D JOHNA.SEAVERNS THE . . Traii^ii?^ ai?d Mai?a^erpei?t of Horses. J. p. F. BELL, F.Z.S GALASHIELS : CRAIGHEAD BROS., LADHOPE VALE. 1904. *^ ®I;i^rc is iit tbtw animarjj t^t . . . . ix fkslj 0f strange liglrt t[jrcrii;jlj lul^iclr tinnr lifiJ kalis 0iit anb- wi- t0 onx great mnstrrir 0f ramntauLr obcr tlrcm, aiib' riaimiirg tl^c fcll0lxisl)ij^ of il]t rrmtiire, if not 0f lljc S0ul/' — Ruskin. *^S;Ijere is Jt0tl)ing in tire (yill 0f jnan &alf S0 ^0(0crfiil in ^jtrucating tbe lotuer iruimals as tljoiuibtful Iiinbness* ^^n- flcjfitjle jijensi0n, r0mljineb tviitJr gfutleness antr snnTj^atJ^ir, are irresistible bcaj^ons in the hanirs 0t man ; anb g j:r0 n0t Miebe tl)at tbcre is ann animal Iivljirlj rann0t be sntb-netr if t|£ rigljt man unbertalies tlje tasli/' — Rev. J. S. ^YooD '*ge toas a p^erfect }T0rseman, antr neber l0st Iris tempr feritir Iris Ir0rse, tallunci t0 anb reas0ning bitlr it if it sBneb 0r Ir0ltetr, as if it Ijab Ireen a rational Ireing, lutobing tjat fr0m tlje fin^ 0rganisation 0f tire animal^ a hoxu, lilie a Mhf Jfoill 0et f0nfuseir Ijn • • • • fi^ar, bMcIj is 0nli| inj:reasrb' % ^unisljment/' — Fruiii 'The Life of Charles Kings- ley," vol. ii., p. 9. Contents. Page. CHAPTER I. - - 1 INTRODUCTION. The Power of Reason over Instinct — Incident of an Officer's Horse — The Circus Performing Horse — Another Test of Reason — Intelligence of the Horse — Kindness versus Cruelty — The Basis of Management. CHAPTER 11. - - 10 VARIATIONS OF TEMPERAMENT IN MEN AND HORSES. Sympathy between Horse and Man — How the Horse knew the Rider — How the Rider knew the Horse — Four Elements Necessary in a Good Uorseman — Degrees of Temperament in Horses— Indica- tions of Temperament — Horses are not Born Vicious. CHAPTER III. - - 19 BREEDING AND REARING. Shires and Clydesdales — The Heavy Horse Market — Mules — Army Transport Purposes — Breeding of Mules — Selection of Sires and Dams — Breeding from Old Stock — Telegony — Safety in working Brood Mares— Condition of Brood Mares — Management of Stallions — Harness Horses, Hacks, and Hunters — Hackneys — Best Place for a Mare to Foal — Indications of Foaling — How to Manage the Foal — Jealousy in Mares — The Treatment of Mares — The Advantage of Early Foals— How to Procure Early Foals — Early Ailments of Foals — Weaning Foals — Advantages of a Rough Hill — How to Winter Colts — Separating Yearlings from Older Colts — Management of their Feet— The Docking of Colts. VI. Page. CHAPTER IV. - - 56 SHETLAND PONIES. Characteristics— Breeding— Uses of Ponies— Feeding and Manage- ment—Pit Stables— Other Breeds of Ponies. CHAPTER V. - - 65 HALTERING AND LEADING. Different Systems of Breaking — Best Place to Halter a Colt — Kind of Halter— Best Method of Haltering— How to Lead a Colt in the Open— How to Lead Him into a Stable — How to Tie Him up in a Stall— The Power of Kindness. CHAPTER VI. - - 77 BRIDLING AND BITTING. The Effects of Such Treatment— Dangers of Tight Side Reins- New System of Bridling and Bitting — How to put on the other Tackle — How to " Mouth " the Colt — How to Adjust the Side Reins— Kindness Triumphs over Cruelty. CHAPTER VII. - - 88 SADDLING AND MOUNTING. How to Prepare the Colt for Mounting— The Use of Chains and Mouth-bags — How to Drive the Colt with Reins — Mounting in the Stall— Mounting in the Open— How to Ride Him— How to make the Colt Stop when his Rider falls off — How to Prepare the Colt for being Shod. CHAPTER VIII. - - 99 HOW TO BREAK COLTS TO HARNESS. How to Accustom the Colt to Pressure Before and Behind— How to Yoke the Colt — How to Fix the Kicking Straps— How to Drive the Colt— How to Unyoke the Colt— How to put the Colt in Double Harness — How to Protect the Shoulders, Vll. Page. CHAPTER IX. - - 109 HOW TO YOKE WORK COLTS. Best Implement in which to Yoke Colts— How to Tie the Colt — How to Start the Colt — The Benefit of a Light Furrow— How to Unyoke the Colt — How to Protect the Shoulders — Advantages of Shoeing — How to put Colts in Carts — Docked versxis XJndocked Colts. CHAPTER X. - - 119 JUMPING. How to Train the Colt to Jump — How to Ride the Colt at a High Fence— How to Ride the Colt at a Wide Jump — How to Jump Double Fences— Stone Walls and Wire Fences — The Influence of a Nervous Rider — Indications of Jumping — The Rider's Feeling of a Horse. CHAPTER XL - - 130 MISTAKES AND THEIR CAUSES. How to Prevent Mistakes — Drunken Riders— How to Drive up and down Hills— How to Correct a Horse — Steadiness — Flies — Leaving Horses Untethered. CHAPTER XII - - 138 SHYING AND JIBBING. Shying from Nervousness — Shying from Defective Eyesight — Shying from Occupying Dark Stables— The Construction of Stables — Jibbing— How to Start a Jibber— Preventives to Jibbing— Kicking in Harness— Incident of an Untrained Horse — The Responsibility of Trainers. CHAPTER XIII. - - 149 BOLTING OR RUNAWAY HORSES. How to Stop a Bolter on the Road— How to Stop a Bolter Across Country— The Danger of Colliding with a Crowd. Vlll. Page. CHAPTER XIV. - - 153 REARING. How to Cure a Horse of Rearing— What to do when the Horse Rears— Results of the System. CHAPTER XV. - - 159 BAD STABLE HABITS. Biting — How to Cure a Biter — Kicking in the Stall — How to Cure a Stall kicker — The Use of a Sack Stuffed with Straw — Crib- biting and Wind sucking — Sheet-tearing and How to Prevent it — How to Prevent Horses Putting their Forelegs over the Collar-shanks — Turning in the Stall — Swinging in the Stall — How to go up to a Horse in a Stall. CHAPTER XVI. - - 167 THE DIFFERENT PACES OF HORSES. The Combination of Paces — How to Ride a Horse at a Walk — How to Ride a Horse at a Trot— How to Ride a Horse at a Canter — How to Ride a Horse at a Gallop— How to Fall off a Horse without getting Injured — How to Make a Colt Follow the Rider — How to Make a Horse Stoop to Mount Him— How to Make a Horse Lie Down — Terms of Expression to Use to a Horse. CHAPTER XVII. - - 179 LADIES' HORSES. The Difference of Riders— The Suggested Changes of Attire and Posture — The Difference of Riding Habits and Hats — The Size of Ladies' Horses— How to "Mouth" a Lady's Horse — How to Train Him to the Riding Habit — The Advantage of a Nose Strap— How to Teach the Colt to Canter — The Colt should be Trained to Steam— The Best Kind of Riding Gear. IX. Page. CHAPTER XVIII. - - 188 RACING AND RACE HORSES. The Chief Points of a Thoroughbred Colt— The Colt's Manage- ment— Incident of a Poor Colt — Evils of Racing Colts too Young- Feeding and Training— How to Ride Him in a Race — Fleetness and Staying Powers — Requirements for Different Races. CHAPTER XIX. - - 197 MILITARY HORSES. The Regulation Long Squared Tail — The Tuition of a Charger — What Sort of a Mouth he should have — How to Train Him to Move at the Word of Command — How to Teach Him to Rein Back — He must be Trained to Stop Suddenly— He should be Trained to Move Squarely Across from either Side— How to Handle Him when Wheel- ing— Incident of Crushing — How to Train Him to Stand the Sword Exercise — How to Make Him Stand when Mounting and Dismounting — How to Train Him to be Steady in the Ranks and to Stand Firing — How to Manage Four Horses — How to Train Him to Blilitary Sports — Hints on Fencing — The Advantage of Kindness. CHAPTER XX. - - 215 POLO AND POLO PONIES. Origin of the Game — Chief Points of a Polo Pony — How to Train a Polo Pony — The Chief Secret in Training the Pony — Best Place in which to Train Him — What "Lifting" the Pony Means — How to Train Him to Stop Suddenly — How to I'rain Him to Wheel — How to Train Him to the Polo Stick— How to Train Him to the Ball— How to Ride Him in the Game — General Remarks on Polo. X. Page. CHAPTER XXL - - 227 CARRIAGE HORSES. Different Kinds of Carriage Horses — Colour and Markings — The Particular Pace to Improve— How to Drive a Colt Double — Anecdote About a Farmer — How to Improve the Colt s Action — Irish Dealers Severe Critics — The Value of Carriage Horses — How they should be Bred—" The Stud Farm of the World." CHAPTER XXn. - - 238 HORSE SHOWS. Appointment of Judges — Measuring Horses — Certificates of Soundness— Show Tickets and Catalogue Numbers— Dressing Horses — Showyard Jumping. CHAPTER XXHL - - 249 HUNTING AND HUNTERS. Real and Imaginary Followers — Hunting a Healthy Exercise — The Best Kind of Hunter — Chief Indications of a Hunter — Feet, Colour, and Markings— Summering Hunters. CHAPTER XXIV. - - 260 HUNTING EQUIPMENT. Evils of the Martingale— Needful Equipment— How to Act when the Horse Casts a Shoe— Evils of Following Without a Shoe — How to Prevent Over-reaching — "Brushing" and How to Prevent it. XI. Page. CHARTER XXV. - - 269 HINTS ON HUNTING. What to do at the Covertside — Who should Lead the Hunt ? — Fences and Gates — How to Ascend Hills and Cross the "Plough" — The Danger of Following Another Rider too Closely at a Fence — The Rider should never Suggest a "Likely" Trail — Incidents of the Hunting Field — Things to be Avoided — What to do when the Run is Finished. CHAPTER XXVI. - - 278 HOW TO TRAIN A COLT TO HOUNDS. The Use of Dogs in Training — What to do with a Colt at the Meet — How to Choose a Guide— How to put the Colt at His Fences — How to Manage a Double Fence — How to get Over Dangerous Places — Dangers of Hunting gates— How to Cross Streams — How to Avoid Marshes— The Colt should be Trained to Stop when His Rider Falls off — When to Discontinue the Run. CHAPTER XXVII. - - 286 COLOUR OF HORSES. The Seven Standard Colours— Melanosis— Striping of Foals — Dif- ference in Colour caused by Clipping. CHAPTER XXVIII. - - 294 STABLE MANAGEMENT. Regularity in Feeding — Quantity of Fodder — Quality of Food— ^ Water— Grooming — Necessity of Cleanliness — Harnessing the Horse for Going Out — Clipping and Singeing— Stable Utensils. Xll. Page. CHAPTER XXIX. - - 306 STABLE CONSTRUCTION. The Site — Drainage — Flooring — Stalls and Damp Course— Inside Fittings — lighting — Ventilation — Inlets— Outlets — Cubic Air Space — Building Materials — Roofing — Spouting— Effects of Good Stables. CHAPTER XXX. - - 320 THE FEET, DENTITION, AND DESTRUCTION OF HORSES. Different Kinds of Shoes — Sharpening — Dentition — Destruction of Horses — Best Method of Destruction — Practicability in Horse Management — Kindness versus Cruelty, and Reason versus Instinct. Illustrations. PAGE 1. Haltering 71 2. Leading 72 3. Colt tied in Stall 74 4. Putting Bit in Mouth .. 82 5. Best Kind of Breaking Bit . . 83 6. Side Reins Adjusted .. 87 7. Saddling 88 8. How to Ride 95 9. Colt Harnessed . . .. 100 10. Kicking Straps Adjusted 103 11. Work Colt Harnessed for Plough .. Ill 12. Work Colt in Cart, showing Kicking Straps 116 13. Jumping Bar 120 14. High Jump 123 15. Water Jump . . . . . . • • .. 125 15. Shying 140 17. Jibbing in Harness .. 144 18. How to Prevent Kicking in Stall— Whin Bushes If.l 19. How to Prevent Kicking in Stall— Suspended Sack .. If 2 20. Wind-Sucking Strap .. 1C3 21. Leather Apron .. .. 164 22. How to Hold Double Reins ICS 23. How to Make a Horse Stoop to be Mounted .. 175 24. How to Make a Colt Lie Down . . 177 25. Lady Mounted .. .. 181 26. The Nose Strap 185 27. Race Horse GallopiKg .. 193 28. Putting Colt in Double Harness . . 231 29. Hunting Saddle .. . . 260 30. Shoe Case . . 261 31. Breastplate .. 261 32. Snaffla Bit . . 262 83. Double Bit .. 262 XIV. 34. French Martingale 35. Hunting Crop 36. Short Shoe Fixed 37. Inside View 38. Outside View 39. Shoe .. 40. Back View . . 41. Hunter Clipped . . 42. Work Horse Clipped 43. Grooved Stall 44. Rack, Tank and Manger Combined 45. Hinged Sash Light 46 Stable Door 47. Ornamental Grating 48. Zinc Ventilator 49. Corrugated Shoe 50. Foal's Mouth at Birth 51. At Four Week's Old 52. At Ten Mouths 53. One Year Old 54. One-and a-half Years Old 55. Two Years Old 56. Two-and-a half Years Old 57. Three-anda-half Years Old 58. Four-and-a-half Years Old 59. Five Years Old . . 60. Six Years Old 61 Seven Years Old .. 62. Eight Years Old 63. Nine Years Old . . 64. Twelve to Thirteen Years Old 65. Fifteen to Sixteen Years Old 66. Seventeen to Eighteen Years Old 67. Twenty-five and Thirty Years Old Page. 263 264 266 267 267 268 268 303 304 309 311 313 314 316 317 321 326 326 326 326 326 326 328 328 328 328 339 329 330 330 331 332 332 334 Preface. -^ • • • • K^M ••••'- In writing this ivovk on The Training and Man- agement OF HoitSKS, the object of the author has been to lessen the barbarity often heedlessly inflicted upon these animals by careless and incapable men. The method of management described in the following chapters — the keynote of which is uniform kindness and patience — ivill be found on appli-_ cation to be thoroughly practical in all its stages. With the exception of the photographs, which are taken from- life, the illustrations have been drawn by the author in order to render the principles of the system more intelligible to readers. Should this ivovk be instrumental, in however small a deovee in alleviating the suffering of horses and at the same time tend to a move scientific derelopment of general horsemanship, its primary object shall have been accomplished. The thanks of the author are due to Messrs Vinton S^ Co., Limited, London, through the courtesy of their Editor, for permission to use the articles which appeared in Th:o Live Stock Journal, ^5 well as his indebtedness to them for the use of the blocks; to the Editor of The Land Agents' Record for his kindness in granting a similar privilege; and to Mr A. Thomson, F.S.A., Scot. (Author of " Lauder and Lauderdale,'' &c.) for his painstaking work in reading the proofs. J.P.F.B, FuLFORTH, October 1904, Clje C raining and JVtanagement of ^orses. CHAPTER I. ' INTRODUCTION. . The general management of horses is a subject on which we can never be too well informed, especially those of us who are more immediately associated with them. The horse, of all the lower animals in this country, is by far the most noble, and, at the same time, by far the most useful. Indeed, it would be a practical impossibility, in this busy world of enterprise and commotion, to get along without the aid of this noble and useful animal. There is scarcely a single industry or trade throughout the whole country which is not in some measure, directly or indirectly, depend- ent on the horse ; nor a single individual, to a greater or a less degree, who is not at times benefited by him. If we could imagine for a moment a sudden and total suspension of horse power for one short week, the results consequent on such a calamity would be almost B incalculable in their disastrous effects. Trade would be paralysed, and all classes of industry would neces- sarily be reduced to a deadlock. Of course this is suggested simply to illustrate -the real worth of the horse, on the same principle that few benefits are fully appreciated until they are gone, for, as the old proverb runs, ** We never miss the water till the well runs dry." The recent war in South Africa had a remarkable influence on the price of horses, which serves to illustrate their value and importance, not- withstanding the advantages of steam and other modes of locomotion. Whilst motor power, both on the ro^d and in the field, has no doubt come to stay, yet horse labour cannot possibly be altogether super- seded ; there are a hundred odd jobs on the farm and in the town where motor locomotion is impractic- able. When railways and steam were introduced, many writers predicted that the demand for horse power would be lessened ; instead of that, however, time has proved that horses have been required in very greatly increased numbers. As it has been with railways and steam, it may not be too sanguine to hope that the demand for good, sound horses may still go on increasing. Having sketched briefly how largely we are de- pendent on the horse as an essential agent to progress, we should like to impress on all those who have the direct management of him, to exercise, at all times and in all circumstances, a uniform kindness towards him. THE POWER OF REASON OVER INSTINCT. Far greater results can be accomplished by the judicious exercise of uniform kindness than by the coarse and cruel treatment which, in many cases, is only too prevalent at the present day. There is one most important fact which should always be carefully remembered, and which should in all circumstances, however harassing, persuade man to act kindly towards the horse, and that is, his infinite superiority over him. Man is endowed with the supreme power of reason and intelligence, by which he governs and controls his actions ; whereas, the actions of the horse on the contrary, are only governed by mere brute instinct. This is an arrangement absolutely essential in main- taining the perfect balance of natural law by which animal power is concentrated and utilised for the benefit of mankind and the world in general. Were the lower animal world, like mankind, endowed with the calculating power of reasoning, the whole system of Nature would rapidly become deranged, and exist- ence would become intolerable, if not impossible. Animals possessed of great strength and power, like the horse, would throw off their subjection to man, and refuse to be controlled by a creature of his diminutive standard. Can anyone imagine for a moment a beautiful Arab horse of thoroughly pro- portioned symmetry, a highly strung nervous tempera- ment, and the sharp, sensitive instincts peculiar to his breed — can anyone, we ask, imagine a fiery animal of this kind, possessed of the element of reason, re- maining under the complete subjection of his rider ? The thing is impossible. The noble Arab would never consent to his rider's presumption. His insig- nificant rider could never face him on the platform of equality. The enormous physical superiority of the horse, guided by an intelligent process of reason- ing, would baffle every attempt of the man to subdue him, and, by the very inequality of the contest, is it not likely that the rider would come out of it only second best ? Numerous instances of the sagacity of horses are recorded, which some people mistakenly attribute to reason, but, after a thorough investigation of the circumstances, they will generally be found to be but the simple and natural results of training and habit. Occasionally instances of apparent sagacity may arise from mere freak or accident, and are often fully and satisfactorily accounted for by their peculiar surround- ing circumstances, which, when deliberately and care- fully considered, almost preclude the possibility of any other course of action being participated in. In other words, the most natural thing for a horse to do, in given circumstances, is simply the thing that he does, and, as already suggested, his action may be the result of emergency, training, or habit. The law of instinct, like reason, is flexible and elastic to a limited degree, and while there is probably no hard and fast law to bind it to a definite, course, it is 5 absolutely incapable, so to speak, of getting" outside of itself. It cannot extend its power beyond its natural instinctive faculty, and thus we find no animals improving their condition, socially or otherwise. INCIDENT OF AN OFFICER'S HORSE. We have read how an officer, in a recent Eastern campaign, was wounded and fell from his horse ; how the sagacious animal returned to where he was lying and stood near him till, by an almost superhuman effort, he was able to mount, when the horse galloped forward to rejoin his comrades. This horse, in the extraordinary circumstances of the case, may have been scared by something unknown to his wounded rider and returned to him in the most natural way conceivable, or, probably, by the merest chance. He may have taken fright at some unusual object, heard his rider's calls, or been trained when "broken in" to return when his rider fell off — (which excellent acquirement in a horse shall be fully dealt with in a future chapter). Various unexplained events may have caused the horse to return, of the existence of which the unfortunate officer could not possibly be cognisant. Self-preservation is the first law of nature, and the wounded officer, after getting fairly astride him, might unconsciously apply the rowels to the flanks of the horse, and his mad haste to rejoin his comrades might be materially accelerated by a touch of the spur, an indication of the rein, or a desultory warning bullet from the enemy. The cause of the mad rush of the horse may not have been to save his master's hfe. It may have been pure fright that induced him to take both journeys. There is nothing in this incident indicative of the power of reason, nothing that cannot consistently be attributed to chance, circumstance, training, or habit. THE CIRCUS PERFORMING HORSE. We shall now consider a more definite test of reason. The circus performing horse, from the many remarkable feats he accomplishes, might be considered a sort of ens rationis, by advocates of the theory of reason in animals, for it is doubtless true that when a well-trained horse is told to bring the cap of one of the spectators, he will obey and accomplish it every time without error. But even in this case there is no evidence of reason, as the horse acts simply as a machine in the hands of his trainer. The horse has been trained to perform this particular feat, and he obeys from sheer force of habit, because it is a notori- ous fact that, were his trainer to command him in the same habitual and persuasive accents to fetch a handkerchief instead of the orthodox cap, he would bring the latter every time without deviating in any way from his accustomed routine, demonstrating un- mistakably that whenever the issue is the least confused he fails to rise to the occasion, because the indispensable power of reason is absent. His natural instinctive faculty cannot enable him to discriminate between a handkerchief and a cap. He fails to dis- tinguish so nice a difference, which substantially proves that reason is a higher and nobler power — a sublime inspiration of thought which is necessarily foreign to his limited instinct, however strongly it may be developed through training and kindness. ANOTHER TEST OF REASON. Again, if a horse were looking over a wall and a man presented a gun at him from the opposite side, he would probably do one of two things: — either he would prick his ears and stare the danger in the face, or he would gallop round in a series of small circles — but neither course could be considered a safe or reasonable means of escape from the threatened danger. In both cases the gun would cover him just the same, whereas, if he possessed an intelligent thinking reason, in all likelihood he would drop down behind the wall, as ninety-nine men in every hundred would, allowing one per cent, for imbecility, and thus be completely screened from the range of fire. INTELLICxENCE OF THE HORSE. In '' Animal Intelligence," the late Mr G. J. Romanes, F.R.S., affirms that horses do not possess the highest instinct among herbivorous animals, while many of the larger carnivorous animals are endowed with much more acutely strung instincts. ** The horse," he says, " is not so intelligent an animal as any of the larger carnivora, "while, among herbivorous quadrupeds, his sagacity is greatly ex- 8 ceeded by that of the elephant, and, in a lesser degree, by that of his congener, the ass." But quot Jioviijies tot sententicB, and, while respecting the work of such an excellent observer, we venture to think the great majority of experienced horsemen would credit the horse with higher instinct than the ass. KINDNESS VERSUS CRUELTY. The gulf, then, which separates man from the lower animals is wide and impassable ; the power which reason can exercise over instinct is marvellous, and, from the loftiness of this power, man should never descend to practise unkindness in any shape whatever towards the horse. Cruelty to horses is practised through pure ignorance — through a want of appreciation of man's superior power in educating the natural instincts of the horse to yield submissively according to the special requirements in each individ- ual case. As already explained, the horse does not possess the necessary intelligence to induce him to measure his power with man. No sane man ever tries to fight a horse on the power of his strength, but has recourse to other and safer means wherein a substitute is found to oppose and master it. THE BASIS OF MANAGEMENT. By the previous illustrations, and a long practical experience of horses, we have come to the conclusion that instinct is a force which can always be governed by reason, and that kindness is much more beneficial 9 in its results than unkindness ; therefore, those two important matters form the basis on which our method of horse management is elaborated, and we shall endeavour, through all the different stages, to establish its accuracy and practicability. 10 CHAPTER II. VARIATIONS OF TEMPERAMENT IN MEN AND HORSES. There is just the same amount of difference be- tween a well-trained and a badly-trained horse, as there is between a well-educated and an under-edu- cated person. The one is cultured and refined, the other awkward and coarse, or, to use a very popular expression, '' He is just as Nature made him." No one of ordinary appreciative ability requires to be long in the company of another to discover whether he has been well educated or not, nor does it take the skilled horseman more than a few minutes to determine the training" of a horse, whether it has been good or bad ; thus, to a great extent, horses are made pretty much what they are according to their breaking and management. Even a quiet horse in bad hands may very soon become unmanageable. SYMPATHY BET\VEEN HORSE AND MAN. There is a peculiar link of sympathy between horse and man, and that is : — that a horse just requires about the same time to find out a man's merits or demerits II as a man takes to find out his. Many people hold the opinion that this is utter nonsense, and that no bond, sympathetic or otherwise, can possibly exist between a horse and a man. This is a difficult matter to explain on paper, and, whilst it may not be under- stood by a novice, every average horseman will readily appreciate this mysterious link which is felt rather than seen. HOW THE HORSE KNEW THE RIDER. We knew a case of a young man in town who suddenly inherited a large fortune. He had been accustomed to ride a bicycle, but, anxious to do the county squire, he visited a country friend to purchase a hunter. He had never previously ridden, and those readers who know anything about equestrian science will readily appreciate the humour and novelty of his position. As soon as he was fairly astride the horse, he knocked the ashes from his cigar, adjusted his eyeglasses, and drew his whip across the flanks ol the spirited hunter. The horse bounded in the air and so did the rider, but before either touched terra fijina a dissolution of partnership had occurred. In this case, the horse knew the rider in one brief moment, but the rider never knew that horse all his life. HOW THE RIDER KNEW THE HORSE. Again, we knew a gentleman who owned a very valuable hunter, but there was a certain road along t^ which the horse habitually refused to go. He would rear, plunge, and throw his rider on all occasions. The owner, being a timid man, always withdrew his feet from the stirrups on approaching this particular place, making sure, at least, that when thrown he would not be dragged. At length the owner grew frightened to ride the horse, and offered him for sale. A gentleman came to try him, got upon his back, and, as luck would have it, turned him exactly in the direction of the fatal road. On nearing the place, the rider found the horse drawing himself together as if to wheel, and, taking him well in hand, dug the '' persuaders " full to the hilt immediately behind the girths, with the result that the terrified brute bounded past like a rocket — the first time he had been ridden past for many a long day. Thus, by inserting the spurs in his ribs, instead of withdrawing his feet from the irons like his owner, who was always " riding for a fall," the rider accomplished with ease what to another man was impossible, simply by presence of mind, and doing the right thing in the right place at the proper time. Thus, as already indicated, there is a close sym- pathy between horse and man, and, in bad hands, a good horse may become a bad one, while, in good hands, a bad horse may become a good one. Bad horsemen are met with in larger numbers than bad horses, force, rather than kindness, being the key to their management generally. 