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TRANSACTIONS /fr/

OF THE

WISCONSIN ACADEMY

OF

SCIENCES, ARTS, AND LETTERS

VOL. XI
1896-1897

WITH FIFTY PLATES

EDITED BY THE SECRETARY

S> Published by Authority of Law.

MADISON, WISCONSIN

DEMOCRAT PRINTING COMPANY, STATE PRINTER

1898

LIST OF PLATES.

To face page

I, Bille on History of the Danes in America . 48

II, III, Simons on Railroad Pools .... 66

IV, Lueders on G-raminese . . . . .Ill

V-XIV, Marsh on Crustacea ..... 208

t

XV-XLII, Birge on Crustacea .... 286-413

XLIII-L, Slichter on Harmonic Curves

448

TABLE OF CONTENTS.

ORIGINAL PAPERS.

PAGE.

A history of the Danes in America (with a map, plate I),

John II. Bille, 1

The methods of science, as being in the domain of logic,

J. J. Blais dell , 49

Railroad pools (with plates II and III), Algie Martin Simons , 66

The adjustment of railroad rates in Prussia,

Balthasar II. Meyer , 78

Negro suffrage in Wisconsin . John Goadby Gregory, 94
The scientific importance of more complete vital statistics
of the state of Wisconsin . .11.0. B. Wingate, 102

Floral structure of some Gramineae (with plate IV),

Herman F. Lueders , 109

On the analysis of the water of a flowing artesian well at

Marinette, Wisconsin W. W. Daniells, 112

Some uses of the low potential alternating current in a

chemical laboratory . . . Milo S. Walker , 114

Some forms spontaneously assumed by folk-songs,

John Comfort Fillmore, 119
The legal status of trusts . . Edgar F. Strong, 127

Dante. His quotations and his originality: The greatest

imitator and the greatest original James Davie Butler,' 149
.Second supplementary list of parasitic fungi of Wisconsin,

J . J. Davis, 165

On the limnetic Crustacea of Green Lake G. Dwight Marsh, 179
The use of parties in municipal government,

Ernest Bruncken , 225

The need of a medical faculty in connection with the State

University \ . . Arthur J. Puls, 236

IV

Table of Contents

PAGB

Transcendental space . . . Charles H. Chandler , 239

Experiments with available road-making materials of south¬
ern Wisconsin . . . Ellsworth Huntington , 249

Aluminium alcoholates . . Orin Edson Crooker , 255*

Codfish. Its place in American history James Davie Butler , 261
Plankton studies on lake Mendota. II. The Crustacea of
the Plankton from July, 1894, to December, 1896,

E. A. Birge, 274

Harmonic curves of three frequencies Charles S. Slichter , 449
The real singularities of harmonic curves of three frequen¬
cies . ' . . . Elting H. Comstock , 452

Earth movements . . . . C. R. Van Hise , 465'

MEMORIAL ADDRESSES.

James J. Blaisdell
George P. Delaplaine .
Simeon Mills
Newton Stone Puller .

Edward D. Eaton , 517
Jaynes D. Butler , 522.
James D. Butler , 524
Chas. H. Chandler , 526

THE WISCONSIN ACADEMY OF SCIENCES, ARTS, AND

LETTERS.

Officers ....... • 527

Standing Committees ....... 528

Past Presidents ........ 528

Honorary Members ....... 529

Life Members ........ 529

Active Members ........ 530

Corresponding Members ...... 541

Deceased Members ....... 544

Constitution ..... ... 545'

/

Table of Contents.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY.

Report of the Secretary —

Third summer meeting, 1895 .....
Twenty-sixth annual meeting, 1895 ....
Twenty-seventh annual meeting, 1896
Twenty-eighth annual meeting, 1897, preliminary
Report of the Librarian, 1895 ....

Report of the Treasurer, 1895-96-97

v

PAGE.

548

548

553

577

564

566

568

ERRATUM.

Page 176. Strike out the entire item, 563.

A HISTORY OF THE DANES IN AMERICA.

JOHN H. BILLE.

WITH A MAP — PLATE I.

Of all the nationalities that have come to this country in any
considerable number, the Danes are the ones of whom the least
is said or known. They have taken but little part in politics,
either national, state or local. Their religious organizations
and institutions have attracted no attention, and their settle¬
ments seem to have been wholly lost sight of, even by the prac¬
tical politician. It is this peculiar insignificance of the Danes
as a factor in the life of this country to which I especially wish
to call attention in the following paper. But as the national
characteristics, and the ideas and conditions existing in Den¬
mark, are largely responsible for the position of the Danes in
America, it is necessary for an understanding of the subject to
begin with a discussion of the Danes in Denmark.

The Danes of to-day, in Denmark, though the direct descendants
of the redoubtable vikings, possess but few of their stern, war¬
like characteristics. In fact, it is only through their fondness
for the stories recounting the deeds of the ancient gods and
heroes that the modern Danes show their mental kinship to the
viking.

Seven hundred years of peaceful occupation among the most
peaceful of natural surroundings, together with three hundred
years of serfdom under which the majority of the people were
reduced to the condition of mere beasts of burden, are the main
agencies which have made the Danish descendants of the viking
a peace-loving, easy-going, good-natured people, with a consid¬
erable lack of self-confidence and enterprise. The political events

2 Bille — A History of the Danes in America.

in Denmark during the present century illustrate most strik¬
ingly this non-aggressive spirit of the common people. They
have received all their social and political liberties from the
powers above them without violence and almost without agita¬
tion on their part ; and when those liberties have been encroached
upon they have made but little resistance. The serfdom of the
peasant was removed in 1788 through the benevolent efforts of
Count Bernsdorf, then an influential member of the king’s cabi¬
net. In the year 1819 the king, Frederick VII., voluntarily
relinquished his absolute power and gave his people a very lib¬
eral constitution ; but in the quarrel which has since arisen
between the present reactionary king Christian IX. and his min¬
istry on the one hand, and the representatives of the people on
the other, regarding the interpretation of this constitution, the
people have made concession after concession, till at present they
retain only a semblance of the political liberties given them
less than half a century ago.

Another marked peculiarity of the Danish character is a love
for the ideal, the emotional, and the romantic. This character¬
istic shows itself in the literature, in the everyday life of the
people, and in many of their social institutions. But it is most
strikingly exhibited in the remarkable influence exercised by
N. F. S. Grundtvig on the social, political, and religious life of
the people. And as his influence has extended to this country,
and is a prominent factor in the life of the Danes here, it is
necessary to discuss his life and work somewhat in detail.

N. F. S. Grundtvig was born in 1783. He was the son of a
minister and was himself educated for the church. He was pos¬
sessed of a many-sided character, and one full of apparent
inconsistencies ; but he was pre-eminently a poet and a
reformer, possessing the romantic temperament of the one and
the courage, enthusiasm, and persistence of the other.

The chief end and ambition of his life was to reform the Dan¬
ish church, which at the time he entered upon his ministry,
1810, was given over to rationalism of the French pattern, or
to dead meaningless formalism. He wished to bring back what
he called old-fashioned, living Christianity and pure Luther¬
anism. At first this was not much more than an implicit belief

The Danes in Denmark.

3

in the Bible, coupled with a pietistic philosophy of life. But
in the course of time his belief underwent some remarkable
changes. He dropped the idea of the Bible being an infallible
guide, asserting that a belief in the Apostles’ Creed and the
words of the Communion service, coupled with a good Christian
life, was all that was necessary for membership in the true
Christian church. But in his opinion the living of a Christian
life meant an active, sympathetic participation in all the affairs
of life. He wished to substitute feeling and activity for doc¬
trinal discussions and formalism, and individual judgment for
blind acceptance of a creed. Being intensely patriotic, his love
of country became thoroughly identified with his religion. It is
impossible, he said, to love G-od and not love one’s fatherland and
mother-tongue. He advanced the idea that each nation had a
special mission to perform in the world, and had been especially
appointed and trained by God to perform that mission. From
the traditions and history of the Banes, he inferred that to them
was given the mission of reuniting all the Christian churches,
to re-establish “peace on earth and good will toward men,’’ the
highest and most sacred mission of all. But in order to fulfill
their mission, they must be true to their language and traditions ;
and if they failed in this, God would punish them as he did the
Israelites of old when they strayed from the path he had marked
out for them.1

1 Grundtvig may be quoted on this subject so as to prove him to be either
a broad-minded, liberal patriot and statesman, or a religious enthusiast
who wishes to make the nation a mere tool in the hands of God, or a senti¬
mental, bigoted nation- worshipper. His speeches in the constitutional
assembly of 18-19 on the subjects of suffrage, freedom of religion, title and
rank, freedom of speech, police power of the state, provisions for the poor,
and compulsory education are instances of the first kind. (See H. Brun’s
Life of Grundtvig , Vol. 1, pp. 330-342.)

“ Heligtrekongers-Lyset,” written in 1813, when the allied troops threat¬
ened an attack on Denmark, shows him as the religious enthusiast. His
“TrOste-Brev til Danmark” written after the war of 1864, his speech
at the meeting of his friends in 1885, (see pp. 7-13 of proceedings of this
meeting), and also his sermon, “ Fredsfyrsten og Morderen,” show him the
bigot and sentimentalist. His friends have made the mistake of accepting
every word from him as a self-evident truth, while his enemies are making
the still greater mistake of looking at and criticising his weaker and senti-

4 Bille — A History of the Danes in America.

He himself was indefatigable in his efforts to arouse and
strengthen the patriotic sentiment of his countrymen. He
translated into plain modern Danish many of the old Scandina¬
vian myths, stories and ballads, and celebrated both in poetry
and prose the deeds and prowess of the old gods and heroes.
He addressed himself to the common people, especially to the
peasants, for he believed that the upper classes had been so in¬
fluenced and warped by foreign, especially German, culture and
ideas that they had almost lost their Danish character. It was
not, however, till 1848-’49 that he began to exert any decided
influence on the common people. The war carried on at that
time against the rebel duchies, Schleswig and Holstein, and the
granting of the constitution, thoroughly aroused the patriotic
spirit of the Danes. Grundtvig and his picturesque religion
with its poetry, myth, saga, and patriotism, which he still
claimed was old-fashioned Lutheranism, pure and simple, gained
many adherents. A spirit of religious enthusiasm was aroused.
Laymen began to preach and exhort, something hitherto un¬
heard-of. Home missionary societies were organized, and re¬
ligious meetings of the revival type were the order of the day.
But the most important feature of this agitation was the estab¬
lishment of so-called peasant high schools. From the very be¬
ginning of his career Grundtvig had been strongly opposed to
the schools of his day, with their “ learning by rote of dead and
useless facts. ” He advocated the establishment of schools, the
chief functions of which should be to inculcate religious and
patriotic sentiment and give instruction in the practical affairs
of life. He first tried to interest the government in his ideal.
Failing in this, his friends raised sufficient money to enable him
to carry out his plan independently, and in 1856 the first peasant
high school was established in Denmark proper. Since then the
number of these schools has steadily increased till at the pres¬
ent time they number about seventy, with an annual attendance
of between three and four thousand students. This means a

mental utterances, — things which he has said or written under great
emotional pressure. His work, “ Kirke-Spejl,” a series of church histori¬
cal lectures given in 1863, undoubtedly gives the fairest representation of
his views on the subject of nationality and religion.

The Danes in Denmark.

5

great deal in a country with an area only one-fourth that of the
state of Wisconsin, and a population of only two millions.1

These schools have all been built by private enterprise or
public subscription, and they are patronized almost exclusively
by the rural population. Religion, history, literature, and sing¬
ing are the main subjects of instruction, and the main aim is to
develop the patriotic and religious spirit in the direction indi¬
cated by Grundtvig. Their tendency is to lay too much stress
on the ideal and too little on the real, to cultivate the emotions
rather than intellect. Nevertheless the effect of these schools,
as indeed of the whole Grundtvigian agitation, has been to make
the common people more patriotic, more appreciative of the
higher sentiments, and less submissive to authority of any kind.
Pastoral authority has especially suffered. Indeed it has al¬
most entirely disappeared ; a fact which partly explains the very

1 The methods adopted by the high schools are based on the supposition
of an ideal instructor dealing with ideal pupils. Nearly all the instruction
is given in the form of lectures, or by personal talks with the pupils. This
is done on the theory that the living word of the teacher is much more im¬
pressive than the dead letter of any book. No qualifications for entering
are required; no set lessons are given, no definite amount of work is as¬
signed, and there are no class recitations. The schools recognize no such
things as examination, promotion or graduation. No other stimulus is re¬
lied upon than the personality of the teacher and the student’s love for the
work in hand. As^might be expected, this method is not conducive to any
very intense intellectual activity. In fact, there is such an apparent lack of
effort and concentration on the part of the students in these schools that an
American schoolmaster, even if he were a Herbartian, would be likely to
pronounce the wholeTprocedure a farce. The following is a sample of the
work as observed by the writer at the Rodkilde high school on the island
of Moen, 1892: A class of about fifty were comfortably seated in a large,
pleasant room, each one engaged in some work of knitting or crocheting.
They were rattling needles and silently passing judgments upon their work
and that of their neighbors; while the teacher was sitting at his desk, de¬
livering a lecture upon the geography of Denmark. In arithmetic these
same young ladies were all working at their seats on slates, each one from
some different part of the text book. If they succeeded in working the
problem in hand to their own satisfaction, they took hold of the next; if
unable to work it they went to the teachers, who were sitting at desks at
one end of the room. The teacher showed them how to solve the problem
and sent them to their. seats to work as .before.

6

Bills — A History of the Danes in America.

slight influence which the Danish ministers in this country have
on their countrymen. In fact, the whole beautiful religious
machinery devised by the state has been put out of gear by this
agitation ; and the established Lutheran church, or the church of
the people, as it is called, though it claims the allegiance of
more than ninety-nine per cent, of the Danes, after all is only
a name which three different factions are each trying to appro¬
priate to itself. These are the old-fashioned strict doctrinari¬
ans, the Grundtvigians, and the Inner Mission society. The
first of these three want things to go on in the old, formal way,
with religion confined within the church walls and consisting
mostly of a strict interpretation of dry theological points by
the regularly ordained minister. The G-rundtvigians and the
Inner Mission people agree in making religion a part of every¬
day life and every man’s concern. But the Grundtvigians are
thorough-going optimists. They call themselves the happy
Christians, take part in all the pleasures and activities of life
with the greatest zest, and concern themselves but little about
doctrinal points. The Inner Mission people are thorough-going
pietists; they call themselves the holy ones, and profess to
despise all worldly pleasures. They insist on absolute belief of
total depravity, and literal belief in the Bible.1 And in spite

1 The Inner Mission society was established in 1834. It was the out¬
growth of the Grundtvigian agitation, and the early leaders, who were all
laymen, were adherents of Grun'dtvig’s, but with pietistic tendencies. In
1861 Vilhelm Beck, a minister of the established church, was elected presi¬
dent of the society, which, at that time, had but little influence and no
regular working force. But under his leadership it has become the most
powerful agency in the country for stimulating and maintaining religious
interest. According to the report of the society for 1895 it owned eighty-
seven missicn-houses, insured at $101,500. Its income for the year was
$27,395, nearly all gifts. It employed ninety-six regular missionaries, and
counted as its supporters about two hundred of the ministers of the estab¬
lished church and a large number of the teachers of the public schools;
16,000 public religious meetings had been held during the year. It must
be remembered that all this is carried on aside from the regular work of
the established church, to which all the Inner Mission people profess to be¬
long. The missionaries are working somewhat according to old apostolic
methods. They are sent out t vo by two, and go from house to house ex¬
horting, preaching, and selling religious tracts. When a community has

The Danes in Denmark.

7

of the fact that the two factions have a common origin, they are
irreconcilably opposed to each other; and the antagonism between
them is becoming more marked every year, furnishing any
amount of material for quarrels within church circles, both in
Denmark and among the Danes in this country. Indeed, the
ideas held by the Grundtvigians and Inner Mission society have
had a decisive influence on the destiny of the Danes in America
as a separate nationality. No other questions, save those of an
industrial nature, can lay any such claim to the attention of the
Danish public as do these. Politically the Danes are all at sea.
There is no strong party with any definite policy, and the senti¬
ment in favor of larger political liberty has become dormant
among the common people through the long losing struggle they
have carried on against the government. The sentiment of
patriotism and national pride too is waning, except among the
Grundtvigians, and a feeling of national helplessness is becoming
dominant. “We are a small people, capable only of small
things ” has come to be almost a national motto.* 1

To summarize: The Danes of to-day are a good-natured, easy¬
going people, somewhat lacking in self-confidence and enterprise,
and possessing no strong national ambition and no national insti¬
tution which can lay claim to their undivided homage; this leaves
them without any strong bond of union when removed from the
mother country. Though as a nation they have a fair propor¬
tion of hard-fisted, matter-of-fact individuals, they are never¬
theless largely influenced by sentiment and ideals.

In dealing with the emigrant, however, a new factor enters
in, for emigration is a sifting process, and the emigrant differs
in many respects from the people of his class who remain at
home, and he therefore cannot be judged by the general national
characteristics. He is more enterprising, more of a matter-of-

been thoroughly canvassed by the missionaries, public meetings are held
at which some of the abler speakers are present. Then Sunday schools for
children are organized, or religious clubs for the older people, through which
the agitation is continued. The effect aimed at is identical with that of
revivalists in this country, though the success attained in Denmark is more
lasting.

1 The disastrous war of 1864 with the Prussians and Austrians has done
much to depress the national spirit.

8

Bille — A History of the Danes in America.

fact man. At any rate his love of personal advantage is liable
to be greater than his love of country, home and friends, for he
is willing to part with them to better his fortune. He does
not as a rule leave his native land because he suffers actual want
there, but most usually because he feels unable to maintain
what he considers a proper standard of life; and it is only in
cases where emigration is prompted by religious or political
persecution that he is liable to be a man of as much patriotic
sentiment as those who stay at home. 1 The record of the Danes
in America furnishes a most striking illustration of this theory;
indeed it is impossible to otherwise explain their peculiar indif¬
ference toward all that might connect them with the land of their
birth.

THE DANES IN AMERICA.

The emigration from Denmark has been more recent and the
number of emigrants smaller than from the other Scandinavian
countries.2 * * * * * 8

Norwegians.

Swedes.

Danes.

1860 .

43,995

18,625

9,962

1870 .

114,243

97,332

30,098

1880 .

181,724

194,337

64,196

1890 . .

322,665

478,041

132,513

The fact that emigration from Denmark began so late and
never assumed any considerable proportions would naturally

1 An extended inquiry among my own countrymen who have emigrated,

and among those in the same circumstances in Denmark, bears out this

theory. In answer to my question to the former, “ Why did you emigrate? ”

the invariable answer was, “ I did not want to be a common laborer in my

own country,” or “ I did not care to live such a life of drudgery and pov¬
erty as my parents lived; I can’t do worse in America, and I may do bet¬

ter; ” while my question to the latter, “ Why do you not emigrate? ” was

answered as follows: “ I can’t bear the thought of leaving home with the
chance of never coming back again,” “ I can’t get any pleasure out of life
in any other place,” or “I would like to go, but when I think of all the
dangers and troubles of it I feel I might as well stay at home, and take
what little comfort I can get out of life here.”

8 The cause of the smaller emigration from Denmark than from Norway
and Sweden is undoubtedly due mainly to the better economic conditions

Formation of Settlements .

9-

tend to make the social and religious organizations of the Danes
smaller and weaker than those of the Norwegians and Swedes.
But this fact does not account for the difference existing, es¬
pecially between the Danes and Norwegians, in the matter of
forming settlements, supporting churches and schools, and gen¬
eral social and political co-operation, — a difference so striking
that it must of necessity unsettle the present belief in the simi¬
larity of character of these nationalities.

The Norwegians, according to their number, show a stronger
tendency to concentrate in large settlements on account of
preference for their own countrymen, than any other European
nationality, while the Danes go almost to the other extreme in
this matter. The table below is an attempt at showing in figures
the correctness of this statement. In the second column the'
highest percentage in any one state is given, because state
lines, though not always physical barriers, nevertheless act as
a check to close co-operation, especially in a political way. Be¬
sides, in the minds of the people in Europe, the state stands for a.
compact piece of territory of a limited extent, and with this notion
is naturally associated the idea of easy and close communication
among those living within the state. For these reasons, the im¬
migrants who concentrate largely in one state show thereby a.
desire for remaining in touch with their own nationality.

The numbers in the third column, indicating the percentage'
in settlements of more than five hundred, are obtained by add¬
ing the numbers of persons of a given nationality in counties'
where five hundred or more of this nationality are found, and

existing in the former country. In fact, want is a thing almost wholly un¬
known in Denmark. The condition of the common people has been im¬
proving rapidly and almost constantly during the present century. At ther
beginning of the century the land was nearly all in the hands of the nobil¬
ity, while at present only one-seventh of it is in their possession, the rest,
of it being in the hands of the peasants, who constitute the bulk of the
population. (H. Weitemeyer, Denmark , p. 100.) Besides this, the im¬
proved methods of cultivation have increased the productive power of the.
country nearly ten-fold. No such decided change in property-holding or
in producing power has taken place in Norway or Sweden, while the popu¬
lation has been increasing as rapidly in these countries as in Denmark „

10 Bille — A History of the Danes in America .

finding what per cent, this sum is of the whole number of per¬
sons of that nationality in the United States. The number five
hundred is taken, because in counties containing a lesser number
of persons of a given nationality, as a rule, no settlement will be
found sufficiently large to maintain in a vigorous condition the
social and religious life of the mother country, hence a nation
with a large percentage in this column shows proof of a desire
to concentrate on a basis of nationality.

The percentages in column four for contiguous territory are
based on the fact that where more than five hundred of a given
nationality are found in adjoining counties they form in many
respects one settlement, because they are able to co-operate
in the maintaining of churches and schools, and other rela¬
tions of a social nature which they can only have with their
own countrymen. Therefore a high percentage in this column
also shows a desire for concentration on the basis of nationality.

The percentages in column five for cities of more than twenty-
five thousand inhabitants are given, because a nationality largely
represented in these cities may have a high percentage in col¬
umn three on account of a liking for city life, rather than from
any special desire to form settlements for the sake of living
with their own people. It is the rural settlement which shows
the national preference most strongly; for the formation of
large settlements of this kind in a country as extensive as the
United States necessitates a strong motive for so doing, and a
definite plan. Therefore a nationality with a low percentage in
column five, and high percentages in columns two, three and four,
shows the strongest tendency to form settlements for the sake
of associating with fellow-countrymen. But the emigrants of
a nationality which fails in forming rural settlements to any
extent, and does not concentrate largely in cities, show the least
desire for association with their own people because they do not
find such association by accident, as is the case with those
nationalities which prefer city life, nor by preconcerted plan, as
do those who form large rural settlements. From the table, the
Norwegians are thus seen to lead in the matter of forming settle¬
ments, while only the French can be said to be in any way less
forward in this regard than are the Danes; and these two peo-

Formation of Settlements.

11

pies, therefore, show the lowest concentrating tendency of all
the European emigrants to this country.

I.

Total in
United
States.

II.

Highest
percentage
in one state.

III.

Percentage
in settle¬
ments con¬
taining more
than 500.

IV.

Percentage
in contigu¬
ous territory.

V.

Percentage
in cities of
more than
25,000.

Norway . .

322,665

31

80

56.6

20.78

Sweden . .

478,041

20.9

79.6

22.2

31.24

Holland . .

81,828

36.07

72.6

31.3

33.54

Poland . .

147,440

19.7

72.2

10.3

57.11

Bohemia .

118,106

22.5

85.4

21.4

48.32

Denmark .

132,543

10.3

47

8.1

23.24

Belgium. .

22,639

20.1

34.7

16.5

22.30

France . .

113,174

18

14.3

14.3

45.69

Wales . . .

100,079

52

25.4

25.80

Scotland .

242,231

56.8

12

41.25

I have omitted the English, Irish, Austrians, Hungarians and
Italians because these nationalities have settled in such large
numbers in the eastern cities, especially in New York, a fact
which would run up their percentage in columns three and four
enormously, while it by no means is an indication of the desire
or ability of these nationalities to form settlements.

The Hermans and Swiss I have omitted because both of these
nationalities are made up of elements differing more from each
other in language, religion, and race characteristics than do the
people of the Scandinavian countries. So if the former should
be classed as one nationality then the Scandinavians should also
be classed together as one nationality, as has so often been done
in national and state census.

The contiguous territory from which the figures in column four
are obtained is: — for the Norwegians, the western tier of coun¬
ties in Wisconsin, with extensions eastward in the north and south ;
the eastern, southern and western tiers of counties in Minnesota;
the northern tier of counties in Iowa; and the eastern in North
and South Dakota. It may be said that roughly the eastern,
southern and western boundary lines of Minnesota form the
center of this settlement. The Swedish settlement extends
through the northern peninsula of Michigan, along the northern

12 Bille — A History of the Danes in America.

tiers of counties in Wisconsin, and directly across the state of
Minnesota at about the latitude of St. Paul. This settlement is
not nearly as compact as the Norwegian.

The Hollanders have established their largest settlement in
the southwestern part of the southern peninsula of Michigan.
The Polanders and Bohemians have their largest settlements in
the city of Chicago. The Belgian settlement is located about
Green Bay, Wisconsin. France and Scotland have their settle¬
ments in and about the city of New York. The Welsh settle¬
ment includes the following counties in Pennsylvania: Carbon,
Lackawanna, Luzerne, Northampton, and Schuylkill.

This tendency of the Norwegians to concentrate, and of the Danes
to scatter, is not of recent origin; for ever since the Norwegians
have commenced to emigrate in any considerable numbers they
have been as closely or even more closely concentrated than they
are at present ; while the Danes have been more widely scattered
than they are now, as will be seen from the following tables:

Norwegians Greatest number in four states.

1850.

1860.

1870.

1880.

1890.

Total in United States

12,778

43,995

114,243

181,729

322,665

Illinois ....

2,500

4,891

11,880

16,970

30,339

Wisconsin1 2 .

8,000

21,442

40,046

49,349

65,666

Minnesota

8,425

35,940

62,521

101,199

Iowa .

. . .

5,688

17,554

21,586

27,078

Danes. — Greatest number in four states.

1860.

1870.

1880.

1890.

Total in U. S.
New York .
Wisconsin .
Utah .

California .

9,962

1,196

1,150

1,824

1,328

Illinois . .

Wisconsin .
Iowa . . .

Utah . . .

30,098

3,711

5,212

2,827

4,957

Illinois . .

Wisconsin.
Iowa .
Utah . .

64, 196
6,029
8,797
6,901
6,071

132,543

12,044

13,885

15,519

14,133

1 As the Norwegians were not given separately by counties in U. S. cen¬
sus before 1890, it is impossible to obtain any definite statistics on this point
until 1890.

2 O. M. Nelson, History of Scandinavians in America , p. 134.

Formation of Settlements.

13

From the above tables it will be seen that the Norwegians
concentrated from the beginning in the four adjacent states,
Illinois, Wisconsin, Minnesota and Iowa; while the Danes were
scattered across the whole width of the continent. From the
parochial reports of the Norwegian church in America it appears
that their settlements were about as large and compact in the
fifties and early sixties as they are now; while as late as 1870
there were only five cities and six counties in the United
States in which five hundred or more Danes could be found.
These were : New York ; Chicago and Rock Island, Illinois ; Racine
and Waupaca, Wisconsin; and Winnebago county, Wisconsin;
Douglas county, Nebraska; and four counties in Utah where they
had been massed by the Mormon church.

From this it is plain that the present concentration of the
Norwegians is not due to accident, nor to the fact that they
have been longer in this country than the Danes ; nor is it
because the conditions in the four states, Illinois, Wiscon¬
sin, Minnesota and Iowa, are more congenial to the Norwe¬
gians than to the Danes. The opposite might seem to be the
the case, for the climate, productions, and occupations in these
states are more like those existing in Denmark than in Norway.

There can be only one possible explanation of this difference be¬
tween the Danes and Norwegians, — that the Danes who emigrate
have less love of their native land and its institutions, less na¬
tional pride, than the Norwegians, and therefore less desire to
concentrate.

That such is the case is shown not only in the settlements of
the two nationalities, but also in the manner each has supported
the church of the mother country.

The first Norwegian church society in America was organized
about 1850, when there were only a little more than 12,000 Nor¬
wegians in this country; and before this time several local con¬
gregations had been organized with their own ministers and
churches.

The first Danish church society was organized in 1872, when
there were more than 30,000 Danes in the United States; and be¬
fore this time there was not a single purely Danish congrega¬
tion with a Danish minister. It is true that some of the Danes

14 Bille — A History of the Danes in America.

had at this time associated themselves with Norwegian and
Swedish churches; but though no statistics can be had on this
point, it is quite safe to say that not more than five per cent,
of the Danes in this country were in this way associated with
the Lutheran church.

The following table of percentages of the Norwegians and
Danes in America who belonged to the church of the mother
country, 1860-90, shows more clearly still the difference exist¬
ing between them on this point:

Norwegians.

Danes.

1860 .

30.2

1870 .

34.1

• • •

1880 .

53.2

6.8

1890 .

58.9

10.1

In connection with this it must be borne in mind that there
have always been some Danes within the Norwegian church; but
if these should all return to the Danish church it would not de¬
crease the Norwegian by more than two per cent., nor increase
the Danish by more than five per cent.

That the Danish church society should be small would naturally
be expected from the fact that the settlements were insignificant
and much scattered ; but this certainly can not be assigned as
a reason for the indifference which the people actually within
the church have shown towards it and the institutions it has fos¬
tered. On this point the difference between the Norwegians and
Danes is as striking as that shown by the percentages of settle¬
ments and church members.

The Norwegian ministers, especially in the beginning, had al¬
most autocratic control over their congregations ; while the Dan¬
ish ministers, with very few exceptions, had to submit meekly to
whatever terms their congregations saw fit to impose upon them.
The only power they possessed was the power of advice, and
they had to use that with considerable discretion in order to keep
their positions.1

1 But few of them have kept their positions for any length of time. The
majority do not average more than five years in a place, and they usually
leave because of some misunderstanding with their congregations.

Churches and Schools.

15

When the Norwegian ministers have gotten into a theological
dispute, of which they have had many, their parishioners have
invariably taken up the quarrel ; and that they were in earnest
about it is shown from the fact that they were, as a rule, willing
to split up their congregations and go to the expense of building
a separate church and of employing a separate minister. But
among the Danes there is only one case on record of this kind,
and in that case one of the factions was under the leadership of
a Norwegian minister.1

The Norwegians have as a rule had more than twice as many
parochial school teachers as they have had ministers and in the
majority of their congregations parochial school has been held
during some part of the year. In this line the Danes have done
practically nothing.

But it is in the matter of contributions for educational pur¬
poses that the difference between the Norwegians and Danes is
apparent. During the five years, 1860-65, the Norwegians
contributed for the erection of the Decorah college as much
as three dollars per communicant. Several times since then they
have equaled or exceeded this contribution ; and at present there
are in connection with the Norwegian church sixteen colleges
and academies, one of which, that at Decorah, Iowa, ranks with
an y of the American colleges in the West for the thoroughness
of its course and the scholarship of its graduates. In 1892, these
schools were attended by 2,160 students, nearly all of Norwegian
parentage; and in all the schools great stress was laid on the
teaching of the English language and other English branches.

1 This congregation is located in Montcalm county, Michigan. It might
be argued that the Danish congregations do not split up because they are
too small to maintain two separate churches. This is undoubtedly true in
some cases, but the Montcalm congregation separated during the ’70’s, when
it was no larger in its entirety than some of the factions created by
the split of 1893 between the Grundtvigians and Inner Mission people.

During the summer of 1894 while visiting the Danish settlements in Polk
county, Wisconsin, and Montcalm county, Michigan, I took special pains to
find out the sentiment of the laymen on this quarrel, and the majority ex¬
pressed themselves in favor of peace. In fact, none of them were clear as to
what the quarrel was about. Several times my inquiries were answered in
this manner: “ We are ashamed of our ministers for quarreling, as they
ought to know better.”

16 Bille — A History of the Danes in America.

During no consecutive five years up to 1894 had the Danes
succeeded in raising as much as fifty cents per communicant for
educational purposes; and the educational results attained by
them are even more insignificant than the contributions.1

There can be no doubt that this lukewarmness among the
members of the Danish church in America is in a large measure
due to the factional quarrels in the church in Denmark. The
immigrants in this country who are of a religious turn of mind
still find it difficult to agree on any settled church policy, be¬
cause they belong to different factions; and besides this, they have
all been thoroughly weaned from any reverence for pastoral
authority by the agitation carried on by the Grundtvigians and
Inner Mission people in Denmark. Each man considers himself
an authority on doctrine and church policy, and gives but little
heed to the opinions and wishes of the minister, unless these
coincide with his own. But in order to get a fair appreciation
of the causes and effects of this failure of the Danish church in
America it is necessary to give a somewhat detailed history of
this institution. Indeed, the history of the Danes in this country,
as a distinct nationality, is most intimately associated with the
history of the church; for, in spite of its weakness and its fail¬
ure to gain the support of the Danes, its policy has had a very
decided influence on the social, religious, and educational con¬
ditions of the Danish settlements.

THE DANISH CHURCH IN AMERICA.

The first step toward the formation of a Danish church in
America was taken by the organization of a society in Den¬
mark, 1869, for the purpose of doing missionary work among
the Danes in America. This society was composed almost en¬
tirely of Grundtvigians. Its work consisted mainly in select¬
ing and training ministers for Danish congregations in America,
and in acting as an advisory council to such ministers and con¬
gregations.

In October, 1872, three representatives of this society, A.
Dan, N. Thomsen, R. Andersen, together with several Danish

1 This subject will be treated more in detail under the head of the educa¬
tional efforts of the Danish church in America.

Organization of Churches .

17

laymen, met in Neenah, Wisconsin, and organized the Danish
Mission Society, the name of which was later changed to the
Danish Lutheran Church in America. This society adopted a
confession of faith of a decided Grundtvigian trend, but de¬
clared its intention to work in the manner of the Inner Mission
society in Denmark, and to remain in close connection with the
mother church.

Arrangements were made for the publication of a paper,
Kirkelig Samler , “ for Christian and popular education and

edification.” Much stress was laid on the fact that the society
did not intend in any way to oppose other Lutheran church
organizations. In spite of this, trouble arose immediately be¬
tween the Danish Mission society and the Norwegian church
societies previously established. The trouble was due mainly to
a competition between the two factions, for the Danish church
members. It was but natural that the Danish society should
desire to get all the Danes within its fold, and it was just as
natural that the Norwegians should be anxious to keep all the
members they already had. But the point at issue was the
Grundtvigian doctrine, which the Norwegian societies had pre¬
viously declared rank heresy. The struggle was a long and bit¬
ter one, with the usual and mutual accusations of heresy, lying
and treachery. The outcome of it all was that the Danes suc¬
ceeded in getting the larger number of the Danish congregations
already established. But many of these had become much
divided in sentiment during the struggle, and there were but
few places where the Danish ministers received unqualified sup¬
port. The Norwegian ministers had succeeded in arousing a sus¬
picion among the Danish laity that the Grundtvigian doctrine
was unsound and dangerous, a suspicion which was one of the
causes that later brought about the split of the Danish church
into the two factions, the Grundtvigian and the Inner Mission.

