitur in
Deum. Prima autem conversio in
Deum fit per fidem (Hebr. XI, 6).
Et ideo motus fidei requiritur ad iu-
stificationem impii."

5 St. Thomas, Summa Theol., ia
2ae, qu. 113, art. 5: "lustificatio
impii est quidam motus, quo humana
mens movetur a Deo a statu pec'
cati in statum iustitiae. Oportet
igitur, quod humana mens se habeat
ad utrumque extremorum secundum
motum liberi arbitrii, sicut se habet
corpus localiter motum ab aliquo mo-
vente ad duos terminos motus.
Manifestum est autem, in motu lo-
cali corporum, quod corpus motum

recedit a termino a quo et accedit
ad terminum ad quern. Unde opor-
tet, quod mens humana, dum iusti-
ficatur, per motum liberi arbitrii re-
cedat a peccato et accedat ad iusti-
tiam. Recessus autem et accessus
in motu liberi arbitrii accipitur se-
cundum detestationem et desiderium.
. . . Oportet igitur, quod in iustifi-
catione impii sit motus liberi arbitrii
duplex: unus, quo per desiderium
tendat in Dei iustitiam, et alius, quo
detest etur peccatum." — Ibid., art. 6:
"Quattuor enumerantur, quae re-
quiruntur ad iustificationem impii,
scilicet gratiae infusio, motus liberi
arbitrii in Deum per fidem et motus
liberi arbitrii in peccatum et remissio
culpae." — Ibid., art. 7: "Tota iu-
stificatio impii originaliter consistit
in gratiae infusione. Per earn enim
et liberum arbitrium movetur et cul-
pa remittitur." — Cone. Trid., Sess.
VI, cap. 6: "Ilium [Deum] tarn-
quam omnis iustitiae fontem diligere
incipiunt [peccatores], ac propter ea
moventur adversus peccata per odi-
um aliquod et detestationem."—
Cap. 7: "Hanc dispositionem sett
praeparationem iustificatio ipsa con-
sequitur, quae non est sola pecca-
torum remissio, sed et sanctificatio
et renovatio interioris hominis per
voluntariam susceptionem gratiae et
donorum, unde homo ex iniusto fit
iustus, et ex inimico amicus, ut sit
haeres secundum spem vitae aeter-
nae (Tit. Hi, 7)." (Denzinger-
Bannwart, n. 798, 799).

io6

THE MEANS OF GRACE

after this moral regeneration,6 man must fight
all his life against the enemies of his eternal
salvation and endeavor to secure it by obedience
to the commandments, by prayer and abstinence,
by works of faith, hope, and charity, — in a word,
he must strive unremittingly to grow "in the
knowledge of the Son of God, unto a perfect
man, unto the measure of the age of the fulness
of Christ." 7 Though the struggle may at times
seem well nigh hopeless, God's grace makes vic-
tory still possible. "In all these things we
overcome, because of Him that hath loved us,"
say the Tridentine Fathers,8 and add: "God
forsakes not those who have been once justified
by His grace, unless He be first forsaken by
them." 9

The necessity of cooperating with grace is illustrated
in the parable of the man who failed to watch for

6 Rom. VII, 23; Gal. V, 17; Jas.
I, 14; cfr. Cone. Trident., Sess. V,
can. 5.

7 Eph. IV, 13, is; cfr. Matth. X,
34 sqq.; XVI, 24; XIX, 17; XXVI,
41; Rom. V, 1 sqq.; VII, 18 sqq.; a
Pet. I, 10. — Cone. Trident., Sess.
VI, cap. 10: "Sic ergo iustificati,
et amici Dei ac domestici [Ioa. xv,
15; Eph. ii, 19] facti, euntes de
virtute in virtutem [Ps. Ixxxiii, 8],
renovantur, ut Apostolus inquit de
die in diem [2 Cor. iv, 16], hoc est,
mortificando membra carnis suae
[Col. iii, 5] et exhibendo ea arma
iustitiae [Rom. vi, 13, 19] in sane-
tificationem : per observationem man-
datorum Dei et Ecclcsiae in ipsa
iustilia per Christi gratiam acceptd,

cooperante fide bonis operibus, cres-
cunt atque magis iustificantur."
(Denzinger-Bannwart, n. 803).

8 Rom. VIII, 37; cfr. Matth. XI,
30; 1 John V, 3. — St. Augustine
says in his treatise De Natura et
Gratia, c. 43, n. 50: "Nam Deus
impossibilia non iubet, sed iubendo
monet et facere quod possis, et pe-
tere quod non possis." (Migne,
P. L., XLIV, 271).— The Council
of Trent (Sess. VI, c. 11) quotes
these words, and adds: "et adiuzat,
ut possis." (Denzinger-Bannwart,
n. 804).

8 "Deus namque sua gratia semel
iustificatos non deserit, nisi ab eis
prius deseratur." (Ibid.)

MORAL REGENERATION

107

the thief,10 that of the faithful servant,11 that of the wise
and the foolish virgins,12 that of the talents which the
master gave to his servants, and others.13

Sanctifying grace is ordinarily attached to certain vis-
ible signs, called Sacraments, — "through which," in the
words of the Tridentine Fathers, " all true justice either
begins, or being begun is increased, or being lost is re-
paired." 14

These means of grace man is in duty bound to use, —
which is but another way of saying that he must submit
himself to the Church established by Jesus Christ.15

Readings. — St. Thomas, Summa Theologica, ia 2ae, qu. 113. —
Pohle-Preuss, Grace, Actual and Habitual, 2nd ed., St. Louis,
1917. PP- 274 sqq. — Codex Iuris Canonici, can. 731-1144. (In
this work we have duly noted the changes made necessary by
the new Code. A succinct statement of them will be found in
A. Viladevall, Mutationes in Theologiam Moralem a Novo Codice
Iuris Canonici Inductae, Buenos Aires 1917)'

loMatth. xxiv, 43 sqq-

11 Matth. XXV, 1 sqq.

12 Matth. XXIV, 45 sqq.

13 Matth. XXV, 14 sqq.

14 Cone. Trident., Sess. VI, can.
20; Sess. VII, Prooem.

15 Cone. Trident., Sess. VII, De
Sacr., can. 4; De Bapt., can. 8
(Denzinger-Bannwart, n. 847, 864).

CHAPTER II

THE SACRAMENTS AS DIVINELY INSTITUTED
MEANS OF GRACE

SECTION i

THE MORAL REQUISITES OF VALID
ADMINISTRATION

I. The efficacy of the Sacraments depends
solely on the will of God, and hence all that is
required for their valid administration on the part
of the minister is power and jurisdiction, proper
application of matter and form, and an actual or
at least a virtual intention of doing what the
Church does.1

It is a mortal sin for any one not in the state
of sanctifying grace to administer a Sacra-
ment solemnly. Ignorance, of course, is an
excuse, and so is urgent necessity, as when the
administration of Baptism or Penance cannot be
postponed without danger to the salvation of
others. In such urgent cases the minister is

1 Cone. Trident, Sess. VII, De De Poenit., can. 10 (Denzinger-
Sacr., can. 10, II, 12; Sess. XIV, Bannwart, n. 853, 854, 85s, 920).

108

VALID ADMINISTRATION 109

called minister necessitatis; in all others, minister
solemnitatis.

Hence the general rule that no Sacrament
should be performed or administered by one
who is in the state of mortal sin. One who
is so unfortunate as to be called upon to adminis-
ter a Sacrament in that state, should first cleanse
himself by the worthy reception of Penance, if he
can conveniently find a confessor (habit a copia
confessoris),2 or else by an act of perfect contri-
tion.

Matrimony is the only Sacrament that is not
administered by the priest but by the contracting
parties to each other, and hence husband and
wife are themselves the ministers.3 They should
receive this holy Sacrament in the state of
grace, which means, ordinarily, that they should
go to confession and Communion before plighting
their troth.

In regard to the other Sacraments the question
arises: If a priest who is in the state of mortal
sin be called upon to administer a Sacrament,
must he go to confession, or is perfect contrition
sufficient ? We answer : Perfect contrition suf-
fices for all Sacraments except the Holy Eu-
charist (t. e., saying Mass). The reason is

2 Cone. Trident., Sess. XIII, cap. 8 Cone. Trident., Sess. XXIV, De

7, can. ii ; Rit. Rom., De Administr. Reform. Matr., c. i; Rit. Rom.,

Sacram., tit. i, n. 4; Codex Iuris De Sacr. Matr., tit. 7, c. 1, n. 17.
Can., can. 807.

no

THE MEANS OF GRACE

this: Perfect contrition, including the votum
sacramenti, restores sanctifying grace, and the
administration of all the Sacraments, with the
exception of the consecration of the Eucharist, is
always, morally speaking, a matter of necessity.
When the celebration of Mass is a matter of
necessity, as sometimes happens, it will suffice for
the priest to make an act of perfect contrition, but
he is bound to receive the Sacrament of Penance
as soon thereafter as an opportunity offers, i. e.,
at least within three days, according to the com-
mon interpretation of the law.4

It follows that all those who are ex officio en-
trusted with the administration of the means of
grace, are in duty bound to hold themselves in
readiness to administer the Sacraments, in other
words, to be habitually in the state of grace.5

So much for the interior disposition of the minister.
Now for the act of administration. As the minister
acts in the name and by authority of the Church,
the first rule is that he must comply with her directions.
Sancta sancte tractanda. Hence it is a mortal sin know-
ingly to employ the wrong matter or form, or, except in

4 Cone. Trident., Sess. VI, c.
5-6. — Missale Rom., De Defect,
in Cel. Missae, tit. 8, n. 2 sq. —
Prop. Damnat. ab Alexandro VII.,
38: "Mandatum Tridcntini factum
sacerdoti sacrificanti ex necessitate
cum peccato mortali, confitendi
quamprimum, est consilium, non
pracceptum." — Prop. 39: "Ilia par-
ticula 'quamprimum' intellegitur,
quum saccrdos suo tempore confite-

bitur." (Denzinger-Bannwart, n.
1 1 38 sq.). — Cfr. Ferreres, Comp.
Theol. M., cd. 8a, Vol. II, n. 43'.
qu. 5.

B Cfr. St. Augustine, Enarr. in
Ps., CIll, s. 1, n. 9: "Videant,
qualem rationem habituri sunt cum
Deo, qui Sanctis non sancte utun-
tur." (Migne, Pat. Lot., XXXVII,
'343)-

VALID ADMINISTRATION in

case of necessity, a matter or form of doubtful validity ;
since this would endanger the Sacrament. In cases of
necessity (iusta causa) a doubtful matter or form may
be employed, because the Sacraments are instituted for
the sake of men (sacramenta propter homines). It is
likewise sinful (mortally or venially, according to the
circumstances of each case) to alter or mutilate the words
of the form, to utter them inarticulately or without
devotion, or to omit important rites or ceremonies pre-
scribed by the Church. If this is done out of contempt
for Christ or the Church, or if it causes grave scandal,
the minister commits a mortal sin, and even when the mo-
tive is mere negligence, a mortal sin is committed every
time the object is materia gravis.9

2. The faithful have a right to the Sacraments,
and hence all duly appointed ministers of the
Church are bound in justice to administer the
same whenever they are asked, and should al-
ways be ready and willing to comply with every
reasonable request, nay exhort their people to
make frequent use of the divinely appointed
means of grace.7 It is a mortal sin for a priest
entrusted with the care of souls to refuse to ad-
minister a Sacrament without good reason, or to
administer it with manifest reluctance. Such
conduct is apt to deter the faithful from the re-
ception of the Sacraments and easily causes scan-

6 Cfr. Cone. Trident., Sess. VII, 1 Cfr. Concilium Trident., Sess.

De Sacr., can. 13 (Denzinger-Bann- XXIII, De Ref., C. 1; Rit. Rom.,

wart, n. 856) ; Rit. Rom., De Ad- De Administr. Sacram., n. 5.
minis tr. Sacram., tit. 1, n. 11.

ii2 THE MEANS OF GRACE

dal. The duty of administering Baptism and
Penance, in particular, binds even when there is
danger of contracting a contagious disease or in-
curring grave risk to life or limb.8 Of course, all
reasonable precautions may and should be taken
in such cases. The duty just mentioned does not
bind priests who are not officially engaged in pas-
toral work, though all are bound to respond
to urgent calls when there is grave necessity,
as, e. g., on the field of battle, or when some
one is seriously ill or dying and no other priest
can be had. The same rule applies to a pastor in
his conduct towards those not under his care.
We need hardly add, however, that no true priest
will confine himself to what is of strict duty in
matters of this kind.

It is forbidden {extra periculum mortis) to administer
the Sacraments to persons who are notoriously unworthy
(publice indigni), especially if these persons are excom-
municated by name, or are under an interdict, or if they
lead a life of public infamy, e. g., prostitutes, fortune tell-
ers, concubinarians, and Freemasons publicly known as
such, unless indeed they have done penance and repaired
the scandal given. The reason for this prohibition is the
danger of scandalizing the faithful and Christ's admoni-
tion not to give that which is holy to the dogs nor to cast
pearls before swine.9

8 John X, 11-13. — Benedict XIV, Sacramento Tempore Pestis, May-

De Synodo Dioecesana, XIII, c. 19, ence 1612.

n. 8.— Cfr. I. Chapeauville, Tract. 0 Matth. VII, 6.— Cfr. 1 Tim. V,

de Necessitate et Modo Ministrandi 22. — Rit. Rom., De S. Eucharist.

VALID ADMINISTRATION 113

In applying this rule attention must be paid to the dis-
tinction between public and private sinners and to the
nature of the request made. If the priest knows of the
unworthiness of an applicant only by his official position,
i. e., through the confessional, he is obliged to administer
the Sacrament asked for, e. g., Holy Communion, be-
cause the preservation of the seal and the good name
of the recipient are more important than regard for the
sanctity of the Sacrament. Hence if a person who is
guilty of secret sin should publicly demand a Sacrament,
his demand must not be refused if there is danger of
public defamation or grave scandal. The case is differ-
ent with public sinners and secret offenders who apply
privately to the priest. To such (extra periculum mor-
tis) no Sacrament should be administered except Penance
and, under certain conditions, Matrimony.

To simulate a Sacrament, e. g., by administering an un-
consecrated host, is never allowed, not even for the pur-
pose of preventing sacrilege or saving one's life.10 To
bless or pray over a penitent not properly disposed, in
order to protect the secret of the confessional or the good
name of the sinner, is not a simulatio or fictio sacramenti,
and therefore permitted.11

Readings. — St. Thomas, Summa Theologica, 3a, qu. 60-90. —
St. Alphonsus, Theologia Moralis, 1. VI, tr. 1-5 (ed. Gaude,
Vol. III). — P. Schanz, Die Lehre von den hi. Sakramenten,
Freiburg 1893, pp. 161 sqq. — N. Gihr, Die hi. Sakramente der
kath. Kirche, Vol. I, 2nd ed., Freiburg 1902, pp. 140 sqq. — Chr.
Pesch, S.J., Praelectiones Dogmaticae, Vol. VI, 3rd ed., pp. 98
sqq. — P. Pourrat, Theology of the Sacraments, 2nd ed., St. Louis

Sacr., tit. 4, c. i, n. 8-9. — Chr. was condemned by Pope Innocent

Pesch, Praelect. Dogmaticae, Vol. XI {Prop. Damnat., n. 29; Denz.-

VI, 3rd ed., pp. 126 sqq. Bannwart, n. 11 79).

10 The proposition: "Urgens me- 11 H. Noldin, S.J., Summa Theot.

tus gravis est causa iusta sacramen- Mor., Vol. Ill, nth ed., pp. 40 sq.
torum administrationem simulandi"

ii4 THE MEANS OF GRACE

1914. — Pohle-Preuss, The Sacraments, Vol. I, St. Louis 1915', pp.
161 sqq. — Wilhelm-Scannell, A Manual of Catholic Theology,
Vol. II, 2nd ed., London 1901, pp. 366 sqq. — J. E. Primer, Lehr-
buch der Pastoraltheologie, Vol. I, 2nd ed., Paderborn 1904, pp.
94 sqq. — H. Noldin, S.J., Summa Theol. Mor., Vol. Ill, nth ed.,
pp. 3 sqq. — J. de Lugo, De Sacramentis in Genere, disp. 1-9. —
Ballerini-Palmieri, S.J., Opus Theol. Mor., 3rd ed., Vol. IV, n.
642-710.— A. Lehmkuhl, S.J., Theol. Moral, Vol. II, nth ed.,
pp. 1-43. — Sabetti-Barrett, S.J., Comp. Theol. Mor., 22nd ed., pp.
515 sqq. — Th. Slater, S.J., A Manual of Moral Theology, Vol.
II, pp. 15 sqq.

SECTION 2

THE MORAL REQUISITES OF WORTHY
RECEPTION

Regarding the moral requisites of worthy re-
ception, a distinction must be drawn between
what is necessary for the validity of a Sacrament
and what is required for its licit and fruitful
reception.

I. The valid reception of a Sacrament re-
quires :

a) that the recipient be in the wayfaring state
(in statu viatoris) ;

b) that (if he be an adult) he have the wish to
employ the Sacrament as a means of grace;

c) that he be baptized.

Baptism, according to an ancient saying, is the
door to the supernatural life. No other Sacra-
ment can be validly received without it.1

As regards the necessary intention, this is sup-
plied by the Church for infants, insane and weak-
minded persons, and adults who lack the full use
of reason.2 When there is question of adminis-

1 Cfr. Pohle-Preuss, The Sacra- Giehr, Die hi. Sakramente, Vol. I,

ments, Vol. I, 2nd ed., pp. 238 sqq.; 2nd ed., pp. 158 sqq.

Chr. Pesch, S.J., Praelect. Dogm., 2 Cfr. Matth. VIII, 5-10; XV,

Vol. VI, 3rd ed., pp. 130 sqq.; N. 22-28; Mark IX, 16-26.

"5

n6 THE MEANS OF GRACE

tering Extreme Unction to an unconscious Cath-
olic, it may be presumed that the patient would
wish to receive the Sacrament if he were in pos-
session of his faculties. Penance and Extreme
Unction require an actual, or at least a virtual,
intention; for the other Sacraments (Baptism of
adults, Confirmation, Communion, and Holy
Orders) a habitual intention is sufficient.

2. For the licit and fruitful reception of Bap-
tism (in the case of adults) and Penance there is
required in the subject faith, hope, and imperfect
contrition (attritio). One who has lost sanctify-
ing grace after Baptism must regain it by a wor-
thy confession before he can worthily receive
Holy Communion.3 The reception of Penance is
recommended, though not prescribed, as the best
means of preparing for the other Sacraments of
the living. To receive any of these Sacraments
consciously in the state of mortal sin is a
sacrilege and a more grievous sin than would be
the administration of a Sacrament in the same
condition.

Broadly speaking, the faithful are in duty
bound to demand the Sacraments only from
properly constituted ministers of good character.
Every priest is to be regarded as worthy unless
his unworthiness is certain and notorious.

s Cone. Trident., Sess. VI. c. zinger-Bannwart, n. 797, 798, 880,
5-6; Sess. XIII, c. 7, can. 11 (Den- 893).

WORTHY RECEPTION

117

Readings. — P. Schanz, Die Lehre von den hi. Sakramenten,
Freiburg 1893, PP- 187 sqq. — Chr. Pesch, S.J., Praelectiones Dog-
maticae, Vol. VI, 3rd ed., pp. 130 sqq. — Pohle-Preuss, The Sacra-
ments, Vol. I, pp. 191 sqq. — Sabetti-Barrett, S.J., Comp. Theol.
Mor., 22nd ed., pp. 526 sqq. — H. Noldin, S.J., Summa Theol.
Mor., Vol. Ill, pp. 42 sqq. — Th. Slater, S.J., A Manual of Moral
Theology, Vol. II, pp. 41 sqq. — A. Lehmkuhl, S.J., Theol. Mor.,
Vol. II, pp. 37 sqq.

SECTION 3

BAPTISM AND CONFIRMATION

I. Baptism. — Since the coming of Christ Bap-
tism is "the laver of regeneration," 1 in which
every man must be washed, either actually (in
re), or at least in desire (in voto), in order to be
saved.2

The necessity of Baptism, therefore, is a
necessitas medii; but it is also a necessitas prae-
cepti, on account of Christ's command to the
Apostles to teach and baptize all nations.3

The precept of receiving Baptism obliges all
who have the use of reason and are capable of
receiving this Sacrament.4 Nothing can dis-
pense from this duty except utter inability.

a) Baptism being "the Sacrament of faith,"
is necessary for all men, including the children of
Christian parents, and as an indispensable con-
dition of membership in the mystic body of
Christ imposes certain well-defined duties.

Parents and their representatives are bound

lTit. Ill, s. lect. Dogm., Vol. VI, 3rd cd., pp.

2 John III, S- — Cone. Trident., 181 sqq.
Sess. VI, c. 4; Sess. VII, De Bapt., 8 Matth. XXVIII, 19.

can. 2 sqq. (Denzinger-Bannwart, 4 Cone. Trident., Sess. V, can. 4;

n. 796, 858 sqq.) — Cfr. Pcsch, Prae- Sess. VI, C. 7 (Denzinger-Bannwart,

Il8

BAPTISM 119

under pain of grievous sin to have their children
baptized as soon as possible after birth. To
allow a child to die without Baptism is a mortal
sin. As regards the time, due attention should
be paid to approved custom and local eccle-
siastical regulations. Under the present dis-
cipline infants must be baptized as soon as
it can conveniently be done.5 Most theologians
deem it a mortal sin to defer Baptism for more
than a month without reasonable cause. It is
safe to say that the reception of this most im-
portant Sacrament should not be postponed for
more than a few days unless there be some very
good reason for delay.

The Rituale Romanum forbids a child to be
baptized in utero matris on the ground that the
Sacrament cannot be validly administered under
such conditions. This prohibition is based on an
assumption which has proved to be unfounded.
With the means now at command it is possible to
baptize an infant in utero, and therefore it should
be done. If the head can be reached, the child
should be baptized in the regular way, and the
Baptism must not be repeated if the child is born
alive; if the head cannot be reached but some

n. 799); Rit. Rom., De Sacr. Bapt., Codex Iuris Can., can. 770: "In-

tit. 2, c. 1, n. 1. fantes quamprimum baptizentur ; et

0 Cat. Rom., P. II, c. 2, qu. 33.— parochi ac concionatores frequenter

Decree of the Holy Office, of Jan. fideles de hac gravi eorum obliga-

11, 1899: "Urgendum est, tit bap- tione commoneant."
tismus quam citius ministretur." —

120

THE MEANS OF GRACE

other limb protrudes, the child should be baptized
conditionally and rebaptized sub conditione after
birth.6

Apparently still-born infants, and such as are
incompletely developed (foetus abortivus) or
abnormally shaped (monstra), should be condi-
tionally baptized if there is doubt whether they
are dead or alive.7

In case a mother dies during pregnancy, the
fetus should be carefully extracted from the
womb and baptized, — absolutely if it is certainly
alive, conditionally if there be doubt.8

Infants should be baptized privately immedi-
ately after birth if there is reason to fear that
they will die before the Sacrament can be admin-
istered in the ordinary way. This precept im-
plies the duty, on the part of physicians and
midwives, of calling attention to such danger,
where it exists, and on the part of all concerned
of seeing to it that the Sacrament is administered
in time.9

6 Codex Iuris C-\n., can. 746, § 1 :
"Nemo in utero matris clausus bap-
tisetur, donee probabilis spes sit ut
rite edit us baptizari possit." — § 2:
"Si in fans caput emiserit et pericu-
turn mortis immineat, baptisetur in
capite; nee postea, si virus evaserit,
est iterum sub conditione baptican-
dus." — § 3: "Si aliud membrum
emiserit, in illo, si periculum immi-
neat, baptisetur sub conditione; et
tunc, si natus rixcrit, est rursus sub
conditione baptisandus." — Cfr. Rit.

Rom., De Sacr. Bapt., tit. 2, c. 1,
n. 16. — Cfr. St. Thomas, Sumtna
Theol., 3a, qu. 68, art. 11.

7 Codex Iuris Can., can. 747, 7 , i.

8 Rit. Rom., De Sacr. Bapt., tit.
2, c. 1, n. 17. — Cfr. Stohr-Kanna-
muller, Handbuch der Pastoralmt-
dicin, 5th ed., Freiburg 1909, pp.
479 sqq.; Pruner, Lehrb. d. Pasto-
raltheol., Vol. I, 2nd ed., pp. 157
sqq. — Codex Iuris Can., can. 746,
§ 4-

8 Codex Iuris Can., can. 759. § ' ;

CONFIRMATION 121

b) After having their child baptized, parents
are in duty bound to give it a good Christian edu-
cation, in order that the grace conferred by Bap-
tism may be preserved. In case of death or
neglect, this duty devolves upon the sponsors, of
whom there should be at least one and not more
than two.10

2. Confirmation. — The Sacrament of Con-
firmation bestows the grace to be "a good soldier
of Christ Jesus," 1X to profess the Catholic faith
courageously, and never under any circumstances
to deny it. Hence all who are able to receive this
Sacrament are in duty bound to do so.12 Culpable
neglect in this matter exposes one to great
spiritual danger and is a mortal sin if inspired by
formal contempt for the Sacrament or accom-
panied by grievous scandal, or when there is
proximate danger of losing faith or charity.

Bishops are under a grave obligation of afford-
ing the faithful an opportunity to receive this

can. 743. — Rit. Rom., De Sacr. Bapt., 10 Codex Iuris Can., can. 760, 764

tit. 2, c. 1, n. 13. — The decree of — Rit. Rom., De Sacr. Bapt., tit. 2

the Holy Office of Jan. 11, 1899, al- c. 1, n. 25. — Cfr. C. Krieg, Wissen

ready quoted, says: "Tunc vero per- schaft der Seelenleitung, Vol. I, p

mitti poterit, ut obstetrix ilium con- no. Under the new Code no spirit

ferat, quando periculum positive ual relationship is incurred by Bap>

timeatur, ne puer dilationis tempore tism except between the baptizing

sit moriturus." — Cfr. J. B. Geniesse, minister and the person baptized,

La Mort Reelle et la Mort Appa- and between the latter and the

rente et leurs Rapports avec VAdmi- sponsors (can. 768).

tiistration des Sacrements, Paris 11 2 Tim. II, 3. — Cft-. St. Thomas,

1906; J. Antonelli, Mcdicina Pasto- Summa Theol., 3a, qu. -j2, art. 1

ralis, Vol. I, 2nd ed., Rome 1906, pp. and 7.

265 sqq. 12 Codex Iuris Can., can. 787.

122 THE MEANS OF GRACE

Sacrament at least once every five years.13
Each person confirmed ought to have a sepa-
rate sponsor, whose obligations are similar to
those assumed by the sponsor at Baptism.14

There is no obligation either to administer or
to receive this Sacrament fasting, though, ac-
cording to St. Thomas, "where it can conveniently
be done, it is more becoming that both giver and
receiver should be fasting." 15

Readings. — Rituale Romanum, De Sacro Baptismate. — J. B.
Geniesse, La Mort Reel et la Mort Apparcnte et leurs Rapports
avec V Administration des Sacrements, Paris 1906. — J. Antonelli,
Medicina Pastoralis, Vol. I, 2nd ed., Rome 1906. — Pohle-Preuss,
The Sacraments, Vol. I, pp. 238 sqq., 304 sqq. — Stohr-Kanna-
muller, Handbuch dcr Pastorahnedizin, 4th ed., Freiburg 1900. —
Codex Iuris Canonici, De Baptismo, can. 737-779; De Confirma-
tione, can. 780-800. — M. J. O'Donnell, "Baptism in the New
Code," in the Irish Eccles. Record, 5th Series, Vol. X, No. 6,
pp. 441 sqq. — Sabetti-Barrett, S.J., Comp. Thcol. Mor., pp. 534
sqq-, 555 sqq. — Th. Slater, S.J., A Manual of Moral Theology,
Vol. II, pp. 47 sqq., 67 sqq. — H. Noldin, S.J., Summa Theol.
Mor., Vol. Ill, pp. 62 sqq., 99 sqq. — A. Lehmkuhl, S.J., Theol.
Mor., Vol. II, pp. 43 sqq., 70 sqq.

