____ vj ri JOHNA.SEAVERNS L. Iz. FAWKE3 TRAINING AND HORSE MANAGEMENT IN INDIA BY THE SAME AUTHOR POINTS OF THE HORSE. A Treatise on the Conforma- tion, Movements, Breeds, and the Evokition of the Horse. New revised and enlarged edition. Price 34^-. VETERINARY NOTES FOR HORSE-OWNERS. An Illustrated Manual of Horse Medicine and Surgery. New revised and enlarged edition. Price 15J. net. RIDING AND HUNTING. With upwards of 250 Illustra- tions from Drawings and Photographs. Price 16^. net, STABLE MANAGEMENT AND EXERCISE. A Book for Horse-owners and Students. Illustrated by numerous Photographs. Price 12s. net. THE HORSEWOMAN. A Practical Guide to Side-Saddle Riding. By Alice M. Hayes. Edited by Captain Hayes. New revised and enlarged edition. Price 12^. net. MODERN POLO. By Captain E. D. Miller. Edited by Captain Hayes. Newly revised and enlarged. Price i6j-. net. ILLUSTRATED HORSEBREAKING. Illustrated by Photographs specially taken. Cheaper edition. Price \2s. net. HORSES ON BOARD SHIP. A Guide to their Management. Illustrated by Numerous Photographs. Price 3J. dd. net. FRIEDBERGER AND FROHNER'S VETERINARY PATHOLOGY. Vol. I.— Translated and edited by Cap- tain Hayes, with Notes on Bacteriology by Dr. G. Newman, D.Ph. Vol. II.— Translated by Captain Hayes, and edited by Professor J. Dunstan, M.R.C.V.S. Sold separately. Price IOJ-. 6d. net each volume. AMONG HORSES IN RUSSIA. With illustrations, i vol. Price \os, 6d. net. AMONG HORSES IN SOUTH AFRICA, i vol. Price 5-^. HURST & BLACKETT, Ltd., 1 28, High Holborn, London, W.C. ^_ M . l/U^j^ TRAINING AND HORSE MANAGEMENT IN INDIA WITH HINDUSTANEE VOCABULARY BY M. HORACE HAYES, F.R.C.V.S. (late captain "the buffs") AUTHOR OF "points OF THE HORSE," " RIDING AND HUNTING," "VETERINARY NOTES FOR HORSE-OWNERS," "STABLE MANAGEMENT AND EXERCISE," "illustrated HORSE BREAKING," EDITOR "HORSEWOMAN," ETC. SIXTH EDITION LONGMANS, GREEN, AND CO, 39 PATERNOSTER ROW, LONDON NEW YORK AND BOMBAY 1905 All rights 1-escrved PREFACE TO THE SIXTH EDITION This is the first book that my husband wrote and also the last; for he was correcting the final proofs of this edition when he was summoned to lay aside his pen and to pass from this toiling world in a peaceful sleep. His brilliant works on horses are well known to the horse-loving public in all parts of the world, and that this volume has proved of immense value to horse-owners in India is testified by the fact of a sixth edition being required. Mr. Harry Abbott, the well-known writer and sportsman, ^vrote of it : — " It is within a few months of thirty years since I first reviewed 'Training and Horse Management in India.' At the time it was issued there was nothing in print to aid either professional or amateur trainers out here, so that the useful little booklet came as a boon and a blessing to them. During the whole of my long racing career in this country, that work, and its vastly improved subsequent editions, was my guide, V a S VI PREFACE TO THE SIXTH EDITION philosopher, and friend, and I never found the sage advice it contained even doubtful ; on all sides it earned and merited unstinted praise. I can safely say that I chiefly owe my many successes on the Indian turf to carefully following its sound precepts." The omission of the table of weights for age and class has been unavoidable, but shall be rectified should another edition be required. I feel that all horse-loving sojourners in the East will share my sorrow that such a valuable life has ended. ALICE HAYES. Yew Tree House, Crick, Rugby, May, 1905. PREFACE TO THE FIFTH EDITION I HAVE carefully revised the present edition and have made several additions and corrections, which were suggested by the experience I had gained during three years' training and horse dealing in Calcutta and four years' travelling through Egypt, India, Ceylon, China, South Africa and other countries on horse-breaking expeditions, since the previous edition had appeared. The racing records, weights for age and class, etc., have been brought up to date as far as possible. Junior Army and Navy Club, St. James' Street, S.W., October 1, 1892. LIST OF CONTENTS PART I HORSE MANAGEMENT CHAPTER I Stables rA(iES Position and construction of stables — Picketing horses — Poultry near stables — Disinfecting stables 1-12 CHAPTER II Clothing — Bedding — Stable Gear Clothing — Bandages — Boots — Cloths — Bedding — Mangers — Feeding sheets — Nosebags — Fomenting buckets and shoes — Oat-bruising machine — Articles used in grooming 13-22 CHAPTER III Varieties of Food Oats — Gruel — Gram — Kulthee — Urud — Moong — Mote — Barley — Indian corn — Wheat — Cakes — Bran — Linseed — Rice — Suttoo — Goor — Carrots and other roots — Grass and hay— Straw and chaff— Oat-hay and wheat-hay — Kurbee — Bamboo leaves — Lucerne — Milk — Stowage of grain 23-44 LIST OF CONTENTS CHAPTER IV Sketch of the Theory of Food and Nutrition Composition of the body— Waste of tissue— Repair of waste — Analysis of forage — Analysis of the ash of various plants and seeds — Nitrogenous food — Fat, starch, and sugar in food — Heat supply— Mineral sub- stances— Husk of grain — Bulk in food — Selection of food— Hay and grass— Green meat— Variety in food- Salt— Relations of cold, heat, and clothing to food- Mastication and digestion— Functions performed by the blood — Appetite— Influence of an artificial state of life — Preparation of food CHAPTER V On watering Horses 45-69 70-75 CHAPTER VI Practical Rules for feeding and watering Horses 76-82 CHAPTER VII Grooming and Stable Routine On the theory of grooming — Washing the horse — Clipping — Grooming — Dressing the mane and tail — Tapeeing — Shedding the coat — Care of the feet and legs — Trim- ming the mane and tail — Bots — Stable routine . . . CHAPTER VIII Manage:ment of Horses on board Ship 8;J-100 101-106 CHAPTER IX Stable Servants Syces — Grass-cutters — Shoeing-smiths — Riding-lads . CHAPTER X Shoeing Shoeing— Plates— Tips— On shoes getting loose . . 107-113 . 114-117 LIST OF CONTENTS XI CHAPTER XI FAGFS Preparing Ponies for Measurement 118-122 CHAPTER XII Teaching Horses to jump 123-130 PART II TRAINING AND RACING CHAPTER I Racing in India Racing men and horses — On forming a useful stable — The style of race-horse suited to India — The different classes and their respective form — Timing — Records of fast times 131-145 CHAPTER II On the Theory of Training Training — Development of muscle — Effect of exercise on the system — Nature of exercise — Food — Health — Sweating — Artificial sweating — Physic — Signs of con- dition 146-161 CHAPTER III Food during Training 161-164 CHAPTER IV Daily Routine in Training 165-169 CHAPTER V Management during the Hot Weather 170-172 XU LIST OF CONTENTS CHAPTER VI Practical Traixino PAGF.S Remarks on race-horses in India — Training quarters — General rules for work during training — Detail of work — Sweating — Remarks on training continued — Training by short repeated gallops — Remarks on train- ing continued — Trials — Training ponies — Setting — Treatment after running — Race-horses travelling by rail 173-208 CHAPTER VII Race-courses On keeping a galloping track in order — Effect of ground on horses — Measuring courses — Lengths of different courses in India 209-214 CHAPTER VIII Steeplechase Courses 215-220 CHAPTER IX Betting Principles of betting and bookmaking — Lotteries — Pari mutuels and totalisators— Race pools 221-234 HINDUSTANEE STABLE AND VETERINARY VO- CABULARY 235-245 HORSE MANAGEMENT IN INDIA PART I HORSE MANAGEMENT CHAPTER I STABLES Position and construction of stables — Picketing horses — Poultry near stables — Disinfecting stables. Position and Construction of Stables.-— In consider- ing the subject of stable construction in India, it is impor- tant to bear in mind that horses thrive much better in temperate climates than in hot ones, and that the moister a hot climate is, the less favourable will it be for the pro- duction or maintenance of horses. Por instance, in the hot, damp climate of Lower Bengal the breeding of useful horses is practically an impossibility.^ Consequently, we should try to counteract, as far as possible, the bad effects of these two factors (heat and moisture). The baneful results of atmospheric moisture in hot countries are due to the fact that evaporation from the skin is the great natural • The effects of climate and soil on equine conformation is a subject which has been discussed at considerable length in chapter xxvi. of the 3rd edition of " Points of the Horse," 2 HORSE MANAGEMENT IN INDIA means of keeping the body cool during hot weather, and that it is checked in proportion to the amount of moisture in the air. Thus, in the hot, damp climate of Singapore, for example, the human skin remains in a more or less moist condition, with frequently a drop of perspiration hanging from the end of the nose. But during the far hotter weather of the dry Punjab, the skin is usually as free from moisture as the proverbial bone. On the other hand, this evaporation is stimulated by the surrounding air being in movement, as we all feel when under the punkah. Experience tells us that the higher the ground on which a stable stands, the freer, as a rule, will be the circulation of the air in its vicinity. It is interesting to note that the hotter air is, the greater is its power of absorbing moisture. We have also to guard against the dangerous effects of the direct rays of the sun, which are best opposed by the interposition of a bad conductor of heat. In the plains, stables should, as a rule, be built on high ground, devoid of objects in their immediate vicinity which might impede cooling breezes. Their direction should run at right angles to the prevailing winds, so as to obtain free circulation of air through the building ; for, in India, our efforts should be directed in providing against the baneful effects of heat, rather than against those of cold, which can nearly always be obviated by warm clothing. In all hot countries, experience proves that the chief requisites for good stables are airy and dry positions, thick roofs overhead, lofty and spacious stalls, and perfect circulation of air. As long as men or animals are pro- tected from the direct rays of the sun, while the air blows freely through the habitation, whatever it may be, there STABLES 3 is little danger from the effects of the tropical sun. The best proof of this important principle is afforded by the fact that, however powerful the noonday sun may be, and however fiercely the hot wind may blow, neither man nor beast will suffer much from the high temperature when out in the open, if they be under the shade of a tree with thick foliage. But if, on the contrary, the current of air be impeded by a wall, screen, or other object, the distress- ing effects of the heat will be felt in a moment. Stagna- tion of air, in most cases, is the cause of the many instances of fever which occur during the hot weather, especially in large cities like Calcutta, where houses are crowded to- gether. I have seen, on different occasions, horses that were almost dying from the effects of heat in stables situ- ated on low and confined positions, recover their condition and health in a very few days after being removed to others on high and airy ground. I have tried the experiment of keeping a race-horse in my own house during the hot weather ; but he suffered far more, even under a punkah, from the confined atmo- sphere inside than he had done in his stable, which was many degrees hotter, but which had a free current of air through it. If valuable horses be kept during the hot months in the plains, punkahs may be used with advantage. If they cannot be conveniently fixed, and the horses feel the heat much, a couple of coolies may be told off to each animal, to keep him cool during the midday heat with a large hand-punkah. I have always found that, when proper precautions have been adopted, horses in dry climates, such as those of the 4 HORSE MANAGEMENT IN INDIA North- West, Oudh, and the Punjab, have retained their health and condition during the hot weather quite as well as they did during the cold months. In order that the stable should be kept as dry as pos- sible, its walls should be constructed of some material which will not absorb moisture, such as fire-burnt bricks or stone, the former being, I think, the better material. Wood, also, might be employed, though stables made of it are not nearly so cool during the hot weather as those constructed of either of the other two. Throughout Eastern Bengal the walls are made of strong bamboo screens, which serve their purpose admirably. In such a stall a kicker may be saved from injuring himself by placing matting (Hind, cliitai), say, 3 ft. high, about 6 in. from the wall, while the interval may be filled up with dry grass, which will give to the blow and act as a pad- ding to the wall. Tlie floors of the stable should, if possible, be laid down with some material which will not absorb water. An admirable flooring for stables, whether in India, England, or elsewhere, is one of thick wooden planks, so arranged that the urine of the horse may drain through the inter- stices between them, on a waterproof surface. These planks may be about 9 in. broad and 3 in. thick, and should be placed so that they can be readily removed, and the under floor cleansed. I observed in the Durban Tramway Company's stables (Natal) a good arrangement, by which a waterproof drain — the width of which was equal to the length of each stall — of slightly curved shape ran underneath each long line of stalls, the planks which formed the flooring being made to fit accurately across it STABLES 5 When the horses were out at work, the planks could be readily removed, and the shallow drain washed out. To prevent the absorption of moisture by the wood, it could be tarred over or soaked with asphalte. The special advantage of wood for the flooring of a stable is that it is a bad conductor of heat, and would consequently act as a preventive of chill and cold. Wood is often employed as a flooring of stables in the Straits Settlement and Far East. In many parts of India kunhur may be obtained, and can be applied in the same manner as it is used for metal- ling roads. In default of it, pounded bricks, which are employed for the same purpose, may be substituted. After these floors are laid down, the stables should not be used until they are thoroughly dry, and the concrete has become hard and solid. Horses stabled in stalls laid down with concrete are, during the prevalence of Loodi- anah fever and influenza, much less liable to be attacked by these diseases than they would be if the floors of their stalls were capable of retaining moisture. If it be not practicable to have the floors made of water- proof material, they may be kept covered with 5 or 6 inches of sand, the tainted parts of which should be daily removed, and replaced by a fresh supply. Damp stables are the sources of many serious ailments to the horse, who can keep health and condition only in a dry habitation. This most important fact should never be lost sight of by the horse-owner. The floor of the stable should be made level, so that the horse may have an even " bearing " for his feet. The syce should keep the stall dry and clean, without any 6 HORSE MANAGEMENT IN INDIA provision for the drainage of urine being required. This form of construction is in accordance with the practice fol- lowed in all the best racing stables at Newmarket, where it has been found unnecessary to drain the stalls and boxes by giving a slope to their floors. The ground around stables, however, should be thoroughly well drained. A good form of stables is a single row of boxes, having a verandah about 12 ft. wide, on the outer line of which the roof is supported by a row of pillars, which are the same distance apart, one from another, as are the partition walls of the stalls. The verandah should be protected by bamboo frames covered with thatch (Hind, jliamp), so that in the hot weather the direct rays of the sun may not play on the interior of the building, and in the cold months the horses may be protected from draughts. Loose boxes, to be thoroughly comfortable, should be at least 12 ft. by 16 ft. In India, 10 ft. by 12 ft. would be a minimum. The walls between the boxes should be made about 7 ft. high, so as to be just sufficient to prevent the animals smelling each other over them. Stalls for large horses should be 6 ft. by 12 ft. Ponies may be contented with one of 5 ft. by 10 ft. At Newmarket, stalls are generally made 6 J ft. wide. If narrow stalls are used, the syce, when removing a horse, should back him out, instead of turning him round, so as to prevent him from straining his back or loins. If not more than five or six horses are kept in one stable, they will be able to get better rest, than if more animals were present. The roof of the stable should afford perfect protection from the direct rays of the sun ; for which object thatch STABLES 7 will be found to be the best material. Flat masonry roofs may be protected by having earthen vessels (Hind. gurra), filled with water, placed on them; while tiled roofs may be covered hj jhaiwjjs. If expense is no object, double roofs may be employed with great advantage. The stable may be admirably ventilated by a space of a few inches being allowed, all round, V.etween the roof and the top of the outside walls. At the head of each box or stall there should be a window, say, a yard square and a yard and a half above the ground. The space below the window may be occupied by a movable door, which, during the hot hours, may be taken away, and a thin bamboo screen hung across the opening. If the stable be built of brick, additional ventilation may be obtained by having alternate bricks removed from the first two or three bottom rows of the wall, at the head of the stall, for a distance of 6 or 7 ft. These holes may be stopped up in cold weather. If possible, there should always be a space of a few inches all round, between the roof and the top of the outside walls. The outside of the stable should be whitewashed, so as to prevent the absorption of heat ; and the walls inside should be dark coloured. When flies are troublesome, surhunda (a cane-like grass) or split bamboo screens should be placed in front of the doorways and windows, and should be kept down from sunrise to sunset. The cleaner and darker stables are kept, the freer will they be from flies. In many stables in India, covered receptacles for urine, which the syces are supposed to bale out every day, are 8 HORSE MANAGEMENT IN INDIA made in the centre of the stalls. Tliis is, obviously, a most objectionable arrangement. Another common trick of these servants is to teach their horses to stale into an earthen pot, which they hold for them, and thus get rid of the fluid without it soiling the bedding. This is, in my opinion, a bad practice; for horses that are accus- tomed to it will often, if the syce be not ready to hold the vessel, abstain from staling for a long time, and will thereby be rendered uncomfortable. The litter should be taken up twice a day ; every soiled particle of it should be removed ; and the floor should be thoroughly cleaned and dried. The less tainted portions of the bedding may be dried in the sun for further use. The doorways of the stalls are usually baiTed across by two poles — generally bamboos — which are let into the walls at each side, the upper one being fixed about 4 ft. from the ground. These bars are sometimes made to slide through boarded passages in the walls, an arrange- ment that will save the latter from becoming broken. The best and neatest plan is, I think, to plant two strong upright posts — in which are bored holes for the reception of the horizontal poles — 10 or 11 in. from each side of the walls at the doorway. The walls will then be free from injury, and there will be no occasion to remove the bars, unless when the horse is taken out or in ; for there will be quite sufficient room for a man to pass sideways between the walls and the upright posts. The bars are secured by being lashed together with a piece of rope. Movable half-doors — as well as bars — may be provided, to be used when the nights are cold. As a rule, hard-worked horses rest and thrive better in STABLES 9 boxes than in stalls. Some animals, however, when kept apart from their fellows, pine from want of companion- ship; and others, if allowed to be loose, incessantly wander about their box, and, consequently, unduly fatigue themselves. Perhaps, in the majority of cases in England, mares do best in stalls, and horses in boxes. In India, however, it is not always practicable to keep animals out- of-doors as long as would be desirable, with regard to their health, were the climate less "trying;" hence the greater need for boxes in our Eastern Empire than in more temperate climates. The blood-vessels in the foot of the horse, unlike those in other parts, do not possess valves, because the almost constant movement — except when the animal is lying down or sleeps standing — that he, in a natural state, takes in the search for food, prevents stagnation of blood by gravitation. When the foot is raised, blood rushes into and fills these vessels, which at the next moment are emptied, by the effect of pressure., the instant the foot is brought to the ground and weight is thrown on it. I thoroughly agree with Admiral Eous's remark, that "The windows of a stable ought never to be shut by night or day ; in cold weather, add to the clothing, but never deprive them of the first great source of vitality, 'fresh air.'" In India, during the cold weather, the air is generally so dry that precautions to be taken against draughts are not nearly so necessary as in England. Eespecting the latter country, Professor Williams writes, "Horses kept in ill- ventilated stables are undoubtedly rendered sus- ceptible to many diseases, and to pneumonia among the lo HORSE MANAGEMENT IN INDIA rest, but they will bear impure air even better than cold draughts blowing directly upon them. I have repeatedly observed that the slightest cold contracted by a horse kept in a draughty stable has almost invariably been succeeded by pneumonia, and that, if the animal was not removed to a more comfortable situation, the disease tended to a fatal termination." Ignorant grooms in England have a strong prejudice in favour of warm stables, on account of the good effect they have on the animals' coats. These men naturally ignore the increased susceptibility to catching cold, which horses kept in such places acquire, as well as the very marked tendency the legs and feet have of "going to pieces;" for a horse that is laid up with a cough or a filled leg, gives far less trouble to the groom than one which is in full work. In winter, horses undoubtedly thrive better in comfortable stables than in cold, bleak ones. The owner, trainer, or groom can personally satisfy himself as to the proper degree of warmth, by regulating it according to what he would consider agreeable to his own feelings were he to make the stable his own abode, always remembering that its atmosphere should be pure, and free from the slightest suspicion of '' closeness." With hard-worked animals, such as race-horses, I have found the best results attend the practice of keeping the stables moderately dark, in order to induce the occupants to lie down, and, during hot weather, to keep the abode cool by preventing the admission of rays of light, which are always accompanied by rays of heat. I here take for granted that the free circulation of air is not interfered with. PICKETING HORSES n In the cold weather, if horses be not worked to an extent that would render it desirable for them to repose during the day, and especially if they be not kept for a con- siderable time in the open air, their stables should not be darkened ; for the rays of the sun, when not too powerful have a beneficial effect on the general health of animals, by improving the quality of their blood. On all occasions when the stables are empty, they should be thrown open for the admittance of sunlight, which is a powerful disinfectant. Picketing Horses. — Head and heel-ropes are admis- sible only with animals — like those in the Artillery and Cavalry — that may be called upon to camp out at any time. In such cases, if there be any probability of rain, great care should be taken to render the pegs secure ; for if a shower falls, it will make the horses fidgety, and will loosen the hold the pegs have in the ground. Natives, when they use head and heel-ropes, are very prone to tie up the horses far too tightly. Horses should not be picketed by a fore-leg ; for then they will be very apt to " screw " themselves by straining at the rope, in the event of being startled, or when jumping about in play. During the hot weather in the plains, the horse may with advantage be picketed at night to a pole fixed vertically in the ground, round which his bedding should be spread. The head-rope should be attached to a movable iron ring, which works round the pole. No heel-ropes are then necessary. In hot, close weather, when there is no wind blowing, it is often preferable to picket a horse in the open, during 12 HORSE MANAGEMENT IN INDIA the midday heat, under a tree which has thick foliage overhead, than to keep him in the stable, however well ventilated it may be. The leaves of trees exercise a marked cooling effect on the air that passes over their surface ; hence " the grateful shade." Poultry should never be allowed about a stable, nor should they be kept near it; for the insects that often infest fowl prove excessively irritating to the horse when they are allowed to settle on him. Eemoval of the poultry will soon cure the animal attacked, for these parasites cannot live beyond two or three days away from their proper " host." Disinfecting Stables. — When the floors of stables are formed simply by the surface of the ground, they should be dug up from time to time — say, once every two months to the depth of a couple of feet, the tainted soil removed, and fresh, dry mould substituted. This proceeding is particularly necessary after the appearance of Loodianah fever. To purify metalled floors and drains, a solution of 1 lb. of sulphate of iron (Hind. ImLrrz hussees) to the gallon of water may be used. Crude carbolic acid may be applied to the iron and woodwork of the stable. Carbolized sawdust may be sprinkled here and there in the stable occasionally, in order to keep it fresh and sweet. TMs preparation is made by steeping sawdust in as much crude carbolic acid and water — using a solution of equal quantities — as it will take up. CHAPTER II CLOTHING — BEDDING — STABLE GEAR Clothing — Bandages — Boots — Cloths — Bedding — Mangers — Feeding sheets — Nosebags — Fomenting buckets and shoes — Oat-bruising machine — Articles used in grooming. Clothing. — For the maintenance of high condition in the horse, it is requisite that he should be supplied in the stable with an ample quantity of warm clothing — short of causing him to perspire. Clothing not alone stimulates the skin, and guards the animal from the ill effects of chill, but also aids in maintaining the internal tempera- ture of the body, thereby supplementing one of the most important offices of food. To avoid overweighting the horse too much, it is advisable to use only English clothing of close material, and not too heavy. During the cold months, a suit of warm clothing by day, with an extra rug at night, will generally be sufficient. As a rule, hoods may be dispensed with, although, if the animal is suffering from a cough or cold, a "night-cap" may be put on at night. This article is a short hood about a foot long, and is made to fit close round the throat. Ordinary hoods, if buckled to the body-piece, are apt during the night to prove uncomfortable to the horse. If unattached, they 14 HORSE MANAGEMENT IN INDIA usually fall over the animal's head on his lowering his neck. The head-collar should be put on over, not under, the hood or " night-cap." Horses that are used for rough work in all weathers should naturally be lightly clothed, so that they may not be liable to be affected by change of temperature. On this point, the owner should exercise his own judgment. Clothing, with the breast and quarter-piece in one, will do for night use ; but if it be worn by horses when they are exercised, it will cause the hair to be rubbed off their shoulders, thus giving them the appearance of having been in harness. If hoods be made of country blanketing, they should be lined with cotton cloth, so as to save the manes from being injured by the coarse woollen material. A suit of warm clothing can be made from an English pattern for about Es.lO. The use of warm clothing often irritates a horse which has a thin delicate skin. In such a case a light cotton sheet should be placed under the woollen suit. With well-bred horses, rollers should be furnished with breast-plates to prevent them from working back. Bandages. — Horses that have done much work, and whose legs are inclined to fill, will generally require the aid of flannel bandages to keep their limbs fine. The uses of these bandages are to encourage insensible perspiration from the skin, to afford support to the tendons and liga- ments, and, by pressure, to cause absorption. They should be made of close, thick flannel, similar to that used for cricketing trousers. Serge should not be employed, as its texture is too harsh. They should be about 8 ft. long and A:\ in. broad. " Bandages, specially made, and with BANDAGES. 