In spite of this quarrel the Danish church seemed to prosper
in the beginning. Already in 1873 it counted 1,020 paying
members, 1,6 00 communicants and five ministers. In 1877 it
had 1,934 paying members, 3,533 communicants and 17 minis¬
ters. But the situation was not as favorable as these figures,
seem to indicate, for this rapid growth was largely due to the;

2

18 Bille — A History of the Danes in America.

acquisition of congregations previously in charge of Norwegian
ministers. And in most congregations there was an active mi¬
nority opposed to the new order of things; while even among
the ministers themselves considerable difference of opinion ex¬
isted on the points of doctrine, and church policy. The Grundt-
vigians, however, were decidedly in the majority, and wholly
determined the church policy, which was directed chiefly towards
the maintenance of Danish language and sentiment, and the pecu¬
liar religious ideas of Grundtvig. The first step in this direc¬
tion was to make the church in America a part of the Danish
national church. At the annual church meeting of 1873 the fol¬
lowing resolution was unanimously adopted: “We, the Danish
ministers and congregations, hereby declare ourselves to be a
branch of the Danish National Church, a missionary department
established by that church in America. ” That this union was
also considered seriously in Denmark, is shown from the fact
that two graduates from the theological department of the Uni¬
versity of Copenhagen, I. A. Heiberg and H. Rosenstand, on re¬
ceiving calls from congregations in this country, wrere ordained
by one of the bishops of the Danish church, and appointed by
the king as regular ministers in that church.1 There were, how¬
ever, but few men qualified for holding the ministerial office in
the church in Denmark, who could be persuaded to go to Amer¬
ica ; the small salary, the uncertainty of tenure of office, and the
minister’s lack of social prestige, all acted as checks in this
direction. In order to supply ministers for this new field, a de¬
partment was established at the Askov High School, a school of
the Grundtvigian type, located in the south part of Jutland, for
the preparation of ministers to American congregations. It was
thought a great advantage to have the ministers trained in Den¬
mark, as they would then be in the closest possible touch with
the mother church and all that was Danish, and thus be better
prepared to preach the doctrines of that church, and re-enforce

1 This union was further recognized by the Danish government, by an
annual appropriation of $840, made for the first time in 1884, for the train¬
ing of ministers for the American branch of the Danish church. This
money was at first expended in Denmark, but since 1887 it has been sent to
this country, and expended here in aid of poor theological students.

Organization of Churches.

19

the waning Danish spirit in America. Nearly all of these men
had the merest rudiments of an education when beginning their
work at Askov,most of them being farmers, mechanics, and com¬
mon laborers, of a pious bent of mind. The course usually ex¬
tended over but two years, and was limited almost wholly to
theological studies. As might be expected, the men thus trained,
on arriving in America were almost wholly ignorant of the
language and conditions here, in fact, ignorant of nearly
everything excepting a few theological arguments and church
ceremonies. Even to-day not half a dozen of the sixty or more
ministers of this church can converse fluently in English, to say
nothing about preaching a sermon in that language. As a rule,
they know nothing and care nothing about the social and polit¬
ical conditions here. As far as matters of this world are con¬
cerned, they are in truth blind leaders of the blind, or rather of
the half-seeing, for many of their parishioners are much better
posted on what goes on around them than are the ministers.
Their methods of carrying on the business of the church are proof
positive of their entire lack of all training and sense for practi¬
cal affairs of life. They labored from 1878 till 1894, on a church
constitution, without producing anything but dissension among
themselves. In the matter of incorporation they succeeded no
better, for though they worked nearly fifteen years on this
problem the society was never properly incorporated, and none
of them seemed to know how to proceed in the matter, or why
they failed. Yet they ail seemed anxious to comply with the
law. Their parochial reports are very defective, and during
some years were entirely omitted. In these reports no atten¬
tion is paid to the educational work, nor is any regular account
given of receipts and expenditures of money.1 In annual meet¬
ings they seldom had any order either in business or debate.
They would often discuss a subject for hours, and drop it with¬
out voting upon it. Four or five speakers might follow each

3 No complete and comprehensive report of the receipts and expenditures
of the churches has ever been published. In this the Danish differ
greatly from the Norwegian churches, which, with exception of the Hau-
gians, have always published very elaborate statistics of all the activities
of the church each year.

20 Bille — A History of the Danes in America.

other, each one talking on a different subject, and paying no
attention to the remarks of the previous speaker. It was sel¬
dom that any definite plan was adopted for doing the business
of the society, and when a plan or regulation was finally adopted
it was seldom followed out in action. There is even a case on
record where it was voted, seventeen to six, to discontinue a
certain discussion. The discussion was still carried on for an
hour or more, without any break other than was necessary to
take the vote to discontinue.1 In spite of all this chaos a num¬
ber of projects, besides the union with the mother church, have
been set on foot for carrying out the G-rundtvigian pet idea of
creating a little Denmark in the United States. The most im¬
portant of these are: (1) The establishment of Grundtvigian
high schools and parochial schools. (2) The planting of col¬
onies. (3) The organization of a society for the maintenance of
Danish sentiment and language.

THE HIGH SCHOOL.

This subject comes to the front for the first time at the
annual meeting at Chicago, 1876. Though no definite action
was taken in the matter, the discussion brought out very de¬
cided differences of opinion in regard to what ought to be done.
Both sides were agreed that something ought to be done by the
church to educate the young, and that the main object should
be to make good Lutherans ; but the G-rundtvigians maintained
that this could be done, as far as the Danes were concerned, only
through the Danish language and by appealing to the Danish
sentiment and memories, — while the opposition insisted that
the old ballads played no part in the scheme of salvation, and
that as a matter of fact the children born in this country had
no Danish memories and sentiments ; 2 but this latter was the
opinion of only two men, N. Thomsen and Lilleso, and had at
the time no influence in deciding the course to be pursued.
After considerable more discussion and delay it was finally de¬
cided, at the annual meeting of 1878, this time without opposi¬
tion, to establish a Grundtvigian high school. It was supposed

1 Kir kelig Samler, 1884, p. 497.

2 Id., 1876, p. 296.

Danish High Schools.

21

that the necessary money could be raised by gifts, principally
from the Danes in America, and each minister present at the
meeting undertook the task of soliciting money from his congre¬
gation for the purpose. The Danish settlement at Elk Horn,
Shelby county, Iowa, was chosen as the place of location ; and
Olav Kirkeberg, a Norwegian, but one of the ministers of the
Danish church and a staunch G-rundtvigian, undertook the task
of building and conducting the school. No better man could be
found for the purpose, for Kirkeberg had the courage of his con¬
victions and unlimited faith in the success of his undertaking.
These, in fact, according to his own statements, were nearly the
only resources at his command when he began putting up the
building which he estimated would cost two thousand dollars.
On June 8, 1878, he wrote: “I have bought stones, for the
foundation of the school; that took all the cash I had. In a
couple of weeks the carpenters are coming; then I shall need
five hundred dollars for lumber, while I am not sure of more
than two hundred. Though the outlook is not very encouraging,
I feel hopeful in the matter; because I am convinced this work
will be a benefit to man and an honor to God, and therefore it
must prosper. ” 1 Though continually embarrassed financially he
still had the building completed by November, 1878, the time
originally set for opening the school. The work as previously
announced consisted of studies in general history, with special
reference to the three Scandinavian countries; a review in
Scandinavian mythology; lectures on the most important epochs
in the history of the Christian church; history of literature,
with the readings from the works of the best Scandinavian
authors; studies in the mother tongue (Danish), including com¬
position ; English, including reading, practice in letter- writing,
and business forms; science, including physiology, physics, and
chemistry; geography; singing; and United States history.2
All the instruction, excepting lectures on United States history
and geography and the study of the English language, was con¬
ducted in Danish. The whole programme was to be carried
out in the course of five months, with students coming directly

' Kirkelig Samler, 1878, p. 237.
*Ibid., 1878, p. 320.

22 Bille — A History of the Danes in America .

from the farm and the workshop, having had little previous in¬
tellectual training. This latter fact, however, would not neces¬
sarily interfere much with the progress of the work, for most of
the instruction was given in the form of lectures, requiring but
little response or individual effort on the part of the student.
It was a sort of five months University Extension course minus
the University professors.

The faculty consisted of three men, Olav Kirkeberg, Christian
Ostergaard, and Mr. Crouse. Kirkeberg and Ostergaard had
received the greater part of their education at Grundtvigian
schools in Denmark, the latter coming directly from Denmark
to his work at Elk Horn. Mr. Crouse was an American with
some knowledge of law, and was engaged at a regular salary of
thirty-five dollars a month. His work consisted in lecturing on
United States history and constitution, and giving instruction
in English composition, reading, and business forms.

That everything was done to foster the Danish ideas and
sentiments, and little attention was paid to the language and
history of this country, is plainly shown in Kirkeberg’s report
of the first year’s work. He says: “ We found that some of
our students had come mainly for the purpose of acquiring a
knowledge of the English branches, but most of them failed to
get the full benefit of Mr. Crouse’s instruction because of their
lack of knowledge of the English language. Besides, it was as
though the mother-tongue, and the subjects taught therein, won
the hearts more and more, and the preference which some at
first gave to the English branches gradually disappeared. That
young men can thus be touched by things considered most es¬
sential by the high schools both in Denmark and Norway, indi¬
cates that the cause for which we are working in this country
will prosper.”1 On this point, however, he was mistaken, for
his enthusiasm and that of his fellow Grundtvigians was not
shared by the rest of the Danes in America, and no effort on
their part could arouse such enthusiasm. Neither money nor
pupils were forthcoming for the support of the school. By Jan¬
uary 1, 1879, only eleven hundred four dollars2 had been col-

1Kir/celig Samler, 1879, p. 217.

'Ibid., 1879, p. 60.

Danish High Schools.

23

lected for the building and support of the high school. The
school was at that time under a debt of seven hundred fifty
dollars, and had reached the limit of its credit, and was still
far from being well equipped. When the school opened Novem¬
ber 1, 1878, only nine of the sixteen students expected were on
hand, and the total attendance during the five months’ course was
only nineteen. The money received in board and tuition, four¬
teen dollars per month for each student, scarcely sufficed to pay
running expenses, to say nothing about the salaries of Kirkeberg
and Ostergaard.

During the next year the contribution ceased altogether; the
debt increased to a thousand dollars; while there was no increase
in attendance. In 1880, Kirkeberg, after having expended a
good deal of money on the school, reached the limit of his credit
and that of the school, and was obliged to abandon the enterprise,
broken in health, but still hoping and praying for its success,
which he considered of the utmost importance to the welfare of
the Danes in this country. The school now became the sole
property of the Danish church society, and managed to struggle
on with several changes of administration and ownership, as a
Grundtvigian high school, till 1890. During all this time the
attendance had not averaged forty students a year. It had never
received any regular money support from the church, and on the
whole its existence had been a most precarious one. Strangely
enough, the failure of this school, situated as it is in the midst
of the largest Danish settlement in the United States, did not
deter the G-rundtvigians from establishing similar schools in
places much less favorable. In the course of the next ten years
four more such schools were established, one in Ashland,
Michigan, 1883; one in Polk county, Wisconsin; one in Nysted,
Nebraska; and one in Lincoln county, Minnesota, 1888.

The school in Polk county failed immediately for lack of sup¬
port; while the others have always been considerably embarrassed
financially, and the attendance at any one of them has not
averaged thirty pupils a year. The total contribution by Danish
laymen in America towards the building and maintenance of
these schools up to 1894, aside from actual tuition, paid during
the whole time does not amount to $10,000. Considering that

24 Bille — A History of the Banes in America.

at the time of the establishment of the Elk Horn high school
there were at least sixty thousand Danes in America, and that in
1890 there were a hundred thirty-two thousand, the support
which they have given the high schools is exceedingly small.
The influence which the high schools have exerted on the Danes in
America is still smaller. It is safe to say that not one of a
thousand of the persons in the United States of Danish parentage,
has attended one of these schools; and that the average time of
attendance has not been more than four months. This being the
case, the influence exerted by these schools on those who have at¬
tended, as well as on those who have not attended, must be al¬
most infinitesimal. Moreover, there is no prospect that this in¬
fluence will increase in the future, because they are not the kind
of schools favored by the Danes here, and all the efforts of the
Grundtvigian ministers can not make them so. The case of the
Elk Horn school seems to prove this most conclusively. Since
1890, when it was reorganized so as to give prominence to the
English branches, the attendance has more than tripled. In
1893-94, it had an enrollment of one hundred seventy-eight,1
while all the other schools run on the Grundtvigian plan had no
increase whatever, their total enrollment for the year amount¬
ing to only seventy-six; this, in spite of the fact that the
Grundtvigian ministers, who were still largely in the majority,
strongly opposed the Elk Horn school and favored the others.

THE PAROCHIAL SCHOOL.

To keep the children within the fold of the Danish Lutheran
Church was the desire common to all the Danish ministers. But
here, as in the case of the high schools, the Grundtvigian idea
that this could be done only by maintaining the Danish spirit,
language and tradition was still the dominant one. Indeed it
was commonly asserted by them that it was next to impossible for
a Dane to be a good Christian and renounce either his language
or his allegiance to his mother country. They found it difficult,
however, to convince their parishioners of the necessity and
utility of their scheme of education, which consisted in an attempt
to supplant the common school with a Danish parochial school,

1 Catalogue of Elk Horn College for 1893-94.

Danish Parochial Schools.

25

in which the Danish language, history and traditions should be
taught in connection with Lutheran doctrines, as interpreted
by Grundtvig, while the English branches were to be relegated
to the position of incidental studies. The common arguments
used in favor of this plan were, that since the public school did
not give religious instruction, it omitted one of the most essen¬
tial objects of education; besides, in the public school most of
the teachers were either “infidels” or “sectarians” who were
prone to poison the children’s mental food with doubts and
false doctrine. Furthermore, the discipline and the whole
moral atmosphere of the public school destroyed the innocence
and sweetness of childhood, and the reverence for parental au¬
thority. Several plans for obtaining men and means for these
schools were brought forward. One of the earliest and most
feasible of all was to make the high school something of a
teachers’ seminary, and then organize a society whose aim should
be to agitate the question among the people and raise the
necessary funds. This plan failed, .partly because few students
stayed at the high school long enough to qualify themselves for
the work of teaching, but mostly because the people in general
refused to give it any substantial support. The society which
was to prepare the way lived only one year, 1879-80, having
accomplished nothing beyond the collecting of about one hundred
and fifty dollars. When disbanded, it was admitted by its
founders to be a failure. Another plan proposed was to get
control of the public school in districts where Danes were in the
majority, engage a Danish teacher qualified to teach both public
and parochial schools, and give him a good salary for teaching
the public school, so he could afford to teach the parochial school
at a small salary, during the vacation of the former, which was
to be as long as the law would allow. This plan, like the first
one, came to nothing. No Danes could be found qualified to do
the work required; and the high schools, which might have
done something along this line, neglected to adapt themselves
to the work. Besides this, there were but few districts in
which the Danes were in the majority, and in these districts
they were usually unable to agree on any scheme of education.
In fact, nothing whatever of a practical nature has been done

26 Bille — A History of the Danes in America.

along the line of parochial schools ; and the results attained by
these schools are correspondingly insignificant. Though there
are no definite statistics on this point, it is safe to say that not
more than six parochial schools established by this church can
lay any claim to permanency, and that less than one thousand
Danish children in this country have attended these schools long
enough to become biased along the line of G-rundtvigian thought.

This failure of the high schools and parochial schools is
probably in part due to a lack of system and of agreement
among the ministers ; but its main cause is found in the almost
total indifference of the Danes, at large, toward these schools.
Had there been on an average three thousand Danes in hearty
sympathy with the cause, they would and could have given a
more substantial support both in money and men than has been
given. This indifference is not due to any lack of agitation on
the subject. The G-rundtvigian ministers have had a fair oppor¬
tunity to reach a large number of their countrymen. They
have been located for years in the most populous Danish
settlements; they have had the majority in every church con¬
ference; and have held almost uninterrupted control of the
organ of the church, Kirkelig Samler , besides receiving the
unqualified support of the Danish society for American mis¬
sions and o: the secular Danish- American newspaper, Dannevirke.
There have never been lacking enthusiasts among them who
have used every means at their command to propagate their
particular views; while the opposition, within the church at
least, did not become active before 1887, and then only as a
small minority.

THE COLONIZATION SCHEME.

This scheme was adopted for the purpose of gathering the
Danes into a few large settlements, which was thought to be one
of the most effective means of strengthening the church and
maintaining the Danish language and sentiment. The first
settlement was established in Lincoln county, Minnesota. Here
the church secured an option on 35,000 acres of land from a
land company. The company agreed to sell this land to Danes
only during the first three years. The first year the land was

The Colonization Scheme.

27

to be sold at an average price of seven dollars per acre, and no
greater advance than fifty cents per acre should be made during
each of the following years. Besides this the company promised
to donate 320 acres for the support of churches and high
schools when one hundred actual settlers had been secured.
For these privileges the church promised to use its influence in
securing settlers. This settlement, in spite of considerable
bickering and quarreling between the land agent, the church
and the settlers, was fairly successful. The one hundred settlers
were secured within a year, and at present the settlement con¬
tains about a thousand Danes who are maintaining a high
school, a parochial school and a church. It is a settlement
apparently as Grundtvigian and Danish as any existing in the
United States. An attempt was made in 1888 to establish a
settlement in Logan county, in the extreme western part of
Kansas. On the invitation of the Union Pacific Railroad
company the land committee of the church went out and in¬
spected the land during the month of May. They were com¬
pletely captivated with the fertility of the soil and the salubrity
of the climate. They secured an option on four townships of
land, to be sold to Danes at from four to six dollars an acre.
They then proceeded to extol the advantages of the place, lay¬
ing special stress on the fiction that the rainfall, which at
present was quite sufficient, would still farther increase as the
land was brought under cultivation. This, however, proved a
mistaken theory, and the colony dried up in its infancy, while
the reputation of the ministers as practical farmers and coloniz¬
ers was badly damaged. This was the last attempt on the part of
the church as an organization to form settlements. The idea
however has not been abandoned, but has been taken up by the
Dansk Folkesamfnnd (the society of the Danish people). This
society has located two more settlements, one in Clark county,
Wisconsin, and another in Wharton county, Texas. As yet these
settlements are both in their infancy; like the settlement in
Kansas, they are the cause of much newspaper correspondence of
a decidedly unfriendly character, in which disappointed land
agents are taking a prominent part, making it appear that the
land selected is worthless and that the land committee was

28 Bille — A History of the Danes in America.

very incompetent if not positively dishonest; and these opinions
are being duly noticed and emphasized by opponents of the
Dansk Folkesamfund. It is doubtful indeed if these attempts at
settlement have done as much to unite the Danes as the ill
feeling created thereby has done to separate them.

THE DANSK FOLKESAMFUND.

This society was established in 1887, under the auspices of a
number of ministers and laymen of Grundtvigian tendencies.

The aim of this society is set forth in its constitution in the
following language: “We establish this society in the belief
that there is a need for an organization which will unite all the
Danes in America who desire to maintain the Danish character
and wish to aid in the labor of increasing our spiritual inher¬
itance and making it fruitful, not alone for our own benefit or for
that of our fatherland, but also for the benefit of the land to

which we are now united by the strongest of ties .

When we Danes in America wish to perpetuate in America what
is Danish, it is partly because of the inborn love we have for
all the things that belong to our fatherland; but it is also because
we are convinced that by so doing we are advancing the best
interest of the land to which we now belong. When it is ad¬
mitted that the meeting of people from all nations, on American
soil, there to communicate with one another in the English
language, is an historic event of first importance, it is mainly
because the various nationalities thereby secure an opportunity
to communicate to one another the results of their best thoughts
and labors. In order that such an interchange may take place
it is necessary that each nationality maintain its own language
and remain in intimate association with the mother country,
for only in this way is it capable of transmitting its posses¬
sions to others. We believe the Danish nation has a spiritual
inheritance not wholly without value to humanity in general,
and we wish to contribute our share toward human advance¬
ment. ”

To advance the interests of humanity in general, then, is the
chief end of this society, and to keep in touch with the language and
life of Denmark the chief condition necessary for reaching this aim.

The DansJc FolJcesamfund.

29

But in trying to fulfill the condition the aim seems to be lost
sight of ; nothing whatever is done to master the English language
or become acquainted with American institutions, while every
effort is made to maintain all that is Danish and foster exclu¬
sion from life in this country. Two branches of this society
have been established, one in this country and one in Denmark.
The conditions for membership are that a person should be of
Danish parentage and not opposed to the Lutheran church. The
work of the society so far has consisted (1) in establishing local
societies, the members of which hold regular meetings for the
discussion of subjects relating to Denmark and whatever is
Danish; (2) in founding a library of Danish books to be loaned
on the payment of a small fee to any one capable of reading the
Danish language; (3) in publishing a paper, Kors og Stjcerne
(Cross and Stars), devoted to an interchange of thought between
the members in Denmark and America; (4) in establishing set¬
tlements for Danes in America; (5) in directing Danish immi¬
grants to these or other Danish settlements; (6) in sending
Danish lecturers of some prominence to Danish settlements; (7)
in organizing excursions to Denmark of Danes in this country,
especially of American birth, for the purpose of initiating them
in the life there and strengthening their love for whatever is
Danish. There has also been a general attempt on the part of this
society to support the high schools, parochial schools and
churches; but the efforts along these lines have not produced
any noticeable results, except in the case of the churches; and
here it was far from accomplishing what was intended, for this
society and its methods of working immediately aroused a storm
of opposition from the ministers of Inner Mission proclivities.
They claimed it was merely a scheme on the part of the G-rundt-
vigians to create a party in every congregation in favor of their
ideas, and thus to drive out all the ministers who did not agree
with them. It was almost the only subject discussed at the an¬
nual meeting of 1887, and the discussion was so bitter that the
ministers themselves seem to have been ashamed of it; for in¬
stead of having the proceedings published in Kirkelig Samler ,
a special pamphlet was issued for the purpose, something which
has not been done before or since. No conclusion in the matter

30 Bille — A History of the Danes in America.

was reached, however, in this meeting, and the only result of
all the discussion was to strengthen the suspicion and ill-feeling
already existing; and from that time on there was not a
semblance of harmony in the Danish church in America.

The members of the Inner Mission society now began an ac¬
tive crusade against all the plans of the Grundtvigians. Doc¬
trinal differences were emphasized more and more, and the
general indifference to the Grundtvigian scheme of education
was changed to active opposition.

Rev. P. Vig is the principal exponent of the policy of the
Inner Mission faction, while Rev. F. L. Grundtvig,1 son of the
great Danish reformer, is the exponent and leader of the Grundt¬
vigians. The controversy was opened by P. Vig in an article
written by him for Kirketig Samler of June 17, 1888, in which
he sets forth his ideas on the subject of education as follows:
“There are many whose greatest desire it is that the language
which is their motber-tongue shall also be the mother-tongue of
their children, but feel, nevertheless, compelled to admit that
this desire cannot be realized. And we should indeed serve
ourselves and our children poorly by doing all in our power to

1F. L. Grundtvig, the acknowledged leader of the Grundtvigians in
America, is the youngest son of the great Danish reformer, N. F. S.
Grundtvig. He came to America in 1881, after having taken his degree at
the University of Copenhagen. In 1883 he accepted the pastorate of a
small Danish congregation in Clinton, Iowa, which position he has held
ever since. He first made himself prominent by a violent attack on secret
societies in general and on Dansk Brodersamfund in particular; this was
a secret society of the most innocent kind, established for social purposes
and mutual aid, and without any political or religious aims whatever. The
attack was based wholly on the fact that it was a secret society, and that
in its ritual the name of God was used and prayers were offered in a man¬
ner which Grundtvig considered blasphemous. The outcome of this at¬
tack was a quarrel between the church and Brodersamfundet (the Brother¬
hood), in which as usual the church was the loser. From the beginning
of his ministerial career Grundtvig has been an ardent supporter of the
high schools and of all means for maintaining what was Danish. He was
a prominent member of the first land committee, and one of the leaders in
the organization of Dansk Folkesamfund, and soon became its actual leader
and mouthpiece. He is a voluminous writer of both poetry and prose,
but as yet he has produced nothing of any special merit. Most of his

The Dansk Folkesamfund .

31

prevent them from becoming Americanized ; for the maintaining
of the Danish tongue is as far from being the greatest blessing
as the getting of the English is the greatest curse. Even if the
Danish language is lost to our posterity, they might still retain
all that is good and true in the Danish character; for just as a
man can take his material inheritance into a foreign country, so
he can take his spiritual inheritance into a foreign tongue.
We older people must remember that we can hardly imagine
ourselves in our children’s places. They have a fatherland
which is not ours. In a measure it is impossible for them to be
Danes ; for they lack the Danish environments, and in a measure
the Danish tongue must always be a foreign tongue to them.
To keep the children born in this country from coming in con¬
tact with its language and life is a violation of nature which
will at last revenge itself. ”

This sentiment was promptly attacked by F. L. G-rundtvig
and other G-rundtvigians. They did not, however, stop at this,
but made the subject a personal one, thereby arousing a personal
animosity which did much to intensify the subsequent quarrel.

The Grundtvigians continued to push their high schools,

poems are decidedly prosy, a large share of them being argumentative,
written to prove his own theories, or to disprove those of his opponent.
He is very prone to the use of sarcasm and bitter personal attacks; though
he sometimes apologizes for his harsh expressions, he usually repeats the
offense when the next opportunity offers itself, and through this unfor¬
tunate trait of character he has made more enemies than through the ad¬
vocacy of his peculiar religious and social theories.

But whatever may be the faults of his character and theories, it can¬
not be denied that he is honest, fearless, and unselfish in his labors for the
cause he considers right. He has never in all his labors in this country
considered his own advantage in the matter of money or position. He
might have stayed in Denmark and been sure of an easy, paying position;
and he might have gone back in 1894, as pastor of the Marble Church in
Copenhagen, one of the most honorable clerical positions in Denmark, and
one in which he could have been at perfect liberty to preach just what he
believed. But he has chosen to stay with his American congregation on a
salary scarcely sufficient to support him, with a record of defeat behind
him and almost certain failure before him; and that, too, though he con¬
siders himself as an exile here, and feels at home nowhere but in Den¬
mark.

32 BiUe—A History of the Danes in America.

while in 1890 the Inner Mission Society found an expression of
their ideas in the reorganization of the Elk Horn high school
on the American plan; and that this change was approved by
the laity is seen from the substantial increase in the attend¬
ance at this school already referred to. 1 This did not tend to
allay the ill feeling already existing. The Grundtvigians con¬
sidered the change at Elk Horn as an act of treachery, for now
the school for which they had worked so hard and from which
they had hoped so much had been taken out of their hands and
made a fortress of the enemy, and that too by a man whom they
at one time had counted as one of their own. Meanwhile an¬
other cause of dissension had arisen. The instructors of the
theological school in Polk county, "Wisconsin, Th. Helvig and
P. Vig, had become entangled in a violent doctrinal quarrel
which spread to the rest of the ministers, and it seemed as
though the society was hopelessly divided ; but at an extra meet¬
ing held at Waupaca, Wisconsin, 1891, a truce was patched up.
It was agreed that Grundtvig should use his influence in dis¬
banding Hansk Folkesamfund, that the Elk Horn school should
be used as a theological seminary, and that Vig and Helvig
should return to their posts as theological instructors. But
Hansk Folkesamfund refused to disband ; the people at Elk Horn
did not wish to see their school changed; and Vig resigned his
position on the plea that he could not conscientiously work to¬
gether with Helvig, and again the quarrel was on, more bitter
than ever. Finally in 1893 the Inner Mission ministers seceded
and formed a separate society. But this separation was one of
ministers mostly; the congregations are as yet woefully mixed,
and there seems but little hope of getting them divided on a
basis of Grundtvigians and Inner Mission, for though there are
enough of each faction in every congregation to make it uncom¬
fortable for the other, there are not enough or they are not suf¬
ficiently enthusiastic to form separate congregations with
permanent ministers and churches, at least no such congrega¬
tions have yet been found.

One of the immediate effects of this controversy has been to
stimulate somewhat the languid interest of the laymen in church

1 Ante, p. 24.

The DansJc Folkesamfund.

38

affairs; but in the main it is a ministers’ quarrel and the con¬
servative common-sense members of their congregations look upon
it with decided disapproval, while the large majority are not in¬
terested enough to find out what the quarrel is about or to
range themselves on either side. There is a possibility that the
split will in the end make the Danish church somewhat more
efficient than it has been so far; for hereafter the Inner Mission
faction will have an opportunity to pursue its somewhat aggres¬
sive systematic policy without interference by the Grundtvig-
ians, which will be a great advantage in carrying out its plans.
Besides, this faction will undoubtedly in the course of a few
years have formed a firm alliance with the Danish Church Asso¬
ciation, a society organized in 1884 by six Danish ministers
and their congregations, which up to that time had belonged to
the Norwegian-Danish Conference. In 1890 this society had a
membership of 3,493, and church property amounting to $44,775.
They have established a school at Blair, Nebraska, and this as
well as all the church work of the association is conducted on
the same plan and in the same spirit that prevail in the Norwe¬
gian church societies. But the fact that only 3,493 out of the
132,543 Danes in America in 1890 belonged to this society,
shows that it cannot be very popular with the majority. The
two societies when united will not at the utmost contain more
than 10,000 members. These, however, will be likely to work
together more harmoniously and more earnestly than the
Grundtvigians and Inner Mission people, and may succeed in
maintaining some quite efficient schools and a few united con¬
gregations.

As far as the Grundtvigians are concerned, their past seems
to prove conclusively that there is no future for them in this
country. They will get but little support from the old settle¬
ments ; they are unable to establish new ones from the Danes
already in this country. Neither can they hope much from an
immigration from Denmark, for in the first place such an im¬
migration is not liable to be very extensive in the near future,
because the social and economic conditions in Denmark are and
promise to be fairly good; besides this, the Grundtvigians will
be, as they have been, the last ones to emigrate, for they are
3

84 Bille — A History of the Danes in America.

more attached to their native land than are their opponents. It is
this very fact which accounts largely for the striking indiffer¬
ence with which Grundtvigianism is regarded by the Danes in
America, while in Denmark it receives their strongest support.
Yet in spite of the present weakness and past failures of the
G-rundtvigians in this country, they have, nevertheless, exerted
a decided influence on the Danes here, especially on those who
have congregated in settlements. But this influence has been
mostly of a negative character. For, though they could not be
persuaded to support the Grundtvigian schools, they were quite
easily persuaded from making any special effort to get an Eng¬
lish education. The fact that the minister was suspicious of
the common school was quite a strong argument in the eye of
the thrifty parent for keeping his boy at home to help on the
farm instead of sending him to school, and on the whole from
taking any special interest in the public school beyond that of
keeping the expense of its maintenance as low as possible.
The result to-day of this policy shows itself in a condition
bordering very closely on illiteracy among a great number of
young people who have grown up in the Danish settlements.
They have failed to get a fair command of either the Danish or
English language, because, as a rule, there was no parochial
school to give the necessary instruction in Danish, and they did
not avail themselves sufficiently of the advantages offered by the
American schools to gain a mastery of the English. But the
policy of slighting the English branches in the Grundtvigian
high schools has had a more tangible, and if possible, a more
detrimental influence on the life of the Danes in America. It
has alienated the young Danish immigrants from the church
and left them to shift for themselves in the acquiring of an
English education, which usually meant a failure on their part
to get such an education. They did not care and could not be
made to care for the education offered them by the Grundtvig¬
ian high schools. Thus they were left out of touch with the
church along a line on which it had the greatest opportunity
for helping them and extending its influence over them. They
could find no American school adapted to their needs, and though
most of them were ambitious to master the English language

The Dansk Folkesamfund.

85

they were usually discouraged in their first attempts and gave
it up altogether. It is a rare thing to find in a Danish settle¬
ment a man who can carry on the ordinary business transactions
in the English language. In fact such a man is sometimes king
among his countrymen. They are absolutely dependent upon
him in their intercourse with the world where the reading and
writing of the English language is required. He may run their
political caucuses, their township and school affairs to suit him¬
self, and this in spite of the fact that he is not acceptable to a
majority of the voters, for they have no other choice. If it is
a rare thing to find a man in a Danish settlement who can do
business in the English language, it is a still rarer thing to find
one qualified to teach a district school. Even in districts ex¬
clusively Danish, a Dane is seldom employed as teacher.1 A
superstition exists in some settlements that a Dane is incap¬
able of acquiring the accomplishments necessary to teach a
country school; and that, if through unusual mental endowment
and industry any one should actually succeed in this, then the
“ Yankee county superintendent” would nevertheless deny him
a certificate on account of his nationality.

It is, however, not fair to lay the whole blame for this state of
things on the Grundtvigian ministers; because there exists among
the Danes, especially in this country, a very marked tendency
to self-depreciation, a lack of confidence in themselves individu¬
ally and in their countrymen generally, for which the Grundtvig¬
ian ministers are not responsible. But these ministers were
the natural leaders of their people, the only ones who had an op¬
portunity. There was need of such leadership, too, for the great
mass of Danes who have emigrated belong to the laboring classes,
who have had little or no training in the management of educa¬
tional affairs. They could not, though they had a fair idea of
what they wanted, take the initiative in the matter themselves.
And if the Grundtvigian ministers, instead of trying to force their
own ideas through, had met the desire of their people for an Eng¬
lish education, they could have built up a system of schools which
would have given them a hold on the most enterprising and

1 Since the Elk Horn school began to prepare its students for the work
of teaching, this state of affairs is somewhat modified .

88 Bille — A History of the Danes m America.

ambitious young Danes, thus securing them as a support for
their church, at the same time giving them a training which
would have made them more useful to themselves and the society
in which they have chosen to live. While the net result of
the educational efforts of the Grundtvigians so far consists in
the securing of a few enthusiasts and sentimentalists who by
their very system of education have been unfitted for taking any
active part in affairs in this country, for they have taken a nar¬
row, one-sided view of Grundtvig’s teaching, accepting the emo¬
tional side and completely rejecting the practical. Yet, in jus¬
tice to them, it must be admitted that their main fault consists
in adopting a mistaken ideal and espousing a hopeless cause.
Their intentions were of a wholly philanthropic and disinterested
nature. Many of them have made great sacrifices both in money
and social position in order to carry out their ideas; and it is
after all to be regretted that they did not adopt some more prac¬
tical means for carrying out their ideas among the American
people at large, for they are full of a spirit none too common
among us here. They could have done a great work, if, together
with some good practical English instruction, they could have
transmitted to the Danes, at large, in this county, a touch of
their own idealism. There is need of something to tone down
the all-absorbing materialism to which the immigrant is by na¬
ture predisposed, and which is so strongly re-enforced by the en¬
vironment in this country. Though the Grundtvigians are in a
measure to blame for the social and religious failures of the
Danes in this country, they are not the sole nor the main cause
of this failure, — no matter what church or educational policy
had been pursued, it would not have had the power to make even
a fairly united nationality of the Danes. They have shown conclu¬
sively that they have had but little desire to establish any so¬
ciety or church modeled on the society and church existing in
Denmark. Their object in coming to this country was to better
their material condition. They left Denmark at a time when the
spirit of national pride was at a low ebb, when all the political
hopes and aspirations of the nation had been disappointed, and
when the church was hopelessly divided against itself. There
was nothing in their native land they could look to with special

The DansJc FolJcescimfund.

87

pride, no one thing on which they could unite as a basis of their
common nationality. The question naturally arises, would it
have been better for the Danes individually if like the Norwe¬
gians they had formed compact settlements and a strong church;
would such a condition have been more favorable for the de¬
velopment of good men and good citizens than the present scat¬
tered and disorganized condition?