13 Ibid., can. 785, § 3 sq. accipiatur, quia unus episcopus,

14 Codex Iuris Can., can. 794, 797. praecipue in magna dioecesi, non
10 Summa Theol., 3a, qu. 72, art. sufficeret ad tot homines confirman-

12, ad 2: "Propter multitudinem dos, si eis tempus arctaretur. Ubi

fidelium et propter pericula imminen- tamen congrue observari potest, con-

tia sustinetur, ut hoc sacramentum, venientius est, ut a ieiunis detur et

quod nonnisi ab episcopis dari pot- accipiatur."
est, etiam a nonieiunis detur vel

SECTION 4

THE HOLY EUCHARIST

The Holy Eucharist is entitled to an important
place in Moral Theology because it has been insti-
tuted as the spiritual food of the soul, as a means
to avoid everyday sins, and as a pledge of eternal
glory.1 Christ instituted this Sacrament for
the twofold purpose of transforming and en-
nobling human nature, and enabling men to ad-
vance on the way to righteousness and become
intimately united with God. As Communion
the Holy Eucharist is both the efficient cause
and sign of a real and mystic union with Jesus
Christ 2 — "the sacrament of ecclesiastical unity,
which is brought about by many being one in
Christ." 3 "From the Eucharist the martyrs

1 John VI, SO sqq.— St. Ignatius 2 Cfr. John VI, 54! I Cor. X,
(Ep. ad Ephes., 20, 2) calls the 16 sq. — Pohle-Preuss, The Sacra-
Holy Eucharist "the medicine of merits, Vol. II, 2nd ed., pp. 218
immortality, the antidote that we sqq.; M. Heimbucher, Die Wirkung
should not die, but live forever in der hi. Kommunion, Ratisbon 1884.
Christ." (Funk, Patres Apost., 3 "Sacr amentum unitatis ecclesia-
Vol. I, 2nd ed., p. 230). — Rit. Rom., sticae, quae attenditur secundum hoc,
De S. Euch. Sacr., tit. 4, c. 2, n. 6: quod multi sunt unum in Christo."
"O sacrum convivium, in quo (St. Thomas, Summa TheoL, 3a,
Christus sumitur, recolitur memoria qu. 82, art. 2, ad 2). — St. Augustine
passionis eius, mens impletur gra- exclaims: "O sacramentum pietatis!
tia et futurae gloriae nobis pignus O signum unitatis! O vinculum cari-
datur." tatis!" (Tr. in Ioa., 26, n. 13).

123

124

THE MEANS OF GRACE

drew their strength, the virgins their zeal, the
saints their courage." 4

The nature and effects of this Sacrament give
rise to the following obligations.

I. The Duty of Receiving Holy Commun-
ion.— Holy Communion is not necessary as a
means of salvation (necessitate medii), but a
divine precept imposes upon all who have attained
the use of reason the duty of receiving the Eu-
charist if possible (necessitas praecepti).5

I. This duty is based on the same general rea-
sons as that of receiving Confirmation, plus the
additional one that Holy Communion is a food
without which the supernatural life of the soul
must needs grow weak or cease altogether.
There can be no doubt that the divine precept of
receiving the Holy Eucharist as viaticum G (when
there is danger of death from whatever cause)
obliges under pain of mortal sin, for Christ ex-
pressly declared: "Except you eat the flesh of
the Son of man, and drink his blood, you shall not
have life in you." 7

In another place (ibid., n. 14) he
calls the Eucharist "pants concor-
diae." Again he says: "Fortes
sunt martyres, firmi sunt martyres,
sed panis confirmat cor hominis,
panis qui de caelo descendit."
(Serm., 333, c. 1; Migne, P. L.,
XXXVIII, 1464).— Cfr. K. Adam,
Die Eucharistielehre des hi. Augu-
st™, Paderborn 1908.
* Don Bosco.

5 Cfr. Luke XXII, 19; John VI,
54; 1 Cor. XI, 26. — Cone. Trident.,
Sess. XIII, c. 2, can. 9; Sess. XXI,
c. 4, can. 4 (Denzinger-Bannwart,
n. 875, 891, 933, 937). — St. Thomas,
Summa Theol., 3a, qu. 73, art. 3; qu.
80, art. 1 1.

6 To TeXeiiTcuoi' ko.1 dvayKaiora-
rov e<p68iov-

7 John VI, 54. — Codex Iuris Can.,
can. 864, § 1. — Cone. Nicaen. I., can.

THE HOLY EUCHARIST 125

2. The duty with which we are concerned is
inculcated by the well-known ecclesiastical pre-
cept which commands all the faithful who have
attained the use of reason to receive Holy Com-
munion at least once a year, during Easter time.
This law, passed by the Fourth Council of the
Lateran,8 was at first purely disciplinary, but re-
ceived dogmatic character at the Council of
Trent.9 The paschal precept must be regarded
as an authentic interpretation of the divine
command to eat the Body and Blood of the
Lord. Needless to say, it can be fulfilled only by
a worthy Communion.10 If for some reason the
precept is not complied with during the paschal
season, it remains binding for the remainder of
the ecclesiastical year, and if one foresees that
he will be unable to perform his Easter duty
within or after the prescribed time, he should try
to attend to it in advance.11

13 (Hefele, Conciliengeschichte, Vol. consilio proprii sacerdotis, ob ali-

I, 2nd ed., p. 417). — Cone. Trident., quam rationabilem causam, ad tern-

Sess. XIII, c. 8. — On the ancient pus ab eius perceptione duxerit ab-

custom of receiving Communion as stinendum."

viaticum see A. Struckmann, Die Ge- 10 This has been indirectly de-

genwart Christi in der hi. Euchari- fined by Innocent XI when he con-

stie, Vienna J905, pp. 210 sqq. demned the proposition: "Prae-

8 Cone. Lat. IV. (A. D. 1215), cepto communionis annuae satisfit
c. 21 (Denzinger-Bannwart, n. 437). per sacrilegam Domini manduca-

9 Cone. Trident., Sess. XIII, can. tionem." {Prop. Damnat., n. 5s;
9. — Cfr. J. P. Gury, Comp. Theol. Denzinger-Bannwart, n. 1205). The
M oralis, Vol. II, n. 218 sq. — The new Codex luris Can. expressly says
new Codex luris Can. states the law (can. 861): "Pr&cepto communi-
of paschal Communion in the usual onis recipiendae non satisfit per sa-
terms of our catechisms, but adds crilegam communionem."

(can. 859, §1): "... nisi forte de 11 Cfr. Koch-Preuss, Handbook of

126

THE MEANS OF GRACE

The place for making the Easter Communion
is the parish church. One who makes it else-
where, under the new Code of Canon Law, is ad-
monished to inform his pastor of the fact.12

II. Preparation for Communion. — The na-
ture of the Holy Eucharist is such that it must
be received with the greatest possible purity of
soul and body.

i. Preparation of the Soul. — In order to
receive Holy Communion worthily, the soul must
be free from mortal sin.13 Therefore, if one
is conscious of a mortal sin, he must worthily
receive the Sacrament of Penance before ap-
proaching the Holy Table. If he must communi-
cate, and confession is impossible, he should at
least make an act of perfect contrition. Mortal
sins forgotten in a worthy confession should, if a
good opportunity offers, be confessed before ap-
proaching the Holy Table. There is, however,
no strict obligation to do so, and if one has no
opportunity to confess, it will suffice to mention
such sins in the next confession. To receive the

Moral Theology, Vol. I, p. 179. — St.
Alphonsus, Theol. Moral., 1. VI, n.
297 sqq.

12 Codex Iuris Can., can. 859, § 3:
"Suadendum est fidelibus ut huic
praecepto [communionis paschalis]
satisfaciant in sua quisque paroecia;
et qui in aliena paroecia satisfece-
rint, curent proprium parochum de
adimpleto praecepto certiorem fa-
care." — On the history of this pre-

cept see A. Villien, A History of
the Commandments of the Church,
St. Louis 1915, pp. 210 sqq.

13 Cfr. 1 Cor. XI, 27 sqq.; Cone.
Trident., Sess. XIII, c. 7, can. 11
(Denzinger-Bannwart, n. 880, 893);
Sess. XXII, De Observ. et Evitand.
in Celebrat. Missae. — Cfr. Prop.
Damnat. ab Alexandro VII., n. 38
(Denzinger-Bannwart, n. 1138).

THE HOLY EUCHARIST 127

Holy Eucharist while conscious of mortal sin is a
very grievous sin, and the greatest of sacrileges,
though, contrary to the opinion of many, by no
means the most grievous sin a man can commit.14

As an immediate preparation for Holy Com-
munion, acts of faith, hope, charity, adoration,
desire, devotion, and humility should be elicited.
All these acts may profitably be directed to
Christ's sacrificial death on the cross.15 A part
of the preparation for Communion in the wider
sense is the thanksgiving following its reception.
This is a very important and effective means of
preserving the graces obtained and of making
them fruitful for the spiritual life. The thanks-
giving after Communion should consist mainly
in acts of adoration, humility, gratitude, love,
and self-oblation,16 and should contain some spe-
cial petitions and resolutions.

2. Preparation of the Body. — On the part
of the body the worthy reception of the Euchar-
ist requires:

a) Cleanliness and a decent habiliment. Neg-
lect of these requisites betrays a moral defect and

14 Cfr. St. Thomas, Summa Theolo- des Herm, Freiburg 1903, pp. 162

gica, 3a, qu. 80, art. 5; Pohle- sqq.

Preuss, The Sacraments, Vol. II, 15 Cfr. Luke XXII, 19; 1 Cor.

2nd ed., pp. 268 sq. — On the par- XI, 26; Rit. Rom., De Euch. Sacr.,

ticipation of Judas in the Last Sup- tit. 4, c. 1, n. 4; F. S. Renz, Die

per see St. Thomas, Summa Theol., Geschichte des Messopferbegriffes,

3a, qu. 81, art. 2; J. Belser, Die Vol. I, pp. 115 sqq.

Geschichte des Leidens und Sterbens 16 Cfr. P. Lejeune, Avant et

apres la Communion, Paris 1901.

128 THE MEANS OF GRACE

is a violation of the respect due to the Sacrament
and to Jesus Christ, who is present therein.
Holy Communion must not, however, be denied
to those who suffer from diseases which ordi-
narily involve physical uncleanness, e. g.} leprosy,
smallpox, eczema, etc. The married are advised
(though not commanded) to abstain from carnal
intercourse immediately before and after Com-
munion.17 "Neither legitimate cohabitation nor
a flow of blood nor seminal pollutions during sleep
but only impious and illicit conduct can violate
nature or expel the Holy Ghost." 18

b) A second bodily requisite for the worthy
reception of Communion is that the recipient
be fasting. The Eucharistic fast, known as
ieiunium naturale, consists in complete absten-
tion from food and drink and everything that
is ordinarily taken after the manner of food and
drink (per modum cibi et potus) after midnight
(post mediam noctem).1Q This law binds under
pain of mortal sin and admits of no parvitas

17 Cfr. i Cor. VII, S sq.; Cat. Thomas, Summa Theol., 3a, Suppl.,
Rom., P. II, c. 4, qu. 56; Innocent qu. 64, art. 3.

XI's Decree "Quum ad Aures," Feb. 18 St. Augustine, Epist., 54 (a/.

12, 1679 (Denzinger-Bannwart, n. 118), n. 8: "Placuit Spiritui Sane-

1 147); Missale Rom., De Defect, in to, ut in honorem tanti Sacramenti

Celebr. Missae, tit. 9, n. 5; Pseudo- in os christiani prius Dominicum cor-

Augustine, Append. Serm., 292 (al. pus intraret, quam ceteri cibi; nam

244 De Temp.), n. 3 (Migne, P. L., ideo per univcrsum orbem mot iste

XXXIX, 2298). serzatur." (Migne, P. L., XXXIII,

18 Constit. Apost., VI, c. 27 (ed. 203). Missale Rom., De Defect, in
Funk, Vol. I, p. 371); cfr. Struck- Celebr. Missae, tit. 9, n. 1-4; Rit.
mann, Die Cegenwart Christi in der Rom., tit. 4, c. I, n. 3. — St. Thomas
hi. Eucharistie, pp. 207 sqq.; St. «ays (Summa Theol., 3a, qu. 80, art.

THE HOLY EUCHARIST 129

materiae. The term midnight is to be under-
stood physically, not morally, but we are allowed
to follow either standard or sidereal time.

The Eucharistic fast does not, however, bind those
who are in danger of death, i. e., who suffer from a dis-
ease in which the Holy Eucharist is given as viaticum
(which may be done repeatedly in the course of the same
illness20). Nor does it bind when there is danger of a
profanation of the Sacrament by unbelievers, or of scan-
dal or infamy, or when a priest is compelled to complete
the Holy Sacrifice of the Mass after the Consecration,
either because he has "consecrated" and consumed water
instead of wine (in which case he is obliged to reconse-
crate and consume both species) or, for good reason, the
wine only, or because he is overcome by sudden illness or
death. It is of precept to complete a Mass once it has
proceeded beyond the consecration of the bread, and in
case of necessity it may be done by one who is no longer
fasting. If the priest who finishes a Mass in place of
another has not yet said Mass himself, he is not allowed
to say another Mass, etiam ablutione non sumpta, unless
he has the privilege of binating.21

The Eucharistic fast, finally, is not binding on in-

8, ad 5) : "Ecclesia Rotnana diem mortis urgeat periculum, ant neces-

a media node incipit. Et ideo, si sitas impediendi irreverentiam in

post mediant noctem aliquis sump- sacramentum."

serit aliquid per modum cibi vel 20 See the decision of the Holy

potus, non potest eadem die hoc Office of Sept. 7, 1897, and that of

sumere sacramentum; potest vero, si the S. Congregation of the Council,

ante mediam noctem." — The new of Dec. 7, 1906. — Codex luris Can.,

Codex luris Can. reinforces the old can. 858, § 2; 864, § 3.

law as follows (can. 858, § 1) : 21 Missale Rom., De Defect, in

"Qui a media node ieiunium na- Celebr. Missae, tit. 10, n. 5. — Cfr.

turale non servaverit, nequit ad sane- St. Alphonsus, Theol, Mor., I. VI,

tissimam Eucharistiam admitti, nisi n. 287 sqq.

130

THE MEANS OF GRACE

valids or on those who have been legitimately dispensed
by the Pope. Invalids may receive Communion once or
twice a week even if they are obliged to take some liquid
food.21

III. Frequent Communion. — By frequent
Communion (communio frequens) is understood
the reception of the Holy Eucharist daily or at
least several times a week.

i. There can be no doubt that frequent Com-
munion agrees perfectly with the teaching and
practice of the Church. St. Augustine says
that, unless a man's sins are so great as to merit
excommuniation, he should not deprive himself of
the daily medicine of the Body of Christ.22 The
Council of Trent "admonishes, exhorts, begs,
and beseeches . . . that all and each of those
who bear the Christian name . . . would believe
and venerate these sacred mysteries of [Christ's]
Body and Blood with such constancy and firm-

21 Codex Iuris Canonici, can.
858, § 2.

22 St. Augustine, Epist., 54 (al.
118), n. 4: "Peccata, si tanta non
sunt, ut excommunicandus quisque
iudicetur, non se debet a quotidiana
tnedicina Dominici corporis separare.
. . . Faciat autem unusquisque, quod
secundum fidem suam pie credit esse
faciendum. . . . Nam et Me hono-
rando non audet quotidie sumere, et
ille honorando non audet ullo die
praetermittere. Contemptum solum
non vult cibus iste, sicut nee manna
fastidium." (Migne, Patr. Lat.,
XXXIII, 201 sq.) — Idem, Serm.,

227 (al. 83 De Diversis) : "Debetis
[infantes] scire, quid accepistis, quid
accepturx estts, quid quot die acci-
pere debeatis." (P. L., XXXVIII,
1 099) . — Pseudo-Augustine, A ppend.
Serm., 84 (al. 28 De Verbis Do-
mini), n. 3: "Accipe quotidxe, quod
quotidie tibi prosit; sic vive, ut quo-
tidie merearis accipcre. Qui non
mcretur quotidie accipere, non mere-
tur post annum accipere." (P. h.,
XXXIX, 1908 sq.).— The latter
passage appears verbatim also in
Pseudo-Ambrose, De Sacram., 1. V,
n. 25 (P. L., XVI, 452).

THE HOLY EUCHARIST 131

ness of faith, with such devotion of soul, with
such piety and worship, as to be able frequently to
receive that supersubstantial bread," 23 which, ac-
cording to the same holy Synod, is "an antidote
whereby we may be freed from daily faults and
preserved from mortal sins," "the spiritual food
of our souls," by which we are "fed and strength-
ened." 24

2. Since frequent Communion is so ardently
desired by Jesus Christ and His Church, the
way to the altar railing should be open to all the
faithful without distinction of rank, class or con-
dition. No one should be turned away who is in
the state of grace and approaches the table of
the Lord with a right intention. The right in-
tention demanded by the Church consists in the
desire to receive the Eucharist, not as a matter
of habit, or out of vainglory or human respect,
or for some other earthly motive, but for the
purpose of pleasing God, of becoming more
closely united with Him by charity, and of seek-
ing this divine remedy for one's weaknesses and
defects.25

23 Cone. Trident., Sess. XIII, c. tnunion Quotidienne, Roulers and

8; Sess. XXII, c. 6 (Denzinger- Bruxelles, 1904; Ch. Madridius. — J,

Bannwart, n. 882, 944). — Cfr. the P. Bock, De Frequenti Usu S. Eu

decree of Innocent XI, "Quum ad charistiae Sacramenti, Vienne 1909
aures" (Denzinger-Bannwart. n. 24 Cone. Trident., Sess. XIII, c

1 147 sqq.); St. Thomas, Summa 2 (Denzinger-Bannwart, n. 87s). —

Theol., 3a, qu. 80, art. 10; Lejeune, Cfr. Cat. Rom., P. II, c. 4, qu. 69

La Pratique de la Sainte Commu- F. Meffert, Der hi. Alfons, pp. 253

nion, Paris 1900; F. X. Godts, CSS. sqq.

R., Exagerations Historiques et 25 Decree of the S. Congr. of the

Theologiques concernant la Com- Council, Dec. 20, 1905, "Sacra Tri-

132

THE MEANS OF GRACE

The frequent reception of Holy Communion
quite naturally entails certain demands upon the
recipient.

While it would be presumptuous to set up absolute
rules, we may safely say that

a) It is fitting that he who receives Communion daily
be free from conscious attachment to (venial) sin and
strive earnestly and sincerely after perfection. However,
though it is highly desirable that daily and frequent com-
municants be free from venial sins, at least from those
which are entirely voluntary, and also from all attach-
ment to sin, it is sufficient if they avoid mortal sins and
harbor the earnest intention to sin no more, for with such
a purpose they will inevitably be weaned more and more
from sin.

b) How often each one may go to Communion is a
question to be decided by the confessor.26 In admitting
children to their first Communion, the parents and the
confessor should be consulted, but the final decision rests
with the pastor.27

In regard to frequent Communion two extremes must
be avoided: (i) Jansenistic rigorism, which demands a
high state of perfection, and (2) laxism, which regards
the frequent reception of the Holy Eucharist as an infal-
lible mark of predestination.28

dentina Synodus." The best En-
glish commentary on this decree is,
The Decree on Daily Communion,
by J. B. Ferrere9, S.J., translated by
H. Jimenez, S.J., London 1909.

26 Innocent XI's Decree "Quum
ad aures" (Denzinger-Bannwart, n.
1 147): "Frequens ad sacram ah-
moniam percipiendam accessus con-
fessariorum secreta cordis explo-
rantium iudicio est relinquendus, qui

ex conscientiarum puritate et fre-
quentiae fructu et ad pietatem pro-
cessu laicis negotiatoribus et coniu-
gatis, quod prospicient eorum saluti
profuturum, id Mis praescribere de-
bebunt." (Denzinger-Bannwart, n.
1 147). — Cfr. Leo XIII's Decree
"Quemadmodum omnium rerum hu-
manarum," Dec. 17, 1890.

27 Codex Iuris Can., can. 854. 5 5.

28 Prop. Damnat. ab Alex. VIII.,

THE HOLY EUCHARIST 133

Since the promulgation of the decree " Sancta Triden-
tina Synodus," Dec. 20, 1905, it is forbidden to engage in
" contentious controversies " concerning the dispositions
required for frequent and daily Communion.29

IV. Devotion to the Blessed Sacrament.
— The duty of adoring Christ in the Blessed Sac-
rament is fulfilled, broadly speaking, by partici-
pating in the celebration of the Holy Eucharist,
which is the acme and centre of our religion.
The custom of offering the Holy Sacrifice of the
Mass in common on Sundays is as old as Christi-
anity itself.30 The duty of attending Mass on
Sundays and holydays was enforced by ecclesias-
tical synods since the sixth century.31 Under the
present discipline this duty can be complied with
in any church or in any public or semi-public
oratory.32 Pastors are bound to offer the Holy
Sacrifice on every Sunday and holyday of obli-
gation for the people under their charge.

Though the second commandment of the

Dec. 7, 1690, prop. 22: "Sacrilegi 29 Decree "Sancta Tridentina

sunt iudicandi, qui ius ad co'mmu- Synodus," art. 9; Ferreres, The De-

nionem percipiendum praetendunt, cree on Daily Communion, p. 33.

antequam condignam de delictis suis 30 Cfr. Justin Martyr, Apolog., I,

Poenitentiam egerint." — Prop. 23: 65 sq.; Pliny, Epist., X, 97; Ter>

"Similiter arcendi sunt a sacra com- tullian, De Fuga, c. 14.

munione, quibus nondum inest amor Si Cone. Agath., A. D. 506, can.

Dei purissimus et omnis mixtionis 47; cfr. the Decretum Gratiani, dist.

expers." (Denzinger-Bannwart, n. I, can. 64, De Consecratione (Fried-

1313). — Prop. Damnat. sub Innoc. berg's ed., Leipsic 1879, col. 1312).

XL, prop. 56: "Frequens confes- 32 Cfr. Noldin, Summa Theol.

sio et communio etiam in his, qui Mor., Vol. II, nth ed., pp. 280 sqq.

gentiliter vivunt, est nota praede- — Cone. Trident., Sess. XXII,

stinationis." (Denzinger-Bannwart, Deer, de Observandis ; Sess. XXIII,

n- iao6). c. r, De Ref.— Codex Iuris Cano-

134 THE MEANS OF GRACE

Church merely establishes the general duty of
hearing Mass on Sundays and holydays of obliga-
tion, particular individuals, because of special
needs, may be bound to hear Mass more fre-
quently.

Belief in the Real Presence of Christ and the significa-
tion and value of the Eucharistic Sacrifice, as well as the
oft-expressed desire of the Church, ought to induce every
faithful Catholic to attend Mass whenever possible and to
communicate sacramentally, or at least spiritually, by
eliciting an ardent desire to be united with Christ and to
be made worthy of the graces of Communion.33 Special
opportunities for worshipping our Eucharistic Lord are
furnished by Benediction of the Blessed Sacrament, the
exposition of the Sacred Host during the Forty Hours'
Devotion, the so-called Holy Hour, the Corpus Christi
procession, and other celebrations.

Readings. — St. Thomas, Summa Theologica, 3a, qu. 80, art.
i-ii. — H. Noldin. S.J., Summa Theol. Mor., Vol. Ill, pp. 115 sqq.
— P. Gasparri, Tract. Can. de SS. Eucharistia, 2 vols., Paris 1890.
— Chr. Pesch, S.J., Praelcctiones Dogmaticae, Vol. VI, 2nd ed., pp.
346 sqq. — Pohle-Preuss, The Sacraments, Vol. II, pp. 265 sqq.,
pp. 136 sqq. — M. Heimbucher, Die Wirkung dcr hi. Kommunion,
Ratisbon 1884. — Laboure, L' Eucharistic Centre de la Vie
Chretienne, Paris 1899. — Leo XIII, Encyclical "Mirae Caritatis,"
May 28, 1902. — Codex Iuris Canonici, can. 801-869.

nici, can. 859, § 3. — Instructio Pa- 8; Sess. XXII, c. 6 (Denzinger-

storalis Eystettenstis, 5th ed., Frei- Bannwart, n. 882, 944). — St. Thom-

burg 1902, pp. 20 sqq. as, .Summa Theol., 3a, qu. 8o, art.

33 Cone. Trident., Sess. XIII, c. 1, ad 3.

SECTION 5

PENANCE

I. Necessity of This Sacrament. — The
Sacrament of Penance (sacr amentum poenit en-
tiae sive reconciliationis) is the normal means
by which a Catholic who has committed mortal
sin after Baptism can recover sanctifying grace.
To receive this Sacrament, actually or at least
in desire (in re aut in voto), is as necessary for
persons guilty of mortal sin as Baptism is for
those still in the state of original sin. This is
but another way of saying that for all Christians
guilty of mortal sin Penance is a necessary means
of salvation (necessitas medii)} Christ has in-
stituted this Sacrament for the forgiveness of
sins, and hence perfect contrition without at least
the votum sacramenti cannot justify a sinner,
for contrition, to be truly perfect, must include
the desire of employing the divinely ordained
means of reconciliation, i. e., the Sacrament of
Penance.2 Justly, therefore, is Penance called
"the second plank after shipwreck." 3

1 Cone. Trident., Sess. XIV, De Trident., Sess. XIV, De Poenit., c.
Poenit., c. 2, can. 6 (Denzinger- 1 and 4 (Denzinger-Bannwart, n.
Bannwart, n. 895, 915); St. Thomas, 894, 897 sq.).

Summa Theol., 3a, qu. 84, art. 5. 3 St. Jerome, In Is., II, c. 3:

2 Cf r. John XX, 21-23; Cone. "Sectinda post naufragium tabula est

135

136

THE MEANS OF GRACE

2. Duty of Receiving This Sacrament. —
From the fact that Penance is by divine right
necessary for all who have fallen into mortal sin,
it follows that a Catholic is bound to receive this
Sacrament —

a) When he has had the misfortune of commit-
ting a mortal sin. Consciously and voluntarily to
remain in the state of mortal sin is incompatible
with the virtue of charity towards God, shows
contempt for grace, and runs counter to Chris-
tian self-love, because the sinner thereby in-
capacitates himself for the performance of any
and all meritorious works and endangers his soul.4
Hence it is advisable to go to confession as soon
as possible after falling into mortal sin.5

All sins committed after Baptism are matter
(materia remota et removenda) for Penance.
Mortal sins alone are necessary matter (materia

et consoJatio miseriarum, impieta-
tern suam abscondere." (Migne,
P. L., XXIV, 65).— Idem, Epist.
130 (a/. 8), n. 9: "Verum nos ig
noremus poenitentiam, ne facile pec
cetnus. Ilia quasi secunda post nau
fragium miseris tabula sit, in vir-
gine integra servetur navis. Aliud
est quaerere, quod perdideris, aliud
est possidere, quod nunquam ami-
seris." (P. L., XXII, 1115).— Cfr.
Cone. Trident., Sess. XIV, De
Poenit., can. 2 (Denzinger-Bann-
■wart, n. 912). — Cat. Rom., P. II, c.
5, qu. 1. — Peter Lombard, Sent., IV,
disk 14, p. 1. — St. Thomas, Summa
Theol., 3a, qu. 84, art. 6. — St. Bona-
venture, Breviloquium, P. VI, c. 10
(ed. II, Vicetia, p. 531). — Pohle-

Preuss, The Sacraments, Vol. Ill,
2nd ed., p. 73.

4 Cone. Trident., Sess. XIV, De
Poenit., can. 1 (Denzinger-Bann-
wart, n. 911). — St. Thomas, Summa
Theol., 3a, Suppl., qu. 6, art. 5.

5 Cfr. St. Bonaventure, Comment.
in Sent., IV, dist. 17, qu. 2, p. 2:
"Consilium tamen sanum credo, quod
omnes, qui cadunt per mortate,
quam citius possunt, confiteantur;
non enim videtur vere contritus, qui
tarn longo tempore vulnus peccati
portat occultum. . . . De talibus
generaliter asserere, quod possunt
usque ad Pascha differre, videtur
mihi periculosum." (Opera Omnia,
IV, 445 sqj.

PENANCE 137

necessaria). Therefore, one who is conscious of
venial sins only, is not per se bound to receive the
Sacrament, for venial sins can be expiated by
other means besides Penance.6 Nevertheless, ve-
nial sins are admissible and sufficient matter (ma-
teria libera seu sufUciens) for confession, and it is
advisable to include them, as the Sacrament of
Penance is the best and most efficacious means of
obtaining forgiveness of them, for two reasons : —
first, because men are easily deceived as to the
character of certain sins, and, secondly, because
Penance serves not merely to blot out sin and
sanctify the soul, but also to instruct, console, and
encourage the sinner, and thus aids him on the
way to perfection.

A Catholic is furthermore bound to receive this
Sacrament,

b) When he is laden with mortal sin and in
danger of death, or when he is conscious of being
in the state of mortal sin and wishes to receive a
Sacrament of the living; or

c) When he is commanded to do so by an ec-
clesiastical precept (iure ecclesiastico). The
Third Commandment of the Church says that
every Catholic should worthily confess his sins
at least once a year to a duly ordained priest.7

6 Cone. Trident., Sess. XIV, De 62 sq.— Gopfert, Moraltheologie,
Poenit., c. 5, can. 6 (Denzinger- Vol. Ill, 4th ed., p. 150.
Bannwart, n. 899 sqq., 916); Pohle- 7 See A. Villien, A History of the

Preuss, The Sacraments, Vol. Ill, Commandments of the Church, pp.

IS 1 sqq.