15 a selvage on each side, are supplied by all saddlers. These are, however, often too short, too thin, and too broad. A bandage, to be ready for immediate use, should be wound up with the tapes inside. When putting it on, a few inches of it may be unrolled and laid obliquely across the outside of the leg close to the knee, with the end reaching to about the centre of that joint, and the rolled-up part turned to the outside and directed down- wards and forwards. The bandaging is continued down to and around the fetlock and upper part of the pastern, and is brought up close below the knee ; the loose end is then turned down, and the folds of the bandage carried over it. The tapes are tied a little above the centre of the cannon bone. By this method the folds do not require to be turned or twisted over, as in the ordinary way. Besides, they lie close and do not bulge out " (" Veterinary Notes for Horse Owners "). When flannel bandages are used to give support during work, they should not be broader than 3 J in. In the book which I have just quoted I have given a drawing to show their mode of adjustment. The description is as follows : " Commence by laying the loose end diagonally across the fetlock, with its extremity a little below that joint ; then take about four turns round the leg, so that the bandage may come close below the knee, take another turn in a downward direction, bring the loose end up and lay it flat against the bandaged part, and continue the turns over it. The loose end will now be firmly secured between the cloth on both sides. When put on according to this plan, the bandage cannot become undone unless the tape breaks." i6 HORSE MANAGEMENT IN INDIA A good bandage for giving support is an elastic one, made from the material used for side-spring boots, and of the same form as an ordinary bandage, but somewhat shorter, so as to allow of its stretching. These bandages will not bear being rolled round the fetlock and pastern ; for if this be done, they will work loose. Cotton Wadding Bandages can be prepared and applied in the following manner : Take 2 yds. of cotton wadding (which can be obtained from any draper), and cut it down the centre, so as to have two pieces of wadding, each 2 yds. long and about 10 in. wide. In some shops, cotton wadding is sold in short pieces instead of in long rolls, which is the more convenient form for the purpose under consideration. Wrap the leg round with the wadding, one piece over the other, in the way shown in Fig. 1, and apply, rather loosely, a calico bandage (which can be got ready-made from any chemist, or can be constructed out of a piece of unbleached calico), about 6 yds. long and 3 in. wide, so as to keep the wadding in place, and put on tightly another and similar calico bandage, so as to afford firm and evenly distributed pressure on the leg, and secure it by tapes, sewing, or by a safety-pin. The wadding and bandages will then give the appearance shown in Fig. 2. With this amount of wadding, there is practically no danger of putting on the second bandage too tightly. I find that it is easier to distribute the pressure evenly with two bandages than with one. If we cannot get cotton wadding, we may substitute J lb. of ordinary cotton-wool (the medicated kind will not do as well, because it has lost a large portion of its elasticity), and arrange it round h\o. I, Fig. 2. [To face p. 1(J. CLOTHS 17 the leg, or we may use some similar material, such as sponge, wool, or moss. I have sometimes found, when using cotton-wool for the purpose in question, that its presence next the skin gives rise to irritation, probably on account of the pressure not being evenly distributed. This untoward result can be easily obviated by, in the first instance, wrapping the leg loosely round with a piece of soft cotton cloth, or by putting on an ordinary flannel bandage and the cotton-wool over it. Boots are worn to give support like bandages, and also to prevent the horse from hurting himself by " brushing," or by otherwise striking his leg. For the former object, the boot may be made of strong boot elastic, and to lace at the side. The laces may be made of whipcord, or, better still, of strong waxed hempen thread. For " brush- ing," or " speedy-cutting," leather guards should be sewn on to the inner side of the cloth. The same precaution may be used to protect the back tendon with cross-country horses, especially when schooling. When putting on boots, care should be taken that the upper and lower straps should be buckled looser than the middle one, or pair, according as there are three or four of them. Bandages are best for support, boots for protection. Cloths are commonly employed in England instead of bandages; they are formed of stout "box cloth," sewn down the side of the horse's leg, and are not removed. I think bandages, which are properly put on, are much superior to them in every way, especially in the facility they afford for hand-rubbing the legs (p. 89). Besides, irritating substances, picked up from the ground, are apt to c 1 8 HORSE MANAGEMENT IN INDIA get inside the cloth and hurt the leg. This is especially the case when animals are galloped on tan. Bedding. — Long wheaten straw furnishes the softest and most comfortable bedding for the horse, especially if he be without clothing. Oat straw is brittle, so does not last as well as that obtained from wheat. Horses rarely care to eat rice straw, which is far from being economical to use, as it very quickly breaks up. With respect to horses eating their bedding, see p. 40. If it be desired to prevent a horse from eating his bedding, the straw may be damped, and kept in the sun a few days before using, so that it may become too sapless and unpalatable to be chosen in preference to grass, while a layer of old bedding may be kept on the top. Such cases of morbid appetite will generally call for medical treatment, if a full supply of salt and green meat, such as carrots, lucerne, etc., fail to correct the habit. Gheena straw makes excellent bedding, as it is soft, difficult to break, and unpalatable to most horses. The bedding should be carefully spread, so as to be as comfortable as possible for the horse, and should be banked up around the walls, so that the animal may not hurt himself when lying down, or when rolling. At the entrance of the box or stall, for appearance' sake, the bedding should be arranged in a straight line, which may be finished off by a piece of plaited straw being stretched along it. Hard-worked horses should, if possible, have the bed- ding under them by day as well as by night, so that they may have every inducement to lie down and rest them- selves when they choose. Besides, when the horse stands BEDDING 19 on the bare ground, he will abstain from staling longer than he ought to do, and, maybe, to an injurious extent. Most of us old Indians know that a straw mat, expres- sively called, in Hindustanee, a smtid patee, or cold mat, is the coolest thing on which to lie during the hot weather ; so we may infer that straw forms an equally grateful couch for the horse. While he is out at morning and evening work, the bedding should be removed, and dry straw should be substituted for any that may have become soiled or wet. A slight additional expense is the only objection to keeping the horse bedded down by day. I have found that sawdust makes a good substitute for straw, though I am inclined to think it takes some of the polish off the coat. " Stonehenge " remarks " that it soon heats when wetted with urine, and ammonia is given off profusely, so that great care must be exercised to change it as soon as it becomes soiled." When a horse has on a high-heeled shoe — as during treatment for sprain of the back tendons or suspensory ligaments, etc. — sawdust makes the best bedding, for it will not catch in the long calkins. Alone, without a raised shoe, it enables a horse to assume a comfortable position for the injured limb. Sand forms a very cool bedding for horses, who gene- rally show by frequently rolling on it that they like having it under them. Its use spoils the look of the coat for the time being, on account of its absorbing a considerable part of the oil which is secreted by the glands of the skin, and serves to keep the hair soft and pliable. A serious objection to the use of sand as a 20 HORSE MANAGEMENT IN INDIA bedding is the tendency to eat it which some horses have, especially if it is sea-sand. Its consumption causes colic, and sometimes death. Tan is an excellent material to put down in a loose box, for a horse that is at all inclined to inflammation in the feet, provided that the syce is careful to remove the wet portions immediately they become tainted. When tan is used as a bedding, the feet of the horse should be picked out at least four times a day, because the retention of tan in the feet readily causes thrush. Mangers. — Many years ago. Prof. Coleman directed, and with reason, that the feeding-trough should be placed on the ground, as that arrangement makes the horse assume the natural position in which he was intended to feed. I advocate this practice, because it obliges the animal to eat much slower than he would do were the manger in the usual position; hence he will masticate his food more thoroughly. To carry out this principle still further, I would advise the use of a broad feeding- box, in which the grain should be spread in a compara- tively thin layer. Some horses, from infirmity, etc., will require the manger to be slightly raised, say a foot from the ground. Sheets may be used with advantage instead of mangers. They may be made of sacking {toi), and about a square yard in size. They are laid on the ground, and the grain is spread over them. They cost little, are easily cleaned, and can be packed up in a small compass. I have always employed them with my own horses in India. Nosebags. — These articles should never be used, except when a proper manger is not obtainable, as on FOMENTING BUCKETS AND SHOES 21 the march, etc. ; because they are uncomfortable to the horse, who, \nth one on, is apt to bolt his food or chuck it out; and he cannot help tainting his corn with his breath and rejected saliva. Besides, it is difficult to keep nosebags clean and sweet. When used, they should be made of canvas or sacking, and not of leather ; should be deep, not too wide; and should narrow off to the bottom, so as to allow the animal, towards the end of his feed, to readily pick up the remaining grains of corn without having to chuck the bag up. A common plan for preventing a horse from throwing corn out of his nosebag is to tie a string at the place where either end of the head-strap is fixed to the bag, and then attach it just above one of the animal's knees, at such a length that he cannot throw up his head. When nosebags are employed, horses should have some- thing on which to rest them, for instance, a low wall, or a bundle of hay. Dray horses may often be seen support- ing their bags on their companions' quarters. Without such aids, the animal will be liable to spill his corn, in his attempts to get it into his mouth. Fomenting Buckets and Shoes,— A couple of long narrow leather buckets for applying warm water to horses' legs are useful in cases of accident. They should reach up to the knee, should be made of stout hide, and should be provided with wooden bottoms to preserve them from injury. Water at a temperature higher than that which the hand can comfortably bear should never be used in fomenting the horse's skin. A pair of shoes, with wooden bottoms, made of pliable leather, and reaching only to a little above the fetlock joint, can be kept for poulticing 22 HORSE MANAGEMENT IN INDIA the feet, when required. Each shoe should be provided with a leather thong to close the mouth round the leg. Mashed turnips or carrots form an excellent poultice. Oat-bruising Machine. — Machines which are provided with circular rollers should be employed for oats. Those made by Turner, of Ipswich, are excellent. A small one, with packing case, which also answers for a stand, will cost about Es. 80 in India. Articles used in Grooming. — Each horse should be provided with a brush and curry-comb, a hoof-picker, mane-comb, three or four cotton rubbers, and a couple of wisps made of unprepared hemp. One paii' of scrapers will be enough for a small stable. English hody-hrushes should be used in preference to those of country make. The bristles should be closely set, long, and moderately soft, so as not to hurt the skin while cleansing it from scurf. Each rib of a curry-comh should be made of wrought iron, and should be riveted at each end to the iron back. The teeth should be blunt, so that they may not unduly wear out the bristles of the brush. An inferior kind has the ribs made in pairs from pieces of sheet iron turned up at the sides. These ribs quickly lose their shape, and, owing to the thinness of the metal, their teeth are much too sharp. Long, thin, copper sweat-scrapers, made with handles at each end, are much to be preferred to those of a semicircular form, con- structed with only one handle, as the latter are hard and unyielding to the skin. Capital wisijs may be made from unprepared hemp (Hind, sun). CHAPTEK III VARIETIES OF FOOD Oats — Gruel — Gram — Kill thee — Urud — Moong — Mote — Barley — Indian corn — Wheat — Cakes — Bran — Linseed — Rice — Suttoo — Goor — Carrots and other roots — Grass and hay — Straw and chaff — Oat-hay and wheat-hay — Kurbee — Bamboo leaves — Lucerne — Milk — Stowage of grain. Oats. — This grain, when grown in India, possesses a far larger portion of husk to flour than that produced in England ; hence its lower value as an article of food. As the measure of the horse's appetite is by bulk rather than by weight, the heavier the oat, the more valuable, as a rule, does it become. Samples at 47 lbs., 42 lbs., and 32 lbs. to the bushel will respectively yield about three- fourths, one-half, and one-third flour, which proportions approximately give the nutritive values. Mr. Stewart (" Stable Economy ") tersely describes sound English corn as follows : — " Good oats are about one year old, plump, short, hard, rattling when poured into the manger, sweet, clean, free from chaff and dust, and weighing about 40 lbs. per bushel." Although our Indian oats are far below this standard, still they are much superior, as a food for horses, to any other grain which we can procure in India. This 24 HORSE MANAGEMENT IN INDIA is especially the case with hard-worked animals, because they can eat an almost unlimited quantity of oats without it disagreeing with them. On the contrary, gram and Mlthee, given in amounts sufficient to supply the necessary nutriment, almost always upset the digestion, and induce a " heated " state of the system. In order to make up for the inferior quality of the oats, we may, with great advantage, supplement them by an addition of gram or kulthee, which should not exceed a third of the whole amount. This practice is in accord- ance with that, in England, of adding beans to the corn, and is particularly applicable to old horses whose powers of assimilation are impaired. In England, new oats are rightly considered to be indigestible — an objection which may be removed by having them kiln-dried ; but in this country they do not appear to be injurious to any great extent — a fact which may be accounted for by the extreme heat of our tropical sun. New Indian oats never present the soft pulpy appearance seen in new English oats. Oats should be given in a bruised state, for then the possibility of the grain passing through the horse in an undigested state is avoided, and the animal is obliged to chew it more thoroughly than if it were given whole. On the Bengal side, oats are principally grown in Tirhoot, Dehra Doon, and the Meerut district. Gruel is best made by mixing a pound of oatmeal well up with a quart of cold water, to which should be added three quarts of boiling water; the whole being put to simmer over the fire and occasionally stirred up until it thickens. It should then be removed and allowed to cool. It should be given to the horse in a lukewarm GRAM 25 state, and of a consistency a little gTeater than that of milk. It may be flavoured with salt or sugar, according to the horse's taste. Although gruel is generally regarded as an admirable "pick-me-up" for exhausted horses, it possesses com- paratively little merit in that respect, because the contained grain, after entering into the stomach, cannot be properly digested unless it is well mixed with saliva. As the excretion of saliva into the mouth is largely dependent on mastication, the more fluid a food is, the less saliva will accompany it into the stomach and intestines. Sugar, especially cane-sugar, is the best of all restora- tives for animals in a state of exhaustion, because it can be absorbed into the system with little or no preliminary preparation by the digestive juices. Also the more tired a horse is, the more torpid are his digestive organs. Therefore a solution of sugar is a far better restorative to a fatigued horse, supposing that the amount of sugar is equal to that of the starch in the gruel. Two or three pounds of cane-sugar dissolved in, say, half a bucket of cold water, is a much more refreshing drink for a tired or weak horse than a similar quantity of gruel. Gram {Cicer arietinum). — This grain, known as chunna, is very commonly used throughout Northern India and the Bombay Presidency. It is objectionable on account of its tendency to cause diarrhoea, and to induce a " foul " and " heated " state of the system, when given in large amounts, say anything above 10 lbs. daily. It is best used in combination with bran, oats, Indian corn, barley, or rice in husk. Before being used, it should be at least seven or eight months old, and should be given in a 26 HORSE MANAGEMENT IN INDIA broken state, and always dnj. The practice of steeping gram in water is injurious. Kulthee (DoUcJws Uflorus) is extensively employed throughout Madras and Bombay. It seems superior, as a food for horses, to chunna, when either grain is used alone, and, in limited quantities, has an excellent effect on the general condition and coat. On account of the hardness of the husk, it has to be given in a boiled state. Only just enough water to cook it should be used, so that, when fully done, the fluid which remains over in the pot may be absorbed on cooling. The steam should be allowed to escape, so that the hidthee may become as dry as possible. When properly boiled, the interior of the grains should be dry and floury, like that of good and well-cooked potatoes. Kulthee is very similar in its composition to gram, and may be used in the same combinations with oats, etc. In the Bengal Presidency, it is readily procurable at Hajeepore, which is near Patna, and also at different places in the North-West Provinces. Kulthee which is grown in those parts does not appear to be as good as that produced in Madras. Urud. — This variety of clal is a food common among natives in Eastern Bengal, and more or less so in other parts of India. It is extremely like hilltJiee in composi- tion and qualities, and is prepared in a similar manner. Both kulthee and urud are valuable when a change of food is necessary, especially when the animal is in poor condition, and his skin out of order. Moong (Fhaseolus radiatus), boiled, and given like kulthee, may be used with advantage when a change of INDIAN CORN 27 food is required. Three or four pounds of it may be mixed with the horse's other grain. Mote {Plmseolus acoiiitifolius). — A friend of mine, who has had a long experience among horses in India, tells me that equal quantities of mote and gram, bruised and given raw, forms an excellent food for horses. I would, with confidence, suggest the daily addition of from 2 to 4 lbs. of dry bran to this mixture. I have no personal acquaintance with the value of mote as an article of forage. Barley. — Next to oats, this grain is, in my opinion, the most suitable one for horses, which should be gradually accustomed to its use, for it is apt to disagree with them at first. It may be given raw and in a bruised state, or parched, which is probably the better plan, as the husk seems to possess an acrid principle, the effects of which appear to be obviated by the process of parching. A native parcher (bJmrhhunJa) will charge two or three annas a maund (82 lbs.) for parching. Boiled barley may also be used. Barley should not be employed until it is at least a year old. A mixture of parched barley and gram, known as ardawct, is commonly sold in India. It is usually made of inferior grain, and is always more or less adulterated with dirt and chaff. Indian Corn. — This gTain, known as mukaee, is very cheap and plentiful in some parts — the Punjab, for instance. In Europe and America, maize is usually regarded as a food that, without the addition of other grain, is not sufficient for the requirements of hard- working horses. The results of experiments conducted on a large scale in France and Austria, as well as 28 HORSE MANAGEMENT IN INDIA observations made by practical men in other countries, prove that, although horses readily take to maize as a food, digest it, and on it get fat and acquire glossy coats, they show a marked deficiency in vigour, speed, and stamina to animals fed on oats. Professor Bruchmiiller, who conducted a six months' trial of feeding 5200 horses partly on maize, came to the conclusion that it can be used to advantage only with horses that are not required to move out of a walk. Hiram Woodruff, the celebrated American trainer, thus writes : '' The grain should be oats of good quality. I do not let colts have corn at all when young ; and even to old horses I think it should be fed very sparingly. . , . Above all, avoid Indian corn in all shapes for young colts. . . . Keep the corn for the bullocks and hogs, and give oats to the horses." The experience, however, of horse-owners in South Africa — where Indian corn and oat-hay form the staple food for horses — places the food-value of this grain in a more favourable light. The fact remains that the majority of South African mail-coach horses, which have to do 10 to 12 mile stages over bad ground at a fair rate of speed, go through their work well and keep in good condition on nothing but maize and oat or wheat chaff. At the same time, it is well recognized by those in charge of these and other horses in that country, that the addition of a few pounds of oats or of oat-hay to the daily allowance of maize and chaff is very useful for imparting additional vigour to these animals. These coach horses — which are hardy, light-built animals of an average height of about 14 hs. 2 in. — get about 18 lbs. of INDIAN CORN 29 maize and about 5 lbs. of chaff, with an occasional feed of grass on the vddt. From my own observations made in South Africa, I have come to the conclusion that the quietness and want of spirit shown by the generality of horses in that country are, to a certain extent, due to the fact that Indian corn forms a large proportion of their food. Maize may be given either whole, bruised, or soaked. To horses not accustomed to this grain, it is safest to give it bruised and mixed with either chaff or bran. In this state, it might be slightly sprinkled with water, in order to keep down the dust which might arise from the finely divided particles, although I do not see any material benefit from this provision. If gradually brought on to its use, the grain may be given whole. Eating it in this state sometimes makes the animal's mouth sore, in which case bruised maize should be substituted. I have heard of maize in cobb (or husk) being given after having been passed through a particular kind of machine, that cut up the head of the corn as well as the grain which it enclosed, and that this combination of grain and husk formed an excellent and easily digested food : it would be certainly an economical one. In South Africa, although the best judges prefer to give the grain dry than damp, still, it is frequently used after having been soaked overnight in a minimum of water, and then mixed with chaff. I do not see much objection to this practice ; for the chaff takes up so much of the remaining moisture, that there is but little danger of the horse swallowing the grain without first chewing it. The danger to be feared from the improper use of maize is that it might produce colic. 30 HORSE MANAGEMENT IN INDIA It would be useless to deny that both in Europe and in America, maize, when given as the only grain, has been proved to be an unsuitable food for horses that have to do hard, and especially fast, work. The question naturally arises : what is the cause of the difference between maize used in those countries and maize in South Africa ? The correct answer to this is, I am convinced, that the differ- ence does not lie in the respective values of the Indian corn, but in the material with which it is given. South African chaff is exactly like tihen (p. 41), and consequently it forms an admirable vehicle for the mealies, in that it separates the particles one from another, and by its softness allows the animal to thoroughly masticate them, whether the grain be whole or broken. By examining the composition of maize (p. 49), we find that maize is exceptionally deficient in mineral matter (ash), a good supply of which is essential for maintaining the tissues, and especially the bones, in a state of health. Hence, in feeding hard-working horses on maize, this grain should be combined with a form of grain food which is rich in mineral matter, such as bran, for instance. By referring to the table on p. 49, we see that bran contains nearly four times more ash than maize, and nearly twice as much ash as oats. Acting on these data, I have tried the experiment of feeding two hunters on equal quantities (by weight) of maize and bran during the past three years, and have obtained quite as good results as by feeding them on the best oats. Therefore I strongly recommend the adoption of this combination to horse-owners in India. Wheat. — This grain is difficult of digestion, probably BRAN 31 owing to the viscid nature of the gluten which it contains, preventing the different digestive fluids — saliva, gastric juice, pancreatic juice, etc. — from permeating through its substance. This objection could be more or less removed by the process of parching. Eaw wheat given in large quantities is almost certain to gripe the horse. That very reliable authority, Mr. Stewart (''Stable Economy "), mentions that a quantity of wheat, not exceed- ing 4 lbs., may be substituted for the same or a slightly larger amount of oats; that it should always be given mixed with bran or chaff; and that it should be bruised in the same manner as oats. In South Africa, I have known it to be given, without producing any ill effects, three times a day, in quantities of 2\ lbs., and mixed with chaff. For examples of its combination, see p. 77. A couple of pounds of boiled wheat, in which a little salt has been mixed, may be given at night when soft food is requii-ed. Cakes (Hind, cimimtee) made from the following constituents are often relished by delicate feeders : — Flour 1 lb. Goor (see p. 35) ... ... ... ^ oz. Ghee ... ... ... ... ... 2 „ Garlic 1 „ Bran. — English bran consists almost entirely of the envelope which surrounds the grains of wheat, the flour being nearly all removed. The outer portion of this enve- lope is indigestible, and acts mechanically as a gentle laxative, while the inner layer (according to Mege Mouries) has the same property as diastase in converting starch 32 HORSE MANAGEMENT IN INDIA into sugar, and consequently aids in the process of digestion. English bran is therefore of itself unsuitable as a food. Indian bran, on the contrary, owing to imperfect manufacture, retains a considerable portion of the flour, which supplies nutriment ; so that horses, doing slow work, may be kept in good condition on 10 or 12 lbs. of it alone, without other grain. Given even in these quantities, it hardly ever purges a horse. On the contrary, if an animal gets *' foul " and " loose " from too much corn, nothing is better than to keep him simply on dry bran and grass for a few days ; after which time his dung will become well formed and healthy -looking. Dry bran seems to have a binding effect, or, at least, one opposed to a lax condition of the bowels. This is probably owing to a healthy action of the stomach and intestines being induced by bulk being given to the food, without the addition of a large proportion of nutriment which would have a stimulating effect. Wet bran, in the form of a mash, is a laxative. I am very partial to the use of bran for hacks and ordinary horses, when oats are not used, and would advise that 3 or 4 lbs. of it be given daily in a dry state. If we turn to page 49, we shall see that bran contains a large amount of mineral matter, of which a com- paratively large proportion consists of phosphorus, which is essential to the growth and development of the various tissues. With race-horses and others, the custom is to give a bran mash every Saturday night, or oftener, as the case may demand. Instead of a simple bran mash, I much prefer one to which linseed has been added. LINSEED 33 Bran Mashes are made as follows : — After scalding a stable-bucket with boiling water, put into it about 3 lbs. of bran, with an ounce of salt, and pour in as much boiling water as the bran will take up, which will be about equal to the weight of the bran itself, calculating the gallon of water to weigh 10 lbs. The mash should then be well covered, so as to keep in the steam, and should be left to stand for a quarter of an hour, or twenty minutes. Bran and Linseed Mashes. — Boil slowly from 1 to IJ lbs. of linseed, for two or three hours, till the grains become soft, allowing only just sufficient water, so that at the end of the time, it may, when the linseed is cooked, soak up a couple of pounds of bran, which is then mixed in and the whole covered up, as before described. The thicker the mash, the readier will the horse eat it. Linseed. — This grain, which is the seed of the flax plant, containing as it does a large percentage of oil, is very useful for fattening horses that are low in flesh. It improves the condition of the coat in a marked manner and has a peculiarly soothing effect on the urinary organs. A linseed mash is the usual form in which it is given. If the making of this cause too much trouble, a quarter of a pint of the oil, mixed through the corn daily, may be substituted. Linseed is most beneficial in cases of a disordered state of the skin, difficulty in staling, and diseases of the organs of breathing. Owing to the careless method of saving which is adopted by cultivators in India, the linseed that is sold in the bazaar, usually, contains a large proportion of 34 HORSE MANAGEMENT IN INDIA mustard seed (Hind. Sursoii), which is a small, round, light-yellow seed, and may be readily recognized by the taste it gives on being chewed. It should be carefully separated from the linseed ; for, if it be consumed by the horse, it may have an injurious effect on his digestive and urinary organs. In linseed, are also found rape and hempseed. The former is a black seed of about the same size and shape as mustard seed. The latter is an oval and somewhat flattened seed, about half the size of a grain of wheat; and is of a light brown colour. The con- sumption of rape and hempseed, to a moderate extent, will cause no ill-effect to the animal. Linseed Tea may replace water as a drink, when we wish to give linseed, and when the horse will not take it readily in other forms. It may be made by boiling half a pound of linseed in two gallons of water, for a couple of hours. The fluid should then be strained off and allowed to cool. Rice. — In some parts of India, especially in Eastern Bengal, rice in husk, commonly called paddy (Hind. Dhan), is much used, after it has been kept for one season. It is given raw and in a broken state. It forms a fairly good food. A mixture of one part of gram to two of rice is an excellent one for feeding pur- poses. Pdce, without the husk, is quite unsuitable for horses. Bice-water (Hind. Kanjee) is most useful in cases of superpurgation, etc. It may be prepared by boiling a pound of rice in two gallons of water, for a couple of hours. If time be of consequence, and boiled rice be at hand, a sufficient amount may be taken, and well CARROTS AND OTHER ROOTS 35 macerated between the fingers in warm water, the whole being brought to the boil, and then allowed to cool. Suttoo. — This, mixed with water, is the Indian substance for gruel. It is usually composed of finely- ground parched gram and barley ; but is sometimes made from Indian corn alone. It is always given in cold water, 1 lb. to half a bucket being the usual proportions. The horse gets his suttoo and water before his morning feed. I have never been able to discover any benefit to arise from its constant use. Syces are very partial to the practice of giving it : but more for their own sakes than that of their horses. Goor. — From one to two pounds of this kind of unrefined sugar, given daily as a lonne houclie, is useful for getting horses into condition, and for tempting the appetite of delicate feeders. Carrots and other roots contain but a small amount of nutriment compared to their bulk; hence they are inapplicable for forming a large proportion of the food of horses which are called upon to do fast work. They have a good effect on the animal's general health; as they supply the system with certain important salts which tend to preserve the fluidity of the blood and to build up tissue. They are especially useful when the system is in a feverish condition; for then, owing to the increased waste of tissue, the blood becomes loaded with impurities and abnormally thick. They come into season during the autumn, and may, with great benefit, be given in quantities of 6 or 7 lbs. daily ; 2 or 3 lbs. will be sufficient for race-horses. Carrots are the best roots for horses, and, next to 36 HORSE MANAGEMENT IN INDIA them, parsnii:^s. Swedes may also be given. Horses in South Africa often gQt ;pum'p'kins as "green meat." Other roots may be given, in a boiled state, to animals used for slow draught. "Carrots also improve the state of the skin. They form a good substitute for grass, and an excellent alterative for horses out of condition. To sick and idle horses they render corn unnecessary. They are beneficial in all chronic diseases of the organs connected with breathing, and have a marked influence upon chronic cough and broken wind. They are serviceable in diseases of the skin. In combination with oats, they restore a worn-out horse much sooner than oats alone." {Stewart) Dr. Voelcker points out, that the nutritive value of different root-crops depends largely upon their state of maturity ; that unripe roots are not alone poor in sugar — hence their decreased value — but also contain a number of organic acids (notably oxalic acid), and imperfectly elaborated nitrogenous substances, which appear to be the cause of their unwholesomeness ; that the leaves of their roots contain a far larger proportion of oxalic acid than does the root itself — hence, the scouring effect produced when the leaves are given — and that moderate- sized and well-matured roots are far more wholesome than monster ones. Grass and Hay. — I am convinced, from long experi- ence, that the maintenance of good condition in the horse is much more dependent on the proper supply of grass than on that of corn. The following are the best Indian grasses : — Dooh {Cynodon dactylon), called Jmrrycdee in Madras, GRASS AND HAY 37 is generally regarded as the typical form of good Indian grass. It is that peculiar root-grass which grows on, or rather in, the surface of most sandy soils, and spreads itself as a creeper, so that it has to be rooted up (cheeled) with a sort of trowel, which is called in Hindustanee, a hurpa. In good soil, when cultivated, it looses its creeping character, and grows like English meadow grass ; to which, I think, it is much superior. " Digitaria sanguinalis (called janowa in Hindustanee, and poliaong in the Punjab) is an excellent forage grass, and makes first-rate hay. " In the Himalayas the finest of all grasses, superior even to dhiob, is a kind called mcmiara by the natives, and Pennisehim triflormi by English botanists. "Spear grass {Heteropogon contortus), called la7n in the Punjab, is also very common in some parts of the country. The spears are long barbed processes at the end of the seed-covers. It is good fodder if given before the spears form; and even afterwards horses will thrive upon it, if it is well beaten so as to shake them off." (MeyricL) When the grass is brought in, it should be opened out ; carefully picked ; dried in the sun, for a day or two, as may be deemed necessary; and beaten, in order to get rid of the dust and earth that may adhere to its roots, before it is given. The grass-cutters should not be allowed to wash it, as they are inclined to do, before bringing it in, with the object of making it look fresh and green, and, sometimes, to make it weigh heavy ; for doing so is apt to dissolve out a portion of the sap, and will render the grass liable to ferment, if kept tied up 38 HORSE MANAGEMENT IN INDIA for a few hours. Besides, there is always danger of disease germs being conveyed to the grass, from the water in which it may have been washed ; for the filthiest pool will be considered, by the grass-cutters, quite good enough for this purpose. "It should be an invariable rule never to feed horses on grass grown in swamps, on account of the numerous lower forms of animal and vegetable life found in stagnant water. Horned cattle living on swampy land are particularly liable to anthrax ; and there is no doubt but that this very fatal disease, called in India Loodianali fever (a form of anthrax), is often caused by horses either drinking stagnant water, or eating grass grown in it. Worm in the eye also appears to be produced in the same way." (Meyrick.) 