It is frequently alleged that settlements, churches and
parochial schools, as established by the foreigners in this coun¬
try, form the chief evils of immigration, by perpetuating con¬
ditions which produce a heterogeneous population with aims
and interests antagonistic to republican institutions and a
stable state of society. This belief, however, is undoubtedly an
erroneous one, arising out of a misconception of the real needs of
our foreign population. These settlements, churches and schools,
instead of being a menace to our state, form one of the main
safeguards of this country against the dangers accompanying
the large influx of people of various nationalities. A large
number of the immigrants are young people, and, as far as
character is concerned, are still in the formative stage. Nearly all
of them come from quiet, staid communities where they have a
recognized standing and the pleasure of social intercourse with
their equals, and where they are now and then touched by the
elevating influences exercised by the church, the school or some
other social institution whose work and sentiment they can
understand and appreciate. Their social circle holds them re¬
sponsible for their conduct, stimulating their desire for respect¬
ability, thus constituting one of the most potent checks to
the vicious impulses that at times are liable to dominate the
conduct of people left entirely to themselves. It is this func¬
tion of stimulating the good and checking the evil, so necessary
for the development and maintenance of decent character and
good citizenship, which the settlement and church of the for¬
eigner performs, a function which no other institution in this
country could perform, yet one of invaluable service to the
country as well as to the immigrant. There is no situation
much more hopeless and demoralizing than that of the ordinary
immigrant, unacquainted with the English language and totally

38

Bille — A History of the Danes in America.

isolated from some staid, sober society of his countrymen, in
which the conditions of his native land are in a measure main¬
tained, and where his social standing is dependent on good
conduct. In the first place, if he is isolated from such a
community he is obliged to play the part of a mute for almost
a year after his arrival, save only for such conversation as he
can carry on in his native language with the horses and cows
about him, and except for such oaths and other strong expres¬
sions in the English language as readily fix themselves in the
memory of the foreigner, and for the repetition of which there
seem to be so many urgent occasions for both native and
foreigner. Then again, there is the depressing effect of his
social position among the natives. He is made to feel most
keenly that he is a being of a lower order, a sort of beast of
burden, tolerated only on account of his burden-bearing capaci¬
ties. He is excluded from all social gatherings of a respectable
character, either on account of language or nationality. He is
sometimes made the object of pity, but more often of ridicule.
As a rule there is only one place, the saloon, where he is re¬
ceived on terms of social equality, and where something is done
to make him feel at home and at his ease. It is a rare thing
indeed that the young foreigner who cuts loose from the settle¬
ment and church of his countrymen, comes under the better in¬
fluences of American society. He is more often affected by the
influences already mentioned plus that exercised by a number of
boon companions, who like himself are isolated from all that is
elevating, either foreign or American. The character of citizen
formed under such conditions is without question far more
dangerous to this country than that evolved in the most isolated
“priest-ridden” foreign settlement, where at least the sentiment
“I am my brother’s keeper” is still alive and active. In fact,
it is from contemplating the effect of the process of American¬
ization described above that the foreign clergyman finds one of
his chief reasons for excluding his flock from American influ¬
ence. Being unacquainted with American conditions and out of
sympathy with them, to begin with, and both from preference
and education of an uninvestigative turn of mind, he reasons
from the facts immediately about him; and, seeing only the evil

Bibliography.

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effects of American influence, he fails to realize the fact that it
might be used for good. That the minister might advance the
cause of his church, and increase the happiness and usefulness
of his countrymen, by helping them to choose the good and
avoid the evil in American society, is very far from being com¬
prehended by those who dominate the policy of the church. The
average clergyman is, however, no more “ ignorant and bigoted”
in his views than the man who fails to see any good in the
efforts of the foreigners to maintain the language, manners and
customs of their native land; for such critic does not realize
that the tenacious clinging of the foreigners to things which
in their childhood they were taught to hold sacred reveals a
most valuable characteristic, that it shows a stability of char¬
acter in the foreigners which makes them much more desirable
citizens than they would be if they could throw off all love for
and allegiance to their native land and language as easily and
with as little regret as they would discard a worn-out coat.

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Anklager mod Hbjskolerne, M. Stenstrup. (A statement and a
refutation of the charges made against the high schools. )
Beck, Vilhelm. — Fra Livets Kilde. (AYollection of sermons.)
Boyesen, H. H. — Story of Norway.

Braun, Chr. — Striden i Folkehbjskolesagen.

Brun, H. — Biskop N. F. S. Grundtvigs Levnetslob fra 1839.
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Luther College, Decorah, Iowa.

Lutheran Normal School, Sioux Falls, South Dakota.

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Grand Forks Academy, Grand Forks, North Dakota.
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St. Olaf’s College, Northfield, Minnesota.

40 Bille — A History of the Danes in America.

Circular and Map of Danish Colony, El Campo, Texas.

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Constitution and By-laws of the Poreningen Dania.

Dannevirke, 1888-94. (Weekly Danish paper of Grundtvigian
tendencies ; editor, M. Holst, Cedar Palls, Iowa.)

Danskeren, 1892-94. (Weekly Danish paper of anti-Grundt-
vigian tendencies; editor, N. I. Jersild, Neenah, Wis.)

Denmark; Its History anrl Topography, Language, Literature,
Pine Arts, Social Life and Pinance. Editor, H. Weitemeyer.

Grundtvig, N. P. S.

Kirke Spejl.

Kirkens G-jenmaele (The Reply of the Church — a contro¬
versial essay attacking the rationalistic doctrines of
Prof. Clausen of the University of Copenhagen).
Paaske Lilien (The Easter Lily — a religious poem).
Troste-Brev til Danmark. (Letter of Consolation to Denmark
— a poem, written at the close of the war of 1864, in
which the Germans are very bitterly attacked and the
Danish nation made an object of veneration.)

Kirkelig Maanedstidende, 1857-65. (Official organ of the Nor¬
wegian Synod.)

Kirkelig Samler, 1872-95. (Official organ of the Danish
Lutheran Church in America.)

Kirkelig Statistik. — H. Westergaard.

Kirkeligt Vennemode i Kjobenhavn, 1865, Koster and Lind-
berg, editors. (Church Conference of Friends at Copen¬
hagen — a report of a meeting held by the friends and
sympathizers of N. F. S. Grundtvig.)

Kors og Stjserne, 1888-95. (Official organ of Dansk Folke-
samfund; editor, Jacob A. Askov, Denmark.)

Nelson, O. M. — History of the Scandinavians in the United States.

Pontopidan, H. — Muld (A realistic novel dealing with the life
of the common people and especially with the influence of
the High School, and the Inner Mission and Grundt-
vigian movements. The author is acknowledged to be
one of the best of this class of writers in Denmark).

Bibliography.

41

Regler for Dansk Folkesamfund; Amerika (Rules for the Danish
People’s Society in America).

Reports of the Annual Convention of the Swedish Augustana
Synod, 1860-86 and 1893-94.

Reports of the Annual Meetings of the Norwegian Synod,
1857-94.

Reports of the Annual Meetings of the United Norwegian
Church, 1890-95.

Sidgwick. — Story of Denmark.

Stenbaek, K. B. — K. M. Kold (A biographical sketch of one of
the pioneers in the High School movement in Den¬
mark).

Stenstrup, M. — Anklager mod Hbjskolerne.

Thomas. — Sweden and the Swedes.

United States Census Population 1850-90.

42

Bille — A History of the Danes in America.

APPENDIX.

(The following statistics were obtained from the U. S. census of 1890.)

I.

Contiguous counties in Wisconsin, Minnesota, Iowa and the
two Dakotas east of the Dakota river, each county having a pop¬
ulation of more than 500 Norwegians.

WISCONSIN.

Ashland . 947

Bayfield . . . 1,085

Douglas . 1,058

Chippewa . 1,379

Burnett . 497

Polk . 1,311

Barron . 2,373

St. Croix . 2,638

Dunn . 3,167

Eau Claire . 3,897

Clark . 605

Pierce . 1,835

Pepin and Buffalo . 1,232

Trempealeau . 4,118

Jackson . 2,507

Monroe . 837

LaCrosse . 4,371

Juneau . 518

Vernon . 3,387

Crawford . 801

Grant . 400

Iowa . 904

LaFayette . 927

Green . 623

Dane . 6,728

Bock . 1,632

Walworth.. . 515

Racine . 949

Duluth (city)
Washington.

Anoka .

Ramsey .

Hennepin

Rice .

Goodhue ....

Olmsted .

Dodge .......

Waseca .

Steele .

Houston .

MINNESOTA.

2,389

591

1,527

3,636

13,014

1,288

3,485

820

1,044

646

527

1,934

Redwood . .

Brown .

Yellow Medicine

Renville .

Lac-qui-parle . . .

Chippewa .

Kandiyohi .

Meeker .

Big Stone .

Swift .

Stevens . .

Pope .

m

875

2,384

1,980

2,641

1,995

2,562

671

466

1,822

692

2,623

Statistics.

43

MINNESOTA — continued.

Fillmore . . . 4,171

Freeborn . 2,600

Mower . 1,787

Faribault . 1,264

Blue Earth . 998

Jackson . 1,232

Rock . 1,049

Watonwan . 1,042

Cottonwood . 785

Murray . . 676

Pipestone . 253

Lincoln . 558

Lyon . 988

Stearns . 831

Grant . 1,770

Douglas . . 1, 569

Todd . 774

Wilkin . 641

Otter Tail . 5,955

Clay . 2,700

Becker . 1,527

Norman . 3,821

Polk . 6,861

Marshall . 1,717

Kittson . 672

Clayton ....
Allamakee . .
Winneshiek
Mitchell

IOWA.

633

1,283

3,347

548

Worth .

Winnebago
Sioux City,

1,910

1,871

1,758

Union . . .
Clay ....
Yankton
Lincoln .

SOUTH DAKOTA.

. 612

572

Minnehaha . .
Moody .

. 1,054

Brookings . . .

. 1,324

2,953

588

1,546

Sargent . .
Richland
Ransom .
Cass

Barnes . .
Traill

NORTH DAKOTA.

732

Steele .

. 1,837

Griggs .

947

Grand Forks .

. 2,428

Nelson .

. 1,150

Ramsey .

. 3,572

Walsh .

1,118

822

3,518

1,098

676

2,523

44

Bille — A History of the Danes in America.

II.

Isolated counties in Illinois, Wisconsin, Minnesota, and Iowa,
each having a population of more than 500 Norwegians.

Cook. .. .
De Kalb
Kendall.

ILLINOIS.

22,365 Grundy
580 LaSalle,
1,099

880

1,718

Columbia .

Door .

Manitowoc,
Marinette. .
Milwaukee.

WISCONSIN.

862

962

Portage. . . .
Shawano . .

900

Waupaca . .

867

Winnebago

1,904

1,048

709

1,270

562

Buena Vista.

Emmet . . 533

Hamilton . 1,613

Webster . 894

Wright . 529

Humboldt . 1,031

Monona . 548

Woodbury . . . 1, 947

Polk . 522

Story . 1,824

Marshall . 572

IOWA.
580

MINNESOTA — None.

Statistics.

45

III.

Contiguous counties in Northern Peninsula of Michigan,
Wisconsin, and Minnesota, having a Swedish population of more
than 500:

MICHIGAN — NORTHERN PENINSULA.

Delta . 1,475

Marquette . 4,303

Schoolcraft . 559

Menominee

Iron .

Gogebic

4,021

719

1,769

WISCONSIN.

Florence . 500

Marinette . 1,407

Ashland . 1,357

Price . 982

Bayfield . 774

Douglas .

Burnett . 1,541

Polk . 1,600

Barron . 566

St. Croix . 694

Pierce . 1,281

1,572 Pepin . 739

MINNESOTA.

Duluth (city) . 4,102

Carlton . 901

Aitkin . 407

Crow Wing . 570

Morrison . 623

Benton . . . 300

Pine . 966

Kanabec . 827

Isanti . 2,758

Chisago . 3,955

Anoka . 1,032

Washington . . 3,399

Ramsey . 12,212

Hennepin . 20,167

Wright . 2,550

Meeker . 3,249

Carver . 1,236

Dakota . 799

Goodhue . 3,695

Sibley . . 1,134

Blue Earth,
Nicollet
Renville
McLeod. . .
Kandiyohi .
Chippewa . .

Swift .

Sherburne . .

Stearns .

Pope .

Grant .

Douglas
Otter Tail . .

Becker .

Clay .......

Norman . . .

Polk .

Marshall . . .

822

1,619

968

160

2,752

523

784

512

511

677

878

2,521

2,470

731

1,050

248

2,241

2,025

Kittson . I,'

46

Bille — A History of the Danes in America.

IV.

Isolated counties in Illinois, Wisconsin, Minnesota, and Iowa
having a Swedish population of more than 500:

ILLINOIS.

Cook . 45,607

W innebago . 6 , 204

DeKalb . 1,695

Kane . 3,252

Will . 2,140

Ford . 1,189

Bureau . 1,807

La Salle . 758

Henry . 4,324

Knox . 4,697

Peoria . 623

Warren . 832

Mercer . 1,322

Rock Island (city) . 4,661

McLean . 624

Door

WISCONSIN.

589 | Eau Claire

546

Des Moines .
Webster. . . .

Boone .

Hamilton . . .

Polk .

Sac .

Buena Vista
Pocahontas .

IOWA.

1,973

2,014

2,385

549

2,107

625

899

524

Cherokee .

Woodbury ....

Crawford .

Montgomery . .

Page .

Pottawattomie
Wapello .

529

2,402

517

1,468

1,220

561

961

Martin

MINNESOTA.

587

Statistics.

47

y.

Contiguous counties in Iowa and Nebraska, having a Danish
population of more than 500:

IOWA.

Audubon * . . 1, 067

Pottawattomie . . 1, 922

Shelby . . . 1,347

Washington
Dodge ......

NEBRASKA.

724 | Douglas . 4, 714

. 623

VI.

Isolated counties in Illinois, Wisconsin, Minnesota, Iowa, and
Nebraska having a Danish population of more than 500:

ILLINOIS.

Cook .

7,488

WISCONSIN.

Brown . 819

Winnebago . . . 1, 210

Waupaca . 962

Polk.... . . 844

Racine . . . 2, 893

Kenosha . 554

Black Hawk .
Buena Vista.

IOWA.

645 I Clinton . . . . 951

512 I Woodbury . 711

NEBRASKA.

Howard . 1,153

Kearney . 941

Lancaster ,

505

MINNESOTA.

Freeborn . . . 1, 633

Hennepin . . 1,731

Ramsey . 1,482

Lincoln .
McLeod
Steele . .

613

546

588

48

Bille — A^Eistory of the Danes in America

EXPLANATION OF PLATE I.

Map showing the distribution of the Scandinavian population
in contiguous areas of Wisconsin, Michigan, Minnesota, Illinois,
Iowa, Nebraska, and the two Dakotas east of the Dakota river.

AT, Norwegians; N, Swedes; D, Danes. The figures follow¬
ing indicate the population of each nationality.

Trans. Wis. Acad , Vol. XI.

Bille on Da?

n America.

Trans. Wis Acad , Vol. XI.

Plate I.

Bille on Danes in America.

THE METHODS OF SCIENCE, AS BEING IN THE DOMAIN

OF LOGIC.1

J. J. BLAISDELL,

Professor of Philosophy , Beloit College; First Vice President of the Academy.

Sitting as a visitor for several hours in the room of a Chris¬
tian pastor, and hearing his conversation with several persons
of his parish who came to him for advice, he said to me, after
their retiring, with something of sadness in his tone, “These
people come to me for counsel as their pastor, and little think
that I have no pastor, but have to find my way alone. ” I mis¬
trust that something like this is the feeling of the more thought¬
ful men of scientific pursuits as they make their way along
through the special departments of truth which it is the busi¬
ness of their life to explore and conquer. They find disciples in
the study of the one science which occupies them, but when
they look up above that, if they are large enough to do so, they
have a sense of isolation. The bond that holds together the
facts of their particular field is plain, and they have no diffi¬
culty in subordinating them into unity under the dominating
principle; but the other sciences, save perhaps some intimately
related, seem apart, moving in an unrelated orbit, like ships
crossing or going on widely parallel lines, pilgrims to different
shrines, ships that pass at night, out into a night, from which,
for us, we have no sense of their ever being bound to emerge at
the same port with us.

The question forces itself upon every thoroughly trained per¬
son whether it is so really with the several sciences, whether
they are like ships unrelated, at sea, ruled, I do not mean so

1 Annual address at the winter meeting of the Academy, Dec. 26, 1895.

50

Blaisdell — The Methods of Science ,

much not by any one several dominant quest which they are
severally making, as not by any certain principle of procedure
which may constitute of itself a science under whose guidance
they all find it comfortable to proceed — somehow a solar force
that keeps them all in their orbits, as the pastor I heard, hold¬
ing together by the law of his master principle the people who
came to him to learn the how of living.

It is in the mind of some, perhaps all, when they think deeply
on the subject, that there is such an over-guidance for scientific
study. It was an earlier habit to call logic queen of the sci¬
ences, and though, possibly since the present century began to
assert itself, in some directions logic has had put upon it inter¬
pretations which would, if they were true, set the matter in
doubt, I have thought it might be well to raise the question
anew. There is nothing that adds more zest and courage to
travel through strange regions than to know the relation of
our route to other routes which run along by or cross our own,
and the relation of them all to some fixed point. The planets
that constitute one system must be interested to know that the
splendid orbs which constitute a neighboring one are ordered in
their moving by a great central luminary; the mighty and
separate systems that inhabit the illimitable sky to-night must
be happy, it would seem, that the same gentle touch of gravita¬
tion keeps them in their individual integrity and holds them all
in placid unity, as a mother keeps her flock in the sweet home
of childhood. It does seem as if there were sweet instincts of
science, felt by such men as Faraday, which, while we are apt
in the ardor of pursuit to neglect them, we do well in moments
such as these to let have all the recognition they may find rea¬
son for. I shall venture to ask your thought to a few hesitant
suggestions regarding logic as having for its domain the methods
of scientific procedure, or, as written upon the program of our
meeting, “The methods of science as constituting the domain of
logic.” Logic, the pastor to whom the scientific student comes
to learn the methods of his procedure; logic, mistress and law of
science.

I need scarcely say that the problem of scieyice is the tran¬
scribing into modes of the mind of the objective facts of the uni¬
verse of real being. The child begins the process in making

As Being in the Domain of Logic.

51

the representative image in its mind of its mother’s face bend¬
ing over it; all the way along, in its multiplying and more com¬
prehensive mental copies it is ever making of the world that
smites its senses and its other avenues of apprehension.

“ Shades of his prison house begin to close
Upon the growing boy.

“ The youth who daily further from the East
Must travel, still is Nature’s priest,

and is getting more of the vision splendid, gathering in more
and more of the universe to which he was just now a stranger.
To the man, to whom, alas, it ceases to be strange, and there¬
fore seems in its freshness to die away, it only, while it con¬
stantly enlarges and is more fully his, though not lost,

“ Fades into the light of common day.”

Wonderful procedure of mind in the process of thought, in
which, moved by high instinct more than the bee that seeks a
lesser sweet, it writes line by line of the splendid macrocosm
in corresponding lines of the growing concept of his thought so
as to make the microcosm within, exclaiming as he proceeds:
“It is mine! There is a world around me; it is splendid; I have
found it; I have made it a part of myself; it is mine! ”

But there are certain minds, in whom this instinct to appro¬
priate the world of objects asserts itself, who go about this
gathering in other than a child’s mood. Not moved altogether
by the impulses of life’s common day as if thinking things are
to be known only just whenever and wherever life immedi¬
ately prompts or enjoys knowing, as the butterfly flits from
flower to flower, each for what it contains, they recognize a law
of correspondence and orderly distribution. A diviner voice
within them seems to be chastening the earlier method and
moving them to know the wide domain in its larger, truer and
more real form. These we call, by special emphasis, the men of
science. The sobering youth of the world has taught them that
as the universe is a living growth, and not a dead structure,
life has cast it into different departments, each of which, how¬
ever having common relation with all the rest, may furnish
special field of conquest. So they take nature’s intimation, and

52

Blaisdell — The Methods of Science ,

one to one and another to another they go apart in companies
to the several fields the divine spirit within them calls to make
truer ingathering from for themselves and the age — interpreters
for the ownership of future ages of the world’s truer being, a
priesthood of far more genuine anointing, if they are true to
their calling, than youth, though youth in later mood
“ Still is nature’s priest.”

How is it possible that when the universe, whose make seems
so orderly as to woo man as a lover to acquaint himself with
her nobler beauty and lead him to explore the several depart¬
ments of a system which gives so many intimations of order, it
should not come into his mind, as insight deepens, that there is
a vital synthesis of these departments with which he has become
acquainted, until at length it breaks upon him that the universe
is one universe. Even as when, ascending mountains in boy¬
hood by different paths and encountering different toilsome
shoulders on our way, which disclosed the broken volume, the
shoulders, from which we looked from one to another and from
above and from below, made us know that if further heights were
mastered a summit was waiting for us, and underneath it as its
blessed domain lay all the kingdoms of the world and the glory
of them. And so chiefs in the ministry of science, out on cam¬
paign to aid in gathering into the mind’s ownership out of the
fields of all science the universe as one, have our honor. Owner¬
ship, in the mind’s store, of the cosmos is the ever-receding but
always beckoning goal of dreams of mind, to which the race of
mankind, even though only by supernatural redemption fully
reaching it while it is our blessedness always to be seeking, is
crowding as pilgrims to a common shrine.

1. Inquiring now concerning the relation of logic to this
procedure of science, I find its first office in the insistence it
makes that science must ground all its findings in an Ultimate
Reason which orders the universe as one. For after all I have
given but a one-sided account of the way in which the conclu¬
sion comes to us that amid the multitude of sciences they all
find their synthesis in one that comprehends them. Not alto¬
gether because by examining the lower structures of the uni¬
verse we find a converging trend upward do we infer that we-

As Being in the Domain of Logic.

53

shall find the summit in which all culminate. It is as much in
the make of mind to know outright that the field of reality is
one whole as it is to know its several territories. It is in all
instinct after reality that the universe is one. The mountain
top we climb by laborious ascent is not only known to the trav¬
eller as the result of his climbing, so that he knows it only
when his foot presses its utmost rock. He has lived in the
neighborhood of it from boyhood, and has seen its splendors
from afar. Mind knows more than it finds out. That the uni¬
verse is one is not an inference from observation; it is an in¬
sight. We may not define to ourselves all the volume of this
one so as to infer its content, as some have tried to do, for our
eyes are dim. But Plato was right; we know the wholeness by
insight, and so all after gettings, when we find them, fall into
their place in the organic whole. One sufficient reason, as
regulative principle and ground of the whole in every part, is
the splendid indigenous revelation of mind, in the light of which
the man of science goes to his royal study. That absolute rea¬
son — the nous of Plato — supreme, one, answering ultimately
all our askings of the reasons why, puts the law upon our science
that amid the multiplicity of sciences science must be one, even
as there is one reasonable universe. This law, that science
must obey that unifying reason — that all thinking must obey
it — is the supreme content of the science of logic. Logic is
the science of our thought of things as child of the one absolute
reason. Only in the liberty of that law is mind satisfied. It
gives — and only it gives — science confidence, as having the cer¬
tainty, in its finding, of that one Reason, splendid fountain of
light in which there is no darkness at all, “ whose voice is the
harmony of the world. ”

2. The division of this universe and its distribution into fields
as subjects of the several sciences is wholly in the domain of logic.
One is impressed with the apparently opportunistic way in
which the various sciences have come into existence one after
another; how, for example, astronomy, chemistry, meteorology,
physics, psychology, had their origin, and on what account we
have now only just so many sciences and no more. One is apt
to raise the question how the limit is determined and on what

54

Blaisdell — The Methods of Science ,

principle. The more we reflect upon the matter it occurs to us
that, while the history of the institution of the -sciences has
been without much system, logic, holding science under the
same law of sufficient reason, really prescribes the bounds of her
habitation.

A. Logic in her law of sufficient reason holds science re¬
sponsible for determinate fields. The history of the way in which
the institution of the sciences has taken place, according as
some fact has happened to strike forcibly the attention or made
its appeal to curiosity or economical motive, almost suggests
that historically the process has had no other direction than that
it should go until such time as nothing more might occur to ob¬
servation suggestive of new fields. Or perhaps we may have set
our limit vaguely in the thought that the splendid campaign
would be finished only when it should come to be evident that
the whole universe had been gone over, and, as with Alexander,
we should be obliged to stay our footsteps for the lack of some¬
thing more to conquer. But it at once occurs to ask whose ob¬
servation is to determine that the limit of the G-anges has been
reached. Science has seemed many times to have reached her
outer boundary, in the history of thought, only to take consid¬
eration immediately for new advances. One thinks seriously
often of what likelihood of further responsibilities for thought
still exist for the student. You know there are many sciences
besides those which use the senses as their instruments and
which therefore are not so palpable. Who shall say that there
may not be found more and more fields to conquer, climbing up
the steeps of the universe where no discoverer’s foot hath been?
This universe is very large, larger than our world of matter
and our world of mind even. We cannot tell how many more
sciences are to be constructed, whatever contracted views we
may have of the number possible in the small territory we are
at present occupying. And so, if any person, the man of science
who knows most has a horizon which makes him humble. But
there is one limit prescribed to science, and that is the one of
the reason of things, which logic imposes as its directive to
thought. Logic says, out of the deep mind, which is the oracle
through which the universe reports itself to intelligence: “A

As Being in the Domain of Logic.

55

system of things is the substance of all being, ordered in the
unity of reason, and the student of that system has the limita¬
tion of his science in the reason out of which it comes and by
which its boundaries are set. We shall go on in glad and
tremulous surprise, multiplying our sciences and reviewing their
conclusions, disappointing the tears we shed for no more fields
of study, but always within, and never in the depth and number
of sciences transcending, limits, though hard to find, of a rea¬
sonable universe which, while some smile at the mention of it,
would seem, if we now had vision of it, radiant with absolute
beauty, even the feeble vision of which the great spiritual souls
of the world have been ravished with.

B. In the same way logic prescribes to the sciences the law of
their several spheres. To the majority of minds when asked the
reason why the facts of the atomic and molecular movement are
grouped together in a specific system of thought called chemis¬
try, the appropriate answer would seem to be, that the facts in
question were substantially alike, as being atomic and molecular.
We might call this a physical reason. A higher grade of mind
would give a physiological reason, in the larger meaning of the
word physiology, and say, it was because the facts were alike
in being the performing of the same function in the organic
structure of the world. But both these answers, mediate in
their nature, are only perhaps an unconscious recognition of a*
sovereign though undemons trable, because absolute, law which
holds the mind in the procedure of reason, furnishing an answer
to our question, which is ultimate. Why does the chemist place
the movements of the atoms and the movements of the molecules
in groups and the modifications of these in groups subordinate,
and make them in certain order one department, calling it
chemistry? And why in the other view, why, when the student
finds a field of facts atomic and molecular, in the living system
of the universe, serving identical uses physiologically in the
economy, does he put them therefore apart in a hierarchy of
concepts and call the world’s ownership of them a science? They
will tell you: “Because it is a reasonable procedure,” intimat¬
ing thereby that as the universe is in the ground of reason
which orders it as one in order of reason, as reason is one, so

56

Blaisdell — The Methods of Science ,

this same reason imposes on things their identities as law not
only of their place in a reasonable system but of our thought of
them as having that place in a reasonable system. To think of
the facts with which chemistry deals, having in a certain view
a communicant identity, as having some other identity and
being part of another territory, confounding thus the territories
of fact into which the universe is divided, is to think illogi-
cally, because logic requires that science think things as they
are. It appoints to some one science to make report of a given
range of the system and gives its orders that others do their
office within that in inferior scope so as to be subordinate, and
others still further subordinate, and others still further sub¬
ordinate, each according to some real natural organic division of
the larger field. Another range it assigns to another science.
To the great imperial sciences it will be given to occupy co-ordi¬
nate service including these lower, and, as these higher must be
subordinate to the highest, to that highest and supreme science
will belong the prerogative of making the whole universe the field
of its study. In this manner each science will be required to
occupy its several exact place. Nor will empirical observation
have the last word in thus distributing the fields of the various
sciences, for this can only be determined by penetrating to the
heart of the great system and ascertaining the order and reason
in which is all its significance and from which all derives its
wonderful form. Behind all empirical determinations the dis¬
tribution of the sciences will be in subjection to that deeper
project. Unexpected sciences come into being subordinating
what seems to be supreme, casting down what is lifted up and
lifting up what was cast down. Reason thus being ground in
which all things have their existence and being the ultimate
truth, science, by the insistence of logic, subjects her service to
the law of sufficient reason.

3. Logic gives law to the methods in which science prosecutes its
special individual procedures. We hear much of the methods of
science and of the scientific habit of mind, as if there were some
directive of mind in its taking possession of its domain which it
were well to form the habit of complying with. If I mistake
not logic furnishes the ultimate canon for such directive.

As Being in the Domain of Logie.

57

A. As every student of the universe understands, there are cer¬
tain preliminaries which have to be gone through with as a prepa¬
ration for specific scientific work. There is the training of the
senses to alertness, so as to have exact apprehension of all things
within their range, and the art of arming them for better work,
together with the training of those higher powers of mental appre¬
hension which play upon the part of the universe the senses are
not related to, and the art of arming them. Still more essential
is there the bringing of the sensibilities into full responsiveness,
without which it is as impossible to find the real universe or any
of its territories, or any of the facts in their real significance
in any of these territories, as it is to find the truth of the Apollo
Belvidere without any sensibility of courage or moral nobleness
or high defiance, or anger at the evil at which he sends his
death-delivering arrows. How can one find the real secret of
the universe or of any of its parts without sensibility to the love
which floods them all ; its beauty without a soul to feel its beauty ;
its pressure of holiness unless his spirit thrills to the moods of
its holy administration? Not one thing does the student find
in its real character until his soul answers to the soul of all
things, as no fiber of the hand can be understood or is other
than an unsolvable riddle until the purpose of royal manhood
comes to explain it. Then, almost the condition of all is the
training of the will for the procedures of science, for I sometimes
think that the highest and sublimest examples of trained will are
found, not in great statesmen who conduct nations in long criti¬
cal periods of inertia or passionate turbulence, or in military
captains, who hold armies in the vicissitudes of long wars until
they have waded by alternate victory and failure through battles
of blood and encampments and marches to peace and settled order,
but in the silent conflicts of study, where, perhaps in poverty, is
no support by the gaze of men and the eclat of parties, nor any
stimulation by the thunders of the captains and the bliss of
battle.

You will observe that all these preparations for the work of
study, which make you men of science what you are — made
Faraday what he was — are ordered in inferences logically
derived, as regards what they shall be in measure and in form,

58

Blaisdell — The Methods of Science,

from the work of science, which in particular you have in like-
manner concluded from circumstances yourself called upon to do.
You did not take upon yourself the harness of preparatory
training at haphazard or by mere knack or skill, nor did you
blunder into it, nor did nature give it to you save as part of a
reasonable procedure. You threw yourselves out on the prin¬
ciples of reason which bottoms all things and all inferential
judgment, and were led by loyal logical inference to conclude
that, as you were to do a particular work to which you had rea¬
soned as being yours to do, these were the forms of preparation
for you to secure, and in the light of that same reason you
entered upon them, measured them, shaped them. If logic had
not instructed you to say your “Therefore,” you had wandered
in a wilderness deeper than that the world, alas, would have
been in without your science, and never would have found your
way. The men of science may be unconscious of the mistress
which guides them, though their hand, if they walk truly, is
never out of her hand.

B. What we usually call the distinctive methods of science
are of two classes, which I will call severally the proximate and
the ultimate methods, in both of which the true procedure is
only fealty to logic.

(a) You know well that it is the hardest part of scientific work
to find the way into the presence of the facts which are the field of
your science. Long and circuitous are the paths by which we
enable ourselves to confront them. Take the facts of heredity or
of the origin of species. By intermediate processes only do we
look such facts in the face. If, for example, you suspect the
existence of faculae across the whole disk of the sun, you put
the question to the spectroheliograph, and in the report of the
calcium lines H and K you find a witness you can trust in evi¬
dence of the fact you have suspicion of. You take the fact of
gravitation as operating upon the earth directly as the mass
and inversely as the square of the distance, and on the principle
of analogy from this you calculate the orbits of a binary star,
and on observation you find that the witness you trusted has en¬
abled you to conclude rightly. Professor Langley makes the
bolometer his oracle, and is able by the same principle of analogy

As Being in the Domain of Logic.

59

to detect the presence of variations in the sprectrum which no
human eye has ever seen. In another science, amid all the ap¬
parent moral confusions which life confronts us with as we fol¬
low with the microscope of observation the cases where moral
derelictions in character more and more obscure are yet followed
by their corresponding sanctions in retributive reckoning, by
argument from progressive approach we are confronted with the
fact that for every idle word that man shall speak God shall
bring him into judgment, and that accordingly not one jot or tittle
of the law shall perish. By such methods as these the student
of all secondary sciences is obliged to make his way into rela¬
tion with the facts which he makes the field of his study. Minor
premises, which he uses by way of analogy, example, progressive
approach, sign, a priori from principle, a posteriori from result,
induction from individuals, deductions from generals, he uses as
standing ground to reach out into realms beyond his immediate
cognizance, as we take the diameter of the sun’s orbit as our
base line for measuring the distance of the fixed stars and their
movements. It is at once seen that in all these methods the
principle of procedure is a law of reason which holds conclusion
in fixed relation to premises, to transcend which relation we
say is unreasonable; without realizing that what we mean is
that there exists an absolute reason which all thinking must
obey or go off into absurdity and mental chaos. To affirm and
formulate this sufficient reason as the law which holds thought
in absolute limitations so as to be true, and certain of being
true, is however the exact business of the science of logic.

(b) I shall have time only to express briefly my thought as-
regards those methods of science which are ccdled ultimate , which
will perhaps by most persons be regarded as being the main
ones. That they are the main methods in which science does its
actual service in helping mind to become identified with its own
universe is to me more than doubtful. It has long seemed to me
that, great as have been the mistakes of method in generalization
and classification, and fatal, the greater misfortune almost has
been in not comprehending the limitation at the point I have
already mentioned as set by reason to the very problem of
science, which limitation, while it widens magnificently that

60

Blaisdell — The Methods of Science ,

problem to legitimate boundaries irrespective of all barriers of
dogmatism and traditionalism, makes science aware of a final
limit of its career within green pastures and by still waters,
beyond which is not even the reign of chaos and old night.

1. The first real procedure of mind in its campaign of conquest
is to present to itself in concept the modes of reality which are objec¬
tive to thought. First, we will say, through the tracts of the
senses by mental signals mind is put upon the knowledge of forms
of being which ard not modes of self. By the push of wonderful
mental instincts, in the same manner, they are grouped accord¬
ing to the inner signals of sensation and defined to the wonder¬
ful inner conqueror in the terms of the feeling they occasion.
Modes are interpreted as modes of substances, and individual
things appear by representation in the field of mind. In the
rapid progress of mental history, interpretations of modes are
corrected, their groupings are modified, and individuals come to
better definition. As the treasure of mind increases and its
skill in acquainting itself improves, individual things are com¬
bined into larger and complex individuals, which are constructed
into completer and fuller complexities and combinations. Now
the mind is coming to have rich possessions, persons moving in
their places amid the environment of many things, with the
landscape around them and the heavens above them, with the
sun lighting them by day and the moon by night, and wonder
woos it on to enlarge its domain out into the universe of being,
like Alexander seeking the empire of the East. Meanwhile, with
all this has been coming up into modes of mind through con¬
sciousness the transcript of its own being, its individuality,
highly endowed with instincts of mastery, with intelligence,
sensibility, dominion of will, aspiration, prophecy of conquest,
sense of dignity, personality. Other minds start up into the
field of view, with combinations of personalities in their organic
groupings, in families and nations and the race, and by analogy
other populations in other spheres, and lo! mind has now in its
vast concept a whole physical universe peopled with inhabitants
in their orders. Meanwhile, again, partly as the inference of
what it is already in possession of, partly by the vision of high
endowment, it is entered into the knowledge of mind that out

As Being in the Domain of Logic.

61

of the legislation of reason all this is but a procedure in the in¬
terest of a beneficent end,

Some far off divine event

To which the whole creation moves.

The universe is become known to man — a population in the
midst of universal nature, charged with moral meaning in gov¬
ernment, running its eternal history under the ordering of abso¬
lute reason — a living cosmos. Such is science, splendid, glori¬
ous, the entering, through long ages only achieved, of intelli¬
gence upon its birthright; begun in the instincts of childhood,
continued by youth and manhood, entered upon and prosecuted
in deeper and more careful mood by men of science, overwatched
and guarded by sages, the treasure of mankind, God’s lesson to
His creatures, as guide of life and motive for convoying them to
high destiny.

But if this finding of self is science it is no less manifest that
the whole long and difficult procedure is one entirely within the
domain of logical principles. You have no guide but reason,
for reason only can authenticate the witness of your ordinary
observation. You shall therefore be loyal to the exact identities
which reason teaches you belong to things, never transcending
the lines which separate them and put them apart. You shall
treat them as reason bids you treat them. You shall in your
thought of all things observe the difference between the contra¬
dictories, not calling light darkness and darkness light, but
letting your yea be yea and your nay be nay; never construct -
ing your transcript of the earth’s crust with the Protozoic
beneath the Azoic, of the heavens with the earth as the center
of the solar system after the manner of Ptolemy, the inverte¬
brate as ruminant, war as a pastime for nations to play with,
sin as a step upward, man a thing of necessitated destiny, the
cosmos a harmony without an intelligent author. In doing so you
transcend the law that an absolute reason shall be the guarantee
of your thinking, save as you have which and in so far as you
do not have which, science is guessing, of which law logic is
the science and the prophet.