13 FOUR ELEMENTS NECESSARY IN A GOOD HORSEMAN. There are four elements necessary in the nature and character of man to render him a g;ood and proficient horseman, and these are : — patience, per- severance, a steady nerve, and an active presence of mind. Patience and perseverance in all cases will prove of invaluable service ; a good nerve is indis- pensable, without which no man can ever be pro- nounced a good horseman ; and an active presence of mind will prove of inestimable service in cases of emergency, when prompt and immediate action must be taken. Indeed, one active man with a cool head is worth half-a-dozen men who are nervous and excitable. DEGREES OF TEMPERAMENT IN HORSES. There is a great difference in the temperament of horses, consequently they require varying degrees of treatment in order to obtain general and satisfactory results. A high-spirited, nervous animal requires to be handled with extreme care, for, although he is easily overcome on the one hand, he is proportionately easily spoiled on the other. A stubborn, bad-tempered animal not only requires different degrees of treat- ment, but may require a separate system of treat- ment altogether. He is not so easily overcome ; his instinctive senses are duller and less perceptive, consequently a much longer time is necessary in 14 imparting to him the precise ideas he is intended to conceive. He will generally learn less in half-a-dozen lessons than a nervous, high-spirited colt will learn in one. INDICATIONS OF TEMPERAMENT. The practised eye of a skilled horseman can predict pretty accurately in a few minutes what the character of a horse is likely to be. The chief indica- tions are found in the eyes, the position of the ears, and the general conformation of the head. A great deal might be written on the various shapes of skulls as indicating the different character and temperament of horses. It is quite possible to reduce them to a very sound and accurate theory, but it would occupy too much time and space to enumerate them all, besides, a scientific knowledge of this matter is not absolutely necessary in the ordinary management of horses. A few of the more pronounced indications shall be given, however, which may prove of some help to the uninitiated in determining the character of different horses with which they may have to deal. A horse that is continually moving his eyes about in all directions with a somewhat startled expression, and his ears well forward and stationary, will generally be in possession of a good and even temper. There is a great difference between a startled expression in the eyes and a watcJiful one. The ears are scarcely ever laid back when a horse is startled, but when he is watchful they are generally in that posi- 15 tion. In the latter case, a horse does not turn his head about much, but indulges in quick, furtive glances in all directions. A horse that is continually rolling his eyes about, and showing the white portion to a marked degree, while his ears are constantly on the move — the one forward and the other backward alternately — may be estimated with certainty to be extremely shy and nervous. When a horse has a quick, watchful eye, his ears working fitfully in all directions, inclined to squeal if his fore-legs are touched, and giving his tail an occasional whisk, in nine cases out of ten he will be a pronounced and confirmed kicker. Or, if a horse has unusually small eyes, deeply sunk, placed very nearly perpendicular in his head, his ears inclined backward, and occasionally showing his teeth, he will generally develop some vice in unskilled hands, and in all likelihood it will be that of biting. A horse with a prominent forehead will generally be game and plucky, with a strong, determined temper, although, if carefully trained, he is generally very easily managed. There is a difference between a prominent and a bumpy forehead ; the latter is generally indicative of underbreeding, and sometimes denotes reversion to a remote ancestral type. A horse with a hollow forehead, or " dish-faced," as it is familiarly termed, will be soft in temperament if the cavity is far down, but if well elevated between i6 the eyes, he will generally be a match to the gamest and pluckiest of horses either on the road or in the field. The writer recently had the pleasure of exam- ining a Canadian-bred Polo pony in possession of an excellent sportsman and straight -riding member of the North Durham Hunt. The cavity between the eyes of this pony is most pronounced, suggesting either a freak of nature, or an accident during foal- hood — probably the latter, as the indentation is too deep and abrupt to be explained by natural causes. It is said that '' a good horse is never a bad colour," still, colour frequently plays an important part in determining the peculiarities of temperament in horses. Bright bays, browns, blacks, and dark chesnuts are generally good - tempered and hardy constitutionally ; while light coloured bays and ches- nuts are often hot-tempered, excitable animals, with delicate constitutions. Greys are objectionable on account of their susceptibility to dirt. When shed- ding their coats, the hairs lodge about the clothes of people who are near them, and are very con- spicuous from their colour. For this reason alone, gentlemen will scarcely purchase grey horses, unless possessed of some special qualifications. To neutralise their conspicuous appearance, the horses of the Scots Greys were dyed khaki colour in South Africa, which was said to remain fixed for a couple of months. Grey horses are generally hardy and good-tempered, and as they grow older they become lighter in colour. There are many intermediate shades between the 17 light and dark of all colours, and, in a general way, those on the darker side will be the better horses, but to lay down definite rules on the subject is an utter impossibility. This subject will be more fully con- sidered in a subsequent chapter. Practice, and not theory, is the regulating factor in the selection and purchase of horses. White markings on the faces and legs are sometimes objected to for matching purposes, but when matching is not a necessity, they should never be considered. HORSES ARE NOT BORN VICIOUS. It is sometimes . supposed that horses are born vicious, but such a supposition, in the opinion of the writer, is a complete mistake. Vice is imported into their characters, as a rule, by being mistouched, mismanaged, and, to a great extent, by general unkindness. Vice proper is never apparent in the colt ; it is only when he becomes a horse that it begins to manifest itself. Were the principle of vice inherent in horses, it would be quite reasonable to expect it in young colts just the same as in matured horses. Vice is never found in a colt if left to himself. Much mischief is often done to young foals by lads teasing them. Foals, played with in this way, acquire tricks which generally develop into the worst forms of vice, and a greater number of horses are ruined, when they are mere foals, by boys, than people are aware of. In fact, foals that have been made tricky very seldom evolve into quiet, useful horses. Boys C i8 and foals are bad companions, but the treatment of the latter will be fully considered in the following chapter. It would be quite safe to enter a field where a number of colts were grazing that had not previously been touched by man, as they would only manifest symp- toms of wonder and fear. Were we to lie down amongst them, some of the bolder ones might venture near enough to smell at us, but in no case would they attack us as other naturally vicious animals would, which proves conclusively that vice does not naturally belong to horses, but is imported into their character and becomes an artificial part of their nature. Horses do not kick and bite viciously of their own accord. They invariably acquire such habits through fear and pain, and naturally make use of their heels to repel attacks which their instinct does not enable them to understand. 19 CHAPTER III. BREEDING AND REARING. The scientific method of stock-breeding, although well-known to many eminent breeders all over the country, is not so well understood amongst the generality of agriculturists as it should be ; nor do they take sufficient interest in the subject to trace back the line of descent of particular sires which they from time to time purchase into their herds, flocks, and studs. At auction sales of pedigreed stock the highest -priced animals are not necessarily the best, as evidenced by the fluctuations and reversals that occur in the awards at agricultural shows. No doubt different judges base their judgment on different characteristics of stock, which, to a certain extent, is answerable for the inconsistencies that periodically occur, but, at the same time, it cannot be denied that many high-priced sires are bought into herds, flocks, and studs for w^hich they are absolutely un- suited. The breeding and rearing of horses is a special branch of their management on which a whole volume might be written, but considerations of space 20 will not permit of going into very minute details on the subject, so a few of the more important hints will be given which may prove advantageous to some readers. The old-fashioned country horses of the working type are very nearly extinct through the increased and increasing distribution of Shires in the South, and Clydesdales in the North. In most respects this is an advantage, whilst in others it is somewhat of a disadvantage, because fashion, even in horse-breed- ing, is sometimes more regarded than utility and profit. Ten or a dozen years ago, no cart horses at agricultural shows were considered worth looking at unless extravagantly furnished with the fashionable and aristocratic " feather," but, happily, this craze for hair is dying out, as evidenced in the cleaner- legged horses which are winning at the present day. Excessively hairy legs are good for nothing but accumulating mud and dirt, and from mud and dirt spring cracked heels, grease, and a number of other ailments due to uncleanliness. SHIRES AND CLYDESDALES. Shires may be said to be the chief breed of heavy horses in England. The distribution of Suffolks is practically confined to the county from which they derive their name, and need not be specially con- sidered at present. During the last decade there has been a wonderful improvement in Shires. Their quality has been materially added to without impairing 21 their power and substance, and breeders of Shires have great reason to congratulate themselves upon the excellent results attained by their efforts in im- proving this useful breed of horses. The coarse hair on the legs has been greatly modified, the bones have been further flattened, and the hoofs considerably expanded in the right direction. The pasterns would still stand lengthening, perhaps, both before and behind, whilst the bone formation of the legs might, with advantage, be further flattened. A little more slope in the pasterns would reduce the concussion on the streets, and the further flattening of the bones would have the effect of reducing splints and other similar enlargements to a minimum. Whilst the pas- terns of some Shires may be rather short on the one hand, the pasterns of many Clydesdales are certainly too long on the other. Long, sloping pasterns pro- duce style and elasticity, but tend to weaken rather than to strengthen the propelling power of the limbs. At the same time, unduly long pasterns are unhandy in backing, and accidents frequentl}' occur by horses severely trampling themselves ; therefore, all things considered, a happy medium is the thing to be aimed at for practical purposes. Shires are excellently adapted to the heavy street work in towns, and com- mand very high prices when guaranteed good workers and sound, which is, perhaps, the best advertisement of popularity that they can possibly have. There is a healthy rivalry between Shires and Clydesdales, which is encouraging so long as it is ±1 kept within reasonable bounds, and the refusal of the directors of the Highland and Agricultural Society to accede to the request of the Shire Horse Society to open classes for Shires at their shows is very unfor- tunate and much to be regretted, because much good might have resulted to both breeds in consequence of their coming together occasionally for inspection. The decision of the Highland directors is the more unreasonable, since the Royal opens many classes for Clydesdales at its annual shows. The question, often debated, as to whether Shires and Clydesdales are really distinct breeds need not here be discussed. Breeders of Clydesdales, ten or fifteen years ago, regarded quality rather than substance, and hair rather than bone, consequently horses have deteriorated in weight. Were the hair cut from the legs and the flesh reduced from the ribs of many Clydesdales, they would appear little heavier than ordinary tram horses. This defect, however, is being gradually remedied, as evidenced at agricultural shows during recent seasons by the production of several extra heavy animals of great future promise. A good deal can be said in favour of both breeds, and, whilst Clydesdales are in greater demand in Scotch towns than Shires, the latter are decidedly in favour in large English towns. Each breed is specially adapted for its particular class of work, but, it goes without saying, that unless Clydesdales rapidly develop in weight they will con- tinue to take a very second-rate position for street work in the commercial market. n THE HEAVY HORSE MARKET. Purity of strain is certainly the correct thing for stud, showyard, and crossing purposes, but the re- quirements of the heavy horse market are: — weight, durability, soundness, and activity. When these qualifications are combined in a horse, commercial men are not inclined to inquire much about pedigree. Style and quality are certainly beautiful accompani- ments in a cart horse, but they are not indispensible necessities like substance and power. The primary object in breeding heavy horses for profit must be for the streets, when prices ranging from £^0 to £120 can readily be obtained for the better class of heavy, sound horses. The days for breeding a lighter class of horses for purely agricultural purposes are past, because American horses can be purchased for £2^ or £'^0, which prove fairly useful in working the lighter class of farms. It must not be supposed, however, that American horses are equal to take the regular place of British agricultural horses on heavy land. This idea looks all very well in theory upon paper, but in practice it is almost impracticable. Many farmers who have tried Ameri*,ans will readily confirm this opinion. They are useful in filling up gaps, and, with the misfits for the streets, the two classes combined are generally to be found in suffi- cient numbers to meet the customary waste in agriculture. So far, America has been unable to produce the class of horses required for the London 24 streets, and the monopoly is undoubtedly enjoyed by Shire breeders. For breeders who cater for the commercial market rather than the show-ring", success will be more readily attained by a judicious amalgama- tion of Shire and Clydesdale blood, in about equal proportions, than by prosecuting a system of absolu- utely pure breeding. This blend must be insisted upon, even at the risk of shocking the sensitive instincts of breeders of pure -bred stock. Some of the best heavy horses of the day, as proved both in the show-yard and the sale-ring, have been bred in this way. The size and power of Shire mares, com- bined with the quality and activity of Clydesdale stallions, produce a class of heavy horses which, for commercial purposes in towns, is ''second to none." MULES. Mules, as is well known, are the progeny of a cross between jackasses and pony mares. The progeny of the converse cross are called hinnies. The latter are not much bred in Britain, though in Ireland they are produced in comparatively large numbers. It is generally held b}' naturalists that mules will not breed, although isolated cases are occasionally re- ported when female mules have been said to bring forth young. Those reports, however, are generally from out-of-the-way places and cannot be authenti- cated. There is a certain prejudice existing against mules in this country, and it is doubtful if their breeding will ever become very popular. On the 25 whole, they might be too light for agricultural pur- poses, though they might, with advantage, be more largely employed in light van work. ARMY TRANSPORT PURPOSES. The work for which mules are apparently best adapted is for army transport. Very large num- bers were bought from the United States and else- where for this purpose during the recent war in South Africa, and were sold for highly remunera- tive prices by the breeders, ranging from £2^ to £a^o. The qualifications of mules for this purpose are many. They are very easily kept in the matter of food, and would thrive in places where ordinary horses would starve ; they are very durable and compara- tively free from sickness ; they withstand the dreadful attacks of the tsetse fly better than horses, as their hides are hard and tough. They move along more rapidly than horses at a walking pace, are very sure- footed, and admirably adapted for picking their way with mountain batteries over rough mountain tracks and precipitous kopjes ; they can carry very heavy weights, are good workers, and docile. As a rule, mules live rather more than double the age of horses ; they are generally less nervous, and can withstand very sudden changes of heat and cold with com- paratively little inconvenience and danger. For these reasons, they are admirably suited for army transport in foreign countries. It is held by some authorities that mules, when overwhelmed by fear, have an 26 unfortunate propensity to stampede, as evidenced at Nicholson's Nek during^ the recent campaign ; but, when under proper human control, this peculiarity can generally be counterbalanced, unless under very unusual circumstances. BREEDING OF MULES. Mules are very largely used in the United States for agricultural purposes, and are considered superior to horses. They have increased over one hundred per cent, during the last two decades, which forcibly illustrates the importance which is attached to them in that country. They are generally used in India for the same purpose, and are held in high repute by those competent to form an opinion on the subject. The best class of jackasses are imported into the United States at large prices for stud purposes. The United States mules are considered superior to South African mules, and bring correspondingly higher prices. It is affirmed that very indifferent mares in the United States breed sound progeny when crossed by jackasses, and that they do not transmit hereditary disease, but such assertions require to be accepted with the proverbial grain of salt. It is possible that the violent cross of blood may tend in this direction, but how it should it is impossible to say ; anyhow, it would be a very unwise principle on which to build a healthy and improving stud. By using a proper class of mares, mules are sometimes bred which grow to sixteen hands, and even more. 2; SELECTION OF SIRES AND UAMS. Too often are the characteristics of dams forgotten in the purchase of the sires, which is amply illustrated by the comparatively low average prices obtained even for some very old-established pedigreed stock. The general principles of breeding are easily understood and practised. They are founded on the broad truism that " like begets like," so that whatever character- istics are possessed by the sires and dams may naturally be expected to be inherited by the progeny. It is here where the scientific skill of up-to-date breeders displays itself — here, where eminent and ordinary breeders should join hands, so that science may become more practical, and practice more scientific. The respective properties of sires and dams should be fully considered, so as to procure the desired type by the amalgamation of blood. When there are widely distinguishing features in the sires and dams, the progeny will generally inherit the peculiarities of both in a modified degree ; but this is not always the case, for occasionally the off- spring will develop the characteristics of the sires, and sometimes those of the dams. Generally speak- ing, however, the combination of extreme qualities will naturally produce normal qualities in the progeny, as the tendency is to neutralise extremes and modify prominent points generally. It is exceedingly difficult — almost impossible — to combine quality and size in the same animals' to any 2g appreciable degree, yet this is the ideal to which breeders must endeavour to attain. Dams possessing size and substance must be mated with sires of acknowledged quality, and vice versa. The selection of sires is probably more important than the selection of dams, in consequence of the comparatively larger number of their off- spring; therefore, for the im- provement of stock, judicious judgment must be exercised in their selection. Their pedigrees should be closely studied previous to purchasing, and high pedigrees rather than high prices should govern breeders in their choice. Not that high-priced sires are not highly-pedigreed, but because they are not always specially adapted for mating the dams for which they are intended. Where there are weak points in the dams, correspondingly strong points must be looked for in the sires, and vice versa. It is by skilful drafting, selection, and mating that defects are worn out, and style, quality, substance, and good general conformation combined in the same animals. When once a definite type has been fixed, constant attention on the part of breeders is necessary to maintain its high standard of excellence, otherwise a declinature will occur which may manifest itself in several ways. The less new blood there is infused into old-established pedigreed stock the better, so far as preserving a uniform " family likeness " is con- cerned, only consanguinity may be carried too far, and in-and-in-breeding, unless conducted with con- summate skill, may result in deterioration of size 29 and delicacy of constitution. The best system of maintaining the size and stamina of stock, where in- and-in breeding- is closely practised, is to have the sires and dams as far removed from each other in blood relationship as possible, and at the same time to scrupulously weed out all inferior animals below the standard of type aimed at. The world-famed Border Leicester flock at Mertoun is an example of what success can be attained by the principle of in-and-in breeding, when conducted on scientific lines. In breeding harness horses. Hackneys, and hunters for average all-round wear, the sires should always be finer and higher bred than the dams, while they should not in ordinary circumstances be consan- guineous. If this exceedingly important matter is neglected, the progeny may be less symmetrical, with soft, comatose temperaments and delicate constitu- tions. Mares and stallions of the very best stamp should be carefully selected for breeding purposes, as good stock can never be produced from commonplace, in- different sires and dams. They should be thoroughly sound, with good constitutions and temperaments, symmetrically formed, and free from every peculiar cicatrice or malformation ; although, even with the greatest care, a htstis natnrce occasionally happens. Some breeders breed from any kind of stock with a nonchalance which, if not quite ignorance, is the twin brother to it. Thus, the fifty per cent, of unsound horses we see around us are largely ac- ') o counted for. If a mare goes lame, many farmers will breed from her and risk all consequences. In only too many cases, also, they consider the service fee of a stallion more than his merits. They will engage a stallion for a pound or two less, forgetting, by this false economy, that there may easily be ;^40 difference in value between the progeny of a first-class and the progeny of an inferior stallion. Everything in the nature of splints, sidebones, ringbones, brittle hoofs, sand cracks, curbs, spavins, stringhalts, broken wind, crib -biting, wind -sucking, and all the other diseases that horse-flesh is heir to, should be carefully avoided. Although many of the diseases mentioned are produced by overwork and strains, yet a number of them are hereditary, and will appear in colts even before they are handled. In addition to the foregoing, soil and climate are also important factors in the production of good stock. BREEDING FROM OLD STOCK. It is generally a mistake to breed from old stock, as the progeny is never so robust and durable as when bred from young matured stock. At the same time, very young mares should be mated to moder- ately old stallions, and vice versa. In this way there is greater aptitude to conception, and the progeny are better than when either very young or very old animals are mated together. Although it is difficult to say at what age mares are best adapted for breeding, it stands to reason that 31 it is better to breed after maturity has^ been reached than before. In breeding from fillies, their develop- ment is considerably arrested, and it is natural that their progeny cannot have the same vigour as the progeny of thoroughly-matured stock. Many people attempt to judge the ages of horses from the depth of the cavities above their eyes, but are unaware, perhaps, that the progeny of old stock have generally deeper-marked cavities at three years of age than the progeny of young stock have at seven. Thus, people who rely on this point in determining the ages of horses are very frequently deceived. A concise method of telling the ages of horses will be explained in another chapter. TELEGONY. The theory of telegony is one upon which scientific opinion is probably pretty equally divided at the present time. It is one of these problems in the science of stock-breeding requiring such careful observation over a necessarily extended period, that great time must elapse before definite facts can be recorded, if, indeed, they can ever be authentically ascertained so as to raise it from a possible theory to a well-founded truism. With the exception of Professor Cossar Ewart's experiments at Penicuik, few systematic attempts have been made in this country to solve the problem. It is one involving great expenditure of money, much labour and experi- ence, careful observation, and the faithful recording 32 of every detail, however insignificant, that bears upon the subject. On the completion of the Penicuik experiments, much lig-ht may be thrown upon the question, which should be full of interest to all breeders of stock, and whether the experiments come to a successful issue or not, great credit is certainly due to Professor Cossar Ewart for his disinterested labours in this connection. ' It is well known to breeders of all kinds of stock that pure-bred sires are more impressive than under- bred or cross-bred sires, and that, by careful selection and mating along scientific lines, under-bred stock can be raised in time to come within the term " pure- bred." This accepted fact neither proves nor dis- proves telegony, but it seems natural to suppose that, were the original germ permanently fixed by first sires, under-bred features would be more slowly worn out, and conversely, pure-bred characteristics would deteriorate less rapidly. It is held by many breeders that parents of either sex, possessing the purer breed- ing and fixity of type, are the more prepotent, and that