1 have abridged the following remarks on grass and hay, from a paper by M. L. Grandeau, which appeared in the Journal d' Agriculture Pratique : — Growing grass possesses a waxy envelope, which protects the sugar, albumen, and other soluble compounds contained in it, from being dissolved by moisture and rain. When the grass is cut, this varnish gradually wears away, and if the grass be exposed to wet, it will then lose a considerable portion of its nutritive elements, especially if this envelope be bruised in any way. As long as the plant lives, it cannot be the seat of fermenta- tion, which process is caused by the nitrogenous matters coming in contact with the sugar and water, on the breaking up of the different cells which compose the substance of the grass. During fermentation, the non- nitrogenous matters are turned into sugar, then into alcohol, and finally into carbonic acid, which is set free GRASS AND HAY 39 into the atmosphere in the form of gas. Thus, fodder which has been submitted to active fermentation soon loses the most of its nutritive properties. When grass is cut, if the weather is fine and warm, so that desiccation takes place rapidly, the proportion of moisture soon falls so low that fermentation cannot take place. The hay remains upon the ground and cannot easily become heated, even though in reality it contains more water than fodder harvested in bad condition. The more rapidly hay is turned to the sun, the less it will be bruised; and the greener it is, the better it will resist fermentation when it is stored. Nevertheless, it often happens that a too rapid preparation injures fodder, and in a good year hay appears to be saved in fine condition, when in reality it is not. If hay be completely dried in the sun it will not heat. A slight fermentation, far from being deleterious, is often very useful ; in fact, we know that, in such a case, certain aromatic principles are produced which render fodder more sapid, and perhaps even more nourishing. As long as the green colour remains, the hay has lost none of its quality. When it is much heated, it turns brown. Some cultivators prefer brown to green hay, and it is certain that the former frequently has more flavour and smell than the latter. Although horses may prefer brown hay, it is not at all desirable to have sufficient moisture in the fodder at the time it is housed to turn it brown; because the loss resulting from fermentation is not counterbalanced by the slight aromatic smell it requires. Grass lands, unless of exceptional richness, require to be manured in order to keep up the quality, as well 4o HORSE MANAGEMENT IN INDIA as the quantity of the grass produced. Poor and im- poverished land produces but very inferior fodder. On the other hand, as pointed out by Mr. H. S. Thompson {Journal of the Boyal Agriciiltiiral Sooiety, 1872), if land be treated with an excess of manure rich in nitrogenous matters, as guano and nitrate of soda, the luxuriant grass thus produced will be of inferior quality, and will prove unwholesome. The same remark applies to carrots and other roots. Straw and Chaff. — When horses are fed in the ordinary way, on corn and hay, or on corn and grass, there is no objection to allowing them to eat wheat or oat straw, which, if they be that way inclined, they will generally select from their bedding. Wheat and oat straw are more easily digested than barley straw; all three kinds being better than rice straw. I have noticed that in England, some horses will not thrive unless they are allowed to eat a portion of their straw bedding. This is, probably, owing to the fact that, for the digestion of the highly-nutritious food upon which they are fed, they require an additional amount of bulk, which the straw supplies. In India, sufficient bulk will generally be obtained from the grass which the animal consumes. Although " long straw " may be a useful adjunct to grass or hay, as a food, I do not think it advisable to give it alone and in large quantities, with the corn ; for it will then be liable to produce obstinate constipation. Its consumption, to the exclusion of hay or grass, is supposed to be a fruitful cause of roaring among Scotch cart-horses. The breaking up or cutting up of straw into small pieces seems to greatly increase its food value when given with OAT HAY AND WHEAT HAY 41 grain ; apparently, on account of the " chaff" facilitating the more thorough mastication of the corn by separating the grains or particles of the corn one from another, and by more evenly distributing the pressure of the teeth on them. We may readily see that for the performance of this work, it is better to have the different pieces of chaff soft than hard ; although the softness should be obtained by bruising or tearing, and not by the application of moisture. In Egypt, Syria, Arabia, and other Asiatic countries, the chaff is formed from wheat or barley straw which is broken up into small pieces and is thoroughly bruised by the native threshing machine (Arabic, noraj) and is then called tibhen. A mixture of barley and tihhen forms the staple food of vast numbers of Eastern horses, which, except on rare occasions, get no other forage, and which keep in excellent condition on it. Horses would not thrive as well on ordinary chopped straw, thus given, as on tihhen. A similar practice is carried on in South Africa, where the chaff is made principally from wheat straw, which is bruised and broken up into small pieces during the process of threshing, which is performed by horses and mules trampling upon the stalks of corn. In places where this bruised chaff could not be obtained, it would be very useful to have a special machine which could bruise and break up the straw in this manner, were it desired to use straw as a food for horses. Oat Hay and Wheat Hay. — Oat hay is largely used in the Australasian Colonies and in South Africa, where it is called ''forage," either as an addition to, or as a substitute for, ordinary hay or grass. The oats for this purpose are cut when the grain has just lost its milkiness. 42 HORSE MANAGEMENT IN INDIA and when the green stalk is beginning to turn in colour ; the object being to get as much flour in the grain as possible, without allowing the stalk to become hard and dry. We must remember that if the grain be allowed to ripen, the sheaves would bear transport badly; for even a moderate degree of shaking would then cause a large proportion of the grain to fall out of the ears. In South Africa, oat hay frequently replaces hay and grass entirely in the feeding of horses — and with good results. Eace- horses in that country are fed entirely on " forage " (as a substitute for hay) and oats, in which case, about six inches of the lower end of the stalks of the oat hay are cut off. I must, however, say, from personal experience, that I do not think that race-horses trained on this food, show as good condition as those which are prepared in India on doob grass and oat; notwithstanding that the Indian oats are inferior in quality to those grown in South Africa. I am therefore of opinion that although oat hay is a valuable adjunct (as I have often proved it to be) to doob grass, it is not altogether a satisfactory substitute. Wheat hay, prepared like oat hay, though not as good, can be used in place of it. Green oats or green wheat may be used as " green meat " for horses, in the same way as we would employ lucern, etc. Kurbee. — Kurhee, which is the stalks of Indian millet, called in Hindustanee,y^'war (Holcus sorghum, or Sorghum vulgar e), or hajra {Panicuiii spicatum), may be given, without being prepared in any way, in quantities of about 25 lbs. daily, as a substitute for grass for feeding and bedding, when grass is scarce. Ju'war is known in Madras as cholum. STOWAGE OF GRAIN 43 Bamboo Leaves. — In some parts of Eastern Bengal, these leaves are used as a substitute for grass; wMch purpose they answer fairly well; although, sometimes, they have too laxative an effect. Lucern. — Lucern forms the best green crop for use during the hot weather. The seeds are readily procurable, and the plant, as a rule, grows well in India, provided it gets a sufficiency of water. When out of work, 8 or 9 lbs. of it will be a good allowance for each horse : half to be given after the morning feed, the rest during the afternoon. It is advisable to dry it, for half an hour or so in the sun, before the horse eats it. Milk. — For sick or delicate horses, milk is often most valuable, and they will seldom refuse it. Sweet skim- milk is preferable to new milk, which, from being too rich, is very apt to purge the horse. A couple of gallons may be given daily. To correct any tendency it might have to produce diarrhoea, the milk might be boiled in a clean vessel, care being taken that it be not smoked during the process. Sugar or salt may be added. Stowage of Grain. — Grain may be kept sweet, and free from the attacks of rats and mice, in large earthen jars (Hind. Mutka). They will hold about 600 lbs., are very cheap, and can be easily procured. Bags, capable of holding about a ton, may be employed. Each bag will cost about 7 or 8 rupees, and should be placed on a wooden stand. There is generally some diffi- culty about protecting them from the attacks of vermin. Native grain-sellers generally use receptacles (Hind. Kothee) made of thin bamboo wicker-work plastered over with clay, or with clay and cow-dung. 44 HORSE MANAGEMENT IN INDIA If a large quantity of grain has to be stowed away, a granary may be constructed as follows : — Trace on the ground a circle of about 16 feet in diameter, and build on its circumference twelve or thirteen brick pillars, say 18 inches square and 2}j feet high, and, at its centre, a circular pillar of the same height, and about three feet in diameter. On these pillars construct a boarded floor, and build on it a strong bamboo wicker-work house, 9 or 10 feet high. This is plastered over, a small door is left at the top, and a light thatched roof is put over the whole. A house, such as I have described, would cost, say 25 rupees, and would hold about 25 tons of oats. Measures and Weights of Grain. — A Bengal mnn (Anglice maund) is about 82 lbs. In England the following measures are used : — 4 quarterns (quarts) ... ... 1 gallon. 4 gallons ... ... ... 1 bushel. 8 bushels ... ... ... 1 quarter. A quartern or feed of oats weighs about 2^ lbs. CHAPTEE IV. SKETCH OF THE THEORY OF FOOD AND NUTRITION. Composition of the body — Waste of tissue — Repair of waste — Analysis of forage — Analysis of the ash of various plants and seeds — Nitrogenous food — Fat, starch, and sugar in food — Heat supply — Mineral substances — Husk of grain — Bulk in food — Selection of food — Hay and grass — Green meat — Variety in food — Salt — Relations of cold, heat, and clothing to food — Mastication and digestion — Functions performed by the blood — Appetite — Influence of an artificial state of life — Preparation of food. Composition of the Body. — Nearly four-fifths of tlie body of the horse is composed of water, the remainder being made up of various organic and inorganic compounds. The former may be subdivided into substances containing nitrogen — a gas, which when mixed with oxygen, from atmospheric air — and substances which are wanting in that element. The latter comprise the different mineral matters of the system, such as common salt, the carbonate and phosphate of lime, and carbonic acid, with traces of ammonia. The non-nitrogenous compounds may be put under two classes ; namely, fats, and saccharine substances, such as milk and sugar. Every tissue of the body which is employed in the performance of labour — such as the muscles, tendons, 46 HORSE MANAGEMENT IN INDIA nerves, glands, etc. — is composed of substances that come under the nitrogenous group; "even the non-cellular liquids passing out into the alimentary canal at various points — which have so great an action in preparing the food in different ways — are not only nitrogenous, but the constancy of this implies the necessity of the nitrogen, in order that these actions shall be performed." {Parhes) White of Qgg is a familiar example of this group. These nitrogenous substances consist of carbon — of which charcoal is a well- known form — hydrogen and oxygen — the two constituents of water — combined in various proportions with nitrogen, and, in the case of albuminous substances, with a small amount of sulphur. Both the fats and saccharine matters are composed of certain combinations of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. In the latter, the two last-mentioned elements are united in the proportion that forms water, so that sugar and starch may be regarded as a combination of carbon with that fluid ; but in the former, there is a small amount of oxygen. The fat, which is deposited as a layer immediately under the skin, serves to maintain the internal temperature of the body, by the fact of its being a bad conductor of heat. Fat also acts as a natural elastic cushion to various parts of the system, as, for instance, at the back of the eyeball, above the horny frog, and around the joints. Dr. Carpenter remarks, that "the muscular, nervous, and glandular tissues are not composed of albuminous substances alone ; they contain, as an essential constituent of their structure, a certain portion of fat, without which theu' composition would be imperfect, and the performance of their functions impossible." Such fat, he points out, WASTE OF TISSUE 47 must, therefore, be regarded as a tissue former, and not alone a supplier of heat, although it will serve in the latter capacity on becoming broken up. Waste of Tissue. — Every tissue of the body has a certain limited time for existence (a period which is directly shortened by exercise), after which it becomes broken up, and is absorbed into the blood. In order to remove these effete and deleterious matters, the system is provided with various excretory organs, such as the lungs, kidneys, etc. During respiration, the oxygen, which is absorbed from the air by the blood-vessels in the air-cells of the lungs, is carried through the various parts of the body, so that it may break up the effete tissue by combining with the carbon to form carbonic acid, which the blood, at the completion of its circuit, conveys to the lungs, to be by them expelled into the atmosphere. A small amount of carbonic acid is eliminated by the skin. We may roughly express the oxidation of the various tissues as follows : — 1. Fat -f oxygen = carbon -|- hydrogen -f- oxygen -h oxygen = carbonic acid -\- water. 2. Sugar -f oxygen = carbon -f- water -f oxygen = carbonic acid -\- water. 3. Albumen + oxygen = carbon 4- hydrogen -f- nitrogen -f oxygen H- oxygen = carbonic acid -}- water -f degraded nitrogenous matters, such as urea, etc. The carbonic acid, as we have already seen, is got rid of by means of the lungs, which, together with the 48 HORSE MANAGEMENT IN INDIA kidneys and skin eliminate water; the degraded nitro- genous matters, and broken- up mineral substances being excreted by the kidneys. Repair of Waste. — In order to supply material for the repair of the constant waste experienced by the system, the animal must have food which shall answer the follow- ing conditions : — 1. It must contain a proper proportion of the elements necessary for the building up of the new tissue. 2. It must be digestible. 3. It must be of sufficient bulk for the stomach and intestines to act on it. 4. It must be palatable. Grain, grasses, and roots, used in suitable proportions, answer the above conditions. As chemistry enables us to analyse these foods, we may, by its aid, approximately judge of their respective nutritive values. The following tables may serve as a guide to the reader : — ANALYSIS OF FORAGE 49 Analysis op Forage. Compiled from the writings of Drs. Voelcker, Parhes, Lethehy, aiid Professors Wolff and Knop. Grass before blossom after White clover, fu^ Lucern in blossom „ very youn; Meadow hay Lucern hay Rye-grass hay Barley straw Oat straw ... Wheat straw Carrots Parsnips ... Swedes Barley Beans Beer Bran Dates Egg, white of „ yolk of Gram (husked) Hempseed Kiilthee (husked) Linseed . . . Maize Milk Millet Oats Peas Rape seed Rice Urud Wheat Lentils blossom a a < 1 1 i 2 1 3-0 121 0-8 2-1 7-0 2-5 14-3 0-7 2-0 11-5 3-5 7-2 0-8 2-0 6-0 4-5 6-3 0-7 2-0 12-5 4-5 7-2 0-6 1-7 5-0 8-2 39-2 2-0 6-2 30-0 14-4 20-0 2-5 6-4 40-0 10-2 36-2 2-7 6-5 30-2 30 31-3 1-4 7-0 43-0 2-0 36-2 2-0 5-0 40-0 2-0 30-2 1-5 5-5 48-0 0-7 7-7 0-2 0-9 3-5 1-3 7-7 0-5 1-0 7-5 1-5 6-0 0-2 0-7 21 9-5 64-1 2-5 2-6 7-0 25-5 43-5 2-0 3-5 11-5 01 8-7 — 0-2 140 46-2 3-8 5-1 17-8 10-93 03-4 0-19 1-5 2-38 20-4 — 1-6 160 — 30-7 1-3 — 22-7 63-18 3-76 2-6 16-3 21-6 33-6 4-2 121 23-27 59-38 2-2 3-19 20-5 18-0 37-0 5-0 7-2 10-0 61-0 7-0 21 5-5 404 4-62 3-08 0-71 14-5 59-1 3-0 3-0 6-4 120 54-9 6-0 3-0 10-3 22-4 49 8 2-5 2-5 9-2 19-4 15-4 40-0 3-9 10-3 6-3 79-5 0-7 0-5 24-73 58-76 1-36 3-17 — 13-0 66-1 1-5 2-0 3-0 23-8 49-4 2-6 3-0 6-9 75-0 69-0 80-5 74-0 81-0 14-3 16-7 14-3 14-3 14-3 14-3 87-0 82-0 89-5 14-3 14-5 910 13-1 21-6 78-0 52-0 11-39 12-2 1203 12-3 14-4 87-55 140 14-3 14-3 11-0 13-0 12-44 14-4 14-3 so HORSE MANAGEMENT IN INDIA i rHTi^T*^t-<^qcoc^^(^^CiT*^co(^lT^C0lOC0Tt^r-(i-ICiCOCO(NCOCO>-HOUtF-C:?^'M"-rTHC<^C;-^?^-<*iOCCOi(MCC ai OOOTt^O(M(MrHC;OOT-HOC;0.-ir-iOOO A «Dlf:(MT-H(NCCt>OiCOOCO(N'*iCOt-(Mt-COCO»n ^ l>:C)CCC0OCJOtD00CCO00S. as © •■s c s: a> M« ^' a ^ k1 o S cS o rd u rd ^ NITROGENOUS FOOD 51 In the foregoing table, the analysis of oats is that of good English corn, which, I may say, does not contain more than half the proportion of woody fibre found in the Indian variety. Owing to the indigestibility of bran, its nutritive value is not in accordance with its chemical composition. This want of agreement is also apparent in other foods, notably in wheat and potatoes. The portions of bran which cannot be digested serve a useful purpose in giving bulk to the food, and in stimulating the digestive canal by the slight mechanical irritation which its presence causes. The nitrogenous matters contain from 15*4 to 16*5 per cent, of nitrogen. (ParJces.) Nitrogenous Food. — The natural waste of nitro- genous tissue is accelerated by exertion, though to a far smaller extent than is that of fat. From the analysis of the urine of men, taken while they were undergoing violent exertion, it was observed that there was but a small increase in the waste of nitrogenous products, which, as before remarked, are excreted by the kidneys. Experience, however, demonstrates the necessity, in such cases, of an adequate supply of nitrogen, as may be seen by the good results obtained from the addition to oats of beans — in England — or of gram, or hulthee — in India — especially, when, from old age, or illness, the horse's powers of assimilation were diminished. Such a diet, however, should be carefully regulated, for an over-supply is apt to upset the animal's digestion, and to poison his blood by causing it to become filled with an excess of dele- terious nitrogenous products, which the excretory organs will be unable to eliminate with sufficient rapidity. We 52 HORSE MANAGEMENT IN INDIA may often witness the baneful effects — in the form of diarrhoea, filled legs, and a general " heated " state of the system — of the consum])tion of too much gram, or kulthee. An excess of nitrogenous food, such as gram, or kulthee, seems to hasten the oxidation of fat, probably, by inducing a fevered state of the system, in which the temperature of the body is raised above its normal degree. Hence we find that an excess of such food retards the process of getting an animal into a fat condition. Fat, Starch, and Sugar in Food. — These con- stituents are, by the process of digestion, utilized in the formation of fat ; the first named being directly absorbed, without undergoing any organic change, Its excess is apt, especially during idleness, to cause derangement of the liver, from its accumulating to an injurious extent in the cells of that organ; and also tends to produce fatty infiltration and degeneration of various tissues, rendering them unable to bear the strain of violent exertion. Too large a supply of sugar also acts in a similar, but in a less energetic manner. An excess of starch appears to exert little or no injurious effect; for what is not required? seems to be harmlessly expelled with the dung. Thus, we see that the bad results of an excess of either fat, sugar, or starch are in a direct proportion to the ease with which they are assimilated. When an animal is in poor condition, the value of these foods is in the same ratio. Nitrogenous matters are also capable of forming fat ; for in them we find the necessary carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. This process of obtaining fat from nitrogenous food, probably, takes place to a far slighter degree among the herbivora, than among the carnivora, whose bodily FAT, STARCH, AND SUGAR IN FOOD 53 weight and internal temperature can be sustained on a diet of lean meat alone. When long-distance walking and swimming came into vogue a few years ago, it was thought that concentrated food, of a highly nitrogenous nature, was the most suitable for the athlete while attempting such feats. The fallacy of this was proved by experience ; for it was found that incomparably greater trials of endurance were performed under a regimen rich in fat, than under the old system of training on lean meat and dry bread. This was notably shown in the case of Gale, while walking 1500 miles in 1000 hours ; for his diet consisted of ordinary meat, buttered toast and bread, eggs, etc. Gale, it must be remembered, while performing his remarkable feat, walked IJ miles at the commencement of each consecutive hour. In the days of our forefathers. Captain Barclay astonished the athletic world by walking 1000 miles in 1000 hours. He, however, by having been allowed to do a mile at the end of one hour, and another at the commencement of the next hour, was able to procure, between his tasks, more than double the length of rest which was given to the Cardiff man. Weston, the pedestrian, was, I believe, one of the first to demonstrate, in England, the advantages of this system. Webb, the Channel swimmer, too, was another instance. Indian wrestlers, who always train on a diet rich in fat, have for ages worked on true physiological principles which European scientists are only just beginning to understand. I am thoroughly convinced that the fact of modern feats of endurance, totally eclipsing the perform- ances done in former days, is mainly owing to a larger supply of fat and starch having been introduced into the 54 HORSE MANAGEMENT IN INDIA diet of athletes. This lesson we should utilize in the case of hard-worked horses. Unfortunately our choice in the matter of food is here but small, when we are limited in the matter of expense, except in the case of linseed, which is a thoroughly suitable article. We might, however, in some cases, supplement it with milk, eggs, ghee (clarified butter), and goor (unrefined sugar). We find that, for the maintenance of health, a man requires, in his food, a supply of fat as well as of starch, and that the former cannot be replaced altogether by the latter. The horse, it appears, is far more independent of a supply of fat in his diet, than is man ; but whether it can be dispensed with altogether or not, is a question I am unable to answer. The fact, however, of the existence of a certain, though varying proportion of fat, in the natural food of the animal, indicates its value, if not its absolute necessity. In the daily diet, given by Dr. Parkes, for a man performing very laborious work, we find that the fat is to the starch and sugar, as one is to four. The proportion for a horse, on a full supply of oats and hay, is about one to sixty. In food for horses, it appears that sugar may be entirely replaced by starch, though the converse of this does not hold good. Heat Supply. — The constant oxidation of carbon and hydrogen — attended by the formation of carbonic acid and water — in the various tissues, is accompanied by the evolution of heat, which serves to sustain the internal temperature of the body of the horse at about 100*5 F. During exercise, there is a proportionate increase in the amount of tissue broken up by these chemical combinations MINERAL SUBSTANCES 55 taking place; but the greater portion of the excess of heat appears to be utilized by its becoming converted into motion; for we find that after rapid movement, which is necessarily accompanied by considerable waste of tissue, there is but a very slight increase in the temperature of the body. This is in accordance with the fact that heat and motion are but modifications, though under different forms, of force. Mineral Substances. — These, with the exception of common salt, are obtained in ample sufficiency from the various grasses. Corn contains them in a far smaller proportion (see p. 50) : hence the necessity of the former food. We may observe, as before remarked, that bran contains a large proportion of phosphorus, which is an indispensable factor in all the functions of life. The phosphates of lime and magnesia, the carbonate of lime, and silica are the chief agents that give solidity to the bony skeleton. The phosphate and carbonate of soda "would seem to have as their chief purpose the maintenance of the alkalinity of the blood, on which depends not merely the solubility of its albumen, but the facility of its passage through the capillaries, and the readiness with which its combustive materials are oxidized, whilst they also increase the absorptive power of the serum for gases, and thus play an important part in the respiratory process. The salts of potash appear to be specially required for the nutrition of the muscles and nerves, since they are largely present in the fluids and ashes of these tissues, but they probably exert the same general influence as those of soda. . . . The presence of the earthy salts, on the other hand, would seem to have 56 HORSE MANAGEMENT IN INDIA reference almost exclusively to the composition of the tissues, into which some of them enter very largely." {Carpenter.) Iron is principally found in the red corpuscles of the blood, in the muscles, and in the hair. Husk of Grain. — The office of the husk of grain appears to be that of furnishing mineral matters, and of giving bulk to the food. It also seems, by mechanical irritation, to increase the worm-like motion of the bowels, which tends to obviate the ill-consequences which might arise from the decomposition, in the intestines, of the unassimilated nitrogenous matters of the corn ; a possibility likely to occur owing to the unstable nature of the com- pounds of nitrogen. Both from theory and practice we may safely conclude, that the husk should not be removed from the grain which the horse is to consume. We