2. I ask your attention to those methods which science some¬
times esteems , I think mistakenly, as her consummate achieve-

62

Blaisdell — The Methods of Science ,

ments , generalizations and classifications of science. In the

real structure of the universei which science makes her field
there are no such things as genera or classes. Or rather there
is no such communicant identity as to allow us to confound any
one thing with any other thing, however in our apprehension
of them they are indistinguishable. The lines in the splendid
universe, which shut apart individual things and run through
their structure to distinguish them, are sharp like the lines
which circumscribe and diversify the most delicate engraving,
never fall afoul of each other and leave no blur. One grain of
sand on the sea shore is absolutely other than any other grain
of sand on the sea shore. The solidity of one grain of sand on
the sea shore is not the same solidity as the solidity of another
grain. The gleam of the butterfly’s wing is not the gleam of
the dawn. Apart do the individualities of substance and quality
in things stand, separate one from the other, no two instances
of quality the same, however alike, no two instances of sub¬
stance the same, however alike. Absolutely solitary are they,
however the blood of one circulating purpose runs through
them and makes them one glorious living moral and eternal
whole. But there are groups and tiers of things in the climb¬
ing heights of this one, whose individuals are so indistinguish¬
able to our apprehension that to retain the conception of their
separate individualities would only make chaos in our thought
again, and the constitution of mind is such that we easily deal
with them as having their being respectively in inclusive units.
Accordingly out of them we make generalizations of qualities
and classifications of things, tier over tier, like Dante’s rose of
Paradise, flaming hierarchies ol science. But this is only man’s
weakness. The Infinite Mind sees all things in their individual
being as living in the one organic whole. The universe, in His
•absolute self-consciousness, how resplendent! how absolutely in¬
conceivable in its grandeur, to our weak apprehension ! Magnifi¬
cent is the achievement indeed of the great monarchs of scien¬
tific procedure in constructing the pregnant stages of ascending
concepts by which man is enabling himself the better to hold
the vast portrait he is making. It is only the service rendered
by vast breadth of mind to ordinary human weakness, the staff

As Being in the Domain of Logic.

63

by which the explorer supports himself as he makes his pilgrim¬
age to the mount of vision, the false arch he builds over him
lest the infirmity of mind in passing beyond shall be too great to
-allow his unembarrassed progress.

3. You have always observed, however, that when one wishes
to animate himself with a view of any portion of the vast domain
of the universe in its actual living reality he puts aside the blur
of these genera and classes , by analysis separating them into
their individual content and constructing the splendid landscape
of being as it is. In its more deliberate and ordered way this
individualizing process wherein things are restored to them¬
selves is the most ultimate procedure of science, in which it
takes apart what for the weakness of the time it has provided
itself with. The last work it is the high office of science to per¬
form is thus to break itself against the barriers created by its
weakness, clearing its eye for the true vision of things as they
.are and as they lie unfolded in the bosom of Infinite Intelligence.
That blessed vision in which all things will be cleared into their
true features and the universe will be itself in the eye of rapt
intelligence, it is not the destiny of finite mind ever to reach,
for the finite cannot overtake the infinite. This is the ideal of
science. But it is the blessedness of man to be ever drawing
nearer it and enjoying the new and opening sight, the men of
catholic science, servants of mankind, leading the way. When
the number of the sciences shall be fully made out and the por¬
tion of the universe allotted to each shall be well surveyed, with
what is now mystery cleared, all in catholic harmony, handing
in their several contributions to the one whole, toward which
the heart of all is devoted, in that later age of the world, how
glad will be the harvest home !

It is needless to say, however, that all this procedure of sci¬
ence in generalization and classification, in determination and in¬
dividualization, the ever enduring toil of thought, has its orbit
in the domain of logic. Its running together of many qualities
into one quality pregnant of many instances, its running to¬
gether of many individuals into one pregnant individual, its
.shaking apart of one generic quality into its many individual
instances and of its one generic individual into its many indi-

64

Blaisdell — The Methods of Science ,

viduals, each with its several life, the constructing of a uni¬
verse by blurring of life in order to construct it more conveni¬
ently, and the constructing of it more vitally by delivering it
from the blur which convenience has allowed, is all along the
lines of a sufficient reason on which logic insists as the guar¬
antee of all thought whether divine or human. Put a neutraliz¬
ing touch on logic as the science of the guarantee which reason
furnishes to your processes, and the whole fabric of your science
will have no fixedness and tumble into meaningless jargon.

For what now, precisely, is logic but the ordering assertion of
those laws out of the domain of reason in virtue of which thinking
is reasonable and has any allowance . Its domain, therefore is all
human thought. Starting with simple judgment, the one ulti¬
mate form which all thinking sooner or later may be reduced
to, and following it through its many variations from the essen¬
tial type, in concept and reasoning in its various modes and
figures, and in all the modes in which it employs elemental
energy in transcribing the outer into the inner world, it pre¬
scribes to each of them the ultimate condition on which its
transcription of things is certain or probable, or has anything
to do with reality. It gives law to our simple judgments, pre¬
scribing their form and variations and conditions of truthful¬
ness. It compels our notions of things to be clear, distinct and
adequate, in order to their perfection. It weighs reasoning in
its balances, and insists upon the types to which it must conform
or be nugatory. Not one step of science is taken save under her
sanction. Science is not irresponsible. The hand of science
must be in her hand. Logic is her mistress, all the way up from
the feebleness of childhood’s thinking to the vision of the seer
as he stands in front of the universe in reverent and deliberate
awe.

»

I speak of awe and reverence as the quality of the man of
science, for, after all, this law which logic proclaims as put by
reason upon thought has its seat in that absolute sphere where all
venerableness abides , a kind of awful government of intelligences
which are liable to err. There is one law for the underlying
purposes which constitute character, the law of right, to break

As Being in the Domain of Logic.

65

which is sin. There is another law for the sensibilities, the
law of beauty, to be out of conformity with which is ugliness.
There is another law of the intellect, the law of truth, to break
which is intellectual confusion and the wandering as of the night.
This is the imperial legislation of the Absolute Reason in the
universe, the ancient and unwritten code, abiding in which is
virtue in the will, beautifulness in the sensibilities, truthfulness
in science. Under this aboriginal and venerable government
over thought we as men of science do our responsible work for
our own yearning and that of mankind. It becomes us to be
deeply reverent, as have always been the seers of history.

Logic is the science of this fealty of thought to reason. I think
of it as a religious science. The teacher of it, the true teacher
of it, is one of the prophets, standing in the name of God.
The student, constructing his science under the guidance of its
teaching, will, if he intelligently apprehend its meaning, go to
his service with a deep sense of the sacredness of his calling,
with tremulous joy that he is permitted to minister with his
hand in the hand of so blessed a leader. Logic affirms the su¬
premacy of absolute reason , and true science accepts obediently
its leadership as of a divine voice. Under the law of that sacred
science of logic, prophet of a higher law, science goes in and
out and ministers in sacred things to man.

Beloit , Wis.

5

RAILROAD POOLS.

ALGIE MARTIN SIMONS, B. L.

District Agent , Bureau of Charities , Chicago.

WITH PLATES II AND III.

A pool may be roughly defined as an agreement between com¬
peting carriers for the apportionment of competitive traffic, or
of the receipts therefrom.1 They maybe divided into three gen-

1 The Century Dictionary gives the following as a definition of a pool :
“ A combination of the interests of several otherwise competing parties,
such as rival transportation lines, in which all take common ground
as regards the public, and distribute the profits of the business among
themselves equally or according to special agreement. In this sense
pooling is a system of reconciling conflicting interests, and of obviating
ruinous competition, by which the several competing parties or com¬
panies throw their revenue into one common fund, which is then divided
or redistributed among the members of the pool on a basis of percent¬
ages or proportions previously agreed upon or determined by arbitra¬
tion.” This definition seems to me to possess several palpable defects.
In the first place the words “distribute the profits” could strictly
be applied only to a “money pool,” thus excluding both “traffic”
and “territorial” pools, the former of which at least is far more im¬
portant both in extent and numbers than the “money pools,” being
almost the only kind known in the United States. Then it is doubtful
if the words “all take common ground toward the public” is strictly
true, as it probably expresses an ideal rather than a fact, as it is cer¬
tainly true that under the most perfect pool that has yet been formed,
some residual competition, at least in facilities, has been retained. The
latter part of the definition is simply an argument for pooling, as is
shown by the words “ reconciling conflicting interests and of obviating
ruinous competition.” That it has been so recognized by the pooling
advocates is shown in an editorial of the Railroad Gazette for May 25th.
1894, p. 372. See Hudson, Railways and the Republic, pp. 196-7 for
definition of pooling and a division into traffic and money pools. Also
Hadley, Railroad Transportation, pp. 75-76.

Trans. Wis. Acad. Vol. XI.

Plate II.

2.10

2.00

1.90

1.80

1.70

1.60

1.50

1.40

1.30

1.20

1.10

1.00

Rates on dry goods, New York to Chicago, before pooling; - ditto, after pooling. Years at top belong to solid line; those at bottom to broken line.

Simons on Railroad Pools.

Trans. Wis. Acad Vol. XI.

Plate III.

Simons on Railroad P

>OLS.

Glasses of Pools.

67

eral classes according to the basis of apportionment, as terri¬
torial, traffic and money pools.2 In the first, each road is
assigned a distinct territory from which to draw its traffic, and
within which it is secured from all competition. In the second,
the traffic is diverted by common agreement to the different
roads according to pre-arranged percentages. Then any road
carrying more than its assigned percentage is required to divide
all profits arising from such traffic among the other roads
included in the pool according to the same ratio at which the
traffic was to have been divided. In the third form all the com¬
peting roads carry at rates fixed by common agreement, and the
proceeds are turned into a common fund or “joint purse” which
is divided among the roads according to percentages previously
agreed upon.

The first of these forms is obviously impossible of application
in the United States, owing to the complexity of our railway
system. It is found only in a few countries of Continental
Europe, particularly France, where the country was partitioned
out among a few great railroads during the construction period.
The second form is the one which was in vogue in the United
States before the passage of the Interstate Commerce Act?
although there were also in existence some examples of the last
form, or money pool. Since the pool is primarily a rate arrange¬
ment, and the rate question is a fundamental one in all dis¬
cussions of transportation, it is fitting that the pool should be
first discussed in its relation to rates.

The fundamental fact to be borne in mind in any discussion
of the rate question, is that rates at the present time, and
there is no prospect of change so far as I can see, are fixed upon
the principle of “ what the traffic will bear. ” 3 When this prin¬
ciple is analyzed it is found to mean simply that the funda¬
mental idea in the fixing of rates shall be the value of the
service to the shipper. This principle is then modified in one

2 Cohn, Englische Eisenbahnpolitik, vol. i, pp. 329-330, where a dif¬
ferent classification is given, founded upon historical development,
Also Midgeley, International Review, vol. vi, pp. 503.

3 Taussig, Contribution to the Theory of Railroad Rates, pp. 17-18.
Interstate Commerce Report, 1890, pp. 15-16.

68

Simons — Railroad Pools.

direction by the application by the railroads wherever possible
of the principle of the monopoly charge, while on the other hand
residual competition is still a powerful factor in the determin¬
ing of rates at many points. The element of governmental inter¬
ference is also sometimes made a factor in rate-making, but for
the present this influence may be disregarded as not affecting
the question under discussion. It must be admitted that the
tendency of the pool is to unify the railroad systems, and hence
to increase the monopoly element at the expense of the com¬
petitive element as a factor in rate-making. And in so far as
this is true the influence of the pool must be to raise rates. By
the raising of rates must be understood equally the prevention
of a decline. A graphic representation is herewith given of the
fluctuations in rates according to the statistics gathered by
Mr. McCain for the “Aldrich Report,” between New York
and Chicago (plate II) and between New York and Memphis
(plate III) The solid line shows the fluctuations before pool¬
ing; the broken line that after pooling.

It will be seen that plate I shows a rapid and continuous fall
of rates in the traffic between New York and Chicago in the
twelve years between 1865 and 1877. In this year the great
“ Trunk Line Pool ” was formed, which lasted with breaks, as
seen upon the chart, until the passage of the Interstate Com¬
merce Act in 1887. It will be seen that taking the whole period
into consideration during which the pool was in force there
was almost no decline in rates. On examining plate III it
will be seen that practically the same phenomenon is exhibited.
In the five years previous to the formation of the pool in 1875
(and the same would have been shown by a diagram of the rates
for the five preceding years) there is a rapid decline in rates
with violent fluctuations. Prom that time until 1887 there is,
as before, but very little decline. This would seem to bear out
the conclusions arrived at above, that a pool tends to maintain
rates above their normal level. It may be said, however, that
any evidence gained either directly or indirectly from the rate
sheets of the railroads is by no means conclusive evidence as to
the actual rates charged at any time upon the railroads of the
United States. However, two things may be said: First, that

Effect of Pools on Rates.

69

tariff rates are always as high as any rates charged, and second,
they are more closely adhered to during a period of pooling
than under unrestricted competition. Now, both of these facts
would tend to exaggerate the results that I have arrived at.
They would tend to make the rates appear higher under unre¬
stricted competition than they really were, and vice versa.

But, as has been so often said, the question of rates is not so
much one of high versus low rates as of steady uniform rates
opposed to fluctuations and discriminations. And it is just at
this point that the advocates of the pooling policy claim their
greatest strength. They say that when a pool has once fixed
the rates it requires the consent of a large number of roads to
change them, and hence when once fixed they tend to be per¬
manent. But the result of this is rather a change in the char¬
acter of the fluctuations than a disappearance of the evil. The
fluctuations, instead of occurring continually and from day to
day, occur only at long intervals, but are then much more
violent. The pool maintains rates for some time at a fixed point
and then there is a long and disastrous rate war. These wars
are usually much worse than those that occur under a purely com¬
petitive regime, because owing to the result of the pooling policy
the roads are in a prosperous condition at its beginning, and
then they are animated by a feeling of animosity that is seldom
found save at the breaking up of a pool. And finally, in addi¬
tion to usual incentives for obtaining traffic, there is the added
one of a hope of obtaining a better percentage in the pool which
all know will be the final outcome of the struggle.

But rates may be changed in other ways than by a direct
revision of rate schedules. They may be equally affected, though
in a less evident manner, through changes in classification. The
influence of the classification upon the height, stability and
uniformity of rates is so great that anything affecting it is of
paramount importance in any discussion of the rate question.4

4 Mr. F. B. Thurber, wholesale grocer of New York City, said in his
testimony before an investigation of the Interstate Commerce Com¬
mission in 1890 : “ The question of classification goes to the very bottom
of the rate-making power. If it be true that he who makes the songs of
a country may care but little who makes its laws, it is doubly true that

70

Simons — Railroad Pools.

One of the reforms advocated by all students of transportation
is a more nearly uniform freight classification. This the pool¬
ing advocates claim the pool will secure. They say that since
under a pool the division of freight and fixing of percentages
must necessarily be by classes, there will be a constant tendency
to bring all freight under one of the regular classes, and then
to make these classes uniform throughout the United States.
This would accomplish two greatly desired reforms. It would
unify classifications, and abolish special rates. But it may be
said in answer to these statements that they would at any rate
be true only of the traffic pool, while the prevailing sentiment
seems to be in favor of a money pool as the most desirable form
to be establisned should pooling be allowed by law. Again,
the territory covered by the pools would be almost identical
with that at present covered by the various traffic associations,
and these have almost all the incentives and ability to procure
uniform classification that would be possessed by a pool.* * * * 5 In
fact, so far as the fixing of rates are concerned it is difficult to
see in what respect they differ from pools, and indeed the pool
is only asked for as means of maintaining the rates established
by these associations. But the results which they have attained
in this matter, although undoubtedly of value, certainly leave
much to be desired, when a single railroad (the C. & N. W.)
within the territory covered by one of these associations (The
Western Traffic) issued 12,500 special tariffs between January
1st, 1893, and September 16th, 1895. 6 Moreover, it would
appear that the movement toward uniformity has been more
rapid since the passage of the Interstate Commerce Act and the

if railroad managers have the power to make the classifications, they

need care but little for laws prohibiting them from favoring large

shippers by means of special rates, rebates, etc ” See also “ Report of

General Conference of Railroad Commissioners,” March, 1889, pp. 36-60.
Ibid., 1890, pp. 121-134.

5 See “Extract from Senate Report No. 1394, Second Session, Fifty-
second Congress,” (McCain Report) p. 405, for list of these associations
and territory covered by each, where it will be seen that they are almost
identical as to territory with the old pools, which they supplanted.

6 Ibid., pp. 404-408, where it is shown that the movement toward uni¬
formity has been most rapid in recent years.

Discrimination in Rates.

71

prohibition of pooling than it was previous to the passage of
that act.* * * * * 7

But there is another phase of the railroad question which has
perhaps been the cause of more complaint and legislation than all
the others combined. I refer to the subject of discrimination in
rates. Anything that would remove this evil would be tolerated
even though it brought with it many disadvantages. And here
again the advocates of pools put in a strong claim for their
policy. Says the editor of the Railway Review for September
10th, 1892:

“ Those who have made a study of the railway question know
that in the development of the railway service no other means
than pooling has as yet been discovered which will serve to render
operative the design of the act to regulate commerce. In other
words, it is only through pooling that discrimination can be
removed, and a system of equal rates under similar circum¬
stances universally established. ”

It is claimed that discriminations are the result of unre¬
stricted competition between railroads; that they are the only
means by which the weaker roads can exist under a regime of
free competition. The pool, by removing the incentive to
struggle for traffic, removes at the same time all incentive to
grant rebates, or make discriminations of any kind.

This position would seem to possess great strength as applied
to the indiscriminate granting of rebates and special favors to
individual shippers which prevailed in the United States at one
time.8 But the character of discriminations has changed within

1 Railway Review, April 14th, 1894, p. 212, contains a complaint signed

“ Manufacturer,” which is generally favorable to the Southern Steam¬

ship Association, but claims that the territory governed by it is behind

all the rest of the United States in the matter of uniform classification.

It will be remembered that this territory has been the most thoroughly

pooled of any in the United States.

8 There is some dispute, however, as to their effect, even in this case..
Says Adalbert Hamilton, in the Chicago Tribune for March 1, 1884 :
“Unjust discrimination pools have not stopped. Neither do they pre¬
vent it. It exists to-day to a far greater extent than ever before, and in
bold open defiance of law and justice.” This writer is in favor of a
legalized pool, under direct control of government.

72

Simons — Railroad Pools.

the last few years. Instead of an indiscriminate granting of
rebates to every one who applies, great concerns have been
developed in all lines of industry who succeed in obtaining
favorable rates to the exclusion of all competitors. In other
words, discriminations have become concentrated upon a few
great firms, while all others pay the tariff rates. The power¬
ful incentive which this gives to the movement toward concen¬
tration of industry is evident. The question then arises as to
what will be the effect of the pool upon this new form of dis¬
crimination, as to how it will meet this new problem ? And at
first sight appearances would seem to be strongly against the
pool as a remedy in this case. Almost all of the great “depen¬
dent monopolies ” which constitute so prominent a factor in the
industrial life of the country to-day had their origin during the
period of pooling. More than this, almost all of them had more
or less intimate connection with the pools. Indeed it has been
alleged that they depended upon the pools for their existence.
The so-called “Cattle Trust” or ’’Pool” was organized in 1875,
and was firmly established with almost complete control of the
market in 1879. It w^as long used as an “evener” (or instru¬
ment for the distribution of freight) in the great “ Trunk Line
Pool ” from Chicago to New York.9 The Anthracite Coal Combi¬
nation has a similar history. But it is of the Standard Oil
Company that the greatest complaint is raised. It has been
alleged that without pooling, this great combination could never
have been formed.10

9 See United States Report on Internal Commerce, 1879, pp. 164-177.

10 See Hudson, Railways and the Republic, pp. 209-10, and chapter
entitled “ A Commercial Crime.”

United States Report on Internal Commerce, 1879, pp. 178-9 : “The
almost marvelous success of this association (the Standard Oil) has
resulted mainly from the fact that its managers have succeeded in
securing from many of the trunk railroads of the country special rates
of transportation. The power which it has for several years exercised as
an “ evener ” in the coal-oil pool, extending from the oil regions to the
sea-board, has enabled it to secure a monopoly of that traffic. The rail¬
road pool controlling the transportation of coal oil to the sea-board now
embraces three of the principal trunk lines. ... In carrying on this
apportionment scheme the Standard Oil Company acts as an evener,

Distribution of Freight.

73

But the fact remains that all of these combinations have
flourished with equal rapidity, and new ones of almost equal
magnitude have arisen since the abolition of pooling. This
fact causes one to ask what would have been the result had
pooling not been in force at the time when these great combina¬
tions were forming ? It is well recognized that natural causes
aided greatly in making the three concerns just named power¬
ful monopolies. These causes had given the concerns under con¬
sideration a practical control of the market before the pooling
policy was inaugurated to any great extent. The question a
once arises as to whether these great firms could not have
obtained much greater concessions from a number of warring
railroads than from a strong pool. This is what is claimed by
the railroad men of the country. They say that no railroad will-

or, in other words, it agrees to secure to each road the proportion of the
traffic agreed upon among themselves in condition of certain special
advantages accorded over all other shippers in the matter of rates.”

An editorial in the Railroad Gazette, November 1st, 1878, says : “The
terms of the contract with the Standard Oil Company have, we believe,
never been published. Its chief features are understood to be that the
oil company guarantees to divide the whole oil traffic — not its own busi¬
ness simply, but the whole business — in whatever proportions the con¬
tracting railroads may direct, in return for which it is guaranteed a large
rebate ... on all shipments of crude oil to refineries, on the ship¬
ments of third parties as well as its own. Substantially the whole
production of petroleum is to pay the Standard Oil Company 50 cents
a barrel for affecting the distribution of business among the carriers, or
for doing the work of a pool. . . .

“ This plan is identical in principle with the plan by which the live¬
stock traffic east of Chicago has been distributed most of the time for
three years or more. That is, the railroad companies having agreed to
divide the traffic in certain proportions, engage leading shippers to bring
about the distribution for them and to pay them for this service by
giving them an allowance on all the freight shipped.” He concludes his
article, however, as follows : “ Imagine its (the Standard’s) power if, in
the absence of any control for the distribution of this freight, it had
been free to send it by whatever route it pleased from day to day ; how
it could offer the whole traffic to one if it could make greater reductions
on rates ; how it could punish any combination to maintain rates alike to
all shippers by similar action — a not uncommon policy on the part of
shippers who do not command a tithe of the traffic.”

74

Simons — Railroad Pools.

ingly grants a rebate or special favor to any individual shipper,,
but that discriminations are extorted from them by the exig¬
encies of competition. They point to the fact that great con¬
cerns like those mentioned have it in their power to ruin any
railroad which refuses to grant them favors, and that unless the
railroads are allowed to act as a unit in the matter of rates and
transmission of freight these discriminations must be granted. 11
Hence they hold that the prohibition of pools has tended to pro¬
mote trusts.12 They claim that any organization which it is
lawful for the railroads to make at the present time will be
unable to meet and overcome the demands of such great con¬
cerns as the Standard Oil and the Dressed Beef Combine. An
illustration of the weakness of the present railroad combina¬
tions under such conditions was exemplified in the recent endeavor
by the Western Traffic Association to limit the mileage paid on
private cars. This private-car mileage constitutes one of the
most dangerous forms of discrimination in vogue at the present
time.13 The most pernicious instances of its effects is seen in
the case of the Tank and Refrigerator Car Companies.

1 1 United States Report on Transportation Interests of United States
and Canada. Testimony of John McNulta, p. 39. Speaking of the
dressed beef trade he says : “ The four great packing houses, acting in
concert, control the markets, and with an advantage in rates can abso¬
lutely crush out all competition, and by the further fact that the num¬
ber of car- loads of dressed beef east from Chicago is greater than the
number of car-loads of grain shipped by rail from that city to the sea¬
board.”

12 Inter Ocean, December, 1893. Report of the testimony before a Sen¬
ate Committee on Interstate Commerce : Mr. Depew said that the

Interstate Commerce Law had been established to prevent discrimina¬
tion, but its effect had been to promote trusts, beyond anything that
had ever been dreamed of. There were eight roads between New York
and Chicago, but for all purposes of the public there was but one. If
an iron-clad rule of equal rates under equal conditions of time were
established, the New York Central and the Pennsylvania would do eight-
tenths of the business. The other roads would go into bankruptcy with
all the attendants of bankruptcy. In this way the law preventing pool¬
ing was creating trusts. If this law continued in force five years longer
Mr. Depew thought there would not be an independent business man in
any of the large cities of the United States.”

1 3 Judge Schoonmaker, in a paper read before the Third Annual Con-

Prevention of Trusts .

75-

Now no railroad willingly pays these rebates. Says Judge
Schoonmaker, of the Interstate Commerce Commission : “ The

revenues of carriers are seriously impaired by the amount these
payments add to the expenses of operation, and it is not un¬
common when rates are abnormally low that after the deduction
of these payments not even the cost of carriage is left to the
road, so that the traffic thus carried is sometimes detrimental to*
the carrier. ” 14

Thus it is seen that this practice is equally undesirable from
whatever point it is viewed. But when recently the Western
Traffic Association sought to reduce the rate of car mileage from
f cents to 6 mills per mile, the Standard Oil and the Dressed
Beef Combine were able, by playing one road off against another,,
to compel the payment of the old rate, and thus defeat the
efforts of the railroads to accomplish a very necessary reform.15*

vention of Railroad Commissioners, held in Washington, March, 1895,.
pp. 39-46 of report : “ The use by carriers of private cars of shippers in¬
stead of their own equipment has developed in the last few years to very
large proportions. . . . The principal articles for which they are used
are such staples as petroleum and cotton-seed oils, turpentine, live¬
stock, and dressed meats. . . .

. . . “ By an investigation made in 1889 it appeared that on a single
line of road between Chicago and an interior eastern point, a distance of
470 miles, refrigerator cars owned by three shipping firms made in nine
months, . . . 7,428,406 miles and earned for mileage $72,945.97, . . .
or substantially at the rate of $100,000 a year.

“ By another investigation, made in 1890, it appeared that private stock
cars . . . used upon a line made up of two connecting roads between

Chicago and New York, . . . had cost altogether $156,50u, and had

earned for mileage in two years . . . $205,582.68 ; that the entire
expense to be deducted during that period for car repairs and salaries
for their management was $34,050.48 leaving net revenue to the amount
of $171,532.20, being an excess of $15,032 above the whole cost of the cars.
The cars were therefore paid for and a margin in two years, and there¬
after, under the same arrangement, and a corresponding use of the cars,
an income of upwards of $100,000 a year was assured on an investment
fully repaid, or in effect on no investment whatever.”

14 Report of Third Annual Convention of Railroad Commissioners,
pp. 44-45.

15 Chicago Tribune, November 14th, 1894: “It appears from a com¬
munication sent to railroad managers by Chairman Midgeley that the

76

Simons — Railroad Pools.

This occurred, notwithstanding the fact that the Western Traffic
Association was backed up by the Central Traffic and Trunk
Line Association in its endeavors to secure justice to the rail¬
roads and shippers. But, say the pooling advocates, had there
been a pool covering this territory with a pre-determined
assignment of traffic, there would have been no incentive for the
weaker roads to have yielded to the demands of these concerns,
and the rate fixed by the association would have been main¬
tained.

But it is doubtful if even this latter form of discrimination
marks the final stage in the process of union between common
carriers and producing concerns. There is another and a still
closer form-— that of joint ownership. This, it is claimed by
many, will be the last step. That it is at least a possible one
is seen by the fact that it has already been taken in the case of
many coal mines, grain elevators and cotton compresses,16 as well
as the Union Stock Yards, of Chicago. This union may take
either of two forms — that of absolute ownership by the corpora¬
tion as a corporation, or the same men may hold a controlling
interest in both concerns. In the former case I can see no way
in which the pool or any other remedy could affect the case, but
where, as is so often the case, the subsiduary business is used
as a means of defrauding the small stockholders in the railroad
by placing rates upon the subsiduary product so low as to yield
no returns to the railroad while piling up the product of the
outside concern, the influence of the pool would certainly assist
the smaller stockholders in maintaining remunerative rates.

Other phases of the question which merit attention, but whose
consideration would exceed the limits of this paper, are the rela¬
tion of pools to railroad laborers, to the stock market, to rail-

Standard Oil Company and the big packers have been successful in their
efforts to get exemption from the 6 mills rate agreement and secure a
higher rate for their cars. They did not effect this by legitimate means
but they prevailed upon certain weak-backed managers to make long¬
time contracts with them at % cent per car per mile run with the Union
Tank Line Company ( Standard Oil ), and at 1 cent per mile run with
certain packing companies.”

1 6 See Message of Governor Hogg, of Texas, March 8, 1893.

Conclusion.

77

road construction, and considered as a step toward government
ownership.

In conclusion, it must be remembered that in discussing the
question of pooling we are discussing an alternative. The traffic
must be divided among the lines in some way. The question,
then, simply resolves itself into one of whether this division
shall be determined by competition or authority. And it must
be remembered that the competition which is to accomplish the
division is not the same as that governing ordinary industry,
but is of the nature which belongs to the so-called natural
monopolies. Whether such a force will accomplish as good
results as the conscious efforts of those affected is really the
question at issue.

Chicago , 111.

THE ADJUSTMENT OF RAILROAD RATES IN PRUSSIA.

BALTHASAR H. MEYER,

Fellow in Economics , University of Wisconsin.

I.

On April 1, 1895, the Prussian railroad administration was
completely reorganized. Previous to that time there had ex¬
isted two distinct official bodies (ressorts) immediately below
the Minister of Public Works, who (then as now) is the executive
head of the railroad administration. These bodies were known
as Eisenbahndirektionen and Eisenbahnbetriebsamter, respec¬
tively, the one having purely administrative functions, and the
other having direct charge of the operation of the railroads. Of
the former there were eleven and of the latter seventy-five. The
functions of both have now been united in the royal state rail¬
road directories,1 of which twenty have been created. Each
directory is composed of a president, appointed by the king,
and the requisite number of associates, two of whom may act as
substitutes2 of the president under the direction of the minister.3
Each directory has administrative control over all the railroads
in its circuit.4 It decides all cases arising out of the action of
special and of subordinate branches of the administration; and,
representing the central administration, it may acquire rights
and assume responsibilities in its behalf. Below and subordinate

1 Altona, Berlin, Breslau, Bromberg, Cassel, Cologne, Danzig, Elberfeld,
Erfurt, Essen, Frankfurt on the Main, Halle, Hannover, Kattowitz
Konigsberg, Magdeburg, Munster, Posen, St. Johann-Saarbriicken,
Stettin.

8 Ober Regierungsrath and Ober-Baurath.

3 Minister of Public Works, unless designated otherwise.

4 The subordinate administrative organs of the state (Oberprasident,
Regierungsprasident, Landrath, etc.) have certain powers over con¬
cessions, police regulations, etc.

Railroad Supervision.

79

to these directories are special administrative organs upon which
falls local supervision. The functions of the directories are gen¬
eral, while the functions of the local offices5 are special. The
local offices may be divided into six classes, according to the
work they perform, namely, operating, machine, traffic, shop,
telegraph and building offices.6 The chief inspector (Vorstand)
of each local office has power to let smaller jobs, to grant leaves
of absence, and, together with certain committee members, to
control certain kinds of railroad property, impose fines, fix
fees, etc.

Private railroads,7 which before April 1, 1895, had been
supervised by a special railroad commission, are now subject
to the jurisdiction of the president of a directory8 and his two
chief associates (substitutes). The number of miles9 supervised
by a directory depends upon various conditions, chief among
which are the geographical distribution of the railroads and the
intensity of the traffic.10

5Betriebs-, Maschinen Verkehrs-, Werkstatten Telegraph and
Bau - Inspektionen.

6 Eisenbahn-Verordnungs-Blatt, 1895, pp. 49-68, contains a full account
of the duties connected with the various classes of local offices. However,
all the important laws and regulations governing Prussian railroads are
found in “ Vorschriften filr die Verwaltung der Preussischen Staatseisen-
bahnen,” Amtliche Ausgabe, Berlin, 1895.

7 Compare Ministerial Erlass, vom 2. Marz, 1895.

8 The following directories are charged (April 1, 1895), with the super¬
vision of private roads : Altona, Berlin, Breslau, Cassel, Cologne, Elber-
feld, Erfurt, Essen, Frankfurt, Halle, Hannover, Konigsberg, Magde¬
burg, Munster, St. Johann- Saabriicken, Stettin. As there are twenty
directories and only sixteen supervise private roads, it is evident that
circuits for private roads are not identical with directorial circuits.

9 The Berlin directory supervises 587 kilometers, while Halle embraces
1,884 kilometers of state roads. Between these two extremes lie the
other circuits. It may be added here that on April 1, 1895, the private
roads represented together only 2,200 kilometers (not including 1,945
Anschlussbahnen and 71 kilometers rented to private parties) against
27,060 kilometers of state roads, of which 10,479 kilometers contained
two or more tracks.

10 That is, by the number, size, and speed of trains, which in turn
influence the nature of the track, safety appliances, and equipment in
general.

80 Meyer — Adjustment of Railroad Rates in Prussia.

All Prussian railroads, then, whether state or private, are
subject to the jurisdiction of a carefully graded administrative
system — local, intermediate and central — each part of which is
organically connected with every other part in such a manner
that, without interfering with the ability to act promptly in
cases of emergency, every act not only finds its responsible
agent, but the central organ can also make its influence felt in
the remotest branch of the system, and at the same time not.
transcend its responsibility to the public. This feature of the
Prussian system will be well illustrated by what follows on the
question of rates.

II.

But before passing on we must consider the relation of the
federal government to railroads, for it also has extensive
powers over all the railroads in the empire.11 All the powers of
the federal government over railroads may be grouped under five
heads :12

1. The right to legistate.

2. The right to grant concessions.

3. The right to control rates.

4. The right to supervise the building, operation, and admin¬
istration of railroads.

5. The right to employ the railroads for the national defense.

The federal constitution makes it the duty of the government

to cause the German railroads to be managed in the interests of
the general traffic, as a uniform network. 13 The phrase, “ as a
uniform network,” is an elastic one, and probably would suffice
to give the federal government most of the powers it exercises
yet, nine articles 14 of the constitution are either wholly or in

“There are also federal railroads — those of Elsass-Lothringen — a
number of which have been rented to Prussia, and a military road from
Berlin to the shooting grounds at Zossen. The system of rates adopted
on the federal roads after the Franco -Prussian war exerted considera¬
ble influence on the development of systems of rates in Germany.

12 Eger, Handbuch des Prussischen Eisenbahnrechts.

13Reichsverfassung Art. XLII.

]4 These are Articles IV. 8, VIII. 5, and XLI. to XLVII., inclusive.

Relation of the Federal Government to Railroads . 81

part devoted to the subject of railroads, embracing matters per¬
taining to construction, equipment, operation and repair. It
expressly declares 15 that the government shall strive to intro¬
duce a uniform system of regulations for the operation of all
German railroads, and a uniform system of rates ; that it shall
strive to secure the greatest possible reduction of rates, espe¬
cially for long hauls of articles supplying the wants of agri¬
culture and of industry, such as coal, coke, wood, ore, stone,
salt, pig-iron, fertilizers, etc. In times of distress and famine
the emperor, on recommendation of the railroad committee of
the Bundesrath 16 may temporarily fix rates for the transporta¬
tion of the necessaries of life, provided that such reduction shall
not reduce rates below those charged on the respective railroads
for the transportation of raw material.17 The constitutional pro¬
visions have, of course, been supplemented by ministerial
rescripts, royal orders and statutes. But these few sentences
sufficiently reflect the relation of the federal government to the
railroads of the empire. How this principle of responsibility
and control is carried out by the state governments we shall
now consider in the case of Prussia.