138 THE MEANS OF GRACE

Of course, this binds only those who have commit-
ted mortal sin.8 No definite time is assigned for
the fulfillment of this obligation, but the Church
recommends that it be done in Lent. As a rule
the annual confession is made in connection with
the prescribed paschal Communiono Frequent
reception of the Sacrament of Penance may be
recommended as a most effective protection
against sin and a powerful means of perfection.9

3. Requisites of Worthy Reception. — Pen-
ance is described by the Fathers as "a laborious
Baptism." 10 As such it demands a larger mea-
sure of personal cooperation on the part of the re-
cipient than any other Sacrament. Whoever
wishes to receive this Sacrament worthily must
practice the virtue of penance or repentance 1J and
confess his mortal sins, or, as the case may be,
one or more venial sins. More specifically, he
must make an act of contrition coupled with a
firm purpose of amendment (contritio cordis),
confess his sins to a duly authorized priest (con-
fessio oris), and accept and perform the satisfac-
tion imposed (satisf actio opcris). Not all of
these conditions, however, are of equal import-
ance. Actual satisfaction belongs merely to the
integrity of the Sacrament, whereas contrition,

8 Slater, Moral Theol., I, 576 sq. ; IV, dist. 18, qu. 1, art. 2.

infra, p. 152. . 10 See Pohle-Preuss, The Sacra-

9 Cat. Rom., P. II, c. 5, qu. 46. menls, Vol. Ill, p. 73.

— Dom. Soto, Comment, in Sent., 11 Cfr. op. cit., pp. 1 sqq.

PENANCE 139

confession, and absolution are of its very es-
sence.12

The Catechism of Trent says : "In the general opinion
of the pious, whatever of holiness, piety, and religion has
been preserved in the Church in our times, through the
boundless beneficence of God, is to be ascribed in a great
measure to confession." 13 The same authority describes
Penance as " this citadel, so to speak, of Christian virtue,"
and adds that, though sins are cancelled by perfect con-
trition, few can reach a sufficient degree of contrition,
and consequently it was "necessary that the Lord, in His
infinite mercy, should provide by some easier means for
the common salvation of men; and this He did, in His
admirable wisdom, when He gave to the Church the keys
of the Kingdom of Heaven." 14

Readings. — St. Thomas, Summa Theologica, 3a, qu. 84-90. —
P. Schanz, Die Lehre von den hi. Sakramenten, pp. 535 sqq. —
Chr. Pesch, S.J., Praelectiones Dogmaticae, Vol. VIII, 2nd ed.,
pp. 4 sqq. — Pohle-Preuss, The Sacraments, Vol. Ill, Penance,
pp. 130 sqq. — F. X. Zenner, Instructio Practica Confessarii,
Vienna 1857. — F. Lorinser, Die Lehre von der V erwaltung des
hi. Bussakramentes, 2nd ed., Breslau 1883. — J. Reuter, S.J., Neo-
confessarius Practice Instructus, 4th ed. by J. Miillendorf, Ratis-
bon 1906. — A. Tappehorn, Anleitung sur V erwaltung des Bussa-
kramentes, 5th ed., Diilmen 1908. — D. Palmieri, Tractatus de
Poenitentia, Rome 1879.

12 Cone. Trident., Sess. XIV, De J. A. Moehler, Symbolism (tr. Rob-

Poenit., c. 2 and 3, can. 4 (Den- ertson), 5th ed., London 1906, pp.

zinger-Bannwart, n. 89s sqq., 914). 223 sqq. — Noldin, Summa Theol.

— Cat. Rom., P. II, c. 5, qu. 20. — Mor., Vol. Ill, pp. 349 sqq.

Error. M. Lutheri damnat. a Leone 13 Cat. Rom., P. II, c. 5, qu. 36

X., prop, s (Denzinger-Bannwart, (al. 32); A. Kirchberger, Der glau-

n. 745). — Pohle-Preuss, The Sacra- bige Protestant und die Beichte,

ments, Vol. Ill, pp. 132 sqq. — B. Innsbruck 1906.

Pascal, Pensees, P. I, a. 5, n. 8 14 Cat. Rom., ibid.
(Vol. I, Paris 1812, pp. 194 sqq.). —

140

THE MEANS OF GRACE

ARTICLE i

CONTRITION

i. Nature of Contrition. — Contrition (con-
tritio cordis) is the most necessary constituent of
Penance, both as a virtue and as a Sacrament,1
for without contrition there can be no genu-
ine repentance and no forgiveness.2 The Council
of Trent defines contrition as "a sorrow of the
soul and a detestation for sin committed, with the
purpose of not sinning for the future." 3 Hence
contrition is essentially an act of the will, by
which man renounces sin and determines to avoid
it in future. The act of renunciation is called
contrition in the strict sense (contritio stride
dicta), while the determination to avoid fu-
ture sins is termed purpose of amendment (pro-
posit um).

Being an interior sorrow of the soul, contri-
tion differs from that purely intellectual regret
(dolor intellectivus speculativus) which consists

1 Cfr. Pohle-Preuss, The Sacra-
ments, Vol. Ill, pp. i sqq.; 72 sqq.

2 Joel II, 12 sq.— Cfr. Prop. Dam-
nat. sub Innoc. XI., prop. 60:
"Poenitenti kabenti consuetudincm
peccandi contra legem Dei, naturae
aut ecclesiae, etsi emendationis spes
nulla appareat, nee est neganda nee
differenda absolutio, dummodo ore
proferat, se dolere et proponere
emendotionem." (Denzinger-Bann-
wart, n. 12 10).

3 Sess. XIV, De Poenit., cap. 4:
"Contritio, quae primum locum in-
ter dictos poenitentis actus habet,
animi dolor ac detestatio est de pec-
cato commisso cum proposito non
peccandi de cetera." — Cfr. St.
Thomas, Summa Theol., 3a. Suppl.,
qu. 1, ad 1: "Contritio est dolor
pro peccatis assumptus cum proposito
confitendi et satisfaciendi."

PENANCE 141

in a mere perception of the damnableness of
sin, and also from the so-called terror consci-
entiae, i. e., the fear with which conscience is
smitten upon being convinced of iniquity.4 Both
these emotions may be present without a spark of
genuine contrition.

The moral value of contrition, as a turning
away from sin and a turning to God (aversio a
peccato et conversio ad Deum), consists in its be-
ing an act of the will,5 and consequently it need
not be accompanied by sensible pain or grief, nor
manifest itself by sighs and tears. Whilst there
is such a thing as "tears of contrition," 6 sensible
sorrow forms no constituent of genuine contri-
tion, nor is its presence a sure proof thereof.

"As there are tears that indicate no deep emotion, so
there is a sorrow without tears. As a rule, however, it
is desirable that contrition should be manifested by out-
ward signs. Such outward signs of internal sorrow for
sin are technically known as signa contritionis, and di-
vided into two classes, ordinary and extraordinary. The
latter manifest themselves partly in an unusual stirring

4 Cone. Trident., Sess. XIV, De sensu percipi. Contritio enim est
Poenit., can. 4: "Si quis . . di- voluntatis actio." — Cfr. Cone. Tri-
xerit, duas tantum esse poenitentiae dent., Sess. VI, c. 6 (.Denzinger
partes, terrores scilicet incussos con- Bannwart, n. 798).
scientiae agnito peccato et fidem, 6 Cfr. Ps. VI, 7; Matth. XXVI
anathema sit." — Conf. August., art. 75; Luke VII, 44, 47. — Cfr. St. Au
12. — Mohler, Symbolism, pp. 124 gustine, Serm., 351, c. 1: "Sicut
sqq.; pp. 223. comes poenitentiae dolor est, ita la

5 Cat. Rom., P. II, c. 5, qu. 24: crimae sunt testes doloris." (Migne,
"Quod autem contritio dolore de- P. L., XXXIX, 1536). — Cat. Rom
finita est, tnonendi sunt fideles, ne P. II, c. 5, qu. 28.
arbitrentur, eum dolorem corporis

142 THE MEANS OF GRACE

of the affections and partly in the making of special ef-
forts to go to confession, seek advice, etc. Such extraor-
dinary signs are of particular significance in the case of
habitual sinners and recidivi, where ordinary signs fail." 7

2. Properties of Contrition. — Contrition
may be perfect or imperfect.

Perfect contrition (contritio caritate perfecta,
or simply contritio) is inspired by charity, i. e.,
a perfect love of God as the supreme good for
His own sake.

Imperfect contrition (contritio imperfecta),
now technically called attrition (attritio), is sor-
row inspired by some other supernatural motive,
e. g., fear of eternal punishment, repugnance to
sin as an offense against Almighty God, regret at
having lost divine grace and forfeited heaven,
etc.8

As can be easily seen, the distinction between
perfect and imperfect contrition is not based upon
the degree of sorrow a man has for his sins, but
upon the motives by which that sorrow is in-
spired ; this distinction is specific rather than gen-
eric.

7 F. X. Linsenmann, Lehrbuch (2) imperfecta, sen attritio, quae tst
dtr Moraltheologie, pp. 212 sq. detestatio peccati orta ex alio mo-

8 Cfr. J. P. Gury, Comp. Theol. tivo supernaturali, v. g. ex const-
Mor., II, n. 318: "Contritio du- deratione turpitudinis peccati vel ex
plex distinguitur: (1) perfecta, quae metu inferni out ex amore beatitu-
tst detestatio peccati orta ex motivo dinis aetcmae." — Cone. Trident.,
speciali caritatis perfectae seu boni- Sess. XIV, De Poenit., c. 4 (Den-
tatis Dei propter se summe dilecti; zinger-Bannwart, n. 897 sq.).

PENANCE 143

Perfect contrition, coupled with a desire to receive the
Sacrament of Penance (contritio cum voto sacramenti) ,
is sufficient to effect the forgiveness of sins not merely in
cases of necessity, or when it reaches the highest possible
degree of intensity, but of itself and always. Imperfect
contrition (attrition), on the other hand, can produce this
effect only in connection with sacramental confession.9
Hence perfect contrition is not an essential requisite of
Penance, but attrition suffices for the valid reception of
this Sacrament, provided, of course, that the penitent is
resolved to sin no more and confidently trusts in the
mercy of God.

However, though there is no obligation to make an
act of perfect contrition in preparing for confession, the
faithful should be exhorted to do so, to the best of their
ability.

Broadly speaking it is safe to assume that imperfect
contrition always includes an act of at least incipient
love (amor initialis), while perfect contrition is rarely
without an admixture of fear (timor filialis).10

0 Cone. Trident., I. c. — Cfr. Prop. tit peccata mortalia seu hominem

Baii Damnat., prop. 31, 32, 70, 71 non iustificat nisi cum voto confes-

(Denzinger-Bannwart, n. 1031, 1032, sionis, peccata enim remitti non pos-

1070, 1071). — Gury, /. c, n. 335: sunt nisi per medium a Christo insti-

"Contritio perfecta hominem iusti- tutum. . . . SufRcit autem votum im-

ficat per se, etiam extra sacramen- plicitum, votum enim explicitum ne-

tum poenitentiae. (1) Constat ex que requiritur natura contritionis

ratione, etenim contritio includit ne- perfectae, utpote quae per se solam

cessario caritatem perfectam; porro iustificare potest, neque ex prae-

amare Deum perfecte est cum Deo cepto divino, siquidem nullum

coniungi, amor enim in unione con- ostendi potest."

sistit; porro coniunctio cum Deo ne- 10 Cone. Trident., Sess. VI, c. 6:

cessario disiunctionem a peccato ope- "In spem eriguntur illumque

ratur, quum non possit quis unum [Deum] tamquam omnis iustitiae

extremum amplecti quin ab extremo fontem diligere incipiunt." (Den-

opposito totaliter recedat. Ergo. zinger-Bannwart, n. 798). — Cfr. J.

(2) Constat ex Scriptura Sacra E. Pruner, Kath. Moraltheologie,

(Prv. viii, 17; Ioa. xiv, 21; 1 Pet. iv, Vol. II, 3rd ed., p. 374.
8). Contritio perfecta non remit-

144 THE MEANS OF GRACE

For the valid reception of the Sacrament of Penance
contrition (whether perfect or imperfect) should be :

a) Sincere or heart-felt, for else it would be sheer
hypocrisy. The quality of sincerity flows as a necessary
effect from the nature of contrition.

b) Supernatural, both in its origin and in its motives.
True contrition owes its existence to divine grace and is
based upon reasons or motives supplied by supernatural
faith.11

c) Supreme or sovereign, not in intensity but appre-
ciatively, i. e., the penitent must detest sin as the greatest
of all evils and be ready to give up everything he has,
even life itself, rather than offend God.12 Since contri-
tion is in the will, not in the emotions, it may happen that
the sorrow one feels at temporal misfortunes is both
affectively and intensively greater than that felt at sin
as a purely spiritual evil ; but this need not prevent
a man's contrition from being appreciatively supreme.
"If we may not succeed in rendering our contrition per-
fect," says the Roman Catechism, "it may nevertheless
be true and efficacious, for oftentimes things that
fall under the senses affect us more than spiritual
things, and hence some persons experience a greater
sense of grief for the loss of their children than for the
baseness of their sins." 13 Our sense of grief need not

11 Cone. Trident., Sess. VI, can. catum patrare. Etenim conversio ad
3 (Denzinger-Bannwart, n. 813). — Deum debet esse totalis, quum pec-
Cfr. Prop. Damnat. sub Innoc. XL, catum sit aversio totalis, sed non
prop. 57: "Probabile est, sufficere esset totalis, nisi esset summa, immo
attritionem naturalem tnodo hone- nulla foret, nam homo adhaereret
stam." (Denzinger-Bannwart, n. adhuc creaturae, quum earn adhuc
1207). Deo anteponeret."

12 Cfr. J. P. Gury, Comp. Theol. 13 Cat. Rom., P. II, c. 5, qu. 28:
Mor., II, n. 328: "Summa, i. e., "Quamquam si id minus conscqui no-
ut peccator detestetur crimen suum bis liceat, ut perfecta sit, vera tamen
plus quam omne aliud malum, et ma- et efficax contritio esse potest.
lit omnia perdere et pati, quam pec- Saepe enim usu venit, ut quae sen-

PENANCE

145

be supreme, for to make it so is largely beyond our con-
trol; but we must by a combined act of the mind and
will abhor sin above all other evils. Theologians express
this technically by saying that sin must be detested as the
greatest of all evils, not affectively, but effectively 14
(non affective sed effective).

d) Contrition must furthermore be universal, i. e., it
must cover all the mortal sins committed by the penitent.
As every mortal sin implies a complete turning away
from God, no one mortal sin can be forgiven without
the rest.15

It is not, however, necessary to make a special act of
contrition for each particular mortal sin. One general
act for all the sins committed {universe) will suffice.

Venial sins can be forgiven severally, one without the
other, and hence it suffices to make an act of contrition
for one. When many venial sins are confessed, it is
advisable to elicit a more specific contrition for. the one
or other of them, because a too general contrition might
lack sincerity and efficaciousness.16 To receive sacra-
mental absolution from a venial sin it is necessary to have
at least imperfect contrition for that particular offence.

Being the proximate matter of Penance, contrition
must be brought into moral connexion with the Sacra-

sibus subiecta sunt, magis quam
spiritualia nos afficiant. Quare
nonnulli interdum maiorem ex fili-
orum obitu, quam ex peccati turpitu-
dine doloris sensum capiunt."

14 Cfr. St. Thomas, Summa
Theol., 3a, Suppl., qu. 3, art. 1-2.

15 Cfr. Gury, op. cit., n. 328:
"Universalis, i. e., excludere debet
omnia peccata gravia, saltern impli-
cite vel ex motivo universali unico
out ex pluribus motivis particulari-
bus, quae, saltern simul sumpta, se

extendant ad omnia mortalia com-
tnissa, etiam memoriae non occurren-
tia. Ratio est, quia nullum pecca-
turn actuate remittitur sine dolore,
unum autem mortale sine alio re-
mitti nequit, quum remissio fiat in-
fusione gratiae, quae cum nullo mor-
tali simul stare potest." — Cfr. St.
Thomas, Summa Theol., 3a, qu. 86,
ad 3.

16 Cfr. Cat. Rom., P. II, c. 5, qu.
29 sq.; St. Alphonsus, Theol. Mot.,
I. VI, n. 433. 438.

146 THE MEANS OF GRACE

ment, i. e., it must precede the sacramental absolution
or be present in the soul while the formula of absolution
is pronounced by the priest. The best way is to make
an act of contrition before entering the confessional.

Readings.— Pohle-Preuss, The Sacraments, Vol. Ill, pp. 132
sqq— Chr. Pesch, S.J., Praelectiones Dogmaticae, Vol. VII, 2nd
ed., pp. 39 sqq.— R. Schultes, CXP., Rene und Bussakrament,
Paderborn 1907.— H. Noldin, S.J., Summa Theol. Mor., Vol.
Ill, pp. 296 sqq.

ARTICLE 2
THE PURK)SE OF AMENDMENT

I. Definition. — Genuine contrition, whether
perfect or imperfect, must be accompanied by a
firm purpose to amend one's life and to avoid
future sins (proposition non peccandi de cetero).
This truth may be deduced from the very nature
of contrition, which, being a detestation of sin as
an offense against God, must include both an act
of sorrow for past sins (de praeterito) and the
resolution not to sin again (de futuro).

The purpose of amendment which is included
in contrition may be either explicit (propositum
explicitum sive formale) or implicit (propositum
implicitum sive virtuale). It is explicit when
the penitent expressly thinks of the future and
resolves never to sin again; it is implicit if he
merely hates sin for fear or love of God, without
eliciting a formal act of the will not to sin in f u-

PENANCE 147

ture. A good resolution of the latter kind is
called virtual.1

The resolution to avoid sin and its proximate occasions
for a supernatural motive is an indispensable condition
of the valid reception of Penance. The controverted
question whether the Sacrament requires an explicit
(formal) resolution, or whether an implicit (virtual) pur-
pose of amendment suffices, may theoretically be decided
in favor of the latter opinion, though in praxi it is always
better to choose the pars tutior, i. e., to give explicit con-
sideration to the necessity of amending one's life and
make a formal resolution to do so. A really contrite
penitent will hardly ever fail to make an explicit purpose
of amendment.2

2. Properties. — The purpose of amendment,
being an essential part of contrition, is as neces-
sary for the valid reception of Penance as con-

1 Gury, Comp. Theol. Mor., II, implicitum sufficere debet ad valorem
n. 342: "Propositum est vera vo- sacramenti, dummodo dolor elicia-
luntas non amplius peccandi de ce- tur ex motivo universali; 11a sen-
tero. Duplex est: (1) explicitum tentia affirmat, quia, licet dolor in-
seu formale, quo quis, de futuro cludat necessario propositum, atta-
cogitans, statuit non amplius peccare ; men propositum explicitum requiri-

(2) implicitum seu virtuale, quod in tur a Tridentino dicente in defini-

ipsa contritione includitur, quin fu- tione contritionis : cum proposito non

turum tempus prae oculis habeatur." peccandi de cetero; Ilia sententia

— Cfr. Cone. Trident., Sess. XIV, distinguit. Tenet non requiri propo-

De Poenit., c. 4: "Propositum non situin explicitum, si poenitens non

peccandi de cetero. . . . Cessatio a cogitet de futuro, ut contingit mori-

peccato et vitae novae propositum et bundis; secus si ad futurum adver-

inchoatio." (Denzinger-Bannwart, n. tat. In praxi tutior sententia se-

897). quenda est ob auctoritatem theolo-

2 Gury, op. cit., n. 345 : "An re- gorum, qui necessitatem propositi ex-
quiratur propositum explicitum in plicite adstruunt, quamvis speculative
contritione? Triplex sententia da- loquendo id parum probabile videa-
tur: la sententia communior et valde tur. Ceterum rarissime eveniat, ut
probabilior negat, quia propositum poenitentes vere contriti propositum
cum tota eius efficacia includitur in etiam explicitum omittant." — Cfr.
vera contritione; ergo propositum Noldin, Vol. Ill, pp. 312 sq.

148

THE MEANS OF GRACE

trition itself, and consequently, like the latter, and
for the same reasons, must be :

a) Universal (proposition universale) , i. e., it
must comprise all mortal sins which one might
possibly commit in future and, in a general way,
the lessening of venial sins.3 If none but venial
sins form the matter of confession, it is sufficient
to resolve to avoid at least one of them, or to
diminish the total number.4

b) The purpose of amendment must be firm,
*. e., the penitent must be determined to suf-
fer any hardship rather than again offend
God by a mortal sin.5 Distrust of one's strength
or fear of relapse do not impair the firmness of
purpose which a sinner must have to amend his
life. All that is required is that he humbly trust
in God and be firmly determined to cooperate with
divine grace in fighting temptations.6 Actual re-

S Cfr. St. Thomas, Sutntna Theol.,
3a, qu. 87, art. 1, ad 1: "Homo in
gratia constitutus potest vitare omnia
peccata mortalia et singula; potest
etiam vitare singula peccata venialia,
sed non omnia. . . . Et ideo poeni-
tentia de peccatis mortalibus requi-
rit, quod homo proponat abstinere ab
omnibus et singulis peccatis mortali-
bus, sed ad poenitentiam peccatorum
venialium requiritur, quod homo pro-
ponat abstinere a singulis, non ta-
men ab omnibus, quia hoc infirmi-
tas huius vitae non patitur; debet
tamen habere propositum se prae-
parandi ad peccata venialia minu-
enda, alioquin esset ei periculum
deficiendi, quum desereret appetitum

proficiendi sen tollendi impedimenta
spiritualis profectus, quae sunt pec-
cata venialia."

4 Cfr. J. P. Gury, Comp. Theol.
Mor., Vol. II, n. 344, 347.

6 Ibid., n. 34: "Poenitens habere
debet voluntatem omnino determina-
tarn non relabendi in peccatum, non
obstante quocunque incommodo out
timore humano, secus enim non vel
let totaliter et sincere ad Deum con
verti."

eOp. cit., n. 346: "An censeri
debeat firmum propositum illius, qui
habet quidem animum non peccandi
sed credit certo se relapsurumT R,
Neg., quia practice loquendo, Hie,
qui vere vult non peccare, a peccato

PENANCE

149

lapse is not always a sign that one's purpose of
amendment lacked firmness ; for even the strong-
est resolution may weaken and finally succumb.7
But when the relapsed penitent has made no
effort, or only the weakest kind of an effort, to
amend his life, it may reasonably be presumed
that he had no firm purpose of amendment.

c) Since the purpose of amendment is es-
sentially an act of the will directed to future
performance, it must be efficacious (propositum
efficax), that is to say, the penitent must be ready
and willing to employ the means necessary and
useful for the avoidance of sin, particularly to
shun all voluntary proximate occasions 8 and to

abstinere potest. Ergo, si credat,
certo se lapsurum, hoc arguit infir-
mitatem propositi, aderit enim sem-
per divina gratia, quacum sperare de-
bet, se non relapsurum esse. Non ta-
tnen mdispositus censendus est, qui
ex praeterita fragilitate lapsum per-
timescit. Hinc verum habet propo-
situm poenitens ille, qui interroganti
confessario de voluntate non pec-
candi respondet: 'Fragilis sum valde,
formido lapsum, non tamen volo
nunc casum.' In praxi vero indolent
geniumque poenitentis inspicias.
Reperies enim non raro peccatores
asseverantes se relapsuros esse, qui
timent, ne propositum satis firmum
habeant, quin tamen aliud ostendant
praeter labendi timorem suique dif-
fidentiam. Huiusmodi poenitentibus
dicendutn est, non agi de his, quae
forte probabiliter evenient, sed de ac-
tuali voluntate futurum respiciente
et de fiducia summa in auxilio di-
vino reponenda."

7Cfr. Matth. XXVI, 33~3S; 69-
75. — St. Thomas, Summa Theol., 3a,
qu. 84, art. 10, ad 4: "Quod aliquis
postea peccat. vel actu vel proposito,
non excludit, quin prima poeniten-
tia vera fuerit, nunquam enim Veri-
tas prioris actus excluditur per ac-
tum contrarium subsequentem. Sic-
ut enim vere cucurrit, qui postea
sedet, ita vere poenituit, qui postea
peccat."

8 Cfr. Gury, Comp. Theol. Mor.,
II, n. 344: "Efficax [propositum],
seu poenitens non tantum firmiter
statuere debet non amplius peccare
velle, sed etiam adhibere operant et
omnia media necessaria pro vitan-
dis peccatis fugiendisque proximis
occasionibus," etc. "Sufficit autem,
ut propositum sit efficax affective, id
est, sufficit, ut peccator sit animo
paratus ad media necessaria adhi-
benda, quia futura vitatio peccati
non est de essentia propositi."

150 THE MEANS OF GRACE

repair to the best of his ability whatever injury
he may have done to others.

The purpose of amendment which forms part of con-
trition is of great importance for the spiritual life be-
cause there can be no progress on the way to perfection
unless one has a straight purpose and keeps it. Thomas
a Kempis says : "According to our resolution the course
of our progress shall be ; and he who would advance rap-
idly needeth great diligence. For if a man who maketh
a firm resolution often faileth, how will he fare who
hath seldom or never any fixed purpose ? In many ways,
however, we abandon our good resolve; and a slight
omission of our exercises seldom passeth without some
detriment to our progress. The good resolutions of the
just depend not so much on their own wisdom, as on the
grace of God, in whom they also ever trust in all their
undertakings. For man proposeth, but God disposeth ;
and 'the way of a man is not His.' " 9 "Good resolu-
tions," says Alban Stolz, "are like blossoms that drop
from a tree ; they bring no fruit unless a man employs
the means necessary to carry them out."

Readings. — H. Noldin, S.J., Summa Theol. Mor., Vol. Ill, pp.
310 sqq.— Th. Slater, S.J., Manual of Moral Theol, Vol. II, pp.
161 sq. — A Lehmkuhl, S.J., Theol. Mor., Vol. II, pp. 231 sqq. —
A. Tanquerey, Synopsis Theol. Mor. et Past., Vol. I, 2nd ed., pp.
77 sqq.

9 De Imit. Christi, I, 19 (Opera Edition," by Father Thaddeus,
Omnia, ed. Pohl, II, 32 sq.). Our O.F.M., London 1908, pp. 34 sq.
translation is that of the "Seraphic

PENANCE 151

ARTICLE 3

CONFESSION

I. Necessity. — The second essential constitu-
ent of the Sacrament of Penance is confes-
sion. By confession (confessio, clo^oAdy^o-is)1 we
understand the sorrowful declaration of sins
made to a priest with the purpose of obtaining
forgiveness through the power of the keys.2

Sacramental confession is of divine institu-
tion and has been embodied among the command-
ments of the Church.3

Every Catholic who has attained to the use of
reason, i. e., who is able to distinguish between
good and evil, and has sinned grievously, is
obliged to confess his sins once a year (annua
confessio).'1 Not age, but intellectual and moral

1 Cone. Florent., Decretum pro delectandi causa exponamus. Verum
Armenis: "Secunda [pars poeni- accusatorio animo ita enumeranda
tentiae] est oris confessio: ad quam sunt, ut ea etiam in nobis vindicare
pertinet, ut peccator omnia peccata, cupiamus. Veniae autem impetran-
quorum memoriam habet, suo sa- dae causa peccata confitemur, quo-
cerdoti confiteatur integraliter." niam hoc iudicium longe dissimile
(Denzinger-Bannwart, n. 699). est forensibus capitalium rerum quae-

2 Cat. Rom., P. II, c. 5, qu. 33: stionibus, in quibus confessions
"Earn . . . [confessionem] defimunt poena et supplicium, non culpae li-
esse peccatorum accusationem, quae beratio et errati venia constituta
ad Sacramenti genus pertinet, eo est." (Ed. Ratisb. 4a, p. 225). Cfr.
susceptam, ut veniam virtute clavium Pohle-Preuss, The Sacraments, Vol.
impetremus. Recte autem accusatio III, pp. 181 sqq.

dicitur, quod peccata ita commemo- 3 Cfr. John XX, 21 sqq. — Cone,

randa non sunt, quasi scelera nostra Trid., Sess. VI, ch. 14; Sess. XIV,

ostentemus, ut ii faciunt, qui 'laetan- De Poenit., c. 5, can. 6-8.

tur, quum malefecerint' (Prov. ii, 4 Cone. Lat. IV., c. 21: "Omnis

14), ant omnino enarranda, ut rem utriusque sexus fidelis, postquam ad

aliquant gestam otiosis auditoribus annos discretionis pervenerit, . . .

152

THE MEANS OF GRACE

development is the decisive factor in regard to
this obligation. Of course, the precept of an-
nual confession binds only those who have com-
mitted a mortal sin. Those who are guilty of
venial sins only are not strictly obliged to go to
confession at all.5 Because of the danger of self-
deception, however, and particularly on account
of the respect due to the law of Easter Commun-
ion, every Catholic is advised to go to confession
at least once a year, even though he be not con-
scious of mortal sin.

The obligation imposed by the precept of
annual confession is not ad finiendam, but ad ur-
gendam obligationem. Hence if a man surely
foresees that he will not be able to comply with his
duty later in the year, he is bound to do it now.

Sacramental confession, to be valid, must be made to
the appointed priest in person, not by letter, telephone

fideliter confiteatur. . . ." (Denzin-
ger-Bannwart, n. 437). — Cat. Rom.,
P. II, c. s, qu. 38: ". . . perspici-
tur, neminem confessionis lege ad-
strictum esse ante earn aetatem, quel
rationis usum habere potest. Neque
tamen ea aetas eerie aliquo annorum
numero deftnita est, sed Mud uni-
verse statuendum videtur: ab eo
tempore confessionem puero indic-
tarn esse, quum inter bonum et ma-
lum discernendi vim habet, in cius-
que mentem dolus cadere potest.
Nam quum ad id vitae tempus quis-
que pervenerit, in quo de salute
aeterna deliberandum est, turn pri-
mum sacerdoti peccata confiteri de-
bet; quum aliter salutem sperare

ttemini liceat, qui scelerum conscien-
tia premitur." (Ed. Ratisb. 4a, p.
228).