may see, from the foregoing observations, that the working parts of the animal machine are formed of nitrogenous and mineral substances, with a small amount of fat ; the motor power being obtained from heat generated by the oxidation of fat, and also of the component parts of the machine itself. Bulk in Food. — The fact of the horse's intestines being of large capacity, indicates that his food should be of a bulky nature. The intestines have a wormlike motion, which causes the food to become thoroughly mixed with the intestinal juices, its various particles to be presented to the absorbents — which take up the nutritive matter — and the remainder to be expelled onwards. They possess this power of motion from the fact of one of their coats being a layer of muscle which contracts when it is stimulated by the presence of food. The more bulk the SELECTION OF FOOD 57 food has, speaking generally, the less have the intestines to contract in order to move it about. If this condition of bulk be not complied with, the digestive apparatus will get out of order, however accurately materials for building up tissue be supplied. Indigestible woody fibre — contained in large quantities in the various grasses — and unassimi- lated starch, chiefly serve the required purpose. The fact that, within certain limits, the measure of a horse's appetite is by bulk and not by weight, is evidently due to the necessity the animal feels of having his intestines filled. We see the same craving for bulk evinced by human beings. '' The Kamschatdales, for example, are in the habit of mixing earth or saw-dust with the train-oil on which alone they are frequently reduced to live. The Veddahs, or wild hunters of Ceylon, on the same principle, mingled the pounded fibres of soft and decayed wood with the honey on which they feed when meat is not to be had ; and on one of them being asked the reason of the practice, he replied, ' I cannot tell you, but I know that the belly must be filled.' " {Carpenter.) Selection of Food. — I'or all practical purposes, we need not consider grain beyond its use as a former of fat, and of nitrogenous tissues, such as the various muscular and nervous structures. To give bulk to the food (except in the case of horses getting as much oats as they can eat), and to supply the required mineral matters, we must principally depend on grass. As exercise directly increases the waste of tissue, we must add to the amount of grain according to the degree of labour, though, at the same time, allowing an unlimited supply of hay, in order to comply with the conditions just stated. The exceptions 58 HORSE MANAGEMENT IN INDIA to this rule will be: when the horse is in a state of enforced idleness ; when his appetite is in a depraved or abnormal condition ; and when he is required for immediate work. When a horse's powers are fully taxed, he should be allowed as much hay and suitable corn as he chooses to consume. This now leads us to the pertinent question, '' what proportion should the nitrogenous matter in grain bear to the starchy constituents ? " From the teaching of experience, which here can alone direct us, we may learn that, for moderate work, it should not exceed that which is contained in oats, namely, 10 to 47 (about). To find the maximum, we may assume a diet of four parts of oats and one part of beans (as given in ^England to hard- worked animals), which will give us the proportion of 10 to 38 (about). To determine the maximum amount of nitrogenous food, I think we may safely assume it to be about that contained in 20 lbs. of oats, namely, 2^ lbs. (about). If we are forced, by circumstances, to use a grain, such as gram, or kulthee, which is too rich in nitrogen, we should do so at the expense of the starch, but should, on no account, exceed the amount of nitrogen already laid down ; for if we do so, the excess will tend to produce the derange- ments of the system which have been already mentioned. Eespecting the supply of fat, I am unable to say anything more definite than I have done in the previous pages of this chapter. Dr. Parkes' proposition, that "if men are undergoing great exertion, they take more food, and if they can obtain it, the increase is especially in the classes of albuminates and fats," holds equally well with regard to horses. HAY AND GRASS 59 Hay and Grass. — We may consider these two to be, nearly, the same kind of food, except that the former contains a less proportion of water than the latter. I have previously argued that a horse should get a full supply of hay under all circumstances, except when he is unable to take sufficient exercise. A horse, omitting exceptional cases, evinces a marked preference for corn compared to hay; hence we may assume that, when he turns from the former to the latter, he does so from the prompting of an instinct which is intended by nature to guide him in the selection of the food most suitable for the requirements of his system. We need hardly dwell on the not uncommon folly of stinting a horse of his hay, when the object is to get him to eat as much corn as possible, in order to enable him to sustain violent and continued exertion, such as that demanded during the training of race-horses. I have always found that such animals eat more corn and digest it better when their supply of hay is unlimited at all times, than when it is curtailed, and especially so when they are deprived of it during feeding hours. The idea that a groom, trainer, or owner, can tell to a pound, how much hay his hard-worked horse should eat, is palpably absurd. The case of corn is very different ; for a horse, unless his powers are fully taxed, is almost always prone to eat too much of it, and its bad effects are patent to the most careless observer. General Sir F. Fitzwygram justly remarks that, "practically it will be found that horses, which are not limited as regards oats, will not usually consume above 6 lbs. of hay per diem." Surely no one could say that this was an inordinate amount ? As 6o HORSE MANAGEMENT IN INDIA regards training, I have often been met with the objection that horses would gorge themselves, and would even eat their bedding, unless muzzled; but I have never found this to occur when a full supply of oats has been given, although I have had several horses in training that came to me with the character of being insatiable gluttons. I desire to lay considerable stress on the subject of allowing horses hay during feeding hours, as I have always found this practice to be attended with the best results, for not alone is the condition of bulk complied with, but also irritation to the alimentary canal, resulting from the presence of stimulating food, is avoided, as much as possible, by the corn becoming diluted by the hay. To see how reasonable this practice is, we need but apply the case to ourselves with respect to the meat and vegetables we consume at our meals. Green Meat. — Although the necessity of a supply of fresh vegetalles, as a part of human food, is clearly recognized; still, up to the present time, physiologists have been unable to explain the rationale of the fact, and have been obliged to accept it simply as a result of experience. In the same manner we find that "green meat" is almost equally as indispensable for horses. This is especially the case when the hay which is used, has been subjected to a process of fermentation, which gives it a brown appearance, and often increases its sweetness, although it diminishes its value. This method of curing hay is seldom adopted in India, where an ample supply of doob grass will fairly fulfil the conditions supplied by " green meat " and ordinary hay. Variety in Food. — As far as my experience goes, I RELATIONS OF COLD, HEAT, ETC., TO FOOD 6i have been unable to notice any marked good arising from a change of food, unless when the new article of diet contained elements of nutrition deficient in the other. Salt is the only necessary food that is not supplied in sufficient quantity by the grain and grass consumed by the animal. A moderate excess of it can, in nowise, prove injurious ; for it will be speedily eliminated by the kidneys, after the system has taken up sufficient for its own requirements. It furnishes the elements for the supply of the hydrochloric acid which is a constituent of the gastric juice. It also plays a most important part in the whole nutrition of the body. " It was demonstrated by Boussingault, that when, of two sets of oxen, one was allowed the unrestricted use of salt, whilst the other was as far as possible deprived of its use, a marked contrast was observable in the course of a few weeks between them, and manifestly to the advantage of the former. The desire for common salt on the part of animals and man is extremely powerful, leading the former, especially if they be vegetable feeders, to traverse great distances to reach saline deposits." {Carpenter.) Relations of Cold, Heat, and Clothing to Food.— When the temperature of the surrounding air falls much below its normal degree, a proportionate increase of starch and fat, to keep up the natural temperature of the body, should be made to the food of the animal, if it be unsupplied with w\arm clothing, which, by preventing radiation, supplements the action of the fatty layer which lies immediately underneath the skin. Hence a judicious addition of clothing may be practically regarded as an addition to the food; so that, when it cannot be made, 62 HORSE MANAGEMENT IN INDIA more corn ought to be given. In hot weather, the animal will, naturally, require less food. Mastication and Digestion.— The long hairs about the horse's muzzle serve him as feelers in the selection of the food which his lips convey into his mouth, aided, when the fodder offers some resistance, by the front teeth {nippers, or incisor teeth). The mouthful is then conveyed to the grinders, and is ground by them into a pulp. During this operation it becomes mixed with saliva, which, under the stimulus of the food, flows into the mouth from the different salivary glands. This secretion contains the active principle ptyalin — a species of ferment — the of&ce of which is to convert starch into dextrine (a kind of mucilaginous starch) and subsequently into grape sugar, in which form it is absorbed by the system. " A large proportion of this albuminous principle is present in the saliva of the horse, but only traces of it exist in that of man." (Carpenter.) The amount of saliva secreted during mastication is proportional to the hardness and dryness of the fodder. Lassaigne gives, from experiment, the following results : — 100 parts of dry hay requires 406 parts of saliva. „ barley „ 186 „ oats „ 113 grass „ 49 "Bernard was led to suggest that the submaxillary gland ministers to the sense of taste, whilst the parotid is connected with mastication, and the sublingual with deglutition. The size of the parotid in animals is pro- portionate to the degree in which the mastication of their food is performed. It is large in the horse, which lives MASTICATION AND DIGESTION 63 on comparatively dry food, less in carnivora, and still less in the aquatic mammals, as the seal. It is absent in birds which swallow their food whole." {Carpenter.) The salivary glands of the horse are larger than those of all other animals, except ruminants. The presence of saliva in the food materially aids its digestion in the stomach. "Among the experiments are those of Spallanzani and Eeamur, who found that food inclosed in the perforated tubes, and introduced into the stomach of an animal, was more quickly digested when it had been previously impregnated with saliva than when it was moistened with water. Dr. Wright also found that if the oesophagus [gullet] of a dog is tied, and food mixed with water alone is placed in the stomach, the food will remain undigested though the stomach may secrete abundant acid fluid, but if the same fluid is mixed with saliva, and the rest of the experiment similarly performed, the food is readily digested." {Kirhes.) Saliva is alkaline, and gastric juice acid. Pancreatic juice and bile are both alkaline. This alternate character seems to have been given to these fluids, so as to regulate their action. The chief part of the starch contained in the horse's food passes unchanged into his stomach ; and the action of the alkaline saliva, as a ferment in converting this starch into sugar, ceases on being neutralized by coming into contact with the acid gastric juice. Hence, it would appear that the chief ofi&ce of the saliva is to check undue acidity in the stomach. The frothy nature of saliva seems to aid digestion. "The numerous air-bubbles for which saliva is remark- 64 HORSE MANAGEMENT IN INDIA able have their special purpose; since the presence of atmospheric air in the stomach is accessory to digestion." {Lcared.) I submit that the foregoing observations indicate, as a general rule, the advisability of giving grain in a dry state. The presence of salt in the food excites the flow of saliva in the mouth ; hence, if boiled or steeped food be used, it should be given mixed with that condiment ; because, owing to the moist and soft state of the grain, a deficient amount of saliva will be secreted. Having reached the stomach — the capacity of which is from 3 to 3 J gallons — the food becomes mixed with the gas- tric juice, which flows slowly at first. This secretion is liable to become checked by violent exercise, or by the stomach becoming unduly distended. If it be largely diluted with water, its action will be arrested, until the excess of that fluid be absorbed. Cold also stops the performance of its functions ; for it will not act at a temperature much below blood heat. A moderate supply of hot spices stimulates its secretion. When the supply or action of the gastric juice — which is a natural antiseptic — is checked, the food that is in the stomach at the time is apt to become decomposed with the probable result of indigestion, flatulent colic, and even rupture of the stomach, caused by the evolution of gas. Hence we may conclude that horses ought not to be watered soon after being fed, and that they should not be given large supplies of boiled food which is very bulky in comparison to the amount of nutriment it contains, and can also be rapidly swallowed. Besides, exciting but a small secretion of saliva, it arrives in the stomach in an MASTICATION AND DIGESTION 65 unprepared state, and is consequently liable to become decomposed before the gastric juice can act on it. The antiseptic properties of gastric juice is well shown by the immunity with which many races of men eat putrid flesh and fish. The active principle of gastric juice — 2)epsinc — converts the nitrogenous matters of the food into a soluble form — in])tone — and also serve to split up the fat into a state of fine division, by dissolving the nitrogenous envelopes which enclose the globules. When the food — now called cliyme — leaves the stomach and enters into the small intestine, it becomes mixed with bile and pancreatic juice which flow from a common duct. The action of the fluid which comes from the pancreas (sweetbread) is very similar in its nature to, though much more enegetic, than that of the saliva, the work of which in converting starch and cane sugar into grape sugar it completes. It also, like gastric juice, dissolves albumen. By virtue of its alkaline nature, it makes an emulsion, or soap, with the fat contained in the chyme, which consequently assumes a white appearance, and is then termed cliyU. The particles of fat are thus split up into a very fine state of division, so as to be readily absorbed in an unchanged state, as none of the digestive fluids produce any effect on their composition. The bile acts as a natural purge, the bowels becoming constipated when it is deficient in quantity. It also, by reason of its antiseptic properties, prevents decomposition of the ingesta, prior to their being expelled. In the absence of bile, deleterious gases are evolved in the intestines, and are absorbed into the system, to the detriment of the health of the animal ; in which case the F 66 HORSE MANAGEMENT IN INDIA dung has a foul smell. Bile is constantly being excreted by the liver. We find that certain of the higher animals, such as man, are provided with a gall-bladder, into which this fluid collects, to be poured out into the intestines during the process of digestion, which is, in these cases, intended by nature to take place at certain intervals. The horse, however, possesses no gall-bladder, which fact clearly indicates that he should be, more or less, constantly supplied vdth food. The fact of his stomach being of small capacity, and his intestines of large size, points to the same conclusion. On leaving the small intestine, which is about 72 feet long, the food becomes collected into a capacious cul-de-sac — the csecum — formed by the large intestine, the length of which is about 20 feet. The caecum appears to be a kind of supplementary stomach, in which is collected the pulpy mass of water and unassimilated food, which the stomach and small intestines have failed to take up. Here the remaining nutritive particles are dissolved out and absorbed. The caecum can contain about 6 gallons of fluid. Functions performed by the Blood. — As the nutritive part of the food becomes changed into forms capable of being assimilated, it becomes gradually taken up by the minute vessels, called ahsorUnts, that line the interior of the stomach and intestines, and is conveyed into the blood, which ramifies through the various tissues of the body, and which supplies them with materials for repair. Thus, we see that the blood acts as the vehicle for removing the products resulting from the waste of tissue, and also for furnishing the elements required in the building up of new structures. INFLUENCE OF AN ARTIFICIAL STATE OF LIFE 67 Appetite. — Appetite serves two purposes — (1) When the system requires new elements for repair, it prompts the animal to eat, so as to obtain them from his food. But, in order to avoid excess, the process of feeding should be carried on slowly. On this subject. Dr. Carpenter remarks : — " To eat when we are hungry, is an evidently natural disposition ; but to eat as long as we are hungry, may not always be prudent. Since the feeling of hunger does not depend so much upon the state of fulness or emptiness of the stomach, as upon the condition of the general system, it appears evident that the ingestion of food cannot at once produce the effect of dissipating it, though it will do so after a short time ; so that, if we eat with undue rapidity, we may continue swallowing food long after we have taken as much as will really be required for the wants of the system ; and every superfluous particle is not merely useless, but injurious." These observations apply equally well to horses as they do to ourselves. (2) Appetite guides the animal in the selection of food suitable for the repair of the waste that is going on at the time. As a general rule, when a horse's powers are fully taxed, he should be allowed as much corn and hay as he chooses to eat, provided always, they are both of a suitable nature. The instinctive selection of food is well seen in the case of men who have to work hard, such as navvies and sailors ; for they will eat, with benefit, a quantity of animal food and fat, from which a sedentary person will turn with loathing. Influence of an Artificial State of Life. — The horse is intended by nature to travel considerable distances when grazing ; and his natural food is one of large bulk. 68 HORSE MANAGEMENT IN INDIA and containing a comparatively small amount of nourish- ment; his digestive organs being specially adapted for its consumption. The requirements of civilization, how- ever, interfere most materially with these conditions. At times, long protracted rest deprives the animal of the exercise which is essential to his health, and which he, in a state of nature, would be obliged to take in the pursuit of food. On the other hand, in order to develop his physical system to its utmost extent, he is supplied with forage of a far more concentrated form than he was naturally intended to consume. Hence, being unable to trust to the animal's appetite alone as a sure guide in the selection of food, in all cases, we must regulate it according to the indications afforded us by the study of the anatomy and functions of his system. Preparation of Food. — Oats, gram, Indian corn, barley, wheat, and rice in husk (Hind, clhan) should be bruised or broken before being given to the horse, in order to oblige him to masticate them properly, so that the grain may become thoroughly saturated with saliva. If given in a whole state, it is liable to be swallowed, as soon as its outer surface becomes moistened. Heat, whether by the process of boiling or parching causes the grains of starch in corn to burst, and the albumen to coagulate, so that the different digestive fluids are then able to penetrate easily through its substance. The objection to boiling is that it causes the food to become saturated with water, which decreases its digestibility, and greatly increases its bulk. Parching, however, is free from any such drawback, and may be advantageously applied to the preparation of barley and wheat. The husk PREPARATION OF FOOD 69 of the first-mentioned grain often has a more or less irritating effect on the intestines of the horse. The process of parching not alone renders the grain porous, but also deprives the husk of its objectionable properties. The husk of linseed, kuUhcey and urud is so hard that they require to be boiled before being given. CHAPTER V ON WATERING HOESES The blood being the source from which the different tissues obtain materials for repair and development, and the vehicle which conveys away the effete products resulting from the constant waste that goes on in the animal economy ; the whole question of nutrition depends on supplying the system with materials suitable for preserving that fluid in a normal and healthy condition. The proportion of water in the blood is about 750 parts in 1000 ; the variation being dependent on the nature of the animal's work, food, state of health, etc. Its presence is essential to the performance of the various functions. If its supply be curtailed, the secretions that are indispensable to the process of digestion are checked either wholly or in part ; because the glands are unable to obtain a sufficiency of water from the blood. If, on the contrary, more water be drunk than is needed for the requirements of the system, the excess is quickly eliminated by the kidneys, skin, and lungs, without doing any harm. We may conclude, therefore, that a full supply of water, given a short time before feeding, is essential for the proper digestion of food. ON WATERING HORSES yt The office of the sensation of thirst is to cause the animal to desire to drink water, when there is a deficiency of that fluid in his blood. The stomach is furnished with a vast number of blood- vessels, the office of which is to absorb water for the supply of the glands that secrete the gastric juice. As the amount of the secretion, necessary for digestion, varies from 10 to 20 gallons daily {Brinton), and as about 99 per cent, of it is composed of water, we find that the process of digestion, during the day, demands the outpouring, for the formation of gastric juice, of double or treble as much water, as there is blood in the whole body. Now, as this water is derived directly from the blood, its adequate supply can only be obtained by the constant reabsorption, in the stomach, of the watery portion of the effete gastric juice, as well as of that of other fluids which may be present. Considering the enormous quantity of water required for the secretion of the gastric juice, we may accept the fact that drinking a small quantity of water with the food is not alone free from objection, but may be actually beneficial. On this point we may safely trust to the instinct of the animal, and may consequently leave a supply of water before him while he is eating ; provided always that he has had a full opportunity of drinkinc? shortly before being fed. If (as we have seen in the preceding chapter), while digestion be going on, a large amount of water be taken into the stomach, it will dilute the gastric juice to an extent that will probably arrest its action, until the excess of water becomes absorbed. During this interval, de- composition of the food, with consequent derangement of 73 HORSE MANAGEMENT IN INDIA the digestion, may ensue ; followed, perhaps, by colic, or even by rupture of the stomach, owing to the pressure exerted by the evolved gas. Hence, we may conclude that the horse should be watered heforc being fed. But if, as in case of want of time, this precaution has not been observed, only small quantities, with reasonable intervals to allow of its absorption, should be allowed ; say 10 "go downs" at intervals of five minutes, assuming 20 "go downs" to the gallon. Considering the quickness with which a horse digests his food, I think we may assume that he may be watered 2 J hours after being fed, without any ill consequences. The reason that soft is better than hard water for horses — a fact known to every careful stableman — is that the freer this fluid is of impurities which possess astringent properties, the more readily will it become absorbed into the blood. Eespecting the celerity with which water is assimilated, I cannot do better than quote the following extract from Seller and Stephens' " Physiology of the Farm " : — " That water passes with extreme rapidity from the stomach of the horse, as from that of mammals in general, is apparent from the well-known fact that a horse will drink within a few minutes a much greater quantity than his stomach can contain. It is commonly supposed that the excess passes at once into the highest parts of the small intestines, namely, the duodenum. But this supposition is hardly necessary, for it is proved that absorption of thin fluids takes place from the inner surface of the stomach with an almost incredible rapidity. The fact is established by many experiments; and moreover, that substances dis- solved in the water taken in have been found in the urine ON WATERING HORSES 73 within an incredibly brief period." The obvious lesson these considerations teach ns is, that we should not be chary in allowing a horse to drink when he wants to do so, except indeed after feeding. One of the popular errors about watering horses is, that they should be stinted of water for several hours before doing fast work, on the plea that it affects their wind. As the water which becomes part and parcel of the blood, cannot by any possibility impede the organs of breathing, it follows that its unabsorbed portion alone can affect them ; but we have just seen that the whole of the water is taken up with extreme rapidity, so that, after a short time, there is none left in the stomach or intestines to cause any impediment. On the contrary, stinting a horse with water will directly affect his wind, for the blood will then gradually become thickened, and, if the animal be put to violent exertion, will fail to circulate through the lungs with requisite freedom; besides that, the action of the heart will become impeded, and the nutrition of the system more or less arrested. If a horse has been deprived of water for a consider- able time, we should exercise some caution in watering him, lest he may drink a larger quantity than can readily be taken up; for the unabsorbed portion — especially if the fluid be given cold — may cause serious derangement. When a horse is heated by exercise, his system will absorb water far more readily than when he is cool ; hence, under the former condition, there is far less risk in giving a liberal supply, than under the latter, always supposing that the water is not very cold: in which case, there would be danger of injury from nervous shock. General 74 HORSE MANAGEMENT IN INDIA Sir F. Fitzwygram remarks : — " It is a somewhat singular fact that horses may be watered with safety almost immediately after their return from work, even though somewhat heated." And he points out that there is then far less risk of chill from such horses drinking cold water, than when the system has begun to flag ; and that, in the latter case, the water should be made slightly tepid, or a bucket of gruel should be substituted for it. As the application of cold causes contraction of the muscular coats of the blood-vessels, so does it retard the absorption of water which is taken into the stomach. When a horse goes through violent and continued exertion without drinking, the amount of water in his blood falls below its normal quantity. If this loss is considerable, the thickened blood will be unable to circulate through the lungs with its v/onted facility; in fact, more or less congestion wiU take place, and the action of the heart will become laboured in its efforts to pump this abnormally dense fluid through the system. If a horse, in this state, be given, say, a couple of gallons of water, they will be absorbed at once into the blood, and will restore it, more or less completely, to its normal fluidity ; the action of the lungs and heart will be almost instantaneously relieved, and the feelings of distress will rapidly subside. Had the water, on the contrary, been withheld until the horse had cooled down, the prolonged distress, even if the congestion had passed off with no bad results, would undoubtedly have injuriously affected the animal's condition and spirits. In accordance with this principle, I have adopted, with the best results, the practice of giving half a bucket of water to race- ON WATERING HORSES 75 horses I have had in training, immediately after their gallops. Persons who have had to ride long distances, in hot countries, are well aware of the advisability of allowing their mounts to drink frequently during a journey, of any good water near which they may pass, even when the horse is bathed in perspiration. In Northern India, the echa (a small two-wheeled trap) ponies, which average about 13 hands 1 inch in height, frequently travel 50 to 60 miles a day over un- metalled roads during the hottest weather, when the noontide heat often exceeds 115° in the shade. Such performances can only be accomplished by watering the ponies every 7 or 8 miles : the system pursued being that they get at each bait from 1 to 2 lbs. of suttoo mixed in a couple of quarts of water. This is in accordance with the practice — generally adopted by stokers and firemen on board steamers — of mixing oatmeal with the water they drink; a practice from which these men, who are often exposed to intense heat, and who are consequently obliged at such times to drink large quantities of water, experience great advantage. In the stable, I think the best system is to allow a constant supply of water ; a plan which is not alone beneficial to " washy " horses that scour easily, to roarers, and to broken-winded animals, but also is particularly well calculated to prevent and to cure the pernicious habits of crib-biting and wind-sucking. CHAPTEK VI PKACTICAL EULES FOR FEEDING AND WATERING HORSES From the theoretical considerations detailed in the two preceding chapters, and from the results of experience, we may draw the following conclusions : — 1. The horse's corn should be given dry, except when the grain — such as linseed, hulthee, etc. — is too hard, in its natural condition, to be properly masticated ; when, from old age and other causes, the animal's powers of chewing are impaired ; and when the appetite has to be humoured in sickness. The only way I can account for the Indian practice — now happily falling into disuse — of steeping gram in water before giving it to the horse, is that it is done with the idea of causing the gram to swell as much as possible before entering the stomach, in order that it may not do so after arriving there, especially if the animal be subse- quently supplied with water. Those who adopt such a precaution, entirely ignore the fact that it is the evolution of gas — resulting from the decomposition of the food — which produces flatulent colic and rupture of the stomach, and not any swelling of the gram, which, if it be given dry — as we have previously seen — will become saturated RULES FOR FEEDING AND WATERING HORSES -j-j with a greater quantity of saliva than that of its own bulk before it even reaches the stomach. The danger of a horse choking himself — if the stableman takes the most ordinary- precautions — is purely imaginary. 