III.

The great variety and number of shipments and passenger
transfers involved in the railroad business makes it impractica¬
ble, if not impossible, for each undertaker to make a special
contract with each individual applying for railroad service.
But even if this were possible, in view of the nature of trans¬
portation and the many public and private interests involved,
it might become exceedingly prejudicial to these interests to
leave the adjustment of rates entirely in the hands of the under¬
taker, without definite legal responsibilities to the public.

Unfortunately, a considerable number of people still look upon
a railroad as a business essentially similar to any other busi-

15 Article 45.

1S By Article VIII. 5 the Bundesrath appoints from its numbers a per¬
manent committee on railroads, post and telegraph.

17 The Emperor has not yet exercised this power.

6

82 Meyer — Adjustment of Railroad Rates in Prussia.

ness, and, as such, subject to the laws of free competition. Rail¬
road rates, according to this supposition, are determined by the
same laws that determine the price of crackers and soap. Legis¬
lation (or rather lack of legislation) in accordance with these
supposed principles of the industry of transportation by rail has
often tended to perpetuate chaotic conditions rather than give
an impulse towards uniformity, system and order. Placing rail¬
roads into the category of ordinary business enterprises, we have
allowed an industrial force, more serviceable than which there is
none, to bring at times uncertainty and confusion into the
business world, when stability and order should have prevailed.
And all because we have refused to recognize the lack of identity
between a railroad and a soap factory. Although a number of
far-sighted men in our own country — and among them many
prominent railroad men — have long recognized this distinction,
the American public has been inclined to adhere to the old tra¬
dition, and it has, perhaps, too often overlooked the difference
between the railroad business and an ordinary industrial enter¬
prise. The element of monopoly in railroading, with its inevita¬
ble tendencies towards combination and consolidation, should
alone be sufficient reason for placing railroads into a distinct
category. In an ordinary business, if trade falls off, the work¬
ing force can readily be reduced, capital can be contracted,
unused machinery can be protected without difficulty or expense,
and unsold goods may be kept in store until there is a market
for them; expenses can more readily be adjusted to the volume
of trade; and the constant (fixed) expenses form a much smaller
part of the total outlay. And if trade should not revive there
is still the alternative of going into another business. Illustra¬
tions of this are easily found in every industrial community.
With railroads the case is very different. In the first place,
there is a very much greater investment-— railroads costing
from thirty or fifty to over two hundred thousand dollars per
mile. The “plant” is good for no other business. The rolling
stock may be sold to another railroad company, but the right of
way, tunnels, bridges, ties and rails would involve an enormous
loss in case of failure to continue business. When traffic is poor
the company may discharge a number of employes and run fewer

The Right of Federal Supervision.

83

trains; but ties rot, rails rust, axles run dry, grades are washed
away whether much or little business is done. A great invest¬
ment AND A RELATIVELY LARGE WORKING FORCE IS NECESSARY FOR

even A minimum of business. In fact, from seventy to seventy-
five per cent, of the expenses are constant 18 and independept of
the volume of the traffic; so that any possible economy during
business depressions can effect only about twenty-five per cent.,
or the variable factor in the expenses. It is along these lines
that the statement can be maintained that a railroad is not like
an ordinary business. And this once established, railroad legis¬
lation (e. g., on the question of pooling) must set up for itself
tasks very different from those encountered by legislation on
soap factories.

The Germans 19 early discovered and acted upon the premise
that a railroad is different from an ordinary business. They
soon recognized the limitations of the laissez faire doctrine when
applied to railroads. The fundamental railroad law of Prussia
is the law of November 3, 1838, which in all its essentials is the
law of to-day. It grew out of the discussions and negotiations
on the first applications for concessions, especially out of the
careful investigations and statesmanlike considerations preceding
the granting of the Magdeburg-Leipzig charter, which in turn
was based upon “ Grundbedingungen der Erlaubniss zu offentlichen
Eisenbahnen durch Privatunternehmungen. ” By this law20 the
state, acting through the Minister of Public Works, has the right,
after the expiration of three years from the first of January next
following the opening of the road, to supervise, approve or dis¬
approve (1) all tariff schedules, (2) any proposed change in exist¬
ing rates, and (3) the establishment of tariff instructions and
regulations, exceptional and differential rates. However, the
three-year limit is practically void because of the reservations
which the state makes in granting concessions.21 These regula-

18 Consult Ranh , Eisenbahnstarifwesen, Wien, 1895.

19 Stephenson, the father of the locomotive, is credited with the state¬
ment, “Where combination is possible competition is impossible.”

20 §§36-40.

21 Consult § § 1 and 46 of the law of 1838 ; circular letters of July 30,
1874, and May 2, 1887 ; Erlass des Ministers der Offentlichen Arbeiten
of March 2, 1895.

84 Meyer — Adjustment of Railroad Rates in Prussia.,

tions apply only to primary railroads.22 Secondary roads may,
during the first eight years of their existence, raise or lower
rates to meet their own desires, provided they do not go above
a certain maximum prescribed by the minister for that period of
time; and provided further that their rates do not conflict with
the general principles of rates enforced on state lines. But in
no case can these concessions invalidate the general supervisory
right of the state. The rates on local 23 roads are provided for
in the law of July 28, as follows : That authority upon which
the approval 24 of the project devolves is required to make an
agreement with the undertaker as to time-tables and rates, and
the periods of time in which such agreements shall be subjected
to revision, provided that the undertaker may be allowed to
establish his own rates during the first five years, and that

22 Prussian railroads are classified as :

A. State ) Which may f 1. Primary (Haupt-Vollbahnen.)

or [• be either : 2. Secondary (N eben-Sekund arbahnen.)

B. Private. ; I 3. Local ( Klein bahnen.)

^ 4. Private branches (Privatanschlussbahn-
I en.)

I 5. Isolated private roads not operated by
^ machines.

Objectively considered, there are no important differences between
primary and secondary roads. Both classes have tracks of normal
width, use similar cars and engines ; but they differ in equipment, cor¬
responding to differences in the intensity of the traffic. Secondary roads
have fewer and slower trains, a smaller percentage of brakes to axles,
etc. They are subject to different operating regulations and different
laws in their relations to the postoffice, rate schedules, etc. The law of
November 3, 1838, recognizes only primary and secondary roads. Local
roads, legally created by the law (Gesetz fiber Kleinbahnen und Pri-
vatanschlussbahnen) of July 28, 1892, are not “railroads” within the
scope of the law of 1838, and hence not subject to the provisions of gen¬
eral railway legislation. Local roads are placed into the same cate¬
gory with ordinary businesses, and as such subject to the Gewerbe-
ordnung. If, however, at any time, in the opinion of the Staatsminis-
terium (§ § 30-38, law of 1892) any local road attains such a degree o f
importance in public traffic that it may be regarded as a part of the gen¬
eral network of railroads, the state may, on payment of the full value
of such a road, and after one year's notice, add the said road to its own
system of railroads. A further discussion of the classification of
Prussian railroads would lead us too far from the main subject.

28§§ 14 and 21, law of July 28, 1892.

24 § 2, law of 1892.

Commercial and Railroad Interests.

85

thereafter the state shall only fix maximum rates; in doing
which, due consideration shall be given to the financial interests
of the road. The law reserves to the state this power, but it
does not make it a duty; and it is the policy of the state not to
interfere with any arrangements the undertaker may see fit to
make, provided he neither practices unjust discriminations nor
does anything else contrary to the interests of the public. The
law simply reserves to the state the right to act if circum¬
stances require it.

Thus far nothing has been said about external influence in
adjusting railroad rates in Prussia. This appears to me to be
really the most important and most commendable feature of the
system, at least in its bearing upon society at large. First the
legal provisions will be discussed, and then a short account will
be given of those established customs which exert a powerful
influence upon Prussian rates.

IV.

As early as 1874, through on impulse given by the chamber
of commerce of the city of Miilhausen,25 a conference between the
representatives of the commercial interests and the general im¬
perial railroad directory at Strassburg was held in that city.
The proceedings of this conference made such a favorable im¬
pression upon the head of the central railroad bureau that a
circular letter26 was addressed to all the railroads enjoining

25 Based on my manuscript notes on Dr. von der Leyen’s lectures on
“ Nationalokonomie der Eisenbahnen insbesondere Tarifwesen.” To the
same source I owe much of what is given near the close of this section
on the Generalkonferenz, Tarifkommission, etc. Dr. von der Leyen has
also made a thorough study of the railroads of the United States, and
his monographs, “ Die nordamerikanischen Eisenbahnen ” and “ Finanz-
und Verkehrsgeschichte der nordam. Eisenbahnen ” deserve a careful
perusal by every American student.

26 Circular letter of January 11, 1875 : “Diese Einrichtung bezweckt
vorzugsweise die Herstellung einer innigeren Verbindung zwischen den
mit der Verwaltung von Eisenbahnen betrauten Stellen und dem Han-
delsstande, sowie eine Versohnung der sich oft nur scheinbar entgegen-
stehenden Interessen beider. Sie wird die Vertreter der Eisenbahnen
mit den wechselnden Bedtirfnissen des Handels und der Industrie ver-

86 Meyer — Adjustment of Railroad Rates in Prussia.

them to assist in this movement towards a closer union and
better understanding between the commercial and the railroad
interests. The railroads were not very ready to respond and
the movement made little progress, until with the nationaliza¬
tion of railroads, which was vigorously pushed from about 1878,
the reform initiated by Mulhausen was elaborated and given
permanent shape in the law of June 1, 1882. This law27 creates
a class of advisory boards or councils known as Bezirkseisen-
bahnrathe, and one national council, called Landeseisenbahn-
rath. The national council is the advisory board of the central
administration, and the circuit councils of the railroad direc¬
tories (I l).28 Since the reorganization of the railway adminis¬
trative system, April 1, 1895, eight circuit councils have been
in existence.29

The national council is composed of forty members, ten of
whom are appointed and thirty elected (f 10), all holding office
for three years. Of the appointed members, three are named by
the Minister of Agriculture, Domains and Forests; three by the
Minister of Trade and Industry; two by the Minister of Finance;
and two by the Minister of Public Works. At the same time an
equal number of substitutes is appointed; provided, however,
that no immediate state official shall be appointed. The elective
members are distributed among departments and provinces, the
right to elect, including substitutes, devolving upon the vari¬
ous circuit councils. The presiding officer and his substitute
are appointed by the King. In addition, the Minister of Public
Works is empowered to call in expert testimony whenever he

trauter machen und stets auf dem Laufenden erhalten, und Anderseits
den Verkehr des Handels u. s. w. eine grossere Klarheit tiber Eigen-
thumlichkeiten des Eisenbahnbetriebs, sowie tiber die berechtigten In-
teressen der Verwaltung verschaffen und somit, ernst und massvoll
gehandelt, durch den Austausch der Ansichten auf beiden Seiten
erspriesslich wirken.” — Quoted in an article by v. d. Leyen in Schmoller’s
Jahr'buch for 1888, page 1071.

27 Gesetz, betreffend die Einsetzung von Bezirkseisenbahnrathe und
eines Landeseisenbahnraths fttr die Staatsbahnverwaltung.

28 Sections refer to the law of June 1, 1882.

29 Bromberg, Berlin, Magdeburg, Hannover, Frankfurt a. Main, Koln,
Erfurt and Breslau. Consult ministerial order of December 18, 1894.

Work of Circuit Councils.

87

may think it necessary. Such specialists (§ 11) and all members
receive for their services fifteen marks (about $3.60) per day and
free mileage (§ 21). The national council meets at least twice
during each year (§ 15) and deliberates on such matters as the
proposed budget, normal freight and passenger rates, classifica¬
tion of freight, special and differential rates, proposed changes
in regulations governing the operation of the roads, etc. It is
required to submit its opinion on any question brought before
it by the minister; or, on the other hand, it may recommend to
the minister anything which it considers promotive of the
utility and effectiveness of the railroad system. Its proceedings
are regularly submitted to the Landtag and the Herrenhaus
(3 19), where they are considered in connection with the budget
of the state household, thus establishing an “ organic connec¬
tion”30 between the national council and the parliament. In
this way the proceedings are made accessible to every one, and
an opportunity given to approve or disapprove through parlia¬
mentary representatives. It is a system of reciprocal question¬
ing and answering on part of the minister, the national council
and the parliament.

The circuit councils, which are equally important and inter¬
esting, vary considerably in the number of members.31 Magde¬
burg,32 for instance, has only twenty-four, while the council,
whose seat is at Cologne, has seventy-five. Their composition
($ 3) can best be presented in an analysis of the membership of
one such council. The council of Hannover, comprising the
railroad directories of Hannover and Munster Westfalen, seems
to be a fair type. In that council we find, April 1, 1895, one
representative from each of the chambers of commerce in Biele¬
feld, G-eestemunde, Hannover, Harburg, Hildesheim, Liineburg,
Minden Munster, Osnabriick, Ostfriesland and Papenburg,
Verden, and Wesel; one representative from each of the follow¬
ing corporations or. societies : Society of German Foundries in
Bielefeld, German Iron and Steel Industrials in Ruhrort, Trades

30 v. d. Leyen.

31 Fixed by the Minister of Public Works.

32 Beilage zum Erlass vom. 18. Dezember, 1894, gives the composition of
circuit councils.

88 Meyer — Adjustment of Bailroad Bates in Prussia.

Union of the Province of Hannover, Branch Union of Berman
Millers in Hannover, Union of Berman Linen Industrialists in
Bielefeld, Society for Beet Sugar Industry in Berlin, Society
for the Promotion of Common Industrial Interests in the Rhine
Country and Westfalen in Dusseldorf, and the Society of Berman
Distillers in Berlin; four representatives from the Royal Agri¬
cultural Society in Celle; three from the Provincial Agricultural
Society for Westfalen in Munster; one from each of the follow-
lowing: Berman Dairy Society in Schladen and Hamburg,
Society of Foresters of the Hartz, North Berman Foresters in
Hannover, Union of Forest Owners of Middle Bermany in Birn-
stein, Society for the Promotion of Moor Culture in the Ber¬
man Empire; and, lastly, Society of Berman Sea-fishers in Ber¬
lin. This one illustration is probably sufficient to impress upon
us the thoroughly representative character of the circuit coun¬
cils. If a circuit comprises railroads covering territory of
other Berman states, the chambers of commerce, industrial and
agricultural societies of such territory may also be represented
in the council (§ 4).

The circuit council, as has been indicated above, stands in a
relation to the railroad directory similar to that of the national
council to the minister. The law (3 6) makes it mandatory
upon the directory to consult the circuit council on all im¬
portant matters concerning the railroads in that circuit, especi¬
ally does this apply to time-tables and tariffs. And conversely,
the council may make recommendations to the directory. At
the same time there is sufficient elasticity in this arrangement
to meet momentary wants. In case of danger or any other
emergency the directory may act according to its own judg¬
ment, independently of the council; provided, however, that all
such cases must be reported to the standing committee (3 5) of
the council and to the council itself at its next meeting.

The significance of these councils becomes apparent when we
consider what the conditions were in Prussia before their estab¬
lishment, and what they are now. And the contrast becomes
even more striking when we reflect upon the recklessness with
which rates have been and unfortunately still are changed in the
United States. While the powers of these councils are merely

Advantages of the Prussian System. 89

advisory, no railroad administrative officer can disregard their
conclusions with impunity. By giving them only advisory
power, full legal responsibility is fixed upon the minister and
the directories. And because the administration bears full
responsibility, it is not legally compelled to act upon the con¬
clusions of the councils ; but, no matter which particular course
the administration sees fit to follow, whether in harmony with
or in opposition to the advisory councils, in either case it is
held responsible to the parliament. A railroad administration
can regard properly the commercial and industrial interests of
a country only when these interests have not only an op¬
portunity but a right to be heard. This right the Prussian
system insures to every man. Any person may either be heard
himself or have the testimony of uninterested experts presented
in his behalf. This system has been adopted by most of the
European states (France, Austria, Italy, etc.), but so far Prussia
stands alone in having given it the sanction of a special law.33

To an American business man, who often has no more influ¬
ence on railroad rates than on the appearance of a comet, the
enjoyment of privileges like those enjoyed by his Prussian col¬
league, must appear almost utopian. Yet, we have not ex¬
hausted the topic for Prussia. There are still other institu¬
tions which must be considered. Foremost among these stands
the general conference (G-eneralkonferenz), composed of repre¬
sentatives of all German railroads. It meets at least once each
year, discusses matters relating to tariffs, fees and operating
regulations. Votes are distributed according to the number of
miles of road represented. A standing committee of the gen¬
eral conference constitutes a permanent tariff commission, which
occupies itself exclusively with questions concerning freight
rates, and the recommendations or complaints of shippers. Its
proceedings form the basis of the deliberations in the general
conference. It is composed of sixteen members, fourteen rep¬
resenting German state roads, two representing private roads,
and two Swiss roads. Acting as an advisory board to the tariff
commission, which represents railroad interests, there is still

88 V. d. Leyen, Lectures. The remainder of this section is largely
taken from my notes, supplemented by material from various sources.

90 Meyer — Adjustment of Railroad Rates in Prussia.

another body known as Ausschuss der Verkehrsinteressenten, or
committee of shippers, whose members represent all parts of the
empire. It is composed of thirteen members,34 four represent¬
ing the trades,35 four the various industries, four the agri¬
cultural societies, and one from Bavaria.

There are also railway, traffic and rate unions, which, through
well established custom, exert considerable influence on railway
rates. Among these, the Verein der deutschen Eisenbahn
Verwaltungen, founded in 1846, is most important. This organi¬
zation includes representatives of the railroads of Germany,
Austria Hungary, The Netherlands, and Luxemburg. Both
state and private roads are eligible to membership. The society,
having been active during almost the entire period of the develop¬
ment of German railroads, has been an influential factor in
shaping the system. The resolutions of this body, long pub¬
lished in an official organ, usually receive the careful attention
of administrative officials, whether state or private.

But by far the most significant railway organization in the
world is the Bernese Congress — Congres international des
chemins de fer.36 Its history dates back to 1874, but it was not
until 1886 that a permanent and effective agreement was made.
The agreement was approved by Belgium, France, Germany,
Italy, Luxemburg, The Netherlands, Austria, Hungary, Russia,
and Switzerland. It has been modified and supplemented in
various ways, partly by international agreements among all
these countries, and partly by agreements among several of
them. The “convention internationale sur le transport des
marchandises ” of October 14, 1890, composed of delegates from
each of the above-named countries, adopted an international
code for freight rates. This was revised by a conference of
specialists, who met in Berne in June, 1893. A number of
changes have been made since, the last having been approved,

34 Frequently there are also members of other railroad councils. Eligi¬
ble are members of “ der Deutsche Landwirthschaftlicberrath und der
bleibende Ausschuss des Deutschen Handelstages.”

35 Handel, Landwirthschaft, und Gewerbe.

36 Consult Archiv fur Eisenbahnwesen, 1891, page 394 ; Railroad Ga¬
zette for 1887, page 511, for 1890, page 843.

The Bernese Congress.

91

for Germany, by the Bundesrath on February 7, 1895. The
Bernese treaty applies to all international freight traffic, ex¬
cepting such articles as are regularly monopolized by the post-
office departments of the contracting states, and all goods shipped
through any of them. It provides for uniform through-bills of
lading, prescribes routes for international traffic, fixes liability
in cases of delay and loss, prohibits special contracts, rebates,
and reductions, except such as are publicly made and available
to all under identical conditions, and prescribes certain custom
house regulations. It also established a Central Bureau, the
duties and powers of which may be grouped under five heads:

1. To receive communications from any of the contracting
states, and to transmit such information to the rest of them.

2. To compile and publish information of varions kinds.

3. To act as a board of arbitration on application of the coun¬
tries interested.

4. To take preliminary steps for necessary changes in the
agreement.

5. To facilitate financial transactions among the railroads ; that
is, the Bureau may act as a clearing house.

The expenses of the Bureau are met by contributions from
the contracting states in proportion to mileage.

The original agreement provided that any of the states might
withdraw at the end of three years, on giving one year’s notice.
No such notice has ever been given. The provisions drawn up
by the delegates who met in Berne have practically been made
permanent, and to see the great states of the continent united
on the basis of an international code is a fact of more than ordi¬
nary significance. Any violation of this code can be punished in
the courts. And a judgment having been given in one country
the courts of the other countries are bound to assist its execu¬
tion, except so far as it would conflict with their own laws.
But so far as the question of fact is concerned there is no appeal,
and a German court may be bound by the findings of a court in
France. Germany, Austria, Hungary, Russia, Switzerland and,
to a less extent, France have embodied provisions of the inter¬
national code in their internal code, thus leading to unification
beyond the limits of international traffic. And to what extent

92 Meyer — Adjustment of Railroad Rates in Prussia.

the Bernese treaty will influence other phases of national and
international law of the states of central Europe can not well be
foreseen. However, when we consider the fact that states dif¬
fering widely in forms of government, geographical position and
commercial interests have voluntarily made themselves amenable
to a common code of law, we can not help but be again impressed
with the great power of railroads, in strengthening, not only
commercial, but also the political bonds among nations.

The Prussian system, then, presents two groups of railway
administrative organs. The one represents railroad interests in
particular, and the other social and economic interests, both
groups meeting on common ground for the consideration of
common interests. Every industry, every trade, in short, every
interest is thus provided with a legally constituted agent,
through which it may make its wants and grievances known,
and, if necessary, call the railroad authorities to account before
the parliament. To summarize: The one group represents the
legally responsible railroad authorities, namely, (1) the Min¬
ister of Public Works, (2) the Royal Railroad directions, and
(3) the General Conference and Tariff Commission. Following
the same order, there exist, as advisory boards to the first
group, (1) the National Railroad Council, (2) the Circuit Coun¬
cils, and (3) the Committee of Shippers. These two groups are
organically connected. Independent of them are the various
traffic and rate unions, and, above all, the Bernese Congress.

V.

A few words must be added on the question of publicity of
rates. All Prussian railroads — state or private, primary, sec¬
ondary or local — are required to publish their rates under the
supervision of the same authorities which fix them. Such pub¬
lication includes all tariffs — passenger (which are also printed
on the tickets), freight, local, through rates, terminals, inci¬
dental fees, etc. And not only the bare schedules, but also the
rules and regulations governing their application, as well as all
changes which have been made in them must be published.
Every advance in rates must be published, together with the old

Publicity of Rates.

93

rates, at least six weeks before the same shall take effect.
Neither can any reduction take effect until it has been published
by consent of the proper authorities. These are legal require¬
ments, and any violation of them may be punished in the ordi¬
nary courts of law. During the last ten or fifteen years there
has been a tendency to shift points of dispute more and more
from the administrative department over into the regular chan¬
nels of the civil courts. Paragraph 35, of the law of 1838,
names the minister (then the Minister of Trades and Industry)
as that authority which shall decide disputes between under¬
takers and transporters, arising out of rate-questions. The
motive which led to this provision was that this official was
best fitted to give right decisions. But with the growth of
the railroad system and the later development of courts of justice
the opinion gained ground that the administrative department
should be released from the judicial duties imposed upon it by
§ 35 of the law of 1838. Legislation of 1876 and 1883 aimed in
that direction, and the law of April 1, 1890, transferred all
claims arising out of rate-questions to the ordinary courts of
law for redress. Thus, questions regarding the application of
rate-schedules, computation of distances, fees, etc., all come
before the courts, while the minister and his subordinates take
care that existing laws are properly enforced.

Madison, Wis.

NEGRO SUFFRAGE IN WISCONSIN.

JOHN GOADBY GREGORY,

Associate Editor of “ The Evening Wisconsin

We sometimes hear the principle of the Swiss referendum
discussed as if it were a novelty in this country, which it is
not. The Wisconsin constitutional convention of 1846 adopted
a resolution by the terms of which the question of “colored
suffrage ” was submitted to the people, to be voted upon at the
same time as the constitution, but with separate ballots, to be
placed in a separate box. The form of the proposition was that
an additional section, as follows, should be added to the article
on suffrage and the elective franchise:

“All male citizens of African blood, possessing the qualifica¬
tions required by the first section of the article on ‘suffrage and
elective franchise,’ shall have the right to vote for all officers,
and be eligible to all offices that now are or hereafter may be
elective by the people after the adoption of this constitution. ”

The constitution was rejected at the polls, and the colored
suffrage amendment met the same fate. The number of ballots
cast on the subject of the constitution was 34,851, and on the
subject of colored suffrage 22,179. The number in favor of the
constitution was 14,119; the number against it, 20,232. In
favor of colored suffrage the number of ballots cast was 7,564;
against it, 14,615. The defeat of colored suffrage, therefore,
was greater proportionately than the defeat of the constitution —
and the assumption is fair that nearly all who were in favor of
colored suffrage voted.

The sentiment demanding equal suffrage had undergone rapid
growth. Experience Estabrook, who was a delegate from Wal¬
worth County to the second constitutional convention, which
met in December, 1847, said in a speech before that body:

Growth of Equal Suffrage Sentiment.

95

“When I first came to this territory, seven years ago, a cor¬
poral’s guard could not be found to favor colored suffrage. Since
then the public mind has been progressing. Last spring the
County of Walworth gave about 400 majority in favor of it.
Racine gave a majority for it. Rock and Milwaukee gave a
large vote for it; and Waukesha gave a majority for it.”1

The article on suffrage originally submitted by the committee
on general provisions in the second constitutional convention
restricted the elective franchise to “ free white male persons, of
the age of twenty-one years or upwards, ” and conferred upon
the Legislature only the regulating authority embraced in the
following provision :

“ Laws shall be made for ascertaining by proper proofs the
persons who shall be entitled to the right of suffrage hereby
established. ”

George Scagel, a delegate from Waukesha County, moved to
strike out the word “white,” which was disagreed to. Horace
Chase, of Milwaukee, later in the proceedings made a motion
to the same effect, which was defeated by a vote of 45 to 22.

Mr. Estabrook moved to substitute a new section, granting
“universal suffrage to those now in the territory, and provid¬
ing for the further regulation of the right of suffrage by law. ”
This motion failing, he afterward moved an amendment pro¬
viding that the Legislature should at any time have the power
to admit colored persons to the right of suffrage. There was at
first a majority of one in favor of his motion, but after a long
and spirited debate the plan lost ground, and upon the question
coming up a second time the amendment was defeated by a vote
of 35 to 34.

The friends of colored suffrage in the convention took the
stand that it had been advocated in a resolution passed by the
Whig Convention in Walworth County, and that many Demo¬
crats were in favor of it, as it was in harmony with Democratic
principles. It was further argued that so far from being an
Abolitionist measure, it would take from under the Abolitionists

1 Winnebago, Marquette, Fond du Lac, Dodge and Jefferson Counties
also gave majorities for it. The largest majority for it was in Wauke¬
sha County, where the vote was : Yes, 1,107; no, 617.

96

Gregory — Negro Suffrage in Wisconsin.

the ground on which they stood, as it would leave them no cause
of complaint. The opponents of the principle argued that the
people had decided against it, and that if embodied in the con¬
stitution it would result in the rejection of that instrument by
the voters at the polls; or, if not that, then its rejection by
Congress. To the objection last enumerated, the retort was
made that Congress could not refuse to accept a state constitu¬
tion for the reason that it guaranteed a republican form of
government.

Finally a compromise was arrived at. The article on suffrage
in the constitution adopted by the convention and ratified by the
people on the second Monday of March, 1848, conferred the right
of suffrage not only upon the whites, but also upon “persons of
Indian blood who have once been declared by law of Congress to
be citizens of the United States, any subsequent law of Congress
to the contrary notwithstanding,” and upon “civilized persons
of Indian descent not members of any tribe.” It furthermore
provided “ that the Legislature may at any time extend by law
the right of suffrage to persons not herein enumerated;” stipu¬
lating, however, that “no such law shall be in force until the
same shall have been submitted to a vote of the people at a gen¬
eral election, and approved by a majority of all the votes cast
at such election. ”

It is a fact not popularly known that since 1849 members of
the African race have been clothed by the law of Wisconsin with
the right to vote. There is an element of romantic interest in
the circumstance that the law which took down the color-bar to
citizenship remained in abeyance for nearly seventeen years.

The state had been organized for less than twelve months
when the Legislature provided for the submission to the people
of a law extending the elective franchise to persons of African
blood. Sentiment on the subject was not confined within party
lines. In the constitutional convention, as we have seen, Horace
Chase, who was a sterling old-school Democrat, was one of the
foremost advocates of a liberal provision regarding negro suf¬
frage. The same Legislature that submitted this law to the
people had elected a Democrat, Isaac P. Walker, to the United
.States Senate. Within three months after Walker’s election it

The Election of 181+9.

97

had passed a joint resolution calling upon him to resign, because
he had worked for the admission of California to the Union with
a- constitution which did not prohibit slavery. The Free Soil
movement had made large headway among the people, and there
was a disposition, irrespective of party, to resent the arrogant
attitude of the South. The measure that submitted the negro
suffrage problem anew to the arbitrament of the people con.
tained ambiguities in its phraseology which occasioned a mis¬
understanding that lasted for many years. It may be worth
while, therefore, to very particularly examine the text of this
act. The first section contained these directions:

“A separate ballot may be given at the ensuing general elec¬
tion by every person having a right to vote, to be deposited in
a separate box, upon the question of the adoption as a law of
section 2 of this act. Upon the ballots given for the adoption
of section 2 of this act shall be written or printed, or partly
written and partly printed, the words, ‘Equal suffrage to col¬
ored persons. Yes.’ And upon the ballots given against the
adoption of section 2, in a like manner, the words, ‘ Equal suf¬
frage to colored persons. No.’ And said ballot shall be so
folded that the words ‘ Equal suffrage ’ shall appear on the out¬
side. If at the said election a majority of all the votes cast at
such election shall be given in favor of equal suffrage to colored
persons, then said section 2 of this act shall become a law. ”

The second section of the act provided that “every male col¬
ored inhabitant of the age of twenty-one years or upwards who
shall have resided in this state for one year next preceding any
election, shall be deemed a qualified elector at such election and
eligible to hold any office in the state,” subject, of course, to the
regulations applying to other classes of voters.

At the general election held on the 7th of November, 1849,
there were duly cast in the State of Wisconsin 5,265 votes in
favor of this law and 4,075 against it. The total vote on
the suffrage amendment being less than 10,000, while the vote
for governor at the same election amounted to 30,000, it was
tacitly assumed that the suffrage law had been defeated. Gen.
Rufus King, the editor of the Sentinel, had been one of the advo-

7

98

Gregory — Negro Suffrage in Wisconsin.

cates of the ratification of the law. But the Sentinel, comment¬
ing on the returns of the election, said:

“ If the true construction be, as we presume it is, that a
majority of all the persons voting at the election must vote for
free suffrage, in order to its adoption, the effect is to count
every blank vote on the question as a negative one. Thus, in
this city, though there is a majority of the votes cast on the
question in favor of free suffrage, there is not 1 a majority of all
the votes cast at the election.’ And so, we think, it will be
found throughout the state. ”

The state board of canvassers construed the law in accordance
with this assumption, and no one came forward to dispute the
correctness of the assumption until 1865. In the meantime, in
the belief that the law of 1849 was invalid, the question of negro
suffrage had been twice submitted for the vote of the people. In
1857, when the state was so nearly divided between the Demo¬
crats and the Republicans that Alexander Randall, the Republi¬
can candidate for governor, went in by a bare majority of 454, in
a total vote of nearly 89,000, the number of votes cast on the
suffrage amendment was only 60,000, and there was a majority
of 12,000 against it. The fullest direct expression of the people
on the subject of negro suffrage occurred at the general election
of 1865. On the governorship the number of ballots cast in the
election of that year was 105,181, while the vote on the suffrage
amendment was 100,555. Gen. Fairchild, the Republican can¬
didate for governor, was elected by a majority of 9,097, but the
opponents of negro suffrage were successful by a majority of
8,059.

The Milwaukee Wisconsin on the day after this election
observed :

“Yesterday the right of suffrage to colored men was un¬
doubtedly defeated. We had hoped this question might be settled
at this election; but both Union men and Copperheads determined
that equal rights should not prevail in Wisconsin. ”

Yet at this very moment, when friends of negro suffrage were
disheartened, the first steps had been taken in a proceeding
which was to demonstrate that negro suffrage was already pro¬
vided for by law.

The Gillespie Case.

99

On the 31st of October, 1865, Ezekiel Gillespie, a Milwau¬
keean of mixed African blood, and a resident of the Seventh
Ward, requested the board of registry of that ward, then in
session, to register his name as an elector, which the board
refused to do, on the ground that he was a person of color, and
not entitled to vote. On the following election day Mr. Gillespie
offered his vote, accompanied by an affidavit giving the reasons
why his name did not appear on the registry list of voters, and
also accompanied by the affidavits of two householders of the
Seventh Ward to the effect that they knew him to be a resident
of that ward. The inspectors of election for the ward, Henry
L. Palmer, William H. Williams and Andrew H. McCormick,
refused to accept his ballot, whereupon Mr. Gillespie brought
suit against the board of inspectors in the Circuit Court for Mil¬
waukee county. Byron Paine appeared as counsel for Mr. Gil¬
lespie, and D. G. Hooker for the board of inspectors. The de¬
fendants demurred to the complaint, setting up the claim that
it did not state facts sufficient to constitute a cause of action.
By stipulation, notice of trial was waived, and the case was put
on the calendar and submitted without argument, judgment
being rendered pro forma sustaining the demurrer. The object
of this was to bring the matter without delay before the state
Supreme Court, to which Mr. Gillespie’s attorney at once took
an appeal. The justices of the Supreme Court at that time
were three in number. Luther S. Dixon was chief justice, and
Jason Downer and Orsamus Cole were his associates. The main
opinion in this case, overruling the order of the Circuit Court,
was written by Justice Downer. With reference to the meaning
of the phrase, “Approved by a majority of all the votes cast at
such election, ” he said :

“Three different constructions of this clause were suggested
on the argument: 1st. That it required that the extension of
suffrage should be approved by a majority of all the votes, on
all subjects and for all officers , cast at such election. 2d. That
it should be approved by a majority of all the voters voting at
such election. 3d. That it should be approved by a majority of
all the votes on that subject cast at such election. ... If
the first construction, requiring a majority of all the votes on

100 Gregory — Negro Suffrage in Wisconsin.

all subjects and for all offices, cast at such election, in favor of
the extension of suffrage, before it can be adopted, is the true
construction, then the same voter might cast one vote in favor
of the extension, and in voting for the candidates for the dif¬
ferent offices cast ten votes which would be counted against the
very measure he voted for. The absurdity involved in the first
construction is conclusive against it. To adopt the second con¬
struction would be to say that the word ‘votes,’ in the clause
in question, meant the same as the word ‘voters.’ ... If,
however, we should concede that the clause in question could be
construed to mean, or was equivalent to, ‘approved by a ma¬
jority of all the voters voting at such election,’ it would not
follow that it had reference to a majority of voters voting on
any other measure than the one mentioned in the proviso; or
that the number of votes cast at such election for the candidates
for any office should determine whether the suffrage was extended
or not. . . . Under the provisions of our constitution, as

well as of other constitutions, persons are elected to a particular
office who have a majority of the votes cast — not for the candi¬
dates for some other office, but for the candidates for that office.

To declare a measure or law adopted or defeated — not
by the number of votes cast directly for or against it, but by
the number cast for and against some other measure, or for the
candidates for some office or offices, not connected with the
measure itself, would not only be out of the ordinary course of
legislation, but, so far as we know, a thing unknown in con¬
stitutional law . According to section 1,

article 12 of the constitution, the Legislature may propose
amendments to it, and if they are approved ‘by a majority of the
voters voting thereon ’ at the time prescribed by the Legislature,
the amendments become a part of the constitution. The right
of suffrage by such amendment could be given to colored per¬
sons. Is it probable that the framers of our constitution required
more votes to extend the right of suffrage in one way than in
another? . . . We see no reason for such a conclusion."