5 Cfr. St. Alphonsus, Theol. Mor.,
1. VI, n. 667: "Quaeritur an ad
satisfaciendum praecepto annuae
confessionis, qui non habet morta-
lia, teneatur confiteri venialia.
Prima sententia affirmat. Secunda
sententia tamen communis et verior
negat. Ratio, quia Ecclesia prae-
cipiendo confessionem annuam tan-
turn Mam confessionem praecipit,
quae est debita ex Christi institu-
tione. Christus autem nullam aliam
prnncipit confessionem nisi morta-
Hum." — Supra, p. 138.

PENANCE 153

or messenger.6 The personal presence of the penitent is
required even when oral confession is impracticable
because the penitent is deaf or can speak no language
known to the confessor. In the former case the avowal
can be made by means of signs or in writing, in the latter,
through an interpreter. In case of necessity, when oral
confession is impossible, the penitent may manifest by
signs the nature of his sins, his sorrow for them, and his
wish to be absolved.63,

II. Properties. — The properties of confes-
sion flow from the nature and purpose of the Sac-
rament. They are: (1) Integrity, (2) Sincerity,
and (3) Clearness.7

1. Integrity. — Confession is entire or com-
plete if the penitent avows all the mortal sins he
has committed since Baptism or his last previous
confession, together with their number and spe-

6 Cfr. St. Thomas, Summa Theol., "Sit simplex, humilis, confessio,

3a, Suppl., qu. 9, art. 3; Decree of pura, fidelis,

Clement VIII, June 20, 1602; Dec- Atque frequens, nuda, discreta, H-

laration of Paul V, July 14, 1605 bens, verecunda,

(Denzinger-Bannwart, n. 962, 963); Integra, secreta, lacrimabilis, acce-

Cat. Rom., P. II, c. 5, qu. 45. — To lerata,

the query whether absolution given Fortis et accusans, et sit parere pa-
by telephone (per telephonium) rata."
would be valid, and, in case of ne-
cessity, licit, the S. Congregation of Th. M. J. Gousset (Theol. Mor., II,
the Penitentiary replied: "Nihil 256) enumerates four: integritas,
esse respondendum" (July 1, 1884). simplicitas, humilitas, caritas. Gury
—Cfr. Pohle-Preuss, The Sacra- (Comp. Theol. Mor., II, n. 352)
ments, Vol. Ill, pp. 98 sqq. thinks that only two of these quali-

6a No one is obliged to confess ties are essential: "Multae confes-

either in writing or through an in- sionis dotes a variis auctoribus as-

terpreter. Cfr. Noldin, Summa signantur, nempe ut sit Integra,

Theol. Mor., Vol. Ill, pp. 318 sqq. dolorosa, humilis, prudens, simplex,

1 St. Thomas mentions no less nuda, verecunda, brevis, secreta et

than sixteen, but they can all be vocalis. Ex his confessionis doti-

reduced to the three mentioned in bus duae priores tantum sunt essen-

the text: tiales, reliquae pertinent ad eius mo-

154 THE MEANS OF GRACE

cific circumstances.8 To be able to do this prop-
erly he must examine his conscience.

The integrity of confession (integritas confes-
sionis) may be material or formal. It is material
(integritas materialis) if the penitent actually
confesses all his mortal sins; it is formal (in-
tegritas formalis) if he is willing to make a com-
plete avowal, but is prevented by physical or
moral causes.

a) The material integrity of confession re-
quires:

«) That the penitent mention all those mortal
sins which he has not yet validly confessed.
When he is in doubt whether or not he has
confessed a mortal sin, or whether some par-
ticular sin is mortal or venial, the penitent is
not bound, but (cases of scrupulousness and ur-
gent necessity excepted) earnestly advised to
mention it. If the existing doubt is founded on
weighty reasons (dnbium prndens), it is ad-
visable that the sin (peccatum dnbium) be
confessed. Mortal sins which have been inad-
vertently omitted (forgotten) in one confession,
must be declared in the next. If a penitent has
purposely concealed a mortal sin, his confession
is invalid, and he must, besides confessing his
sacrilege, repeat all the mortal sins mentioned

dum et perfcctionem nee speciali ex- Poenit., c. 5, can. 7; Cat. Rom.,
plicatione indigent." P. II, c. 5, qu. 40 sq.

8 Cone. Trident., Sess. XIV, De

PENANCE 155

in his invalid confession, unless the confessor
has at least a dim recollection of them.

£) That the number of mortal sins committed
be given as accurately as possible. If the exact
number cannot be ascertained, it is sufficient to
give an approximate estimate, declaring, for in-
stance, how many times the sin has been commit-
ted each day, week, or month.

y) That the circumstances be mentioned which
change the species of a sin or add a new species
(circumstantiae speciem mut antes vel addentes),
and especially those by which a venial sin becomes
grievous (e. g., scandal). Circumstances that
merely increase the guilt of a sin within the same
species {circumstantiae notabiliter aggravantes)
as a rule need not be confessed, though it is ad-
visable to do so. They must be expressly men-
tioned if they entail a censure or reservation, or
if the confessor inquires about them with a view
to ascertaining the disposition of the penitent or
deciding whether restitution has to be made.9

Circumstances which might change an objectively
grievous sin (i. e., one that is grievous merely from its
object) into a venial sin should also be mentioned.
This is not necessary for the integrity of the Sacrament,
but advisable because it may enable the confessor to form
a better idea of the penitent's state of mind.

9 Cfr. Prop. Damnat. sub Innoc. alicuius consuetudinem." (Denzin-
XL, prop. 58: "Non tenemur con- ger-Bannwart, n. 1208).
fessario interroganti fateri peccati

156 THE MEANS OF GRACE

The mortal sins a man has committed, together with
their number and specific circumstances, constitute the
necessary matter of Penance (materia necessaria).
Venial sins are merely materia libera et sufiiciens, that is
to say, they need not be, but may and, considering the
importance of the Sacrament, should be confessed. Pre-
viously confessed sins, whether mortal or venial, may
be confessed again, and if properly regretted, constitute
sufficient matter for absolution. All "the other sins,
which do not occur [to the penitent] after diligent
thought, are understood to be included as a whole in that
same confession," and are summarily included in the
usual declaration : "For these and all other sins of
which I am not now conscious, I am heartily sorry," and
so forth.10

In order to be able to confess his sins properly, the
penitent, before approaching the sacred tribunal, should
carefully and earnestly examine his conscience.11 No
time limit can be set for this important task. Circum-
stances of individuality, time, place, etc., must be taken
into consideration. The only general rule that may be
laid down is that the time and care devoted to the exam-
ination of conscience should be equal to that which is
usually bestowed by prudent men upon important matters
of business, and that there be no exaggeration or careless-
ness, lest the validity of the Sacrament be endangered
and it become what Protestants have unjustly called it, —
a "slaughter-house of consciences."

Material integrity of confession in the strict sense is

10 "Reliqua peccata, quae diligen- 11 "Diligcns sui discussio aut de-
ter cogitanti non occurrunt, in uni- bita et diligens praemeditatio."
versum eadem confessione inclusa {Cone. Trident., Sess. XIV, De
esse intelleguntur." — Cone. Trident., Poenit., c. 5, can. 7). — Cfr. Noldin,
Sess. XIV, De Poenit., c. 5; cfr. Ps. Summa Theol. Mor., Vol. Ill, pp.
XVIII, 13. 339 sqq.

PENANCE 157

not always possible because God alone knows the hearts
of men and can judge them infallibly.12

b) Confession is formally complete or entire if
the penitent tells all the sins he is able to remem-
ber and confess, thereby proving his willingness
to make a full avowal.

The obstacles to material integrity are partly physical
and partly moral. Physical obstacles are, e. g., deafness
or inability to speak, impossibility of finding a confessor
who understands one's language, immediate danger of
death, inculpable ignorance or forgetfulness. Moral ob-
stacles are : extraordinary difficulty, grave spiritual or
temporal injury threatening the penitent, the confessor,
or a third person ; e. g., the danger of losing one's good
name (not, however, before the confessor), serious scan-
dal, violation of the seal, etc. Such obstacles dispense
from material integrity, provided, of course, it is morally
impossible for the penitent to wait or to find another
priest to whom he could make a full confession. Phys-
ical exertion, crowding of the confessionals,13 intense
shame14 or the necessity of indirectly revealing an ac-

12 Acts I, 24; XV, 8; 1 Cor. IV, modi confessionis difficultas ac pec-
4. cata detegendi verecundia gravis

13 The following proposition was quidem videri posset, nisi tot tantis-
condemned under Innocent XI: que commodis et consolationibus
"Licet sacrament aliter absolvere di- levaretur, quae omnibus digne ad
midiate tantum confessos ratione hoc Sacramentum accedentibus per
magni concursus poenitentium, qua- absolutionem certissime conferun-
lis verbi gratia potest contingere in tur." — Cfr. Gury, Comp. Theol.,
die magnae alicuius festivitatis aut Mor., II, n. 377: "Nunquam ex-
indulgentiae." (Prop. Damnat. sub cusat difficultas ipsi confessioni in-
Innoc. XL, prop. 59; Denzinger- trinseca, quantumvis gravis ea sit.
Bannwart, n. 1209). Ratio est, quia confessio ex naturi

14 Cone. Trident., Sess. XIV, De sua est essentialiter laboriosa, ac
Poenit., c. 5: "Ipsa vero huius- proinde, si difficultas gravis, v. g.

158

THE MEANS OF GRACE

complice do not excuse a penitent from making a full
confession of his sins.

Under no pretext is the confessor permitted to inquire
formally for the name of an accomplice or associate in
crime (complex peccati ant socius criminis), his place of
residence,15 or any circumstance that might reveal his
identity. Nay, more, the penitent should not be allowed
to disclose the name of his accomplice because confessor
and penitent are both under obligation to protect the good
name of others. But the penitent must divulge the degree
of relationship of his accomplice if this is rendered neces-
sary by some circumstance changing the species of his sin,
e. g., incest, and the fact that a priest is involved when the
confessional has been abused for soliciting to impurity.
The laws of the Church require that a priest guilty of this
crime be reported by name to the ecclesiastical authori-
ties. If a penitent can, without great inconvenience,
choose a confessor to whom his accomplice is unknown,
he is in duty bound to do so.16

If for some physical or moral reason the penitent has
forgotten or otherwise omitted a mortal sin in confession,
he must mention it in his next confession, — not to obtain
forgiveness (as such sin has been forgiven indirectly by
the grace of absolution), but to submit the forgotten sin
formally to the power of the keys.

17

magna repugnantia aut verecundia,
ab integritate excusaret, plerumque
ab accusandis mortalibus excusaren-
tur fideles, et proinde rueret ex
maxima parte institutio sacramenti
poenitentiae. Praeterea Ecclesic non
posset reservare crimina atrocia,
quia id incommodum non leve poeni-
tentibus creat."

IB Benedict XIV., Const. "Su-
prema omnium," July 7, 1745; "Ubi
primum," June 2, 1746; "Ad eradi-

candum," Sept. 28, 1746; "Aposto-
lici ministerii," Dec. 9, 1749 (Den-
zinger-Bannwart, n. 1474). — Cfr.
Gury, II, 379, 382.

16 Cfr. Gopfert, III, 235 sqq. —
Noldin, III, 338 sq.

17 Gury, II, n. 377: "Cessante
causa excusante ab integritate ma-
teriali, pracceptum diviniim con-
fitendi omnia peccata mortalia omis-
sa iterum urget, etiam excusatio a
dirina confessionis lege non cessat

PENANCE 159

The assertion of a recent Protestant writer that the
Church in the Middle Ages compelled the faithful to
"confess each and every sin they had committed" is
false.18

2. Sincerity. — The second quality required
for a valid confession is sincerity. Confession
is sincere (Melts aut sine era) if the penitent
truthfully declares all his mortal sins with their
number and specific circumstances. Any wilful
attempt to misrepresent seriously the nature of a
mortal sin committed, or the moral state of the
soul, is sacrilegious and renders confession
invalid, because such an act not only destroys the
integrity of confession, but is incompatible with
true contrition, and, moreover, makes it impossi-
ble for the confessor to judge his penitent prop-
erly.

3. Clearness. — Confession must be clear, that
is, the penitent must declare his sins so as to en-
able the confessor to understand him perfectly

simpliciter occurrente impedimento, iacet: 'Peccata in confessione omissa

sed tantum suspenditur. Cessante seu oblita ob instans periculum vitae

igitur causa excusante, obligatio le- aut ob aliam causam non tenemur

gis integre reviviscit, praeceptum in sequenti confessione exprimere.'

enim confessionis non est affixum ad [Denzinger-Bannwart, n. mi].

tempus, nee ad circumstantiam, sed Ergo contradictoria huius proposi-

vitam integrant afficit, ita ut peccata tionis est vera: ergo necessario ac-

nondum accusata postea necessario cusanda sunt peccata oblivione prae-

accusanda sint, si fieri possit. Nee termissa, licet iam deleta fuerint."

obstat, quod Ecclesia tempus con- 18 Cfr. E. Fischer, Zur Geschichte

fessionis determinaverit, nam haec der evangelischen Beichte, Vol. I,

determinatio non est ad finiendam, pp. 24, 34, 47; P. A. Kirsch, Zur

sed ad urgendam obligationem. Geschichte der katholischen Beichte,

Constat aliunde ex propositione ob pp. 186 sqq.
Alexandro VII. damnata, quae sic

160 THE MEANS OF GRACE

and to form a correct opinion of the state of his
soul. The nature of the Sacrament requires that
the avowal of sins be made simply, clearly, hum-
bly, and contritely, for it is essentially an act of
self-accusation, by which the penitent expects to
obtain forgiveness and grace through the power
of the keys confided by Christ to His Church.19
Needless to add, it requires courage and mortifica-
tion to make a complete, sincere, and clear confes-
sion.20

Regarding the form of sacramental confession, the
Catechism of the Council of Trent says : "We must take
care that our confession be plain, simple, and undisguised,
not clothed in that artificial language which some employ,
who seem rather to give an outline of their manner of
life than to confess their sins ; for our confession should
be such as to disclose ourselves to the priest as we
know ourselves to be, representing as certain that which
is certain, and as doubtful that which is doubtful. This
good quality our confession obviously lacks if our sins

19 Cat. Rom., P. II, c. 5, qu. 38: audent suum negare peccatum, dedi-
"Accusatorio animo [peccata] ita gnantur rogare indulgentiam, quain
enumeranda sunt, ut ea ctiam in no- petebat, qui nullis legibus tenebatur
bis vindicare cupiamus." humanis. Quod peccavit, conditionis

20 St. Ambrose, Apol. Proph. est, quod supplicavit, correctionis.
David, I, c. 4, n. 15: "Peccavit Culpam itaque incidisse naturae est,
David, quod solent reges, sed poeni- diluisse virtutis." (Migtie, P. L.,
tcntiam gcssit, flevit, ingemuit, quod XIV, 857). — Idem, ibid., II, c. 3,
non solent reges. Confessus est n. 7: "Peccavit David, quod solent
culpam, obsecravit indulgentiam, reges, sed poenitentiam gessit et
humi stratus dcploravit aerumnam, fievit, quod non solent reges. Ro-
ieiunavit, oravit, confessionis suae gavit veniam non arrogans potesta-
testimonium in perpetua saecula vul- tis, sed infirmitatis suae conscius;
gato dolore transmisit. Quod eru- prostratus in terram cilicio se
bescunt facere privati, rex non eru- opcruit, oblitus imperii et tnemor
buit confiteri. Qui tenentur legibus, culpae." (P. L., XIV, 890).

PENANCE 161

are not enumerated or if topics are introduced that are
foreign to the matter of confession. They who, in
explaining things, observe prudence and modesty, are also
very much to be commended, for a superfluity of words is
to be avoided, but whatever is necessary to make known
the nature and quality of every sin, is to be explained
briefly and modestly." 21

One who is morally certain that he has made an un-
worthy confession, must confess the same sins again.

The term general confession has two meanings : ( I ) a
declaration of guilt in general terms, as contained, e. g.,
in the Confiteor; (2) a confession in which the penitent
repeats all or some of his former confessions.

A general confession in the last-mentioned sense may
extend over one's whole life or some particular period
thereof.

A general confession becomes necessary when former
confessions were sacrilegious, either through want of sin-
cerity, sorrow, resolution, or integrity, or through grave
negligence in the examination of conscience, etc. A gen-
eral confession is useful, though not necessary, at the
beginning of each new epoch in life, e. g., in preparing
for first Communion or on entering a new state of life,
in a dangerous illness, at the time of a jubilee or mission.
Scrupulants should be dissuaded from making frequent
general confessions, as this practice is apt to aggravate
rather than improve their condition.22

Readings. — St. Thomas, Summa Theol., 3a, Suppl., qu. 6-10. —
J. P. Gury, Compendium Theologiae Moralis, Vol. II, n. 348-
401. — P. Schanz, Die Lehre von den hi. Sakramenten, pp. 498
sqq., 564 sqq. — Chr. Pesch, S.J., Praelectiones Dogmaticae, Vol.

21 Cat. Rom., P. II, C. 5, qu. 43 Haringer, Anleitung zur Verwaltung
(ed. 4a Ratisb., p. 230). des hi. Bussakramentes, pp. 210 sqq.

22 Cfr. Gury, II, n. 393-401; M.

1 62

THE MEANS OF GRACE

VII, 3rd ed., pp. 76 sqq.— A. Tanquerey, Synopsis Theol. Mor.,
Vol. I, pp. 82 sqq.— H. Noldin, S.J., Sumtna Theol. Mor., Vol.
Ill, pp. 315 sqq.— A. Lehmkuhl, S.J., Theol. Mor., Vol. II, pp. 238
sqq'.— Sabetti-Barrett, S.J., Comp. Theol. Mor., pp. 656 sqq.

ARTICLE 4

QUESTIONING AND INSTRUCTING PENITENTS

i. The Duty of the Confessor to Ques-
tion the Penitent (Interrogatio). — This duty
arises from the nature of the Sacrament. Pen-
ance is a tribunal of justice. When the peni-
tent's self-accusation is defective, so that the
confessor cannot judge of the completeness of the
avowal or the disposition of the sinner, prudent
questioning becomes a duty.1 Generally speak-
ing, the presumption is in favor of the penitent.
One who voluntarily comes to confession may be
presumed to have the right disposition and to tell
the truth. Hence no penitent should be interro-

dos prudenter interroget." — Cfr.
Gury, Comp. Theol. Mor., Vol. II,
n. 461: "Confessarius tenetur in-
terrogare poenitentes de specie, nu-
tnero et circumstantiis peccatorum
speciem mutantibus, eorumque cau-
sis, de habitu et occasionibus proxi-
tnis, quoties rationabiliter praesu-
tnit vel dubitat, ista non sufUcienter
declarari. Ratio est, quia confessa-
rius, ut minister sacramenti, debet
procurare eius integritatem, et ut iu-
dex, debet sibi comparare cogni-
tionem necessariam ad aequum iudi-
cium ferendum."

lConc. Lot. IV., c. ax: "Sacer-
dos sit discretus et cautus, ut more
periti medici supcrinfundat vinum et
oleum vulneribus sauciati, diligenter
inquirens et peccatoris circumstan-
tias et peccati, quibus prudentcr in-
tellegat, quale dcbeat ei praebere
consilium et cuiusmodi remcdium
adhibere diversis experiments
utcndo ad salvandum acgrotum."
(Denzinger-Bannwart, n. 437)- —
Rit. Rom., tit. 3, c. 1, n. 15: "Si
poenitens numerum et species et cir-
cumstantias peccatorum explicatu ne-
cessarias non expresserit, eum sacer-

PENANCE 163

gated unless there is a well-founded doubt as to
the integrity of his avowal or the absence of some
element that is essential for the valid and worthy
reception of the Sacrament.

When it becomes necessary to ask questions,
these will in the nature of the case deal with one
of the following subjects : the number and specific
character of one or more of the mortal sins con-
fessed; necessary circumstances; causes and oc-
casions; sinful habits; relapses, or the duty of
restitution. Occasionally it may also be neces-
sary to question the penitent in regard to his pro-
fession or occupation, his state of life, the time
or validity of his last confession, etc.2

To perform his duty effectively, the confessor, in ques-
tioning a penitent, should proceed with caution,3 pru-
dence,4 and discretion, especially in matters pertaining to
the sixth and ninth commandments.5 Besides the ques-
tions he is in duty bound to ask, others may suggest them-
selves, and here especially great prudence is necessary.

2 Gury (Comp. Theol. Mor., II, non tenetur interrogate poeniten-
n. 463) : "Confessarius non tenetur tern nisi cum ordinaria sollicitudine.
interrogare poenitentes, qui, licet Ratio est, poenitens ipse non tenetur
rudes, videntur suMcienter instructi summa, sed tantum mediocri, id est,
pro sua conditione et diligentes in ordinaria diligentia se examinare.
conixtendo peccata cum circumstan- Nequit autem esse gravior obligatio
tiis iuxta statum et capacitatem confessarii, quam poenitentis, quum
suam. A fortiori necesse non est confessarius non teneatur examinare
ordinarie examinare eos, qui saepe poenitentem nisi secundario seu
confitentur et raro peccant graviter, ipsius defectu."

ut sunt personae devotae, religiosi, 4 Cone. Lat. IV., c. 21; Rit. Rom.,

ecclesiastici, nisi videatur ab eis tit. 3, c. 1, n. 15.

omitti aliquid necessario explican- 6 Cfr. Linsenmann, Lehrbuch der

dum." Moraltheologie, p. 219.

3 Op. cit., n. 462: "Confessarius

164

THE MEANS OF GRACE

By working upon the emotions of a well disposed penitent
the confessor can often prepare the way for grace.6

2. The Confessor's Duty of Admonishing
and Instructing the Penitent (Monitio). —
This duty arises from the office of teacher, which
a priest is bound to exercise whenever he finds a
penitent to be ignorant of what is necessary for
the integrity of confession or of the disposition
required for the worthy reception of the Sacra-
ment.

a) Hence the confessor is in duty bound to in-
struct every penitent who is either vincibly and
culpably or invincibly ignorant of the truths nec-
essary for salvation and the more important du-
ties of life. When a penitent is invincibly igno-
rant in regard to some of these duties, the con-
fessor should not instruct him unless he has good
reason to think that his advice will be heeded,
lest what was purely a material sin should be-

6 Rit. Rom., tit. 3, c. I, n. 46:

" Sacerdos caveat, ne curiosis aut
inutilibus inter rogationibus quern-
quam detineat, praesertim iuniores
utriusque sexus vel alios de eo, quod
ignorant, imprudenter interrogans,
ne scandalum patiantur indeque pec-
care discant." — Cfr. St. Alphonsus,
Theol. Mot., 1. VI, n. 629: "Ne
examen sit curiosum de non neces-
sariis, unde confessarii existimatio,
sacramenti dignitas et poenitentis
profectus minuatur ; ne sit indiscre-
tum, v. g., de Us, quae moraliter
cerium est, a tali non solere com-

mitti, vel ex quibus discat peccare
poenitens vel de inverecundis in-
verecunde vel de numero nimis
anxie." (Ed. Gaud6, III, 653).—
Gury, Comp. Theol. Mor., II, n.
463: "Interrogatio semper debet
esse moderata. discreta, opportuna,
et omnibus circumstantiis qualitatis,
aetatis, conditionis poenitentis con-
grua. Sic reverentia sacramenti, de-
centia naturalis, caritas et prudentia
erga poenitentes requirere videntur."
— P. A. Kirsch, Zur Geschichte der
kath. Beichte, pp. 212 sq.

PENANCE 165

come a formal sin. The same rule holds good
whenever there is reason to apprehend that in-
struction of the penitent would result in quarrels,
enmity, scandal, or other serious evil.

When a confessor has reason to doubt whether
instruction is likely to prove useful, he had better
say nothing.7

b) If the penitent asks for instruction, it
should always be given regardless of its probable
effect. However, in such cases the confessor had
better not go beyond the question asked, unless
additional instruction is sure to prove beneficial.
For instance, if a penitent has married in spite of
the vow of chastity, and asks whether the mar-
riage is valid and whether he is allowed to ren-
der the debitum, the confessor should reply in the
affirmative, without informing the penitent that
he has no right to demand that which he may
render.

c) The confessor is obliged to remove invinci-
ble ignorance by instruction whenever failure to
do so would result in injury to the common good,
or whenever it can reasonably be expected that
the penitent will obey, either now or later; or

7 Cfr. St. Alphonsus, Theol. Mor., pensare debet damnum et utile, item

I. VI, n. 616: "Utrum autem gradum timoris damni ac spei utili-

facienda sit monitio in dubio, an sit tatis, et eligere id, quod iudicat prae-

profutura vel obfutura? Responde- ponderare. Ceterum in dubio regu-

tur: Si non timetur de damno, Iariter mihi videtur dicendum, quod

omnino quidem fieri debet; si vero mala formalia potius evitanda sint,

dubitatur tarn de damno quam de quam materialia." (Ed. Gaude, III,

fructu secuturo, tunc confessarius 640-

166 THE MEANS OF GRACE

if the penitent would otherwise remain in proxi-
mate danger of formal sin, or his ignorance
would result in spiritual injury to himself, e. g.,
by regarding as sinful something which is per-
mitted.

In applying these rules it is necessary to proceed with
caution. "Some theologians assume," says Linsenmann,
"that there is a species of error in moral matters which the
confessor had better leave untouched, in other words, that
the penitent runs less danger of committing formal sin if
he transgresses a moral law ignorantly and in good faith,
than if he is instructed with regard to his error. This
assumption is scarcely ever founded in fact. An error
that involves no moral danger either to the penitent or to
others, cannot possibly have reference to the substance of
the moral law, but will invariably pertain to purely human
precepts of minor importance. If the penitent were un-
willing to accept instruction in a matter involving mortal
sin, — and only in such a case would it be the confessor's
duty to instruct him, — he would be incapable of receiving
absolution." 8

Readings. — St. Alphonsus, Theologia Moralis, 1. VI, n. 607-616
(ed. Gaude, Vol. Ill, pp. 631 sqq.). — H. Noldin, S.J., Summa
Theol. Mor., Vol. Ill, pp. 462 sqq. — A. Tanquerey, Synopsis Thcol.
Mor. et Past., Vol. I, pp. 195 sqq. — F. A. Gopfert, Moraltheologie,
Vol. Ill, 5th ed., pp. 234 sqq. — J. E. Pruner, Lehrbuch der Pa-
storaltheologic, Vol. I, 2nd ed., pp. 247 sqq., 255 sqq. — F. P. Ken-
rick, Theologia Moralis, Vol. II, 2nd ed., Malines 1861, pp. 256
sqq. — Al. Sabetti, S.J., Compendium Thcologiae Moralis, 22nd ed.
(by T. Barrett, S.J.), New York 1915, pp. 745 sqq.

8 Linsenmann, Lehrbuch der Moraltheologie, p. 219.

PENANCE 167

ARTICLE 5

THE SEAL OF CONFESSION

1. Definition. — By the seal of confession
(sigillum confessionis, secretum sacrament ale)
is understood the obligation of keeping secret
knowledge gained through sacramental confes-
sion.1

2. Source of the Obligation. — The seal of
confession binds the confessor and (per accidens)
all others who have knowledge of the matter of a
sacramental confession through whatever means.
It is absolute and, per se, admits of no exception.

As for the penitent, though not bound by the
seal, he is obliged to treat confessional matter as
a natural secret, so far at least as the dignity of
the Sacrament or regard for the confessor de-
mand.