2. The different grains, before being given to the horse, may be prepared as follows : Oats and wheat, bruised. Gram, Indian corn, and rice in husk, roughly broken. Barley, parched and roughly broken. If the parching be dispensed with, barley should at first be cautiously given to the animal, so that it may not "scour" him. 3. The following forms a list of Indian foods, calculated to maximum amounts : — 1. Gram or kiilthee 2. Gram Bran 3. Barley ... 4. Barley Gram 5. Oats 6. Oats Gram, kultliee, or lirud 7. Indian corn (p. 68) Bran 8. Indian Corn Gram 9. Indian corn Gram Bran 10. Gram Barley (parched) Indian corn Bran Iba. 10 7 5 16 5^ 7 20 14 5 10 10 10 5 6 5 4 o\ 4 5 4 11. Oats ... 6 Gram ... 5 Bran ... 2 Linseed ... 1 12. Gram ... 6 Rice, in husk ... 10 13. Gram ... 5 Rice, in husk ... 8 Bran ... 4 14. Wheat ... 8 Chaff, a sufficiency say . . . 4 15. Wheat ... 4 Gram ... 7 16. Wheat ... 4 Indian corn ... 4 Bran ... 4 Gram ... 4 17. Mote ... 6 Gram ... 6 I have assumed Indian oats to contain about a quarter less nutriment than English corn. Bearing in mind the difficulty there often is in pro- curing certain grains in many parts of India, I have varied the proportions, so as to suit horse-owners who have but a 78 HORSE MANAGEMENT IN INDIA limited supply of particular grains; such as oats, for iustance. The reader may rely on these foods being suitable in practice, as well as correct in theory. Nos. 5, 6, 8, 10, and 11 are those I would specially recommend. No. 5 is the best for ordinary animals; ISTo. 6, hard- worked horses, such as those used in racing ; ISTo. 11, for similar animals when low in condition. The other two can almost always be procured, and usually at a cheap rate. The amounts are intended for a full-sized Australian or English horse. During ordinary work we may give from two-thirds to three-fourths of them. One-half will be sufficient during idleness. 4. A 13-hand pony will eat about half as much as a large horse. An Arab will, as a rule, require about 4 lbs. less than a full-sized Australian or English horse. 5. The amount of grain given to the animal should be proportionate to the work he is called upon to perform, remembering always that there is a constant waste of tissue going on, which demands repair by food. 6. When a horse is comparatively idle, his food may consist of one-third to one-half of bran, and two-thirds to one-half of oats, Indian corn, barley, or 'paddy — in pre- ference to gram or hulthee — say 8 or 10 lbs. altogether. The same practice may, with advantage, be observed during the hot weather. 7. Horses should not be allowed to run down in con- dition, even when out of work ; for, especially in India, it takes a long time to put flesh on them again. 8. "When a horse's powers are fully taxed, he should get as much suitable corn as he may choose to eat. RULES FOR FEEDING AND WATERING HORSES 79 9. The corn should not be given in such quantities as will cause irritation of the intestines, which will be evinced by a loose and sticky condition of the dung, which should, on the contrary, be well formed, brittle, and devoid of bad smell. When gram and hidthee alone are used, these conditions cannot be properly complied with. When diarrhoea is thus set up, it is the result of an effort of the system to expel an excess of nutritive matter, which is deleterious to the health. In such cases, withdrawal of the corn, dry bran and maybe a mild purgative, are indicated. 10. When the amount of grain is limited, say to 8 or 9 lbs., and when the animal has to do hard work, gram or hultliee are more suitable than other grains that contain less nitrogen. 11. Foods rich in fat and sugar, such as linseed, Indian corn, milk, goor, etc., are the best for putting a lean horse into lusty condition. 12. Horses that get a full amount of corn should, as a rule, have a fair supply of carrots, lucerne, or green grass (preferably. Hind., cZooS), which will tend to remove any irritation of the intestines caused by the grain. 13. In cold weather, if horses be not warmly clad, they should have an increased amount of corn. 14. A horse should have a constant supply of salt, say 2 ozs. daily; or he may be allowed a lump of rock-salt in his stall. 15. If boiled food be used, salt should be mixed with it before giving it to the horse. 16. A horse's corn should be given at frequent and regular intervals. Say as follows, supposing 9 lbs. to be the daily amount : — 8o HORSE MANAGEMENT IN INDIA 5 a.m ... 1 lb. 8.30 „ ... 2 lbs 12.30 p.rn ... 2 „ 4 „ ... 1 lb. 8 » ... 3 lbs Total 9 17. When the animal's powers of digestion are im- paired, spices or condiments may be given, in order to stimulate the system to take up an increased amount of nutriment from the food. Such articles have little or no dietetic value of their own. 18. In order to induce the horse to eat slowly, it is desirable to feed him from a broad box, or trough, placed not much above the level of the ground. On the bottom of the box, the corn may be spread out in a thin layer. 19. Greedy feeders may have a quantity of chopped hay mixed through their corn. 20. A horse should not be worked for at least an hour and a half after feeding. 21. A horse should always have a supply of hay or dried grass before him while he is eating his corn, so that, by inducing him to vary his food, he may not consume it in too concentrated a form. 22. Horses that are inclined to " scour," should have some hay given to them before they get their corn. 23. Unless in cases of enforced idleness, depraved appetite, etc., a horse should have as much hay or dried grass as he may choose to eat. 24. If procurable, the grass which is called dooh in Bengal, and hurry alee in Madras, should be used in RULES FOR FEEDING AND WATERING HORSES 8i preference to all other kinds. It ought to be dried a day or two in the sun before being given. 25. If possible, a horse should get daily at least 2 or 3 lbs. of green food, such as lucerne, carrots, etc., as the time of the year may permit. 26. On a journey, a horse should be baited about every two hours, giving him, say, a gallon or two of water — if he chooses to drink it — followed by about 2 lbs. of corn, with a little grass each time ; or he may get a couple of pounds of suttoo mixed in his water, and a little grass after it. The hotter the weather and the harder the work, the more frequent should be the baits. If he be given a larger feed than 2 lbs. of corn, he should be rested for at least an hour, or he will be apt to tire quickly and be inclined to scour. /S'zt/ifoo-and-water is the best bait when the halts are of short duration. 27. On long journeys, a horse should be allowed to drink very frequently — in fact, whenever he wants to do so. Taking an immoderate amount at one time should of course be guarded against. 28. Some horses are inclined to purge if they be put to work soon after being fed or watered. If the services of such animals be required in the morning, they should get neither corn nor water until after their work. 29. The best plan, regarding the water of horses in the stable, is to allow them a constant supply of it in their stalls. 30. If this cannot be done, they ought to be watered hefore, each feed, or at least thrice a day in cold weather, and four times in hot. 31. Immediately after violent exertion, a horse should G 82 HORSE MANAGEMENT IN INDIA have a moderate amount of water to drink — say, one gallon — and if he be thirsty, another gallon in five or six minutes. 32. However hot and perspiring a horse may be, he should get this water at once, hefore he cools down ; but if he cannot get it until he is cool, he should be given a smaller amount, and some more at intervals of five minutes or so. 33. The " chill " need not be taken off water, except when the horse is very thirsty and the water unusually cold. 34. Soft water is generally considered preferable to hard, although I have never known any bad results accrue to horses in India from the use of well water that was good for human consumption. The hard water of some limestone districts in England, being loaded with mineral matter, is apt to cause colic when taken cold and in large quantities, especially when the stomach is full or weakened by long fasting. I prefer well water in India to that obtained from rivers. Water from swamps or stagnant pools should not be used (see p. 38). CHAPTER YII GROOMING AND STABLE ROUTINE On the theory of gi'ooming — Washing the horse— Clipping — Grooming — Dressing the mane and tail — Tapeeing — Shedding the coat — Care of the feet and legs — Trimming the mane and tail — Bots — Stable routine. On the Theory of Grooming.— The skin of the horse is composed of two layers. The inner layer, or true skin, is tough and elastic, and is provided with nerves and blood-vessels. In it exist a vast number of narrow, minute depressions — hair-follicles — which secrete the hair that covers the body, and also an innumerable number of sweat-glands and oil-glands, both of which possess minute tubes to convey their respective secretions to the surface. The oil-glands are specially connected with the hair, as their tubes open either into the hair-follicles or close to the hairs. The action of the oil is to keep the skin and hair soft and pliable, and also to protect the skin from chill ; while that of the watery fluid is chiefly employed in carrying off, by evaporation, any excess of heat beyond the standard temperature of health. The sweat of the horse is composed of a mixture of these two secretions, the former giving it a greasy character when 84 HORSE MANAGEMENT IN INDIA he is fat, the preponderance of the latter a watery appear- ance when he is in poor condition, or when " drawn fine." The effect of friction applied to the skin, is to draw to the surface an increased amount of blood, from which the glands in question obtain materials for forming their respective fluids. The inner layer, or true skin, secretes the outer skin in the form of scales, more or less glued together, accord- ing to their distance from the surface. This outer skin lines the openings of the oil and sweat tubes, and sur- rounds each hair. Its presence affords protection to the skin, and checks the outpouring of the oil and perspira- tion. Hence, when horses are turned out in the open without adequate clothing, they should on no account be groomed, which process is intended to remove as much of the outer or scarf-skin as possible, and, by friction, to stimulate the secretion of oil and perspiration. The oil protects the skin from the injurious action of water, and also assists in maintaining the internal temperature of the body by rendering the coat bright and glossy — a con- dition that checks the radiation as well as the absorption of heat. Consequently, a horse with a polished skin ^vill not be as liable to be chilled by wet or cold, nor to be as unduly heated by the rays of the sun, as he would be were his coat dull. This immunity, however, will only last for a few hours, or until the weather affects the hair. The skin acts as an assistant to the lungs in giving off carbonic acid gas, and thus aids in purifying the blood. The cold produced by the evaporation of perspiration materially assists in lowering the temperature of the body to its normal degree when it has been raised beyond it THEORY OF GROOMING 85 by exercise. Hence the necessity of the free secretion of perspiration by the skin of hard- worked horses. Apart from the foregoing considerations, we may see that the fact of the skin being in a healthy state will tend to induce a like condition of the stomach, intestines, and air-passages ; for the skin is continuous with the mucous membranes which line these organs. Owing, therefore, to the sympathy which exists between the various portions of these respective surfaces, we find that, in cases of derangement of the stomach, etc., the coat becomes dull and unthrifty. In like manner, a return to health will be marked by an improvement in the state of the skin, affections of which are more or less followed by an impaired condition of the digestive apparatus. Experi- ence, as well as physiology, teaches us that the stabled horse's general well-being is greatly dependent on his skin being clean, well polished, and healthy. From these considerations, we may readily see how important the process of grooming is to the maintenance of high condition in the horse. I may briefly sum up the objects sought to be obtained by good grooming as follows : (1) to remove the scaly part of the outer skin in order to allow of ready exit to the fluids that flow from the oil and sweat glands ; (2) to stimulate by friction these glands to increased activity; (3) to determine blood to the surface of the body, so as to relieve the internal organs; (4) to remove all super- fluous hair, the presence of which would tend to check evaporation from the skin ; (5) to induce a healthy state of the skin itself, in which the mucous membranes of the digestive and respiratory organs will tend to participate. S6 HORSE MANAGEMENT IN INDIA The skin of the well-groomed horse will be in the best possible condition to play its allotted part when the system is called upon to perform violent exertion, but not to resist the continued effect of cold during a state of inactivity. Hence, such an animal should, when he is at rest, be provided with an adequate supply of warm cloth- ing, to make up for the loss of the protection which was afforded by the scaly part of the outer skin, and by the increased amount of hair possessed by him in an un- groomed condition. Washing the Horse. — This practice is, as a rule, in- jurious ; for it not alone removes the natural oil from the skin, thereby rendering the coat dull, but is also apt to produce chill, which, I need hardly say, is the fruitful source of many equine ailments. In a warm atmosphere, a horse that is heated and perspiring can take no harm from being washed, provided he is quickly dried. Owing, however, to the large surface of the body and the presence of hair over it, it is difficult to dry a horse thoroughly in time to prevent the chance of his catching cold, and then to apply sufficient friction to stimulate the oil-glands to renew the gloss his coat lost from the washing. If it is imperative to wash, and there is not sufficient assistance to have the animal rubbed dry without loss of time, we may, after scraping and rubbing him over, put on a good supply of warm clothing, bandage his legs, and leave him thus to dry under his rugs, which he will do in an hour or less. He should, after that, be exercised or warmly stabled, so as to prevent him becoming chilled. Water has no power to remove the scaly part of the outer skin, its effect being confined alone to any dust or CLIPPING 87 mud that may have fallen on the coat. Our best authori- ties are unanimous in condemning the custom of washing the animal. Both cracked heels and mud-fever — a form of inflammation of the skin, which extends more or less over the legs, and sometimes over the lower surface of the abdomen — are often caused by this practice. Mud-fever is a common complaint in England, though rare in India. We find from experience that the external application of warm water, especially to the legs and feet, is still more objectionable than that of cold. This is chiefly due to the fact that it more readily removes the oil which keeps the skin soft, and is more efficient in loosening the layers of scales which serve to protect the true skin from irritation by external objects. The heat of the warm water may also stimulate the oil-glands, which lie deep in the true skin, to an abnormal degree of activity. Subsequent cold, brought on by evaporation or by a current of air, may cause contraction of the superficial extremities of the oil- tubes, so that the exit of the fluid may become obstructed —a state that will probably be followed by inflammation, as may be evinced by " cracked heels," " grease," or " mud- fever." Clipping. — The presence of a thick covering of hair is analogous, in the case of a man, to the wearing of a warm overcoat, which, however suitable it would be to protect the body while in a state of comparative rest from the inclemency of the weather, would be a distressing burden to one who had to undergo severe muscular exertion. Applying the simile of a man taking off his great-coat when he has to, say, run, row, or cycle, and putting it on so as to avoid the ill effects of chill when the exercise is 88 HORSE MANAGEMENT IN INDIA at an end, we may see how reasonable it is to have hard- worked horses clipped, and to protect their systems by adequate clothing as soon as they have cooled down. If a horse is not at work, there is no necessity for clipping him, unless the presence of long hair distresses him. I have frequently remarked in India that the mere fact of clipping a horse caused a marked improvement in his con- dition. As the seasons of the year in the Antipodes are the reverse of those in countries north of the equator, newly imported Australasian horses will, unless relieved of it, carry, during the hot weather, an abnormally long coat, which should be clipped off as occasion demands. Such animals cannot be considered to have become accli- matized until the functions of their skin have accommo- dated themselves to the conditions under which they are called upon to act. " With reference to the clipping of horses, I am of opinion that it is a great advantage. They work better after being clipped ; thrive on less food ; are less liable to disease ; are stronger, healthier, and more cheerful ; and, when sick, recover in a much shorter time. It is not my intention to discuss the question ; I merely wish to coun- teract a ridiculous idea propounded by Mr. Gamgee, that clipping is injurious to the horse. " I strongly recommend the Irish method of clipping, namely, clipping all parts of the body except the legs. The hair that is left on the legs protects them from the irritation of wet and dirt, and, when horses are used for hunting purposes, from the penetration of thorns, etc." ( Williams). Horses in India that are thoroughly groomed, well fed. GROOMING 89 and warmly clothed will rarely have a coat long enough to require clipping. As the bristles that grow about a horse's muzzle, eyes, and chin act as feelers — replacing to some extent the want of hands — they should not be cut or pulled out. The hair which lines the external ear should also be allowed to remain untouched. Grooming". — Before grooming, the horse may be tied up by side reins running from rings fixed, about 6 ft. high, at each side of the doorway of the stall, and attached to the rings of the watering-bridle. If he kicks badly, his hind legs may be confined by a short hobble (called in Hindustanee, mujuma) placed on his hind pasterns. The use of heel-ropes is apt to strain him. When the horse returns from exercise in clothing, he should be tied up, his hood removed, and his neck and throat scraped if there be any sweat visible. The space between his jaws should be carefully dried with a dry cotton rubber. A man on each side, with a fresh straw or hemp wisp, should go thoroughly over the exposed parts, working the wisp backwards and forwards well into his coat. The breast and body pieces are suc- cessively removed, and his chest, forearms, shoulders, back, loins, belly, quarters, thighs, etc., quickly rubbed down and dried in a similar manner. This done, the syces should set to and hand-rub him, beginning at his ears and ending at his hocks. The ears should be pulled gently between the fingers several times — a process that always seems to refresh the animal. When hand-rubbing, the stroke should be commenced by bringing the flat of the 90 HORSE MANAGEMENT IN INDIA hand — each one to be used alternately — well under the belly, down the fore-hand, thigh, or gaskin, or between the fore- legs, as the case may be, and it should then be drawn up with a steady pressure. As the hand is raised, the elbow should be turned out, and the under part of the bared forearm should be brought into play against the grain of the coat. In doing this, the weight of the body and strenc^th of the arm should be utilized. With a valuable horse, one should put two men on the legs, and two on the rest of the body. The quicker the hand-rubbing is done, the more effectual will it prove. On an average, the wisping down will take about ten minutes ; the hand-rubbing somewhat longer. If only two men be available, the legs below the knees and hocks should be left untouched until a later period of the grooming. The hand-rubbing being finished, a syce on each side should go over the coat with the body brush, for the cleaning of which only should the curry-comb be employed. The brush should have long and rather soft bristles, and should be used only in the direction in which the hair lies, and not against it ; as, with the grain, it will most effectually remove the dandruff, which is thrown off by the skin in the form of scales that are pierced by the hairs. The syce should place the brush lightly on the coat, so as to avoid hurting the skin, and should then press on it, as he makes his stroke downwards. The chief object of brushing the coat is to remove the scaly dandruff ; that of wisping and hand-rubbing, to dry and stimulate it. DRESSING THE MANE AND TAIL 91 English trainers usually teach their stable lads to make on their horses' quarters, when the grooming is finished, "quarter marks," of which the most common is the *' diamond." This mark is made by brushing the quarter with the body brush, from front to rear, in the direction the hair lies ; then drawing a stroke with the brush down the centre of the quarter, in a perpendicular direction, so as to ruffle the hair ; and, finally, smoothening, with the brush, the upper and lower portion of the quarter, so as to leave a " diamond," or rather a rhombus, of, say, about 4 in. wide. The rough hair of the quarter mark will, naturally, enhance by contrast the brilliancy of the remainder of the coat of that part. The pattern may be varied at pleasure. Some trainers affect one, some another kind of distinctive mark ; while others pay no attention to them. Dressing the Mane and Tail.— The brushing of the body being finished, the syce should brush out the fore- lock, mane, and tail, taking care, first of all, to commence at the ends of the hair, and to proceed upwards as each kink or knot becomes opened out. The hairs, by small locks at a time, should be brushed from their roots downwards, so as to remove all dandruff. The mane-comb should be used only when it is desired to keep the mane or tail thin. It is the custom to make the mane lie to the off side ; for, as we usually look at a horse from the near side, his neck and shoulders — if they be good — will then appear to greater advantage than if the lines were broken by the mane. The off-horse of a carriage pair may have his mane groomed to the near side. 92 HORSE MANAGEMENT IN INDIA Wettins: the hair of the mane and tail will tend to make it grow fast. If the mane does not hang properly down, it may be daily wetted and plaited, while small weights may be attached to its ends. A thick paste of flour and water plastered over the mane and tied down with a cloth, will make the hair in a few days lie flat. The paste should be allowed to remain on during the day, if the animal's services are not required. If a horse be inclined to rub his tail against the walls of the stable, a light leather sheath, to lace on, may, with advantage, be used to protect the part. In such a case, the cause should be removed by appropriate medicinal treatment, for which see "Veterinary Notes for Horse Owners." Some syces have a habit of washing horses' tails by means of a wet towel, which they rub mth and against the gi^ain of the hair. This practice should not be allowed, as it breaks the hair, and disarranges its set, thereby disfiguring the animal. After the mane and tail have been adjusted, the syce should wipe out the horse's eyes, nostrils, sheath, and dock with a damp towel or sponge, and then smooth down the coat with a dry wash-leather or cotton rubber. After this, the clothing is put on, care being taken to throw the quarter-piece a little way in front of the mthers, and then to draw it back, so that the coat may not be ruffled. The feet should then be picked out and cleaned with a dry brush and rubber, the legs hand-rubbed, and bandages put on, if they be employed. If bandages be used during TAP BEING 93 exercise, they should be allowed to remain on until the syce proceeds to hand-rub the legs. The foregoing completes the description of ordinary grooming, to which, I think, the following process may, with advantage, be added. Tapeeing. — This Indian practice is a form of massage which is known in England and France as tapotement (percussion). In India it is done with broad circular pads, called ta]pecs, each one of which is about 9 in. in diameter and 3 in. thick. They are stuffed with horsehair, and are covered with leather. A strap is placed at the back of this pad to admit the hand placed flatwise. They are used one on each hand, and are brought down in quick succession, with the whole force of the arm, on the spot intended to be shampooed. The neck, shoulders, barrel, and hind-quarters are thus gone over by a syce on each side of the animal. The loins and flanks are avoided. The usual method is to strike first with the left hand, then with the right, and again with the left, and then to bring the pads sharply together so as to knock out the dust. Tapeeing has an excellent effect on the skin and coat, and is much relished by the horse when he gets accustomed to it. If put into practice, it should be performed immediately after the animal is brushed down. In all cases, when there is sufiicient help and time, the grooming should be such as I have described in the foregoing pages. When a horse comes in heated, and there is only one man to attend to him, the girths, if a saddle be on, should be slackened, and he should be walked about until he 94 HORSE MANAGEMENT IN INDIA cools down, and then the wisp should be applied, begin- ning first of all at the part under the saddle. I have never found the slightest ill-effect accrue from removing the saddle immediately the horse comes in, however heated he might be, provided always the skin under it was thoroughly well dried without delay. Shedding the Coat. — The horse sheds his coat twice in the year — in the autumn and in the spring. At the former time, his fine summer hair falls out, to be replaced by a thicker and longer covering, which, in its turn, gives place to the other. If, while the coat is changing in the spring, the brush, or other means, be employed to hasten the process, the hair-follicles will become prematurely exposed to the action of the air, and, consequently, will become stimulated to secrete a coarser form of hair than they would have done had their natural protection remained on for its allotted period. Hence, the new summer coat will be rougher than it ought to be, and its appearance will, consequently, be more or less spoiled. On this account, when the coat is being shed during that time, the brush should not be applied to it, nor should it be hand- rubbed. The wisp and rubber will then be sufficient for grooming purposes. In India, the shedding of the coat of horses that are well groomed and warmly clothed takes place to a far less extent than in England. Care of the Feet and Legs. — The horse's feet shoiild neither be washed nor " stopped ; " for the former practice is the fruitful cause of " cracked heels ; " and the latter induces thrush, and softens and weakens the sole, frog, and crust. The old ideas of " thinning " the sole, and CARE OF THE FEET AND LEGS 95 keeping the feet soft by stoppings of cow-dung and clay, are antiquated fallacies that hardly require being com- bated in the present day. In India, especially, we require the feet to be as hard and tough as possible, so that the horse may neither flinch, nor go short over hard or broken ground, nor become lame if he casts a shoe, and has to proceed for a few miles bare-foot. Water applied to the feet renders them soft and weak, on account of the capillary attraction exerted by the fibres of the horn on any liquid with which it may come in contact. It is a significant fact that the drier the climate is, in which horses are bred and reared, the stronger and better able to stand work will their feet be. No benefit is obtained by applying hoof ointment to the crust, unless, perhaps, to those parts from which the hard and varnished covering of the wall may have been rasped away by a careless or ignorant shoeing-smith. The growth of the wall of the hoof can alone be hastened by stimulating the coronet which secretes it ; hence, any hoof ointment, used as such, is powerless to effect this end. Although the employment of greasy applications may have a temporary effect in tending to render dry horn tough, still, their constant use will, as a rule, cause the feet to become far more brittle than they were before, if, by any chance, these dressings are discontinued. They should, therefore, not be employed with horses, like those in the army, that may be sent on work, the circumstances of which may prevent the use of such applications. In this chapter I have already dwelt upon the evils of washing the legs of the horse ; hence, I need not further allude to the subject, beyond saying that, if the 96 HORSE MANAGEMENT IN INDIA animal returns to the stable with his legs wet, or covered with mud, they should be dried by means of the scraper, wisp, and rubber, as the case may be, and hand-rubbed when dry. One should avoid hand-rubbing the legs when they are wet, as doing so will tend to remove the hair. Hand-rubbing the legs is a beneficial practice with the generality of stabled horses. It tends to prevent stagnation of blood in the legs and feet ; by the pressure exerted, it promotes the absorption of any effusions that may be present about the back tendons and suspensory ligaments ; and it helps to guard the horse against that form of inflammation which is known as " cracked heels " and "mud fever." Trimming the Mane and Tail.