the progeny incline to whichever side the balance of breeding and type lies. Telegony, however, if it does exist — and although there may be no positive proof of its action, there are many apparent indica- tions of it — necessarily emanates from original sires by the inoculation of the female ovum during coition. With pregnancy, saturation follows, and it is held that the original male strains always remain hermetic- ally associated with the female blood to a varying 33 degree in correspondence with the prepotency of individual sires. The characteristics of first sires may make themselves apparent in innumerable ways — in colour, conformation, constitution, and temperament, but they may be so slight that they are practically imperceptible, and, on the other hand, they may be so prominent as almost to bring the theory of tele- gony within the range of established truth. By con- tinuous breeding, the distinctive features of original sires are gradually reduced, though they may never absolutely disappear. All breeders of stock are familiar with reversion, or atavism, as it is occasionally called, and even under the care of the most experienced breeders reversions occur from time to time in the most unaccountable manner. They are more frequent, however, during the formation of particular breeds of stock,, than when breeds are permanently fixed and established. This principle is borne out in all classes of stock ; thus, in-and-in breeding, whilst in some cases it may lead to deterioration of size and delicacy of constitution when practised unscientifically, is no doubt respons- ible for the excellency of all kinds of British stock at the present day. But reversion and telegony are essentially distinct, because the former peculiarity may revert along the female just as easily as along the male line of descent, the balance naturally depending upon whichever parent possesses the greater pre- potency. Telegony, as already explained, can only revert to original sires. In this way telegony, if it D 34 be accepted as a fact, must be understood to be absolutely separated from atavism and variation ; on the other hand, if it only- remain a hypothesis, it is difficult to say what is atavism and what is telegony, or to deny that both terms are identical in their application. Instead of reversion and variation being always consequent upon the entrance of disturbing influences in the line of heredity, they are probably just as likely to occur from outside influences in environment, whether gradual or violent, during the impressionable period of gestation. Violent crossing is instrumental in producing many reversions and variations, and in arresting fecundity. This is exemplified in unfertile hybrids of all species, but this is probably more the experience of fanciers than regular commercial breeders ; and, although " like begets like," it is impossible to forecast the results when violent crossing is resorted to, as the type of progeny may radiate in all directions except the one desired. This is naturally a domestic observation, because the rigorous law of nature pre- cludes this intermingling amongst animals in a wild state. The law of " the survival of the fittest," it is said, operates in the latter circumstances, and main- tains each species in strength and purity, although, on the authority of the late Duke of Argyle in " Evolution Cross-examined," there is no more barren phrase in existence than that coined by the late Mr Herbert Spencer. It can only be understood as a 35 modification of Darwin's definition, and whether it may be regarded as an improvement on the original is, of course, open to debate. Little can be done by crossing to solve the problem of telegony ; indeed, its effects will tend rather to confuse the issue, so that to arrive at reliable conclusions, pure-bred animals are necessary for experimental purposes. If the Biblical account of the spotted cattle pro- duced by the ingenuity of Jacob be correct, it would seem that he had divined their bovine susceptibilities and practised the method of increasing his individual estate on thoroughly scientific principles, because he supplied the wands that produced the charm, made some mathematical calculations, and determined the results with consummate skill. Without regarding this Biblical story very seriously, there are many instances of freaks of nature due to outside influences occurring within the experience of most breeders. Whether these upsetting influences affect the germ at the time of copulation, or are caused at a later and more impressionable stage of pregnancy, it is impossible to say, though scientific opinion inclines to favour the former rather than the latter theory. Sudden changes in environment, change of food, climatic influences, new companions, and occasional frights doubtless play a prominent part in the pro- duction of freaks and variations ; indeed, these are well-worn facts which come within the everyday experience of most breeders of stock. In no class of animals is the idea of telegony probably more 36 clearly conveyed than in dogs, and most fanciers are very scrupulous in the use of first sires. There is a tendency to narrow telegony down to a repro- duction of colour and shape, and, in the opinion of the writer, this is a mistake, because, if it can be proved to operate at all, there is no reason why it should not manifest itself in all or any faculty, both physical and mental. If this be admitted, the ques- tion becomes much more complicated and difficult of solution. Thus, as already mentioned, much time, careful study, and close observation are necessary in order to determine its authenticity. SAFETY IN WORKING BROOD MARES. Some breeders do not work their mares when they are in foal, under the impression that it is injurious to them. It is, however, quite a mistake, for, if regularly and carefully wrought, they will foal more easily and with greater safety. Heavy carting and much backing during the advanced stages of gestation should be avoided, as any undue strain might displace the foetus and cause abortion ; but if carefully managed in all ordinary yokes they will, as a rule, work up till the day of foaling with perfect safety. It is safer to work mares in chains rather than in shafts, and they should be kept off the roads when in a slippery condi- tion, as straining and slipping on ice is a prolific cause of abortion. In fact, light exercise is the very life of them. Parturition is generally difficult with idle, over -fed mares. 37 CONDITION OF BROOD MARES. Mares should neither be too fat nor too lean, but in fresh, healthy, and thriving condition. There is far greater aptitude to conception, and proportionally less danger at foaling, than when they are either built with flesh or poor and thin. Immediately after fecundation, mares should be returned to the exact circumstances of their previous environment. If they have been working, grazing in the field, or standing in the stable, they should always be returned to the same position, so that nothing different in the surroundings may appear to excite them. In all cases, they should be given the same food. Some mares are very excitable during their conceptive periods, while others are dull and languid. MANAGEMENT OF STALLIONS. Stallions should be well fed on oats, beans, and hay, with a bran mash every alternate night. Like mares, however, they should not be loaded with superfluous flesh, but kept in fresh, fairly hard con- dition. When stallions are covered with fat, they are a burden to themselves, and their weight is often instrumental in producing splints, spavins, and other bone enlargements. In addition to this, they cannot serve mares satisfactorily, and in the event of illness there is much greater danger, so that a reasonably hard condition should be aimed 38 at to keep stallions fit for the road during the travel- ling" season. They should always have plenty of exercise to keep their legs in order. Many diseases of the legs are caused by over-feeding and insufficient exercise. Thoroughbred stallions will travel from twenty to thirty miles a day, and serve seventy or eighty mares in the season ; while Clydesdales and Shires will travel fifteen or eighteen miles and serve sixty or seventy mares. Colts of three years of age, however, should not be allowed to serve more than thirty-five or forty mares. Serving too many mares during the first season spoils them for the next. HARNESS HORSES, HACKS, AND HUNTERS. The best way to breed a half-bred harness horse is to cross a cart mare with a thoroughbred or Hack- ney stallion ; or, if a lighter stamp is desired, a half-bred mare should be used. Better action will be obtained from the Hackney than from the thoroughbred cross. The best kind of hack is produced from a half- bred cob mare and a thoroughbred or Hackney sire, or a half or three-parts bred mare if a lighter stamp is wanted. We are not treating here of pure-bred pedigreed stock. High -class studs can only be built upon pure- bred foundations after years of careful selection and mating, and at a large expenditure of capital, to attain to anything like front-rank success. Our 39 recommendations are rather intended to apply to farmers of all classes, who may keep a few odd mares for doing catch work about the farm, and who may turn them into some profit by judicious breeding at comparatively little cost. This idea is very practical, because probably nine-tenths of the mounts of the Imperial Yeomanry and cavalry regiments are drawn from this class of horses. Pedigreed Hackneys, high -class hunters, and thoroughbreds are unsuitable for the work, because the prices which they realise are prohibitive. With a large increase in mounted infantry in future, hardy horses, bred in this way, may probably be in great demand, and horses of this class cost prac- tically nothing for breeding, and will pay fairly well at ;^40 a head. A heavy-weight hunter should be bred from a strong half-bred mare and a thoroughbred stallion — their respective dams having been originally crossed the proper way. It is a pity that hunters are not classified as a distinct breed, but owing to the valuable correspondence which has recently occurred in the Live Stock Jonr7ial^ it is pretty safe to predict that we are within a measurable distance of attaining this desirable object. The Hunters* Improvement Society is doing much useful work in improving the breed of hunters, and in the near future excellent results are likely to be achieved in consequence. Hunters and all other classes of horses will be fully considered in the sections that deal with them. 40 HACKNEYS. There is probably no finer breed of horses in the British Isles — probably no finer breed in tne world — than Hackneys, and the purity of their blood can be traced as far back, if not further, than thoroughbreds. The latter are descended from Byerly Turk, the Darley Arabian, and the Godolphin Arabian. Those horses were imported between 1689 and 1730, and have left their mark largely on the thoroughbreds and Hackneys of the present day. Perhaps the exquisite symmetry of Hackneys is due to the prepotency of the beautifully -shaped Darley Arabian more than to any of the other imported stallions. The action of thoroughbreds is generally low and defective in consequence of their having been bred entirely for speed during the last two hundred years. The action of Hackneys, on the contrary, is dashing and magnificent. Lovers of horses enjoy nothing better than the straight and stylish stepping of a well-trained Hackney. Hackneys are generally possessed of hardy constitutions, beautiful manners, and are very good-tempered and docile. They have splendid conformation, undoubted courage, wonderful staying power, and, for soundness, they are probably unrivalled by any other breed of horses in the United Kingdom, or out of it. If possible, Hackneys should be bred whole-coloured, as many people object to white markings for matching purposes. Chesnut is a colour which is rapidly increasing amongst Hack- 4t neys, and it is very much in fashion at the present time. Hackney staHions are more suitable for the production of horses for the road than thoroughbreds, because they combine all the essential qualifications for the road in a high degree. By crossing pony mares, light and heavy hunter mares, van and even cart mares, all grades of horses can be produced for the various requirements of the road. There are many excellent studs of Hackne}'s in the country, and long prices are forthcoming when they change hands. In fact, the value of a beautiful, well-trained Hackney, like the value of a well-bred, thoroughly- trained Polo pony, can scarcely be estimated. The demand for both is rapidly increasing. With regard to the latter, a true type has hardly yet been estab- lished, and the breeder who succeeds in forming and maintaining the desired type, may safely count upon making his fortune ; but of Polo ponies more anon. BEST PLACE FOR A MARE TO FOAL. This subject is of supreme interest both to naturalists and breeders of stock, and an intelligent knowledge of the habits of farm animals in a pure state of nature and under high domestication natur- ally tends to develop a better system of management in all departments. Some naturalists go so far as to affirm that there should be no interference at the birth of domestic animals, and argue that the organisa- tion of nature, being perfect, renders an interference with its laws not only unnecessary, but highly danger- 42 ous as well. The inconsistency of this argument will be at once apparent when it is pointed out that the very fact, which is evidently forgotten, of animals being under a high state of domestication is a direct interference with the laws of nature itself. As soon as animals are domesticated, absolutely natural laws become impossible because of the necessarily impaired character of their several instinctive faculties, conse- quent on their circumscribed environment. It is well known that the instincts of animals in a state of nature are much more acute than those of animals under domestication. The enforced '' struggle for life " necessitates an intense development of the instinctive faculties of wild animals, without which existence would become impossible. With animals under domestication, the historic phrase of Darwin and Spencer largely ceases to operate, at least, it is only intelligible in a very comparative sense, because the faculty of self-preservation is reduced to the common- est instinctive function, viz. : — that of eating. In this way, naturalists and stockbreeders regard animals from an entirely different standpoint ; the observa- tions of the former are based upon animals in a state of nature, and the observations of the latter upon animals under domestication. This naturally leads to a sharp division of opinion between the more advanced thinkers of both classes ; and to arrive at a common-sense view of the treatment of farm animals it is necessary to steer a medium course, by blending the observations of distinguished naturalists and ob- 43 servant stockbreeders together, and thus combine the valuable knowledge of both. There is all the difference in the world between the wild mare of the prairie and the in-bred pedigreed Clydesdale and Shire. The highly-developed instinct of the former enables her to roam over a large area of ground in search of the materials of existence, and to take good care of herself when unexpected emergencies arise. This enforced activity in her progenitors for thousands of years has developed her instinctive functions to their highest capacity ; whilst those of the Clydesdale and Shire, on the other hand, have been reduced by domestication to the lowest point — bare rudiments of the former. It is a mistake to imagine that domestication develops the instincts of animals ; the habits they acquire by civilised association with men and things have no continuity, and are never inherited and reproduced by their progeny, which is conclusive testimony that instinct is only maintained under natural laws, and that all acquirements under domestic existence are necessarily artificial. Domestic acquirements are never contribu- tive to the general betterment of animals ; only those specialised by training and favourable surroundings attain to a kind of comparative civilisation — a civilisa- tion, however, which is hampered and circumscribed by the narrowness of its understanding, and which dies with the animals that acquire it. When parturition approaches, the wild mare seeks a sheltered place and foals, as a rule, in safety. Her 44 maternal instincts are keen and solicitous ; her atten- tions are rapidly reciprocated by the foal, which naturally inherits all the acute characteristics of its dam, and in an incredibly short time the pair under- stand each other, the latter, resuming her accustomed roving life in company with the former, which soon becomes initiated in the ups and downs of its wild prairie existence. When we compare the condition of the Clydes- dale or Shire mare at parturition, the contrast of instinctive self-reliance is marvellous indeed. Here, nature must be assisted or probably fifty per cent, of Clydesdale and Shire foals would never live to suck their dams. The limp, ungainly youngster is a sprawling mass of legs and stupidity, whilst its dull mother often regards it with comparative in- difference, or, if she be unusually solicitous, the chances are that she may trample and injure it in some way or another. Very often milk requires to be drawn artificially from the mare, and the foal guided to the teat to induce it to suck, otherwise it would probably die from hunger. Thus, instinct, under domestication, degenerates into a dull stupidity which must be assisted to ensure success ; but the assistance should always be as close an imitation of nature as circumstances permit, and a scientific know- ledge of natural history, combined with practical experience, will prove invaluable. About ten days previous to a mare's period of foaling, she should be placed in a comfortable, roomy, 45 loose-box, and fastened to a piece of delicate cord in the corner. An old piece of net-backing" is very suitable. The reason for fixing the mare's head in the corner is to prevent her getting into an awkward and dangerous position when foaling. Foals are fre- quently injured, and sometimes killed, by mares lying down against a wall to foal. As soon as mares have foaled, they will generally break their delicate bind- ing in their eagerness to reach their foals, and turn round in perfect safety. INDICATIONS OF FOALING. It is always desirable for an attendant to be present when mares are foaling, if possible. The duration of a mare's period of gestation is forty-eight weeks, and they generally foal pretty close to their time, though not always. Some mares will drop their foals ten days before they are due, and others will carry them ten days beyond, which practically means a fluctuation in their period of pregnancy of three weeks. In most cases a creamy kind of wax forms on the points of the mare's teats, and they rarely carry their foals beyond forty-eight hours after its formation. But, while this is a rule, it is not without exception, as some mares do foal without the least indication of wax. The sliding of the bones at the root of the tail is another reliable guide that parturition is approaching. The immediate signs of foaling are too palpable to require descrip- tion, and some mares will foal in ten minutes after 46 the first violent preliminaries are observed. When an attendant is watching a foaling mare, he should keep perfectly quiet in some corner, unseen by the mare, as a number of mares are very shy, and will scarcely foal if anyone is present. No manual assistance should be given unless absolutely neces- sary. Nature generally does her own work best when left alone. In ordinary cases the foetus is ex- pelled in from five to fifteen minutes. When mares cannot foal naturally of their own accord, something is sure to be seriously wrong, and the services of a qualified veterinary surgeon should be speedily ob- tained. In such circumstances, mares do not struggle long before giving in, much, of course, depending on their constitution and temperament. HOW TO MANAGE THE FOAL. As soon as the foal is born, the attendant should break the sheet that covers its head, although, in most cases, it is ruptured by the action of foaling. If this is not done, the foal will be unable to breathe, and will, of course, expire at once. The navel-string also should be noticed. In cases where it is violently severed at birth, blood will discharge so rapidly that the foal will not live for five minutes. The navel- string should be tightly tied with a piece of cord about an inch and a half from the body, which stops the discharge at once. The cord should be dipped into a suitable antiseptic previous to application. Indeed, it is a safe plan to tie the navel-strings of 47 foals in all cases, whether they need it or not, as the entrance of microbes and dangerous bacteria will thereby be prevented. The cord will do no harm, and the protruding part of the navel-string- will wither up and fall off in a week or two. After this a little milk should be drawn from the mare and put down the foal with the aid of a spoon, which will strengthen and enable it to get upon its legs sooner. Next, the mare's vessel should be washed with lukewarm water, which will remove all the wax and dirt that may have accumulated about it. At the same time the washing will effectually neutralise any feeling of ticklishness about the udder. Many mares will strike out violently at the first touch of the foal if this important item of attention is neglected. Many foals are injured and killed in this manner, not from any wickedness in the mares, but from a feeling of irresistible ticklishness. When the foal attempts to rise, it should be steadied gently by holding it by the tail with one hand, while the other is placed round its breast. When it has quite gained its feet, the attendant should continue holding the tail with one hand, while its mouth is guided to the mare's teats with the other. Foals will not be forced to suck, they must be coaxed into it by gentle manoeuvring at first, until they get hold of the teats and draw the milk of their own accord, when they will generally look after them- selves, if all goes well with them in other respects. 48 JEALOUSY IN MARES. There are some mares that display great jealousy and suspicion concerning^ their foals. Great care must alwa)s be taken in moving about them, for, occasionally, in attempting to strike the attendant they will hit their foals, with fatal results. High- tempered mares of this kind should be disturbed as little as possible. They are generally good and care- ful nurses when left alone with their foals. It is only when the attendant appears that they become excited and dangerous. They are unduly solicitous about their foals, and misunderstand the action of their attendants, on whose attention they are, of course, absolutely dependent. The halters should not be taken off mares of this kind, and they are more easily caught and managed when necessary. When feeding them, the attendant should move quietly, without jerking and hurrying too much about the loose-box. THE TREATMENT OF MARES. It is a good plan to give mares a bran mash twice a day for a week or ten days after foaling, which is very essential to their welfare. They should be fed with hay, corn, and a few roots. The cold air should be carefully taken off their water. Scarcely anything is calculated to do more harm to newly foaled mares than cold spring water. Mares with their foals may be turned out to grass in the 49 middle of the day a week or two after foaling, if the weather is propitious, and brought under cover at night. This may be continued for three or four weeks, when, unless the weather is very inclement and foals unusually weak, they may be permitted to lie out. Of course it is necessary to keep very early foals inside when there is no grass. The dams should be liberally fed with soft food to keep them laxative. Constipation in the bowels should be care- fully guarded against until the mares are turned out to grass. THE ADVANTAGE OF EARLY FOALS. **An early foal is always an early foal," is a saying which is perfectly true, because a March or April foal gets the benefit of the summer's grass, and is consequently older and stronger to overcome the hardships of the ensuing winter. A late June or July foal is proportionately weaker, and is generally at best but a mere foal even the following spring. Thus it is a great advantage, when practicable, to have foals early in the season. The question at what age the growth of horses ceases is difficult to deter- mine. Although five years is the age when horses are supposed to reach maturity there are many cases on record where they have continued to grow till the age of seven. At the present time the writer has a horse that grew two inches between the age of five and seven years. E 50 HOW TO PROCURE EARLY FOALS. In order to ensure March foals mares should be sired in April. About the middle of February mares that are intended to have foals should receive liberal and generous treatment in their food, so as to produce regularity in their periodical seasons of conception. They should always be tried with the stallion every week from the beginning of the season until served. When served, they need not be tried again for three weeks, at the end of which, however, they should again be tried weekly all through the season. Mares vary a good deal, and to guard against missing them this is the safest system to follow. Many breeders will not try mares until they have been turned out to grass about the middle of May, thus late foals and barren mares are the rule rather than the exception under such conditions. Mares usually come in season in the course of eight or ten days after foaling, and experience proves that they are more likely to conceive then than at sub- sequent periods. EARLY AILMENTS OF FOALS. It is necessary to watch foals very closely during the first week of their existence, in order to see that their bowels are working thoroughly. Constipation is dangerous, and the peculiarly tough, adhesive nature of their excrement renders its evacuation both diffi- cult and painful. Prompt attention is necessary, or 51 fatal consequences may soon follow. Castor oil may be given with advantage, and mild injections admin- istered, which will generally have the desired effect. Any difficulty with the urine is a very serious matter, and very little can be done to young foals beyond covering their backs over with steaming rugs in order to keep them warm. The penis of colt foals is sometimes doubled back in the sheath, but this is easily remedied by inserting the finger, well-oiled, and bringing it forward to its natural position. WEANING FOALS. Foals may be weaned when they are from six- teen to twenty weeks old, according to circumstances. The termination of their sucking period will depend much upon whether the mares are required to work. If they are only kept for breeding purposes the foals may be allowed to run longer with them. A number of brood mares, however, are worked in the regular yokes of the farm, and are taken in during September for harvesting operations, when the foals should be taken off. A little milk should be drawn from the mares daily for a week after the foals are taken off, and in this way it will gradually leave them without injury or inconvenience. Foals should be confined in an airy loose-box for a week, and tares and hay, with a little corn and plenty of fresh water should be given them. 5^ In the course of a week they will generally have forgotten their dams, and may be turned out to clover fogs or young grass. They should be brought under cover at night, and fed with hay and oats. All young colts must be liberally fed, and especially foals. The first year is the worst to get over. Foals that are poorly treated in the way of food during the first winter never really throw off the bad effects. Their growth is retarded, while their condition is poor, and they will generally develop into mean- spirited, unthriven horses. ADVANTAGES OF A ROUGH HILL. It is a decided advantage to breeders of horses to have a rough undulating hill on which to run colts during the summer, with plenty of whin bushes, rough heather, bogs, well intersected with open sheep drains, and, if possible, in close proximity to a railway. The rough, uneven nature of the ground improves their action immensely, develops their muscles, and accelerates the natural process of their ossification ; whilst the whins, bogs, and sheep drains accustom them to encounter and negotiate similar obstacles with great coolness and aptitude, and generally to take better care of themselves ; and the near proximity of a railway has a marvellous effect in familiarising them with the appearance of steam. 