The obligation of the seal rests on the natural,
on positive divine, and on ecclesiastical law.2

1 Cfr. H. Busembaum, S.J., Me- ligatio inviolabiliter servandi sigillum
dulla Theol. Mor., 1. VI, tr. 4, c. 3: confessionis. Constat (0 ex iure
"Sigillum hoc est obligatio iuris di- naturali, et quidem triplici titulo,
vini strictissima in omni casu, etiam nempe ex caritate, ex iustitia, ex
quo integri regni salus periclitare- religione; (2) ex iure divino posi-
tur, ad tacendum (etiam post mortem tivo, saltern implicite, nam ex insti-
poenitentis) dicta in confessione (id tutione Christi confessio seer eta esse
est in ordine ad absolutionem sacra- debet, ergo eo ipso a Christo imposita
mentalem) omnia, quorum revelatio est confessariis obligatio sigilli ser-
sacramentum redderet onerosum vel vandi; (3) ex iure ecclesiastico; con-
odiosum." (Ed. Tornac, 1876; Vol. stat ex variis iuris canonici locis,

I. P- 573). praesertim ex Concilio Lateranensi

2 Cfr. Gury, Comp. Theol. Mor., quarto, c. zi: 'Utriusque sexus,'

II, n. 495: "Datur strictissima ob- ubi dicitur: 'Caveat autem omnino

168 THE MEANS OF GRACE

a) The natural law commands silence regarding that
which is communicated in confidence. When a man goes
to confession, he expects that his secret will be locked in
the bosom of the confessor. Hence to keep the seal in-
violate is a matter of strict natural duty. In many coun-
tries the civil law treats the revelation of any secret com-
municated in confidence as a misdemeanor.

b) The positive divine law demands the inviolability of
the seal because it is a necessary condition of the enforce-
ment of the precept of confession. "Confession could
not be enforced," says Bishop Linsenmann, "if priests
were not bound to the strictest secrecy concerning that
which is revealed to them in the confessional. Hence
the seal is justified, not only by the interest of the penitent,
but by the interest of confession itself." 3 "The divine
command to confess one's sins," says Dr. Krieg, "would
be an intolerable burden if the penitent were not assured
of silence on the part of the confessor." 4

c) The law of the Church forbids the revelation of sac-
ramentally confessed sins under severe penalties.6

3. Nature of the Obligation. — The obli-
gation of keeping the seal binds every confessor
under pain of mortal sin. It is absolute, i. e., ad-
mits of no parvitas materiae, at least directly.6

[confessarius], ne verbo aut signo "Sacramentale sigillum inviolabilt

out alio quovis modo aliquatenus pro- est; quare caveat diligenter conies-

dat peccatorem: sed si prudentiore sarins, tie verbo aut signo aut alio

consilio indiguerit, Mud absque ulla quovis modo et quaz-is de causa pro-

expressione personae caute re- dat aliquatenus peccatorem." — On

quirat . . ." (Denzinger-Bannwart, the penalties cfr. J. Hollweck, Die

n. 438). kirchlichen Strafgesetse, Mayence,

8 F. X. Linsenmann, Lehrbuch 1899, pp. 332 sqq. ; J. Laurentius,

der Moraltheologie, p. 220. S.J., Inst. Iuris Eccles., n. 456, 546.

4 Krieg, Wissenschaft der Seelen- 6 Gury, Comp. Theol. Mor., II, n.

leitung, Vol. I, p. 515. 497: ". . . saltern in revelatione di-

6 Codex Iuris Can., can. 889, § 1 : recta. Ratio est, quia materia,

PENANCE

169

Nor does it cease with the death of the penitent,
but binds always and for ever, regardless of
the inconveniences that may arise for the confes-
sor, the penitent, a third party, or the common
welfare.7 The confessor is not allowed to re-
mind the penitent outside of confession of any-
thing he has heard in the sacred tribunal, much
less to communicate confessional matter to oth-
ers.8

In some countries the civil law expressly ad-
mits the right, nay upholds the duty of the con-
fessor to preserve the seal of confession, though
sometimes with restrictions which Catholic
theology cannot approve.9 Whether confession
made to a priest is privileged in English law is a
matter of doubt.10 In the United States of
America the position of the question at common
law is the same as in England, but some of the
States have made the privilege a matter of statu-
tory law.11

What a priest hears in sacramental confession,

etiam levissima, includit totam ra-
tionem praecepti."

7 Gury, op. cit., n. 495 : "Obli-
gatio sigilli confessionis semper in
omni casu urget, ita ut in nullo casu
possibili liceat revelare quidquam in
confessione auditum et acceptum.
Obligatio enim sigilli confessionis
nullam patitur exceptionem ex eo
quod, si aliqua posset dari exceptio,
semper homines timerent, ne tale
peccatum foret ilia causa frangendi
licit e sigillum, et proinde odiosum
evaderet sacramentum. Porro nulla

causa assequendi vel mali fugiendi
istud malum odii sacramenti com-
pensar-e potest."

8 Cfr. N. Knopp, Der kath. Seel-
sorger als Zeuge vor Gericht, Ratis-
bon 1849.

9 F. H. Vering, Lehrbuch des
Kirchenrechtes, 3rd ed., Freiburg
1893. PP. 211, 739 sqq.

10 Cfr. R. S. Nolan in the Cath.
Encyclopedia, XIII, 649 sqq.

11 C. Zollmann, American Civil
Church Law, N. Y., 1917, pp. 333 sq.

170

THE MEANS OF GRACE

he hears not as a man, but as the representative
of God, and hence, when asked as a private in-
dividual, he may deny knowledge which he pos-
sesses only from confession. In acting thus he
does not employ a purely mental reservation be-
cause every one knows that a priest, if asked
for information, even in court, answers merely
as a man, and not as the vicar of God.12 The
case would be different if he were expressly
asked whether he knew of a thing through con-
fession. He would then not be allowed to say no
because this would be a manifest untruth or
might involve a violation of the seal — an un-
truth if he really had the knowledge which he
was asked to betray; a violation of the seal if he
knew nothing about the matter in question. His
duty in such an emergency would be to denounce
the question as improper and refuse to answer
even at the risk of life.13

The penitent may permit the confessor to use knowl-
edge obtained through sacramental confession, provided

12 St. Thomas, Summa Theol., 3a,
Supplem., qu. 11, art. 1, ad 3:
"Homo non adducitur in testi-
monium nisi ut homo, et ideo sine
laesione conscientiae potest iurare,
se nescire, quod scit tantum ut
Deus." — St. Alphonsus, Theol. Mor.,
1. VI, n. 646. — J. P. Gury, Comp.
Theol. Mor., II, n. 497: "Quid con-
fessarius respondere debeat inter-
roganti de auditis in confessionef
Respondeat, etiam cum iuramento,
si opus sit. se nihil scire, vel nihil

audivisse, quia nullatn habet scien-
tiam communicabilem. Ita omnes."
— G. Estius, Comment, in Sent., IV,
dist. 17, n. 14: "Sensus responsi-
onis erit: Nescio eo cognitionis
modo, secundum quern teneor, tibi
interroganti respondere." — Cfr. A.
Lehmkuhl, S.J., Casus Conscien-
tiae, Vol. I, 2nd ed., n. 574.

13 Cfr. F. Lorinser, Die Lehre von
der Verwaltung des hi. Bussakra-
tnentes, 2nd ed., p. 37.

PENANCE 171

such permission be restricted to the penitent's own sins,
(exclusively, say, of the sins of an accomplice) and no
detriment is likely to accrue therefrom to the sanctity of
the Sacrament; provided, furthermore, that no scandal
be given.

Should a penitent wish to consult his confessor outside
the confessional in regard to something mentioned in
confession, the confessor may consider this an implicit
permission to use his sacramental knowledge.14

It is no violation of the seal, though, as a rule, inadvis-
able for the confessor to mention previously confessed
sins in a later confession.15

The confessor may, if he sees fit, add something to his
admonition, immediately after absolution, before the peni-
tent leaves the confessional, and this without special per-
mission of the penitent, because of the moral union with
the confession just made.

When a priest is in doubt whether information that falls
under the seal has come to him through confession or by
some other channel, he is obliged to observe the secretum
sacramentale.19

4. The Object of the Seal. — The obliga-
tion of keeping secret knowledge gained through

14 Cfr. Linsenmann, Lehrbuch der quidem verbum facere poenitenti
Moraltheologie, p. 222. circa ea, quae ad eius confessionem

15 Cfr. Gury, Comp. Theol. Mot., pertinent, sine ipsius licentid. Ex-
II, n. 499: "An confessarius possit cipe, nisi ipse poenitens prior de
loqui cum poenitente de ipsius con- sua conscientia loquatur vel nisi
fessione? (1) Potest loqui in con- confessarius certo sciat, id poeni-
fessione de omnibus confessionibus tenti gratum fore."

praeteritis. (2) Potest etiam loqui 16 Cfr. St. Alphonsus, Theol.

post absolutionem, antequam poeni- Mor., 1. VI, n. 633; Gury, Comp.

tens discesserit vel si redierit. Ra- Theol. Mor., II, n. 497: "Confessa-

tio est, quia licet completum sit rius ad sigillum tenetur etiam in

sacramentum, tamen iudicium adhuc dubio, an aliquid dictum sit a poeni-

moraliter perseverat. (3) Non pot- tente in ordine ad confessionem."
est extra sacrum tribunal ne ullum

172 THE MEANS OF GRACE

sacramental confession embraces everything that
might prove disagreeable or injurious to the peni-
tent or tend to render the Sacrament odious; in
particular:

a) All sins revealed by the penitent, venial as
well as mortal, together with their attending
circumstances and the names and deeds of ac-
complices ;

b) The penance imposed, and whatever might
betray the fact that absolution was denied;

c) Physical or moral defects of the penitent,
e. g., illegitimate birth, scrupulosity, impatience,
in so far as these defects are known to the confes-
sor only through confession;

d) Virtues, special graces or prerogatives, the
disclosure of which might cause the penitent or
others pain or inconvenience;

e) The fact that one has gone to confession,
if the penitent wishes to conceal it or if his in-
terests demand secrecy.17

The confessor is bound to abstain from all words,
signs, or other indications from which the nature of the
matter revealed to him in confession or anything that falls
under the seal might be inferred. Hence he is not per-
mitted to deny holy Communion to a penitent whom he
has refused to absolve, provided, of course, he knows of
his unworthiness only through confession, and the peni-
tent demands the Holy Eucharist in the ordinary way.18

17 Cfr. St. Alphonsus, Theologia 18 Cone. Lat. IV., c. 21 (Denzin-

Mor., 1. VI, n. 640-644; Gury, ger-Bannwart, n. 437 sq.)
Comp. Theol. Mor., II, n. 502-504.

PENANCE 173

5. The Subject of the Seal. — By the sub-
ject of the seal we mean the person bound to ob-
serve it. That person is primarily the confessor
or any layman who may have wrongfully im-
personated a priest in the tribunal of penance ; 19
secondarily, all who have cooperated in confes-
sion, e. g., the superior to whom the penitent has
applied for absolution from reserved sins; the
interpreter through whom he has confessed his
sins; any one whom the confessor, with the
penitent's permission, has consulted or asked for
advice, or who has written out the penitent's sins
at his request, or who has accidentally (casu) or
purposely (furtive) overheard the confession or
otherwise obtained a knowledge of it.20

Any one who has read, or heard read, the notes

19 Cfr. St. Alphonsus, Theol. ordinatis: (1) ex ipsa confessione,
Mor., 1. VI, n. 645. — Gury, Conip. nam res accusata ad illos pervenit
Theol. Mor., II, n. 498: "Tenetur eadem ratione, propter quam ob-
primario ad sigillum confessarius ligatio sigilli datur, scilicet, ne odium
quilibit, sive verus sive fictus, et per in sacramentum creetur; (2) ex
errorem legitimus existimatus, et pro- mediis, nam odium mediorum in
inde etiam laicus, qui se sacerdotem finem ipsum redundat. Hinc ad
fingeret et confessionem exciperet. sigillum tenentur: (1) interpretes
Ratio est, quia quoties quis confite- adhibiti in confessione peragendd;
tur in ordine ad sacramentum, qui (2) superiores, a quibus extra sacra-
eum audit, quicunque sit, contrahit mentum petitur facultas absolvendi
eo ipso sigilli obligationem ; secus vel recipiendi absolutionem a casu
enim odium sacramenti inde sequere- reservato; (3) qui peccatum, dum
tur. I ta* omnes." quis confitetur, sive de industria

20 Codex Iuris Canonici, can. 889, sive etiam inculpabiliter audiunt,
§ 2. — Cf. Gury, Compendium Theol. et pariter alii, qui ab istis audirent;
Mor., Vol. II, n. 498: "Tenentur (4) qui scribunt confessionem ru-
secundario, qui confessionis fiunt dium vel ignorantium linguam con-
participes, seu it omnes, ad quos fessarii, quoties vix alio modo con-
notitia confessionis quocunque fessio peragi posset; (5) doctor es
modo pervenit, sive ex ipsa con- a confessario consulti, de licentii
fessione, sive ex mediis ad Mam poenitentis ; (6) ii omnes, quibus

174

THE MEANS OF GRACE

which served another as a necessary means of
confessing his sins, (e. g., in the case of a deaf-
mute) is obliged to keep the sacramental seal;
otherwise the duty of silence is purely natural.21

As the obligation of secrecy arises solely from sacra-
mental confession {ex omni et sola confessione sacramen-
tali), a fictitious confession knowingly made to a
layman or to an unauthorized priest does not impose the
sacramental seal, but merely entails the natural obligation
of keeping secret whatever is communicated in confi-
dence.22

6. Violation of the Seal. — The seal of
confession can be broken (violatio, laesio sive
fr actio sigilli sacramentalis) either directly or
indirectly.23

a) It would be a direct breach of the seal were

confessarius sacrilege vel impru-
denter peccata in confessione au-
dita manifestasset."

21 Cfr. St. Alphonsus, Theol.
Mor., 1. VI, n. 645-650 (Ed. Gaude,
III, 665); Gury, Comp. Theol. Mor.,
II, n. 498.

22 Gury, Comp. Theol. Mor., II,
n. 496: "(1) Confessio, quae scien-
ter fit laico vel sacerdoti iurisdictione
carenti, non inducit obligationem
sigilli, sed tantum secreti naturalis.
Secus dicendum est, si sacerdos
credatur approbatus, quia confessio
ex parte poenitentis vera est sacra-
mentalis. (2) Si quis ad confes-
sarium accedat animo eum decipi-
tndi, irridendi, in peccatum pertra-
hendi, aliquid ab eo extorquendi, non
se accusat in ordine ad sacramen-
tum, et nulla est obligatio. (3)

Contra, si quis conscientiam confes-
sario aperiat sine voluntate absolu-
tionem suscipiendi, sed ut consilium
obtineat vel ut mandato superioris
aliquo modo satisfaciat, adest obli-
gatio sigilli sacramentalis."

23 Gury, Comp. Theol. Mor., II,
n. 505: "Sigillum duplici modo
violari potest: (1) Directe revelando
expresse aliquid ex sold confessione
cognitum, v. g., si dicatur: Titus
hoc fecit, etc.; (2) Indirecte aliquid
dicendo aut faciendo, ex quo quis
cognoscere aut suspicari possit pec-
catum vel delictum poenitentis in
sola confessione cognitum, aut ex
quo poenitenti vel aliis, v. g. com-
plicibus, possit oriri pudor, mole-
stia, dedecus, damnum vel quodli-
bet gravamen."

PENANCE 175

a priest to name a penitent and say he has
committed such and such a sin, of which he (the
priest) has knowledge only through confession, or
to say that the penitent told him such a sin in
confession. Any direct breach of the seal, even
if the sins revealed are but slight, is a grievous
violation of justice and a sacrilege.23a It is
called complete (violatio plena) if it includes the
name of the penitent, the character of his sin, and
the fact that he confessed it. When one of
these details is lacking, the violation is termed
partial (partialis).

b) The seal is broken indirectly when the con-
fessor says or does, or omits to say or do, some-
thing from which others may gain a knowledge
of confessional matter, or by which a penitent
may be justly aggrieved or confession made odi-
ous.24 Such an indirect violation of the seal is
merely a venial sin when the danger of publicity
is slight or the carelessness of the confessor not
grievously sinful.

Direct violation of the seal admits of no parvitas mate-
riae, whereas indirect violation does. Thus the matter
would be slight, and the sin consequently venial, if a con-
fessor would reveal something he had heard in confes-
sion through inadvertence, in the firm belief that the
identity of the penitent was unknown or the danger of its
being guessed extremely slight.

23a Codex Iuris Can., can. 889. 24 Cfr. Gury, op. cit., II, n. 506-

508.

176 THE MEANS OF GRACE

Priests who hear confession should never converse
about matters heard in the confessional with lay persons,
and with fellow priests only to seek advice or instruction,
and always with great caution (tccto nomine), so that
there is no danger of the seal being violated.

A confessor violates the seal also by saying that a cer-
tain sin is rife in a community (parish, monastery, semi-
nary), especially if the community is small.25

Knowledge gained in the confessional may not be used
by superiors for the external government of their subjects
as such a proceeding is apt to annoy the penitents, or to
render the Sacrament odious, or to lead to an indirect
breach of the seal.26

Provided the seal is kept intact, a confessor may, if
necessary, communicate information obtained in sacra-
mental confession to prudent and experienced persons for
the purpose of seeking advice, but beyond this, he must
observe strict silence.27

25 St. Alphonsus, Theol. Mor., que prodere queant, de submissis in
1. VI, n. 654. — J. P. Gury, Comp. sacramentali confessione claiium
Theol. Mor., II, n. 508: "An fran- potestati sive in privatis collocutio-
gat sigillum, qui dicit, tale vitium nibus sive in publicis ad populum
regnare in civitate vel pago, aut concionibus {ad auditorum, ut aiunt,
ibi gravia crimina committi? aedificationem) temere sermonem
AfHrmatur, si locus sit satis angu- facere non vereantur. Cum autem
stus, v. g. si non constet tribus ho- in re tanti ponderis et momenti
minum millibus circiter. Secus, si nedum perfectam et consummatam
oppidum sit amplum et crimina pub- iniuriam sed et omnem iniuriae spe-
lica saepius ibi patrentur." ciem et suspicionem studiosissime vi-

26 Cfr. Th. Slater, A Manual of tart oporteat, palam est omnibus
Moral Theology, Vol. II, p. 232. quam mos hiusmodi sit improbandus.
The new Codex luris Canonici, can. Nam etsi id fiat salvo substantialiter
890, forbids such use absolutely. secreto sacramentali, pias tatncn au-

27 Cfr. the Instructio S. R. et U. dientium aures haud offendere et
Inquisitionis of June 9, 1915, which diffidentiam in eorum animis haud
says, inter alia: " N on desunt excitare sane non potest. Quod
nihilominus quandoque salutaris quidcm ab huius sacramenti natura
huius sacramenti administri, qui, re- prorsus est alienum, quo clementis-
ticitis quamquam omnibus quae simus Deus, quae per fragilitatem
poenitentis personam quomodocun- humatiae conversations peccata com-

PENANCE 177

Readings.— St. Thomas, Summa Theologica, Supplementum, qu.
11, art. 1-5.— St. Alphonsus, Theologia M oralis, 1. V, n. 633-661.
— F. X. Linsenmann, Lehrbuch der Moraltheologie, pp. 220 sqq. —
A. Lehmkuhl, S.J., Casus Conscientiae, Vol. II, 3rd ed., Freiburg
1907, n. 530-580.— Th. Slater, S.J., A Manual of Moral Theology,
Vol. II, pp. 228 sqq.— Addis and Arnold's Catholic Dictionary, 9th
ed. (by T. B. Scannell), London 1917, pp. 766 sq — R. S. Nolan
in the Catholic Encyclopedia, Vol. XIII, pp. 649-665.— Bedeley,
Privilege of Religious Confession in English Courts of Justice,
London 1865.— Hopwood, The Law of Confession in Criminal
Cases, London 1871 — Sabetti-Barrett, S.J., Compendium Theolo-
giae Moralis, pp. 757 sqq. — F. P. Kenrick, Theologia Moralis, Vol.
II, pp. 197 sqq. — Ad. Tanquerey, S.S., Synopsis Theologiae
Moralis et Pastoralis, Vol. I, 2nd ed., Tournai 1904, pp. 214 sqq.
— H. Noldin, S.J., Summa Theologiae Moralis, Vol. Ill, nth ed.,
pp. 491 sqq., Innsbruck 1914.

ARTICLE 6

SACRAMENTAL ABSOLUTION

The priest, sitting as a judge in the tribunal of
Penance, is not free to loose or bind at pleasure.
He is the servant of Christ and dispenser of the
mysteries of God, and as such in duty bound, on
the one hand to uphold the dignity of the Sacra-
ment, and, on the other, to safeguard the spirit-

misimus, misericordissimae suae nee directe neque indirecte (excepto

pietatis venia penitus abstergit atque casu necessariae consultationis iuxta

omnino obliviscitur. Sacerdotes sibi regulas a probatis auctoribus traditas

subditos sedulo edoceri curent [Ordir proponendae) in suis seu publicis seu

narii], ne quid unquam, occasione privatis sermonibus attingere aude-

praesertim sacrarum missionum et ant; eosque in experiments pro

exercitiorum spiritualium ad confes- eorum habilitatione ad confessiones

sionis sacramentalis materiam perti- excipiendas hac super re peculiariter

nens, quavis sub forma et quovis examinari iubeant." Ferreres, Comp.

sub praetextu, ne obiter quidem et Theol. Mor., Vol. II, n. 771 sq.

i78

THE MEANS OF GRACE

ual welfare of his penitents.1 Hence arises the
strict obligation of either giving sacramental ab-
solution or denying or deferring the same accord-
ing to the dictates of conscience.2

I. When Absolution Should Be Given. —
The confessor is bound in strict justice, and under
pain of mortal sin, to absolve all properly dis-
posed penitents who confess to him; for every
Catholic who is truly sorry for his sins has a
right to the Sacrament of which absolution is an
essential part.3 The presumption, as we have
seen before, is always in favor of the penitent,
and unless a confessor has serious reasons for
assuming the contrary, he should act on the ethi-
cal principle that every man must be presumed
to be good until or unless he is proved to be bad
(nemo pracsumitur mains nisi probetur). All
that is necessary is to have moral certainty that

1 i Cor. IV, i-2.— St. Thomas,
Summa Theol., 3a, Suppl., qu. 18,
art. 4.

2 Rit. Rom., tit. 3, c. 1, n. 22:
"Videat diligenter sacerdos, quando
et quibus conferenda vel deneganda
vel differcnda sit absolutio, ne ab-
solvat eos, qui talis beneficii sunt
incapaces."

3 Gury, Comp. Theol. Mor., II, n.
467: "Absolutio concedi debet ex
iustitia et sub gravi omni poenitcnti
rite confesso et legitime disposito.
Ratio est, quia in ipso confessionis
actu initus est quidam quasi-contrac-
tus sacer, vi cuius poenitens rite
confessus et legitime dispositus ha-

bet ius ad sacramentum suscipien-
dum. Secus enim onus intolerabile
sine iustS causa poenitcnti impone-
retur, scilicet, ut apud alium con-
fessionem instituat, quin confidere
tuto possit, se ab isto novo confes-
sario absolutioncm esse acccpturum.
Praeterea hoc etiam exigit finis in-
stilutionis sacramenti et tribunalis
poenitentiae, quod miscricordiae im-
pcrticndae causa a Christo institu-
turn est. Sacerdos igitur absolu-
tionem poenitenti disposito dene-
gando iniuste ageret, potestate da-
vium abuteretur et odiosum red-
deret sacramentum."

PENANCE

179

there are no valid reasons for doubting the dis-
position of the penitent.4

The validity of absolution in no way depends
on the performance of the satisfaction imposed.5

Absolution should be given conditionally:
a) When the confessor entertains a serious doubt with
regard to one of the following points :

a) Whether there is sufficient matter for the adminis-
tration of the Sacrament;

(3) Whether he has already absolved the penitent;
y) Whether he possesses the necessary jurisdiction;
8) Whether the penitent has the use of reason;
c) Whether the penitent is dead or alive.

b) When the confessor can arrive at no certain con-
clusion with regard to the penitent's disposition, and
absolution cannot be deferred, he should absolve con-
ditionally.8

2. When Absolution Should Be Denied.
— The confessor is obliged in justice and under
pain of mortal sin to deny absolution to applicants
who are not properly disposed, because such are
unworthy of forgiveness.7

4 Cat. Rom., P. II, c. Si QU- 5o:
"Si [confessariusl, audita confes-
stone, iudicaverit, neque in enume-
randis peccatis diligentiam neque in
detestandis dolorem poenitenti
omnino defuisse, absolvi poterit."

5 Prop. Damnat. ab Alex. VIII.,
Dec. 7, 1690, prop. 16-18 (Den-
zinger-Bannwart, n. 1306 sqq.).

6 Cfr. Linsenmann, Lehrbuch der
Moraltheologie, pp. 232 sq. ; G6-
pfert, Moraltheologie, Vol. Ill, 4th
ed., pp. 241 sqq.

7 Gury, Comp. Theol. Mor., II, n.
469: "Absolutio omnino neganda
est in omni casu, etiam extremae
necessitatis, poenitentibus certe in-
dispositis." — Lacroix, Theol. Mor.,
1. VI, P. 2, n. 1699: "Munus con-
fessarii est absolvere dispositum et
non alium. Moraliter ei constare
debet de bona dispositione poeniten-
tis, alias absolvendo peccabit mortali-
ter."

i8o

THE MEANS OF GRACE

A penitent lacks the right disposition if he:

a) is ignorant of the principal dogmas of the
Catholic religion;

b) shows no real sorrow for his sins or evi-
dently lacks the required purpose of avoiding mor-
tal sin and its voluntary proximate occasions ;

c) refuses to restore ill-gotten goods to their
rightful owner, or to repair public scandal given,
or to become reconciled to his enemies.8

In a word, absolution must be denied to all who
are unwilling to comply with some serious ob-
ligation.

Before the confessor discharges a penitent un-
absolved, however, he should try by all means
in his power to dispose him for the worthy recep-
tion of the Sacrament.9

When a penitent is properly disposed, and capable of
receiving absolution, but guilty of some sin that makes
his case one reserved to higher authority, he cannot be ab-
solved without special faculties.10

3. When Absolution Should Be Reserved.
— As a rule absolution may be reserved or

8 Rit. Rom., tit. 3, c. I, n. 22:
"Quotes [incapaces] sunt, qui nulla
dant signa doloris, qui odia et inimi-
citias deponere aut aliena, si pos-
sunt, restituere aut proximam pec-
candi occasionem deserere aut alio
modo peccata derelinquere et vitam
in melius emendare nolunt, aut qui
publicum scandalum dederunt, nisi
publice satisfaciant et scandalum tol-
lon«."

8 Cfr. Leo XII, Constit. "Caritate
Cliristi," Dec. 25, 1825.

10 Rit. Rom., I. c: "[Sacerdos]
neque etiam eos absolvat, quorum
peccata sunt superioribus reservata."
— Cfr. Linsenmann, Lehrbuch der
Moraltheologie, pp. 222 sqq.; Hilar-
ius a Sexten, Tract, de Censuris Ec~
cles., Mayence 1898, pp. 20 sqq.

PENANCE 181

postponed only when the disposition of the peni-
tent is in doubt and there is no urgent necessity
(danger of death, etc.) which would justify the
giving of conditional absolution.11 In the case
of certain occasional (occasionarii) , habitual
(consuetudinarii) or relapsed sinners (recidivi),
regarding whom it is doubtful whether they have
real contrition for their sins or the required
purpose of amendment, it is sometimes necessary
to reserve absolution.12 Occasionally, too, it may
be well to withhold absolution temporarily in
order to promote the spiritual welfare of a well-
disposed penitent, either with, or under certain
conditions without, his consent.13

However, absolution should not be deferred as
a means of amendment (remedium animae) un-
less the confessor is certain that the penitent will
be benefitted by this measure.14

11 Gury, I. c. : "Poenitentibus' poenitens dispositus ius habet ad ab-
dubie dispositis absolutio neganda solutionem, non tamen ideo ius
est extra casum gravis necessitatis ; habet ad earn statim absque ulla
posita autem tali necessitate abso- mora obtinendam, saltern per se lo-
lutio sub conditione impertiri potest quendo. Nam confessarius non est
out etiam debet." tantum iudex, sed et medicus, ideo-

12 St. Alphonsus, Theol. Mor., I. que recte potest, immo aliquando
VI, n. 452-464. debet, absolutionem differre, si iudi-

13 Idem, ibid., n. 462. — Idem, cet tale remedium animae poenitentis
Praxis Confess., n. 76. — Gury, notabiliter profuturum esse. . . .
Comp. Theol. Mor., II, n. 468: "Ab- Dixi, saltern per se loquendo, quia
solutio differri potest ad breve tern- si absolutio differri nequeat sine
pus etiam poenitenti rite disposito magno incommodo poenitentis,
sine eius consensu, quando nempe statim conccdenda foret, poenitens
confessarius (prudenter) iudicat, id enim tunc ius strictum ad earn sta-
utile esse ad eius emendationem. tim obtinendam habere censetur."
Ratio est, quia dilatio absolutionis H St. Alphonsus, Theol. Mor., 1.
non est eiusdem denegatio, et licet VI, n. 463: "Magnum dubium,

182 THE MEANS OF GRACE

The practice of reserving or postponing absolution as a
means of amendment seems to have been unknown in for-
mer times.35 Modern writers recommend it even in the
case of penitents guilty of venial sins only. "To defer
absolution," says one author, "may be useful, nay neces-
sary, even when the penitent is guilty only of venial sin ;
for instance, if the confessor sees that the venial sins of
which the penitent accuses himself, will gradually lead to
mortal sin (dangerous company-keeping, undue intimacy
with persons of the other sex, etc.), or that the venial sins
to which the penitent is addicted, impede his spiritual
progress, as in the case of priests and religious, whose
state of life obliges them to greater perfection, and in the
case of lay persons who are frequent communicants."