Chief Justice Dixon, agreeing with Justice Downer, wrote:

"I do not see how the language could ever have been the sub¬
ject of doubt or controversy. To me, to whom the question was

Wisconsin's Course Approved.

101

new when this case was presented, it has seemed from the very
first that the meaning was, a majority of all the votes cast upon
the subject. ”

Justice Cole did not write an opinion, but he also concurred.
The decision sustaining the validity of the law was upheld by
the full bench.

The day has gone by when suffrage was glowingly regarded as
an end. We recognize it now as merely a means toward an end.
There are among us intelligent people who grumble at the
results — or what they conceive to be the results — of universal
manhood suffrage in the United States. Did our fathers blunder
when by extending the franchise they sought to expand the limits
of human freedom? My purpose in this paper has been to present
fact, not to blossom into theory. It is a fact, I take it, that
the liberal suffrage provisions of our law are a noble monument
to a glorious faith in the approximate perfectibility of humanity.
As a native and a citizen of Wisconsin, I am proud that at an
early stage of her career, and in advance of nearly all of her
sister commonwealths, she turned into the broad path in which
they have seen fit to follow.

Milwaukee , Wis.

THE SCIENTIFIC IMPORTANCE OF MORE COMPLETE
VITAL STATISTICS OF THE STATE OF WISCONSIN.

U. O. B. WINGATE, M. D.,

Secretary State Board of Health.

Section 1023 of the Revised Statutes provides as follows:

“Every physician, or other professional person, under whose
care a birth shall take place, shall at once make a record thereof,
in a book therefor, which shall contain, so far as can be ascer¬
tained, the full name of the child, if any shall have been con¬
ferred, its sex, color, names of any other child or children of the
same parents living, full name and occupation of the father, full
name of mother previous to marriage, the day, hour and place
in and at which such birth occurred, and shall within thirty
days after such birth return the same facts in the form of a cer¬
tificate, duly dated and signed by him, to the register of deeds
of the county in which such birth shall have taken place. In
case any birth shall occur without the care of a physician, or
other professional person, and no physician or other such person
shall be in attendance professionally upon the mother immedi¬
ately thereafter, the parent or parents of such child shall certify
and make return of such birth to the register, in the manner
and form, and within the period above required. ”

Section 1024 provides that: “Every physician or surgeon,
who shall be in attendance professionally at the time of the
death of any person, shall at once make a record of such death
in a book therefor, which record shall, so far as can be ascer¬
tained, contain the full name, sex, color, age, occupation, place
of birth, name of parents, time and place of death, and the dis¬
ease or cause of death, and, if within his knowledge, the name
of the burial ground in which interred, and, if married at the

Provisions of Law not Complied With . 103

time of such death, the name of the husband or wife; and shall
within thirty days after such death, return the same facts in the
form of a certificate, duly dated and signed by him, to the reg¬
ister of deeds of the county in which such death shall have
occurred. ”

Section 1028 provides that: “Every physician or surgeon,
or other professional person, under whose care a birth shall take
place, or who shall be present professionally at any death, who
shall neglect to make and return any certificate required to be
made by sections 1023 and 1024, shall for every such neglect
forfeit not less than $50.00 nor more than $100.00.”

The law also provides that every physician, surgeon or other
professional person, who shall comply with the provisions of
these two sections of law, shall receive for each certificate re¬
turned to the register of deeds, and certified to as provided by
said sections, the sum of fifteen cents, to be audited and paid
out of the treasury on an itemized account, verified by his oath,
and that the register of deeds shall keep a carefully prepared
copy of these records in books kept in his office, and also shall
transmit a copy of the same annually to the Secretary of State.
This law does not apply to the City of Milwaukee.

Another section of law provides that the Secretary of the
State Board of Health “shall be Superintendent of Vital Sta¬
tistics, and under the direction of the Secretary of State collect
the statistics of marriages, births and deaths, and prepare and
publish the report thereof required by law. ”

There are at present seventy counties in the State of Wis¬
consin, and for the purpose of ascertaining to what extent these
laws are complied with, I have recently sent to the register of
deeds of each county the following list of questions :

1st. Is the law requiring the report of births and deaths generally ob¬
served in your county ; if not, to what extent ?

2nd. Are all certificates of death signed by a physician or coroner ?

3rd. Are certificates of births signed by physicians or midwives ?

4th. Is a burial permit required in any part of your county to be filed
with any local authority before the interment of a body ?

5th. Do you make complete annual returns of births and deaths to
the Secretary of State ?

104 Wingate — Importance of More Complete Vital Statistics.

I have received replies to these questions from sixty-eight
counties, as follows :

To the first question, “ Is the law requiring the report of
births and deaths generally observed in your county; if not, to
what extent?”

15 reply, “ Yes.”

1 replies, “ Yes, except two physicians.”

1 replies, “Yes, as to births; about 10 per cent, of deaths reported.”

1 replies, “Yes, as to births; less than one-half deaths reported.”

2 reply, “Yes, to a great extent.”

3 reply, “ Yes, births; deaths, no.

1 replies, “Yes, in city ; outside about two-thirds reported.”

2 reply, “ Yes, except by one physician.”

5 reply, “ Pretty generally.”

3 reply, “ Fairly well.”

1 replies, “No, except at county seat.”

2 reply, “ No, very small per cent, reported.”

1 replies, “No, about one-half births; hardly any deaths reported.”

2 reply, “ No, probably one-half one-half deaths and two-third births

reported.”

1 replies, “No, probably not more than one-third of each reported.”

3 reply, “No, about three-fourths reported.”

1 replies, “ No, births are reported except by one physician and sev¬
eral midwives ; very few deaths reported.”

3 reply, “No, about one-third reported.”

1 replies, “ No, only three physicians and one midwife make reports.”
1 replies, “ No, as many employ no physician or midwife.”

3 reply, “ Perhaps two-thirds are reported.”

1 replies, “ Probably one-fourth are reported.”

1 replies, “ Hardly any deaths; less than one-third of births reported.”
1 replies, “About one- half of births, and seventy-five per cent, of
deaths reported.”

3 reply, “ Some physicians report ; several not at all.”

1 replies, “About one-tenth not reported.”

1 replies, “ Physicians very negligent ; many do not report at all.”

1 replies, “About one-fourth deaths, and three-fourth births re¬

ported.”

2 reply, “ About one-third births and deaths reported.”

1 replies, “ Births about one-half; deaths less than one-half reported.”
1 replies, “ Only partly ; many midwives do not make any report ;

some clergymen reported births and deaths, but the
county board disallowed their bills.”

1 replies, “ About one half births and one tenth deaths reported.”

How Laws are Complied With.

105

In answer to the second question, “Are all certificates of
■death signed by a physician or coroner?”

12 reply, “ Yes.”

1 replies, “Yes, mostly so.”

1 replies, “ I think so.”

29 reply, “ By physicians.”

7 reply, “ By physicians and clergymen.”

2 reply, “By physicians and undertakers.”

2 reply, “ By physicians and justices of the peace.”

1 replies, “ By physicians and health officers.”

1 replies, “ By physicians, coroners and midwives.”

1 replies, “ By physicians, clergymen and coroner.”

1 replies, “ By physician or person returning same.”

1 replies, “ By physician, sometimes by relative.”

1 replies, “ By physician, coronor, clergyman or relatives.”

1 replies, “ By clergymen mostly.”

1 replies, “No, the only ones received signed by nurse.”

1 replies, “ No, have had reports not signed by either.”

2 reply, “No, mostly by undertakers.”

2 reply, “No.”

1 replies, “ No, some signed by superintendent of cemetery.”

In reply to the third question, “Are certificates of births
signed by physician or mid wives ?”

48 reply, “Yes.”

7 reply, “Physicians, mid wives and parents.”

3 reply, “By physicians and clergymen.”

2 reply, “ By physicians, midwives, clergymen and parents.”

1 replies, “By physicians mostly.”

2 reply, “ By physicians.”

1 replies, “ No, by nurse.”

1 replies, “ No, mostly by clergymen.”

2 reply, “ By midwives principally.”

In reply to the fourth question, “Is a burial permit required
in any part of your county to be filed with any local authority
before the interment of a body?”

1 replies, “Yes.”

2 reply, “Yes, in one city ; in country, no.”

1 replies, “Yes, to be filed with town clerk.”

1 replies, “ Yes, in one city; in country think not.”

1 replies, “ Yes, in cities ; in country don’t know.”

1 replies, “Yes, with the health officer in cities and villages.”

106 Wingate — Importance of More Complete Vital Statistics.

1 replies, “ Yes, in two cities.”

1 replies, “ Yes, in one city; filed with city clerk.”

40 reply, “ No.”

1 replies, “ No, not where parties have lot in cemetery, but otherwise

from city sexton.”

4 reply, “ Think not.’8

2 reply, “ Don’t know.”

8 reply, “Not that I know of.”

1 replies, “ In one city, except Catholics.”

1 replies, “ Health officer is required to keep same on file.”

In reply to the fifth question, “Do you make complete annual
returns of births and deaths to the Secretary of State?”

All answered “Yes,” so far as returns to them are received.

It will be seen by these answers that under the present laws
in this great state of nearly, if not quite two million people, and a.
rapidly increasing population, we have nothing that can be
called by the name of Vital Statistics. We do not know how
many children are born each year, nor the nationality of the
parents thereof; nor do we know how many of our people are
dying, of what they are dying, or whether they die a natural
death or are killed. It is an easy matter for any one with crim¬
inal intent to dispose of a body, outside of a few cities in the
state, without any return being made as to the cause of death,
or without being required to obtain a permit for burial to be
filed with any official authority.

Can there be anything more humiliating to the mind of those
who are interested in the growth, prosperity and reputation of
this great state?

No state or nation can understand itself without maintaining
as accurate a record as possible of all that pertains to its growth
and decay. This knowledge is not only necessary for our own
present needs, but it would seem to be a sacred duty to transmit
such knowledge to our children, and to future generations, for
their advantageous use and common welfare.

A G-erman historian has said that, “ History is statistics ad¬
vancing, and statistics are history. ”

It will require but very limited thought on the part of a care¬
ful student, in this age of our world, to recognize the great

Necessity of Reliable Data .

107

necessity of the most accurate statistics possible to enable one
to arrive at correct conclusions, and there is no more important
department in statistics than that of vital statistics, upon which
we must depend to gain information relative to the most vital
and important questions with which we have to deal, as, for in¬
stance, epidemic diseases, their extent and character; diseases
of the circulatory, respiratory, and other organs ; diseases of
the nervous system and the brain, including insanity in its vari¬
ous forms, which are generally recognized to be increasing; the
question of degeneracy, and a large number of other morbid or
pathologic conditions with the prevalence and fatality of which
we must become familiar in order to know how to prevent them
and to combat their influences.

The older countries, and some of our older states, have learned
the value and importance of such statistics, and have enacted
very stringent laws, which are rigidly enforced, and it would
seem that the time has arrived for this great state to arise to
the dignity of maintaining a position second to none in such an
important matter as this, as well as in other matters which she
does maintain, and of which her inhabitants may justly feel proud.

Such statistics are of the greatest importance in nearly every
relation of life, and are becoming almost indispensable daily in
a large number of relations besides those already referred to, as,
for instance, in the administration of estates ; adjustment of
life insurance and pension claims; in the relation of marriage and
legacies; the relation of guardians and wards; the detection and
punishment of crime ; the requirements of foreign countries rela¬
tive to various matters; the problem of child labor and educa¬
tion; the matter of voting, jury service, etc., etc.

One case recently came under my own observation that may
serve as an example of many, where a man died and was buried,
but no certificate of death was filed as to the cause of death, nor
could any records be obtained that could be used in evidence;
the man was a member of an insurance organization, and his
heirs entitled under certain conditions to a sum of money, but
the requirements could not be complied with, as no records could
be produced as to the cause of death.

Many instances similar, or worse, might be related.

108 Wingate — Importance of More Complete Vital Statistics.

For a number of years the State Board of Health has asked to
have laws enacted that can be enforced whereby more complete
vital statistics can be obtained, and much time and study have
been expended by members of that board in framing bills for
our Legislature, all of which have failed to receive sufficient
attention to become laws.

Is not this subject of sufficient importance to enlist the coop¬
eration of this academy, and is it asking too much to urge you
to give this matter your careful consideration, and to aid the
State Board of Health in its efforts for better things?

Milwaukee , Wis.

FLORAL STRUCTURE OF SOME GRAM I NEAL

HERMAN F. LUEDERS.

WITH PLATE IV.

Several years ago, in the study of the native vegetation of
Wisconsin, I was able to note in a number of species interest¬
ing variations from the admitted specific characters, most of
them, however, proving to be only local, or temporary, and
therefore not deserving of further notice; but in a few in¬
stances they seemed to represent more constant structural modi¬
fications from the recognized type, so as to merit a notice from
workers in the domain of systematic botany.

Having been unable to give this subject as complete an ex¬
amination as it seems to merit, I take this opportunity merely
to present my observations and suggest the consideration of the
subject by others more able to conduct a thorough investiga¬
tion.

The specific characters quoted below are those given in the
sixth edition of the Manual of Botany of Northern United
States, embodying, as it does, the conservative authoritative
views on classification.

Panicum proliferum Lam. — “ Sterile flower none; spikelets
pale green, rarely purplish ; lower glume broad, the length
of the upper, which is little longer than the following one. ”

All specimens of P. proliferum that I have been able to examine
possessed a sterile flower which was represented by a large glume
and generally a delicate palet so as to make the description of
the spikelet run as follows: Spikelet about 1 line long; lower
empty glume the length of upper, broad, 1-3-nerved; upper
empty glume 7-9-nerved, strongly convex, bluntish: sterile
flower present, its flowering glume 5-nerved, slightly shorter
than second empty glume, which it resembles in shape and text-

110 Lueders — Floral Structure of Some Graminece .

ure; palet (sometimes absent ?) 2-nerved, hyaline, very thin,
■J— f the length of glume: fertile flower shorter than sterile; its
glume and palet chartaceous: whole spikelet purplish.

Andropogon furcatus Muhl. — “Sterile spiklet staminate. ”
Instead of the condition thus indicated (both in the descrip¬
tion of species and character of section), specimens collected dur¬
ing various seasons in Wisconsin, Illinois, Massachusetts, Penn¬
sylvania, present a wide range of variation in structure of
pedicelled spikelet so as to justify apparently the following
characterization :

Pedicelled spikelet various, sometimes consisting only of 2
reduced empty glumes, sometimes two-flowered, in which case the
lower flower may be perfect.

Between the extremes thus indicated lie numerous interme¬
diate forms. As these: (a) spikelet consisting of two normal
empty glumes; (b) spikelet consisting of two normal empty
glumes inclosing 1 reduced flowering glume and palet; (c)
spikelet consisting of normal empty glumes and sterile flower
of 3 stamens inclosed by flowering glume and palet of average
size; upper flower represented by the flowering glume. The
following is the detailed description of the most perfect con¬
dition observed:

Lower empty glume convex-keeled, acute, 7-nerved, longer
than upper glume which is 3-5-nerved, carinate, acute, thinner
than upper one; both roughened along edge and keel: lower
flower shorter than empty glumes, its flowering glume blunt
membranaceous, hyaline, 1-nerved, erose-ciliate above; palet hya¬
line, thin, § length of flowering glume, nerveless: stamens 3:
upper flower represented by a glume equalling that of fertile
flower, broadly-convex, 1-nerved, hyaline, erose-ciliate above.

Thus far I have not ascertained whether these perfect flowers
were capable of producing seed, or are still sterile.

Sauk City, Wis.

Trans. Wis. Acad. Vol. XI.

Plate IV.

Lueders on Gramineje.

Explanation of Plate.

Ill

Explanation of Plate IV.

Panicum proliferum Lam.

Fig. 1. Entire spikelet before anthesis.

Fig. 2. Empty glumes. I , lower, w, upper.

Fig. 3. Sterile flower.

Fig. 4. Its glume.

Fig. 5. Its palet.

Fig. 6. Fertile flower.

Andropogon furcatus Muhl.

Fig. 7. Pedicelled spikelet in its most aborted state, two re¬
duced empty glumes.

Fig. 8. Spikelet of empty glumes enclosing reduced flower.

Fig. 9. Spikelet of empty glumes enclosing flowering glume
nd palet of normal size.

Fig. 10. Spikelet with lower flower staminate and upper
flower represented by glume. (Condition described in Manual,
though glume of upper flower is not mentioned.)

Fig. 11. Pedicelled spikelet perfect — closed.

Fig. 12. Same as fig. 11, displayed, a , Upper empty glume.

Lower empty glume, c, Lower flowering glume, d , Glume
of abortive upper flower, e, Palet of perfect flower.

ON THE ANALYSIS OF THE WATER OF A FLOWING
ARTESIAN WELL AT MARINETTE WISCONSIN.

W. W. DANIELLS.

Professor of Chemistry , University of Wisconsin.

The mineral matter contained in the water of the well de¬
scribed below differs so widely from that of other similar wells-
in Wisconsin which I have analyzed that it seems worthy of
being made a matter of record.

The following facts relating to the history of the well are
kindly furnished me by Hon. Isaac Stephenson.

“The well was drilled in August, 1895, on my residence prop¬
erty in the city of Marinette. The shaft passes through lime
rock, light and reddish sandstone and narrow strata of slate for
the first two hundred feet. We first struck water in a lime¬
stone crevice at a depth of four hundred and five feet. It was
quite a flow. We then drilled five feet more and struck another
crevice with a greater flow. We continued drilling through
limestone, sandstone and slate to a depth of seven hundred and
sixteen feet when we struck granite and stopped. There is no
flow below four hundred and ten or fifteen feet.” “We put
packing down at a depth of four hundred and fifty-seven feet,
fearing that the water might escape below. Then we piped
with four inch pipe with packing down three hundred and
thirty-three feet. The water then raised to a height of twenty-
one feet above the surface, and comes from the limestone” be¬
tween four hundred and four hundred and twenty feet below the
surface.

Mr. Stevenson also reports the temperature of the water as
49° F., and that (Feb., 1896) “the water continues to flow as
rapidly as at first. ”

The following table gives the various ingredients found in the

Analysis of Water of an Artesian Well at Marinette.

113

water expressed in milligrams per liter (parts per million), and
in grains per U. S. standard gallon of 231 cubic inches:

Milligrams
per liter.

Grains

per

gallon.

Sodium as oxide (Na20) .

63.22

3.6927

Potassium as oxide (K20) .

11.10

0.6473

Calcium as oxide (CaO) .

299.60

17.4721

Magnesium as oxide (MgO) .

124.04

7.2338

Aluminium as oxide (Al2Os) .

9.84

0.5733

Iron as oxide (Fe2Os) .

4.26

0.2484

Chlorine .

115.30

6.7241

Sulphuric acid (H 8 SO 4 ) .

713.84

41.6297

Silica (SiOg) .

5.20

0.3033

Carbon dioxide (C 02) .

121.50

6.0856

Following the usual method of expressing the results of
water analysis, the constituents found have been grouped as
follows :

Milligrams
per liter.

Grains

per

gallon.

Sodium chloride .

119.50

7.649

Potassium sulphate .

20.46

1.193

Calcium sulphate .

727.60

42.432

Magnesium sulphate .

182.34

10.634

Aluminium sulphate .

47.27

2.757

Magnesium chloride .

69.51

4.054

Magnesium bicarbonate .

52.75

3.076

Iron bicarbonate .

9.48

0.553

Silica .

5.20

0.303

Madison , Wis.
8

SOME USES OF THE LOW POTENTIAL ALTERNATING
CURRENT IN A CHEMICAL LABORATORY.

MILO S. WALKER, PH. D.

Teacher of Chemistry and Physics, Racine High School.

In this paper the author does not claim to have discovered
any action of the arc light that is not already known to chem-
ists. .'4

He desires only to give a few suggestions as to the way in
which the highest temperature at our command can be obtained
and used in every chemical laboratory supplied with a fixture
for incandescent lighting.

Many colleges and secondary schools are now equipped with
these fixtures and others can obtain them at but little cost.
There is no practical reason why we should not use these con¬
veniences for some experiments which cannot be performed with
a Bunsen burner or a blow pipe.

In some recent experiments with lamps designed for optical
projection I have had experience in working with some of the
arc lights now in practical use. It was noticed that the alter¬
nating current of about 50 volts and 5 amperes, now generally
used for incandescent lighting, furnishes an excellent arc for
chemical experimentation. It is very efficient and can be han¬
dled by students as easily and safely as a Bunsen burner or al¬
cohol lamp.

The apparatus required is an iron or wooden stand, a screw
clamp, like those used for holding burettes, insulated copper
wire, some electric light carbons and a rheostat.

The copper wire should consist of a piece of the so-called 10
ampere flexible lamp cord connected at one end with a plug set
in the socket from which an electric lamp has been removed.
The two parts at the other end of the twisted cord are left free.

Alternating Current in a Chemical Laboratory. 115

Besides this two pieces of ordinary insulated copper wire No-
18, 19, 20 or 21 and 70 cm. long will be required. All the
wires can be supplied and fixed by any dealer in electrical sup¬
plies.

The rheostat is the most expensive part of the apparatus.
Any commercial rheostat capable of carrying 12 amperes will
answer all ordinary purposes. It is necessary to have a resist¬
ance in the circuit and the current must be started with a high
resistance. It may be lessened afterwards until the proper
strength is obtained.

The assorted carbons may be J to in. in diameter. I use
the cored carbons almost entirely. They are much better than
the uncored.

Carbons differ much in quality; some contain considerable
quantities of metallic carbides and carbonates. I have found
that those manufactured specially for optical projection gener¬
ally contain less of these substances, but these also show vari¬
able quantities of metals and earths.

The arc lamp may be used for the following purposes:

1. To show the effect of high temperatures upon difficultly
fusible and non-volatile substances.

2. For reduction of ores.

3. As a partial substitute for the blow pipe in qualitative
analyses.

4. For synthetic preparation of compounds of carbon from the
elements.

There is a wide range of experiments showing the effect of
the electric arc upon substances almost infusible by other means.
One may proceed as follows:

Fasten or suspend a cored carbon in a vertical position so
the lower end is about 10 cm. from top of table. Connect by
wrapping around the carbon a piece of insulated copper wire
stripped of insulation where contact is made with carbon.

Take a piece of cored carbon about 4 cm. long and bore a
conical shaped cavity in one end about 5 mm. deep. Connect
this carbon with insulated wire like the first and join both
wires with opposite poles of circuit. Fix the lower carbon in
a holder, a clamp fastener, a wire test tube holder or a pair of

116

Walker — Some Uses of the Low Potential

tongs will do. To avoid shocks the handle should be insu¬
lated.

Bring the shorter carbon so the lower end of the vertical
carbon touches the edge of the cavity. Separate the carbon
slightly and adjust the rheostat so an arc % to -J in. long
passes between the carbons.

Only a little practice is required to obtain very high tem¬
perature under good control.

It is better to protect the eyes with a dark glass.

Place in the conical cavity a small piece of a substance to be
tested. Most minerals and the common metals fuse easily. A
piece of quartz the size of a grain of wheat can be fused com¬
pletely. A piece the size of a pea will fuse on one side.

Iron, copper and manganese are easily obtained from their
oxides in nearly pure form.

If the core is removed from the upper carbon and a stream of
hydrogen or coal gas passed through the carbon tube thus
formed, molybdenum and tungsten can be obtained from their
oxides in more or less pure condition. The stream of reducing
gas prevents reoxidation while cooling.

The manipulation is so easy that even young students can
obtain beads of iron, copper or manganese after a few minutes
practice.

In using the arc as an aid to or partial substitute for the
blow pipe the carbons should be tested for the metals they gen¬
erally contain and allowance made for such. However, these
give but little trouble in ordinary qualitative analyses.

For preliminary tests the upper carbon should be 10 cm. in
length and to make the test as delicate as possible it should be
passed through a cork fitted into one end of a large glass tube
8 cm. long. A lamp chimney is best. Through the cork a
glass tube 5 mm. diameter and 6 cm. long should be passed
near the carbon and bent above the cork so as to form an angle
of 30° with the carbon.

Adjust the large tube so the point of the carbon is about 3
cm. above the opening.

Put the substance to be tested in the cavity of shorter car¬
bon as in case of simple fusion and heat in the same way.

Alternating Current in a Chemical Laboratory. 117

Notice whether there is a perceptible odor at upper end of
small glass tube and whether anything collects on the glass of
either tube. All volatile substances that condense at ordinary
temperatures and all perceptible odors will be noticed in a few
seconds. The operator can soon determine whether the analysis
should be continued with the high heating arc or the milder
heat of an ordinary blow pipe.

The range of blow pipe work is thus increased to a consider¬
able extent.

Some experiments on the synthesis of the hydrocarbons from
their elements have been tried.

Acetylene is easily prepared by passing hydrogen through or
along side of the arc contained in the following apparatus.

Fit a gas tight cork into each end of a straight lamp chimney.
Pass brass tubes 1 cm. diameter and 15 cm. long through each
cork.

Into one end of each brass tube put a tube of carbon 3 cm.
long. These tubes are made by boring out the core of a cored
carbon with a steel wire.

This operation is slow, but after a tube is prepared it will
last through many experiments.

The joints of the carbon and brass tubes should fit tightly and
be sealed with a mixture of charcoal and sugar syrup dried and
charred or of graphite and water.

Fit the corks and brass tubes so the ends of the carbon tubes
are nearly together, test the apparatus for gas leakage turn on
current and again test after the heat has reached a maximium.
If air tight, pass a stream of hydrogen through the brass and
carbon tubes. After the oxygen in the apparatus has been con¬
sumed it may be necessary to increase the current as hydrogen
seems to extinguish the arc. The author hopes to find the
cause of this soon as several facts suggest an explanation.

Acetylene passes over mixed with hydrogen and small quant¬
ities of an oil resembling benzene.

The latter is generally present in very small quantities and
as it is known that acetylene passes into benzene at the high
temperatures it is not surprising that it is found here.

The yield of acetylene seems to be about the same as by the

118 Walker — Some Uses of the Alternating Current.

usual method of laboratory preparation from illuminating gas
burning at the base of a Bunsen burner. This method is more
expensive as it requires both hydrogen and an electric current.
But the acetylene may be removed by ammoniacal silver oxide
solution and the hydrogen collected in a gas holder and used
again.

Racine , Wis.

THE FORMS SPONTANEOUSLY ASSUMED BY
FOLK-SONGS.

JOHN COMFORT FILLMORE.

Among the interesting problems which the study of folk-
music offers us are several relating to the origins of music.
We inquire what impulses lead to the production of musical
tone, to the orderly arrangement of successive tones into
rhythmical and metrical groups; what are the origins of the
rhythmic, melodic and harmonic elements of music.

Mr. Richard Wallascheck of London, the distinguished author
of the very important work entitled “ Primitive Music, ” has
shown conclusively, I think, that the rhythmic impulse pre¬
cedes the impulse to produce musical tones, and, indeed, leads
up to the production of tones. The rythmic impulse is primary;
the tendency of certain motions, which are the expression of
emotional excitement, to recur in regular rhythmic pulsations
is inherent in the constitution of human nature and is due to
peculiarities which it is not the province of this paper to dis¬
cuss. Doubtless the members of this body are already familiar
with them. Probably the greatest service which Mr. Wallas¬
check has done us is to call our attention to the importance of
sonant rhythm as a means of emotional expression. For exam¬
ple, the rhythm of a war-dance beaten on a hollow log is vastly
more effective than when beaten on a solid tree or post. The
rhythm beaten on a skin stretched tightly over the end of such
a log is still more effective; and here we come to a tone which
has a more or less definite musical quality; so that the most
effective rhythm is that which tends to the production of musi¬
cal tone.

The emotional excitement which generates the impulse to
rhythmic beating with the hands or club and to the rhythmic

120 Fillmore — Forms Spontaneously Assumed by Folk-Songs.

stamping of feet also finds expression in shouts ;• and these vocal
impulses naturally tend to recur in regular pulsations corres¬
ponding to the rhythm of the feet, the handclapping, or the drum.
The evidence goes to show that these shouts, after a while, tend
to become musical in character, to occur in a monotone of defi¬
nite pitch, or, more frequently, in successive tones which bear
to each other well-defined pitch-relations.

Of course these phenomena must be governed by some natural
law, and that law must be discoverable. When primitive man
begins to produce musical tones varying in pitch, the sue ces-
sive melodic intervals must occur along the line of least resistance.
He is not working on any preconceived theory ; he is expressing
his excited feelings freely and spontaneously and it would seem
self-evident that the results of this activity must be expressed
in forms determined by the universal law of all physical move¬
ment.

It has fallen to my lot to become the pioneer as regards
special inquiry into the problem: What is the line of least resis¬
tance for the primitive man making music spontaneously; and it
has been my good fortune, as I believe, to have discovered the
clue to the solution of the problem. Before I answer, in words,
the question just propounded, I desire to call your attention to
some phonographic records of songs of the Navajo tribe of
Indians. These records were very carefully taken by Hr. Wash¬
ington Matthews of the U. S. Army, during the time when
he was stationed at Fort Wingate, N. M. They are clearly to
be taken as the connecting link between excited shouting and

excited singing. You will observe that, in the two songs
recorded on this first cylinder, (No. 41), the tone-quality is that
of shouting or even howling; but that the pitch-relations into

The Study of Folk-Music .

121

which they tend to fall are unmistakably those of the major
chord. There is a key-note or Tonic which persistently asserts
itself and predominates overwhelmingly throughout both these
songs. Associated with this key-note are only three other
tones; the major third and the fifth of this key-note with the
lower octave of this fifth, making a major Tonic chord. Both
these songs are made exclusively of the tones which compose the
major chord; the line of the melody is a chord line , a harmonic
line.

Cylinder No. 135.

The same is true of the two songs on this cylinder (No. 135),
only here the keynote predominates so strongly as to make the
songs exceedingly monotonous. The song on the next cylinder
(No. 61) is made up exclusively of the tones of a minor chord,
the keynote predominating very strongly.

Cylinder No. 61.

122 Fillmore — Forms Spontaneously Assumed ~hy Folk-Songs.

There are twenty -eight songs in this collection of Dr.
Matthews’ in my possession. Of these, six have melodies made
up exclusively of tones belonging to the major chord; three have
only tones belonging to the minor chord; seven follow the line
of the major chord but employ one tone not belonging to that
chord as a bye- tone; three embody the major chord and
employ two bye-tones ; six have the minor chord with one
bye- tone; two have the minor chord with two bye- tones; and
one has the minor chord with three bye-tones. In all these cases
the keynote is unmistakable, the chord-tones predominate
strongly, and the byetones invariably belong to one or more of
the chords most nearly related to the Tonic.

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Cylinder No. 146.

I will ask you to listen to two more of these songs which have
more developed diatonic melody than those you have already
heard. The first song on cylinder 146 has three byetones. It
is in a major key and the tones of the major tonic chord pre¬
dominate; but it employs somewhat prominently the sixth tone
of the major scale and much less prominently the second and
seventh tones. Its characteristic melodic phrase,

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which is repeated many times, is as completely diatonic as our
own melodies. The sixth of the scale, as here used, plainly

The Study of Folk-Music.

123

implies a harmony closely related to the Tonic, either the Sub¬
dominant or the Relative Minor chord. The seventh of the scale
is here used as a mere melodic byetone leading up to the keynote.
The second of the scale occurs only once in the whole song and
may possibly have been intended for the keynote; for the In¬
dian does not always perfectly realize his own intentions as re¬
gards intonation. Indeed, he can hardly be said to have any
clear intentions with respect to pitch-relations; he rather
seems to be groping blindly and to follow the line of the Tonic
chord with occasional digressions into closely related chords,
in obedience to a dim, intuitive perception of the harmonic re¬
lations of tones.

One more example I present you, recorded on cylinder No.
62. This song is plainly in a major key, the keynote being ex¬
tremely prominent and the chord-tones predominating. The
second and sixth tones of the major scale come in as byetones,
the former being so used at the ends of some of the phrases as
to imply the Dominant chord.

Two Navajo songs which I took down from the lips of a Nav¬
ajo Indian at the World’s Columbian Exposition exhibit similar
characteristics. A number of songs which I obtained at the
same place from the Kwakiutl Indians who live at the north end
of Vancouver Island have the same qualities of decided tonality
and chord-relationship in their melodic intervals. So does a
large collection of phonographic records of songs from these
same Indians obtained by Dr. Franz Boaz and now in my pos¬
session. I also obtained characteristic specimens of songs from
different peoples represented on the Midway Plaisance: South
Sea Islanders, Dahomeyans, Arabs, Turks, Japanese, and Chinese,
representing widely separated race-stocks, varying phases of
character and culture and differing grades of advancement. I
am indebted to Mr. Carl Lumholz for specimens of folk-songs
from the Australian cannibals among whom he lived for four
years and for others from two remote Indian tribes in the
mountains of Mexico. I owe to Miss Fletcher, a Fellow of
Harvard University, one of the leading ethnologists of this
country, the opportunity of studying her very large collection
of Indian songs, mostly Omaha, but partly Ponca and Pawnee.

124 Fillmore — Forms Spontaneously Assumed in Folk-Songs.

1 owe to her also the introduction which gave me access to the
Omaha tribe and enabled me to take down many songs for my¬
self. Finally, I owe much to Mr. Francis La Flesche, a son of
a former chief of the Omahas, who not only sang for me many

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of the songs of his tribe, but accompanied me to their reserva¬
tion and made it possible to hear the tribal songs on the occa¬
sion of a great festival, to witness the irreligious ceremonies,
and to take down some of the songs of visiting Indians as well,
among them a song of the Sioux.

The Study of Folk- Music.

125

All these songs I have studied carefully, and I have compared
them with the recorded folk-songs of the different European
races. While the music of each race has its own characteristic
style and is stamped with its own individual race-character as
regards emotional expression, they all have in common the
same major and minor tonality with which we are familiar and
the same harmonic quality. Melody everywhere, the world over,
is harmonic melody; is based, apparently, on a more or less-
distinct perception of the natural harmonic relations of tones.

Why this is so I will not now consider; it would far exceed
the limits prescribed for this paper to go into speculations of
this kind. Suffice it to say that not only are the impulses which
lead to the production of music the same for all races of men,
but the correlations of the psychical processes with the physiolog¬
ical and physical relations of music are also universal.

The evidence all points in the same direction and each new
collection of folk-songs, from whatever source, has thus far
made it cumulative as regards the question I raised at the out¬
set of this discussion. If several hundred folk-songs, collected
from numerous races of the most diverse character, are sufficient
to justify an induction, then am I warranted in concluding that
the line of least resistance for primitive man making music spon¬
taneously is a harmonic line. Folk-melody is always and every¬
where, so far as now appears, harmonic melody, however dim
the perception of harmonic relations and however untrained and
inexperienced as regards music the untaught savage may be.

The first harmonic relations to be displayed in folk-songs are
naturally the simplest, — those of the Tonic and its chord.
The more complex relations are gradually evolved as a result of
the growth of experience.

One point remains to be made. It may be said that we are
now forever unable to get at the real primitive man and to ob¬
serve his processes in the evolution of folk-song. This is un¬
doubtedly true. But surely such songs as these of the Navajos,
which show us the actual process of transforming excited howl¬
ing into songs with unmistakably harmonic pitch-relations,
take us very far back toward primitive music-making. What
we should find if we could get still farther back I do not know;,

126 Fillmore — Forms Spontaneously Assumed by Folk-Music.

'but I cannot resist the conviction that it would not be incon¬
sistent with the evolutionary process which I have sought to
indicate in this paper nor with the conclusions which seem to
me warranted by our present evidence.

Permit me to say one thing more. The aboriginal folk-songs
of our own country offer an extremely rich field for the student
of musical ethnology and anthropology ; a field whose limits are
narrowing day by day. It will be anything but creditable to
American science if the vast amount of material still to be ob¬
tained shall be allowed to perish ungathered and unstudied.
Yet there are now no endowments for original investigation of
this kind. The collections thus far made have been due to the
interest in the subject of men whose main occupations lay in a
different field. Not a single competent investigator has yet
been given the opportunity to devote himself exclusively to this
special domain of science, although there is more than work
enough for a hundred, nor is there a single university in the
country, new or old, now in a position to equip and send even
one student into this neglected field to possess it. It is greatly
to be hoped that these conditions may change; but they must
change soon, or it will be too late.