— The mane may be trimmed by pulling out the longest locks, a little at a time, having previously twisted them round the fore- finger or a stick. If this annoys the horse, the long ends may be divided by running a half-shut scissors backwards and forwards across them, in the same manner as hair- dressers trim ladies' hair. The ends are held in the left hand, while the right uses the scissors. A space of about an inch and a half broad should be cut out of the mane, just behind the ears, for the passage of the head-stall of the bridle. When hogging the mane of a pony, it is customary, in order to help the rider in mounting, to leave a lock of hair. This, to be effective, should be about halfway up the neck. The easiest and neatest way to hog the mane is to cut it close, running the clipping machine along the top of the crest, and then on each side, so as to make the TRIMMING THE MANE AND TAIL 97 hair level. The old plan of hogging the mane, so as to leave a bristling ridge of hair, is tedious in execution and has a bad effect, in that, instead of preserving the natural outline of the neck, it gave the part an abnormally thick and high- crested appearance. A switch tail may be trimmed in the same manner as the mane. It is not the fashion to bang the tails of Arabs ; a fine, thin tail being considered to be a mark of high caste among them. Horses' tails ought not to be shortened after the beginning of April, as their powers then will become fully taxed in keeping off flies. They should not be again trimmed before the month of October. The object of banging a horse's tail is to add to the appearance of strength in his hind- quarters. The usual length at which a horse's tail is banged is such that will enable the end of the tail, when pulled down, to reach the point of the hock. The more " cobby " the animal, the shorter may be the bang. The following are three methods for banging the tail : — \st.— Get an assistant to place his hand under the dock, and to hold the tail in a position similar to that which it would assume were the animal walking; then, with a strong pair of scissors, cut the hair level at the desired length. %id. — Bind the tail round with a piece of cord, about 6 in. above the point at which it is to be divided ; then, with a sharp knife, cut so as to give the ends of the hair the required slope. 3?Y^.— Lay the tail, at the desired length, across the H 98 HORSE MANAGEMENT IN INDIA edge of a broad adze (Hind, husoola), and divide the hair by a smart blow with a flat billet of wood. The adze should be held steady, the handle to the rear, the edge horizontal, and the blade sloped, so that the horse may carry his tail level at a walk. Any loose hairs may then be trimmed with the scissors. This is an admirable plan for troopers, with which dispatch and uniformity are matters of consideration. For use with a number of horses, a blade resembling that of an adze, but broader, may be let into a block of wood 4 or 5 lbs. in weight. Bots. — During the autumn months, the bot-fly will endeavour to lay its eggs on the chest and forelegs of horses, especially if the animals be kept much in the open, as when on the march. These eggs adhere to the hair, and, though very minute, may readily be recognized by their bright yellow colour, and by their position, which is chosen by the fly so that the horse may easily lick them off, and thus convey them into his stomach. During these months, syces should be careful to examine their horses after they come in from exercise, and pick off any of those eggs they may detect. Stable Routine. — The system which is applicable to race-horses should be the one pursued with all valuable animals, under the modifications that necessity or con- venience may require. I may describe it as follows : — At daybreak, the horse is given about half a gallon of water, and after that a feed of about a pound of corn ; his clothing is taken off, and he is groomed lightly over. The whole of the bedding should now be put outside, to be aired and dried, and the dung and fouled litter should be removed. The stable should be opened out for the STABLE ROUTINE 99 admittance of air and sunshine. The floor should be well swept, and any portion of it which may have become wet with urine should, if the floor be of waterproof material, be strewn over with dry earth, and then swept dry and clean with a broom. If the floor be of earth, the soiled parts should be scraped up and replaced by dry soil. On the horse's return from work or exercise, say about 8 or 9 o'clock, he is watered, groomed, and clothed according to the season. His bedding is now neatly put down ; and he is fed, and given a full allowance of grass or hay, at the same time as he gets his corn. The stable is then darkened, and the animal is left to himself for three or four hours. Between twelve and one he is watered, lightly groomed, and fed as before ; and is not again disturbed until about four o'clock, at which time he gets a little water, a small feed of corn, and a thorough grooming. The bedding should again be removed, dried, and selected. On the horse's return to the stable in the evening, he is watered and lightly groomed over. His bedding is now arranged, he is fed, given his grass or hay, clothed, and left for the night. The syce should remove, without delay, all dung, urine, and soiled litter from the stall ; for the presence of dirt is not alone injurious to the horse's health, but it also attracts flies, which are extremely annoying to the animal, especially during the hot weather. Strict supervision must be exercised in order to prevent syces taking the clothing off theu" horses on cold nights, and using it themselves for bedding. For hours of feeding and division of food, see page 80. Instead of watering the horse at fixed times, he may, loo HORSE MANAGEMENT IN INDIA with great advantage, liave a constant supply of water at all times in his stall. It is hetter to have horses groomed in the afternoon than in the evening, for then the syces will have plenty of light by which to do their work ; and the owner will probably be able to superintend it, to some extent at least, without its interfering with his dinner. To economize the bedding, it may be put down only at night. I strongly advocate the system of feeding which I have described. CHAPTER VIII MANAGEMENT OF HOESES ON BOARD SHIP As my experience extends only to the transport of single horses on board ship, and not to that of large numbers, I shall confine my remarks to the former. The frogs and soles of a horse's feet, before he is em- barked, should be hard, strong, and as fully developed as possible. Hence, it is advisable to let him go barefoot for a couple of months beforehand, or to shoe him a la Gharliery or with tips, while the crust and heels are kept low, and to forbid all paring of the soles and frogs with the drawing knife, as well as " stopping " with cow-dung, etc. If thrush be present, the animal's feet should be treated for it with- out delay. Shortly before being put on board, the shoes (if they be used) should be taken off, and the heels and walls of the hoofs should again be lowered, so as to obtain frog and sole pressure. These precautions are necessary in order to lessen the possibility of the animal getting in- flammation of the feet {laminitis) from long standing. For ten days or so before sailing, the horse should be put on laxative food, if he be at all gross, so as to protect his system as much as possible from the attacks of any kind of inflammation. With this object in view, I would I02 HORSE MANAGEMENT IN INDIA advise a bran mash every night, and carrots and green fodder, with very little corn. The amount of food to be laid in for a voyage can be calculated on the following allowance : — Amount of Forage, etc., pei ' Day. Hay ... ... 18 lbs. Oats ... 3 „ Bran ... ... 5 „ Linseed ... 3 oz. Salt ... 2„ Water ... ... 6 gallons. Straw (for bedding) ... 5 lbs. The linseed may be given as a mash, from time to time. Besides this, a ba g and a half of sand per week may be allowed for the animal to stand on. The following $ articles of clothing, etc., will be necessary : — A suit of warm clothing complete. A couple of horse rugs. A waterproof sheet. A large fly-net to fit over the head and neck. A pair of knee-caps. Head collar and side reins. Watering bridle. Brush and curry-comb. Hoof-pricker. Half a dozen cotton rubbers. A sponge. A large pot for boiling linseed, etc. Slings. A set of felt hoof-covers, for applying warm or cold water. MANAGEMENT OF HORSES ON BOARD SHIP 103 The rugs may, with advantage, be covered with canvas. For a voyage of a month or two, it is advisable to lay in a few medicines, etc., as follows : — Six physic balls (containing 4J drachms of aloes) Nitrate of potash (nitre) ... ... 4 oz. Sweet spirits of nitre ... ... 1 pint Tincture of opium ... ... ... 12 oz. Oil of turpentine Camphor Alum Linseed oil 2 pints 2 oz. 1 lb. i gallon Tincture of myrrh and aloes (for abrasions) 8 oz. Lunar caustic ... ... ... 1 „ Bicarbonate of soda ... ... lib. A rasp. A searcher. A pair of leather shoes for fomenting the feet. The horse should be provided with a box in which to remain while he is on board. The best form of box for a valuable animal is one *1\ ft. long by 5J ft. wide. It may be provided with sliding bars, by which the width of the box may be reduced one-half, so that, if need be, support by them may be given during rough weather. Such a box can carry two horses, who will be far more comfortable in it than if they were in separate ones of 3 ft. wide. The ordinary form of box is about 6^ ft. long, inside, and about 2 ft. 9 in. broad. In a large box, like the one described, the horse can lie down with perfect ease, even during comparatively rough weather, and can take some exercise ; but in a short, narrow box, he will be obliged to keep on his feet the whole time. The box should be provided with doors at both ends, so 104 HORSE MANAGEMENT IN INDIA that the animal or animals may be able to go in or out of it, whichever way it is turned. It should have massive iron rings, placed in convenient positions so as to enable it to be hoisted over the side by means of the crane ; and there should be placed semicircular iron bars over the top, to give it stability, and to afford support for coverings. In bad weather, watertight white canvas covers, properly secured, act well. In very hot weather an a^vning may be required. Strong iron rings should be let into the deck to enable the box to be securely lashed down. The inside of the box should be thoroughly well padded throughout its entire extent. Straw padding, covered mth canvas, as is generally used, proves ineffective ; for it soon gets hard and works downward, leaving the upper portion of the woodwork unprotected. I would strongly advise the use of large pieces of felt, to be secured by being laced through holes bored in the planking, so as to dispense with the employment of nails of any sort, next the horse. The floor of the box should be laid down with thick, rough cocoanut matting, having a long, thick " pile " or "nap," into the upstanding fibres of which the feet of the animal may sink, and thus obtain secure foothold. Six ordinary door-mats made of this material, if sufficiently long, will do for a box, five to cover the floor, and one extra, so that the rearmost mat may be taken out and dried, and the others pushed down in succession. If only smooth matting be procurable, it should be kept covered with about three inches of sand. If possible, battens should not be fixed on the floor of the box, for horses are apt to injure their feet by persistently standing with their MANAGEMENT OF HORSES ON BOARD SHIP 105 heels on these slips of wood. I cannot explain why they adopt this procedure, instead of using the battens as a fixed point for their toes, in the manner intended by man. With their heels on the battens, and their toes on the floor, they adopt a position which is eminently calculated to induce laminitis. Straw should not be put under the horse in rough weather, as it is very slippery. A little of it, however, may be shaken a couple of times a day under the animal for him to stale on, so that his legs may not become wet. Straw may also be used for preventing the horse from knocking himself about, or from being injured in bad weather. With this object it is well to have four or five bags filled with straw, to be used as occasion may demand. The box should be placed on deck as much amidships as possible, and atlmuart ships, but not fore and aft. On long tacks the horse should face to windward, the box being turned round if necessary. In placing the box, advantage should be taken of any cover that may afford protection from seas breaking over the vessel. Steamers with flush decks and little shear are by far the worst on which to convey horses on deck. Those provided with high bulwarks are the best. A ship that is light, and is consequently high out of the water, will naturally be safer for horses on deck than if she were deep. The box should be opened morning and evening to enable the attendant to clean it out. On other occasions it should be kept closed. During fine weather slings should be placed under the animal, so loose as not to press against his belly when he io6 HORSE MANAGEMENT IN INDIA stands up, but tight enough to enable him to rest his weight on them if he cliooses. If it gets at all rough, the slings should be at once removed. If the horse be quiet, he may be taken out from time to time, when the sea is very smooth. On no account should he be allowed to walk on the deck if it be at all wet or greasy. There is no need to groom the horse beyond sponging out his eyes, nostrils, dock, etc., and picking out his feet, except when the weather is so fine that he can be taken out on deck, for accidents with horses on board ship are very liable to occur. The horse's head should be secured by means of side ropes attached to the head collar. During hot weather the horse should be kept princi- pally on bran and hay, with very little corn. A stock of carrots should, if possible, be laid in. After a horse has been on board three weeks, his heels and the walls of his hoofs should again be lowered. An owner should make arrangements with the captain of the ship for help to be given by some of the crew, in the event of its being required, during bad weather. Liberally "paying one's footing" on the forecastle will have a good effect. " After landing horses from a sea voyage it is advisable to keep them for a few days in loose boxes, so that they may recover the use of their feet before they are even gradually brought on to work, for a walk, even of a few miles, immediately after coming off ship is very apt to set up laminitis, although previously no symptoms of that disease might have been apparent." ("Veterinary Notes for Horse Owners.") CHAPTER IX STABLE SERVANTS Syces — Grass-cutters— Shoeing-smiths — Riding-lads. Syces. — Although remarks on the management of native stable servants hardly come within the scope of this work, still the subject so nearly concerns the welfare of the noble animal about which I am writing, that I cannot refrain from offering the following hints for the use of inexperienced horse-owners. I may state that the great art of getting on well with one's servants, and, consequently, keeping them up to their work, is to treat them in a uniformly just and sympathetic manner, while always maintaining towards them one's proper position as master. One should never swear at, beat, or fine them. The first-mentioned prac- tice is degrading to one's self; the second is cowardly and illegal ; and the third is as silly as the proverbial one of cutting off one's nose to spite one's face, for the syce will in the large majority of cases, if fined, scamp his work, or " take it out " of his horse, so as to make up for the loss he has sustained. From a long experience among stable servants, both in India and England, I can say io8 HORSE MANAGEMENT IN INDIA with confidence that, as a rule, those of the former are as trustworthy, hard working, and intelligent as those of the latter country, and that too on, say, Es. 7 a month instead of I85. a week. The masters who have most trouble with their native servants, and whose horses get worst looked after, are generally young " griffs," who know little or nothing of the language of the country, and are always abusing theu' syces for being fools — as if, forsooth, " the boot was not on the other leg " ! Horse- owners may observe the following rules with advantage : — Endeavour to give orders concerning the horses as clearly as possible, so that there may be no chance of their being misunderstood. Pay the servants liberally and regularly. Insist on the practice of the syce, in case anything goes wrong with his horse, instantly reporting the matter. On no account allow a syce, on his own responsibility, to treat any ailment his horse may get, such as cracked heels, cuts, etc. ; to have any voice in the shoeing of the animal, or to make any arrangement about getting corn from the grain merchant (himnyah). If any of the servants are not amenable to kind treat- ment, they should be dismissed at once, for a master who is known to be good to his men will never be in want of a choice of applicants for employment. One should not, if possible, keep a discontented servant. Make certain that the syce can live on his pay, for if he cannot do so he will assuredly steal his horse's grain. Before the cold weather comes on, supply each syce and grass-cutter with warm clothing and a blanket, so GRASS-CUTTERS 109 that they may not be induced to take off the horse's rugs at night to use as bedding for themselves. In Indian racing stables syces are generally given a month's pay for each race their horses win. It is the custom to allow each syce a bottle of oil and a pound of country soap for their respective horses every month. If an owner suspects that his syce steals the horse's grain, he may have it sprinkled by a sweeper with water before it is given, for then the syce will regard it as polluted, and will not eat it. The old adage about the master's eye making the horse fat applies particularly well to India. A native shoeing - smith usually gives a syce four annas for each time his horse is shod. It is usual in large stables to make the steadiest syce headman over the others, and to have him responsible in case anything goes wrong. He is called a "jemadar syce," and gets an increase of one or two rupees a month. Grass-cutters. — When a grass-cutter goes out to cut grass, he should bring back a double supply, say 28 lbs. so that half the number of these servants may remain present to help the syces. Grass-cutters are sometimes expected to provide bedding for the horses. I would advise that, instead of this being done, the owner should allow a rupee a month per horse for straw, requiring in return that the grass- cutter should assist in grooming. When marching horses by road, each grass-cutter should accompany his horse, and should carry a feed or two of corn, four or five pounds of grass, a brush and no HORSE MANAGEMENT IN INDIA currycomb, a hoof-picker, a rubber, picketing ropes, and any odds and ends required, so that the horses may not be inconvenienced by the carts which carry the corn, gear, etc., being delayed on the road. One bucket between two or three horses will be sufficient. Shoeing-Smiths. — Native shoeing-smiths generally charge from Es.l 4 a. to Es.l 8 a. for shoeing, and 12 a. for removing. With a large stable, it is a good plan to employ a shoeing- smith on a fixed salary. As a rule they are neat workmen, and will readily learn if properly taught. Their pay will vary from Es. 10 to Es. 16, for which they will shoe and plate their master's horses, and, if attached to a racing stable, will accompany them from one meeting to another. They expect permission to shoe during spare hours on their own account. Riding- Lads. — Having got horses to train, the next thing is to find some one to ride them in their gallops, for owners are hardly ever light enough to do this. Besides, a man can generally train better by superintending work than by riding gallops himself. If possible, no one over 8 st. 7 lbs. at the very outside should be put up, for any more weight will certainly tend to shorten the stride of a horse, especially that of small ones like Arabs. On the other hand, too light a lad — say, one of 7 st. — may not be strong enough to hold a big horse together ; and it is always better to put up a little extra weight in the shape of muscle than to allow a horse, particularly a young one, to sprawl all over the place. When a horse has once learned to gallop, unless he be a determined puller, an 8 st. lad will generally be able to do all that RIDING-LADS iii is wanted, and with such a one up — if he be at all a "workman" — a horse's legs will stand far longer than under a heavier weight, and the owner need not fear fast work to the same degree as he should do the other. One may sometimes chance on an English jockey that is light, does not drink, and is a good race rider. Such a man is indeed a treasure, and will be cheap at Es.l50 a month, Es. 100 for winning, and Ks. 50 for losing a mount, if the owner keeps four or five horses. But anything short of the genuine article should be shunned, for one of the nondescript lot would take more looking after than a stable of twenty horses. In default of a regular English jockey, an owner's only safety is in employing quiet native lads. Probably he will have to make a selection from his scyces and grass-cutters, or from their sons, and be obliged to teach them himself to ride. As the British nondescript is to be avoided, so is the genuine '' coachwan," who delights in gold-laced caps and in sticking out his toes in front of his horse's nose. The best native riding- lads I have met have been syces' sons, whom their masters taught and succeeded in keeping in order. From Es. 6 to Es. 10 — the " coachwan " will require Es. 30 — a month will be quite enough for such boys, with a small present, say Es. 5 when any of the horses win. The master should be most careful in keeping them in their place, and should always insist on their helping the syces when grooming. Treat them fairly and a little liberally at times, but never " give them their heads," nor allow them to gallop a horse or take one out of the stable without being present one's self. The three great faults of native boys are, that they ride with too long stirrups, stick their toes out too much 112 HORSE MANAGEMENT IN INDIA in front, and do not " ride a horse up to his bridle " — a fatal failing in race-riding. Besides, when silk is donned, they almost all lose their heads when it comes to a finish with English jockeys. After a native boy has been taught to ride with a fair seat and good hands, the next thing is to give him some idea of pace, which is usually taught by employing the "anna system." As there are 16 a. in a rupee, a 4-a. gallop is made to stand for quarter; 8-a., for half; 12-a., for three-quarter; and 16-a., for full speed. Each quarter of a mile being clearly marked by a post or pillar on the course where horses are galloped, the trainer, when instructing native boys, should tell them before each gallop is given how many annas' speed he wants, and then may accurately time each quarter of a mile with his stop-watch, so that after the gallop he may be able to correct the boy, and point out where the latter went too fast or too slow, as the case may be. The eye alone is not sufficient to detect slight variations of pace. Besides, if the master holds the watch, the boy will more readily believe that he is being told correctly. If the lad be willing and intelligent under this system, and be given instructions as to holding his hands, keeping the proper position of his leg and foot, judging the right length of stirrup, etc., he ought to learn to ride a training gallop fairly in, say, three months. The trainer may teach the lad the rates of speed by a conventional standard (see p. 190), or by the exact division of time, as take, for instance, that the length of the racecourse is 1 J mile, that the horse in question can do this, with the boy up, at full speed in 2 min. 45 sec, and that the order for the training RIDING-LADS 113 gallop is "once round at 8-a.," then the time the horse should take would be 5 min. 30 sec. This I know is slower than the accepted idea of what half speed should be; but if a faster pace be required, it is just as easy, and perhaps tends less to confuse the lad, to increase the number of annas ordered. Here I take for granted that the racecourse is level, like almost all our Indian ones. At Poona, Bangalore, and Dehra Doon, for instance, further directions would be requisite to teach the lad to slightly vary the pace, as the nature of the ground might require. CHAPTEE X SHOEING Shoeing — Plates — Tips — On shoes getting loose. As I have discussed at some length, in my " Veterinary Notes for Horse Owners," the principles and practice of shoeing, I need not here do more than recapitulate what I have already written on that subject, while adding a few observations that are specially applicable to India. Shoeing. — In preparing the ordinary healthy foot, it should be lowered so that the frog, wall, and a portion of the sole should bear weight, while maintaining the part at a proper slope — about 50 degrees for the fore, and 60 degrees for the hind hoofs, viewing them in profile. In doing this, the sole should be left untouched with the knife. Broken or diseased portions of the frog should be removed. The clenches of the old shoe ought to be cut off by the buffer, without the use of the rasp. The shoe should be as thin as possible consistent with its standing wear, and should be perfectly flat on the foot surface. The nail-holes should be punched " coarse " (well away from the edge), so that the nails may take a firm hold PLATES 115 when the outer edge of the shoe is made to coincide, as it ought to do, with that of the ground surface of the foot. It is well to fit on the shoes hot, although this cannot always be done in India. The shoeing smith should refrain, as much as possible, from rasping the external surface of the hoof. He should not "spring" the heels of the shoe, i.e. he should not leave a space between them and the horny heels ; and he should on no account be allowed to hammer down the heels of the shoe on to the heels of the hoof after the nails have been driven, for this practice is a fruitful cause of corns, as it gives rise to undue pressure on the '' seat of corn." Native shoeing smiths, to save themselves trouble, will almost always, if ordered to supply thick-heeled shoes, bring ordinary ones, the heels of which they have thick- ened by simply reducing the width of the web by ham- mering, instead of getting shoes made expressly for the purpose required. As they manufacture neither shoes nor nails, but obtain them ready made from the mistree (blacksmith), there is usually some difficulty in inducing them to adopt any new ideas concerning the shape of shoes. Plates are simply very light shoes, which are intended to last for only one or two races. They are generally fixed on the morning of the day before the race, and, to see that all is right, the horse is then sent for a short gallop, which constitutes that day's work. A light plate for an Arab will weigh about 2J oz., and be about | in. broad. But, as most horses out here have to run at dif- ferent meetings that follow each other in quick succession, ii6 HORSE MANAGEMENT IN INDIA I much prefer using a stouter plate — in fact, a compro- mise between the plate and shoe used in training. Such a one for an Arab will weigh about 3 J oz., and ought to last through three weeks' work, and may be made | in. broad all round. Plates and light shoes may have a clip in front for the fore feet, to give them additional hold. Nails for plates should be much lighter than those for ordinary shoes. An English plate, such as those used at Newmarket, weighs about 3 oz., is about ^ in. broad, \ in. thick, and is fullered. They are made out of specially prepared bars of iron. The hind as well as the fore plates have usually clips in front. Mr. Darvell recommends, " If a horse's feet are weak and low, and he has to run on hard ground, it would be advisable to let him run in his shoes." Tips. — We may briefly sum up the chief evils result- ing from the use of shoes as follows : they tend to deprive the sole and frog of pressure, which, as a rule, is conducive to the health of the foot; the nails are liable to break away the wall ; and the weight of the shoes tends to spoil the action of racehorses by making them go " higher " than they ought to do in the gallop. For these reasons, and on account of the fact that the hoof wears away prin- cipally at the toe, " tips," say about 3 in. in length, may often be employed with advantage instead of ordinary shoes, and especially for animals that are not required to work on metalled roads. Mr. Tom Jennings, the cele- brated trainer, was accustomed for many years to use only very short tips — ^just sufficient to protect the toes — for his horses, both in training and racing. He was forced, how- ever, to discontinue this very sensible practice, on account ON SHOES GETTING LOOSE 117 of the continued opposition offered by the shoeing-smiths he had to employ to this supposed innovation. If tips are to be put on, they should be applied so as not to interfere with the proper slope of the foot. On Shoes getting loose. — We may ascertain if a shoe is loose, however slightly, by, after taking up the foot, gently tapping the ground surface of the shoe with the fingers. The nature of the sound thus made will serve to confirm or dissipate our suspicions. As long as the nails have a firm hold, so long will the heels of the hoof be protected from undue wear; but when the. shoes become loose, they soon get knocked to pieces, and the proper slope of the hoof will be destroyed for the time being. CHAPTER XI PREPARING PONIES FOR MEASUREMENT As in India certificates of height are granted to ponies that need not be either in racing or even robust condition, preparation for measurement has become in that country an established practice. Knowing that such an ordeal will reduce the height of a pony for the time being from 1 to 2 in., which is equivalent to 12 to 24 lbs., I need hardly point out that an owner must adopt this means of getting the weight off if he wishes to run his ponies on equal terms with those of other men. It would be idle to deny that this practice inflicts cruelty on ponies, and is a potent incentive to deceit on the part of their owners. It is, however, only fair to say that the present rule is a great boon to owners, who in former times had to get their ponies measured before every race for which they ran. At the same time, its evil consequences might wholly, or to a great extent, be obviated, if it were enacted that a pony not holding a certificate of height should be measured on the day of and before each race for which he was going to start, but that his owner could claim a certificate for him in any such event at the height for which he was measured for it, if the measuring authori- PREPARING PONIES FOR MEASUREMENT 119 ties were satisfied by the pony's running that he was in racing condition. It is, of course, evident that to be in such condition the animal could neither be " faked " nor drugged. As I am in no way responsible for the moral or im- moral tendencies of rules of racing in India, I shall leave the subject alone, and shall now proceed to describe the methods generally adopted under existing requirements to get ponies to measure as low as possible. I may first of all explain that, in the position which a pony has to adopt when he is being measured, the line of his fore-arms and front cannon bones has to be as nearly vertical as practicable ; his fore feet must not be unduly separated; his head must not be lowered beyond what will bring the upper line of his neck horizontal; no pulling down of the skin at the withers is allowed ; and the hocks must be pretty well under him. As a rule, every chance is given to the animal to " settle down," so that he may measure as low as he can fairly do before the record is decided upon. No allowance is made for shoes. The height taken is (or, at least, ought to be) the vertical distance of the highest point of the withers from the ground. Apart from the actual length of the bones, the height of a horse is affected chiefly by — 1. The condition of the muscles which connect the fore limbs to the trunk ; for the more they become relaxed by debility — whether from fatigue, ill health, or the action of drugs — the more will the body, and consequently the withers, sink between the fore legs. 2. The angles made by the bones respectively at the I20 HORSE MANAGEMENT IN INDIA shoulder, elbow, and fetlock joints. This is especially noticeable by the descent of the fetlock joints. 