Note, however, that the new Codex Iuris Canonici says :
"If a confessor has no reason to doubt the disposition of
the penitent, and the latter begs to be absolved, absolution
should neither be denied nor deferred." 16

Readings. — St. Alphonsus, Theologia M oralis, 1. VI, n. 431, 462.
— Idem, Praxis Confessariorum, n. 19 sqq. — J. P. Gury, Compen-
dium Theologiae Moralis, Vol. II, n. 467-469. — F. Lorinser, Die
Lehre von der Verwaltung des hi. Bussakramentes, 2nd ed., pp.
51 sqq. — A. Schick and F. D. Schmitt, Kurse Anleitung zxir Ver-
waltung des hi. Bussakramentes, 3rd ed., Fulda 1905. — Instructio
Pastoralis Eystettensis, 5th ed., Freiburg 1902, pp. 256 sqq.

quod vertitur, est, an hoc remedium regula in hoc statui non possit,

dilatae absolutions saepius expediat sed confessarius ex circumstantiis oc-

adhibere vel ne poenitenti iam suf- currentxbus se dirigcre debet, et post-

ficienter disposito ad absolutionem quam Deo se commendavit, ut erit a

sine eius consensu. Commune est Deo inspiratus, absolutionem differat

apud doctores, nullo modo expedite vel impertiatur."

absolutionem differre, quando dilatio 15 Gury-Ballerini-Palmieri, Comp.

magis obfutura quam profutura cen- Theol. Mor., Vol. II, 14th ed., Rome

setur. Idem dicendum, quum ex 1902, n. 433.

dilatione absolutionis poenitens pa- 16 Can. 886: "Si confessarius du-

teretur notam infamiac. . . . Alii bitare nequeat de poenitentis dispo-

vero dicunt, raro expedite, quod sitionibus et hie absolutionem petat,

poenitenti disposito differatur absolu- absolutio nee deneganda, nee diffe-

tio. Melius dicendum, quod certa renda est."

PENANCE 183

ARTICLE 7

SACRAMENTAL SATISFACTION

1. Necessity. — The necessity of imposing a
sacramental satisfaction or penance {satis f actio
vel poenitentia) arises from the nature of the
Sacrament.1 However, since satisfaction is
merely an integral part of Penance, absolution
would be valid even if the confessor imposed no
satisfaction or if the penitent failed to perform
the penance imposed. Still, for the valid and
worthy reception of the Sacrament it is essential
that the penitent be willing to receive and per-
form the sacramental satisfaction imposed by the
confessor.

2. Duty of the Confessor. — As a faithful
"steward of the mysteries of God," 2 the confes-
sor is in duty bound to impose upon every peni-
tent a sacramental penance. Since this penance
is intended as a satisfaction for the sins com-
mitted, as a remedy for the wounds of the soul,
and as an antidote against future sins, it should
be proportioned to the penitent's guilt and
adapted to age, sex, profession, disposition, etc.3

1 Cone. Trident., Sess. VI, c. 14; 3 Cone. Trident., Sess. XIV, De
Sess. XIV, De Poenit., c. 8, can. Poenit., c. 8; Sess. XXIV, cap. 8,
12-15. — St. Thomas, Summa Theol,, De Reform. — Rit. Rom., tit. 3, c. 1,
3a, Suppl., qu. 12-15. — St. Alphon- n. 18-21: "Postremo salutarem et
sus, Theol. Mor., 1. VI, n. 506-530 convenientem satisfactionem, quan-
(ed. Gaude, III, 516). turn spiritus et prudentia suggesse-

2 1 Cor. IV, 1-2. tint, iniungat, habita ratione status,

1 84

THE MEANS OF GRACE

3. Obligation of the Penitent. — The peni-
tent is strictly obliged to perform the penance
imposed, provided, of course, it be just and rea-
sonable.4 To go to confession with the express
purpose of not accepting or not performing the
penance imposed, would be to receive the Sacra-
ment invalidly as well as unworthily.5

If a penitent deems the appointed penance too
severe, or unacceptable for some other reason, he
may ask to have it commuted or consult another
priest.6

conditionis, sexus, et aetatis et item
dispositions poenitentium. Videat-
que, ne pro peccatis gravibus levis-
simas poenitentias imponat, ne si
forte peccatis conniveat, alienorum
peccatorum particeps efficiatur. Id
vero ante oculos habeat, tit satisfac-
tio non sit tantiim ad novae vitae
remedium et infirmitatis medicamen-
turn, sed etiam ad praeteritorum pec-
catorum castigationem. Quare curet,
quantum fieri potest, ut contrarias
peccatis poenitentias iniungat, vcluti
avaris elemosynas, libidinosis ieiunia
vel alias carnis afflictiones, superbis
humilitatis officio, desidiosis devo-
tionis studio. Rarius autem vel
serius confitcntibus vel in peccata
facile recidentibus utilissimum fucrit
consulere, ut saepe, puta semel in
mense vel certis diebus solemnibus,
confiteantur et, si expcdiat, communi-
cent. Poenitentias pccuniarias sibi
ipsis confessarii non appliccnt ncque
a poenitentibus quidquam tamquam
ministerii sui premium pctant vel ac-
cipiant. Pro peccatis occultis, quan-
tumvis gravibus, manifestam poe-
nitentiam non imponant." — Gury,
Comp. Theol. Mor., II, n. 402:
"Confessarius tcnetur poenitentias
iniungcre convenientes et salutarcs,

turn vindicattvas turn medicinales :
scilicet aliquo modo proportionatas
numero et gravitati peccatorum nee
non pocnitcntis facultatibus ac dis-
positionibus. Ratio ex natura ret
patet, quum sacramentalis satisfac-
tio ordinata sit in vindictam pecca-
torum, quae maiora vel minora, plura
vel pauciora sunt, nee non ad novas
culpas praccavendas."

4 Cfr. Gury, op. cit., II, n. 409:
"Poenitens omnino tenetur, acceptare
atqtte implore rationabilem poeniten-
tiant sacramentaliter iniunctam, quia
poenitentiae acccptatio ad sacramenti
esscntiam et eius impletio ad sacra-
menti integritatem pcrtinet."

6 St. Alphonsus, Theol. Mor., 1.
VI, n. 516: "Dubitatur, an poeni-
tens tencatur acceptare iustam poeni-
tentiam, quam imponit confessarius.
. . . Scntentia communis et vera
. . . dicit, peccare qui poenitentiam
non acceptat vel non vuit implere,
et absolutionem vult recipere. Ra-
tio, quia, ut docet Bcnedictus XIV,,
sicut confessarius iustam tenetur
iniungere poenitentiam, ita poenitens
tenetur illam acceptare."

6 St Alphonsus, Theol. Mor., 1.
VI, n. 516: "Probabile tamen est,
quod, si poenitenti videatur poeni-

PENANCE

i85

Failure to perform a reasonable penance im-
posed for mortal sins and accepted in the confes-
sional, is a mortal sin, unless the matter involved
is small or some weighty reason diminishes the
guilt.7

A penitent is not free to substitute some other
penance for the one imposed, but he may, for
good reasons, ask in a subsequent confession to
have his penance commuted either by the same or
by a different confessor.8

Besides conscientiously performing the penance imposed
in confession, penitents are bound to atone for their sins

tentia ilia iusto gravior aut nimis
onerosa, respectu ad suam imbecil-
litatem, tunc, si confessarius nollet
earn moderari, posset saltern sine
culpa gravi discedere absque absolu-
tione et alium adire confessarium.
Hoc tamen intellegendum, si poeni-
tentia ilia vere sit irrationabilis vel
impar debilibus viribus poenitentis.
Nam si contra poenitentia facile
posset ab eo impleri, et nollet ex
mera desidia Warn acceptare, ac cum
levi absolvi vellet, non videtur
posse excusari a peccato gravi, quia,
ut bene ait Lugo, sicut peccaret sa-
cerdos imponendo levem poeniten-
tiam sine iusta causa pro gravibus
culpis, ita peccaret poenitens volens
sine causa recipere absolutionem
cum poenitentia iusto leviori."

7 Gury, Comp. Theol. Mor., II, n.
409: "Poenitens tenetur sub gravi
implere poenitentiam gravem pro
gravibus peccatis impositam, quia
materia gravis per se obligat sub
gravi. Ita omnes. Probabilius au-
tem sub levi tantum obligatur poeni-
tens ad poenitentiam levem pro levi-
bus culpis impositam, quia materia

levis non est capax gravis obliga-
tionis."

8 Th. Slater, S.J., A Manual of
Moral Theology, Vol. II, p. 174. —
Gury, Comp. Theol. Mor., II, n.
412: "Quis poenitentiam commu-
tare possitf I. Nunquam ab ipso
poenitente commutari potest, ne in
melius quidem, quia poenitentia ne-
quit ad sacramentalis satisfactionis
meritum elevari, nisi a ministro ipso
sacramenti poenitentiae imposita
fuerit. II. Commutari potest: (1)
a proprio confessario seu ab eo, a
quo imposita est, quia legislator pot-
est propriam legem mutare ; (2) a
quolibet alio confessario ad confes-
siones audiendas approbato, quia
quilibet alius confessarius potest esse
eiusdem causae iudex, si poenitens
illius tribunali se submittat, succes-
sor enim in eadem auctoritate potest
quidquid potuit antecessor. — Sed ad
commutationem hcite faciendam re-
quiritur causa iusta, qualis est: (1)
si poenitentia videatur nimis diffi-
cilis; (2) si praevideatur poenitens
non esse ei satisfacturus ob nimiam
repugnantiam, fragilitatem, oblivi-
onem, etc."

186 THE MEANS OF GRACE

by voluntary good works (prayer, fasting, almsgiving,
humility, patience, resignation to the will of God, mortifi-
cation, and self-denial). The duty of giving satisfaction
in this wider sense implies a strenuous effort to neutralize
the evil consequences of sin by making restitution of ill-
gotten goods, repairing scandal, etc.0

4. Indulgences. — Indulgences are an effective means
of making satisfaction and intensifying penitential zeal.10
An indulgence is a remission of temporal punishments due
to sin.11 No one is bound to gain indulgences, but it is a
very salutary practice to avail oneself of this privilege.
The Tridentine Council "teaches and enjoins that the use
of indulgences for the Christian people, most salutary and
approved by the authority of sacred councils, is to be
retained in the Church." 12 To gain an indulgence one
must be in the state of sanctifying grace and have the right
intention (intcntio lucrandi). The good works prescribed
must be conscientiously performed.13 When confession

9 Cfr. Linsenmann, Lehrbuch dcr Comp. Theol. Mor., II, n. 834).
Moraltheologie, p. 236; Th. H. 12 Cone. Trident., Sess. XXV, De
Simar, Lehrbuch dcr Moraltheologie, Indulg.: "Indulgentiarum usus
3rd ed., p. 361. christiano populo maxime salutaris

10 St. Thomas, Sutnma Theol., 3a, et sacrorum conciliorum auctoritate
Suppl., qu. 25-27. — St. Alphonsus, approbatus."

Theol. Mor., 1. VI, n. 53'-534 — 13 St. Alphonsus, Theol. Mor., 1.
Gury, Comp. Theol. Mor., II, n. VI, n. 533. — Gury, Comp. Theol.
834-853. — F. Beringer, Die Abldsse, Mor., II, n. 837: "Quattuor requi-
nth ed., Paderborn 1906. — A. M. runtur in subjecto ad indulgentias
Lepicier, Indulgences, New York lucrandas: (1) Ut sit baptizatus,
1906. — Pohle-Preuss, The Sacra- quia thesaurus Ecclesiae infidelibus
ments, Vol. Ill, 2nd ed., pp. 232 dispensari nequit, ut patet; nee sit
sqq. — Chr. Pesch, Praelect. Dogmat., excommunicatus, quia secus com-
Vol. VII, 2nd ed., pp. 199 sqq. — P. munione bonorum spiritualium pri-
Mocchegiani, Collectio Indulgenti- varetur; (2) Ut sit subditus con-
arum, Quaracchi 1897. cedentis; (3) Ut opera iniuncta tem-

11 "Indulgentta est remissio pore praescripto impleat, quia sub
poenae temporalis Deo pro peccatis hac conditione conccduntur indulgen-
quoad culpam rcmissis debitae, con- tiae ; (4) Ut sit in statu gratiae,
cessa a legitimo ministro, extra sa- saltern quando ultimum opus prae-
cramentum poenitentiae per applica- scriptum ponit, quia non remittitur
tionem thesauri Ecclesiae." (Gury, poena, nisi dimissa culpa."

PENANCE

187

and communion are prescribed for the gaining of a plenary
indulgence, both conditions must be complied with, even
though the conscience is not burdened with mortal sins.14

The so-called jubilee indulgence (iubilaeum mains, an-
nus sanctus) differs from an ordinary plenary indulgence
chiefly in this that the confessors enjoy larger faculties.15

In view of the fact that every indulgence presupposes
a more than ordinary measure of penitence, faith, and
worship, and that the gaining of indulgences usually leads
to greater frequentation of the Sacraments, the moral ef-
fect of the Catholic doctrine of indulgences must be rated
very high.16 Gaining an indulgence always involves con-
trition, penitence, and a firm purpose of amendment.17

Readings. — St. Thomas, Summa Theologica, 3a, Suppl., qu. 12-
15- — St. Alphonsus, Theologia Moralis, 1. VI, n. 506-530 (ed.
Gaude, Vol. Ill, p. 516).— Pohle-Preuss, The Sacraments, Vol.
Ill, pp. 217 sqq.— Th. Slater, S.J., A Manual of Moral Theology,
Vol. II, pp. 171 sqq., 443 sqq.— Sabetti-Barrett, S.J., Compendium
Theologiae Moralis, pp. 682 sqq., 1058 sqq. — Ad. Tanquerey, S.S.,
Synopsis Theologiae Moralis, Vol. I, pp. 124 sqq., 277 sqq. — M. J.
O'Donnell, "Penance in the New Code," in the Irish Ecclesiastical
Record, No. 601 (Jan. 1918), pp. 14-24.

14 See the Constitutions of Bene-
dict XIV, "Accepimus in civitate,"
1746, and "Inter praeteritos," 1749.
The confession may be made
within eight days, and Communion
received on the vigil of the day to
which the indulgence is attached.
Codex Iur. Can., Can. 931, § 1.
See also § 2 of same canon.

15 H. Thurston, S.J., The Holy
Year of Jubilee, London 1900; Idem
in the Cath. Encyclopedia, s. v.; P.
Bastien, De Iubilaeo Anni Sancti
aliisque lubilaeis, Maredsous 1901.

16 See Linsenmann, Lehrbuch der
Moraltheologie, p. 237.

17 E. Goller (Die papstliche Pbni-
tentiarie von ihrem Ursprung bis zu
ihrer Umgestaltung unter Pius V.,
Vol. I, Rome 1907, pp. 213-242)
shows that the concept of indulgen-
tia plenaria is genetically contained
in the most ancient penitential let-
ters or confessionalia. He refutes
the Protestant contention that the
Church by indulgences meant to
forgive the guilt rather than the
punishment of sin and demonstrates
that the remissio peccatorum or
remissio culpae always depended on
valid confession.

SECTION 6

EXTREME UNCTION

i. Subject of the Sacrament. — The Sac-
rament of Extreme Unction (extrema unctio)
was instituted for the corporal as well as spirit-
ual well-being of the sick. One of its spe-
cial effects is to confer upon the dying the grace
of a happy death. While it is essential for the
validity of this Sacrament that the recipient be
seriously ill or, as the technical phrase runs, in
periculo mortis,1 it is altogether immaterial
whether this condition be due to disease or
to old age.2 Hence the sacra infirmorum unctio
may not be administered to persons who are ex-

l Jas. V, 14-15. — Cfr. the Deere- rant, curatione indigcant: idcirco iis
turn pro Armenis of Eugene IV: etiam, qui adeo periculose aegrotart
"Hoc sacramentum nisi infirmo, de videntur, ut, ne supremus Mis vitae
cuius morte timetur, darinon debet." dies instet, metuendum sit, hoc sa-
(Denzinger-Bannwart, n. 595). — cramentum praeberi debet."
The Council of Trent says (Sess. 2 RU. Rom., tit. 5, c. 1, n. 5:
XIV, De Extr. Unct., c. 3) : "De- "Debet hoc sacramentum infirmis
claratur etiam, esse hanc unctionem praeberi, qui quum ad usum rationis
infirmis adhibendam, Mis vero prae- pervenerint, tarn graviter laborant, ut
sertim, qui tarn periculose decum- mortis periculum imminere video-
bunt, ut in exitu vitae constituti vi- tur, et iis, qui prae senio deficiunt et
dcantur, unde et sacramentum ex- in diem videntur morituri, etiam sine
euntium nuncupatur." — Cfr. Cat. alia infirmitate." — "Senectus est
Rom., P. II, c. 6, qu. 9: "Quum morbus," was a received axiom
igitur Mi tantum, qui morbo labo- among the Scholastics.

188

EXTREME UNCTION 189

posed to the danger of death but are not se-
riously ill, e: g., soldiers going into battle, con-
demned criminals preparing for execution, etc.
The Sacrament may, however, be given to those
in danger of dying from an operation or after
confinement, but not to those who have not yet at-
tained the use of reason or have not committed a
personal sin, that is to say, infants and perma-
nently insane adults {perpetuo amentes).3 If an
insane person enjoyed the use of reason at any
moment of his previous life, or has occasional lu-
cid intervals, he may and should be given Extreme
Unction,4 because a habitual and interpretative
intention suffices for the valid reception of this
Sacrament, and there is a well-founded presump-
tion that many insane persons temporarily regain
the use of reason at the approach of death,
though they are unable to manifest their sanity by
definite signs.

3 Cat. Rom., P. II, c. 6, qu. 9. — prope organa quibus carent, nam

Rit. Rom., tit. 5, c. 1, qu. 9; cfr. etsi extertus per ilia non peccave-

Codex Iuris Canonici, can. 940, 941, tint, per interior es tamen animae po-

943. — Cfr. H. Noldin, S. J., Summa tentias, quibus ea respondent, pec-

Theologiae Moralis, nth ed., Inns- care potuerunt."

bruck 1914, Vol. Ill, pp. 543 sqq. * Cat. Rom., P. II, c. 6, qu. 9:

— J. P. Gury, Compendium Theol. "■ . • ad hoc sacramentum susci-

Mor., Vol. II, n. 519, says: piendum apti non sunt . . . amentes

"Subiectum huius sacramenti sunt item et furiosi, nisi interdum ra-

omnes et soli homines peccatores de tionis usum haberent, et eo potissi-

vita periclitantes. Hinc (1) huius mum tempore pii animi significa-

sacramenti capaces non sunt pueri tionem darent, peterentque ut sacro

ante usum rationis nee perpetuo oleo ungerentur. Nam qui ab ipso

amentes, quia nulla peccata actualia ortu nunquam mentis et rationis com-

commiserunt ; (2) potest conferri ex- pos fuit, ungendus non est; secus

trema unctio mutis, surdis et caecis vero si aegrotus, quum mente adhuc

a nativitate, possunt enim inungi integra huius sacramenti particeps

190

THE MEANS OF GRACE

Extreme Unction may be administered to a
sick man who is really or apparently unconscious,
provided there is reason to think that he would
ask for, or at least not refuse, the Sacrament if
he had full control of his faculties.5

Even impenitent sinners and those who have
lost consciousness while in the act of sinning
(e. g., habitual drunkards) should not be de-
prived of Extreme Unction, unless they con-
sciously and positively refuse to receive the Sac-
rament, because a possible subsequent attrition
would make it operative.6

In conformity with the axiom, "In dnbio pars
tutior est eligenda," 7 the Sacrament of Extreme
Unction may be validly and licitly administered
if the danger of death is merely probable or even
doubtful.

fieri voluisset, postea in insaniam et
furorem incidit."

S Rit. Rom., tit. 5, c. 1, n. 6:
"Infirmis autcm qui, dum sand
mente et integris sensibus essent,
illud petierint sen verisimiliter pe-
tiissent, sen dederint signa contri-
tionis, etiamsi deinde loquclam ami-
serint vel amentes effecti sint, vel
delirent out non sentiant, nihilo-
minus praebeatur." — Ibid., n. 7:
"Sed si infirmus, dum phrenesi aut
amentia laborat, verisimiliter posset
quidquam facer e contra reverentiam
sacramenti, non inungatur, nisi peri-
culum tollatur animo." — Cfr. Gury,
Comp. Theol. Mor., II, n. 520:
"Debet dari hoc sacramentum deli-
rantibus, si ante petiverint aut pe-
tituri fuissent, si de hoc cogitassent,

aut signum doloris de peccatis osten-
derint."

6 Rit. Rom., tit. 5, c. 1, n. 8:
"Impenitentibus vero et qui in
manifesto peccato mortali moriuntur
et excommunicatis et nondum bap-
tizatis penitus denegetur."

7 Cfr. St. Alphonsus, Theol. Mor.,
1. VI, n. 714. — J. P. Gury, Comp.
Theol. Mor., Vol. II, n. 520:
"An hoc sacramentum licite conferri
possit aegroto in periculo mortis du-
bio seu probabilif Affirmatur cum
sententia communi et vera, quia ad
ministrandum hoc sacramentum va-
lide et licite sufficit, ut infirmus la-
boret morbo ita gravi, ut prudenter
existimetur versari in periculo pro-
ximo mortis."

EXTREME UNCTION 191

The name Extreme Unction or Last Anointing, which
is of popular origin, is not a very fortunate one because
of the implication that the Sacrament forebodes death.
But as this name correctly describes the primary purpose
of the rite, *. e., to prepare and fortify the soul for its
last journey, it was adopted by the Church after it had
obtained currency among the people. The Council of
Trent employs the older term, "sacra infirmorum
unctio," and the modern " extrema unctio," indiscrimi-
nately.

As Father Kern has pointed out, the custom, which has
grown wide-spread since the twelfth century, of demand-
ing and administering Extreme Unction only when all
hope of recovery has vanished and death is imminent, "is
opposed to the usage of the ancient Church and owes its
existence to such causes as popular superstition, false
theological teaching, and avarice, which have nothing
in common with the operation of the Holy Ghost.
This deplorable practice endangers to a very large extent
the attainment of the object for which Extreme Unction
was instituted by Christ. The principal effect of this
Sacrament is the supernatural strengthening of the sick
in order to enable them to bear the sufferings and tempta-
tions by which they are harassed, for the honor of God,
so that, to apply St. Paul's dictum, 'that which is at pres-
ent momentary and light of our tribulation, worketh for
us above measure exceedingly an eternal weight of
glory.' 8 This supernatural strengthening of soul and
body is intended also to induce the sick man, with the
extraordinary assistance of divine mercy, to which he is
commended in the name of Christ, to make acts of con-
fidence, resignation, patience, contrition, and charity, and

8 2 Cor. IV, 17.

192 THE MEANS OF GRACE

thereby to obtain forgiveness of his sins and the com-
plete remission of the temporal punishments due to them.
Thus he will be ready, when God calls him hence, to enter
straightway into eternal bliss, without passing through the
fiery furnace of purification. It was for this reason that
the early Christians appropriately called Extreme Unction
'sanantis divinae gratiae dulcedo.' Its true purpose is
to restore the soul to complete health and to prepare it
for immediate entrance into glory. This is intimated by
the Fathers, clearly expressed in the liturgical prayers
of the ancient Church, taught as a revealed truth by the
leading Scholastics — including Bl. Albert the Great, St.
Thomas, St. Bonaventure, Duns Scotus, Richard a Media-
villa, Peter de Palude, Innocent V, Aureolus, and Capreo-
lus — and acknowledged by the Council of Trent. It
often happens that the full recovery of the soul involves
such a strong alleviation of bodily suffering that the power
of disease is broken and physical recovery follows. In
that case the fruition of eternal beatitude is postponed, but
it will be all the more glorious if he to whom the privilege
has been granted cooperates with the graces bestowed
by this wonderful Sacrament." 9

2. Duty of Receiving the Sacrament. —
Though Extreme Unction is not strictly neces-
sary for salvation, every Catholic who is danger-
ously ill, is in duty bound to receive this Sacra-
ment, and should receive it as soon as there is
probable danger of death, and not wait till he
has become unconscious or entered into agony

10

9 J. Kern, S.J., in the Zeitschrift 10 Cfr. St. Alphonsus, Theol.

fiir kath. Theologie, Innsbruck 1906, Mor., 1. VI, n. 733; Gury, Comp.
pp. 617 sqq. Theol. Mor., II, n. 522.

EXTREME UNCTION

193

Hence when it is possible to receive this Sacra-
ment, a Catholic in danger of death is bound
under pain of mortal sin to ask for it, if failure
to do so would give grave scandal or involve con-
tempt of the Sacrament,11 or if Extreme Unction
were the only Sacrament the patient was still able
to receive. According to the commonly accepted
teaching of St. Thomas, however, refusal to do
so is not per se a mortal sin.

The state of grace is required for the worthy reception
of Extreme Unction, and hence the administration of this
Sacrament is generally preceded by Confession and Com-
munion. Extreme Unction, in fact, is the consummation
of Penance.12 When Penance and Holy Communion can
no longer be administered, it is sufficient that the patient
give a sign of contrition, or, if he be unconscious, that he
may be reasonably presumed to desire the Sacraments of
the dying.

The positive disposition required for the worthy re-
ception of Extreme Unction consists in acts of faith and
hope, and confidence in God's mercy.13 The Roman
Catechism admonishes pastors to preach often on Ex-

11 Cone. Trident., Sess. XIV, Be
Extr. Unct., c. 3: "Neque vero
tanti sacramenti contemptus absque
ingenti scelere et ipsius Spiritus
Sancti iniuria esse potest."

12 Cone. Trident., Sess. XIV, De
Extr. Unct., c. 3; Cat. Rom., P. II,
c. 6, qu. 12; Pohle-Preuss, The Sac-
raments, Vol. IV, p. 1, 2nd ed., St.
Louis 1918.

13 Cat. Rom., P. II, c. 6, qu. 9:
"Fides et religiosa animi voluntas."
— Cfr. Gury, Comp. Theol. Mor., II,
n. 523: "Quaenam dispositio re-

quiratur ad huius sacramenti sus-
ceptionem? (1) Peccatorum con-
fessio, si infirmus in mortali verse-
tur, hoc enim sacramentum est
poenitentiae complementum ideoque
haec praecedere debet. (2) Quodsi
infirmus non possit sua peccata con-
fiteri, contritio saltern praecedat ne-
cesse est, hoc enim extremae unc-
tionis sacramentum est primario sa-
cramentum vivorum et ad reliquias
peccatorum tollendas praecipue in-
stitutum fuit. — Verum in tali casu
ipsa attritio sufflcere posse videtur,

i94 THE MEANS OF GRACE

treme Unction in order to remind the faithful of their last
end and to aid them in repressing evil desires and leading
a good Christian life.14

3. Duty of Administering Extreme Unc-
tion.— Every pastor engaged in the cure of souls
is bound in justice and under pain of mortal sin
(ex iustitia et sub gravi) to administer Extreme
Unction, either himself or through another
priest, whenever he is asked to do so and able to
comply with the request. There are, however,
excuses exempting him from this obligation,
e. g., serious danger to his own life arising from
contagious disease or other causes, but even this
excuse would not be valid unless he were sure that
the patient to whom he is called is properly pre-
pared for death. Needless to say, a good shep-
herd will risk his life for his sheep, especially if
there are no other priests available. Priests who
are not pastors are bound to administer this Sac-
rament under pain of mortal sin only ex caritate
in case of extreme necessity.148

A special duty incumbent upon pastors is to
administer Extreme Unction in time, i. e., before
the patient has lost consciousness and all reason-
able hope for his recovery has vanished. This
obligation is shared by relatives, physicians, and

est enim simul et mortuorum sacra- 14. — Cone. Trident., Sess. XIV, D*

mentum, et peccata tnortalia remit- Extr. Unct., Prooem.
tert cum attritione potest." 14a Codex luris Can., c. 938 sq.

14 Cat. Rom.t P. II, c. 6, qu. 1,

EXTREME UNCTION

195

nurses, who should see to it that the priest is called
before it is too late. To leave a Catholic die
without the Sacrament of Extreme Unction is
often a mortal sin.15 The duty of calling the priest
and administering Extreme Unction arises also
when the patient, after having at least partially
recovered his health, again falls dangerously ill.16

Extreme Unction should be administered whenever
there is actual danger of death. Here, if anywhere,
the principle applies: "In extremis extrema sunt ten-
tanda." However, care must be taken not to administer
the Sacrament prematurely, because it can be received but
once (semel tantum) in the course of the same illness,
*. e., the same danger of death.

The anointments must be given according to the Ritual.
In urgent necessity one anointment (on the forehead),
with the abbreviated formula, is sufficient, though if the
patient live long enough, the omitted anointments
must be supplied.17 The anointment of the loins is now
always omitted.18 The anointment of the feet may be
omitted for any reasonable cause.19

Holy Communion, which should be given to the sick

15 Cat. Rom., P. II, c. 6, qu. 9:

". . . gravissime peccant, qui illud
tempus aegroti ungendi observare
Solent, quum iam omni salutis spe
amissd, vita et sensibus carere in-
cipiat; constat enim, ad uberiorem
sacramenti gratiam percipiendam
plurimum valere, si aegrotus, quum
in eo adhuc Integra mens et ratio
viget, fidemque et religiosam animi
voluntatem afferre potest, sacro oleo
liniatur."