Milwaukee , Wis.

THE LEGAL STATUS OF TRUSTS.

EDGAR F. STRONG.

In an able article entitled “Economics and Jurisprudence,”1
Prof. H. C. Adams shows that the English conception of liberty,
which “ allows every man full control over his own acts on con¬
dition of complete responsibility for all that may ensue from
them, ” is carried out in law and government, but that the failure
to apply it to the field of industrial activity has resulted, among
other things, in the irresponsible use of capital — the most
effective power of the present day. The consequent manage¬
ment of capital for purely private ends is contrary to the spirit
of English liberty, and it is because we have failed to so adjust
matters as to realize responsible control over all economic agencies,
that we are confronted with so many serious industrial problems.

Within the last few years there has been a determined attempt
to solve one of these problems by legislation in the public inter¬
est. The Federal and several of the State legislatures have en¬
acted laws for the purpose of repressing and punishing those
combinations of capital known as “trusts,”2 which have created
so much alarm and excited the liveliest interest in the public
mind. These laws are based on the theory that all combina¬
tions among producers and dealers in articles of necessity are
contrary to public policy, and should therefore be prohibited.
Upon this theory rests also the principle that contracts to carry
out such combinations are void.

Trusts have been looked upon as monopolies in restraint of
trade, that is, as conspiracies to destroy competition, lessen pro-

lt4 Science Economic Discussion,” New York, 1886.

2 So called because in many instances they operate by or through a
board of trustees.

128

Strong — The Legal Status of Trusts.

duction, and raise prices. This idea is expressed by Judge
Cooley when he says, “ Trusts are things to be feared. They
antagonize a leading and most valuable principle of industrial
life in their attempts not to curb competition merely, but to
put an end to it. The course of the leading trust of the coun¬
try has been such as to emphasize the fear of them. When we
witness the utterly heartless manner in which trusts sometimes
have closed manufactories and turned men willing to work into
the streets, in order that they may increase profits already rea¬
sonably large, we cannot help asking ourselves whether the
trust as we see it is not a public enemy, whether it is not teach¬
ing the laborer dangerous lessons, and whether it is not help¬
ing to breed anarchy. ” In the minds of the people “ trust ” has
become synonymous with “ extortion, ” and “ combination ” with
“ conspiracy. ” 3

Unfortunately there has been but little study of the economic
character of the trust and of the causes that have produced
them, by those who have demanded repressive legislation; conse
quently it has not been perceived that the trust is an economic
evolution which is both natural and inevitable, and which has
proceeded from individual effort to partnership, then to corpora¬
tion, and finally to trust or partnership of corporations. “ The
modern trust, like the earlier corporation, is grounded in a com¬
mercial tendency which grows out of commercial necessity,” 4 and
it is interesting to note that the present fear and apprehension
is but the counterpart of that felt in the early part of the cen¬
tury in regard to corporations. It was with the greatest diffi¬
culty that a charter could then be obtained for any purpose, how¬
ever beneficial it might be; but this hostility was compelled to
give way to the necessities of changed business methods which
the revolution in the processes and organization of production
and transportation rendered inevitable after the first quarter of
the century. It is not within the scope of the present paper to
discuss the many causes that have called the modern trust into
existence, and to show that they are the necessary result of

s“ The Corporation Problem ”• — Cook, page 234.

4“ The Trust, an Economic Evolution,” an address by C. F. Beach, Jr.,
at the Union League Club, Chicago, March 30, 1894.

How Trusts are Beneficial to the Public .

129

rampant competition, the decline of commercial profit, overpro¬
duction along certain lines, and the failure of pools, nor to dis¬
cuss the benefits that have accrued to society from their forma¬
tion, and to show that they contain within them the seeds of
their own dissolution whenever they violate the conditions upon
which their existence depends. “ They live and thrive only as
they serve the public better than their competitors, and in this
country of abounding resources, limitless capital and endless
energy, intelligence and enterprise, it is impossible that any
sort of business can be made unduly profitable, by an increase in
the selling price of the commodity produced, without provoking
competition and calling other capital into the same field of enter¬
prise. ”5 They must not only contend with residual competition,
but avoid provoking potential competition as well. If, there¬
fore, prices cannot be unduly raised, and as a matter of fact are
lowered, how does the trust make a profit? By enlarging the
margin of profit at the bottom by cheapening production and
avoiding the wastes due to ruinous competition, also by realiz¬
ing the advantages of unity of management. These objects can
be secured in no other way than by a combination of the corpo¬
rations into what is known as a trust; and the same conditions
that make this course necessary compel the pursuance of a policy
that is beneficial to the public, although the original motive is
purely one of self interest.

It is not denied, however, that the trusts have been guilty
of many wrong and illegal acts ; that their methods are not always
to be approved; that they have in some instances injured the
public, and that their power has been exerted in Congress and
the State legislatures. But it may be asked whether these evils
are not largely the result of the absence of regulative legislation
on the one hand and of repressive legislation on the other? The
trust has been condemned because of certain wrong-doings,
whether real or imagined, and because the impression is abroad
that the trust is in some way or another doing a public mis¬
chief. It is not understood that the trust is but another stage
in industrial development; that it is here to stay, in spite of

5 Ibid.

9

130

Strong — The Legal Status of Trusts.

law and repressive legislation, as is shown by the steady in¬
crease in their numbers and capitalization; that it is not the
trust itself but the wrong-doing that should be the object of
legislation; consequently, that regulation and control should be
the aim of the law, not an unwise and fruitless policy of pre¬
venting the formation of trusts themselves. In other words, we
must apply the principle of responsible power to trusts, and
secure responsible control over this important economic agency.
It is the purpose of the following pages to state the legal posi¬
tion of trusts, and to indicate briefly how far the repressive
measures have proved effective.

In considering the legal status of trusts an examination of
their relation to the common law naturally precedes that of the
special and recent legislation directed against them by Congress
and the State legislatures. Three forms of combination, all of
recent origin, must be distinguished and treated separately,
namely, partnerships between corporations, corporations con¬
trolling other corporations, and lastly, a corporation buying out
all other corporations in its line of business. This is the order
of their development, and the last is the most important and
prevalent form.

I. A partnership of corporations was the original and formerly
the most common form of trust combination. Pools and mutual
agreements between competing manufacturers in regard to prices,
terms of sale, division of territory proved too weak to be effectual.
These informal agreements were not only secretly but openly
broken, and it was because of their failure that the trust co¬
partnership was devised in order to bind together more securely
those entering into the agreement, and also to realize the addi¬
tional advantages that would result trom an union that could
not be dissolved or broken without the consent of all. By written
agreement all the corporations entering into the combination
transferred all of their stock to a board of trustees, who held it
subject to the purposes set forth in the compact. These trustees
issued trust certificates to each corporation in proportion to the
value of its plant, and these were in turn divided among the
stockholders in proportion to the interest of each individual
holder. These trust certificates were in the form of stock certifi-

Formation of Trusts.

131

cates, and had indorsed upon them the usual form of assign¬
ment and power of attorney, coupled with a proviso to the effect
that the assignee by accepting the transfer assented to the
terms of the trust agreement. Each corporation was bound to
pay over all profits to be equitably distributed. The trustees
had general supervision of the affairs of the corporations part¬
nerships and manufacturers adopting the agreement, by elect¬
ing as apparent owners of the stock, its directors and officers.6
This was the character of the Standard Oil Trust, which was the
first combination of the kind, and dates from 1869. This famous
trust, which was originally composed of the refiners of crude
petroleum in Pennsylvania and Ohio, now controls the entire
American and western European market. This scheme of organi¬
zation was successful from the first, and the remarkable financial
success of this trust led in the course of a few years to the ap¬
plication of the principle to almost every kind of industry.

Turning to the legal aspect of the question we find that part¬
nerships of corporations have been repeatedly declared illegal
because they violate the law of corporations, and also because
they are contrary to public policy. Inasmuch as the last ob¬
jection applies to all three forms it will be best to defer its con¬
sideration until the specific legal objections to the first two
forms have been considered. A partnership is defined by Bouvier
as “ A voluntary contract between two or more persons for join¬
ing together their money, goods, etc., in some lawful commerce
or business, under an understanding, express or implied, that
there shall be a communion of profit and loss between them. ” 7
A combination of corporations in the manner described above
certainly constitutes a parternership, but corporations cannot
legally enter into a co-partnership without violating the law of
corporations.

The reason why a corporation cannot legally enter into a co¬
partnership either with an individual or with another corpora¬
tion is well stated by a writer in the American Law Review for
December, 1892. The corporation cannot lawfully give to its

6 Full text of an agreement given in People v. North River Sugar Re¬
fining Co., 1890, 121 N. Y. 585.

7 Bouv ier’s LawDictionary, vol. ii., p. 291.

132

Strong — The Legal Status of Trusts.

co-partners the powers which by the law of partnership each
partner possesses over the rights of his co-partners, and the
partnership property; nor can it lawfully assume the liabilities
imposed by law upon the members of a co-partnership. The very
object of forming a corporation for commercial or manufactur¬
ing purposes is to escape the liability of a partnership, and the
liability is escaped by restricting the powers of the members.
Thus in a partnership, each partner is the general agent of the
firm — a purchase or sale by one partner binds the others. It
may be said in general that any one partner may do any act in
the partnership business that could be done by all the partners
together. On the other hand, it is a fundamental principle of
the law of corporations that the affairs of the corporation and
the business that it carries on shall be managed by its directors,
and by them alone. As agents they cannot delegate their
powers to others, and as trustees in whom personal confidence
is reposed, they cannot abdicate their functions so long as they
retain the trust. Since, therefore, the rules of law governing
partnerships are so different from those governing corporations
that a partnership composed of corporations cannot exist with¬
out violating some of those rules, it follows that such a partner¬
ship is illegal, and therefore void. This has been adjudged in a
multitude of cases, and now may be considered settled law in
the United States.8

II. In order to escape the legal difficulties of the trust part¬
nership, a new form of combination was devised in what are
known as Stock-holding Corporations. These acquire control of
other corporations by purchasing a controlling interest in their
stock. The Richmond Terminal Company, which formerly con¬
trolled in this way a railway mileage of 7,842 miles, included in
several large systems, is a familiar illustration among railroads.
Another is the Chicago Gas Trust Company, incorporated under
the general incorporation law of Illinois (Rev. Ill. C. 32, 1, 5).
This company, in addition to the power to build, maintain and

8 People v. North River Sugar Refining Co., 1890, 121 N. Y. 582; Mal¬
lory v. Hanaur Oil Works, 1888, 86 Tenn. 598; American Preservers’
Trust Co. v. Taylor Manufacturing Co., 1891, U. S. Circuit Court E. D.
Mo., 46 Federal Reporter 152.

Schemes of Trusts to Avoid Legal Difficulties. 133

operate gas works of its own, was empowered “ to purchase and
hold or sell the capital stock, or purchase or lease or operate the
property, plant, good-will, rights and franchises of any gas works
or gas company or companies ” in the City of Chicago or else¬
where in Illinois. But the real object of the new company was
to bring about a consolidation of the existing companies, and it
proposed and promptly proceeded to obtain control of the four
gas companies in Chicago by the very simple device of buying
up and owning a controlling interest in the stock of each of
them, instead of having the stock of these companies assigned
to a board of trustees as in the partnership trust.

The power of the company to do this having been questioned
by quo warranto, the Supreme Court of Illinois held,9 first, that
the company could not lawfully exercise the power to purchase
and hold the stock of other gas companies as incidental to the
main purpose of maintaining and operating works for the manu¬
facture and sale of gas; and secondly, that the power to pur¬
chase and hold such stock could not be assumed by the company
as its main purpose, since such an object, as tending to create a
monopoly, was not a “ lawful purpose ” within the meaning of
the law. Judge Magruder said that “ to grant to the appellee the
privilege of purchasing and holding the capital stock of any gas
company in Chicago is to grant to it a privilege which is ex¬
clusive in its nature. It is making use of the general incorpo¬
ration law to secure a special privilege; it is obtaining a special
charter under the cover and through the machinery of that law,
for a purpose forbidden by the Constitution. To create one cor¬
poration that it may destroy the energies of all other corpora¬
tions of a given kind, and suck their life blood out of them, is
not a “ lawful purpose. ”

This decision is the standard for this class of cases, and there
have been many other subsequent decisions in harmony with
this one.10 It is now a well settled principle in the law of cor¬
porations that in the absence of express legislative permisson,
a corporation has no power to become a shareholder in another

9 People ex rel. Peabody v. Chicago Gas Trust Co., 1889, 130 Ill. 268.

10 Valley Ry. Co. v. Lake Erie Iron Co., 46 Ohio St. 44, 1888 ; Central
Ry Co. v. Penna. Ry. Co., 31 N. J. Eq. 475, 1879.

134 Strong — The Legal Status of Trusts.

corporation, otherwise it could go into a business entirely dif¬
ferent from that allowed to it by its charter. The proceedings in
the case just cited were not to oust the company from the power
of making and selling gas, but of the power of buying up the
stocks of other similar corporations. It is to be noted that this
Illinois statute has been repealed, and the recent trend of legis¬
lative action has been towards limiting rather than enlarging
the powers of corporations.

III. The form of combination to which the least legal objection
can be urged is the one known as the Monopolistic Corporation.
This is the form now generally adopted in forming trusts. In
this case the trust is formed by the purchase on the part of the
new corporation of the entire property, machinery, stock in trade,
and good-will of all, or the larger number, of the corporations
and firms engaged in that particular line of business. The Dia¬
mond Match Company is an illustration of this form of trust.

Against combinations of this character, the ground of action
has been that they are contrary to public policy, because they
create monopolies, and, as previously stated, this objection ap¬
plies equally to the trusts already described. The law’s con¬
demnation of monopolies dates back to the time of Queen Eliza¬
beth,11 and it has been settled almost as long that contracts or
combinations of the producers or dealers in staple commodities
of prime necessity to the people, to restrict or monopolize their
supply or enhance their price, pooling contracts or combinations
between such producers or dealers to divide their profits in cer¬
tain fixed proportions, and pooling contracts or combinations be¬
tween competing common carriers, are illegal restraints of trade,
and are void.

It is obvious that this principle of law and the statutes against
regrating12 long ante-dated the formation of trusts, and were
not directed against any such mischief as their citation in anti¬
trust arguments assumes, but to corners and pools. Nor do the
decisions apply except by analogy. Nevertheless the principle

11 Case of the Monopolies, 1602, 11 Coke 85.

12 « Every practice or device, by act, conspiracy, words, or news, to
enhance the price of victuals or other merchandise.” Coke 3d. Inst.
196- 1 Russell, Crimes 169. From Bouvier’s Diet. II, page 432.

Trusts vs. Public Policy.

135

has been applied in a long list of cases and held that trust com¬
binations tend to create monopolies, that these restrain trade,
that this is contrary to public policy and therefore illegal.

One of the most prominent cases is that in which the Sugar
Trust was declared illegal by the Supreme Court of New York.13
The Sugar Refineries Company was a type of the first form of
trusts, and the New York Court of Appeals in passing upon the
case declined to decide the question of public policy, preferring
to rest their decision upon the inability of corporations to enter
into co-partnership; but the Supreme Court in deciding the same
case fully considered the question of public policy and expressly
decided that the trust was illegal, because it restrained trade in
an unreasonable manner, and inevitably tended to create a
monopoly. “ It is a condition on which a corporation is allowed
to be created and maintained that it shall exercise and use its
franchise for the benefit of the public, and when it voluntarily
declines to do that or places itself in a situation in which that
may be prevented as a consequence of its voluntary action, it
may be annulled under the statute as well as the decision of the
court. ” 14 The court held that the North River Sugar Refining
Company should forfeit its property, and that a receiver should
be placed in charge of it. The Sugar Trust was incidentally de¬
clared illegal, and the Cotton Seed Oil Trust anticipated this
decision by taking steps to change its form of organization.
Reference will be made later to the outcome of this decision
against the Sugar Trust.

The question now arises, to what classes of business the prin¬
ciple of monopoly and restraint of trade as contrary to public
policy is applicable? In order to answer this question it is
necessary to examine some of the cases bearing on it, and such
examination shows that the principle applies only to articles of
necessity and to businesses of a quasi-public character, that is,
those in which the general public have a right.

(1) Articles of necessity. That the principle applies to arti¬
cles of necessity or of such general use that the public is inter¬
ested in their production, is evident from the definition of

18 People v. North River Sugar Refining Co., 1889, 54 Hun 354.

14 People v. North River Sugar Refining Co., 54 Hun 354, page 385.

136 Strong — The Legal Status of Trusts .

regrating given in the note on page 134, and a recent decision
will serve as an illustration of this class of articles, namely,
that of Foss v. Cummings,15 where it was held that a combina¬
tion to enhance the price of an article of necessity, such as
wheat or other article of food, for purposes of extortion, is
against public policy, although there may be no attempt to cor¬
ner the market.

At this point a serious difficulty is encountered. What arti¬
cles are to be considered as necessaries, for what may be so con¬
sidered at one time may not be so considered at another? There
have been several decisions in regard to particular articles, but
they do not furnish any general rule for answering the ques¬
tion. It has been held that the following are articles of neces¬
sity within the meaning of the law: Coal — Morris Run Coal
Co. v. Barclay Coal Co., 1871, 68 Pa. St. 173; Gas — Gibbs v.
Baltimore Gas Co., 1888, 130 U. S. 408; Matches — Richardson
v. Buhl, 1889, 77 Mich. 632; Salt — Central Ohio Salt Co. v.
Guthrie, 1880, 35 Ohio St. 666; Grain — Craft v. McConoughy,
1875, 79 Ill. 346; Sugar — People v. North River Sugar Re¬
fining Co., 54 Hun 354, 1889; Lumber — Santa Clara Valley
Mill and Lumber Co. v. Hayes, 1888, 76 Cal. 387; Cotton
bagging — India Bagging Association v. Kock, 1859, 14 La.
Ann. 164; Butter — Chaplin v. Brown, 1891, Supreme Court of
Iowa, June.

(2) The principle of public policy extends also to a business
in which the public have a right as distinguished from a busi¬
ness which may be purely beneficial to the public. To this class
belong the businesses of transportation, communication by tele¬
graph and telephone, the supply of light and water, and similar
companies which derive their right to condemn property from
the fact that their business is established for a public use. In
regard to railway corporations every sort of legal effort has
been made in England and in this country to prevent the con¬
solidation of independent roads. According to stringent statutes
the original corporation is unable to sell out to the trust, for in
the absence of express legislative permission, a corporation in

15 47 Illinois App. 665 ; S. C., 40 Id. 523.

Legality and Illegality of Trusts.

137

whose business the public is interested has no right to transfer
all of its property to another corporation. It must either use
its property and carry on its business as contemplated by its
charter or dissolve its corporate existence and divide its prop¬
erty among those entitled to it, or else consolidate with another
corporation in due legal form. But such consolidation can only
be made in case it is provided for by statute. This was the
decision of Justice Miller in the case of Pennsylvania Railroad
Co. v. St. Louis, Alton and Terre Haute Railroad, 1885, 118 U. S.
309, and this decision was upheld in Oregon Railway Co. v.
Oregonian Railway Co. , 1888, 130 U. S. 23.

In spite of every statute, however, railway consolidation went
on with increasing rapidity, until at the present time the
greater part of the railway mileage of the country is comprised
within a relatively small number of great systems, and the same
combining force has brought about a similar result among the
express companies. The telegraph and telephone are now each
controlled by a single company, while in cities there is usually
but one gas or electric lighting company, and a few large street
railway companies. It may be noted here that in no other class
of businesses is the tendency to consolidation so strong as among
the enterprises above mentioned, for each is a monopoly in its
very nature, and does not admit of competition in the true sense
of the term.

An examination of the opinions rendered in the cases cited in
these two classes of limitations on the principle of public policy
shows that in each instance the decision turned on the fact that
the subject matter was clearly within one of those classes. It
follows, therefore, that there may be commercial combinations
in the nature of trusts, to which the doctrine of trade conspir¬
acies, or combinations in restraint of trade, will not, in the
absence of a special legislation, apply. So far as articles of
necessity are concerned there have been but few decisions, but
the following have been held not to be such articles that an
attempt to monopolize the trade in them is illegal: Washing
machines — Dolph v. Troy Laundry Machinery Co., 1886, U. S.
Circuit Court, N. D. of N. Y., 28 Fed. Rep. 553; Patent Cur¬
tain fixtures — Curtain Roller Co. v. Cushman, 1887, 143 Mass.

138

Strong — The Legal Status of Trusts.

353; Sewing machines — Bi-Spool Sewing Machine Co. v. Acme
Manufacturing Co., Supreme Court of Mass., March 2, 1891.

A second and most important exception is based on the now
well established rule that the validity of contracts restricting
competition is to be determined by the reasonableness of the re¬
striction. If the main purpose or inevitable effects of a contract
is to suppress competition or create a monopoly, it is illegal;
but contracts made for a lawful purpose, not unreasonably in¬
jurious to the public welfare and which impose no heavier re¬
straint upon trade than the interests of the favored party re¬
quire, have been uniformly sustained, notwithstanding their
tendency to check competition to a certain extent. The public
welfare is first considered, and the reasonableness of the restric¬
tion determined under these rules in the light of all the facts
and circumstances of each particular case. It is evident from
this that there may be still another class of commercial combina¬
tions in the nature of trusts to which the principle will not
apply in case there is no special legislation to the contrary.
Several decisions which will be considered in connection with
the federal anti-trust law of 1890 will illustrate this point
clearly and strongly. The above considerations form the basis
of the decision of the United States Circuit Court of Appeals in
the recent case of United States v. Trans-Missouri Freight As¬
sociation et al. (58 Fed. Rep. 58). But it is the application of
this doctrine that makes this decision notable. It was held that
even railway companies and other quasi-public corporations,
whose business is of such a character that it has been said they
cannot be restrained to any extent whatever without prejudice
to the public interests may, within proper bounds, make such
contracts and combinations as shall impose mutual restraint,
though it diminishes competition.

The matter of combination has been passed upon by the Su¬
preme Court of Minnesota (July 20, 1892) in the case of a com¬
bination among the lumber dealers of Minneapolis. In giving
the opinion in favor of the combination, Judge Mitchell said:
“ This is the age of associations and unions in all departments
of labor and business, for the purpose of mutual benefit and pro¬
tection. Confined to proper limits, both as to end and means,.

Relation of Trusts to the Common Law. 139

they are not only lawful, but laudable. Carried beyond these
imits, they are liable to become dangerous agencies for wrong
and oppression. Beyond what limits these associations or com¬
binations cannot go without interfering with the legal rights of
others, is the problem which, in various phases, the courts will
doubtless be frequently called to pass upon. ” “ What one man

may lawfully do singly, two or more may lawfully agree to do
jointly. Combination in itself does not render such conduct ac¬
tionable. ”

In conclusion, the position of the trust before the common
law may be briefly summarized as follows: Partnerships be¬
tween corporations and corporations controlling other corpora¬
tions violate the law of corporations and are therefore illegal.
A corporation that buys out other corporations is illegal only
when it is contrary to public policy, that is when the commodity
monopolized is an article of common necessity or the service
rendered is of a quasi-public character; and provided that the
combination is formed for the distinct purpose of fleecing the
public or employs improper and unlawful methods in dealing
with customers and competitors. The numerous decisions to
which reference has been made, show that the trust when
brought into court finds no favor under the common law. While
all attempts to fasten criminal punishment on the promoters of
monopolies has failed, yet the civil courts have been generally
successful. This is because their methods require less evidence
and are more pliable in procedure. It is easier to dissolve a
corporation than to convict and punish promoters of monopoly.
As Governor Nelson, of Minnesota, said at the anti-trust con¬
vention held in Chicago in June, 1893: “The methods and ways
under which trusts and combinations are carried on are so vari¬
ous, intricate, secret, refined, and so involved that the courts,
as in cases of fraud and usury, have declined to define, except in
general terms, the transactions, agreements, and arrangements
which are inhibited and odious to the law. But while the com¬
mon law holds such contracts to be illegal, it fails to punish
them as crimes, and furnishes insufficient and dilatory relief
even in civil cases. ”

It is doubtful whether any permanent result whatever is at-

140 Strong — The Legal Status of Trusts.

tained. The usual effect of an adverse decision has been simply
a change in the form of the trust. The Chicago Gas Trust was
soon metamorphosed, and the same is true of the Sugar Trust.
It will be recalled that the suit by the State of New York
against one of the companies included in the Sugar Trust re¬
sulted in a sweeping victory in the lower courts and a judgment
in the higher that the trust was illegal, and could not lawfully
transact its business in the state. To carry out the provisions
of this decision, the North River Sugar Refining Company was
accordingly placed in the hands of receivers, but in a short time
the property was returned to the owners by due process of law.
Immediately the trust was reorganized as a corporation under
the laws of the State of New Jersey, and as a foreign corpora¬
tion continued to carry on its business with precisely the same
force and effect as it formerly did as the Sugar Refineries Com¬
pany. In spite of all decisions trusts were not only not de¬
stroyed, but new ones were constantly being formed.

With such results staring them in the face it is not surpris¬
ing that there arose among the people a general demand for
state and federal legislation. The New York legislature which
had failed to pass the anti-trust bills introduced in 1888 and
1889, enacted a law in the following year. In 1889, laws de¬
fining and prohibiting trusts, and providing for the punishment
of violations of the law, were passed in Missouri, Texas, North
Carolina, Nebraska and Kansas; in 1890 by New York, Missis¬
sippi, Iowa and Congress; and in 1891 by Illinois, Alabama,
Tennessee and Georgia. It was during these years that the
popular agitation reached its highest point and found expression
in a great body of trust literature, newspaper criticism, party
platforms (twenty-three states in 1890).

Passing now from the status of trust combinations at com¬
mon law to the consideration of some of the recent legislation
directed against them, we will examine first the Act of Con¬
gress, approved July 2, 1890 (26 Statutes at Large, page 209,
Ch. 647). The trust question was called to the attention of
Congress by President Harrison in his message of November,
1889, and his views voice the public sentiment and legislative
policy of the time. “Earnest attention should be given by Con-

The Whiskey Trust.

141

gress to a consideration of the question, how far the restraint of
those combinations of capital commonly known as trusts is a.
matter of Federal jurisdiction. When organized, as they fre¬
quently are, to crush out all hostile competition and to monopo¬
lize the production and sale of an article of commerce and gen¬
eral necessity, they are dangerous conspiracies against the public
good, and should be made the subject of prohibitory and even
penal legislation. ”

The Senate measure entitled “ A bill to protect trade and com¬
merce against unlawful restraints and monopolies ” was adopted
by the House. It provides that “every contract, combination
in form of trust or otherwise, or conspiracy, in restraint of
trade and commerce among the several states, or with foreign
nations, is hereby declared to be illegal. Every person who
shall monopolize, or attempt to monopolize, or combine or con¬
spire, with any other person or persons to monopolize any part
of the trade or commerce among the several states, or with
foreign nations, shall be deemed guilty of a misdemeanor, and,
on conviction thereof, shall be punished by fine not exceeding
$5,000, or by imprisonment not exceeding one year, or by both
in the discretion of the court. ” The other sections provide that,
suits may be brought in the Federal courts to restrain violations
of the Act, for forfeiture of property used under any contract or
by any combination or pursuant to any conspiracy mentioned in
the Act, and for private remedies for persons injured by the for¬
bidden acts perpetrated by the classes against whom it is di¬
rected.

The first important decision occurred in connection with the
proceedings against the “ Distilling and Cattle Feeding Com¬
pany, ” better known as the “ Whiskey Trust. ” Certain offi¬
cials of the combination were indicted in Massachusetts for vio¬
lating the Federal Act. In the District Court of the Northern
District of Ohio, application was made for a warrant to remove
one of the defendants to the former state for trial. Although it
was shown that the company controlled seventy distilleries, or
three-fourths of the distillery products of the country, the court
decided that there had been no violation of the law, and there-

142

Strong — The Legal Status of Trusts.

fore denied the application and discharged the prisoner.16 A few
months later, in the Circuit Court of the same state, Southern
District, another of the defendants was released from custody on
n, writ of habeas corpus, the court holding that “Congress has
no authority, under the commerce clause or any other provision
of the constitution, to limit the right of a corporation created by
a state in the acquisition, control and disposition of property in
the several states, and it is immaterial that such property, or
the products thereof, may become the subjects of interstate com¬
merce; and it is not apparent that by the Act of July, Congress
did not intend to declare that the acquisition by a state corpo¬
ration of so large a part of any species of property as to enable
the owners to control the traffic therein among the several states,
constituted a criminal offense.17 This decision was similar to
that made by the Circuit Court for the Southern District of New
York in proceedings 18 to remove another of the defendants to
Massachusetts. The whole affair ended in the total failure of
the government to deal with the indictments. The Act used
terms which left everything to construction, and it was decided
that the efforts to control the production and manufacture of
distillery products by the enlargement and extension of the busi¬
ness was not an attempt to monopolize the trade and commerce
in such products within the Federal meaning. All other per¬
sons who chose to engage in such distilling business were at per¬
fect liberty to do so.

Equally unsuccessful was the attempt to break the combina¬
tion among the lumber dealers of Minneapolis, in the case of
United States v. Nelson,19 in which a demurrer to all the counts
of the indictment was sustained. It was held that an agree¬
ment between a number of lumber dealers to raise the price of
lumber fifty cents per 1,000 feet in advance of the market price,
could not operate as a restriction upon trade, within the mean¬
ing of the Act of Congress, unless such agreement involved an
absorption of the entire traffic, and was entered into for the pur-

16 In re Corning, 51 Fed. Rep. 205, June 11, 1892.

17 In re Green, 52 Fed. Rep. 105, August 4, 1892.

18 In re Terrell, 51 Fed. Rep. 213, June 28, 1892.

19 District Court, District of Minn., 1892, 52 Fed. Rep. 646.

Judicial Decisions Affecting Trusts.

143

pose of monopolizing trade in that commodity with the object of
extortion. It is plain that this renders the law of no effect,
when one considers that it is practically impossible for the most
powerful trust to acquire and retain control of an entire in¬
dustry. Nor is it easy to prove that a combination was formed
for the definite purpose of extortion. This is illustrated in the
case of the Dueber Watch Case Manufacturing Co. v. Howard
Watch Co.,20 where it was held that an agreement by a number
of manufacturers and dealers in watch cases, to fix an arbitrary
price on their goods, and not to sell them to persons buying the
plaintiff’s watch cases, was not in violation of the statute of
1890, unless it covers the intent to absorb or control the entire
market, or a large portion thereof.

Equally suggestive are the words of Judge Putnam of the
United States Circuit Court, District of Massachusetts, in the
-case of J. H. Patterson,21 who was indicted for violating the Act
of 1890. “ A combination, contract, or conspiracy in restraint

of trade may be not only not illegal, but praiseworthy; as, when
parties attempt to engross the market by furnishing the best
goods or the cheapest. A case cannot be made under the statue
unless the means are shown to be illegal. ” A similar and recent
■decision has already been noticed on page 138 in United States
v. Trans-Missouri Freight Association et al.

It is apparent from these successive decisions adverse to the
government that the law has not only utterly failed in its object,
but that no statute however exhaustive and stringent, based on
the commerce clause of the constitution, would be any more
effective. That monopoly in production does not constitute
restraint of interstate commerce is indicated in the cases already
-cited, but in no other case has it been so clearly stated as in
the one in which the Sugar Trust was again brought into court.
In the suit brought by the government22 to test the legality of
the Sugar Trust’s absorbtion of the four large Philadelphia re¬
fineries, Judge Butler decided in favor of the trust. It was
-charged that the American Sugar Refining Company entered

20 U. S. Cir. Court, S. Dis., N. Y., May, 1893, 55 Fed. Rep. 851.

21 February 28, 1893.

22 U. S. Cir. Court, Jan. 30, 1894, 60 Fed. Rep. 310.

144

Strong — The Legal Status of Trusts.

into an unlawful and fraudulent scheme to purchase the stock of
these companies with the design of monopolizing the manu¬
facture and sale of refined sugar in the United States. In the
opinion of the court, the only questions raised were: “(1) Do
the facts show a contract, combination, or conspiracy to restrain
trade and commerce, or a monopoly within the legal significance
of these terms? (2) Do they show such a contract, combina¬
tion or conspiracy to restrain or monopolize trade or commerce
among the several states or foreign nations? (3) Can the relief
sought be had in this proceeding?” Judge Butler said that the
first and third questions need not be considered, and answered
the other in the negative. “ The contracts of the defendants
have no reference and bear no relation to commerce between the
states or with foreign nations. Granting, therefore, that a.
monopoly exists in the ownership of such refineries and busi¬
ness it does not constitute a restriction or a monopoly of inter¬
state commerce. The latter is untouched and unrestrained and
open to all who chose to engage in it. ” The government ap¬
pealed the case to the Circuit Court of Appeals,23 where the
decree of the lower court was affirmed. Judge Dallas said:

“ The most that can be said, and this for the present purpose
may be assumed, is that the sugar trust has acquired control of
the business of refining and selling sugar in the United States.
But does this involve monopoly or restraint of foreign or inter¬
state commerce? We are clearly of opinion that it does not.
We do not deem it necessary to say more, inasmuch as the sub¬
ject has very recently been considered and passed upon in the
case of Greene.” (See page 142, note 17.)

The cases that have been cited are the principal ones where
indictments have been framed under the law of 1890, and it is
plain that not only has the act failed in every important case,
but it is safe to say that a favorable judgment can neither be
obtained or enforced in such a way as to destroy the trusts and
combinations which it was expected to eradicate.

State Anti-Trust Laws. — Few cases have been tried under the
various state statutes; consequently it is difficult to judge of

22 U. S. C. C. A., March 26, 1894, 60 Fed. Rep. 934.

State Anti- Trust Laws.

145

the effectiveness of these laws, and the construction that the
courts will put upon them. In general, their purpose is to
strengthen the provisions of the common law, and to provide
adequate penalties for their violation. It would seem that if
the law is framed with a due regard to the constitution and a
clear understanding of the difficulties to be met with in enforc¬
ing it, an anti-trust law can be formulated that will ensure con¬
viction. In most of the states, however, these considerations
have not always been observed, and consequently the laws are
either unconstitutional or entirely unsuited to the object for
which they were designed.

The Missouri law which was copied in Iowa, is of this char¬
acter. The law prohibits corporations from entering into cer¬
tain combinations, and requires them to file an affidavit with
the Secretary of State that they have not entered into such
combinations, and in default of such affidavit, after due notice,
authorizes the Secretary of State to revoke their charters. That
officer accordingly called upon all the corporations of the state
to file the required affidavit. Some did, and some did not, and
the Secretary of State then proceeded to publish an order re¬
voking the charters of the latter, but without effect. In the
Supreme Court of the state24 it was held that the requirement
that the corporation inform the Secretary of State whether such
corporation has violated such act (for the punishment of pools,
trusts, and combinations) is in conflict with the constitutional
declaration that “ no person shall be compelled to testify against
himself in a criminal case,” and the section is therefore void.

On the other hand, the New York law approved June 7, 1890
(session laws 1890, page 1069, No. 7), has not only been sus¬
tained, but has proved effective in securing conviction. The
principles underlying the law are clearly presented in the de¬
cision of the Court of Appeals of New York in the case of Peo¬
ple v. Sheldon et al.25 The court held that in determining cases
brought under this law the question is, "Is the agreement be¬
tween the parties, in view of what may be done under it and
the fact that it is an agreement the effect of which is to pre-

24 The State ex rel. Att'y Gen. v. The Simmons Hardware Co., 109 Mo. 118.

26 34 Northeastern Reporter 785, and 54 N. Y. S. Rep. 513.