53 HOW TO WINTER COLTS. It is a capital plan to allow colts to run out all the winter, provided there is a large warm shed which thev can take advantao-e of for shelter during" stormy weather. The shed should be placed in a convenient part of the field, and the entrance to it must be both high and wide, otherwise colts are likely to injure themselves in passing out and in. At the same time, due regard must be paid to light, ventilation, and sanitation. They should have a liberal allowance of oat straw or meadow hay, with a feed of oats morning and night. The practice of running colts out during the winter has a tendency to harden their constitu- tions, and the abundance of natural exercise is the very life of them. SEPARATE YEARLINGS FROM OLDER COLTS. Yearlings should always be separated from older colts, while their food should be more nutritious, and their requirements will best be met by substitut- ing clover hay for straw fodder. Not only is the straw deficient in nutritive substance for young, delicate flesh and bone-forming purposes, but the older and stronger colts will invariably drive the yearlings back. They will never get forward to eat until the former retire satisfied, and if there is a sweeter rip of straw than another, it will be carefully selected and only the refuse left for the poor handi- 54 capped yearlings. Therefore, if all farmers who go in for rearing colts will take the trouble to separate them — the weak from the strong — they will be amply compensated for their labour and humanity by the enhanced improvement of the yearlings. MANAGEMENT OF THEIR FEET. A natural grass hill is also very valuable in the preservation of the feet of colts. The surface is much softer than a field that is under regular rotation, and their hoofs, in consequence, are less liable to become worn and splintered. Care should be taken not to over -stock pastures. When over -stocked, they be- come tainted, and may have a very injurious effect on the constitution of the colts. To obviate this, pastures may be stocked with cattle until all taint- ing caused by colts has been removed. When a natural grass hill of this kind is unavailable, it will be found advantageous to shoe colts in the fore-feet as they are apt to wear the outer walls of the hoofs, laming themselves, and not infrequently growing into " club " feet, which are extremely awkward and ugly. If the hoofs are not allowed to grow too far over, they can generally be cured by careful shoeing ; but if permitted to get thoroughly twisted it is impossible to put them straight. The shoes should be wide so as not to retard the natural growth and expansion of the hoofs, or narrow, contracted feet will be the result. They should also be removed occasionally, as the hoofs of colts grow very rapidly when protected 55 by shoes. The shoes should be made as light as possible, consistent with the weight of the colts, and perfectly flat without heels, TliE DOCKING OF COLTS. Probably the best method of docking colts is simply to sever the tail at the required length by the ordinary docking shears, then gather the hair tightly over the stump and secure it firmly with a piece of strong cord to prevent undue bleeding. It is quite unnecessary, as a rule, to cauterise the stump when the hair is firmly tied down over it, as it only aggravates the pain. The blood lodges in the hair and very soon stops of its own accord. The cord should be removed an hour or two after the opera- tion, and it is very rarely indeed that any serious consequences follow. Even in castration firing has largely become a custom of the past. April is generally the best month of the whole year in which to dock colts, as it is neither too warm nor too cold, and during that month flies are not numerous. The presence of flies in large numbers is a source of constant torture to green wounds. It is, however, advantageous to dock colts when they are mere foals at six weeks old, as it is easier, simpler, and safer of accomplishment, and the same directions should be followed as given in the case of older and stronger colts. 56 CHAPTER IV. SHETLAND PONIES. Shetland ponies are probably the smallest breed of horses in Europe, and their native home is in the Orkney and Shetland Islands. A difference of opinion exists as to whether these ponies were intro- duced by the Norwegians in their invasion of Shetland during the ninth century, or whether they were indigenous to these islands before that period. The majority of evidence is in favour of the latter con- tention, and it is held by many competent authorities that Shetland ponies were used by the Celtic natives as far back as the fourth and fifth centuries. CHARACTERISTICS. The chief characteristic of Shetland ponies is their small size. They range in height from nine to eleven hands, and are comparatively thicker and broader in proportion to their height than most other breeds of horses. They are hardy constitutionally, and can en- dure great fatigue, whilst their extraordinary strength is marvellous. They possess good tempers, are very sagacious and docile, and are easily trained to all 57 kinds of work. Like mules, they are very sure-footed, which no doubt is a hereditary acquirement after running- over these rough islands for so many cen- turies. They are practically free from hereditary diseases which is probably due to the comparatively wild state in which they are reared. With natural food and shelter they are more immune from disease than horses under greater domestication. In colour, they vary from dun, chesnut, bay, brown, and black. The last-named colour predominates, and is con- sidered the characteristic colour of the breed. There are also skewbalds and piebalds, but these form an unimportant minority, and are not desirable as a rule. BREEDING. Shetland ponies have been much improved in quality, conformation, and bone, and this, to a great extent, is due to owners of large studs who have the means and material at command. Crofters, who breed these ponies in the islands, are too poor to give fancy prices for pedigreed pony stallions, and, in consequence, a good deal of indiscriminate breed- ing is prevalent. The ponies are allowed to run over the rough outer commons during summer, and are brought into the inner commons during winter. Unless the ground is covered with snow they prac- tically receive no artificial food, and are never brought under cover at all, which treatment no doubt explains the wonderful hardiness of their constitutions. In their natural habitat the hair on their bodies grows 58 to an abnormal length, and it is generally well into Slimmer before they shed their winter coats. The foals are allowed to suck their dams for about twelve months, after which they are weaned and sold, and in this way mares have foals practically every alternate year which certainly cannot be regarded as good management. Were foals weaned in the usual way, however, expenses by hand-feeding would necessarily be incurred in order to keep the young- sters alive. They are pulled through the first year more easily with the aid of their dams, and so the crofters console themselves that what they lose in time on the one hand they gain in value on the other ; but there is little question that the more up- to-date system of management, whereby mares would produce foals every year, would be much more remunerative. In south-country studs, where warmer climatic conditions prevail, the chief point to aim for is to breed them small. Small mares and stallions, from a recognised small strain, must be mated together. Unusually small ponies appear occasionally by acci- dent, but, unless they are bred down through an acknowledged small strain, it would be very unwise to breed from them, because the progeny are almost certain to revert to increased size, particularly in a warmer climate. With no extra feeding, no artificial shelter, and careful selection and mating, however, this tendency to increase in size can generally be counteracted, as evidenced by the excellent ponies 59 which are produced in south-country studs at the present day. In selecting mares and stallions, par- ticular attention should be given to their hocks, because it is in that region where the heavy strains of the coal mines generally first show themselves. Crossing Shetlands with other ponies has occasionally been tried, but with little success. The cross gener- ally tends to increase the height, which is the one thing of all others which must not be done ; there- fore, small ponies can only be produced by purity of breeding, and there are no ponies small enough to push the Shetlands out of their well -deserved position. USES OF PONIES. The chief work for which these ponies are required is for drawing coals in the mines. Owing to their small size they are specially adapted for hauling trucks along the branch lines where the seams of coal are low. In many coal pits the smallness of ponies is a sine qua iioti, and, generally speaking, the smaller they are they are the dearer. There are many seams of coal in the north of England so low that only ponies of from nine to ten hands are capable of working in them. They are all entire, it being generally believed that their strength is increased thereby, and the maximum of strength and the minimun of size combined is the fundamental re- quirement of coal mines so far as horseflesh \s concerned. 6o In consequence of the circumscribed accommoda- tion mares are never taken down the pits, as there would be danger in working them alongside of stallions; but there is no reason why mares should not be worked by themselves in small detached pits, or even in remote sections of the same pits. There is a prevalent idea amongst people who are unacquainted with the work that pit ponies are badly used, but this is quite a mistake, for managers of collieries, as a rule, look closely to the management of the ponies. They are well fed, and look as sleek and fit as a stud of hunters. The notion that ponies go blind in the pits is ridiculous, as they retain their eyesight indefinitely, unless injured by accidents, to which they are, of course, from the dark nature of their environment, particularly liable. As a rule, they are only taken to the surface in the event of strikes, disease, or death, and pit ponies live as long, on the average, as horses on the surface. From the uniform temperature of pits ponies suffer very little from colds and similar ailments. Shetland ponies are also used for the conveyance of children, whether in harness, panniers, or saddle, and for this work they are exceedingly well fitted, in consequence of their surefootedness, good temper, and docility. Naturally, the better sorts are selected for this work, and long prices are often given for suitable ponies. 6i FEEDING AND MANAGEMENT. Ponies are fed in the pits on chopped hay to prevent waste. Before chopping- was introduced, great quantities of hay were spoilt, but nothing of that kind occurs now. In addition to chopped hay, practically ad lib., a good feed consists of sixty per cent, of crushed oats, twenty per cent, of maize, and twenty per cent, of beans or peas, whichever of the two latter are the better current value. The quan- tities, of course, depend on the size of the ponies and the nature of their work. They are given water at least three times a day, care being taken to supply it fresh and pure. A still better system is to have a water-tank in front of each pony, with a suitable plug for flushing-. During winter they are allowed a few carrots or swedes, and for eight or ten weeks in summer they are given cut grass instead of hay, which has an excellent effect on the health of the ponies. In some pits it is customary to mix the corn along with the hay, but, from practical observa- tion, this method cannot be recommended. Much better results will be obtained by feeding the chopped hay and corn separately. Different ponies have differ- ent appetites, and intelligent attendants soon discover the peculiarities of each, and treat them accordingly, and the collective result is decidedly in favour of a separate system of feeding. In the opinion of certain colliery experts, the above-named system of feeding is recommended, though it is not denied that each 62 colliery manager has his own particular method, which he no doubt considers best. The ponies are regularly groomed, and their shoes are kept in good order which is very necessary for the preservation of their feet. PIT STABLES. Pit stables are constructed on many different systems, much necessarily depending on the geo- logical formation of mines. The following method, however, is one which, when thoroughly under- stood, can scarcely fail to commend itself to mining engineers generally. The stables are kept scrupulously clean, being well swept out morning and night. They have swing bars instead of fixed divisions between stalls, and a flooring of cement. Over the floor of each stall there is a pitch-pine board, with about an inch of space between the deals, on which the ponies lie. These boards fold up on hinges to allow the floor to be thoroughly cleaned beneath. The urine passes through the interstices in the boards, and is carried away by a channel in the cement floor. When the ponies are at work, these folding boards are left up, so that all beneath is thoroughly dry when they return to stable. The pitch-pine boards enhance the cleanliness and sanitation of the stables, and the feet of the ponies are kept in a much sounder con- dition, as they are always standing dry. With moss litter or sawdust, running thrushes and cracked heels 63 are a constant source of trouble. Thus, pitch-pine boarding is probably the greatest improvement which has been introduced into pit stables during recent years. All interior walls are washed periodically with lime, which renders them sweet and clean, in addi- tion to giving them a bright, cheerful appearance. Stables are generally lighted by electricity, which is both safe and convenient. The swing bars dis- pense with corners, and the floor, in consequence, is more easily brushed and kept clean. The water- tanks are generally within easy reach of the stables, and it is preferable to have the water brought in pipes from the surface, rather than use that which gathers in the mine, as the former is generally purer and fresher. OTHER BREEDS OF PONIES. Welsh and Iceland ponies are also used in mines where the seams are high enough to admit them, but experience proves that these ponies do not possess the relative strength and stamina of the hardy Shet- landers, nor are they so easily trained to the peculi- arities of the work. They are generally more nervous and take a much longer time to become tractable, and a good proportion of them frequently develop into unsteady workers, which, in the limited space of mines, is both awkward and dangerous. With Shetlanders, this form of vice very seldom appears. All pit ponies should wear strong leather skull-caps, and when they bump their heads against the inequal- 64 ities in the roofs of pits, they are less Hkely to frig-hten and injure themselves. Nothing tends to frighten young" ponies more than this, and it is necessary to exercise g-reat caution in dang-erous places. Ponies are taken down pits by means of cages, and the old system of lowering them in nets is discontinued in consequence of its inconvenience and the number of accidents which generally occurred on such occa- sions. 65 CHAPTER V. HALTERING AND LEADING. As we have different breakers, so have we differ- ent systems of breaking. There are few systems that do not possess some good points, although, unfortunately, they also possess many bad ones, and, when taken together, they have little to recommend them, so far as inexperienced horsemen are con- cerned. Indeed, in relying absolutely upon them as guides, many valuable colts have been irrevocably ruined. Horse-breaking, like all other sciences, is capable of improvement, and, hitherto, force and cruelty have played too prominent a part in the handling of colts, instead of considering their peculi- arities of temperament, and treating them accord- ingly. DIFFERENT SYSTEMS OF BREAKING. Rarey's system was perhaps the best of its day, yet there were probably more horses spoiled under it than under any system before or since, not so much through any failure in the system itself, but through its application by nervous and unskilled hands. F 66 Then we had later breakers, with more scientific and humane methods, and there is no doubt in the minds of horsemen that their methods reached further and attained better results than Rarey's, although many parts of them are by no means practicable. They profess to be able to '' mouth " a colt in about two hours, and this, as every experienced horseman knows, is a physical impossibility. The mouth of a colt cannot be thoroughly well made within a period of two or three weeks. Handling a colt in a covered arena, full of spectators, is a very different thing from handling one in the open. The circumscribed space and the number of people present arrest the colt's attention, and he will almost suffer any liberties to be taken with him in consequence, but, when he comes to be dealt with in the open, all his supposed training in the arena is forgotten. Another method of breaking, though more recent, is also very impracticable at many of its stages. The theory of kindness is sadly contradicted in many ways by the practice of this method. Throwing down horses, hoppling them with cords, levering the pressure on the mouth through catch- rings, tying the feet to the tail, and a dozen other absurdities come nearer the mark of being cruel than humane. The writer had the opportunity of witness- ing some performances recently, and from the beating of drums, firing of pistols, and blowing of steam whistles in a gas -lighted arena amidst hundreds of spectators, the terrified horses had little chance to 67 hold their own. This din and flourish of instantane- ous horse-breaking is all very well in the glittering arena, with the plaudits of spectators who know nothing about horses, but in the eyes of an experi- enced horseman it appears very differently. There may be some very exceptional cases where hoppling and throwing may be necessary in order to obtain complete control, but, as a rule, such methods are undesirable from most points of view. The system of horse-breaking which we shall endeavour to elucidate will corripare favourably with any, and it reaches much further into the general management of horses. Its effects, too, while a horse remains in good hands, will be permanent, but we cannot guarantee a well-trained horse to do right when he gets into bad hands, because there are, unfortunately, some men who will ruin every horse with which they come in contact, no matter how quiet he may have been originally. BEST PLACE TO HALTER A COLT. The best place in which to halter a colt is an enclosed court, not too large, yet large enough to allow a sufficiency of room to work freely. An en- closure about forty feet square is a most suitable place, surrounded by a high wall, so that the colt cannot see over it to distract his attention from the breaker. 68 KIND OF HALTER. Numerous writers recommend the use of a leather halter, but, throughout all our experience, we have always used a common rope halter with capital results, as it is more easily put on and adjusted than a leather one. It should be made of ordinary hempen rope, and the artificial loops that require to be made when haltering colts will stand better out than when it is composed of soft webbing. BEST METHOD OF HALTERING. We are now supposed to be desirous of haltering a colt that has never previously been haltered nor touched by the hand of man. In ninety cases in every hundred when his court is entered and ap- proached, he will manifest symptoms of wonder and fear. At once he realises man's superiority, and in no case will the colt attempt to fight if the breaker is possessed of an ordinary amount of nerve force, and maintains a kind, yet firm, attitude towards him. It may be noticed here, however, in passing, that it is always more advantageous to halter colts when they are quite young — mere foals — as it is easier, simpler, and safer of accomplishment. They should be trained to lead quietly while sucking their dams. This is easily managed by following the dam with the foal in a halter, with a good length of cord attached, and, in its struggles, care should be taken to let it feel the power of being held gradually. The 6g foal will naturally incline to pull forward in rear of its dam, and so the assistance of the mare in this way is invaluable. Foals should be tied up in the ordinary way in stalls for an hour each day, until they feel their ow^n strength, which, at such an im- mature age, is comparatively little, consequently they are more easily overcome, and yield to their altered circumstances with greater susceptibility than colts of three or four years of age. Thus the system commends itself to all who are intimately acquainted with the nature and habits of horses. But, to illustrate our method of haltering : — The breaker should take the halter in the left hand, open wide that part which goes underneath the jaw, and throw the loose end over his shoulder. He should approach the colt gently, and, almost in all cases, the colt will start and rush to the extreme end of the enclosure. He can, however, only beat the breaker in one particular, and that is his natural brute strength. It is all that instinct has given him to rely on — all he has ever practised. He has no power to reason with himself how he can best elude the halter, and ninety per cent, of colts will have recourse to precisely the same behaviour in a given set of circumstances, although it may differ some- what in degree, that is to say, that nearly every colt, in haltering, will behave pretty much alike. The first thing to do is to win his confidence. The breaker should convey to him, so to speak, the idea that he is not going to be hurt. He should approach 70 g-ently opposite his near shoulder, and, if he moves, he must stop until he is perfectly quiet. After wait- ing a few seconds, the breaker must advance carefully as before, and, in the course of a few minutes, the colt will allow his nose to be touched gently, but, on smelling the hand, he will generally start away. He must never be approached from his other extremity, as we are not sensible that any virtue lies in his tail, although a good deal of power and con- vincing force lie in his heels, in the shape of removing obstacles that he is not quite sure about ; therefore the breaker must keep as far from his heels as pos- sible, for in this case, like many others, ''discretion is the better part of valour." In the majority of cases, at the first contact of the hand, the colt will start and rush wildly away, and, so far as haltering is concerned, this may be considered as the supreme moment on which the balance of the breaker's mastery over him rests. If the breaker jumps aside, attempts to follow him, or appears too much in a hurry, he will miss the oppor- tunity, and the chances are that he will not succeed in getting near the colt again for some considerable time ; therefore, when he wheels round, the breaker should stand perfectly still. In no case must he move or recede one single step, or he will lose ground which has all to be recovered again in some manner or other. The breaker should keep his eyes firmly fixed on the colt, never lifting them for a moment. The colt will neither kick nor bite so long as he does not hurt him ; and when he is again stationary, the breaker must approach him as before, pat him gently on the neck, and, although timid, he will not, as a rule, rush away a second time. The breaker should continue fondling him quietly for a few minutes, then slip the halter quietly yet swiftly over his head, from his poll downwards, letting the loose part that goes below the jaw pass Fig. 1. — Hajlteeing. over his nose until it reaches its proper position (Fig. i), then draw the loose end of the halter gently until the knot comes up to the loop. The cord should be attached below the jaw, and he is thus securely haltered. The breaker should not jerk or pull too much on the halter at first, but should allow the colt to move freely about until he realises what the halter means. Some colts will naturally struggle ?2 a little at first, but they are the exception rather than the rule. It will readily be observed that the rope halter is more easily put on than the leather one, as it is accomplished exactly in the opposite direction. The slipping of it over his poll has a tendency to steady him, whereas, in pushing a leather halter over his head in an upward direction, the colt will invariably throw up his head and run back ; thus, in haltering, the ordinary rope halter is a distinct advantage over the leather one. HOW TO LEAD A COLT IN THE OPEN. In order to teach the colt to lead, a rein about twelve feet long should be attached to the end of the halter, and if he struggles to break away he will be more easily managed. He must never be allowed Fig. 2. — Lk.v])i\(.;. 73 to get his hind quarters round the rein, or it will be impossible to hold him. The breaker must bend the colt's neck in quick succession from one side to the other, turning him round in all directions, then get opposite his near shoulder and urge him forward with kind, encouraging words, with a slight indication of the whip at his rear, and in very few minutes he will become quite tractable, and yield willingly ac- cording to instructions. (Fig. 2.) HOW TO LEAD HIM INTO A STABLE. In taking the colt into a stable, great caution must be exercised, for, if anything occurs to frighten him about the door, he will remember it for a long time. A door with a low lintel is a frequent cause of this danger, because, if the colt throws up his head on entering, he is sure to come in violent con- tact with the lintel, and he will scarcely go in at any door afterwards. Colts that have been frightened in this manner, often rush into the stable with a great bound, which is highly dangerous both to them- selves and their attendants. If the colt refuses to enter the door of a stable, the breaker should never attempt to pull him, as it will only exhaust his own strength and give the colt the victory. He must never be encountered on the power of his strength, but given a few smart turns, first to the right, then to the left, and faced up each time with his head directly away from the door. The breaker must repeat this three or four times, and, while 74 wheeling him, face him smartly round to the door, reach well back with the whip and give him a slight cut across the hocks, at the same time giving him a kind word of assurance, and he will invariably march straight in without further difficulty. HOW TO TIE HIM UP IN A STALL. In the opinion of the writer, the best and safest method of tying the colt in a stall is to secure him to a strong ring directly in the centre of the manger, by passing the halter through it and attaching it to the " clog," or weight. (Fig. 3.) %->-i Fig. 3.