3. Approximation of the ends of the bones which form the shoulder, elbow, fetlock, and the two pastern joints. We may see this settling down of the bones in the joints illustrated in our own cases; for if we have ourselves measured in the morning, and also in the evening, we shall find that we were taller in the former time than in the latter. Agreeably to these principles, we find that long-con- tinued standing, fatigue, starvation, deprivation of water, and the administration of purgatives and sedatives will tend to cause a marked diminution of a pony's height. The pro- duction of a maximum effect will require a course of two or three months, during which time the animal, when he is in the stall, would be tied up, so that he might not lie down. Some operators advise that while the pony is tied up, the ground upon which his fore feet rest should be somewhat lower than that upon which the hind feet are placed. He is also walked a long distance every day. The food he gets is only just sufficient to keep him on his legs. Some give the patient a quarter of a pound of Epsom salts every day, in order to keep him in a nauseated and debilitated condition. It is considered advisable to walk the pony all night before bringing him up for measurement, and to give him about an ounce of chloral hydrate not less than half an hour before he is to be placed under the standard. Prior to doing this, it is well to keep him standing for at least half an hour, so that he may " settle down." The final touches have to be given with a considerable amount of discrimination, PREPARING PONIES FOR MEASUREMENT 121 lest the measuring authorities might reject the animal on the score of its being too sick. The able practitioner will, from previous experience, accurately determine the extreme point to which he can go in playing his game with the members of the measuring committee. As animals at sea get but little sleep, and usually have to stand all the time they are on board, it is often advisable, especially if they have suffered much in con- dition from the passage, to bring up for measurement ponies that have just been landed from a long voyage. Some ponies measure lower when their head is held up than when the poll is kept on a level with the withers. As the owner or his representative is usually allowed to hold the pony's head, and he will generally be allowed to use his own discretion in keeping it up or down, so long as the poll is not brought below the level of the withers. The measuring authorities, as a rule, will take under their own direction the placing of the animal's legs. It is almost needless to say that if the limbs are stretched out of the perpendicular, or if the fore feet are unduly separated from each other in a lateral direction, the pony will measure lower than he would do were his position more in accordance with the rules for measuring. Lowering the heels, within certain limits, will, by increasing the obliquity of the pasterns, decrease the height more than reducing the toes to the same extent. If, however, the heels are so much pared down that the animal cannot stand firmly on them, the rasping or cutting will, as a rule, produce the undesirable effect of making the pony add to his height by causing him to bring his pasterns more upright than usual, with the 122 HORSE MANAGEMENT IN INDIA object of relieving his heels of some of the painful pressure. It is thought by some that, in order to get a pony to measure low, it is better, after having reduced the heels as far as is safely practicable, to leave the toes long, with a view of bringing down the fetlock joints, than to pare them. In fact, I have seen shoes with very thin heels and thick toes used with this object. CHAPTER XII TEACHING HORSES TO JUMP The great secret of " making " good jumpers is to begin early enough with them ; for, after a horse has been thoroughly " broken," the sooner he is taught the special work required in leaping, the more accomplished fencer will he become. Too Good, the winner of the Grand Steeplechase de Paris, as a four-year-old, and who was one of the cleverest performers ''between the flags" we have ever seen, received his name from H.I.M. the Empress of Austria, on account of the perfect manner in which he negotiated, as a two-year-old, the difficult country over which his trainer, Mr. Linde, schools his cross-country animals. He was only one of many instances of horses in Ireland, which is the home of steeplechasing, having thoroughly mastered the art of jumping before they were three years old. The action of the muscles of the hind quarters and shoulders in leaping is so different to what it is in galloping, that early instruction, so as to impart the necessary knack, is of the greatest advantage. The fact of getting over the obstacles safely without losing ground is not sufficient for success ; for we often find that the winner of a steeplechase 124 HORSE MANAGEMENT IN INDIA fairly beats on his merits others which could "■ lose " him on the flat, even when they do not make a "mistake." That famous chaser, the Lamb, was a case in point; for in the Grand National he easily defeated Pearl Diver, who was at least 2 st. better than him on an ordinary racecourse. By learning young, the jumping muscles are stimulated during the special period of development, and the action itself becomes almost automatic, and, con- sequently, as nearly perfect as possible. When the art is acquh-ed later on, the effort will be more or less laboured, and the muscles may be inadequate in strength for this new kind of labour. Of course, there are excep- tions to this rule, one of the most notable being Volup- tuary, who, as a six-year-old, won the Grand National of 1884. This son of Cremorne and Miss Evelyn was kept, till he was five years old, on the flat, where he performed very indifferently. He was then taken in hand by that accomplished horseman, Mr. E. P. Wilson, who soon taught him to negotiate the Aintree style of country, and won on his pupil with great ease. The Liverpool fences are all of a " flying " sort, and consist chiefly of hedges with a ditch on the taking-off or landing side. Being of a uniform character, they do not demand the same amount of cleverness that is required in a more cramped country. Besides, almost all the Cremomes are natural jumpers. I am aware that it is a very common idea among racing men both in England and in India, that the way to obtain a good maiden chaser is to pick up a horse that has shown his ability to gallop, stay, and carry weight on the flat, and to teach him to jump. Following the opinion of the best judges on the subject TEACHING HORSES TO JUMP 125 in Ireland, I maintain that, as a rule, such animals will turn out failures, and that far better results, for the same amount of money, will ensue from buying " likely " young ones and teaching them their cross-country business when two-year-olds, if in Great Britain, or as three-year- olds in India. As I have thoroughly discussed, in another work, (" Riding and Hunting "), the subject of riding, I need not dwell on it further than to repeat "that the art of riding well over a country, chiefly consists in making as little as possible of the jumps, and that the fact of the rider treating fences and level ground with equal indifference, will inspire his horse with confidence to take things in the same spirit." Horses, like boys, de- light in a scamper in the country; and both detest their ramble being converted into a sort of " punishment drill," consisting of marching backwards and forwards over the same ground. Horses, also, being gregarious, love to follow their leader. Hence, we should take a fresh line of country as often as practicable ; avoid making the horses jump the same fence twice consecutively; treat the obstacles as if they were things that were only acci- dentally met with during the stroll ; endeavour to make the animals enjoy their outing as much as possible ; and stimulate the young ones to go forward by the lead of one of their companions, or, when obtainable, by the music of the hounds in front. In order to furnish a good idea of the kind of training for jumping which young ones get in Ireland, I give the following extract from a letter I re- ceived on this subject from Mr. Betagh, who has had great experience with hunters and race-horses in Ireland : — 126 HORSE MANAGEMENT IN INDIA "My system of teaching horses to jump is to avoid the whip and all harsh treatment in the preliminary lessons. I generally ride an old hunter out with the young one, and take a few easy fences, while the groom follows, leading the pupil with a long rein and cavesson. As a rule, the young one readily follows the other, espe- cially if they have been companions at exercise. For the first few trials, a man with a whip may go behind the youngster and crack it after him ; but he should seldom do more than give him a slight touch on the quarters if he does not go over freely. If a young horse is punished severely in his early lessons, he will for ever remember it, and will probably learn to refuse, from associating in his mind the cruelty he suffered with the sight of a fence. I seldom make the animal jump the same fence more than once ; then move on to another, and so on. By varying the exercise, the young one will be induced to take pleasure in his work, which he will generally do if treated kindly, though firmly. After a very few lessons, the colt may be ridden over his fences ; but he should always, until he is fairly proficient, have a steady true jumper to give him a lead. When a young horse is handy at his fences, the sooner he is schooled with hounds the better ; for there is nothing that makes a horse jump with such freedom and goodwill as following them. A short time ago, after teaching a colt of mine — a half-brother to Cosmos — to jump, I put a stable lad on him and took him to the Wards. At the very first fence, the crowd, at the only practicable spot, shut him out; and as the hounds were soon out of sight, he lagged behind, and I saw no more of him until I went home. The boy then told me LEADING-REIN CRUPPER 127 that he had turned back, as he was not able to get over the big fences. A few days after that, I had the same colt and boy out with my own harriers, and gave the lad strict orders to stick to the hounds. The result was that the colt never turned his head from anything. I had hardly landed over one enormous bank with a grip on the taking-ofP side, which was almost too big for my liking, although I was on one of the boldest hunters in Ireland, when, to my surprise, the young one was at my girths, sailing away in high delight at the fun. " It will not take long to make a young horse a good jumper, provided he is treated with kindness, firmness, and common sense. As soon as he gets confidence in himself, he will be fit to go over any steeplechase course ; and then the pace may be increased at the fences. He should, if possible, always be ridden in company ; some- times getting a lead, at other times taking it, or going all abreast." Leading-rein Crupper. — The preliminary practice I would pursue in '' making " a jumper, is first to give him a good mouth by driving him on foot in the manner described in " Illustrated Horse Breaking," and then teach him to leap without any one on his back. The great advantages of this method are that the horse which is broken according to it, acquires a perfect mouth, is under absolute control, and is free from the ill effects which too frequently result from the punishment and "jobbing" in the mouth that are inflicted on "green" horses by bad-tempered and incompetent riders. After a horse has learnt to leap well, when driven over jumps with a rider who does not hold the reins on his back 128 HORSE MANAGEMENT IN INDIA (see "Illustrated Horse Breaking"), lie will be far less liable to become spoiled by a rider of but moderate skill, than he would be had he not received his first lessons with the " long reins " and '' leading-rein crupper." "A very safe way for teaching horses to jump is to make a circular course of not less than 5 yards broad and about 150 yards in circumference, and enclose it with high palings, while four or five fences of different kinds — say, a hurdle topped with brushwood, an Irish bank, a stone wall, a water jump, and a post and rails — may be placed at intervals round it. The horse is then turned loose in this kind of circus, either with or without a leader, and is made to jump with a little persuasion. This plan should be used only as an introduction to schooling." After a horse has become perfect in his preliminary work, he should be gradually brought on to the nego- tiation, if possible, of a "natural" line of country, or, failing it, by one of " made " fences. At first the best kind of obstacle for a young or unschooled horse, is low hedges or fences made up of thorns, as they will make the animal see the necessity of clearing them, without, at the same time, frightening him by bringing him down. The height, of course, should be gradually increased. Special attention should be paid to getting him clever at water and fences that have a ditch in front of them, as they are, of all others, the ones which horses, as a rule, are most liable to refuse. " Artificial water," which is used on many training courses in England, and consists of a white sheet or whitewashed strip of ground of the required length and breadth, with a bushed fence of a couple of LEADING-REIN CRUPPER 129 feet high in front, may be employed, with great advantage, in India, where suitable brooks are generally difficult to find. It has the immense merit of causing to the rider who goes at it the smallest possible amount of trepidation, as he will know full well that it cannot bring him to grief. Artificial water, arranged as I have described, is usually taken by horses in all good faith as the real article. In India, a capital plan for teaching horses to become clever over walls without running any undue risk, is to practise them over ones made up to the proper height with single rows of sun-dried bricks, which will come down if the animal " chances " them, but will hurt his shins sufficiently to render him more careful in the future. For making a horse clever over posts and rails, one should employ a very thick log or trunk of a tree, so that the animal will understand that it is no use attempting to knock it down. In my opinion, the bar ought not to be made to fall down if the horse strikes it. If the breaker or his helper be not prepared to mount and take the necessary risk, they may put the animal over by means of the driving reins and leading-rein crupper, in the manner before described. The bar may be bushed over with thorns. A bar, which should be gradually raised, may be placed across the stable-yard gateway, or other con- venient passage, so that the horses may get accustomed to jump it when going to and returning from exercise. Similar expedients with other kinds of fences may be adopted, as the trainer sees fit. I need only add, that " made " fences should be as long from side to side as possible, and have wings if necessary. K I30 HORSE MANAGEMENT IN INDIA Horses that are being trained for steeplechasing should be taught to take their fences fast and in company. One great secret of success in this form of sport is to accustom the horses to the exact style of country over which they have got to travel. PART II TRAINING AND RACING CHAPTER I RACING IN INDIA Racing men and horses — Ou forming a useful stable — The style of race-horse suited to India— The different classes and their respective form — Timing — Records of fast times. In England, racing is almost entirely confined to pro- fessionals, and to a few moneyed men, who can afford to run horses for amusement, just as others go in for yacht- ing, hunting, or shooting, caring little for the cost, as long as they get sufficient excitement out of the particular sport they pursue. There, racing is such a complete business, and its attendant expenses are so heavy, that a man of moderate means cannot, with any safety, follow it, unless he adopts it as his profession. In India, the small amount of public money and limited speculation render the turf, as a rule, too precarious a means of living, except in the case of jockeys and trainers. Few of the latter find training pays, unless they be light enough to earn their winning and losing mounts on the horses of which they have charge. There are not many representatives of the moneyed 132 TRAINING IN INDIA section of the racing public in India, which is, above all others, the country for a comparatively poor man to do a little racing in without it costing him much, provided he knows something about horses ; for stable expenses are very moderate (say forty rupees a month for each horse, including everything), and none but first-class animals cost extravagant sums. But the fact which enables men of small means to race in India, is the system that divides the majority of races among different classes of horses. These events serve both to fill up prospectuses and to accommodate owners. Except at the few centres of racing, it is difi&cult to collect sufficient money to attract first-class animals, even were there more of them in this country, so that handicaps have to be resorted to in order to bring the one or two of them which ever appear at a smaU meeting, together with the second-raters. On this account stewards of race meetings, in order to get fields together, are obliged to add to handicaps races for " all horses," and selling races, those for Arabs, country-breds, galloways, ponies, and for maidens of the different classes, not to mention still more minute divisions. Thus an owner would have bad luck indeed were he not able to find some event or the other suitable to his horses, even if he had nothing better than a country-bred pony, a half-miler, and a jumping nag, although their united value might not exceed two thousand rupees. It may be objected that this is not racing, which it certainly is not in the English sense of the word ; yet for all that, a man who is sufficiently fond of horses to look after and manage them himself, can get good sport with a few moderate ones. Personally I should take more interest in training RACING IN INDIA 133 an inferior animal, and, by skill and work, winning races with him in moderate company, than in owning (as many do at home) first-class horses which were entirely in the hands of a trainer, on whom I should have to be solely dependent for information as to theu' form and pretensions. Six or seven horses will be found a large-enough string for up-country meetings, if the owner intends to look after them himself, and expects them to win enough to cover their expenses. To accomplish this, one should have horses of a useful class, that would be certain to find races to run for at the different meetings to which they might go, with a fair chance of pulling off an event now and then. Keeping horses too good for one's line of country is hardly more paying than owning animals too bad for it. The presence of first-class horses (if their form be known) deters owners from entering against them ; the races do not fill ; and even if they do so on an odd occasion, it is simply " buying money " to back them ; while in handicaps, a good horse, among moderate ones, gets so much weight piled on, that it is almost certain either to break him down or to spoil his action. An owner should remember that knowledge of the best manner in which to *' place " his horses is the great secret of success in racing. A first-class steeplechaser does not come under these objections ; for " between the flags," one's money being "in the air," men will usually enter on the outside chance of a fall or refusal. Besides, the added money alone is generally worth running for, even without speculation. One or two sfood second-class Australians which can 134 TRAINING IN INDIA stay up to a mile and a half, a couple of Arabs — especially if one or both be galloways, and are at the same time good enough to run among the big ones, like what Chief- tain, Caliph, Abdool Eayman, and Eex were — a fast 13.2 Arab, or country-bred pony, a half-miler for selling races, and a good chaser, would form the 'beau ideccl of a useful stable for up-country meetings. A good maiden is a real Eldorado, whether Australian, Arab, or chaser; but they are particularly hard to get, and uncertain to back, unless one has first-rate trying tackle with which to test their powers. Maidens in India take, to some extent, the place which two and three-year-olds occupy in England, for many of the most important races are confined to horses that have never won during any previous season, irrespective of their age ; though, of course, allowance of weight for it is always given. Speaking generally, no weight within reason can bring Arabs together with even second-rate Colonials. Eor the last thirty years we have not had a single Cape horse that could hold his own against Australians. As quite as high prices can be obtained for good horses in South Africa as in India, it evidently w^ould not pay to export them from the former to the latter country. Speaking from my own experience of South African racing during the year 1892, I would say that the best '' Cape " horses, like Prosecutor, for instance, although quite as good as the average English horses imported, such as Savile, Earl Godwin, or Vichy, are fully 7 lbs. inferior to the English horses. Metal, Blanchland, and Presto, and to the Australians, Kingcraft, Statesman, Myall King, RACING IN INDIA I35 Moorhouse, and Little Prince, when fit and over their own respective distances. With the increase of railways and of the gold " output " at the " Eand," the future of racing in South Africa looks bright. At the same time, I must say that it will have no chance, for many years to come, of successfully competing against Australasia in the Indian horse market, whether with blood stock or re- mounts. Although there are some fair horses bred in South Africa, strange to say, there are hardly any smart ponies produced there. The only exception I saw was that brilliant chasing pony, Coachman. The old Cape Town hero, the ch. c.h. Echo, 9 st., at Calcutta, December, 1871, won the Stand Plate, 1 mile, in 1 m. 48 s., when he was about thirteen years old. There is a sort of fatality about English horses in India ; for few out of the many that are imported prove, either as racers or as ordinary riding-horses, to be worth their passage-money out to this country. Their feet and legs are far more liable "to go to pieces " on our hard ground than those of Australia, New Zealand, or the Cape. The chief reason for this, as far as I can judge, is that the drier climate of our southern colonies is more favourable to the development of soundness in wind and limb, as regards horses, than is the moister one of Great Britain. I am in- clined to go so far as to think that horses bred in a dry climate, and, consequently, on hard soil, will, after a few generations, have legs and feet of a much better shape to stand work on hard ground than those of animals that are natives of a damp country. In this respect, the horses of Australia and the Cape can compare very favourably with those bred in England, a large proportion of which possess 136 TRAINING IN INDIA those upright pasterns that are entirely unsuited to work on Indian soil. The majority of Indian race-courses are so hard that they tend to make horses which are trained on them go short and " stilty." Even when the track happens to be soft, the "going" is simply heavy without any elasticity, so that the horse is taught to " dwell on his stride." We hardly ever obtain the happy medium afforded by the light springy turf in England. Good legs and feet are the first considerations, and then comes the power of carrying weight and being able to stay. An English horse, or Australian, should be able to race under 10 st. 7 lbs. IJ miles. If a sound game horse can do all this, his being a little "troubled with the slows" will not prevent him from paying his way. A flashy thoroughbred that could stagger home in extraordinary good time over 5 furlongs with 6 st. up would be out of place in India, except, perhaps, for a coti'p at Calcutta. With the exception of Eeputation and Oberon, neither of whom stood training in India, there have been no Eng- lish horses imported into this country that were up to good handicap form in the land of their birth. Metal, by his running with Althorp at Goodwood, was a fair second- rater. In India he was the best of his time when fit. Blanchland, who was a roarer, was probably the fastest 5- furlong horse we have seen in India. Presto, who was a smart selling-plater in England, was nearly first-class in India. In olden days the English mares. Morning Star and Bridesmaid, were, at their own distance, unapproachable by their Australian rivals, who, it must be confessed, had but little pretensions to racing form. Australian horses, RACING IN INDIA 137 such as Myall King, Moorhouse, and Little Prince in recent times, and Kingcraft in former years, have cer- tainly held their own against all comers. The only first-class Australian which has run in India was Bravo, the Melbourne Cup winner, who, from unsoundness, was unable to show in this country anything like his true form. The prominent running in England of the Australian second-rater, Eingmaster, goes to prove that there is not much to choose, from a racing point of view, between Australian and English horses. In India honours seem to have been fairly divided between them, taking into consideration that of the former there have been far more runners than of the latter. As regards price and the capability of standing work in India, I think the balance is all in favour of Australians, of which there are many well-bred specimens imported every year into India. English horses, owing to their high price, are never sent out on sale to this country. Country-breds sometimes hold their own in hack selling races — winner to be sold for from Es. 200 to Es. 500 — when not beyond | mile. Those that do so have almost always a strong dash of English blood, from which they generally derive their turn of speed, as well as some of their inherited infirmities, which doom them to running for such minor events. A useful horse for such races — winner to be sold for Es. 500 or Es. 600— ought to be able to do with 10 st. up, J mile in 52 s., or | mile in 1 m. 19 s., on an ordinary racecourse. Without wishing in the slightest to attempt to dis- courage those who desire to improve the breed of horses in India, I must point to the fact that racing stock of even 138 TRAINING IN INDIA the most moderate pretensions cannot be bred in India without the blood being constantly renewed by suitable importations, whether from Europe, the Colonies, or America. The effect of the climate, which is manifest in the indigenous equine type, will not allow, without con- stant foreign aid, the production of animals fit either for the turf or for heavy saddle work. The country produce bred by General Parrott from nearly pure English blood, although incapable of holding their own against Aus- tralians, have been, at weight for age and class, capable of defeating Arabs at all distances. As a rule, however, the sons of the desert have " the pull " in races of \\ mile and upwards against other country-breds. Among the best have been — Pretender, who belonged to Mr. George Plowden ; Meg Merrilies, who won the Governor-General's cup in 1858, and also in 1859 ; Annandale, the black mare Gipsy, Deception, M. T., late Mermaid, Kathleen, Gerald- ine. Surprise, May Queen, Engadine, Tangree, and Minden. To judge by Predominant, Sylvia, Lord Clyde, Labby, Mike, Maythorne, Bustle, Marquise, and others, we must regard English ponies as a good deal better than those of all other classes. Next to them come Australasian ponies, like Little Wonder and Achievement; then Arabs; and lastly country-breds. As exceptions I may mention the Arabs, Eex and Blitz, who, for their respective heights were as good as anything that ever carried silk in India. Though there have been many instances of 13.2 ponies running successfully among galloways (14 hands and under) at the usual allowance of 3 lbs. the quarter-inch, it is rare indeed to meet with a pony lower than that which can do so. ... 1 to 2 miles ... li to 2 9> ... 1 to 2 5) •| to 1 mile. ... itol )> ... ?