16 Cfr. John XI, 3; Cone. Trident,

Sess. XIV, De Extr. Unci., c. 3.—
Cat. Rom., P. II, c. 6, qu. 9, 11. —
Rit. Rom., tit. s, c. 1, n. 14: "In
eadem infirmitate hoc sacramentum
iterari non debet, nisi diuturna sit;
ut si, quum infirmus convaluerit,
iterum in periculum mortis incidat."
— Cfr. J. Kern, S.J., De Sacr. Extr.
Unctionis, pp. 331 sqq.

17 Codex Iuris Can., can. 947, § 1.

18 Codex Iuris Can., can. 947, § 2.

19 Codex Iuris Can., can. 947, § 3.

196 THE MEANS OF GRACE

frequently, should be administered as viaticum (per mo-
dum viatici) when it seems reasonably certain that the
patient will not be able to receive it again.20

Readings. — Th. Slater, S.J., A Compendium of Moral Theology,
Vol. II, pp. 233 sqq. — Sabetti-Barrett, S.J., Compendium Theolo-
giae Moralis, pp. 766 sqq.— F. P. Kenrick, Theologia Moralis, Vol.
II, pp. 261 sqq. — J. Kern, S.J., De Sacramento Extremae Unc-
tionis, Ratisbon 1907. — Pohle-Preuss, The Sacraments, Vol. IV,
pp. I sqq. — P. J. Hanley, Treatise on the Sacrament of Extreme
Unction, New York 1907. — H. Noldin, S.J., Summa Theologiae
Moralis, Vol. Ill, nth ed., Innsbruck 1914, pp. 521 sqq. — M. J.
O'Donnell, "Extreme Unction in the New Code," in the Irish
Ecclesidstical Record, No. 604 (April 1918), pp. 286-297. — Stan.
Woywod, O.F.M., in the Ecclesiastical Review, Vol. LIX, No.
2 (Aug. 1918), pp. 155 sqq.

20 Rit. Rom., tit. 4, c. 4, n. 16-17.

SECTION 7

HOLY ORDERS

The Sacrament of Holy Orders (sacramentum
ordinis) confers special graces as well as rights
and prerogatives. It likewise imposes certain
vocational duties and assigns to the recipient a
permanent place in the ecclesiastical hierarchy
(ordo). By means of this Sacrament the Cath-
olic Church preserves and propagates the priest-
hood, to which are entrusted the ordinary preach-
ing of the Gospel and the administration of the
Sacraments.1 From the nature of this Sacra-
ment flow the following duties for clerics in par-
ticular and the faithful in general.

i. Duties of Those Who Are Ordained. —
The candidate for Holy Orders must first of all
have a true vocation for the clerical state. "They
are said to be called by God," says the Roman
Catechism, "who are called by the lawful min-
isters of the Church" 2 (external vocation).

1 Matt XX VIII, 1 8 sqq.; John legitimes Ecclesiae ministris vocan-
XX, 21 sqq.; I Cor. IV, i sq. tur." Cfr. Heb. V, 5; J. Coppin,

2 Cat. Rom., P. II, c. 7, qu. 3: La Vocation, Roulers-Bruxelles
"Vocari . . . a Deo dicuntur, qui a 1903, pp. 427 sqq.

197

198 THE MEANS OF GRACE

The candidate must, secondly, be actuated by-
pure motives in choosing the clerical state; that
is to say, he must desire to promote the glory of
God and cooperate in the salvation of souls, to
the exclusion of all worldly motives, such as am-
bition, greed, a desire to rule, etc. Only of those
who embrace the ecclesiastical state at the call of
God and for the purpose of serving Him can it
be truly said that they "enter the Church by the
door." "He that entereth not by the door into
the sheepfold, but climbeth up another way [for
the sake of gain or advancement], the same is a
thief and a robber," and commits a sacrilege.3

The candidate for Holy Orders must, third,
be properly prepared for the dignity and holiness
of the priesthood. The required preparation is
twofold, intellectual and moral. The intellectual
preparation as a rule is provided by the sem-
inary, and consists in acquiring the knowledge
and mental attainments necessary for the per-
formance of clerical duties. The moral prepara-
tion is partly mediate and partly immediate.
The mediate preparation for the priesthood con-
sists in acquiring the virtues necessary for its
fruitful exercise by prayer, obedience, purity,
mortification, etc. The immediate preparation
consists in the performance of certain prescribed

8 John VIII, 49 sq.; X, 10; XVII, 1 Pet. V, 1 sqq.— Cat. Rom., P. II,
4; Eph. IV, 11 sqq.; 2 Tim. II, 10; c. 7, qu. 4.

HOLY ORDERS 199

exercises, — a spiritual retreat, receiving the Sac-
raments of Penance and the Holy Eucharist, etc.4
Moral and mental fitness, as well as an ardent love
for the ecclesiastical state constitute what may
be styled internal vocation.

It goes without saying that the canonical con-
ditions prescribed for the reception of major Or-
ders must be conscientiously complied with.5

2. Duties of the Faithful with Regard to
this Sacrament. — Every Catholic is personally
interested in a worthy and competent priesthood,
and hence all are in duty bound to cooperate with
the Church in providing this necessary instru-
ment for the salvation of souls. The laity can do
this, first, by following Christ's advice to ask
God to send competent laborers into His vine-
yard.6 Prayers to this effect should be said
especially on ember days. Second, by contribu-
ting to the erection and support of seminaries,
by aiding poor students, by inducing their sons
to enter the service of the Church, or at least not
preventing them from entering that service when
they show signs of a true vocation. Third, by
upholding the dignity of the priesthood, respect-
ing their pastors,7 protecting them against insult,
providing for their wants, — in fine, by honoring

4 St. Thomas, Summa Theol., 3a, 6 Matt. IX, 36-38.

Suppl., qu. 36, art. 1-2. — Cat. Rom., T Ecclus. VII, 31 sqq.; Gal. IV, 14

P. II, c. 7, qu. 26 sq. sqq.; 1 Thess. V, 12-13; 1 Tim. V,

e Jos. Laurentius, S.J., Inst, Iuris 17. — S. Greg. VII. Registr., 1. VIII,
Eccles., 2nd ed., pp. 47 sqq.

2oo THE MEANS OF GRACE

and supporting the priesthood in spite of the
physical and moral defects of its representatives.

"None but those who love scandal," says Bishop Linsen-
mann, "will contribute to the fall of a weak priest and
then abandon him to his fate. By honoring its priests a
congregation not only gives proof of its high character,
but lends them moral support, and in return receives moral
support from them." 8 To the unfaithful or renegade
priest, on the other hand, may be applied the French
proverb : " Men profit by treason, but despise the trai-
tor." 9 Don Bosco advises Catholics to be silent rather
than speak ill of a priest. St. Vincent de Paul says:
" Consider the matter as we will, brethren, we can con-
tribute to no higher cause than the training of a worthy
priesthood." 10

The duties of those who have received Holy Orders are
treated in "Special Morals." 1X

Readings. — Pohle-Preuss, The Sacraments, Vol. IV, pp. 52 sqq.
— Th. Slater, S.J., A Compendium of Moral Theology, Vol. II,
pp. 241 sqq.— H. Noldin, S.J., Summa Theologiae Moralis, Vol.
Ill, nth ed., pp. 541 sqq.— S. Woywod, O.F.M., in the Eccles.
Review, Vol. LIX, No. 2, pp. 157 sqq.

epist. 21: "Si carnales patres et Studiosorum Paupcrum, Augsburg

matres honorare iubemur, quanto 1620.

tnagis spiritualesf" (Migne, P. L., 11 See Exposition of Christian

CXLVIII, 601). Doctrine by a Seminary Professor,

8 Linsenmann, Lehrbuch der Mo- Vol. III.— J. Kinane, "Clerical Ob-

raltheologie, p. 240. ligations" (under the new Code of

0 "On profile de la trahison, et Canon Law), in the Irish Eccles.

Von dcte-te le traitre." Record, Fifth Series, Vol. XI, No.

10 Cfr. J. Gretser, S. J., Mcecenas 606, pp. 468 sqq.

SECTION 8

MATRIMONY

Marriage was instituted by God for the propa-
gation of the human race.1 Christ raised the
contract to the dignity of a Sacrament.2

The Sacrament of Matrimony is a most impor-
tant institution both from the moral and the
social point of view. The duties it imposes may
be briefly described as follows :

I. Obligation. — No individual human being,
whether man or woman, is obliged to enter the
married state. The words of the Creator, "In-
crease and multiply and fill the earth," are to be
regarded as a blessing; 3 but even if they embod-
ied a formal command, they would bind only the
race as a whole, not each individual member, for
the object of the command, i. e., the propagation
of humankind, can be attained even though many

lGen. I, 27 sq.; II, 18-24.— St. 17; IX, 1, 7; XVII, 20 sq.; XXVIII,

Augustine, Contra Iulian. Pelag., 3; XXXV, 11; XLVIII, 3 sq. — St.

Ill, c. 25, n. 57; ibid., IV, c. 7, n. Augustine, De Peccato Orig., c. 35,

38 (Migne, P. L., XLIV, 731, 757). n. 40: "Ilia Dei verba: Crescite et

2 Matt. XIX, 4-6; Eph. V, 21-32. tnultiplicamini, non est damnando-
— Cone. Trident., Sess. XXIV, De rum praedictio peccatorum, sed fe-
Matr., can. 1. — Cat. Rom., P. II, c. cundatarum benedictio nuptiarum."
8, qu. 14-16. (Migne, P. L., XLIV, 405).

3 Gen. I, 26; cfr. Gen. V, 2; VIII,

201

JO J

THE MEANS OF GRACE

remain unmarried.4 The New Testament dis-
tinctly teaches that marriage is not an obligation
binding all, but that, on the contrary, virginity
is a higher good (bonum melius) because it
enables man to devote himself wholly to the serv-
ice of God. To lead a single life for religious or
moral motives is better than to marry.5

Besides voluntary virginity, just described,
there is another kind, altogether involuntary or
compulsory, due to physical, moral or social
causes. The conditions of life in which a man
is placed may be such as to preclude marriage.
Thus he may be unable to find a mate, or he may
be physically unfit, or suffer from defects or in-
clinations which make a happy marriage impos-
sible or, at any rate, extremely doubtful. It is
no sin to remain unmarried for such and similar
reasons. But to refuse to assume the duties of
the married state out of pure selfishness, e. g., be-

4 Cat. Rom., P. II, c. 8, qu. 12.—
St. Thomas, Summa Theol., 2a 2ae,
qu. 152, art. 2, ad 1: "Praeceptum
datum de gencratione {Gen. I, 28)
rcspicit totam multitudinem ho-
minum, cui nccessarium est, non so-
lum, quod multiflicetur corporaliter,
sed ctiam, quod spiritualitcr proficiat.
Et ideo sufficienter providetur hu-
manae multitudini, si quidam carnali
generationi operam dent, quidam
vero ab hac abstinentes, contempla-
tions divinorum vacent ad totius hu-
mani generis pulchritudinem et salu-
tern: sicut etiam in exercitu quidam
castra custodiunt, quidam signa
deferunt, quidam gladiis dccertant,

quae tamen omnia debita sunt multi-
tudini, sed per unum impleri non
possunt." — Ibid., 3a, Suppl., qu. 41,
art. 1 sq.— H. Denifle, O.P., Luther
und Luthertutn, Vol. I, and ed., pp.
268 sqq. (Volz's translation, I, 1,
Somerset, O., 1917, pp. 261 sqq.).

5 Matt. XIX, 10 sqq.; 1 Cor. VII,
25 sq., 32 sqq. — Cone. Trident.,
Sess. XXIV, can. 10: "Si quis di-
xerit, statum coniugalem anteponcn-
dum esse statui virginitatis vel caeli-
batus, et non esse melius ac beatius
manere in virginitate out caelibatu,
quam iungi matrimonio, anathema
sit."

MATRIMONY 203

cause of an inordinate love of pleasure, or in or-
der to be able to continue in vicious habits,6 is con-
trary to the moral law and exposes a man to great
danger.

However, we must be slow to condemn unmarried per-
sons, for they may be actuated by perfectly legitimate
motives which they do not care and are under no obliga-
tion to reveal even to their confessor.

One who is too weak to lead a chaste life and unwilling
to employ the moral and religious means which would en-
able him to live continently,7 is in duty bound to marry,
and the confessor should tell him so.8 However, it is
necessary to proceed with caution in such cases, because
the question of marriage is a most delicate and impor-
tant one, and continence has to be practiced at certain
times even in wedlock. St. Paul expressly teaches that
no one should be forbidden to marry, and in spite of his
high regard for widows, frankly admits that for many of
them it would be better to marry again.9

6 "Non amator coniugii, sed libi- voverit; qui te hortatur, ut voveas,

dinis servus." Cfr. St. Augustine, ipse adiuvat ut reddas." (Migne,

Confessiones, 1. VI, c. 15, n. 25 P. L., XXXVII, 1717). — St. Thomas,

(Migne, P. L., XXXII, 732); C. Summa Theol., 3a, Suppl., qu. 42,

Krieg, Wissenschaft der Seelenlei- art. 3, ad 3: "Adlubetur maius re-

tung, Vol. I, pp. 318 sqq. medium [contra concupiscentiae

T Mark XIV, 38; 1 Cor. X, 13. — morbum] per opera spiritualia et

Cone. Trident., Sess. XXIV, can. 9 carnis mortificationem ab Mis, qui

"Si quis dixerit, . . . posse omnes matrimonio non utuntur."

contrahere matrimonium , qui non 81 Cor. VII, 9: Kpelacrov yap

sentiunt se castitatis, etiamsi earn earns yafiijcrai fj trvpovadai- — On

voverint, habere donum, anathema the meaning of uri and of the vow

sit, quum Deus id recte petentibus of celibacy see Denifle, Luther und

non deneget nee patiatur, nos supra Luthertum, Vol. I, 2nd ed., pp. 92

id, quod possumus, tentari." — Sess. sqq. (English translation by Volz, I,

VI, cap. 11: "Deus impossibiha non 1, pp. 100 sqq.).

iubet." — St. Augustine, Enarr. in 9 1 Cor. VII, 1 sq., 8 sq., 39 sq.;

Ps., CXXXI, n. 3: "Nemo praesu- 1 Tim. IV, 3; V, 5, 14 sq.
mat viribus suis se reddere, quod

204

THE MEANS OF GRACE

2. Duties with Regard to the Reception
of the Sacrament. — These are partly negative
and partly positive.

a) Motives. — The motives by which a person
is led to embrace the married state must be mor-
ally licit.

«) Both parties must be convinced that they
are called to the married state and that they pos-
sess not only the necessary knowledge but like-
wise the religious and ethical qualities without
which married life cannot prove pleasing to God
nor helpful to the contracting parties.10 As the
sexes are drawn together indiscriminately by the
natural stimulus of sensual and intellectual at-
traction, the gratification of the sexual instinct "
is not a sufficient moral motive to justify mar-
riage. The same is true of greed, Platonic love,
so called, and other purely secular motives.
None of these suffices to constitute matrimony
a truly moral relationship.

There is nothing wrong in attending to physical
beauty and natural attraction in selecting a part-

10 Ecclus. VII, 27 sq.; 1 Tim. II,
IS- — Rit. Rom., tit. 7, c. 1, n. 1:
"Uterque sciat rudimenta fidei,
quum ea deinde filios suos docere de-
beant." — For the instruction of
bridal couples in the duties of their
new state of life there are available
0. number of useful books, e. g.,
Gerard, Marriage and Parenthood
(New York: Jos. Wagner), and oth-
ers.

11 The Roman Catechism (F. II,
C 8, qu. 8) admonishes parish priests
to teach the faithful that the nature
and import of marriage consist in
the bond and obligation, and that,
besides the consent expressed in the
manner prescribed by the Church,
consummation is not necessarily re-
quired to constitute a true marriage.
— Cfr. Pohle-Preuss, The Sacra-
ments, Vol. IV, 2nd ed., pp. 184 sqq.

MATRIMONY 205

ner for life, but this motive should not be made a
primary one.12 Of considerably more importance
than natural charms is the possession of material
means assuring an income and a satisfactory so-
cial position which offers solid guarantees for
the adequate support of a family. It is also per-
fectly legitimate to take into consideration the
reasonable wishes of parents and relatives.
Though the validity of marriage does not depend
upon the consent of the parents (consensus pa-
rentum) of either party, both are in duty bound
to pay due regard to the rights and interests
of their respective families. A marriage con-
tracted against the will or without the blessing
of parents whose demands are reasonable, lacks
one of the moral foundations of wedlock and
one of the principal guarantees of marital happi-
ness.13 Commendable moral motives are: a de-

12 Cfr. Gen. XXIV, 16; XXIX, rum reqtiirisf Placet uxor honestate
17. — Tertullian, De Cultu Fern., 1. tnagis quam pulchritudine. . . . Non
II, c. 2: "Accusandus decor non possumus reprehendere difini arti-
est, ut felicitas corporis, ut divinae ficis opus, sed quern delectat corpo-
plasticae accessio, ut animae aliqua ris pulchritudo, multo magis ilia de-
veslis urbana." (Ed. Leopold, P. lectet venustas, quae ad imaginem
II, 87). — St. Ambrose, De Offic, I, Dei est intus, non foris comptior."
n. 83: "Nos certe in pulchritudine (Migne, P. L., XVI, 48, 312). —
corporis locum virtutis non ponimus, Idem, De Abraham, 1. I, n. 6: "Non
gratiam tamen non excludimus, quia tarn pulchritudo mulieris, quam vir-
verecundia et vultus ipsos solet pu- tus eius et gravitas delectat virum."
dore obfundere gratioresque red- (P. L., XIV, 423).
dere. Ut enim artifex in materia 13 Cone. Trident., Sess. XXIV,
commodiore melius operari solet, sic De Reform. Matr., c. 1 ; Cat. Rom.,
verecundia in ipso quoque corporis P. II, c. 8, qu. 26; Gury, Comp.
decore plus eminet." — Idem, De Theol. Mor., Vol. II, n. 569 sqq. ;
Inst. Virg., n. 30: "Cur tu vultus Kenrick, Theol. Mor., Vol. II, pp.
decorem in coniuge magis quam mo- 289 sq.

206 THE MEANS OF GRACE

sire for mutual happiness and sanctification, the
wish to rear a family according to God's holy
will, etc.

Broadly speaking, it is better to marry young than to
wait too long. Most of those who are called to the mar-
ried state will find it to their advantage to marry at an
age when they are still pliable and enjoy their full
physical powers. If a man postpones marriage too long
he is apt to lose courage and become unfit for married
life. Husband and wife grow accustomed to each other
more easily if both are young and tractable and inspired
by high ideals. Needless to add, no man should marry
until he is able to support a family.

Persons who are physically underdeveloped or suffer
from some hereditary disease or other serious bodily
ailment, should not marry. The normal development and
good health of the female is of special importance.
Marital happiness largely depends on the health of the
wife. No girl ought to think of marriage before she is
twenty. The husband should be several years older than
the wife, and able to exercise self-control. A great deal
of misery is caused by people marrying too young.

The Church discourages, and to a certain extent for-
bids, marriage among blood relations, because such
unions frequently result in stunted and defective chil-
dren. The Mosaic law forbade them as harmful for
the offspring of the contracting parties as well as for the
nation at large.14

To prevent grievous disappointments, which are all too
apt to endanger conjugal happiness, the contracting par-
ties should be frank with each other in regard to their pe-
cuniary means and all other temporal matters of impor-
tance.

14 Lev. XX, 17.

MATRIMONY 207

P) The Church earnestly warns her children
against mixed marriages. Except for the grav-
est of reasons no sensible Catholic will marry a
person belonging to another religion. The nature
and purpose of marriage demand true piety and
virtue in both parties, in order that they may as-
sist and sanctify each other.15 The Catholic,
therefore, who knowingly and willingly marries a
person having no religious or moral convictions,
or a false religion, commits a sin and is guilty
of an immoral act. There can be no true unity
of mind and heart, no harmony between hus-
band and wife, least of all in the upbringing
of children, if they differ in this most essential
matter of religious belief. But the Church's op-
position to mixed marriages rests on a more
important consideration even than that. She re-
gards the Sacrament of Matrimony as a symbol
of Christ's union with His Church 16 and a nurs-
ery of souls. Hence she is perfectly justified in
disapproving of mixed marriages and permit-
ting them only with reluctance and under certain
well defined conditions.17

b) Preparation. — As the reception of this

15 Cfr. 1 Thess. IV, 3-7; 1 Tim. Notre Dame, Ind., 4th ed., 1917; G
II, is; i Pet. Ill, 1-7. Schlachter, C.PP.S., Mixed Mar

16 Eph. V, 22-23; cfr. 1 Cor. VII, riages, Collegeville, Ind., 1915; W
39; Col. Ill, 18. — P. Schanz, Die Fanning, S.J., in the Catholic En
Lehre von den hi. Sakramenten, pp. cyclopedia, Vol. IX, pp. 698 sq.
713 sqq. A. Devine, C.P., The Law of Chris

17 Cfr. A. A. Lambing, Mixed Han Marriage, New York, 1909.
Marriages, Their Origin and Results,

208 THE MEANS OF GRACE

Sacrament is a most important step, fraught with
grave and lasting consequences, the contracting
parties should prepare themselves carefully by-
cleansing their souls and rekindling their religious
ardor. It is the fervent desire of the Church,
and in full conformity with her practice, that both
bride and groom go to confession and receive
Holy Communion immediately, or at least within
three days, before marriage.18 To receive this
Sacrament in the state of mortal sin is in itself
a mortal sin and a sacrilege. Making a general
confession may be advisable, but is not, gener-
ally speaking, of obligation. The nupturients
should abstain from undue intimacy before mar-
riage and when the time has come to plight their
troth, they should do so in the presence of the
required witnesses. To be canonically valid a
promise of marriage must be made in writing and
signed by the nupturients, their pastor or bishop,
or at least two witnesses.

Persons engaged to be married should not live together
under the same roof.19 Another thing to be discouraged
is too protracted "company-keeping," which, as experi-

18 Cone. Trident., Sess. XXIV, Ref. Matr., cap. i— Rit. Rom., tit.
De Ref. Martr., c. i: "Sancta syno- 7, c. 1, n. 14: "Moncat parochus
dits coniuges hortatur, ut, antequatn coniuges, ut ante bentdictionem sa-
contrahant, vcl saltern triduo ante cerdotalem in templo suscipiendam in
matrimonii consummationem sua eadem domo non cohabitcnt, ncque
peccata diligenter confiteantur et ad matrimonium consumment, nee etian,
sanctissimum Eucharistiae sacramen- simul tnaneant. nisi aliquibus pro-
turn pie accedant." pinquis vel aliis praesentibus."

19 Cone. Trident., Sess. XXIV, De

MATRIMONY 209

ence teaches, is rarely compatible with chastity. Parents
have a duty in this regard which they must not neglect.
They should keep a watchful eye on their children
even after they are "engaged." The young people them-
selves should remember that undue liberties taken before
marriage, besides being sinful and highly displeasing to
God, are apt to undermine that mutual respect which is so
necessary an element of happiness in married life, espe-
cially after sensuality has abated.

As marriage is valid only when contracted in con-
formity with the rules of the Church, nupturients should
scrupulously obey the precepts of Canon Law. Above all
they should not attempt to get married if there is a
diriment impediment between them. To do so would be
a mortal sin and the marriage itself invalid. If two
persons have married without being aware of the existence
of a diriment impediment, they must stop conjugal inter-
course as soon as they learn of the fact and have the
marriage bond "healed," or else part forever.

To neglect to ask for a dispensation where there is a
forbidding impediment, is also mortally sinful. Nobody
is obliged to reveal the existence of a marital impedi-
ment if the revelation involves injury to his own good
name or that of another,20 and those who wish to get
married should be instructed that dispensations for secret
impediments need not be requested through their respec-
tive pastors, but may be obtained through any confessor.21

Holy Scripture nowhere says that it is necessary to
have an ecclesiastical ceremony in connection with mar-

20 Cfr. St. Alphonsus, Theol. essentials in an appendix (pp. 215
Mor., 1. VI, n. 995. sqq.) in the preparation of which

21 Dr. Koch relegates the entire we have had the valued assistance
subject of marriage impediments to of two eminent canonists and a pro-
Canon Law, to which it properly be- fessor of moral theology.

longs. For utility's sake we add the

2io THE MEANS OF GRACE

riage, but St. Paul's declaration that marriages are con-
tracted "in the Lord" and "sanctified by the word of God
and prayer," 21 naturally led the early Christians to ask
the Church for her blessing when they were about to enter
this holy state. That Matrimony between Catholics
should not be contracted without the approbation and co-
operation of the Church follows from its nature as a
Sacrament. While civil marriage is per se neither im-
moral nor irreligious, yet as a consequence of the unnat-
ural rupture between State and Church it necessarily in-
volves disrespect to the latter and is sinful.22 That mar-
riage should take place in facie Ecclesiae is a demand
practically as ancient as the Church herself, though the
Fathers regarded the blessing of bishop or priest merely
as a condition of licitness, not of validity.23

No matter what laws the State may make with regard
to marriage, the rules of the Church never cease to bind
the faithful and cannot therefore be disregarded without
sin. Catholics who wish to contract marriage are in duty
bound, after observing the formalities required by the
State, to declare their mutual consent in facie Ecclesiae,
i. e., ordinarily, before their pastor and two witnesses,
and they should be reminded that it is only by virtue of
this act that they really become man and wife, fully en-
titled to the privileges of the married state.

To seek a husband or a wife by advertising in the
newspapers is sometimes justified by circumstances and
therefore morally licit.

21 i Cor. VII, 39; 1 Tim. IV, 5; united with the consent of the
cfr. 1 Cor. X, 31; Col. Ill, 17; 1 Bishop, that the marriage he accord-
Pet. IV, 11. ing to the Lord, and not according

22 Pohle-Preuss, The Sacraments, to lust. Let all things be done to
Vol. IV, pp. 240 sq. the honor of God." (Funk, Pair.

23 St. Ignatius of Antioch, Epist. Apost., Vol. I, 2nd ed., 292, 6; Kir-
ad Polyc, c. 5: "It is right for topp Lake, The Apostolic Fathers,
men and women who marry to be Vol. I, London 1912, p. 272).

MATRIMONY 211

The wedding celebration should be kept within the
bounds of decency and good order, so that Christ and
His blessed Mother could attend without offence, as they
did at the marriage feast in Cana of Galilee. Here, too,
St. Paul's admonition should be heeded : "Rejoice in the
Lord always !" 24

Wedding feasts should not be celebrated on Saturday,
because if the celebration extends far into the night, as
often happens, there is danger that the participants may
miss Mass on the Sunday following.

Readings. — Th. Slater, S.J., A Compendium of Moral Theology,
Vol. II, pp. 268 sqq. — Pohle-Preuss, The Sacraments, Vol. IV, pp.
140 sqq. — F. P. Kendrick, Theologia Moralis, Vol. II, pp. 279 sqq.
— H. Noldin, S.J., Summa Theologiae Moralis, Vol. Ill, pp.
572 sqq. — M. A. Gearin, C.SS.R., "The Matrimonial Law Ac-
cording to the New Code," in the Ecclesiastical Review, Vol.
LVIII, No. 5 (May 1918), pp. 473-495-

24 Phil. IV, 4. — Cone. Trident., train potest. Nuptiae vero qud de-

Sess. XXIV, De Ref. Matr., c. 10. cet modestia et honestate fiant;

— Rit. Rom., tit. 7, c. 1, n. 18: sancta enim res est matrimonium

"Matrimonium omni tempore con- sancteque tractandum."

CHAPTER III

THE SACRAMENTALS

1. Whereas the object of the Sacraments
is to bring the more important events of human
life into relation with the grace of God, and there-
by to sanctify them, the Sacramentals 1 were in-
stituted for the purpose of placing the whole of
life under the special protection of Providence,
either by warding off the influence of the devil
and his cohorts, or by calling down the blessing
of God upon certain persons and things and dedi-
cating them to His service and the pious use of
the faithful.2

2. The Catholic, who is expected to employ all
things for the honor of God,3 has a special duty
in connection with the Sacramentals, namely, to
respect and use them with faith and confidence
and with a contrite and humble heart for the sal-
vation of his soul as well as to obtain temporal
blessings.

1 Cfr. St. Thomas, Summa Theol., fectum, tamen ordinatur aliquo

3a, Suppl., qu. 29, art. 1 : "Est haec modo ad Mam actionem princi-

differentia, quo sacramentum did- palem."

tur Ma actio Ecclesiae, quae attingit 2 Matt. XX, 1; Mark XVI, 17

ad effectum principaliter intentum in sq.; 1 Tim. IV, 4 sq. — St. Thomas,

administratione sacramentorum; sed Summa Theol., 3a, qu. 65, art. I, ad

sacramentale dicitur Ma actio, quae, 3 and 6.

quamvis non pertingat ad Mum ef- 8 1 Cor. X, 31.

212

THE SACRAMENTALS

213

The number of the Sacramentals may not be
limited. The most popular are: the sign of the
cross, pronouncing the holy name of Jesus, the
use of Holy Water,4 and various blessings of ob-
jects commonly employed by man, e. g., the house
in which he lives, the field he tills, the fruits he
raises, etc. Needless to say, these objects, when
blessed by the Church, should be used with due
respect but without superstition.