— Colt tied in Stall. S. Straw in Knot. A rip of straw should be inserted before the halter is drawn tight, so that if the colt pulls on it at first, the halter will be quite easily unfastened by cutting- out the straw. The colt should be gently forced back, so that he may be induced to try his weight and strength on the halter. This can be done by swinging something- gently in front of him, and when he finds himself securely held, he will generally desist struggling and stand perfectly quiet. When he is attached to the centre of the manger, he cannot turn round in the stall, nor get entangled, as occa- sionally happens when the ring is more at one side than another. Some breakers recommend rings in both corners of the stalls, but, when attached in this manner, restless colts are very apt to get their forelegs entangled amongst the ropes. With unusually nervous colts, a safer plan is to suspend a strong, thick rope from pillar to pillar so as to catch their quarters, but this expedient should only be resorted to in extreme cases, because it may very easily cause ticklish animals to kick out and injure themselves, and it may even tend to make them develop into pronounced stable -kickers. THE POWER OF KINDNESS. Thus, through kindness, the breaker has accom- plished in about an hour, single-handed, what it would have taken three or four men double the time to accomplish under the old familiar system which is so common at farm -steadings, and which need y6 not here be described in detail. The fun to juveniles on such occasions is immense when the struggling" and terrified colt is hanged down with a cart rope by sheer force, and the danger to the colt and the men who are handling him is in the same proportion. But some readers may imagine that to accomplish all this successfully and live, the nerve of a Rarey or the science of a Galvayne is necessary. There is some force in such imaginings, but what man knows the power of his own nerve and will if he never tries .-* Our advice then, is to try, for more knowledge will be gained in the handling of one colt than can be acquired by the reading of ten books. Practice is always better than theory, there- fore, we repeat again — try. 17 CHAPTER VI. BRIDLING AND BITTING. The old and familiar, and — it may also be added — dangerous method of placing the bridle on the colt and putting the bit in his mouth is accomplished (or, rather, it is not accomplished) by turning the back to the colt's chest, taking the bit in both hands at the side of the bridle, and pushing it roughly into his mouth. It generally happens, however, that the colt rears, spars out with his fore feet, and not infrequently plants them between the shoulders of his tormentor, which is the reverse of pleasant, to say nothing of the danger attending it. At this juncture, the whip is brought into requisition — or, if a net stake is lying handy, it serves the same purpose — and an all-round piece of flogging ensues, which exhausts the man — but, that is a small matter — and leaves the half-mad colt trembling in every limb with terror. The same process is tried again and again with practically the same result, the only appreciable differ- ence being that on each successive trial the colt becomes more terrified. Finally, the idea of bitting 78 him is abandoned until a sufficient number of men can be gathered together, when the colt is held down by sheer brute strength, and the bit pushed into his mouth not infrequently with the end of a stick. Thus, the poor colt receives his first lesson of cruelty, which he does not readily forget. He is then taken into a court or field, generally the latter, and subjected to the most barbarous and unnecessary abuse imaginable. He is flogged and galloped round, one man taking his turn in following him with the whip when another becomes exhausted, unmindful of the poor animal which must run for them all. This barbarous treatment is con- tinued till the white foam stands in great balls over his quivering chest, and his started veins and heaving flanks denote only too well the intense agony that the poor brute is suffering. In many cases of similar treatment we have seen a raw, grass-fed colt fall down through sheer exhaustion. THE EFFFXTS OF SUCH TREATMENT. The colt is now considered by his tormentors to be " conquered," but no one who understands the proud, sensitive nature of a horse will believe it. Conquered by such treatment he can never be ! In fact, the colt is infinitely more dangerous now than if he had never been touched, because everything he has been made to do has been done through force and fear. The whole nervous system of the colt has been unstrung through pain and terror, and 79 he has necessarily acquired the idea that the action of man towards him is one of continuous cruelty. He is educated accordingly and will naturally em- brace every opportunity which presents itself to rid himself of man's society. A colt thus handled can never be depended on. He will remember his tor- mentor as long as he lives, and will never miss an opportunity to kick, bite, or bolt when occasion arises — aye, and perhaps when it does not arise. DANGERS OF TIGHT SIDE REINS. The colt is then turned into a court, the side reins put upon him, and, with an amount of ignor- ance which is lamentable, they are drawn as tightly as his tormentor's ingenuity can invent. (A certain writer urges that side reins should never be put upon a colt, but we disagree with him and consider their action comparatively painless when adjusted by skilled and humane hands.) The colt's head, in such circumstances, is so closely drawn into his breast that he cannot turn it an inch to right or left from the centre, and his mouth, in consequence, becomes lacerated and hard- ened. A great number of breakers are under the impression that the oftener the mouth is broken it is the more sensitive, but exactly the opposite is the case. If a light, pleasant mouth is desired, never once permit the skin to be broken. Naturally, the colt tries in every conceivable manner to relieve the painful pressure of the bit upon his jaw, and very frequently 8o he rears and throws himself right back over. Thus he acquires a habit that it is difficult to get him to unlearn, and of all the bad habits a colt can acquire this is by far the most dangerous. But this is not all, because, by the hardening of his mouth the bit loses its intended effect, and he cannot be held if he chooses to bolt — thus, in bridling and bitting alone, three of the worst vices are imported into his character — rearing, bolting, and continuous watchful- ness to take every advantage of his surrounding circumstances. NEW SYSTEM OF BRIDLING AND BITTING. The proper and humane method shall now be described, with far different results. In bridling a colt, he should be turned round in the stall with his head outwards towards the door, just as the famous horse show dodge went — " Pay a penny and you will see A horse's head where his tail should be." The breaker should undo the near bit strap, slip the bridle gently over his head, stand exactly opposite his near shoulder, and fondle him gently with the hand and encourage him by kind words. This is the only position close to a horse of absolute safety. No colt can strike the breaker either from before or behind, no matter how hard he tries, nor can he run away if his neck is bent and the position main- tained. The breaker must fasten all the bridle straps 8i properly, then slip the two first fingers of the right hand into the colt's mouth at the side behind his front teeth. At three years of age he has no tushes and cannot possibly bite the fingers in this position. He must place the fingers over the colt's tongue, then insert the thumb and press it gently on the nerve centres of his lower jaw. In nearly all cases he will yield at once, and will suffer his mouth to be opened quite wide (Fig. 4). The breaker should take the bit in the left hand, still keeping the right fingers in the colt's mouth, slip it gently through his teeth into his mouth, attach it to the side ring, then withdraw the fingers, and the whole matter is accomplished without a struggle. HOW TO PUT ON THE OTHER TACKLE. As soon as the colt is bridled and bitted, the surcingle should be strapped lightly round him. The breaker should avoid drawing suddenly at first, or the pressure may startle the colt and cause him to kick and throw himself down. The next thing is to place the crupper beneath his tail. This is accom- plished by standing well forward at the near side of the colt and pushing his tail quietly through. The breaker should be sure that all the loose hair is through the loop. Nothing will make a colt kick sooner than by leaving some of the hair at the root of the tail outside the crupper, for when the pressure comes upon it it will nip his dock and induce him to kick and throw himself about in all directions. o z H H 0-( 82 83 The crupper shoirid be fixed to the surcingle, taking care not to draw it too tightly. After this, the breaker should take the end of the halter, which should always be left on the head of the colt beneath the bridle and bring it through between his fore- legs and tie it, not too tightly, to the surcingle. After a little practice in this manner, the side reins should be placed upon him very loosely, the near rein being fixed to the off ring of the surcingle, and vice versa. HOW TO " MOUTH THE COLT. It is a good plan to turn the colt into a large, open court, where he cannot get fast in any way, and allow him to roam about of his own accord. In this way he will soon begin to champ and work the bit, and the more he works it his mouth will be the more evenly made. The bit should be slightly bent with three small keys sus- pended from the centre. The bend in the bit pre- vents the colt making his mouth unequal, as it is impos- sible for him to pull entirely on one side of it, while the loose action of the keys induces him to work the Fig. 5.— Best Kind of Bbeaking Bit. 84 bit more freely. The keys should not be too long" or they will come between his front teeth, which may give him a bad habit of tossing up his head in future. (Fig. 5.) Some colts are inclined to sulk on the bit at first, but in time they well generally work it quite freely. The breaking tackle should not remain upon the colt more that a couple of hours at first, and the time should gradually be increased as the breaking proceeds. The colt should be handled twice a day, forenoon and afternoon, if possible. In removing the breaking gear from the colt, he should be turned in the stall as previously explained, and everything taken off in the reverse order from which they were put on, always leaving the rope halter upon his head. The breaker should exercise caution and should not hurry in any way, for the colt may be nervous and he may learn something in a minute which he will remember for a week. This treatment should be continued for a fortnight at least before any attempt is made to mount the colt. His mouth is not reliable before that period, and getting upon his back when his mouth is imperfectly made is both foolish and dangerous. It is all humbug for certain trainers to allege that the colt can be " mouthed " in a few hours. We have handled hundreds of colts of all degrees of breeding and temperament, and while some are much more susceptible than others, it would be unwise in the extreme to trust them in 85 the matter of ** mouthing " sooner than the stipu- lated period. Many men take hberties with colts, and many bad habits are acquired by them in con- sequence. Whether a colt is docile or not he should always be treated as a colt. The breaker should always be prepared for some display of bad temper. If it does not occur, so much the better ; if it does, he will be ready to grapple with and conquer it. It is easier for a colt to learn a good habit than to unlearn a bad one. No time is lost when patience is exercised, because every minute spent in the train- ing of the colt will be rewarded a hundredfold in the perfect behaviour of the horse. HOW TO ADJUST THE SIDE REINS. In putting the side reins upon the colt they should be attached so that he can turn his head one foot to right and left from the centre, and he will thus have six inches to the front by which he can relieve his mouth from the hard and continu- ous pressure of the bit. (Fig. 6.) The side reins should be very gradually tightened from day to day until the maximum tightness is attained, which will depend on the breeding of the colt and the work he is intended for. The ** mouthing " of the differ- ent kinds of horses will be explained under their own particular heads in subsequent chapters. The breaker should move the colt gently about both in the court and in the open, and teach him in a quiet manner to obey the whip. He should Q m « M ft 02 to d M 86 87 never raise the whip above the height of the thigh, and, if the colt does not precisely do what is wanted, he should try something else without teasing him too much at a time. The breaker must retain the colt's confidence by patting him, and he will soon submit to be freely handled in the most trustful manner. Mistakes should be corrected at the time they occur, with firmness, but never with violent abuse. KINDNESS TRIUMPHS OVER CRUELTY. By this method of bridling and bitting, the colt has no cause to rear ; the bit will not lacerate and harden his mouth, and he will not try to take advant- age or get rid of his breaker. By gentleness he has won his confidence, and when he enters his box — after the absence of an hour or two — he will approach trustingly and meet him. Indeed, there is scarcely a single instance recorded when the colt would not walk close up at once in the most confident manner ; whereas, under the old and coarse method, as soon as his box is entered by his breaker he will rush to the opposite end and persistently keep his heels towards him. Thus far, kindness triumphs over cruelty, and brute instinct yields before the power of intelligent reason. 88 CHAPTER VII. SADDLING AND MOUNTING. In saddling the colt he should be turned round in the stall and fastened to each pillar on either side, allowing- him sufficient head to move backward and forward freely. The breaker should take the saddle and hold it forward to the colt's head so that he can see and smell it, soothe him gently by kind words, and caress him by patting him softly behind the ears. He should move quietly up to his near side, push the stirrups well up through the leathers, and fold the girths across the top of the saddle. After making much of the colt for a few minutes, the breaker should slip the saddle gently over him, place it squarely upon his back, slip the girths quietly from the top of the saddle (Fig. 7), and in girthing him he must be care- ful not to draw too tightly at first. Nothing frightens a colt more than straining him round the middle suddenly. The breaker must never hurry, nor do anything clumsily, but move about the colt with ease and confidence, and he will soon grow familiar with the appearance and feeling of the saddle. It should be frequently put on and taken off his back, first from o 'A M ft < m I. 6 M 89 90 one side and then from the other ; and when he becomes thoroughly accustomed to this, the flaps of the saddle should be beaten very gently at first to familiarise him with noise like the swinging of straps and rattling of irons. HOW TO PREPARE THE COLT FOR MOUNTING. After training the colt with the feeling of the saddle for three or four consecutive days, he should receive lessons in turning to the bit. This is best accomplished by walking close to his side — the near side — and reaching the right hand well over the withers to use the off-rein, while the left is worked by the other hand, making him move backward and forward and turn in all directions. The colt should be led in the open a few days by a long rein attached to the front cavesson ring. He should be taken along public highways so that he may become familiar with objects on the road. Many colts are frightened to pass swiftly driven vehicles and " scorch- ing " cyclists. From the number of bicycles now being ridden over the public roads, together with the frequent appearance of a snorting motor-car, the passing of these objects quietly by horses is an im- portant and essential point in their early training. THE USE OF CHAINS AND MOUTH-BAGS. In addition to the ordinary breaking harness, it is a capital plan to fix a chain to the crupper just above the colt's quarters. The chain should be about eight 9i feet long so that It will hang about a foot beneath the flanks of the colt on either side of him. It will dangle and play about his legs and flanks by the motion of his body, and will have a tendency to remove any ticklishness that may be about him. A pair of common farm mouth -bags may be tied together, fixed in the centre of the saddle, and suspended as far as the feet of the rider will reach. They should be filled with some heavy material — corn or turnips will do — and their weight pressing against the sides of the colt has an excellent effect in preparing him for the pressure of the rider's legs. HOW TO DRIVE THE COLT WITH REINS. The colt should frequently be driven round In a circle, first to the right, then to the left, and never too long at a time. In this way it is easy to give him plenty of exercise before he can be ridden. He should be sent round at a trot and a canter, sweating him a little, but not tiring him. In running him to the left the right hand rein can be used as a whip if necessary, and vice versa in running to the right. The breaker should always stop the colt when the direction of his course Is reversed and induce him to walk close up, when he should be encouraged by fondling and kind assuring words. He will learn this almost sooner than anything else If he Is kindly treated. The reason for stopping him when his course Is reversed Is to prevent him running one action Into another and confusing his paces. Walking, trotting, cantering. 92 and galloping are all distinct paces, and should be done separately, but this matter will be fully considered in a subsequent chapter. As already explained, the halter should always be left on the head of the colt below the bridle. The halter shank should pass between the fore-legs, and be securely fixed to the saddle girths, and when the colt throws up his head the pressure comes upon his nose which does not check him so severely as when the strap is attached to the rings of the bit. The driving reins should be ten yards long, and should pass from the colt's mouth along through the stirrups. The stirrups should always be fixed to the girths to prevent them being displaced when the reins are drawn upon. In this manner the driver can lever the reins round the hind -quarters of the colt, and wheel him about in all directions with the greatest ease. MOUNTING IN THE STALL. When the colt has been driven about the fields and roads for a few days he should be mounted. While we recommend mounting proper in the open, it is well to accustom the colt to the weight and appearance of the rider in the stall. The colt should be turned in the stall and loosely fixed to the pillar rings on either side. The breaker must work quietly about him for some time, catching the saddle by the right side, and lean the weight of the body upon it. He should insert the left foot in the stirrup, taking it 93 out and in frequently so as to get the colt to under- stand what the noise means. When he has learned this in the stall he will remember it in the open, and will not mind the jingling of the boot in the stirrup afterwards. When he is quiet under this treatment, the breaker must get his foot in the stirrup, raise the body slowly and gradually up, and lean across the back of the colt without putting his leg across him. He may continue doing this for half- an -hour from both sides of the colt, and then slip his right leg quietly over him. He should settle the body well down in the saddle, and move the arms and legs continuously about him. He should move them cautiously at first, and gradually increase the motion according to the behaviour of the colt. He should mount and dismount often on both sides of him, and never appear to be in a hurry by wishing to accomplish in ten minutes what it will take an hour and a-half to execute properly. This may be continued for a few days, and when the colt is fairly accustomed to the weight and appearance of the rider he should be mounted in the open. MOUNTING IN THE OPEN. Some breakers recommend mounting the colt in a court or any large enclosure, but it is always attended with more or less danger both to the colt and the rider owing to the close proximity of the walls of the building ; therefore mounting in the open is urgently recommended for general safety. 94 A good system is to take the colt into the centre of a large field — stubble if possible — and in addition to the reins a coil of cord should be attached to his head in front, so that if any mishap occur he can be prevented from running away by keeping hold of the cord. The cord should be loosely rolled up, and suspended from the left arm of the rider. He should get the colt by gently fondling him to stand perfectly steady, and this will best be effected by giving him half-an-hour's coursing in the long rein previously. As soon as the colt is quiet, the breaker should take the reins along with a full handful of the colt's mane in the left hand, and place the right hand on the off side of the saddle with the whip lying horizontally under the palm, insert the left foot in the stirrup, raise the body gradually up, and whenever the balance is reached, slip the leg quietly yet swiftly across him, and insert the foot in the stirrup. He should settle the body well down in the saddle, keep a cool head, and always be ready for any emergency (Fig. 8). HOW TO RIDE HIM. In putting the colt into motion the breaker should keep his hands well down on the front of the saddle, and urge him gently with the heels. It is always better to ride him without spurs at first. If the colt does not appear inclined to start, the breaker should draw gently on the left rein, at the same time closing the left leg against him, and coax him by kind, assuring words. ■ ■ '■ ^^H ^ l^^ ^'^^^^^^■^H ^^I^^^^^^^^^L i^m^^n 1p^ .^^K .' ^^^^^^^^1 HI *^ <^j^^^^^^^^i j m ' *" W/fff^^^iM ^BV?' 1 * "tSSiSBBSBw "* tI^BB^^B . 1 4 ,^^ ^5"wB[^ ' ^ 1 ,1 :.a !■ ■ . ■■ |„-|„|||J-'_.|-| .Jm^^^^^^B o c-i O 00 y5 96 When he moves forward, the breaker should not be over-particular in forcing" him to go in any special direction, but should keep him circling widely at a walk. The horse should not be trotted nor galloped until he is quite familiar with all the rider's move- ments in the saddle. If the colt should plunge and rear, the breaker must bend well forward on his neck, slacken the reins, seize him by the mane, and, as soon as he descends from his evolution, push him forward and keep him in motion. If he should buck and kick, he should take him well in hand, and stick the knees close into the saddle flaps. He should warn him in stern accents to desist, at the same time giving him an occasional hard pull with the rein, and, if the rider maintains his seat, the colt will soon cease all attempts to dis- lodge him, and move along in a quiet and tractable manner. HOW TO MAKE THE COLT STOP WHEN HIS RIDER FALLS OFF. The simplest method of teaching a colt to stop when his rider falls off, is to put him into an easy- going canter. The breaker should keep the colt going round in a large circle to the left for some time, then draw the feet from the irons, quit the reins, and slip off at his near side, taking care in alighting to avoid being kicked. He must retain the coil of cord in his hand, which should not be less than 97 ten or twelve yards in length, and, whenever the colt gets to the end of the cord, the sudden jerk turns him smartly round towards the breaker. The breaker should stand steady and pull the colt towards him, and, whenever he comes up, make much of him by fondling him about the ears and neck, speak- ing kindly to him at the same time. The cord should always be attached to the front cavesson ring and never to the bit, or the sudden jerk will lacerate the mouth of the colt, and possibly pull him back over. The cord should never be rolled round the hand, but held firmly in the loose coil, because, were the trainer to fail in turning the colt, he might be dragged by the hand and severely injured. In slip- ping from the colt when he is going in a circle, the danger, however, is materially reduced. In ten or twelve lessons of this kind the colt will wait for his rider every time, and only those who have been accustomed to hounds can appreciate this easily- acquired and excellent qualification in a horse. Few riders can follow hounds without getting "spills," and, when hunters are not trained to stop, great inconvenience is entailed in securing them, therefore, no hunter's tuition is complete when this branch of his training" has been neo-lected. HOW TO PREPARE TPIE COLT FOR BEING SHOD. The colt should not be taken too often upon the road without putting the shoes on his feet, or he will wear his hoofs down to such an extent that H 98 little will be left to fix the nails through. All through his breaking the feet of the colt should be regularly lifted every day and beaten with a stick or hammer in order to accustom him to the idea of being shod. Caution must be exercised in raising his feet at first. The breaker should always stand well forward when lifting the hind feet, or the colt may " shake hands ' in rather an uncultured manner at the " first intro- duction"! It is a safe plan to pass a strap round the pasterns of his hind legs and draw them gently forward when giving him his first lesson. He will naturally struggle a little at first, but will soon desist when he discovers that no harm is meant. The shoes should be light and flat, and those on the fore feet should be put on slightly short rather than long. Colts are addicted to over-reaching themselves at first and pulling the shoes off, breaking their hoofs, and otherwise injuring their feet and legs. The shoes should also be kept well within the hoofs on the inside of the hind feet, as raw colts are sometimes inclined to brush their pastern joints, especially when their action is wide at the hocks. 