> ... itoi 5J ... itol )» RACING IN INDIA 139 At most meetings the following classes are those for which races are generally made, with the distances usually run : — 1. All horses 2. Arabs 3. Arabs and country-breds 4. Country-breds 5. Ponies (14 hands and under) 6. Ponies (1.3.2 and under) 7. Ponies (13 hands and under) 8. Selling-race horses In discussing the '* form " of horses, I have been obliged to bring in the subject of timing, as it is so universally used and regarded out here. I am quite aware how fallible a test it is, and how much it varies according to the state of the course and the way in which a race is run. The great majority of Indian courses are so level, and the " going " so very much the same on all, that there cannot be the same objection to timing in this country as in England, where every course varies in severity, especially if rain falls. Nevertheless, in races in England, where several horses start, and in which the running is certain to be cut out by some of them, the timing of similar horses is singularly close on the same courses, considering how variable the English climate is. For instance, take that of the great three-year-old races from year to year. We find timing is a perfectly reliable test in pedes- trianism, and can pronounce with certainty that a man who can do his 100 yds. in 10 s., or his mile under 4 m. 16 s. on level ground, is undoubtedly a first- I40 TRACING IN INDIA class runner ; and so would be a horse which could, with weight for age and class, do his mile in 1 m. 43 s., or two miles in 3 m. 39 s. on the Calcutta course, for instance, if he will hut try in public, for herein lies the source of nine- tenths of the disappointments timing leads to. The " going " on most Indian racecourses, except at Bangalore, Hyderabad, Poonah, and Dehra Doon, is very similar, being almost quite level and pretty hard. As it is impossible to get all horses to run the same in public as in private, I would strongly advise the young turfite to limit the use of the stop-watch to public performances, and to regulating the pace of training gallops. If one wishes to test the powers of a young one, it should be done, not by '' putting him against the watch," but by trying liim with some horse that has recently run well in public, and is at the time of the trial in racing condition. Then if the young one beats the trial horse, and does the distance in really good time, it is all the more to his credit. No exact information as to a horse's form can be obtained by timing his gallops when he takes them alone, for not one horse in ten will run the same by himself as in company, and it would only lead to disappointment to allow for an error that, for all the owner knows, may be either for or against his horse's powers. I believe that, even with the greatest care and under the most favourable circumstances, the time test alone cannot be relied upon with a smaller margin for error than 10 lbs. in 1 mile, which, allowing for difference in horses, and for the different way races are run, we may assume would be equivalent to from 20 to 30 yds. in that distance, or from 1^ to 2 s., which does not say very much for RACING IN INDIA 141 timing, beyond affording an approximate idea of a horse's powers. On a heavy course a horse will take 4 or 5 s. longer to do a mile than on a light one. Another thing to be considered is, that we must allow at least half a second for the timer's own individual error, while there is still more to be allowed for the way in which horses get off, whether from a flying start or from a walk. It does not at all follow that because a horse cannot be got to do good time in private he is on that account a moderate animal, for many, particularly stayers, require the stimulus of company to make them extend themselves. When timing in private, the trainer should be most careful to observe how his horses finish, for an animal who finishes strong will always, provided he runs honest, beat another that can do even slightly better time, but is " all out " on nearing the winning-post. The following tables furnish instances of first-class timing. For uniformity's sake, and because distances and time are carefully measured there, I have given only Calcutta records. I have rejected several which have official sanction, some because they were "too good," others because, owing to the nature of the course, the exact moment of starting could not have been obtained. Such instances (yich Appendix, " C. T. C. Book Eacing Calendar," 1891-2) as b. a. gal. Turkish Flag, 10 st., 2 miles, 3 m. 46 s., and b. a. p. Minton, 8 st. 4 lbs., 1 mile, 1 m. 19 s., both at Bombay, are manifestly absurd. 142 TRAINING IN INDIA ^^ •^O^HrHr-l1-I^HfHl-lrH(^^!M<^^C0CCC0:CM 'OOOOOOOOOOOOOOC<1000 t>» CO ^■<^iO»0»OCO«0©OOi-H(MrtiOCOOOO SOOOOOOi-Hr-lr-(i-(i-li-Hr-(i-IC^l(N(M ^(M"«*HC50i-(0<0(NO(MO«£>00(MiOCO ■SC5COCOOi050500Q00500J05a>.-(COa:»0 niJ 2 ® 2 ©'O ViS-. Vl^»H .(H^WlVl O Q m o o S m © CO a ^ph ei 5~- S DD © no D--^^ .id 'S ►*] liri pA ,5° *" ^ a, "OQ ^-^ oi' fe rj S ad p. ?: g o >o Q GOO0O0QOCOO0CX)O0O00OO0O0QOCOO0COGO - d r. d rj d ri d ci c3 „ "3 '•a2©3©3© - 4 PhIq^p^q 5 i s g § g § — § s' FAST TIMES BY ARABS 143 OD* % % ^ i d ' 1 1 u' aj "^oq CO cToo'o^'tH 00 rH a> 05 O 00 CO 05 ■<*< 9 xciin^^ir.^ CO 'ttTHO THOrH IQ ^ i-H i-( (M C> CO 1 l«c OO ^^ Tt^Tf^ CDO O O O O CO o s ao i-H CO CO d CO CO CO CO •a 1^ lO O CO O (M OO lO CO CO CO OIOJ>»0 i ^'oo O OS O Ci CO I> coo O 00 00 crsoo C5 I— t r—l o O) 1 1 rd ,a s. 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Ph' OhPh" ^ 0 "s J '^ .2 "^ -^ '^ ^ ;ih ;z; Hh ^5 0 fH h5 H ^ 03 ^ c3 s -S a -S 03 =3 ce S 03 0 «3 rH(?q!-HrHClOn JO 90Ud •iqSnog •S)9510n JO 90l.ia |b •?q3noa •S:>9^0IJ JO 90U J n ' •iqSnog ^1 : JO 90UJ LOTTERIES 229 An owner who attends many lotteries will find it con- venient to have a lottery book, made in the following form, in which to record his transactions. The book may contain a couple of hundred pages, each one being about the size of a quarter of a sheet of foolscap. !^ to ^ ^ a ^ »-> .2 rj 1 • . . . . (4_| . a : : : : 0 : "3 1 1 • n -A G 00'—' 0 g Pk >A < OJ OS s-g 03 Ti, ^g. 1 :§ ^ 1i ew ® <» 0 * P iii.s.|l ;z; ^ pS i •Sg 1 dj « II III! CQ 1 -►^ a 1 -' = = 1 H 230 TRAINING IN INDIA Formerly the ledger system was in general use for keeping lottery accounts. It consisted of entering each person's name who took part in the lotteries in a ledger, giving one page to his debits, and the other to his credits. It is far too tedious ; and by it accounts cannot be made up in sufficient time to allow of a settling immediately after a meeting is over. Every honorary secretary knows, if this be not done, how extremely difficult it is to sub- sequently square accounts satisfactorily. Among the residents of a station this remark does not apply ; but at a large meeting, where the bulk of the plungers are here to-day and gone to-morrow, it is essential that everything should be settled as quickly as possible; for absentees find it hard to believe that they have won so little, or lost so much. The lottery odds against a liorsc will be : Price of tickets -}- price of all the horses - discount - double price of the one particular horse, to that double price. Thus, in the case we have already given, the odds against Jack are 500 + 460 - 48 - 180 to 180, viz. 732 to 180, or about 4 to 1. Suppose, by a private arrangement, the buyer of Lucy, who won the race, had given away one-fourth of her, then the quarter winnings would be thus calculated : — Actual value of lottery ... ... 912 Lucy's double price ... ... ... 140 4)772 One-fourth share of winnings ... 193 Double lotteries are generally resorted to when, from PARI MUTUELS 231 a paucity of horses in two races, speculation on either, separately, is checked. The chances of all the horses are then combined together, and the buyer of the chance which contained the names of the winners of both events takes the lottery. Let us suppose that two races— the Planter's Cup and Selling Stakes— had each three entries as follows : — Planter's Cup. Selling Stakes Kingcraft. Exeter. Chorister. Lurhne. Butterfly Brandy. The combined chances would then be — 1. Kingcraft and Lurline. 2. Kingcraft and Butterfly. 3 Kingcraft and Brandy. 4. Exeter and Lurline. 5. Exeter and Butterfly. 6. Exeter and Brandy. 7. Chorister and LurUne. 8. Chorister and Butterfly. 9. Chorister and Brandy. These nine chances will be drawn for, and auctioned off, in the same manner as if they represented nine different horses entered for one particular race. Pari Mutuels and Totalisators. — The primitive way for arranging pari mntuels is as follows : Near the race stand is fixed a long box divided into partitions, each of which has a slit like those in letter-boxes. On each partition is written the name of a race, in the order they are to be run. The person managing the Pari Mutuel is provided with cards printed in the following form : — 232 TRAINING IN INDIA Meerut Autumn Meeting, 190 Tickets, Bs. 5. Name of race Horse backed , K"o. of tickets Signature of backer_ Having received a card, the intending backer fills it in according to his fancy, and places it, through the slit, into the partition set apart for the race on which he wishes to invest. This partition is closed on the horses arriving at the starting-post, after which no more cards can be put in. When the day's racing is finished, the amount in- vested on the losers in each event is divided among those who backed the winners of those respective races, after deducting a percentage, usually 10 per cent., for the benefit of the Eace Fund. Let us assume that in one of the races the winner was backed by A for Es. 10, by B for Es. 5, and by C for Es. 15, and that the other horses in the same race had been backed for Es. 170. The total here would be Es. 200, from which to calculate a per- centage of Es. 20 at 10 per cent. Deducting this Es. 20 from Es. 150 (amount lost), would leave Es. 150 to be divided between A, B, and C, and they would get respec- tively Es. 50, Es. 25, and Es. 75. The totalisatoT is an instrument by which the operator can record, for public view, the number of tickets taken RACE POOLS 233 on each horse ; the total number being automatically shown. The tickets bear the number of the horse and the name of the race, so that all the backer has to do is to pay his money and take his ticket. Every machine should be in electrical communication with the judge or other official, who should be able to effectively lock it the moment the starter's flag falls. Having frequently seen the ordinary form of machine " manipulated," I must say that I prefer to it the kind used in South Africa. In it a book of tickets (somewhat like a cheque-book), numbered in succession, is placed before each number. The tickets on being purchased are torn out of these books in the sight of all men, and given to the buyers. The public can thus see whether or not any one attempts to take tickets after the race, and the numbers taken remain on record until all the winners are paid. Race Pools may be got up by any number of persons who bid for choice of horses entered for a race, the buyer of the winner of which takes the several amounts bid for the other horses. Say, for instance, that the horses Lancer, Gaylad, Breeze, and Phantom were entered for a certain race ; the auctioneer would then ask, " How much for first choice ? " Suppose A bid Es. 50, B bid Es. 70, and D finally got it for Es. 500, D would then have the choice of any one of the four horses. Let us say that he took Gaylad. The second choice for Lancer, Breeze, and Phantom would, in the same manner, be put up to auction : and suppose A got it for Es. 400, and took Lancer; also that B got Breeze for Es. 80, and that C bought Phantom for Es. 120, the pool would thus stand : — 234 TRAINING IN INDIA D pays for Graylad Rs. 500 A pays for Lancer „ 400 B „ Breeze „ 80 C ,, Phantom „ 120 If Gaylad wins, D will win ... „ 600 ,, Lancer „ A „ „ 700 „ Breeze „ B „ „ 1020 Phantom „ C „ „ 980 HINDUSTANEE STABLE AND VETERINARY VOCABULARY The following, with the exception of names of diseases, colours, and some technical expressions, are words which any syce will understand and which are in common use in the stable. In order to render the pronunciation easy to those unacquainted with the language, I have written the vowels as they are pronounced in the words : — following a as in ''star" e „ " ecarte " i „ "kin" 0 as in " tore " u „ "fun" u „ " pull " 00 as in " poor ow „ " town' y „ "by" n should be pronounced like the Trench nasal n, as in "mon." The Hindee letters t, d, and r are pronounced hard, as in Enodish, and the tli, dh, and rh like what these letters would sound if aspirated ; kh and gh stand for these two guttural letters in Arabic. PAETS, ETC., OF THE HORSE. Abdomen, Fet. Acid, n., Tezab. Aconite (A. ferox), Mahoor. Aged (horses ten years old upwards). Mule piuij. Aloes, Musubbur ; elwa. Alum, Phiikurree. Amble, to, Rulnuar clmhia. Anasarca, Tubuh, Anise-seed, Soivnf. Antimony, black, Surma. and Anvil, blacksmith's, Nihai. „ shoeing smith's (small) Sundan. Aphthae, UnchJmr. Arab horse, Tazee, or urubee ghora. Areca-nut, Suparee. Arsenic, red, Mynsil. „ white, Sunkheea. „ yellow, Hurtal. Artery, Shiryan. 236 HINDUSTANEE VOCABULARY Asafoetida, Heeng. Asthma, Duma. Axletree, Dhuree. Back, Peeth. Backhand, Barhusli. Backbone, i?eerh. Back tendon, Ghur-nuss. Bag (for grain, etc.). Bora. Ball (physic), Duwa kee goJee. Balling iron, Daroo-kush. Bandage Puiiee. „ (wet), Pochara. Barhs, or paps, Unchhur. Barley, Joiu. Bars (of the hoof), Dohree-piUIee, Bar-shoe, Ool-nal. Bay, Kihnyt. „ with legs which are black up to the knees, Seeah zanoo kumyt. „ with belly and inside of legs light coloured, Kehur. Beans, Sem. Bearing rein, Ool hag. Bedding (straw), Bichahe. Belly, Pet. Belly-band, Petee. Bile, Pitta. Bit (curb), DuJiana. Bite, to, Kaina. Biter (a horse), KuXiur. Black, Mushkee ; kala. Bladder, Phuknee. Blanket, Kummul. Bleed, to, Fusd kholna. Blind, Andha. „ of one eye, Kana. Blinkers, Putta. Blister, Chhala. Blood, Khoon. Blue stone, Neela tooteea. Bobtailed horse, Bunda, or hm- doora gJiora. Body (of a carriage), Howda. Body piece (clothing), Gurdunnee. Boil, n., Phora. Bolt, to (off the course), Phutj'ana. Bone, Huddee. Borax, Sohaga. Bots (eggs). Leek. „ (larv£e), Bur. Brain, Mughz ; bhej'a. Bran, Chokur. Breast-piece, Chhatee hund. Breast-plate, Pesh-bund. Breechen, Pushtwig. Breeding district, Khet. Bridle, Lugam. Brittle feet, Sura^ara. Bronchitis, Kuf. Brook (steeplechase), Nala. Broom, Jharoo. Brow-band, Kun-sirra. Brown, or dark bay, Teleeya kumyt I lukhowree kumyt. Na- tives call light brown, kum.yt (bay), and dark brown, miish- kee (black). Bruise, n., Choi. Brush, n., Koochee. „ to, Neiuur lugna. Buck, to, Kandhee mama. Bucket, Baltee. Buckle, Buksooa. Butteris (shoeing), Sum turash. Calkin, Khoonta. Camphor, Kafoor. Canker of the foot, Kufgeera. Cannon bone, NuUee. Canter, to, Poya chulna. Capped elbow, Kheesa. „ hock, Kiihneea. „ knee, Zanooa. Caraway seeds, Aj'iuyti. Carbonate of soda, Kharsujee. Carrots, Oajur. Cartilage, Kurree liuddee. Caster (horse), Nuzuree ghova. Castor oil, i?endee ka tel. Cataract, Moteea-bind. Catarrh, Zukam ; surdhee. Catechu, Kuth. Caustic, Tooteea. Chaff, Bhoosa. Chalk, Khuree mittee. Chamois leather, Sabiir. HINDUSTANEE VOCABULARY 237 Cheek, Oal. Chest, Chhatee ; seena. Chestnut (all over), Surung. ,y with dark mane and tail, Kumyt. „ dark, Mowha surung. „ with light mane and tail, Chowdur Surung. Clean, Saf. Cleft of the frog, Piitlee kee ghaee. Clench of a nail, Pucliee. „ to (a nail), ilfekh Jco jiuchee hurna. Clip (of a shoe), Thohur ; hillif. Clothing, light, Thwwda kupra. „ warm, Gurm kupra. Clyster pipe, Fichkaree. Cold (adj.), Thunda. Cold in the head, Zukam ; surdhee. Cold chisel, Chhenee. Colic, Kurkih'ee. Collar (harness), Hulka. Colours, racing, Ghikdowree Kupra. Colt, Buchhera. Comb, Kunghee. Condiment, Musala. Constipation, Kuhz. Consumption, KhuslikheJ. Copper, acetate of, JuagaJ. Corn (injury to foot), ChhaJa. Corn (grain), Dana. Corners of the mouth, Bachh. Coronet, Bhown, or sum kee mughzee. Corrosive sublimate, Buskapoor. Cough, Khansee. Country-bred horse, Desee ghom. Cowdung, Oohur. Cowkick, to, Kainchee mama. Cracked heels, Chheewur. Cream-coloured (horse), Boo- dheeya shirgha. Crib-biter, Howapeem-vjala. Croton bean, Jumalgota. „ oil, Jumalgote ka tel. Crupper, JDumchee. Crust of the hoof, ^^akh. Curb (a bit), Dithana. Curb (an injury), B^(,Jr huddee. Curb-chain, Bichane kee zunjeer. Currycomb, Khurara. Cj^st, Joiua. Dandriff, Boosee. Defect (in a horse), Ayh. Diarrhoea, Bust. Digest, to (food), Huzm kurna. Dirty, Mijla. Dismount, to, Uturna. Ditch, Kliaee. Dock (under the tail), Saghiree. Door, Buriuaza. Double bank (steeplechase). Bum duma. Drench, to, Buiva pilana. Drink, to, Beena. Drive, to, Hankna. Dropped hip, Kum koala. Dropsy, Tubuk. Dull, to be, Sust iiona. Dun, light all over, Shirgha. „ with dark mane and tail, summund. „ with black stripe down the back, Selee summund. ,, with dark points and black horizontal stripes on fore- arms, Kula. „ with zebra marks, Kehuree Kula. „ with legs black up to the knees, Seeah zanoo sum- mund. Dung, Leed. Dysentery, Bechish ; Khoonee dust. Ear, Kan. Eat, to, Khana. Elbow, Aglee Kolinee. Elephantiasis, Feel-pa. English horse, Bilayutee gJiora. Enteritis, Boghma. Entire (as a horse), Aiidoo, Epilepsy, Mirgee. 238 HINDUSTANEE VOCABULARY Eye, Axikh. Eyelash, Buronee. Eyelid, Puluh. Farcy, Bel. Farrier, Saloturee. Fast (swift), Tez. Fat, n., Churhee. ,, adj., Mota ; furha. Feather in the hair, Bhoiunree. Feeder, a bad, Kum khor. Felloe, Futee. Fetlock, Mutiha. Fever, Tiijp; hukhar. Fibre (of muscle, etc.), Besha. Fill, to (as a leg), By ajana. Filly, Bucliheree. Fire, d., Ag. ,, to, Da^na. Fistula, Nasoor, Fit (in training), ToAyar. Five year old, Bunjsala. Flank, Kohh. Flat (race), Suffart. Flat-feet, Chupatee sum. Flatulency, Badee. Fleam, Nushtur. Flour (coarse), Ata. „ (fine). My da. „ (very fine), Soojee. Foal of one month, Kuvra. „ of four months, Sin ay a. „ of eight months, Wastat. „ to be in, Gahhin. Foam from the mouth, Kuf. Foment, Senkna. Foot, Byr. Foot and mouth disease, Kur- puJca ; khurha. Foot-board, Baondan. Forage, Chara. „ daily allowance of, Batib. Forearm, Bazoo ; dimd. Forehead, Matha ; peshanee. Fore-leg, Hath. Fore-lock, Chotee. Forge, Mistree-khana. Four year old, Charsala. Frog, BiUIee. Fullering (of a shoe), Bunalee. Gallop, to, Dowrna ; surjmi p)lienkna. Garron, Dugga. Geld, to, Akhta kurna. Gelding, Akhta. Ginger (dry), /South. „ (green), Udruk. Girth, Tung. Girth-gall, Zer (ung zukhm. Girth-tug, Chheep. Glanders, Khunak ; seemhha. Gloves of hair for grooming. Hutliee. Go-down (of water, etc.), Ghoont. Goose-rumped, Tuhur goon. Gram, Chuna. ,, (Madras), KuUhee. Granulate, to, Angoor hhurna. Granulations, Angoor. Grass, Ohas. Grass-cutter, Ghuseeara. Grass lands (preserved), Bukh. Graze, to, Churna. „ to send to, Churana. Grey or white, with dark mane and tail, Suhza. „ flea-bitten, Mugsee. „ dappled, Guldar suhza. „ iron, Neela subza. „ nutmeg, Lai suhza. Grey, with skin black and white in patches, Bunjaf. Grind coarsely, to, Didna. „ finely, to, Beesna. Groom, Saees. ,, to, Malish kurna. Gullet, Hulk. This word is also applied to the windpipe. Gums, Musoore. Hair (of the mane and tail), Bal. „ (of the body), Boan ; roin. Half-bred (horse), Dogh/a. Halter, Nukta. Hames, HusUe. Hammer, shoeing - smith's Eu- thoivree. HINDUSTANEE VOCABULARY 239 Handful (double), TJnjuh „ (single), Mutthee. Hand-rub, to, Hath se mulna. Hard-mouthed (horse), Moohzor. Harness, Saz. ,, (double), Jovee ha saz. „ (single), Ekla saz. „ (tandem), Agul pichul saz. Haw (of the eye), Butana. Head, Sir. Head-collar, Nuhta. Head-groom, Jumudar saees. Head -rope, Agaree. Head-stall (of a bridle), Sirdu- walee. Heart, Bil. Hedge, Bar. Heel (of the hoof), Khoontee. Heel-rope, Pichharee. Hidebound, Chirm khiishk. High-couraged, Jan baz. Hill pony, Tarighun. Hind leg, Faon. Hind quarters, Putha. Hip, Koola. Hobbles, casting, Ghur jpuchhar ; lungur. „ (for the hind legs), Miijuma. Hock, Koonch. Hoe, Phurwa. Hole (of stirrup leather), Ghur. Hollow-backed horse, Kiichhee, or zeen piisM ghoxa. Holsters, Kuboor. Honey, Shuhud. Hood (clothing), Kunsilla. „ (of a carriage), Bursatee. Hoof, Sum. Hoof ointment, Sum roghun. Horse, Ghoxa. „ thin and useless (Eosi- nante), Dugga. ,, with four white stockings and blaze, Puchhuleeyan. „ to ("to come in season"), urm hojana ; leg lana ; ung hona. Horse-fly, Dans. Hot, Gurm. Hoven, Badee. Hurdle, Phoos kee iuiiee. Indian hemp (dried flowers), Ganja. „ ,, (leaves), ^/mwr/ ; suhzee. „ „ (resin). Chums. Indigestion, Bud-huzmee. Inflammation, Jidun ; sozish. „ of the feet. Sum ka tup. „ of the liver, Kuleje kee leemaree. „ of the lungs, Phe- phre kee heemaree. Intestines, ^n^, untuvee. Iron, sulphate of, Euree kusees. Jade (horse), Khullur. Jaundice, Yurka7i ; kunwulhad. Jaw, Juhva. Jib, to, Urh-jana. Jockey, Coachwan. Joint, Jor, ^anth, gira. Jump, to, koodna ; phaiidna. Keeper (on reins), Muchhlee. Kerosine oil, Mittee ka tel. - Kick, to, Pushtuk mama ; lat chulana. „ (with both feet at once), Buluttee mama. Kicker, Luttur. Kidney, Gurda. Knee, Ghutna; zanoo. Knife, Chhuree. Lame, Lungxa. „ chronically, Kuhna lung. Laminitis, Sum ka tup. Lampas, Talooa. Lard, Soour kee chtirhee. Lead a horse, to, Tihiana. Leading rein, Bagdoree. Leather, Chumra. Leech, Jonk. 240 HINDUSTANEE VOCABULARY Lime, Choona. Linseed, Vlsee ; teesee. „ oil, Uisee ka tel, or teesee ka tel. LijD, Honih. Lip-strap, Buliaduree. Litter (manure), Khad. Liver, KuUja. Livery stables, Urgurra. Loins, Kumr. „ paralysis of the, Kumree. Loodianah fever, Gutheea ; hhugona ; zuhurlad. Lotion, Done kee dicwa. Lukewarm, Sheer gurra. Lunge a horse, to, Eawa dena. Lungs, Phejphra. Madness, Deewangee. Maggots, Reeve. Maize, Mukaee. Mane, Tal. Mange, Ehujlee ; Wiarish. Mare, U-horee; madwan. Mark in the teeth, Dant kee see- ahee. Martingale, Zerbund. Matter (pus). Peel. Megrims, Mirgee. Melanosis, Bamunee. Membrane, Jliillee. Mercury, Para. Mill, hand, Chukkee. Millet, Bajra, jiCiuar. Moon-blindness, EvMowndltee ; shuh-koree. Mount, to, Suwar hona. Mouse-coloured (horse), Soor. Mouth, Moonh. Mucus (from the eyes), keechur, ,y ( ), „ nose), Neta ; rent. throat), kha- kiiar. Muscle, Gosht. Mustard, Bai. „ oil, Surson ka tel. Muzzle (of face), Toothun. „ ( „ wire, etc.), Chheeka. Nail, Preg ; mekh. Nave (of a wheel), Nahh. Navicular disease, Surim had (?). Neatsfoot oil, Pae ka tel. Neck, Ourdun. Neigh, Hinhiiiaaa, Nerve, Usub. Nitre, Shora. Nose, A^ak. Nose-bag, Tobra. Nose-band, Nasbund. Nostrils, NutJina. Nut (of a screw), Dihree. Nux vomica, Kuchla. Oakgalls, Majoo. Oats, Jy. Oil, Tel. Ointment, Murhum. Once round (race-course), Poora chukkur. One-eyed, Kana. Ophthalmia, AnkJi uihna. Opium, Afeem. Pad (harness), Glial. Pain, Durd. Palate, Taloo, Pancreas, Lihba. Panel (of a saddle), Guddee. Pant, to, Hampna. Paraffin oil, Miltee ka tel. Parrot-mouthed, Tote duhun. Pastern, Gamchee. Paw, to (from impatience), Tapna. „ (strike out with the fore- leg). Tap mama. Pea, a, Pisum sativum, mutur. Pepper, black, Gol mirch. ,, red, Lai mirch. Periosteum, HuMee keejhillee. Pestle and mortar, Hawun dista. Physic, Duwa. „ to, Duwa dena. „ to (purge), Julab dena. Pick-axe, Gyntee. Picker (hoof), Silm-Khudnee. Piebald, Kala abluk. Pincers, Zumboor ; sunisee. HINDUSTANEE VOCABULARY 241 Pincli (of salt, etc.), Glnhhee. Pleuro-pneumonia (cattle), Pliee- pree. PluEge, to, Lumheean hurna. PneuDionia, Pheplire Tcee heemaree. Pole (of a carriage), Bum. Pony, yahoo; tattoo. Poppy heads, Fosfa. Pores of the skin, Musam. Port of a bit, Jeehhee. Posts and rails, JungJa. Pot (cooking), Degchee. Poultice, Liihdee. Powder (dry medicine), Sufoof. „ (medicine wrapped up in paper), Piiveea. Prance, to, Nachna. Proud flesh. Bud gosht. Pulse (artery), Nubz. Pumiced feet, Chupatee siim. Punch, Sumha ; pogur. Pupil of the eye, Ankh kee piUlee. Pus (matter), Peeb. Quarter-ill (cattle), Guiheea ; golee. Quiet (as a horse), Qhureeb. Pace, Bazee ; shurt Eace-course, Chukkur; ghikdowr. Eace-horse, Ghiirdoiuree gliova ; shurtee glioxa, Easp, Bet. Eear, to, AUf hona. Eeins, Bas. Eemoving (shoes), Khol-lundee. Eesin, Bal. Eetention of urine, Peshah-hund. Eheumatism, Ba.ee. Ribs, Puslte. Rice (cooked), Bliat. „ (in husk), Dhan. „ (uncooked), ChaiuiiJ. Rice-water, Kanjee. Ride, Suwaree kurna. Rig, a, Ek andeea. Einderpest, Mata ; chechuk ; devee Eing (of martingale, etc.), Chhtda „ (of metal), Kaxi. Eingbone (on fore-feet), (Jhuk- rawul. „ (on hind feet), Pms^w^. Eingworm, Dad. Eoan, Gurra. Eoar, to (disease), Sherdumee knrna. Eoaring, Sherdumee. Eock salt, Numuk sung. Eoller (band), FiLvdkYiee. Eope, Bussee. Rosette, Kurn-phool. Eough-rider, Chabuk sutuar. Row el, Phirkee. Rubber (towel), Jharun. Eump, Pihha. Eun away, to, Bhag-Jana. Saddle, Zeen. „ to, Zeen landhna. Saddle-cloth, Tuh-roo ; urukgeer ; numda ; myl khora. Saddle-covering, Zeen-posli; &ogh- hund. Saddle-dressing, Moomro^un. Saddle-flaps, Dawun. Saddle-stand, Ghovee. Saddler, Zeen saz ; zeen ka mochee. Sal ammoniac, Nowsadur. Saliva, Bal. Salt, Numuk. Saltpetre, Shora. Salts (Epsom), Julabee numuk. Sandcrack, Shikak sum. Scales, Turazoo. Scissors, Kainchee. Scrotum, Fota. Selling race, LeeJamee hazee. Sesamum oil, Til ka tel, or jinjiJee ka tel. Shaft (of a carriage), Bunza. Shaft-tugs, Choongee. Sheaf (of straw, etc.), Poola. Sheath, Q^hilaf. Shoe, Nal. Shoeing, Nal-bmidee. Shoeing-smitb, Nal-bund. Shoe with calkins, Khoonteedar nal. R 242 HINDUSTANEE VOCABULARY Shoe with clips, Ti\okmdar nal. Shoulder, Pliur ; Kandhee. Shy, to, Blmxukna. Sickle, Durantee. Sieve, Chhulnee. Sinew, Py ; nuss ; ^)wttha. Skeleton, Thuiimree. Skewbald, Lai ahhik. Skin, Ckumra. Skittish, Chunchul. Slight-built, Chhurera hudun. Sling, Jhola. Slow (as a horse), Dheema ; mutha. Snaffle, Kuzaee. Snort, to, Furfur hurna. Soap, Sabun. Soap-nut, Beeta. Sole of the foot, DiUa ; hdivct. Sore back, Peeth lugna. „ mouth, Buclilm. „ throat, Oidsooa. Sound (as a horse). Be ayh. Spavin, bog, Motra. „ bone, HuMa. Speck (in the eye), CliJieent. Spinal cord, Huram mughz. Spleen, Tillee. Splint (bone), Bel /mddee, her huddee. Splinter (of bone, etc.), Kirich. Spoke of a wheel, Duree. Sprain, Moch. Sprain a tendon or ligament, to, Py ajana. Spud (for rooting up grass), Kurpa. Spur, Kanta ; mumrez. Stable, Istuhbul ; than ; tuhela. Stack (of hay, etc.), Gurree. Star on forehead, Sitara2Jeshanee. Steeplechase, Tidtee hazee. Stifle, Kidaba. Stirrup, Bilcah. Stirrup-leather, Rikah duivah Stirrup- lock, Champ. Stomach, ^otha. Stomachic, Pachuh. Strajigles, Hubuk, Strap, Tusma. Straw, Puwal. „ (a single), TinJca. „ (for bedding), Bichalee. Strawberry roan, with white legs and muzzle, and coat ticked out with white, Cheena. Stringhalt, Jlmnuh-had, Stripe down back, like that of a donkey, Selee. Stud-bred, a, Lumhuree ghora. Stumble, to, Thokur khana. Sugar-cane, Ounna; ookh; eekh. Sugar of lead, Sufeda. Sulphate of copper, Neela tooteea. Sulphur, Qunduk. Suppression of urine, Peshah hund Surcingle, Bala tang. Surfeit (skin disease), Gurrnee dane. Sweat, Puseena. Sweat-scrapers, Puseena-kush. Sweet oil, Meeiha tel. Swelling, Wurum ; soojun. Synovia, Jot ka tel. Tack (small nail), Birinjee. Tail, Diim. Tan, Bukla. Tape, Feeta. Temple (of head), Kun-puttee. Tendon, Py ; 7}uss ; ^jztttha. Tetanus, Chandnee kee heemaree ; pista duhun. Thick (as gruel, etc.), Garha. Thigh, Ban. Thorough-bred, Useel. Thorough-pin, Bhuhhootura. Three-year-old, Do-ek. Throat, Gula. Throat-lash, Gultunnee. Thrush (disease), Buss. „ to have, i?«.ss uturna. Tire of a wheel, Hal. Tired (fatigued), Thuk gya. Toe of the foot, Thokur; pes (more correctly, pesh), Toncrue, Jeehh, HINDUSTANEE VOCABULARY 243 Tongue cf a buckle, Buhsooa Jcee sooee. Tooth, daut. „ milk, Doodh ha dant. „ molar, Darh. „ (nippers), Bant. ,, permanent, Pukka daut; pukka darh. „ wolf's, Chor dant. Tow, Sun. Trace (harness). Jot. Trace-bearer, Manik jot. Trot, to, Bidkee chulna. Trough (feeding), Kuthra. Trowel (for rooting up grass), Kwya. Tumour, Rusaowlee. Turpentine (crude), Qunda hiroza. „ (oil of), Gunda hiroze ka tel ; tarpeen ka tel. Tush, Nesh ; koontee. Twitch, Kuchmal ; Poozmah Two-year-old, Nakund. Tympanitis, Badee. Underbred, Kumzat. Unsound, Ayhee. Unsoundness, Ayh. Upright pasterns, Mitrgh-iM. Urethra, Neze ka soorakh. Vagina, Choot. Vein, Pug ; luureed. Venice turpentine, Gunda hiroza. Verdigris, Jungal. Vertebra, Munka. Veterinary manual, Futub nama Veterinary surgeon, Saloturee sahib. Vicious (as a horse), Budzat. Vinegar, Sirka. Walk, to (as a horse), Kudum kudum chulna. Walk a horse, to, Poivl kurna. Wall, Deewal. Wall of the hoof, >SAfihk. Wall-eyed (one eye), Takee. „ (both eyes), Suly- manee. Wart, Mussa. Water, Panee. „ boiling, KJiowIta panee ; Josh panee. Wax, Moom. Weave, to (a stable trick), Jhoomna. Weaver, Jhoomnewala. Weighing-room, Tol ghur. AVeight cloth, Seesa-guddee. Wheat, Gehoon. Wheel (of a carriage), Puhlya. Whip, Chahuk. White, with white mane and tail, and black skin, Surkha. „ „ pink skin, Nukra. „ „ dark mane and tail, Suhza. N.B. — Sufed is the common word for " white." Wind gall, Byza. Window, Kirkee. Windpipe, Hidk. Wind-sucker, Eoiva peene ivala. Winkers, Putta. Winning-post, Jeet kee lukvee. Wisp, Koocha. AVithers, Mudow. Womb, Kokh. Worm in the eye, Moonja. Worms (round), Kenchooa. „ (thread), Chunchuna. Wound (Zukhm). Yard, Neza. Yearling, SurJoo. Zinc, sulphate of, Sufed tooteea. 244 HINDUSTANEE VOCABULARY IDIOMS AND PHRASES The abscess has come to a head The horse has a sore hack My horse is hlown The horse hoUed oflf the course ... My horse &o?^es to the right Where was that horse hred.f ... The horse is not properly broken in The horse has cut himself brusltiiKj The horse has a cataract in his oflf eye The horse is in hard condition ... The horse is a crib-biter (or wind- sucker) ... Wash the horse's dock and sheath The horse looks dull He /e/Z off the horse The horse's leg is yz7?ec? Put the shoe firmly on ... The mare is in foal Foment the horse's leg with hot water for half an hour Slacken the 5r«r^As Tighten the ^iV^/iS Give your horse two or three go-doivns of water The horse chucks his head (when being ridden) , The horse has cracked heels He hogged the mane of his pony Bold my horse The jockey was not able to hold the horse Lengthen the stirrups one hole ... Shorten the stirrups two holes ... The horse's hoof slopes too much ; take more off the toes The horse has hurt his leg Don't ye?'/i; the reins Fhora puk gya. Ohove kee peeih lugee hy. Harnare ghore ka dum phool gya hai, Ghova chukkur sephut gya. Humara ghoia dahine ko bag kurta Wuh kis khet ka ghoxa hy ? Ohoie ka mooh kuchcha hy. Ohore ko newur luga hy. Ghove kee dahinee ankh men moteea-bind hy. GhoTa ka budun gutheela hy. Ghora howa peeta. Ghore kee saghiree aurfota dho. Ghora sust maloom deta hy, Wuh ghore pur se gira. Ghore ko p)y cigyee. NoJjikkur kebandho. Ghoree gabhin hy. Ghore ke pyr ko gurm panee se adhe ghunte tuk senko. Tung dheele, kuro. Tung kuso. Apne ghore ko do teen ghoont panee do. Ghora sir marta. Ghore kee gamchee men chheewur ho gya. Usne apne tattoo kee yal ko buhree keeya. Eumara ghora thamo. Coachivan ghore ko nuheen rok sukka. Bikab ko ek ghur aur lumba kuro. Bikab ko do ghur churhao. Ghore ka sum zeeada sulamee hy, punje ke neeche se aur cheelo. Ghore kep)yr ko chot lugee. Bas kojhutka mut do. HINDUSTANEE VOCABULARY 245 The horse has clean legs The horse has got lockjaw Make much of your horse He can't washer the horse That horse is difficult to mount The mare has a light wozi^/i How oZc? is that horse ? The horse has opTithalmia Tell me the good and bad ]ioints of that horse The hov&Q pulls a great deal The grey horse refused the water- jump Your horse is a roarer ... He has a strong sm^ He has a weak sea^ Kide the horse at a smart walk... Take the horse once round at half speed The horse has sprained his leg ... I will give the horse a sioeat to- morrow morning The horse goes tender on the near fore leg The horse has ^/ir?is/i Don't put on the bandages too tight The horse tri'ps The horse turns out his toes The horse is a lueaver ... The horse's wind is good The horse's wind is bad Wisp down the horse The horse's ivithers are galled ... Ghove he hath pyr durust hyn. GhoYe ko chandne ne mara. Apne ghove ko dilasa do. Ghora is se nuheen duhta. Wuh ghora hud rikab hy. Madwan ka moonh nurm hy. Us ghore kee icmr kya hy f Ghoie kee ankh uthee. Us ghove ke ayb aur hunur hum se kuho. Ghora luhut moonh zor hy. Subza ghora nale se phut gya. Tumhara ghora sherdumee kurta. Uska asun kura hy. Uska asun diheela hy. Ghore ko chuiuk sekudum kudum chullao. Ghore ko ek chukkur ath anne ka do. Ghore ke pyr men moch aya. Hum kulfujjur ghore se pusseena nikalenye. Ghora apne hay an hath ko kuchh manta hy. Ghore ke sum men rus utura hy. Puttee zeeada tung mut handho. Ghora th o^wr khata. Ghore ke pyr men tao hy. Ghora humesha jhoomta. Ghore ka dum khoo& achcha hy. Ghore ka dum j'uldee toot jata. Ghore ke kooncha maro. Ghore ka mudow sooja hy. THE END PRINTED BY WILLIAM CLOWES AND SONS, LIMITED, LONDON AND BECCLES. VETERINARY MEDICINE, ETC. HORSES AND STABLES. By Lieut.-General Sir F. Fitz- WYGRAM, Bart. With 56 pages of Illustrations. 8vo. 3J-. net. By JOHN HENRY STEEL, F.R.C.V.S., F.Z.S., A.V.D. 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