"It would be quite natural to apprehend that
the blessing of ordinary objects should lead to
a profanation and degradation of sacred things.
However, this is not the case. These objects
are in reality destined for a higher service and a
superior form of existence than that which they
now have, and the blessing pronounced upon them
by the Church is but an anticipation of that su-
pernatural form of being which was typified in
Paradise immediately after the Creation. That
the use of the Sacramentals sometimes gives rise
to profanation or superstition does not diminish
their religious and moral importance." 5

4 Cfr. Tertullian, De Corona, c.
3: "Ad omnem progressum atque
promotum, ad omnem aditum et
exitum, ad vestitum et calceatum, ad
lavacra, ad mensas, ad lumina, ad
cubilia, ad sedilia, quaecunque nos
conversatio exercet, frontem crucis
signaculo terimus." (Ed. Leopold,
P. I, 188). — St. Jerome, Epist., 22,
n. 37: "Ad omnem actum, ad om-
nem incessum manus pingat Domini

crucem." (Migne, P. L., XXII,
421). — St. Augustine, De Cat. Rud.,
c. 20, n. 34: "[Christi] passionis
et crucis signo in fronte hodie tarn-
quam in poste signandus es, omnes-
que christians signantur." (P. L.,
XL, 335). — A. Gastoue, L'Eau
Bcnite, Paris 1907.

5 F. X. Linsenmann, Lehrbuch
der Moraltheologie, p. 248.

214 THE MEANS OF GRACE

Readings. — Pohle-Preuss, The Sacraments, Vol. I, 2nd ed., St.
Louis 1917, pp. in sqq. — Chr. Pesch, S.J., Praelectiones Dog-
maticae, Vol. VI, 3rd ed., pp. 141 sqq. — G. Arendt, S.J., De Sacra-
mentalibus Disquisitio, 2nd ed., Rome 1900. — A. A. Lambing, The
Sacramentals of the Holy Catholic Church, New York 1892. — F.
Probst, Die kirchlichcn Bcnediktionen, Tubingen 1857. — H. Le-
clercq, O.S.B., art. "Sacramentals," in the Cath. Encyclopedia,
Vol. XIII. — Sabetti-Barrett, S.J., Compendium Theologiae Mo-
ralis, pp. 531 sqq. — H. Noldin, S.J., Suinma Theologiae Moralis,
Vol. Ill, pp. 49 sqq.

APPENDIX

THE MARRIAGE IMPEDIMENTS UNDER THE
NEW CODE OF CANON LAW

According to the laws of most of our States, marriage
is nothing but a legal contract. As such the State pre-
scribes for it the conditions under which it shall be valid
or invalid. In many States marriages between close
relatives, or marriages between white people and negroes,
are null and void. In other words the States set up im-
pediments to the marriage contract.

The Catholic Church also recognizes in marriage a con-
tract, but a contract elevated to the dignity of a Sacra-
ment; and because marriage is a Sacrament, the Church
alone, under whose jurisdiction Christ placed all the Sac-
raments, has the power to make rules and regulations with
regard to this sacred contract, and to set up impediments
which render it unlawful or invalid also as a Sacrament.

Some of these impediments, however, have been
changed or modified in the course of centuries, as the
needs of the time demanded. Especially is this the case
in the new Code of Church laws promulgated by our
Holy Father Benedict XV, in 191 7, and of binding force
since Whitsunday, 1918. In Canons 1036-1058, which
form Chapter II of the section on the Sacrament of
Matrimony, " Of the Impediments of Matrimony in Gen-
eral," these impediments are laid down with great clear-
ness.

215

216 MARRIAGE IMPEDIMENTS

First of all they are divided into (i) forbidding, (2)
nullifying, (3) public, (4) occult, (5) impediments of
minor and (6) of major grade. The four last divisions
are made principally to facilitate dispensations, and this
treatise will not suffer if we disregard them entirely.
But we must say a few words about the forbidding and
nullifying impediments as modified by the new Code.

I. Forbidding Impediments. — Forbidding impedi-
ments (impedimenta impcdicntia) are those which inter-
dict a marriage under pain of mortal sin, yet do not ren-
der it invalid if it is contracted in spite of the prohibition.
The state of mortal sin or excommunication prohibits
marriage, though this is usually not counted as a forbid-
ding impediment. The forbidding impediments in the
strict sense are:

1. The prohibition of the Church, vis., if the Pope for
the whole Church, or the bishop for his diocese inter-
dicts an intended marriage for grave reasons. Such rea-
sons would be, for instance :

(a) Grave suspicion that impediments exist to the pro-
posed marriage;

(b) Fear that the marriage will cause great trouble ;

(c) Refusal of parents to give their consent to the
marriage of their children, etc.

The Church also forbids (a) Marriage between a Cath-
olic and a non-Catholic; and (/?) Marrying without the
publication of the banns.

2. Solemn marriages are forbidden from the first Sun-
day of Advent, inclusive, till the day after Christmas, ex-
clusive, and from Ash Wednesday, inclusive, till the Mon-
day after Easter, exclusive. During this time marriages
may take place, but without the solemn blessing of the
bride or any worldly celebration.

3. A simple vow of virginity, of perfect chastity, of

MARRIAGE IMPEDIMENTS 217

not marrying, of receiving sacred orders, or of embracing
the religious state, also hinders marriage (can. 1058, §1),
and a man (or woman) who would marry while bound by
such a vow would commit a mortal sin, unless he had
the firm will to keep his vow in the married state, — which
would, however, be deceiving the other party, or unless
both parties consent to respect the vow during the mar-
riage,— which can hardly be allowed to them on account
of human frailty.

4. Another and a new prohibitive impediment set up
by the Code (canon 1059) is legal relationship arising
from adoption in countries in which the civil law renders
such marriages unlawful. Accordingly, a boy who is
legally adopted by a family cannot marry the daughter of
the couple who adopted him in places where the civil law
forbids it.

5. The main prohibitive impediment under the new
Code is that called mixed religion. It interdicts marriage
between Catholics and baptized heretics or schismatics.
Canon 1060 " most severely " forbids such marriages, and
adds that " if there is danger that the Catholic party, or
a child born of the union, may lose the faith, the marriage
is forbidden also by divine law."

Canon 1061 states the conditions under which the
Church grants a dispensation for a mixed marriage, viz.:
(a) For just and grave reasons; (b) Upon a written
guarantee that the non-Catholic party will not interfere
with the religion of the Catholic spouse, and that all chil-
dren born to them will be baptized and brought up in the
Catholic faith; (c) Upon the morally certain assurance
that these conditions will be fulfilled.

Canon 1062 adds that " the Catholic party is obliged
prudently to try to convert the non-Catholic party."

Canon 1063 warns the parties to such a mixed mar-

218 MARRIAGE IMPEDIMENTS

riage not to attempt, either before or after the ceremony
in the Catholic Church, to have the marriage blessed by a
Protestant minister.

Canon 1065 (§ 1) exhorts the faithful not to marry
persons who have publicly given up the faith, or joined
a condemned society, and (§2) forbids pastors to assist
at such marriages without grave reasons and the permis-
sion of the bishop. Lastly, canon 1066 commands pas-
tors not to assist at the marriage of public sinners if they
refuse to go to Confession, unless for a grave cause, con-
cerning which they should, if possible, consult the Ordi-
nary.

Apart from the dispensation, other circumstances may
exist which may render the marriage decidedly inadvis-
able, or, it may be, even sinful.

II. Nullifying or Diriment Impediments. — As the
word itself implies, diriment impediments (impedimenta
dirimentia) are such as not merely forbid a marriage bul
render it invalid. There are sixteen such diriment or nul-
lifying impediments.

1. A substantial error with regard to a marriage is
usually quoted by moralists as the first diriment impedi-
ment. It would exist, for instance, if a man, instead
of marrying the woman of his choice, would by mistake
marry another; or if he were to make an explicit
condition (i. e., conditio sine qua non) to marry only a
rich person, or one of noble birth or well educated,
whereas the one actually married proved to be the con-
trary. If such a condition is not expressly mentioned,
however, or if the error concerns only accidental quali-
ties, the marriage is valid. Note that it is not allowed,
under pain of mortal sin, to marry with any condition
like those mentioned. For marriage, which God wants

MARRIAGE IMPEDIMENTS 219

to be indissoluble, is not to be rendered soluble for frivo-
lous reasons.

2. Slavery is given in Moral Theology as the second
diriment impediment. It makes a marriage between a
slave and a free person, who is ignorant of the condition
of the other party, impossible. Whilst an error about the
qualities or conditions of a person does not nullify a mar-
riage, as stated above, the Church has wisely made an
exception in setting up this impediment, because a slave
is subject entirely and in all things to the will of his mas-
ter, which is adverse to the marriage rights of a free man.
Now-a-days slavery is practically abolished nearly every-
where, and hence this impediment hardly counts.

3. Grave fear, through which a person is unjustly
forced to marry, is another impediment which nullifies
marriage. Marriage is of such importance that it re-
quires full liberty of action.

4. A person must also be of proper age in order to be
able to contract a valid marriage. The age limit has been
changed by Canon 1067 of the new Code, according to
which (§1) males cannot validly marry before they have
completed their sixteenth and females their fourteenth
year. The same canon (§2) exhorts pastors to deter
young people from getting married until they have
reached the age usual in their country.

5. Another diriment impediment is mentioned in Canon
1068, viz., impotence, if it precedes marriage and is per-
manent, whether it be known to the other party or not,
or whether it renders the other unable to cohabit prop-
erly with anybody or only with the intended spouse. If
there is any doubt about the existence of this impediment
the marriage is not to be hindered. Neither does sterility
prevent marriage according to the same Canon.

220 MARRIAGE IMPEDIMENTS

6. Canon 1069 insists on the natural law impediment
called " ligamen " or bond of a previous marriage, which
renders invalid any attempted marriage during the life-
time of a married couple, even if their marriage was
never consummated. The only exception is the so-called
" Pauline privilege." St. Paul allows the Catholic party
to marry again if the non-baptized or non-Christian party
refuses to live in peace with the former. " For," as the
Apostle says, " a brother or sister is not under servitude
in such cases." * The same Canon forbids a new mar-
riage in case the former marriage was found invalid or
had been annulled before legitimate authority (i. e., the
bishop or the Holy See) permitted the new marriage.

7. Marriage between persons baptized in, or converted
to, the Catholic Church, on the one hand, and unbaptized
persons on the other (disparity of worship), is declared
invalid in Canon 1070. The law speaks of persons bap-
tized in, or converted to, the Catholic Church, i. e., of
persons who ought to be Catholics. Therefore a baptized
non-Catholic who never joined the Church can validly
marry an unbaptized person. The same Canon also de-
clares (§2) that if at the time of such a marriage a per-
son was commonly held to have been baptized, or if the
Baptism was of doubtful validity, the marriage should be
upheld until it is proved that one party was, and the
other was not, baptized.

8. Attempted marriage of clerics in higher orders, or
of religious with solemn vows, or of religious with sim-
ple vows (which in this respect have the privileges of
solemn vows) is declared invalid by canons 1072 and
1073.

9. No marriage can exist between a woman who was

1 1 Cor. VII, 15.

MARRIAGE IMPEDIMENTS 221

forcibly abducted and the man who abducted her for the
purpose of marriage, even if the former went of her own
free choice to the place where she is forcibly detained by
the latter for the purpose of inducing her to marry him.
But the impediment ceases as soon as the woman is set
free and willingly consents to the marriage (canon 1074).

10. The impediment of crime, as described in canon
1075, contains three distinct impediments. The first is
contracted if a man and a woman, while at least one
of them is lawfully married, commit adultery with the
mutual promise to marry each other, or if they at-
tempt civil marriage. The second is contracted if a
man and a woman, while at least one of them is law-
fully married, commit adultery with each other and one
of them kills his or her lawful spouse. The third impedi-
ment is contracted if a man and a woman cooperate
physically or morally in bringing about the death of hus-
band or wife, even though the crime of adultery was not
committed.

11. The diriment impediment of consanguinity or
blood-relationship extends, according to canon 1076, to
all degrees in the direct line upward (father, grandfather,
etc.), and downward (son, grandson, etc.). In the col-
lateral (side) line it extends only to the third degree, in-
clusive. The same canon also forbids marriage when
there is positive doubt whether the parties are related by
blood in any degree of the direct line or in the first de-
gree of the collateral line.

12. Affinity (relationship by marriage) constitutes a
diriment impediment in all degrees of the direct line, and
up to the second degree, inclusive, of the collateral line
(canon 1077) ; which means that the marriage of a
woman after the death of her husband with any of his
blood relatives in the direct line, and to the second de-

'

222 MARRIAGE IMPEDIMENTS

gree of the collateral line, is invalid. Canon 97 declares
that the impediment of affinity arises only from a valid
marriage, whether consummated or not. The former im-
pediment of affinity from sinful intercourse is dropped.

13. Public decorum is another diriment impediment
(canon 1078). It may arise from an invalid marriage,
whether consummated or not, or from public and notori-
ous concubinage. The law forbids and annuls a mar-
riage between such a man and the woman's blood rela-
tions in the first and second degree of the direct line, and
vice versa.

14. Besides the diriment impediments of bodily rela-
tionship mentioned in the last three numbers, there is also
a spiritual relationship (canons 1079, 768), which exists
(a) between the one who baptizes and the person bap-
tized, and (b) between the one baptized and his or her
sponsor. This relationship is not contracted if Baptism
is given conditionally, unless the same sponsor again acts
in the ceremony of solemn Baptism (canon 763).

15. Another diriment impediment (canon 1080) is that
of legal relationship arising from adoption. It consti-
tutes a diriment impediment only where it is so regarded
by the civil law. Thus if the civil law should declare the
marriage of an adopted child with a natural child of the
same family invalid, it would be invalid also in the eyes
of the Church ; not so, however, if the laws of the State
in which the marriage takes place admit such marriages
as valid.

16. The impediment of clandestinity is thus defined in
canon 1094: " Only those marriages are valid which are
contracted before the parish priest, or the Ordinary of
the diocese, or a priest delegated by either of these, and
at least two witnesses."

MARRIAGE IMPEDIMENTS 223

Readings. — J. M. O'Hara, The Laws of Marriage Simply Ex-
plained According to the New Code, Philadelphia, 1918. — M. J.
O'Donnell, " Matrimony in the New Code," in the Irish Ecclesi-
astical Record, Fifth Series, Vol. XI (1918), Nos. 6 sqq. — S.
Woywod, O.F.M., The New Canon Law, New York, 1918, pp.
209 sqq.

INDEX

Abortion, 87.

Abraham, 38.

Absolution, 177 sqq. ; when it
should be denied, 179 sq. ;
when deferred, 182.

Accessory to the sins of oth-
ers, 62.

Accomplice, 158.

Adam, 13, 38, 43.

Administration of the Sacra-
ments, requisites of valid,
10S sqq.

Adultery, 74.

Advertence required for mor-
tal sin, 30 sq.

Advertisements, Matrimonial,
210.

Albert the Great, Bl., 192.

Ambition, 69.

Ambrose, St., 1.

Amendment, Purpose of, 146
sqq.

Ananias and Saphira, 39, 82.

Angels, Sin of the, 11 sq.

Anger, 65, 81 sqq.

Animus iniuriandi, 10.

Anointments in Extreme Unc-
tion, 195

Apocalypse, 84.

Apostasy, 92 sq.

Aristotle, 4.

Arrogance, 69 sq.

Astrology, 96.

Athenians, 82.

Atonement, 14, 102 sq.

Attrition, 116, 138, 140 sqq.,
142 sqq.

Augustine, St., 1, 3. 8, 12, 13,
18, 19, 20, 26, 36 sq., 38 sq.,
40, 56, 58, 61, 92, 95.

Aureolus, 192.

225

Avarice, 55, 65, 71 sqq., 88.

B

Bankruptcy, 89.

Baptism, 108, 112, 115, 116, 118

sq., 153-

Beatitude, 10, 192.

Benediction of the Bl. Sacra-
ment, 134.

Bernard, St., 40.

Blasphemy, 82, 91 sq.

Blessed objects, 213.

Blessed Sacrament, Devotion
to the, 133 sq.

Boastfulness, 70.

Bonaventure, St., 21, 65, 192.

Bosco, Don, 46, 200.

Calumny, 78, 87.
Capital punishment, 88.
Capital sins, 64 sq., 67 sqq.
Capreolus, 192.
Carnal sins, 54 sqq., 65.
Catechism, Roman, 40, 139,

144. 197-
Causae occasionales peccati, 37.
Charity, 23, 78, 92.
Chastity, 45, 73.
Christ, 14, 28, 37, 45, 52, 56, 78,

in, 123, 127, 128, 131, 133,

135, 191, 210.
Circumstances which change

the species of a sin or add a

new species, 155.
Civil marriage, 210.
Commandments of God, Sins

against the, 52 sq.
Commandments of the Church,

125 sq., 137 sq., 152.
Commission, Sins of, 53 sq.

226

INDEX

Communion, Holy, 113, 116,

123 sqq. ; Duty of receiving,

124 sqq.; Easter, 125 sq. ;
Preparation for, 126 sqq. ;
Thanksgiving after, 127 ;
Frequent, 130 sqq. ; 193.

"Company-keeping," 208 sq.
Concupiscence, 37, 42, 43 sqq.,

46, 55 sq., 65, 105.
Conditional absolution, 179 sq.
Confession, 29, 137 sq., 139,

151 sqq., 167 sqq., 193.
Confessor, 28, 46, 113, 132, 153,

158, 162 sqq., 169, 183 sq.
Confirmation, 116, 121 sqq.
Connivance, 63.
Conscience, 32 sq. ; 53, 156.
Consecration, 129.
Consent of the will to mortal

sin, 31 sq., 40, 63, 74.
Contrition, Perfect, 109 sq.,

126, 142 sqq.
Contumely, 61.
Cooperation in injustice, 61

sqq.
Covetousness, 71 sqq.
Cross, Sign of the, 213.
Cruelty, 77, 87, 88.

Damnation, Eternal, 31, 88.

Death, 14, 20, 22, 78, 124, 137,
181, 189, 190, 192.

Debitum, 165.

Decalogue, 52, 53

Deere turn peccandi, 61.

Deed, Sins of, 57 sqq.

Defending evil, 64.

Defrauding laborers of their
just hire, 89 sq.

Delectatio morosa, 58 sq.

Demonism, 96.

Desires, Sinful, 60 sqq.

Despair, 94.

Devil, 11, 14, 39 sqq., 45, 78, 96.

Devil worship, 96.

Disgust for morality and re-
ligion, 83 sq.

Disobedience, 10 sq., 54.

Drunkenness, 79 sqq.

Duns Scotus, 192.
E

Easter duty, 125 sq., 152.

Ember weeks, 199.

Envy, 55, 65, 77 sqq., 94-

Eucharist, Holy, 123 sqq.

Eve, 13.

Evil, 4 sq., 27, 37, 81.

Examination of conscience,
156.

Extreme Unction, 116, 188 sqq. ;
Subject of, 188 sq. ; Duty of
receiving, 192 sqq. ; Duty of
administering, 194 sqq.

Faith, 92, 99, 105, 118, 121
Fast, Eucharistic, 128 sqq.
Fellowmen, Sins against one's,

54-
Fetus, Baptism of, 120.
Flattery, 63.
Flesh, Sins of the, 54 sqq., 64

sq.
Fornication, 55, 74.
Forty Hours' Devotion, 134.
Freemasons, 112.
Free-will, 7, 36, 104 sq.
Frequent Communion, 130 sqq.
Frick, 16.

Gaudium de peccato, 60.

General confession, 161 sq.,
208.

Gluttony, 55, 65, 79 sqq.

God, Not the author of sin, 5
sq. ; In how far He cooper-
ates in it, 7 sq.

Gounnandise, 79.

Grace, 17, 27, 34, 44, 93, 95, 98
sqq.

Greed, 55, 71 sq.

Green, Hetty, 72.

Gregory the Great, St., 61, 68.

Gury, j. P. (S. J.), 28.

INDEX

227

H

Habits, Sinful, 3, 9, 33, 67 sqq.
Habitus peccaminosi, 3, 32,

67 sqq.
Hatred, 55, 78, 82.
Heli, 63.
Hirscher, 16.
Holy Ghost, Sin against the,

18, 66, 82, 91 sqq.
Holy Hour, 134.
Holy Orders, 116, 197 sqq.
Holy Water, 213.
Hope, 92
Humility, 70 sq.
Hypocrisy, 70.

I

Idolatry, 6, 55.

Ignorance, 30, 108, 164 sqq.

Impediments, Marriage, 209,

215 sqq.
Impenitence, 92 sqq.
Impurity, 73 sqq.
Incest, 74.

Indifference to virtue, 83.
Indulgences, 186 sq.
Infants, When they should be

baptized, 119; In utero ma-

tris, 119 sq. ; Still-born, 120.
Innocent V, 192.
Innocent XI, 49.
Insane, 189.

Instructing penitents, 164 sqq.
Intemperance, 65, 76, 79 sqq.
Intention, 32, 115 sq.
Invalids not obliged to keep

the Eucharistic fast, 130.

James, St., 21, 38, 43, 83.

Jansenism, 132.

Jealousy, 88.

Jews, 82.

Job, 39.

John, St., 43.

John the Baptist, St., 81.

Jubilee indulgence, 187.

Judas, 8, 36, 39.

Justification, 102 sqq.

K

Kern, Jos. (S. J.), 191.
Kleutgen, Jos. (S. Jj, 16.
Krieg, C, 168.

Laborers, 89.

Lateran, Fourth Council of,

125.
Law, 1 sq.
Laxism, 27, 132.
Lex aetema, 2.

Linsenmann, 16, 166, 168, 200.
Lord's Prayer, 18.
Lucifer, 11.

Lust, 61, 65, 73 sqq., 80, 88 sq.
Luther, 19.
Luxury, 55, 73 sqq.

M

Magic, 96.

Malice, 25, 30, 61, 64 sqq., 87,
92, 94.

Mary, Blessed Virgin, 44, 211.

Masochism, 88.

Mass, 109 sq., 129, 133 sq.

Matrimony, 109, 113; Obliga-
tion, 201 sqq.; Duties with
regard to the reception of,
204 sqq.

Mercy, Divine, 12.

Merits, Supernatural, 98 sq.

Minister of a Sacrament, 108
sqq.

Mixed marriages, 207.

Monopolies, 89.

Monstra, 120.

Mortal sins, 16 sqq.

Murder, 77, 78, 87 sq.

N

New Testament, 53, 202.
Noe, 80.

Occasions of sin, 46 sqq.;

228

INDEX

Proximate and remote, 47 ;
Voluntary and necessary, 48;
Occasio quae est in esse and
occasio quae non est in esse,
48 ; How to avoid, 49 sq.

Offense, 10.

Old Testament, 53.

Omission, Sins of, 53 sq.

Onanism, 74.

Oppression, 89.

Origen, 81.

Original sin, 12.

Orphans, 89.

Parents, Duties of with regard
to Baptism, 118 sq. ; Right of,
to be consulted regarding
first Communion of their
children, 132 ; Rights of in
regard to marriage of chil-
dren, 206; Duties of, towards
children when "engaged,"
209.

Parvitas materiae, 30, 32, 33,
73, 78, 168, 175, 185.

Paul, St., 6, 7, 8, 36, 37, 38, 39,
45. 50, 52, 54, 55, 69, 72, 74
sq., 79, 81, 82, 191, 203, 209,
211.

Peccata mortalia ex toto genere
suo — ex genere suo non toto
— ex genere suo — per acci-
dens, 32.

Peccatum irremissibile, 93.

Pederasty, 74.

Penance, 108, 109, no, 112, 113,
116; Necessity of, 135; Duty
of receiving, 136 sqq. ; Req-
uisites of worthy reception,
138 sq.; Contrition, 140 sq. ;
Purpose of amendment, 146
sqq.; Confession, 151 sqq.;
Questioning and instructing
penitents, 162 sqq. ; Seal of
confession, 167 sqq.; Abso-
lution, 177 sqq. ; Satisfaction,
183 sqq.

Penitential discipline, 18.

Penitents, Duty of the confes-

sor to question and instruct,
162 sqq. ; Obligation of peni-
tents to perform the penance
imposed, 184 sq.

Pesch, 16.

Peter de Palude, 192.

Peter Lombard, 68, 92.

Peter, St., 50, 82.

Pharisees, 56, 81.

Piracy, 87.

Pleasure, Morose, 58 sq.

Pohle, Jos., 38.

Poor, Oppression of the, 89.

Prayer, 45, 50, 83, 106, 185.

Presumption, 69, 94.

Pride, 55, 56, 65, 68 sqq.

Priesthood, 198 sqq.

Prisoners, 87.

Profiteering, 89.

Promise of marriage, 208.

Property, 89.

Prostitutes, 112.

Provocation to sin, 63.

Publice indigni, 112.

Purpose of amendment, 146
sqq.

Q

Questioning penitents, 162,

sqq.

R
Rape, 77.

Raymond of Pennafort, St., 26.
Reception of the Sacraments,

Requisites of worthy, 115

sqq.
Regeneration, Moral, 08 sqq.
Relapse, 149.
Resisting the known Christian

truth, 94.
Resolutions. Good, 146 sq.
Revenge, 78, 88.
Richard a Mediavilla, 192.
Rigorism, 27, 132.

Sacramentals, 212 sqq.
Sacramenta propter homines,

in.
Sacraments, The, 107; Req-

INDEX

229

uisites of valid administra-
tion, 108 sqq. ; Of worthy
reception, 115 sqq.; Baptism,
118 sqq.; Confirmation, 121
sqq.; Eucharist 123 sqq.;
Penance, 135 sqq.; Extreme
Unction, 188 sqq.; Holy Or-
ders, 197 sqq.; Matrimony,
201 sqq.

Sacrilege, 116, 127.

Sadducees, 81.

Sadism, 88.

Sadness, 77 sq.

Sage, Russell, 72.

Saligia, 68.

Satisfaction, 183 sqq.

Scandal, 32, 43, 80, 112, 129.

Schell, H., 16, 24.

Scrupulants, 162.

Seal of confession, 113, 167
sqq.

Seduction, 74.

Selfishness, 25, 72, 78.

Seminaries, 199.

Snaring in unjustly acquired
goods, 64.

Shiftlessness, 83.

Sickness, 22.

Signa contritionis, 141.

Silence, 63.

Simulatio sacramenti, 113.

Sin, Nature of, 1 sqq. ; Char-
acteristic notes, 3 sqq. ; Ori-
gin of, 11 sqq.; Mortal and
venial, 16 sqq. ; Serious and
light, 29 sq. ; Philosophical
and theological, 30 sq. ;
Principal kinds of, 52 sqq. ;
Sins against the Ten Com-
mandments, 52 sq. ; Of com-
mission and omission, 53
sq. ; Against God, oneself,
and one's fellowmen, 54; Of
the spirit and of the flesh,
54 sqq.; Of thought, word,
and deed, 57 sqq. ; Accord-
ing to, and against nature,
74 sq. ; Sins that cry to
Heaven for vengeance, 85
sqq.

Slander, 78, 87.

Slater, Thos. (S. J.), 60 sq.,

63.
Slaves, 87.
Sloth, 65, 83 sq.
Sodomy, 74, 85, 88 sq.
Sollicitation, 158.
Sorcery, 96.

Spirit, Sins of the, 54 sqq.
Sponsors, 121, 122.
State and marriage, 210.
Stephen, St., 82.
Stolz, Alban, 150.
Suicide, 76, 87.
Sybaritism, 79.

Tears of contrition, 141 sq.
Temptations, 36 sqq., 44.
Thomas a Kempis, 77, 150.
Thomas Aquinas, St., 2, 3, 4, 6,

8, 9, 21, 22, 26, 36, 41, 55, 57,

81, 82, 98, 122, 192, 193.
Thought, Sins of, 57 sqq.
Thucydides, 21.
Trent, Council of, 8, 10, 14,

106, 125, 130, 140, 160, 191,

192.
Truck system, 90.
Trusts, 89.

U

Unbelief, 76.
Unchastity, 65, 88.
Usury, 89.

V

Vanity, 68 sq.

Vengeance, 81, 85 sqq.

Venial sins, 14, 16 sqq., 145.

Viaticum, 124, 129, 196.

Vincent de Paul, St., 200.

Violation of the seal of con-
fession, 174 sqq.

Violence, 82.

Virginity, 201 sq.

Virtues, Theological, 92.

Vocation to the clerical state,
197-

230 INDEX

W sq., 4T, 54- 56, 99, 104, 141,

149.
War, 87. Witchcraft, 55.

Wedding celebration, 210 sq. Word, Sins of, 57 sqq.

Widows, 89, 203. World, The, As a source of

Will, Human, 2, 25, 31 sq., 36 sin, 42 sq.

KOCH, ANTON AND BQT
PREUSS, A, 1716

AUTHOR

Handbook of moral .K64
theology v»2

TITLE tt , °" ^

Volume 2

KOCH, ANTON AND BQT

PREUSS, A. I?}6

Handbook of moral
theology

Volume 2

.K64
v. 2