99 CHAPTER VIII. HOW TO BREAK COLTS TO HARNESS. In putting a colt into harness great care and caution must be exercised, for if anything goes wrong at first he will remember it for a long time, and will invariably try to take advantage of any similar mishap occurring in future. All the harness should be carefully put upon the colt ; he should be allowed to roam about in the court for a few days, and as he will be likely to rub and damage the harness, any old set will serve the purpose. (Fig. 9.) HOW TO ACCUSTOM THE COLT TO PRESSURE BEFORE AND BEHIND. The breaker should drive the colt out in harness regularly every day, and frequently on the road, in order to accustom him to the various objects he is likely to meet. The breaker should have two long ropes attached to the hames, so that the weight can be brought to bear on the colt's shoulders by pulling on the ropes in order to gradually accustom him to the pressure of the collar. The breaker should twist the ropes in and about the colt's legs in every conceivable i] « z H ►J O O 100 lOI manner, and so educate him to understand any emer- gency that may arise in future. A chain should also be suspended over his quarters which will jingle about his flanks and accustom him to the touch of the shafts. The passing of the ropes between his hind legs will familiarise him with the pressure of the traces. If a colt were to get his leg over the trace by some accident or other, without being edu- cated in this way, the chances are that he would kick everything to pieces in very few minutes, and his hocks in all probability Would be permanently blemished. The ropes should also be attached to the breechen rings, then passed forward through the hame rings and back to the hands of the breaker. Pulling on the ropes in this manner will teach the colt what pressure from behind means, and in descending hills he will understand what the weight of the trap upon his quarters amounts to and will not mind it. HOW TO YOKE THE COLT. After driving the colt three or four days in this way, the breaker should put a strong set of harness upon him ; he should be careful that every strap is in its right place and in proper working order, and also that the collar fits the colt evenlv. The halter should remain on the colt's head beneath the bridle, with the end of it through between his fore- legs, and tied to the girths prett}' loosely. A long cord should also be attached to the head of the colt io2 by which the assistant can guide him a Httle at first. The breaker should have the trap standing ready in the centre of a field — a level one if possible — and the assistant ready to hold up the shafts. No time should be lost in getting the colt between the shafts and yoking him. He should first fix on the traces (the reins already being adjusted), and then buckle all the straps as quickly and quietly as possible ; but he should not be too much in a hurry as the colt may become excited, which may cause him to move for- ward before he is securely yoked. HOW TO FIX THE KICKING STRAPS. Instead of having only one kicking -strap, the breaker should have two. He should fix one to the near shaft close to the trap, then pass it through the breechen over the colt's croup, and buckle it to the off shaft immediately before the backhand ring. He should do precisely the same with the other strap from the opposite side, and he has thus double the strength and efficiency of the ordinary method (Fig. 10). By the use of double straps scarcely any colt, however hard he tries, can kick sufficiently high either to damage himself or the trap, nor can he kick himself out from beneath them as he often does under the ordinary single-strap system. Both straps catch his quarters simultaneously, and no amount of kicking so long as they remain whole, can possibly dislodge them. H « « H 02 o w I 103 104 now TO DRIVE THE COLT. As soon as the colt is securely yoked the breaker should get into the trap, taking the reins in the hand before mounting. A good horseman never fails, firstly, to glance over the harness, and, second 1)% to take the reins in his hand before mountmg the trap. The assistant should take the colt by the head, using the long cord, while the driver urges him gently to move forward by working the reins with the hands along with kind words of assurance and encourage- ment, and in the majority of cases he will generally obey. He must keep the colt well in hand by taking a short hold of the reins, with the hands level and well parted, bearing upon them according to the colt's movements. He should keep him circling widely round in all directions, first to the right, then to the left, and must always avoid wheeling him too abruptly at first until he grows familiar with the motion of the trap behind him. On going on to the hard road for the first time a good watch should be maintained over the colt as the sudden and unexpected noise behind may cause him to bolt, and otherwise startle him. Knee-caps should be placed upon the colt for the first few times he is in harness, so that if he should throw himself down his knees will be protected ; indeed, it is a safe plan to ride and drive him on the road for some considerable time with knee-caps until he becomes 105 accustomed to objects on the way and the work he is required to perform. If the colt should be unwilling to start at first, he should be turned o-entlv round to the left once or twice with the aid of the assistant, and then tried straight forward, steadying him by working the reins in a firm and encouraging manner. If he should still, however, remain obstinate, the breaker should continue turning him, increasing the velocit\- as required. This is best managed by the assist- ant with the cord at the colt's head, as the pressure comes on his nose rather than on the bit. When he has gone round several times, the driver should draw the off rein while the colt is still wJieeling, at the same time giving him a kind en- couraging word, and he will generally bound into the collar like a lion. The colt should not be kept too long in harness at first or he will sicken and tire of the work ; half an hour forenoon and afternoon will be sufficient for the first few days, and as he hardens to the work the periods may be increased. HOW TO UNYOKE THE COLT. Care and caution are quite as necessary in unyok- ing as they are in yoking the colt. Perhaps the safest and best method is to face him close up to a wall. The driver should stand at the colt's head and let the assistant undo every strap, leaving the traces till the last, with the exception of the reins which io6 should never be undone till the colt is in the stable. When everything is clear the driver should hold the colt by the head while the assistant quietly pushes the traj) back off him. He should turn him round so that he can see it, at the same time patting him about the head and neck and soothing him with kind words. It is very important that every strap should be carefully undone, because, in the event of the colt becoming entangled he will bolt forward through fright and may never forget it as long as he lives. Bolting out of harness is a very dangerous habit both to the horse and the attendant, and it is gen- erally acquired during the breaking by carelessness on the part of breakers. Some breakers are so in- different that when handling an unusually quiet colt they treat him as a seasoned horse until some acci- dent occurs when they get their eyes opened to their over -confidence. All colts should be treated as colts until they are thoroughly familiar with their work, and for the first half-dozen times they are in harness special care should be exercised in unyoking them. HOW TO rUT THE COLT IN DOUBLE HARNESS. When a colt is put into double harness he should be yoked on the off side of a steady, ready -working horse that will not bite him. The horse should be strong enough to move the brake forward himself if necessary, and a ready worker is preferable as he io;7 will start quickly at any moment to suit the humour of the colt. The colt should never be placed beside a horse addicted to biting-, or he will jump back and perhaps injure himself when the horse attempts to seize him, thus he is taught a bad habit at first which he does not soon forget. The same care and attention should be bestowed upon the colt in put- ting him in double harness that is exercised in putting" him in single harness. Most colts that will go in single harness will go in double ; but some that go quietly in double harness will not go in single. The pace of the old horse on the near side should be regulated to suit the pace of the colt. If driven too fast he will be made to break his steps, which will spoil him for harness, or, indeed, for any other work. A combination of paces — half trot, half gallop — is most offensive to the feeline and eve of a horseman. On the other hand, if the old horse goes too slow, the colt will acquire a disagreeable habit of turning in his head towards the other horse which has the effect of throwing his hind quarters out, con- sequently he will move along in a broadside, shuffling sort of way which looks very bad. Plain bridles without "blinders" are preferable at first in order to enable colts to see well about them, and bearing reins should play no more pro- minent part than that of pure ornamental effect. io8 HOW TO PROTECT THE SHOULDERS. The breaker should leave the collar upon the colt for a quarter of an hour after he is unyoked, then remove it and wash the shoulders with a little salt and water. This should be done every day he is yoked until the shoulders become hard and set, which generally occurs in about a month. The water should be lukewarm, and half a handful of salt to a quart of water is sufficient. It is also a good plan to keep the inside of the collar well oiled. The pro- tection of the shoulders is a matter ot first-rate importance, because, if allowed to become scalded or broken intense pain is inflicted upon the colt, and he will naturally be shy to throw his weight into the collar on starting in future. As a matter of fact, many colts develop into unsteady workers purely through this cause, which can be distinctly traced to negligence on the part of breakers, there- fore it will be to the interest of owners to give this matter their close attention and put a stop to this form of carelessness which is almost unpardonable. 109 CHAPTER IX. HOW TO YOKE WORK COLTS. In yoking work colts intended for agricultural purposes it is often recommended to yoke them singly in *' clogs," but we are decidedly averse to the system as it is generally attended with more or less danger. There is nothing to steady the colt, and in conse- quence he will flounder about in all directions, en- tangling his legs amongst the ropes, and pulling himself down. There are many other mishaps which may easily occur by this practice, and hardly anything will teach a colt to kick sooner than by getting his legs wound up among the ropes. BEST IMPLEMENT IN WHICH TO YOKE COLTS. Probably the safest method of yoking a work colt is to put him on the off side of a steady, ready-work- ing horse, and the most suitable implement in which to yoke him is an ordinar}' plough. If anything goes wrong an active man at the plough can easily shift it at once so as to prevent the chains getting entangled amongst the colt's legs. It is a good plan to roll the chains half way up with pieces of sack, so that if the no colt should struggle and get his legs over the chains, it will prevent him getting them rubbed or blemished. The breaker should put a strong straw collar upon him, and it is generally better to have it slightly on the large side as it will slip easily and smoothly over his head without frightening him and causing him to acquire the awkward habit of throwing up his head when it is being put on. At the same time it will be less likely to injure his shoulders than one that is rather small, or even the exact size, besides some provision should be made for the colt increasing in condition. As in all other cases, the ordinary rope halter should remain on his head beneath the bridle. The breaker should use a bridle without *' blinders," as the colt will be better able to see what is going on around him, and in consequence he will under- stand with greater aptitude what is required of him. As a rule the plain ring snaffle is the most suitable bit that can be used (Fig. ii). HOW TO TIE THE COLT. The breaker should place a strong rope round the middle of the near -side horse, then twist it thrice round the backband to prevent it slipping backward or forward, and attach the halter-shank of the colt to it. It should be kept about three inches shorter than the ordinary cord from the bridle ring, so that if he bound forward he will not receive such a severe check as the major part of his weight will bear upon the halter instead of the bit. w CD P o o ft CC ngst the wearers of less gaudy apparel, for, as previously pointed out, a straight cross- country rider is not dependent on the colour of his coat. The rider should endeavour to maintain his ground within twenty or thirty yards of his chosen guide and keep the colt well in hand at his fences, while he should collect him well together and give him plenty of time in crossing the ** plough." >28l HOW TO PUT THE COLT AT HIS FENCES. The rider must be careful to give the colt abun- dance of time at his fences, and should encourage him to negotiate them without exciting him. If, as very frequently occurs, a cluster of riders are drawn up in the corner of a field waiting until an awkward gate is opened, or waiting their turn to jump through a narrow gap in a fence, the rider should pull the colt up a hundred yards away and walk him quietly for- ward. No good purpose is served by galloping reck- lessly up amongst the other riders and then having to wait until a chance arrives of jumping over, besides some horses might refuse and this would be a bad example for the colt. The rider must studiously avoid getting mixed up in a crush because the colt may kick out and injure the horse of another rider, while, on the other hand, some vicious thoroughbred " weed " may " shake hands " with the colt with that ready dexterity and un^pleasant force peculiar to the temper and heels of the breed. HOW TO MANAGE A DOUBLE FENCE. When an unusually awkward fence intervenes — a double fence with a ditch, or ditches, for instance — the rider should teach him to accomplish it at a walk so that he can plant his feet firmly on the ground between the fences in order to collect himself for his second spring. If the rider push him fast and furi- ously at a fence of this nature he may attempt to jump it at a single stride, and the chances are that 282 the rider will arrive at the other side a few seconds before the colt, and his position as he kisses the cold lips of mother earth will not be the most enviable or inspiring" in the world, whilst he may very easily break his neck and that of the colt into the bargain. HOW TO GET OVER DANGEROUS PLACES. The rider should never miss a chance of educating the colt to lead over difficult and dangerous places such as a gap in a stone wall nearly level with the ground. He will manage it with far greater safety than if he attempt to ride him over it. In dismount- ing, the rider should draw the snaffle rein over the colt's head and push the double of it through the near ring of the snaffle ; he will thus transfer the limited power over him from behind his ears to his mouth, and in consequence will guide him with much greater facility. DANGERS OF HUNTING GATES. The rider must exercise extreme caution in going through narrow hunting gates so as not to catch the posts on either side, because if he became entangled he might sustain severe bruises to his limbs. When any accident occurs at a hunting gate the colt will acquire a very dangerous habit of bolting through at a bound — ^just the same as bolting out of harness when unyoking, which is generally the result of a fright occasioned in most instances by pure careless- ness. 283 HOW TO CROSS STREAMS. In fording waters the rider should make a point of following some one else at a respectable distance, and if it become unpleasantly deep he can change his course without getting a ducking, which is not particularly enjoyable on a November morning. Of course it must be borne in mind that the rider can- not always have his own way, and occasionally he may be placed in the same position as the two ladies who asked a half-witted lad if he would be oblig- ing enough to go * upon the ice to test its strength before beginning to skate, but who, looking up with a knowing smile, replied — '' Na, na ! ladies aye get the preference." Therefore, if, Hke the ladies on the ice, the rider has to take the initiative in fording water he should always look out for a shallow with an easy landing-place and should keep the colt's head inclined up the stream. HOW TO AVOID MARSHES. The same directions may be followed in regard to bogs and marshes. An experienced eye can gen- erally detect them from the smooth-looking verdure which covers the hidden and treacherous swamp ; but if the rider should be caught unawares he must dismount at once in order to relieve the colt of his weight, and assist him out as speedily as possible. He should be careful not to turn the colt too abruptly or he will twist and sprain him to a dangerous degree, indeed, it is an easy matter for the colt to break one 284 or more of his legs in his frantic plunges to relieve himself. THE COLT SHOULD BE TRAINED TO STOP WHEN HIS RIDER FALLS OFF. If the rider meet with a *' spill " the colt should be trained to stop for him as fully described in a former chapter. It is a splendid qualification for a hunter to possess, and if well trained when young he will not be likely to forget it. The writer has seen a mare trained so perfectly in this excellent accom- plishment that at sixteen years of age she not only stopped but returned for her rider who came off at a fence, though she had not been hunted since she was a four -year -old ; thus, twelve years later she faithfully and unerringly practised the perfect educa- tion of her youth. WHEN TO DISCONTINUE THE RUN. The rider must exercise special prudence in dis- continuing the run, not when the colt has got enough but before he has got enough. The rider should always let his anticipation of the colt's fatigue pre- cede the unmistakable, or even slight indications of it, and if he miscalculate the colt's stability by under -estimating it he will do him no harm ; but if he follow till the colt display the usual symptoms of weariness he may tire and "bottom" him and he may not be as fresh again for that season, indeed it is doubtful if he will ever overcome a proper 285 " bottoming." The rider must never permit himself — even in the maddening dehght of a dashing and brilHant spin — to give the colt a really hard day's hunting until he is five years of age, when he has attained the age of horsehood and comes within the term '' made hunter " ; and if the method of train- ing him which has been advocated is adopted and practised throughout it will be found to work with signal and uniform success. The result will be a " made hunter " perfect in the varied work of the hunting -field in any district, and if carefully ridden and kindly treated he will generally become as passionately fond of hunting as the keenest and most enthusiastic rider. Thus, in hunting as in other classes of work, kindness triumphs over cruelty, and the results of the latter will not compare with the former in one single case for rider and horse com- bined. Whilst it is necessary, as already mentioned, to be careful not to gallop a colt too far or too long, it is equally essential that he should be ridden by a light-weight rider in possession of light hands and "a cool head. These latter qualifications mean much for the future welfare of the colt. At the same time, however, it is not denied that some men of greater weight can ride lighter than others who are physically lighter, in consequence of their fine balance and feel- ing of the colt. On paper this appears somewhat paradoxical, but it is easily detected in the hunting- field by the keen eye of an experienced horseman. 286 CHAPTER XXVII. COLOUR OF HORSES. To anyone who has studied zoology, the variation in the colour of horses has always been a most inter- esting problem. Broadly speaking, there are seven standard colours amongst British horses, viz. : — browns, bays, blacks, chesnuts, greys, duns, and roans. These are mentioned in the order in which they prevail numerically. Piebalds, skewbalds, and whites can scarcely be classified as standard colours, but will be briefly considered later. In each of the standard colours enumerated, there are various inter- vening shades extending from the lightest to the darkest hue. These extremes practically merge into other colours, and in many cases it is difficult to determine where they begin and where they end. The colour of horses is believed to be determined by the pigmental colouring (melanin) present in the blood and skin, and, in passing, it is interesting to note in this connection that the repulsive disease known to veterinary science as melanosis, only attacks light-grey and white horses, in consequence of the absence or unequal distribution of melanin. 28/ Whilst this law holds good with horses, however, it is not so with cattle, as melanosis may attack the latter of whatever colour ; thus it would appear that bovine pigmentation is less equally distributed and fixed than equine pigmentation. The white horses referred to here must not be understood as albinos, but rather as faded or reverted greys. Generally speaking, dark-coloured horses possess more melanin than light-coloured ones, and are believed to be gen- erally hardier in consequence. Browns and dark browns are generally beautifully dappled over the shoulders and quarters. Whether this dappling, apparent miniature moons in shadow, is inherited from the striped ancestors of the horse, or is caused by a gradual arrestment of pigmentation, it is difficult to say. Perhaps it may be fairly reason- able to assume that the former is the cause and the latter the effect, though they both act in undefined conjunction. Since domestication has rendered un- necessary the broken colouring essential in the ** struggle for existence " in a wild state, it does not seem a very unwarrantable hypothesis to assume that ancestral striping has been slowly and gradually abandoned for whole colours. All faculties, mental and physical, that are not cultivated by general use, cease, in time, by a gradual process of deterioration to be of definite service, and become functionless — individually and collectively — thus, when the problem of self-preservation became less acute under a circumscribed environment due 288 to domestication, these distinctive ancestral stripes might gradually merge into whole colours, and a solidifying pigmentation might accompany the pro- cess. The broken colours of wild animals greatly help to screen them from the attacks of other animals ; for instance, Professor Cossar Ewart, F.R.S., in •'The Penicuik Experiments," points out that a zebra, twenty or thirty yards distant, can scarcely be seen in a star-light night in consequence of the absence of outline caused by its vertical stripes. On the other hand, carnivorous animals, such as the tiger, are similarly broken coloured, which is no . doubt a beneficent provision of nature to aid them in procur- ing their prey more easily, so that it is reasonable to infer that the instincts of animals in nature are much more acutely strung than those of animals that are necessarily dulled by domestication. Bay horses are generally held in great esteem, particularly if they possess the orthodox " four black points." In hardy sorts the manes, tails, and legs, from the knees and hocks to the feet, should be black ; when bay hairs are interspersed in the manes and tails, and the legs are tinged with bay to the feet, horses thus coloured are generally considered soft. Although there are exceptions to every rule, this description is a pretty accurate one, and may- be relied upon as a safe guide in the purchase of bay horses. Faint dappling appears in richer -coloured i>ays, and, indeed, in horses of most colours. 289 Black horses, of a deep shade, generally possess g-ood constitutions and calm temperaments, and, as a rule, are excellent workers. Those of a dingy hue, merging into a sort of blue-dun, are generally less reli- able ; many of the former are dappled, but very few of the latter, so that here, as in other colours, dappling may be considered as an indication of hardiness. Of all colours chesnut is perhaps the most widely varied, because any colour between very light dun and dingy black may pass for chesnut. It is believed that chesnut is a cornposite colour produced by black and grey. A typical chesnut should be whole-col- oured to the feet, with the mane and tail a shade darker than the body and legs. Horses with light- coloured manes and tails, and tapering lighter to the feet, are often soft constitutionally and bad tempered. Chesnuts, more frequently than any other colour, possess extravagant blazes of white on the faces and legs, which are very conspicuous. White fore legs to the knee are supposed to be weak, owing to the absence of melanin. Occasionally they have white blotches on the belly and sides, and nearly all ches- nuts have a few dark chocolate spots, varying in size from one to three or four inches in diameter, about the quarters. These spots are easily distinguished from dappling, and are doubtless caused by clustered or unequal distribution of pigmental matter ; they appear very prominently just after horses are newly clipped. Shadowy dappling appears on chesnuts also, but it is not so marked as on browns and blacks. U 290 There are several varieties of greys, amongst which stand out prominently iron greys, dapple greys, and speckled, or, as they are familiarly termed, '' flea- bitten " greys. The first shade consists of alternate hairs of white, grey, and black, and there are many tints from very light to very dark. All grey horses become lighter in shade as they grow older, many getting practically white when advanced in years. Dark dapple greys are very beautiful, the dappling in this variety being much more pronounced than in any other colour. As a rule, the heads of grey horses are lighter coloured than other parts of their bodies. Nearly all grey horses are pleasant tempered and good workers. Their conspicuous appearance and their susceptibility to stain with dirt, as previ- ously pointed out, are the chief objections to them, in addition to their liability to contract melanosis. Dun horses are believed to possess the base colour of their early ancestors, the traces of striping being more apparent on duns than on any other colour. All dun horses possess the dorsal band and leg stripes, and some of them have also shoulder and frontal stripes. Most foals are a kind of dun at birth, which appears to favour the theory that dun was the general colour of the progenitors of the horse. As a rule, dun horses have only middling confirmation, but they are generally sound and hardy, and it is held by some authorities that they are exceptionally sure-footed. There are three distinct shades of roan — blue, bay, and chesnut. Roan is also believed to be a 291 composite colour, but one which is very much older than chesnut. Unlike chesnuts, few roans have white marking-s, which is a great feature in their favour for matching- purposes in harness. Another distinguish- ing characteristic of roans is that their heads are generally darker -coloured than their bodies, which is exactly the converse of greys. Roans, especially blues and bays, may be classed as good -tempered, docile horses, and are possessed of excellent con- stitutions. Large white blazes in the faces of horses, and white legs up to the knees and hocks, are not desir- able, and it is well to discourage their production as much as possible. A white star in the forehead and a pair of white pasterns behind, however, rather tend to brighten up the appearance of a horse, but they are generally in the way when matching is considered. A strange peculiarity is that white markings predom- inate on the near limbs, the near hind leg being white more frequently than any of the others. Piebalds and skewbalds may be briefly considered together ; the former are black and white and the latter bay and white. As the colouring is never uniform, one side always differing from another on the same pony, they are not desirable from any point of view, though some people with extravagant tastes prefer them. They do not often appear in the larger breeds of horses, but are often fairly plentiful amongst ponies. White horses proper, those with pink skins, are 292 not really British, but are believed to be of Flemish origin. They are very docile, easily trained, and figure prominently in circuses. The tender pink skin suggests delicacy of constitution and ceems better adapted to warm than to cold climates. In addition to the majority of foals being dun- coloured at birth, they have apparent striping over the rump and forehead. In certain lights and at certain angles these appear to be actual stripes, but a close examination will reveal the fact that they are largely fanciful. This subt-e colouring is produced by the ridges and waves in the coat, because, when the hair is pressed down and kept flat they disappear at once, but immediately the hair is released they reappear. Too much importance has frequently been attached to these water-stripes by zoologists in en- deavouring to connect the first coat of the foal with its remote ancestors. As a matter of fact these subtle ridges naturally disappear with the shedding of the first coat, and, as a rule, are never again seen. There are exceptional cases where faint stripes are retained for several years, apart from the deeply-marked lines peculiar to dun horses, but to assert that all foals possess actual stripes at birth is a delusion resulting from a too superficial examination. The colour of a foal is no indication of the colour it will be when it has attained the age of horsehood. Most horses when newly clipped are a different colour, which is explained by the base of the hair being a different shade from the ends. Generally 293 speaking, horses clip out lighter coloured than they appear in their natural coats, and the difference is sometimes wonderful, still, with the exception of very rare cases, they generally clip out to a colour strongly savouring of dun, with all its intermediate shades between very light and very dark. The old adage that " A good horse is never a bad colour " contains precisely the same amount of truth as its converse, viz., ''A bad horse is never a good colour." By this definition the quality of colour is put at a discount ^s against the capability of the horse itself. Exceptions, however, are necessary in order to prove rules, and, when a number of horses are passed through hand, and a faithful record kept, it will be found on the average that good horses are generally good coloured. 294 CHAPTER XXVI 1 1. STABLE MANAGEMENT. It is a generally recognised fact that unless horses arc properly managed in the stable they cannot reasonably be expected in the field, or on the road, to do their work so well, look so nice, or remain so healthy as when thoroughly well attended to gener- ally. REGULARITY IN FEEDING. In the matter of feeding, regularity should be aimed at. Horses should be fed as regularly as the clock goes round, or we can never have fresh, well- thriven horses. A horse that is fed regularly will be in better condition on three measures of corn in the day than one that is fed irregularly will be on four. He knows exactly when his attendant will feed him, and does not weary for his meals; whereas, a horse on the other hand that is fed at any and all times is never really satisfied, and will weary his life out waiting for his careless attendant and his meals. Irregularity in feeding is also a productive cause of many stable vices. ^95 QUANTITY OF FODDER. No more straw or hay should be placed before a horse in the morning than he can eat cleanly up in an hour. A less quantity should be given at mid-day, and in the evening he should never get any more than will reasonably serve him over the night. Some men, through pure ignorance of a horse's requirements, will fill his rack to the top, and it may not be cleanly eaten out for a week, ay, and in many cases^ a month. The rack is always kept full. It is filled to overflowing at night, and in the morning, before it is half empty, it is filled again. Thus the horse, in a great measure, is always eating old soiled fodder. When hay or straw has been twenty-four hours in front of a horse its freshness and sweetness are reduced, if not absolutely destroyed, by his warm breath going continually through it. As horses vary so much in size and appetite, it is difficult to lay down any fixed quantities for their consumption ; these can best be regulated by their attendants. Generally speaking, agricultural horses will con- sume about eighty to one hundred and twenty pounds of hay per week, and about fifty-six pounds of oats. In addition to this a few roots may be given — carrots or swedes — which are very conducive to the health of horses, only care must be taken not to give them too many at a time. Eight or ten fair-sized carrots twice a day, or two average-sized swedes, are suffi- 296 cient. Potatoes should never be served to horses raw, but should always be well boiled. In the former condition they are productive of scouring, and are highly dangerous ; when served in the latter way they form a very safe, nutritious meal. When horses are doing extra heavy work they should get fifteen per cent, of beans amongst their oats, and whilst we do not much approve of maize, twenty per cent, added to the oats will generally reduce the cost of feed very considerably. QUALITY OF FOOD. It is almost needless to impress upon readers the necessity of using horse-feed only of the best quality. Hay should be got green and free from dust and mould. Inferior hay, which has been heated, is generally full of dust, and when served to the horse may produce an irritable cough which may easily lead to a permanent defect in his wind. Hay that is dry and brittle should also be avoided, as it is generally deficient in nutrition, having been dried too much before being stacked. Most of its feeding properties have been evaporated into the atmosphere in conse- quence of lying too long on the ground exposed to the rays of the sun. The same remarks apply to oats, barley, beans, and all other commodities with which the horse is fed. Oats should always be given crushed. When crushed they are more easily masticated, especially by horses with bad teeth, and are consequently more 297 easily digested. Many greedy horses will bolt their oats whole, consequently, when they are improperly masticated, they do them very little good. This is soon discovered by the quantities of whole oats which are to be found in their excrement. A little chaff mixed with the oats is a good preventive when crush- ing is inconvenient. It prevents horses bolting the corn whole, and induces them, more or less, to chew it. With all classes of horses used for slow work it is advantageous to chop the hay by means of a hay -cutter. This system of manger feeding is very general among collieries, and is also being adopted on farms to a very large extent. A great saving of hay is effected and the expense of feeding is correspondingly reduced. When hay is scarce and dear, oat straw may be mixed with the hay in about equal quantities. This makes a capital feed, and horses are generally very fond of it. WATER. The importance of a good supply of pure water can scarcely be over-estimated, and, if possible, it is preferable to have it soft rather than hard. When a horse is in health he should be allowed as much water as he cares to drink, with one exception. The exception is when he is brought in from a journey tired and heated. In such circumstances he should only be given eight or ten mouthfuls of water, and it is safe to raise its temperature to sixty-five or seventy deg. Fahr., simply by adding a little hot water. After :S9^ the horse lias tliorouglily cooled down he may be given a bucketful of water. The horse should have the offer of water at least four times a day when a tank is not fixed in the stall beside him. The quantity of water a horse will drink per day fluctuates according to his constitution, the feeding he gets, and the nature of the work he is doing. From two to three bucketfuls is about an average quantity for an average horse at average work. Dirt}', stagnant water should never be given to a horse. It is gen- erally full of putrefying organic matter and swarming with multitudinous animalcule germs, indeed, the condition of the one is a necessity to the other — hence the importance of using only pure water for drinking purposes. Horses should never be allowed to drink from ponds nor standing water of any kind ; nor should they ever be ridden through water, as they often are, with the object of washing the mud off their legs when they are brought in dirty from a journey. Rough-legged farm horses when treated in this manner must necessarily stand wet over the whole night, and, besides being productive of chills, it is instrumental in developing grease, cracked heels, weeds, and several other diseases. GROOMING. The horse should be groomed as regularly as he is fed, for a well-groomed horse, as in the case of feeding, will thrive better on three feeds of oats per day than a badly-groomed one will thrive on four. 299 When a liorsc is brought in wet and dirty he should be washed over, scraped, and dried. The sheets should be placed upon him and his legs rolled in flannel bandages. Of course agricultural horses can only be well rubbed down to make them as dry and clean as possible. A horse should never be left to stand all wet and mud-bespattered until the dirt dry of its own accord, or ** mud-fever " will be a certain result of such neglect. The best way to produce a glossy coat on the horse is to rub him well with an ordinary body brush, always in the same direction that the hair lies, then he should be wis[)ed with slightly -damped meadow hay, and lastly with a smooth, soft cloth. The rubbing produces heat, which promotes circulation, and it is generally beneficial to health. A little linseed given internally will materi- ally assist the groom's efforts externally in the [)ro- duction of a sleek, shining coat. The curry-comb should never be used on higher-bred horses other than in simply cleaning the brush, because when heavily applied to the horse it has a tendency to break and open his coat. The horse should be thoroughly well groomed over at least twice a day. Higher-bred horses should be turned in the stall and well cleaned about the front, particularly under the mane, which some grooms are inclined to neglect if not watched and checked for their nc^^Iigence. As soon as this is done, he should be turned up in the stall and his body and hind quarters rubbed in the same manner. Finally, his mane and tail should be 306 combed, then brushed with a damp brush, and his eyes, nose, and anus sponged clean and his feet picked out. NECESSITY OF CLEANLINESS. The stall should be well bedded at night with straw, well shaken up on either side to prevent the horse damaging" himself if he should lie down too near the travis, whilst a liberal allowance should be spread immediately in front of him in order to keep his knees as far from the hard floor as possible. Any kind of straw is preferable to the best moss litter that can be obtained. The latter is too absorbent a material. It absorbs the urine, and it is difficult to separate the excrement from the litter, consequently the horse is constantly standing on damp, filthy material, the result of which may be running thrushes, grease, and other kindred diseases. All the walls of the stable should be kept scrupulously clean. If tiled, they can be frequently washed, and if only plastered, like ordinary farm stables, they can be regularly swept down and limewashed at least twice a year. In order to economise litter, the bedding should be well shaken and the wet separated from the dry, whilst the stall should be well swept out every morning. It is a good plan to sprinkle a little lime over the floor occasionally, as it has a tendency to deodorise any noxious vapours that may arise. All the gutters leading to the drains must be carefully attended to, and if possible flushed with water every day. All 301 the sash-windows should be opened widely in the morning as soon as the groom enters the stable, so as to let a current of fresh air sweep through the building. This will accelerate the passage of the heated air emitted from the horses through the ven- tilators in the roof, which, being lighter than ordinary air, always ascends. HARNESSING THE HORSE FOR GOING OUT. In bridling a horse after he has been harnessed, he should not be turned in the stall until the bridle is securely fixed upon him. Grooms sometimes train horses to wheel round as soon as the headstall is taken off, no doubt under the impression that it is clever, but, undoubtedly, accidents occur by horses rushing out, getting kicked by others, and knock- ing the skin off their quarters by turning abruptly in narrow stalls. When a horse is turned in the stall ready harnessed to go out, he should always be properly secured by pillar chains with safety hooks on either side. The chains should be long enough to give him sufficient head without being so long as to permit him getting forward past the pillars ; while they should be fixed high up, so that should he become restless and begin pawing he will not get entangled by putting his legs over the chains. His feet may be oiled lightly over, though some people prefer to have them washed clean with water. In dry, dusty weather the latter is perhaps preferable. A horse with any white on his legs requires more 302 grooming than one with ''black points." The white parts must be washed with soft soap when the horse is dressed in the morning, and he will always be clean when wanted. The last thing" to do before taking- the horse out is to carefully comb and lightly water-brush his mane, which will always give him a smart appearance. CLIPPING AND SINGEING. Clipping horses in winter when their coats are rough is a decided advantage both to the horses and their attendants. There is no fixed time for clipping, much, of course, depending upon the thick- ness and setting of the coats of different horses. A clipped horse is able to do a great deal more work than an undipped one. He will keep fresher, grow more vigorous, and is altogether in better spirit than a horse carrying his thick winter coat. Many a horse that cannot be kept in condition previous to clipping will often grow too big and fit for his work after his coat is removed. The legs of hunters should never be clipped, because when hunting for a long day over a wet, dirty district, the legs in consequence are liable to strike out in " mud fever," which detracts from the appearance of horses, and is a disease which takes a good deal of time and trouble to cure. The hair should be left on the legs from six to eight inches above the knees and hocks, and it should slope upwards from rear to front (Fig. 41 ). The hair should also be left on the back of the horse below the saddle, 303 which gives it a more natural feeh'ng-, and it is not so likely to chafe his back as when clipped bare like other parts of his body. Carriage and harness horses ma} be clipped down to the feet, and when brought in from a dirty journey they must be cleaned Fig. 41. — Hunter Clipped. (U C, undipped portions. X X X X, clipped portions.) and dried at once. Farm horses, and work horses of all kinds, should only be clipped ''half-rib," which means that the hair should be left upon their backs down to the turn of the rib, and from the knees to the 304 feet (Fig. 42). Farm horses have often to stand for long intervals in the cold ; leaving the hair over the back keeps them warm, and, when the clipping leaves off abruptly at the round of the rib the water is carried clean off during rain. This style of clipping Fig. 42. — Work Horse Clipped. (U C, undipped portions. X X X X, clipped portions.) does not improve the appearance of horses, but safety and comfort should alwa}'s be more regarded than appearance. Hunters and harness horses may be clipped frequently during the season, but once is generally sufficient for agricultural and all other kinds of heavy work -horses. Singeing after clipping is a 305 g-ood plan. It is a simple means of taking off any long- hairs the clipping machine may have missed. Immediately after singeing, light horses should get a good gallop so as to slightly sweat them, then they should be washed over, and thoroughly well dried. When the natural coats of horses are removed, it is necessary to put on artificial substitutes, and this, of course, is managed by clothing, which should be regulated in the thickness and weight according to circumstances. Sheets should never be put on when horses are brought in perspiring. They should be allowed to steam for ten minutes, during which they should be well rubbed down, and after they have ceased to steam the sheets may be put upon them. STABLE UTENSILS. Stable utensils, such as pitchforks, grapes, shovels, etc., should never be left standing loose about the stable. A horse may get loose over night, and in coming in contact with a pitchfork, he may wound himself very badly. These remarks are chiefly meant to apply to farm stables, whose fittings are not generally so up-to-date as higher-class stables. There should be an enclosed recess in the wall behind each horse for the safe disposal of all harness beloneino- to him, in which all the necessary utensils can be placed at the same time. Horses that are methodically and kindly treated in the stable will be more likely to render better work both in the field and on the road. 3o6 CHAPTER XXIX. STABLE CONSTRUCTION. The construction of stables is a matter of first-rate importance, and, as the health of horses generally depends to a great extent on the class of stables they occupy, too much prominence cannot be given to the advantage of having them as nearly perfect as possible. Existing" stables are more difficult to modernise in the way of sanitation, lighting, and ventilation, than to provide these necessities in the erection of new ones. When originally built on ill-chosen sites, and adjoining other buildings, as they frequently are on farms, the difficulties of improvement are materially increased. The most that can be done to existing stables, without entailing a large expenditure of capital, is to improve their sanitation, lighting, and ventilation. Whilst improved lighting and ventilation, however, are comparatively easy of accomplishment, the question of improving the sanitation is a more difficult problem to solve. Old walls that have been built without a damp course are thoroughly soaked, and it is simply impossible to cure them by laying new drains or anything else. 30/ THE SITE. When practicable, a stable should always be built with a southern aspect, as it is warmer in consequence of the direct rays of the sun falling- upon it, and the beneficial influence of sunlight, and ordinary diffused light, in the interior of stables and all other building's occupied by animals, is an acknowledg-ed scientific fact. Of course, in choosing a site, much will depend on the disposition of the ground, and local circum- stances will require to be taken into account. It is generally advantageous to have the stable detached from other buildings, as it is more easily lighted and ventilated. DRAINAGE. Some soils are much more porous than others, still, to insure dry, comfortable stables, all require to be thoroughly drained. A drain should run round the exterior foundation of the building at a depth of at least four and a half feet, and the pipes should be laid two feet from the edge of the building. Ordinary four-inch drain-pipes are the kind to use. The interior drains should be four feet in depth, and must have no connection with the other drains whatever. All interior drains must be properly trapped to prevent the return of any deleterious gases that may generate in them, and the drains should be carried a good distance from the stable to the liquid tank, with a good fall so that no 3o8 solid particles of excreta may lodge about them. The water from the spoutings of the roof should be collected, if water is scarce, and utilised in flushing the sanitary drains, the pipes of which should be made of glazed stone ware, and properly cemented at the joints in order to prevent the escape of any volatile or gaseous properties. The sanitary drains should be laid six inches deeper than the other system of draining, so that if any leakage should accidentally occur, no contamination would follow. No sanitary drain system is complete without an abundant supply of water with which to flush the pipes at least once daily. FLOORING. The floor of the stable should be composed of non- absorbent materials. Ordinary Portland cement makes an excellent floor, as it is quite impervious to wet and entirely obstructs any noxious emanations that may arise from beneath, whilst its surface is hard and smooth, which renders it unfavourable to the accumulation and retention of dirt of any kind. It should be laid on a bed of broken whin -stone, the lower stratum of which should pass through a three- inch mesh, whilst the stones of the upper stratum should not be larger than pass through a one-inch mesh. The lower and rougher stratum should be laid to a depth of six inches, the upper to a depth of three, whilst the surface covering of cement should be from two-and-a-half to three inches in thickness. It is sometimes recommended to mix the cement with 309 chips of brick or small stones to prevent the floor being- slippery, but this roughens the surface, which adds to the difficulty of cleanliness, and it does not wear nearly so well. In fact, rough-shod, heavy agri- cultural horses very soon break it up into holes, and when once broken the whole floor very soon dis- appears. STALLS AND DAMP COURSE. A better plan is to lightly groove the surface. A straight groove from the gutter behind should run directly up the centre of each stall, and diagonal grooves should be let into it from either side (Fig. 43-) The grooves should be light and placed four inches apart. The cross gutter should be semi- circular, four inches wide, and two inches deep in the centre. In order to secure comfort for horses, stalls should be six feet wide and ten feet long, and should be as level as possible, consistent, of course, with a proper declivity for the removal of the urine. Stalls should fall away about two inches from the front to the cross gutter, and they should slope an inch to the M M Fig. 43. — Gkooved Stall. MM, Main Channel ; C C, Centre Channel ; G G, Grooves 310 centre from either side. When stalls are placed too much on an incline they are a continuous torture to horses, whether standing or lying ; and scarcely any- thing will cause horses to stand over in the knees sooner than an undue elevation in front of the stalls. The floor in rear of the gutter should be six feet wide, and should be grooved in diamond fashion as horses are less likely to slip than on square grooves, and they should be the same depth and distance apart as the stall grooves. A damp course must be laid into all the walls — inside and outside alike — eighteen inches above the ground level. This can be done by laying roof slates horizontal, along with a light layer of cement. The interior flooring and the damp course should always be continuous, i.e.y the cement should be carried down the inside of the wall from the damp course to the floor at a thickness of an inch-and-a-half INSIDE FITTINGS. Combined mangers with feeding-box, tank, and rack are probably the best. They should be strongly made of galvanised iron. The edges round the top of the manger should project inwardly about two inches which prevents horses pushing their corn over, as a number of them acquire the habit of doing. High racks are a means of accumulating dust and dirt, which fall about the heads and manes of the horses ; and sometimes hay seeds get into their eyes, which cause a lot of suffering, hence racks placed on a 311 level with the mangers are a great comfort to horses. (Fig. 44.) Two rings are fitted to the mangers for tying the horses to, and other rings should be placed Man^ er Rack- TanJc k\% - H a-S: --•■«-•-- •••.■-r:;- q -~*-:.-.-.:-r;^,: w^pW 'TT n 1 — n 1 I ' 1 " n J 1 - Fig, 44.— Back, Tank, and Mangeb combined. in the wall, about four feet above the mangers in front of the horses for tying their heads up when necessary. The stall partitions should be five feet high at the pillars behind, and may rise in a modified swan-neck form to a height of seven and a half feet at the front, and the tops of the partitions may be covered with half-circular hoop iron, which prevents horses wearing them down by biting them. The length of the partitions should be about ten feet, and it is preferable to have them closely match-lined. The pillars should be strong, firmly sunk into the floor, with rings and chains attached for fixing horses when turned in the stalls. In farm stables, the pillars should be carried up to the cross beams which method supports and gives them greater stability. 312 A continuous recess with sliding doors should practically run the whole length of a farm stable, in which harness and stable utensils generally are kept. By this method the harness is out of the reach of dust, and grapes and forks are very dangerous implements to be left standing about a stable, for, even with the greatest care, a horse may get loose occasionally and injure himself very seriously. LIGHTING. The question of lighting, as already pointed out, is one of the utmost importance. Dark stables are a prolific cause of shying, because when horses are taken into broad daylight they see things only through a distorted vision, and will consequently shy at purely imaginary objects. It is scientifically ascertained that darkness and dampness, besides being favourable to the accumulation of dirt, are also favourable to the development of disease germs. In dark, ill-ventilated stables the woodwork will be found mouldy and wet. The mould or fungus (Eurotium repe?is), which thrives on damp saturated wood is of a most unhealthy order, and develops and propagates spores by millions. These insanitary conditions favour their development, and myriads of microbes are constantly being gener- ated, to the detriment, not only of the horses, but also of their attendants. Windows with sliding frames should be placed in the south and end walls of the stable at intervals of six feet, with hinged sash-lights intervening between 313 each window, and placed in the walls pretty near the eaves. Two rows of plate-glass roof-lights should run along either side of the roof at intervals of six feet apart. They should not be placed opposite each other. Those on the north side should be placed inter- mediate between those on the south side, both vertically and horizon- tally, and by this arrangement a properly-diffused light will be ob- tained all over the interior of the stable. In stables where the roofs slope at the ends, the same system of roof-lights should be observed ; but if the gables run up perpen- dicular to the top, hinged sash- lights may be let in all along the gable ends at a good height from the ground, in addition to the win- dows already described. (Fig. 45.) Of course, the antiquated sys- tem of lofting in stables must be entirely abolished, as it prevents both lighting and ventilation ; and hay lying above horses in a loft for any length of time becomes very un- wholesome by the vitiated air emitted from the horses constantly passing through it. Stables with more than six stalls should have two entrance doors, not neces- FiG. 45. Hinged Sash-Light. 314 sarily for evcry-day use, but in the event of fire or any occasional emergency that may arise. They should be seven feet high and four feet eight inches wide, and should have hinges near the centre in order to fold Fig. 46. — Folding Door. F F, Folding Hinge ; D D, Division of Halves. round the corner of the wall, while they should be hung at two lengths both for convenience and ventila- tion (Fig. 46.) It is very important that doors should be wide, so that horses can pass through them quite freely. 315 When horses get caught in doorways they remem- ber it for a long time, and are apt to rush through them at a bound, which is dangerous to themselves and their attendants. VENTILATION. A thorough sytem of ventilation is as necessary in the modern stable as the free admission of sunlight. Very few existing stables are sufficiently ventilated, and half the ailments of horses in the shape of colds and influenza may be traceable to occupying badly- ventilated stables. Very frequently, when the stables are shut up for the night, the coats of the horses will be found damp and the windows and walls of the stable running wet, which shows that the air is contaminated by carbonic acid and organic matter which take the place of the utilised oxygen. With good ventilation this vitiated air would become oxidised, and would pass through the ventilators quite naturally as its tendency is to ascend. In the science of bacteriology it is clearly demonstrated that sunlight and dry fresh air in combination mean death to most forms of microbes, hence the importance of a complete system of ventilation. INLETS. Inlets should be let into the south and end walls of the stable six inches above the ground. They may be formed of ornamental iron grating, and each inlet should have a slide in the interior of the stable in order to close it if necessary. (Fig. 47.) 3i6 Fig. 47.— Obnamental Geating. Inlets of the same kind should be placed at a similar distance apart in the walls in front of the horses, immediately under the eaves ; whilst the hinged sash- lights in the south wall should hang from their centres, and be opened or closed as circum- stances require. The entrance of fresh air at the iron gratings near the ground expels the foul air from the floor of the stable, whilst those higher in the walls augment the current and force it upward towards the roof. OUTLETS. In order to liberate the vitiated air outlets must be inserted in the roof, and it is necessary that their col- lective air space should exceed that of the inlets. Perforated ridge tiles can be had for this purpose, but they are neat rather than effective owing to the small- ness of their apertures. In addition to a ridge of this kind, outlets should be let in on both sides of the roof, two feet below the ridge, at intervals of three feet apart. Those on the south side should be placed intermediate to those on the north, and in this way the escape of the vitiated air will be accelerated. The ventilators should be composed of zinc, semi- 317 circular in shape, and not more than six inches in width by three inches in height at the centre. The upper portion of the semi-circular cone should project two inches over its base, in order to prevent the Front View. Side View. Fig 48. — Zinc Venilator. A A, Projecting Cone; R R, Roof; F, Part beneath Roof Slates. entrance of rain or snow. (Fig-. 48.) By this arrange- ment cross winds are prevented from beating back the vitiated air, as one side of the roof will always be favourable to its escape. CUBIC AIR-SPACE. Stables should be built so that each horse has at least one thousand cubic feet of free-air space, and if twelve hundred can be obtained, so much the better. Of course, it must be understood that a large amount of air-space does not cancel the necessity of ventilation. A small air-space naturally becomes sooner foul than a large air-space, but both require ventilation. The 3i8 admission of fresh air and the expulsion of vitiated air must always be in excess of the respiratory require- ments of the animals. BUILDING MATERIALS. Brick is probably the most economical material for building" purposes, but sand, or whin-stone, is more substantial, and looks better. This, however, is largely influenced by local supplies and individual taste. ROOFING. Slates are preferable to all other kinds of roofing. They withstand the wind well in exposed places, and are much lighter and neater than tiles, which are very antiquated and are fast becoming a thing of the past. Corrugated iron, although cheap, is not a good system of roofing for stables, as it is excessively hot in summer and proportionally cold in winter, and the noise occasioned by rain and hail falling upon its sur- face is very disagreeable to the animals beneath it. SPOUTING. Metal, or creosoted wood spouting may be used. From an economical point of view, the one is as suit- able as the other, but the former requires to be painted at least every alternate year to keep it in thorough repair. It is neater than creosoted spouting, but it is not more durable. Down-comers should be carried down the walls in order to convey the water to the roof drains, unless it 319 is caught into tanks or barrels to be utilised for other purposes. They should be fixed at regular intervals, the distance between necessarily depending on the area of the roof. EFFECTS OF GOOD STABLES If stables were built as described above the per- centage of shying horses would be reduced to a minimum, and their ailments generally would be correspondingly diminished, because, by the perfect system of lighting, horses would see objects outside in the daylight as they really are ; whilst the modern system of sanitation and ventilation would give a uni- formity of cleanliness and temperature that would increase the vitality of horses to a marvellous degree. 320 CHAPTER XXX. THE FEET, DENTITION, AND DESTRUC- TION OF HORSES. No more artificial dresssng should be done to the feet of horses than is absolutely necessary in the way of rasping-, cutting-, and burning. A number of black- smiths, in fitting a shoe, will cut and burn the foot alternately until a mere shell of the sole is left. No harm is done by applying- a hot shoe to the foot in moderation, as a more accurate bed for the shoe can be obtained in this than in any other way. The wall of the hoof should be well cut away at the toe, as the tendency of the horny wall of the foot is to grow in that direction, but the knife should never be applied to the sole or frog of the foot at all, unless merely to remove any ragged portions that may be partially detached. When a shoe is properly fitted the frog- of the foot should touch the ground on a level with the shoe. In this way the frog acts, naturally, as a.kind of buffer in reducing- concussion on the ground. Nature generally does her own work in reducing the sole and frog- by casting off scales occasionally, so that the artificial assistance of the blacksmith's knife in the 321 matter is quite unnecessary. The enamel of the hoof should never be broken by rasping above the clinches, and as little below and about tliem as possible, as it interferes with the natural secretions which go to build up and produce elasticity in its structure. The nails should be of an even thickness, very slightly tapered at the points, so as not to enter the wall of the hoof wedge-wise and cause splitting. The ground surface of the shoe should be quite level, and the heels as far apart as the shape of the hoof will permit. DIFFERENT KINDS OF SHOES. Shoes for heavy agricultural and dray horses should be made heavy and broad, with low square heels, and clips on the toes and outer edges to keep them in position. Shoes for harness horses should be quite flat, with the ex- ception of low heel on the hind feet shoes. When pavements and roads are rendered slip- pery by traffic, the shoes may be corrugated, which is an excellent preventive against slipping. Iron stamped in this way is obtain- able just the same as ordinary shoe-bar iron (Fig. 49.) Hacks and hunters should preferably be shod with ring shoes with very low heels on the hind feet shoes. W Fig. j9. — Cohuugated Shoe. 322 The weight of the shoes must be regulated to the size and weight of the liorses, and to guard against the h'a- bility of over-reaching on soft ground, the front feet shoes should be short, and should slope well towards the ground at the heels. Racing plates, of course, are put upon racehorses, lightness being the chief require- ment. For horses with confined action that brush and cut their pastern joints a very simple remedy is effected in the shoeing, as already described in a former chapter. Horses with flat, brittle feet or con- tracted hoofs must be carefully shod, but it is im- possible to lay down hard and fast regulations in the matter, as individual peculiarities must be treated as governing circumstances demand. Horses should not be allowed to go without a shoe when one is accidentally cast off, as the hoof soon becomes split and broken to such an extent that the shoe can scarcely be replaced. Shoes should be removed, or renewed, at least once a month, a good deal, of course, depending on the extent and nature of the work that horses are doing. When shoes are allowed to remain too long on the feet, corns and other forms of disease generally follow — hence the necessity of frequent and regular removal. SHARPENING. Everyone who has any sympathy with horses will recognise the necessity of maintaining their shoes in proper condition for travelling over icebound high- ways. There are several methods of sharpening in 323 fashion at the present time, and blacksmiths' shops, generally speaking", are within fairly easy reach of most people. But it is not so much a matter of distance, or inconvenience, that horses are not sufficiently cared for in this matter, as it is of carelessness on the part of their owners. It is difficult to determine which is really the best system of sharpening. A great deal depends on the class of horses and the nature of their work. Screw^s, fitted in the heels of the shoes, which can be inserted and removed at will, are very conveni- ent and serve the ^purpose fairly well for saddle and harness horses, but for ordinary draught horses they are not very serviceable, as they have a tendency when horses are pulling hard to become displaced, when they fall out, and, of course, in many instances get lost. The cross-bar insertion slot in the toe of the shoe is also very liable to get dislodged and lost, but it is a clever, ingenious invention, and with increased im- provements it might answer the purpose very well with certain classes of horses doing certain kinds of work. For all-round purposes the ordinary method of sharpening the heels and the toes of the shoes for .draught horses appears to be the best and the most efficacious system in vogue ; whilst for lighter classes of horses, steel "frost nails" are quite sufficient in the toes of the shoes. It is a mistake to make the heels of the shoes too high, as they are dangerous for horses trampling them- selves in the stalls, and when turning abruptly. 324 Occasionally bad efYects are caused by the heels of the shoes running- into horses immediately between the fore legs when lying. Tumours in that region are generally the result of compression caused by the weight of horses bearing upon the points of the sharp heels when lying thus. High heels, either sharpened or otherwise, should be studiously avoided. They should never exceed three-quarters of an inch, and they can be rubbed up with a file occasionally, which will not necessitate the removal of the shoes so frequently. DENTITION. An experienced horseman can generally determine the age of a horse, at least approximately, by a careful inspection of his general appearance, but to arrive at accurate conclusions it is necessary to know something of the science of dentition in order to be able to read his age from his teeth. It is well known that horses have two full sets of teeth, which are classed as colt and horse teeth respectively. The former are practic- ally useless in determining the age of horses, as the last of them dirappear between the age of four and five years when the horse attains the age of horsehood. Numbers of colts, however, are sold for working pur- poses previous to that age, therefore a knowledge of colt teeth is quite as essential as a knowledge of horse teeth. In order to prevent confusion the twelve incisors are classed as follows : — The two immediately in front 325 in the upper and lower jaws are called the "firsts"; the next two, on either side, the " seconds " ; and the next two, or corner teeth, the " thirds." It may be well to explain here that in order to render the principles of the system more intelligible to the uninitiated, the markings indicating grooves, notches, indentations, etc., shown on the diagrams, are much more distinct than they actually appear on the natural teeth of horses, so that, in addition to a theoretical knowledge, long and careful experience is absolutely essential in order to determine the correct age of horses. Colt teeth are generally smooth and grooveless, and some foals have the firsts at birth. In the course of four weeks the seconds develop, and at twenty-four weeks the thirds. When the foal is about ten months old all the teeth are level. The teeth have indentations or cups in their crowns, which wear out respectively as they were developed, at intervals of about six months, so that at two years of age the teeth are all flat on their crowns. (Figs. 50, 51, 52. 53, 54, and 55). In the horse teeth which follow, the firsts develop at two and a-half years of age ; the seconds at three and a-half ; the thirds at four and a-half ; and at five all the teeth are level. The horse teeth displace the colt teeth from two and a-half years of age till four and a-half in regular rotation. Like colt teeth, the horse teeth have deep cups in their crowns, and they generally appear grooved on the surface. At six years of age tho cups leave the firsts ; at seven, the seconds ; at eight, the thirds ; and at nine all the crowns of the 326 Fig. 50. — Foal's Mouth at Birth. // " Firsts " just appearing. Fig. 51.— Fouk Weeks Old. s 5 " Seconds " appearing. ^ / 'it -, Fig. 52.— Ten Months. Fig. 53.— One-Yeak Old. t t " Thirds " up— colt teeth all level. // Cups, leaving " Firsts." Fig. 54. aCn One-and-a-Half-Ykars-Old. ss Cups leaving "Seconds." Fig. 55. Two-Years-Old. . Cups all gone from colt teeth. 327 teeth are level. (Figs. 56, 57, 58. 59, 60, 61, 62, and 63). About ten years of age the upper firsts and thirds — the latter particularly — appear grooved. The grooves are well marked, and run in a longitudinal direction, in consequence of the shrinkage of the gums from the teeth, and as the teeth wear and the gums recede, the crowns grow nearer the grooves. There are all also grooves on the inside walls of the firsts, which correspond fairly to those on the outside. When both are uniform the age of a horse is more easily determined. From ten years of age to twenty- one the horse will wear his teeth so fast away that the crowns will touch the bottom of the grooves, so that, in order to arrive at a correct conclusion of his age, a calculation is necessary between ten and twenty-one. When the grooves are half-way down the teeth the horse will be about fifteen years of age, and when they are intermediate on either side between the gums and the crowns, i.e., quarter and three-quarters down, he will be from twelve to thirteen, and from seventeen to eighteen respectively. The grooves in the firsts and thirds, along with the general formation of the teeth, render it possible to arrive at Very accurate conclusions. Generally speaking, the older a horse gets his teeth assume a darker hue in consequence of discoloration caused by ordinary wear, and sometimes by disease, so that the colour of the teeth must always be carefully considered in reckoning the age of a horse. (Figs. 64, 65, and 66). 328 Fig. 56. Two and-a-Half Years Old. // Horse "Firsts" developing. Fig. 57. Threk, and a Half Years Old. 5 s llorse " Seconds " appearing. Fig. 58. — Four and-a-Half Years Old. 1 1 Horse " Thirds " appearing. Fig. 59. — Five Years Old. — Horse Teeth Developed. ff "Firsts"; s* "Seconds"; tt 'Thirds. 329 Fig. 60.— Six Years Old. / / Cups leaving " Firsts " ; s s Growing less in '' Seconds." Fig. 61 —Seven Years Old. / / Cups away from " Firsts " ; s s Leaving " Seconds " ; t t Growing smaller in " Thirds." 330 Fig. 62.— Eight Years Old. s s Cups away from " Seconds " \ 1 1 Growing small in " Thirds." Fig. 63.— Nine Yeabs Old. Horse teeth all level. 331 '^ ^ '>;; ^ -^.^ ^ -^ Pi o _ S-f 0) a ^ o J2 cS 0) m "^ '*' w en > o >^ -^ 1 1 1 H m ■- — t_i b aj 2 M Eh « .- >^ § I ^ X fl ^ « S g H O ^ C .^ -^ -s •- m O - fi^ O ^ OJ «5 ^ cn 332 -:.::^ Fig. 65.— Fifteen to Sixteen Yeaks Old. a Angle of teeth ; g Grooves ; I Length of teeth. ■■••^ f Fig 66. — Seventeen to Eighteen Years Old. a Angle of teeth ; g Grooves ; I Length of teeth. 333 After five years of age the teeth get gradually thicker from front to rear and narrower across, and the angle of their setting increases in proportion. At the same time, horses addicted to biting the manger are apt to unduly wear and break their teeth, and in these cases it is difficult to discover their age, as the natural marks become defaced by such habits. .,^ CO Fig. 67 — TwENTY-Fn^E and Thirty Years Old. a Angle of teeth ; R R Rounded protrusions ; / Length of teeth. At about twenty-two years of age the grooves have left the gums and are succeeded by rounded pro- trusions of a dark yellow colour which are very easily observed. When these protrusions extend down the corner teeth about a quarter of their entire length the horse will be about twenty -five or twenty -six years of age, and when they are half-way down he 334 will be about thirty (Fig. 6*j). A quarter of a century ag-o it was impossible to determine the ages of horses beyond eight or nine years, when the indentations left the teeth in the lower jaw, but the accurate ob- servations of Galvayne, Brown, Smith, and other experts, have rendered a more extended knowledge practicable. The principles of the method of teeth-reading described in the text and accompanying rough sketches, after horses have attained the age of ten years, are after Galvayne, Brown, and Smith, than whom there are probably few more reliable authorities — especially the first-named, who has perhaps done more than any other man in demonstrating and estab- lishing the principles of a system which, if not absolutely perfect, is, at least, nearer that desired standard than any other system which has come within the experience ol the writer. From a utility point of view, it is unnecessary to determine the ages of horses beyond thirty years, for at that advanced age they are generally occupying the position of pensioners and are consequently of little monetary value. There are many well-authenticated instances of horses living to thirty-five and forty years of age. In Brown's "Compleie Modern Farrier," the author produces a sketch of the teeth of a horse known as ** Old Billy," which is said to have attained the phenomenal age of seventy -six years (p. 197). "The cranium," the author explains, " with the muscles pre- served, is deposited in the Museum of the Manchester 335 Natural History Society, from which I made the draw- ing. The whole of the incisoro are much elongated horizontally, but not perpendicularly elevated more than those of a horse at six years of age. The upper surface of the nippers and dividers are of a quad- rangular form, the inner margins being a little rounded, while the corner teeth are oblone oval, nearly the form of an egg, with the most acute end outwards. The tushes are conical, a little blunted on the crown, and turned backward, with an elon- gated, shallow, curved groove on their inner sides." There is no evidence produced to prove that this horse actually lived seventy-six years, but assuming that he did, it is certainly the longest recorded age of a horse, so far at least as the writer knows. Don- keys are said to live much longer than horses, and singularly few people are to be met with who have actually seen a donkey die from natural causes. Whether this rare experience is attributable to re- markable longevity, or to the now meagre distribu- tion of these frequently well-abused animals in this country, the writer does not venture to say. It has been said of asses that they lost their social status in England at the time of the Reformation. Prior to that era, custom recognised mules as the appropriate mounts of travelling ecclesiastics, even of the highest degree, whilst laymen used horses ; and the disuse of mules by persons of such dignified standing no doubt was partially instrumental in bringing about the gradual cessation of mule-breeding in this country, 336 whereby fine stallion asses ceaseJ to possess their former vakie. The tushes, popularly known as canine teeth, are no certain guides in determining the age of horses. They generally appear about three years of age, but occasionally they do not develop until five and six years have been reached. These irregularities are probably due to constitutional changes, and to a certain extent to the early feeding of colts ; well- grown colts generally produce tushes sooner than ill-thriven colts, so that feeding influences the develop- ment of the teeth just as it promotes physical growth generally. Mares are generally devoid of tushes, although in some instances they appear in a rudi- mentary, or modified, form. It is said that mares possessing tushes do not breed, but this is not correct, as the writer knew a mare with fairly well developed tushes that bore five foals in regular consecutive years after she had attained the age of sixteen ; indeed, it is inconceivable tliat the presence or absence of tushes can have any influence on the breeding cap- acity of mares. The mare above mentioned had an additional peculiarity — a very much more extraordin- ary one — being devoid of warts (callosities) on the hind legs. Warts vary in size in different breeds and in different animals, and although the writer has heard of horses without them, the instance mentioned is the only one that has come under direct observa- tion. This may have been a case of reversion to a remote ancestor, because it is held by some zoologists 337 that the early progenitors of the horse were without callosities. Zebras are devoid of warts on the hind legs, and Celtic ponies and mules are also said to be without them, but whether horses and asses sprang from the same source is a point in evolution which is still undecided. The practice of knocking out the colt -teeth in order to accelerate the growth of the horse -teeth is too well known to require description. This artificial device is sometimes resorted to by unscrupulous vendors whose object is to make colts appear a year older than they actually are in order to procure a readier sale. By this means well-grown colts are sometimes worked a year sooner than they should be, which is, of course, very detrimental to them from all points of view. " Bishoping " is another form of imposition which, however, is happily dying out. It consists in burning artificial cups in the crowns of the lower corner teeth after the natural ones are worn out, with the object of making a fifteen-year-old horse appear an eight- year-old. This may pass muster with a novice, but the device is easily detected by an experienced horse- man. The artificial burning destroys the enamel surrounding the natural indentations of the teeth, thus producing dead black blotches. This, together with the reduced width and the increased angle of the setting of the teeth, render deception next to impossible since the newer methods of teeth -read- ing were introduced — hence, as already mentioned, X 338 " Bishoping " is rapidly becoming a custom of the past. Horses are sometimes subject to toothache and other diseases of the teeth. A very frequent ailment with horses beyond twelve or fifteen years of age is that their grinders become ragged and protrude both outwards and inwards. This prevents them masticat- ing their food properly, which is soon discovered by chewed pieces being returned from their mouths, along with a quantity of saliva. The services of a veterinary surgeon should be obtained, and the projecting teeth well filed down with a long file, and the aid of a gag to keep the mouth open during the operation. Oc- casionally, when colts are shedding their teeth, the gums become inflamed and project beyond the teeth, which prevents them feeding properly. A few pricks with the point of a knife on the inflamed parts will generally remedy the evil. DESTRUCTION OF HORSES. Having advocated kindness throughout in the general management of horses, the author would like before concluding this chapter to enjoin on readers the necessity of practising kindness — even in death ! He refers to horses that have served their time, and have become unfit for work by the infirmity of old age. Nothing is more pitiable, nothing more touching, than to see a faithful old horse abused in the yoke, driven forward by the sting of the whip, which in his happy youth he would have proudly resented, when 339 he is scarcely even fit to carry his own weight, instead of dragging a trap or a cart behind him. Can anyone, however impressive, exaggerate the barbarity of such conduct on the part of a man ? Alas ! the task would be impossible. And the man who abuses an old horse in the yoke is a cold, unfeeling coward, and wholly unworthy to be entrusted with the care of a dumb animal. And second to the dastard who inflicts the actual cruelty is the former owner of the horse. He may have bred him, and may have taken ten, fifteen, or even twenty years of hard work out of him, when, for the sake of pure greed, he will sell him into a life of misery for little more than the price of his skin ! It is infinitely more humane to immediately destroy a horse when he becomes unfit for work by the approach of that stern conqueror, old age. Here and there we come across a benevolent man who makes a pensioner of his horse after he has served his term, but even then it remains to be questioned whether it would not be more humane to destroy him, because he is often reduced to a miserable cripple moving about in constant agony. BEST METHOD OF DESTRUCTION. Numerous methods have been suggested to pro- cure euthanasy, such as suffocation by charcoal fumes, blood blowing, etc., but they are necessarily slow methods, and unless a man is of a callous disposition he can hardly carry them out successfully. Therefore, although the word has a harsh ring about it, the 340 writer does not hesitate to recommend shooting as the quickest and simplest method of destruction. When executed by steady hands death is instan- taneous, and the poor horse practically suffers no pain. In advocating this method of destruction, or even destroying old horses at all, it is hoped that readers will not consider it unduly harsh and unkind, but should there be some a little inclined to senti- mentality, the writer would like to respectfully ask them, whether prolonging painful agony, or produc- ing instant death in horses, is the greater sin .'* PRACTICABILITY IN HORSE MANAGEMENT. In writing the foregoing chapters on the training and management of horses, the author has en- deavoured to elucidate the different stages throughout as clearly and intelligibly as possible. Born and bred amongst horses, he has ever taken a deep interest in their management and welfare, and the different methods which have been advocated in dealing with the various stages of their management will, on application by good hands, be found to be thoroughly practicable in every detail. Of course it must be borne in mind that the general instruction in the training of horses that has been advocated throughout has been intended to apply to men of good nerves, light hands, and cool heads. The task of constructing the rules of a definite system for the guidance of nervous, cruel, and indifferent horsemen must be left to abler writers. And if it were possibe to elaborate 34t such a system, it is doubtful if the unreasonable requirements of such men would be adequately met. KINDNESS versus CRUELTY, AND REASON versus INSTINCT. The author trusts that the following facts have been firmly established, viz., that the judicious exer- cise of uniform kindness is far more beneficial in its results than carelessness and cruelty, and that brute instinct is a force which must always yield to the con- quering power of man's intelligent and constructive reason, in all circumstances, however great the odds may be against it. All those who have the direct management of horses should therefore realise the grave duty incumbent upon them, from their loftier sphere of reason, to treat these dumb members of the brute creation with due consideration and regard. In concluding, the writer urgently and earnestly enjoins on men the necessity of remembering that they are men (for a man can only abuse a horse when his better reason deserts him), and if they do this, they will never forget the impassable gulf that separates them from the lower animal world, but will appreciate the higher and nobler power with which they are endowed, and will exercise on all occasions, not only to horses, but to all members of the brute creation, that generous kindness and consideration which render the toils of existence sweet, and make life worth living. 41 i TUFTS UNIVERSITY LIBRARIES iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii 3 9090 014 548 982 yftJA(^^(/^/^ Seaverns SF 309 B45 1904 ■^A