10

146

Strong — The Legal Status of Trusts .

vent competition, one upon which the law fixes the brand of con¬
demnation and which it will not permit?” In other words, in
estimating the legal character of the agreement no considera¬
tion need be given to what is actually done under it, for if the
legality of the agreement depended upon actual proof of public
injury or whether it is made the means of raising the price of a
commodity beyond its nominal and reasonable value, it would be
very difficult in any case, to establish the invalidity, although
the moral evidence might be very convincing. The court con¬
cluded, therefore, that “ if agreements and combinations to pre¬
vent competition in prices are, or may be, hurtful to trade, the
only sure remedy is to prohibit all agreements of that character.
The fixing of prices alone, done under such an agreement, is
overt act enough, if any act be needed to make the combiners
guilty under the law, even though the prices fixed be reason¬
able. ”

Further, “ If a combination between independent dealers to
prevent competition between themselves in the sale of an article
of prime necessity is in legal contemplation, and although the
object of the combination is merely the due protection of the
parties to it against ruinous rivalry, and no attempt is made to
charge undue or excessive prices, the parties to the combination
are amenable to the law. ”

The decision of the federal court in Dueber Watch Case Manu¬
facturing Co. v. Howard Watch Co. has already been noticed.
The case was afterwards taken into the New York courts, and in
May, 1893, the Supreme Court sustained the former company in
its suit for damages. It was held that prices could be fixed and
competition crushed in a legitimate business effort, but this was
not the object of the defendants, who endeavored to ruin the
Dueber Company when the latter refused to join the combina¬
tion, that is, in an asserted illegal purpose.

The Illinois act approved June 11, 1891 (Session Laws, 1891,
page 206), has also been sustained. The law declares that any
corporation, partnership or individual which shall create or
enter into any pool, trust, agreement, combination, confederacy
or understanding to regulate or fix the price of any commodity,
or fix or limit the amount or quantity of any article, or com-

Public Feeling as to Trusts.

147

modity, shall be adjudged guilty of conspiracy to defraud, and
shall be subject to fine or imprisonment. It also forbids corpo¬
rations to issue or own trust certificates, or to enter into any
trust agreement with intent to limit or fix the price or lessen
the production and sale of any article of commerce.

Under the provisions of this comprehensive act, the United
States School Furniture Company, which was investigated in
1893 by direction of the Illinois Senate, was recently declared
to be an illegal combination.

To examine the legislation and cases in each state would un¬
duly extend the limits of this paper without proportionately
adding to the general conclusions that may be drawn. Few
suits have been instituted under the various laws that have been
enacted, because the statutes are either not enforceable or lead
to no permanent result. It must be taken into consideration
that the trust can easily remove its centre to some other state
and continue to carry on its operations in the state from which
it was driven as a foreign corporation. During the last few
years, moreover, the public have begun to realize that chey have
not suffered any specific injury that can be directly attributed
to trusts, and also that the source of the general complaint and
outcry was not the public as a whole, but that section which de¬
sired to compete with the members of the trust. The public has
learned, besides, that modern trust combinations are formed not
for the purpose of fleecing them, but for legitimate business pur¬
poses. “They are normal in their origin, development and
practical workings, and therefore are to be accepted, studied
and regulated, but not surpressed. ” 26 It is well for the people
of this country that both the common law and special statutes
have failed to prevent combination, otherwise all the benefits
and economies that flow from production and communication on
a large scale would have been lost; we would be confronted
with all the results of a ruinous competition which have been
escaped by this step in economic development; and we would
be threatened not only with industrial stagnation and loss, but
retrogation as well.

26 “ Limits of Competition,” Clark.

148

Strong — The Legal Status of Trusts.

But the agitation against the trust has not been in vain, for
it has warned them to pursue a moderate policy and to keep
within proper limits. It is true that any departure from busi¬
ness principles will set forces to work that will bring about the
destruction of the combination; but abuse of power and per¬
sistent disregard of the interests and rights of the public will
awaken a spirit and conscience that will apply and enforce suita¬
ble measures of control and regulation. It is true that they
cannot be destroyed, but they can be subjected to a proper gov¬
ernmental visitation and control.

Madison , Wis.

DANTE.

HIS QUOTATIONS AND HIS ORIGINALITY: THE GREATEST
IMITATOR AND THE GREATEST ORIGINAL.

JAMES DAVIE BUTLER, LL. D.

Dante was above all poets the heir of the ages. He tells us
that life beyond life is partly of bliss, and partly of a bale which
is sometimes hopeful and sometimes beyond hope. This view
has nothing of novelty. It has prevailed for milleniums from
the Elysian fields of the most ancient Greek even to the most
recent aboriginal stories about the happy hunting-ground. The
idea of purgatory has its analogon in Plato. Among early
Christians it was defended by Origen, and before the year 600
A. D. it had been fully formulated by Gregory the Great.

In describing the physical universe Dante copies Ptolemy,
whose system dates from our second century. From Ptolemy he
learned to view the cosmos as geocentric, — seven planets, one
of them the sun, revolving round the earth, — the whole hemmed
in by the stellar sphere and around that the empyrean. This
Ptolemaic hypothesis had pre-determined the whole plan of
Dante’s paradise, and many details in its nine spheres. More¬
over, Greek planetary names, older not only than Ptolemy but
than history itself, constrained Dante to place the heaven of or¬
ators in Mercury, of lovers in Venus, of poets in the sun, of
warriors in Mars, of judges in Jupiter, and of mystics in Sat¬
urn.

The last judgment he localized in the valley of Jehoshaphat.
All Christendom, and Moslemdom too. had done so before him,
because it is written in Joel; “ I will gather all nations, and
I will bring them into the valley of Jehoshaphat, and I will
plead with them there”.

150

Butler — Dante.

Directly under Jerusalem lies Dante’s Inferno. So had that
of Jews and Moslems always lain. Nor had this local habita¬
tion of spirits in prison been unknown to early Christians.
Regarding Christ’s descent into hell the words of our poet are
an echo of what, as a child, he must have read in the Golden
Legend of Voraggio.

Many a wanderer in the realm of disembodied souls had been
known before Dante. Among these Alberico, a monk of Monte
Cassino, had written out his extra-mundane experiences. Nine¬
teen passages where Dante imitated this book have been speci¬
fied by Cary. Both Alberico and Dante entered a compartment
of sighs, not groans; both call Cerberus the great worm, both
encounter stenches, flames and scorpions; both describe one
river of boiling blood, or blood and fire, and another of hot
pitch, swelling into billows, with victims struggling out and
then tumbling into rivers here deep and there shallow. Both
would have been clutched by demons but for angelic rescue,
both rise to higher levels — one borne up by a dove — the other
by an eagle. Both behold an angel and a devil in fight for a
soul; both see six-winged cherubs and a similar paradise to
which they both turn, like homesick exiles hastening home;
both observe vacant seats prepared on high for some that were
still alive, whose names Alberico was forbidden to mention,
though some of them are told by Dante.

Dante’s warp and woof are Biblical almost as thoroughly as
Bunyan’s. His very first line has a scriptural allusion. In the
Purgatorio you may count twenty-five texts from the Vulgate
which he quotes in the ipsissima verba of the Latin original, as
if he thought them untranslatable. Dantesque imagery con¬
stantly recalls the Apocalypse. The interview with Statius af¬
fords a representative specimen of Dante’s Biblical debts. It
was fashioned, as he himself states, after the walk to Emmaus
as chronicled by Luke. Virgil’s then overhearing what Statius
said to our poet is of a piece with the unknown Jesus listening
to the report about himself by Cleopas. Dante’s Biblical bor¬
rowings are noted by Cary one hundred and twenty-one times.
Nor has he discovered them all.

Dante is no less indebted to the classics than to Holy Writ.

Eis Quotations and His Originality.

151

Their lying mythology he swallows as gospel truth. His hun¬
dred cantos are viewed by many as only an expansion of the
sixth book of Virgil. In traversing the spirit- world he finds
Charon the ferryman and Minos the judge and tells us that he
followed Virgil’s hero, though far his inferior. He was guided
by Virgil as iEneas had been by the Sibyl; he met his ancestor
Cacciaguida, as iEneas had met his father Anchises, and both
heard prophecies from their progenitors. Both tried thrice to
embrace a friend among the shades. Old familiar scenes which
JEneas saw frescoed on Carthaginian walls Dante gazed at in
sculpture on the purgatorial pavement. Cato is a warden at the
gate of Purgatory, and had expounded equity among Virgilian
spirits. Dante had been vouchsafed Virgil as guide, philosopher
and friend, through all his dark and dolorous pilgrimage, and
he hence considered himself entitled to all Virgilian treasures.
You will perceive in Cary forty specifications where the disci¬
ple has appropriated something from the master. He sometimes
takes a line out and out, as this : Manibus date lilia plenis.

In twenty-seven cases, or more, Ovid was laid under contri¬
bution. His metamorphoses of Cadmus into a snake and
Arethusa into a fountain are specimens of scores which Dante
has repeated. Valerius Maximus, Lucretius, Cicero, Lucan and
Statius are not the only other classics called on for a Dantesque
tribute.

Such sons of ancient genius helped our mediaeval bard, so
far as he could be helped, in more than one emergency. Thus
spirits emaciated and hunger-bitten were grasping at fruit on a
tantalizing tree. “How,” it was asked, “could spirits who
had no need of food pine away for lack of it? ” The answer was:
“ That is no more a mystery than that, when Meleager’s mother
threw a certain stick into the fire, he pined away in sympathetic
suffering, and died when the wood was consumed. ” No more mys¬
terious than that — not a whit more.

We read in Dante;

‘ ‘ Between two viands equally removed

And tempting, a free man would die of hunger,

Ere either he could bring unto his teeth.”

He had obtained this paradox, as it used to be thought, from

152

Butler — Dante.

Buridan, rector of Paris University, who, according to tradition,
declared that, if an ass were placed exactly between two hay¬
stacks, he must starve, being in a balance of motives. Buridan’s
ass became proverbial. But when Buridan’s works were ran¬
sacked and the saying was nowhere discovered, the asinine poser
was claimed as Dante’s invention. The truth is, after all, that
this proof of determinism is older than Aristotle. In his treatise
Tre.pl ovpavov , he says that in his time it was a common saying,
that “ any one” [his indefinite pronoun may mean either donkey
or doctor] “ any one equidistant from equally good eatables and
drinkables, must remain motionless. ”

Dante was an imitator of contemporaries no less than of
the ancients. His first lines say he was lost in a wood. An
identical phrase had formed the commencement of a poem by
his own schoolmaster Brunetto. He denounces usury as “ a sin
against nature, ” the very words in which the practice had been
stigmatized by Brunetto.

The main scenes in Dante’s trilogy he had seen acted on the
stage in dramatic mysteries, or carved on cathedral walls in
bass-relief and emblazoned on their stained glass, — most of all,
in Orvieto. His triple world was symbolized in the architec¬
ture of every church. The stone cried out of the wall and the
beam out of the timber answered it where a stone inscribed
Basso di Dante beside the Florentine cathedral to this day tells
us that he was wont to sit.

It is even possible that some magnificent window, emblem of
the mystic Madonna rose, was the inspiration of his eternal and
infinite rose-amphitheater, the sublimest image in all poetry
or speech, in which his Paradise culminates.

At the recent convention of the Modern Language Associa¬
tion one of the best-received papers was entitled, “A forerun¬
ner of Bunyan in the twelfth century ” by Prof. Francke of Har¬
vard. This relic appears to be just now discovered by moderns,
but one is slow to believe that it was unknown to Dante, or
that it escaped paying him a tax.

The music which enlivened Dante’s march onward and upward
was all borrowed from time-honored anthems and theodies of the
church. Snatches of its Latin are built into his verses, as

His Quotations and His Originality .

153

'Te Deum, Salve Regina, Summce, Deus clementice. His ger-
archy, or nine-fold orders of the heavenly host — angels, arch¬
angels, principalities, powers, dominions, virtues, thrones, cher¬
ubim and seraphim — had all been prepared for him by the
pseudonymous Dionysius, the Areopagite. The seven mortal
sins, already defined ex cathedrd as wrath, gluttony, lust, pride,
envy, avarice, and sloth, not only suggested but dictated and di¬
versified both seven circles in hell where they were punished,
and seven circles in purgatory where they were expiated, or
washed out.

The era of his pilgrimage was that very year of jubilee when
more pilgrims than ever before, and among them probably Dante
himself, flocked to Rome. Thus his poem may then and there
have first come into his mind. Some of its images were avow-
edly derived from that oecumenical convocation.

Long-established lessons to catechumens led to an analogous
catechising of Dante through several cantos at the gate of
heaven by Peter, James and John, and marked out the lines of
his examination. Prom school divines, and principally from
Thomas Aquinas who died in Dante’s ninth year, the poet was
a snapper up of countless unconsidered trifles — such words as
ubi, quando , quia, quiddity , substance and essence in scholastic
senses, and the subtleties they embody. Thus distinguishing
and dividing hairs, he condensed folios as we cork up the fra¬
grance of a garden in a vinaigrette of rose ottar.

The fashion of verse in Dante’s vision — the Terza-Rima - — had
been made ready for him by troubadours and trouveres — by
Guinicelli and Cavalcanti. He thrust into it many scraps of
Latin with now and then a vocable of Greek, Hebrew, Arabic,
or tongues yet more outlandish, and eight lines at once of
Provencal gibberish quoted from Arnaldo. At first glance his
diction recalls the Babylonish dialect of patched and piebald
languages in Hudibras.

As to Dantesque minutiae we note with surprise that so many
of them seem to have been received by tradition from more
ancient travelers through the world unseen. For one instance,
we observe Dante in purgatory discovering that spirits there
had lost their shadows while he retained his own. But the

154

Butler — Dante.

same discovery, that the shades in Hades were shadowless while
he was not, had been made by Aridaeus the Cilician, soon after
the Christian era. Plutarch tells the story and it may come
before us again.

In surveying the creations of pictorial old masters we at first
consider them altogether original. But as soon as we enter a
gallery where pictures are arranged chronologically, we recog¬
nize our mistake. Even in the master-pieces of Raphael the
subjects chosen, the persons introduced, their grouping and ac¬
cessories, sometimes the very colors, were by no means new
On the contrary, they were traditional, conventional — heir¬
looms from earlier centuries or imported from Byzantium. Nor
were there many among Raphael’s own contemporaries from
whom he failed to learn more or less, so that, on the whole, no
artist caught more from others than this supreme artist.

Scrutiny of Dante points the same way. He made spoil of the
Egyptians like the Jews who at their exodus borrowed, every
man and every woman of their neighbors, jewels of silver and
jewels of gold. More than this, there went out a decree from
Dante as from Cassar Augustus that all the world, and not Egypt
only, should be taxed.

But, however much Dante borrowed, he made everything
his own. The notion that disembodied spirits cast no shadows
is a thousand years older than Dante, and it may have come to
him through books or by hearsay. It is noteworthy, however,
that he makes the tradition his own as fully as if it had been his
own invention.

In the Inferno he never noticed this peculiarity. Perhaps it
was too dark there for shadows to be noticed. It was in Purga¬
tory that it first caught his eye. Seeing his own shadow on
the hill-side and none of Virgil, he was startled with fear that
his guide was gone. Finding him close at hand his next won¬
der was how it was possible for purgatorians around him to be
freezing and burning although they were shadowless. As this
puzzle was past his finding out he thus learned to feel that his
path was to be among more mysteries than had been dreamed
of in his philosophy.

It is worth observing that Dante’s shadow was as plain as

His Quotations and His Originality. 155

ever while that described in Plutarch was only “ an obscure,
shadow-like line. ” He copied nothing unchanged.

Again, when Virgil inquired the way up the steep of some
pilgrims there, Dante’s shadow was descried by them with so
much surprise that a crowd flocked together to gaze at it, and
hence at its owner. Among the gazers was Manfred, King of
Sicily, who related his own tragical fate, why he had been de¬
tained in Ante-purgatory, and how he had escaped going fur¬
ther and faring worse. Once more. A band singing Miserere
stopped at the sight of Dante’s shadow. They changed their
note into a great O! long and not very melodious, and dispatched
two of their number to enquire into the matter. These messen¬
gers, darting up swifter than stars fall, came back with the
whole bevy, etc.

Further on, when our pilgrim arrived where sinners were
cleansed by the hunger-cure, his shadow induced an old friend,
Forese, to seek his face, and learn his story.

Yet once again, when Dante reached the host being purified
by fire he says :

“ Then with my shadow did I make the flame
Appear more red; and even to such a sign
Shades saw I many as they went give heed.

This was the cause that gave them a beginning
To speak of me. And to themselves began they
To say: ‘ That’s not an unsubstantial body.’ ”

The idea that spirits have lost their shadows led Dante on
still further. He holds that they never stand in each other’s
light — more than one ray hinders the passage of another.

Thus the fancy concerning shadows and shadowlessness which
in Plutarch was a barren fact forever — a veritable shadow — in
Dante became substance and of wide significance. His origin¬
ality gave it evolution to its highest power, as Euclid drew out
a point into every variety of geometrical line and surface and
solid. It was to him as suggestive as our new found Roentgen
rays.

Many another bit of raw material in the Dantesque labora¬
tory was no longer idle ore,

“ But iron dug in central gloom,

And heated hot in burning fears,

And dipped in baths of hissing tears,

And fashioned by the dints of doom
To shape and use.”

156

Butler — Dante.

This view I find in keeping with the most recent utterance of
the Edinboro’ Review (Vol. CLXXXI, p. 298), where it is said;
“Much of a great writer’s originality may consist in attaining
sublime objects by the same means which others had employed
for mere trifling. ”

The shadow of Dante demands a moment’s digression. It
gave Chamisso the idea of Peter Schlemihl, the man who had
lost his shadow, — a work which was at once translated into
all European tongues, and which led to an analogous book this
side the water entitled “ The Modern Pilgrim, or Peter Schlemihl
in America, ” a religious novel which had great denominational
popularity. “The Shadow of Dante” also became the title of a
volume in 300 pages concerning him by a famous Italian exile,
Francesca Rossetti as well as of a review of the same and its
subject in the North American. This article by James Russell
Lowell, the outcome of “ twenty years assiduous study, ” covers
seventy pages and is well-nigh the best tribute ever paid by any
Dantophilist to the sublimest of Italian geniuses. But however
much Dante borrowed he made everything his own.

A common emblem of originality is the spider who spins his
web out of himself. In truth, however, he is no more original
than the bee who pilfers from a myriad of flowers. The spider’s
raw material comes at last from without as really, though not
as obviously, as the bee’s. Each is alike original, for each
produces what no other creature can, a product all its own. The
more each takes in, the more it gives out, stamped with its own
likeness, in nature’s mint of ecstasy.

The originality of Dante is conspicuous in his choice of a
theme. His epic, and his alone, is extra-mundane from first to
last. It has nothing to do with the surface of the earth, where,
aside from brief episodes, all scenes in the Iliad, Odyssey and
the ACneid are represented. He says, indeed, that earth as well
as heaven had a hand in his poem. By earth, however, he
means, either its infernal prison, or Purgatory which had been
ejected out of its abysses like the volcanic cone of iEtna in the
island of fire and piled up heaven-high.

Dante’s poem is also exceptionally religious. The old epics
were in a sense religious ; the Iliad setting forth divine

His Quotations and His Originality.

157

vengeance visited upon Trojans who had first wronged Greeks;
the Odyssey is divine guidance homeward of one of the ministers
of divine wrath; and the iEneid shows a pious Trojan impelled
by his guardian gods to the founding of Rome. But the ef¬
fusions of Dante’s predecessors were none of them religious
through and through as his was. They were of the earth earthy ;.
his was devotional — the whole duty of man. They reflected
the culture of Athens and the glory of Rome; his the holiness
of Jerusalem. Hence, readers at once begun to call his drama
“ Divine. ”

Dante’s subject is the autobiography of a soul God-guided
beyond the bounds of time and sense. We go with that soul to
the lowest depths, and then, as it rises de profundis , behold it.
purified by pity and terror and soaring into the highest heaven
of heavens.

In thoughts beyond the reaches of our souls this pilgrim com¬
munes with his own heart, with his guardians and with all
types of being from the blackest devil to the brightest seraph.
He mingles with representatives of the seven mortal sins and
the seven cardinal virtues [or graces], in more than seventy times
seven differentiations, and each in its own element, either act¬
ing or relating his actions. The secrets of all hearts are re¬
vealed in words, or betrayed in deeds. No confessions of St.
Augustine or at all priestly confessionals are to be compared with’
the Dantesque disclosures.

Again, no poet before Dante had dreamed of such a wide uni¬
versal theatre as that he struggles through. “ The measure
thereof is longer than the earth and broader than the sea. ”
Milton’s writing was four centuries later, well-nigh, but Dante’s
hell is deeper and his heaven higher than Milton’s. The toil¬
some sinking to the center of the earth, the plunge into the abyss;
beyond, the struggle, often desperate, up the purgatorial moun¬
tain, and nine successive flights through a nine-fold heaven
generate an impression of vas.tness and boundlessness which
Milton has never rivaled. If then we looked no further than
the unique religiosity and grandeur of his conception we must
acknowledge Dante to be a great original. His theme was in
his own judgment all his own. He thus speaks:

158

Butler — Dante,

“O ye who in some pretty little boat,

Eager to listen have been following
Behind my ship, that singing sails along,

The sea I sail has never yet been passed.”

Dante is original in the development as well as in the concep¬
tion of his theme.

It is the first step that costs. His first step took him beyond
this visible diurnal sphere. Henceforth his surroundings tran¬
scended the laws of nature. This super-human emancipation
was not partial or transient, as in the witches of Macbeth and
in Prospero of the Tempest, but perpetual and all-pervasive.
When we have once been hypnotized with him, nothing seems
improbable. Accordingly his imagination can rove and riot
without rein or rule,

Horace praises the adroitness with which Homer, beginning
with things plausible, brings us by slow degrees to accept his
fables about the Cyclops and Charybdis as not beyond possibil¬
ity, making his “miracula ” to seem “ speciosa. ”

But the great Italian’s environment is miraculous from the
start, and ignores limitations altogether. He is at home among
monstrosities at a bound and not by gradual approach.

Dante saw a snake tie a man as with cords, pierce him as
with arrows, assimilate him to itself, consume him as fire burns
paper, and restore hi m from ashes to his original shape. Again,
he saw a troop of angels take up such a position that their
squadrons had the forms of 35 Latin letters so as to spell the
words, Diligite justitiam qui judicatis terram.

But even such prodigies as these are not out of keeping with
the unearthly tenor of our pilgrimage through the world of
spirits. All “miracula” are “speciosa” there.

Free from the laws of nature Dante naturally expatiated more
freely than poets who were bound by them. With a great sum
obtained they this freedom, but he was free-born.

A poem confined to realms preternatural and even unnatural,
we think must needs be deficient in human interest.

Such a lack would be fatal. It would have brought down the
sublime vision to the level of a maniac’s ravings, or of thos e
every day dreams which we throw to the winds.

This catastrophe Dante avoids by many an original device.

His Quotations and His Originality. 159

The wanderer, while out of the world, is yet of it, through mul¬
titudinous interviews. Each change of many-colored life, and
that in all centuries, rises before him. His talks are with
Adam and those of his sons whose careers are the soul of all
history, sacred and profane. His gleanings from all sources are
all poetical, or become so. So much, however, is recondite that
every reader is instructed as well as surprised and charmed.
Whatever may be our forte, scripture, classics, history, folk¬
lore, astrology, art, or science of whatever name, we are sure to
add to our knowledge, and need research for fathoming the
learning. We confess that his eye had a more precious seeing
than ours, alike for books written with a pen, and for the book
of nature, above all of human nature. His sight and his in sight
appear alike marvelous.

The Florentine looker-on in three worlds detected more cor¬
respondences than Swedenborg with terrestrial life. For illus¬
trating his wayside experience he recalls the Venetian arsenal,
Dutch dikes, grave-mounds on the Rhone, the cascade of Mon¬
tone, the baths of Bulicame, the leaning tower of Garisenda, the
famine tower of Ugolino, Alpine lakes, snow and mists. But
the line of his side-lights, were we to follow it, would stretch
out to the crack of doom.

Italian gestures abound, a universal language thanks to which
thoughts flash lightning-like nor linger waiting for words.
Dante too stoops for fragments which others think beneath
them. Proverbs as about cutting a coat according to cloth, the
old tailor squinting into a needle’s eye, a sack crammed till it
bursts, the bush of thorns for a gap in a hedge, the man in
the moon, the currying hostler, the game of odd and even, the
doublings of chess-board squares, the animals Adam named, the
flowers Eve plucked, — nothing came amiss. He even made obtuse
angled triangles poetical. It was not merely the beauty of holi¬
ness which he had in hand.

Dante’s vision is all a lie, but he lies with a circumstance.
His circumstantial evidence is so cumulative and coherent that
we believe him altogether, and we sometimes think that he be¬
lieves his own lies. We say with Macbeth:

u Function is smothered in surmise,

And nothing is but what is not.”

160

Butler — Dante.

The Divine Comedy is original in form and pressure owing to
its writer’s religio- political tenets. We read in Genesis: “God
made two great lights. ” One of these lights, according to Dante,
was the Pope and the other the King. They were not related
like sun and moon, but coequal like two suns. The king was
once represented by the Roman Caesars, one of whom, Trajan,
was even saved, being baptized by miracle. The Roman eagle
was “ the bird of God. ” Afterward German emperors, heads
of the Holy Roman empire, stood for the king. The papal and
the imperial luminary has each its own orbit. If either en¬
croaches on the domain of the other, they no longer discourse
heavenly music, but grate harsh thunder. Now such an en¬
croachment ensues whenever the spiritual light grasps temporal
power, or the secular light meddles with spiritualities. Some
such encroachments are drawn to the life in Dante’s vision.
Thus, concerning the arrest of a pope by the French it is said :

“ Lo! the flower-de-luce
Enters Alagna: in his vicar, Christ
Himself a captive, and his mockery
Acted again. Lo! to his holy lip
The vinegar and gall once more are pressed,

And he twixt living robbers doomed to bleed.

Lo! the new Pilate of whose cruelty
Such violence cannot fill the measure up.”

On the other hand, when a pontiff was a simoniac, like Boni¬
face, Dante, while kissing the pope’s toe, not only ties the
hands of the simoniac but points out, in the lowest hell save
one, the niche he was ordained to fill.

The actors in atrocities, whether sovereign or sacerdotal, —
Dante beheld each in his own place. Thus at the seventh in¬
fernal circle, which was redolent of more stenches than Coleridge
counted in Cologne, he came to a tomb inscribed: “ Pope
Anastatius , whom Photinus seduced from the right way. ” But
behold how the whirligig of time brings in his revenges ! Mod¬
ern critics maintain that Dante was here misled by the old and
blundering chronicler, and that the Anastatius whom Photinus
turned into a heretic was not the pope of that name but an
emperor.

If our poet has now discovered his mistake, he has doubtless
laughed outright at himself, as he tells us Pope Gregory did
on entering heaven, since the first thing he noticed there was

His Quotations and His Originality. 161

that his book on the celestial hierarchy was all a ridiculous
blunder.

Another Pope, namely, Celestine, Dante had observed in the
infernal vestibule, among wretches who would never know they
were born but for the stings of wasps, mosquitoes and vermin
yet more vile.

Whoever, no matter of what age or clime, had helped or hind¬
ered the advancement of the ecclesiastical or the governmental
ideal, comes into judgment, and is doomed.

Poetical justice is dispensed. Sowers of discord pace a
treadmill routine and every now and then are cleft in twain,
the envious grope with eyelids sewed up, the heads of fortune-tel¬
lers are so twisted that their chins hang over their backbones,
and suicides are pent up in trees while their bodies hang on
stakes beside them. The proud are crushed to the ground under
burdens grievous to be borne, and Satan, the first-born of pride,
stands frozen in the very center of the globe, where all the weight
of the world, drawing from every side, presses upon him. Non¬
committals, or fence-men, perhaps fare worst of all. Creatures
who never were really alive, and whom heaven and hell both
hate, they are outcasts from both, and have no hope even of
death. Too mean to live, too weak to die.

In contrast to all this, the noble army of well-doers, down¬
ward from the earliest martyr, saint and prophet, are seen in a
glory ever-brightening. Most of these personages bring to
the pilgrim’s mind their opposites, or counterfeits, still bur¬
dening the earth. Hence his ebullitions of satire. These are
so hot and venomous that their victims must have felt them¬
selves already bitten by infernal serpents and scorched in in¬
fernal fires. Such Parthian arrows shot back to the earth by
one retreating from it, heighten the human interest of his ad¬
ventures. They thrill us like vengeful furies lurking in the
back-ground of Greek tragedy. In this line Michelangelo imi¬
tated Dante, and painted a dignitary he hated among the
damned. When the Pope begged the artist to place him in
better company, the answer was: “Were he in Purgatory you
could take him out, but in the Inferno he is beyond help. "

Dante is original in his types of woman. The female spirits

11

162

Butler — Dante.

who meet him so often onward from Francesca in the second
circle, exhibit traits unlike their classical sisters. They have
borrowed a coloring, or at least a tinge, from Christianity and
chivalry. Yet it is most of all in Beatrice that Christian and
chivalric ideals are sublimated. Enskied and sainted, she sends
Virgil to the lowest parts of the earth for Dante’s salvation. In
her own person she brings him up a height Virgil could not
climb. While living she had delivered him from evil. What
she became when etherealized by the moonlight of memory for
ten years after death, is best told in the words of Dante’s great
brother by the higher birth, who says, in words which no man
.can mend :

“The idea of her life did sweetly creep
Into his study of imagination,

And every lovely organ of her life

Did come appareled in more precious habit,

More moving, delicate, and full of life,

Into the eye and prospect of his soul
Than when she lived indeed.”

The simple truth is that Dante’s magic lines were children
born of his love. As a boy he had fallen in love at first sight
with a girl named Beatrice. 0 angelica prezenza! He won her
heart but not her hand. His disappointment turned him from
a lover to a worshipper.

In painting the lost on earth restored in heaven and becoming
his guide thither through purgatory, lay the veritable inspiration
of his immortal vision. The gravel-stone which came chafing
into his earthly shell was transmuted by the alchemy of the
heart into a pearl which can never lose its luster.

Original genius is shown in saving Dante’s march from
monotony. His path lies, now amid whirlwind and thunder,
earthquake and fire, — yes, demons worse than all, — anon beside
still waters amid sculptures surpassing Polycletus and even
nature, with music which quiets all longings, save to hear it
forever, with spirit-dances accordant thereto, and amid flowers
bedecking the way and at every turn an angel to show the road,
and cheer the pilgrim on, and up.

The style of Dante is all his own, and it is multiform.

Sometimes it is diffuse like the oceanic Homer. Ten times as
often it is as terse and tart as Tacitus. Sometimes an epigram

His Quotations and His Originality.

16

of a single line is too long. His epigramatic lines are 14,228 —
but we wish they were more. Here felicities of phrase are more
delicate than Gray or Tennyson; — there the dialect of devils out¬
does Hudibras, and perhaps Zola.

As it regards vocabulary he seems sometimes supersensitive
and finical. He was such a lipogrammatist, so scrupulous about
a word that the name of Christ is never once mentioned
throughout the Inferno. Pains are taken in order that each
of the three epic divisions may end in the self-same word,
namely “ stars. ”

Most poets “ for a tricksy word defy the matter. ” Dante
declares that he never did. We believe him in proportion as we
mark how his phrases fit, according to his own words, like a
candle to its socket or a ring to its finger. Rhyme and meter,
which to so many are chains and clogs, were his wings for soar¬
ing above all stars.

Dante was original most of all in his combinations.

Whatever materials, no matter how heterogeneous, he had
accumulated from nature, life or books, he incorporated into one
body, parts into parts reciprocally shot, and fitly framed to¬
gether. He breathed upon it and it became a living soul. It was
marked all over and instinct in every fiber with Dantesque char¬
acteristics. Things insignificant he aggrandized by making them
subserve a noble purpose as Michelangelo did every stone in
the dome of St. Peter’s. Where the protoplasmic elements of
his vision came from he cared not, but his was the protoplastic
hand which molded them into one organic whole, a whole which
was greater, mauger mathematics, than all its parts. This
whole differed from each and all of its parts not only in degree
but in nature. He put those parts into such relations, and
correlations that a new element was evolved, one as much
superior to those parts as electricity, the fire of heaven and of
God, is above the beggarly elements, of the earth earthy,
which are its constituents. The outcome is an original creation
or a transcendent resurrection.

The grand legacies to mankind from Florence are reckoned
two. One is a banker’s drafts, and the other is Dante. Dante
and drafts! Drafts make money to walk invisible while, like

164

Butler — Dante.

Satan, it goes to and fro in the earth and walks up and down
in it. It thus endows money with the divine attribute of omni¬
presence.

But Dante’s miracle is greater. He makes the world invisi¬
ble to become visible in all its heights and depths; and so he
bestows upon his readers the gift of omniscience.

In reading an original writer we wish we had known him
sooner, we resolve to know him better; and, not knowing
what we do, we hold up our rush light to show the sun. As
Dante gazed on things unutterable his prayer was : “ O that I

may show to those who come after me one spark only of this
glory ! ” Some glimpse of the morning-star of modern poetry I
would fain give. Even if I have failed I rejoice that you need
no exhortation to forswear thin potations and addict yourselves
to Dante. You may not join the zealots who with Ruskin call
Dante “ the central man of all the world. ” You may, however,
agree with Lowell, that among sons of genius, if Shakespeare
was the most comprehensive intellect, Dante was “the highest
spiritual nature, ” and so as Italians say D altissimo poeta.

Madison , Wis.

SECOND SUPPLEMENTARY LIST OF PARASITIC FUNGI
OF WISCONSIN.

J. J. DAVIS, B. S., M. D.

A preliminary list of Parasitic Fungi of Wisconsin by Wm.
Trelease was published in the transactions of the Wisconsin
Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters, Yol. VI. In Vol. IX
there was published a Supplementary List of which the present
is a continuation. No special attempt has been make to revise
the nomenclature of the lists, but occasional notes on synonomy
are inserted.

In addition to the obligations heretofore acknowledged I wish
to thank Mr. H. F. Lueders of Sauk City, Mr. F. L. Stevens,
now of Columbus, Ohio, and especially Prof. L. S. Cheney of
the University of Wisconsin, for assistance in securing material
for this list.

Racine , Wis ., March 15 , 1897.

HOSTS NOT RECORDED IN THE PRELIMINARY OR
SUPPLEMENTARY LISTS.

4. Cystopus candidus, (Pers.) Lev.

On Arabia per foliata, Lam. Sauk City. (Lueders.)
Cardamine rhomboidea , DC., Kenosha county.

5. Cystopus tragopogonis, (Pers.) Schrt. var. spinulosus,

(DBy).

On Cnicus muticus , Pursh. Mason (Cheney.)
16. Peronospora parasitica, (Pers.) Tul.

On Draba caroliniana, Walt. Madison. (Cheney.)
37. Microsphaera diffusa, C. & P.

On Desmodium canadense , DC., Madison*

(Cheney.)

166 Davis — Parasitic Fungi of Wisconsin.

40. Microsphaera alni, (DC.) Winter.

On Cornus alternifolia , L. f. Madison. (Cheney.)

43. PODOSPHAERA OXYACANTHiE, (DC.) DBy.

On Prunus pumila, L. Madison. (Cheney.) Pru-
nus americana , Marshall. Fayette. (Cheney.)

44. Phyllactinia suffulta, (Reb.) Sacc.

On Crataegus sp. and Quercus sp. Madison.
(Cheney.)

48. Erysiphe cichoracearum, DC.

On Eupatorium ageratoides, L. Fayette. (Che-
ney.)

49. Erysiphe communis, (Wallr.) Fr.

On Lathyrus ochroleucus , Hook. Daleyville.
(Cheney.) Lupinus perennis, L. Dells of the Wis¬
consin river. (Cheney.) Ranunculus acris, L.
Houghton quarries. (Cheney. ) Ranunculus mul-
tifidus , Pursh, Racine.

61. Plowrightia morbosa, (Schw.) Sacc.

(Ottilia morbosa, (Schw. ) Sacc.) On Prunus
pumila , L. Montreal. (Cheney.)

67. Claviceps sp.

Sclerotia on Agropyrum repens , L. Phalaris
arundinacea , L., and Glyceria fluitans , R. Hr.
Racine.

78. Didymaria ungeri, Corda (D. didyma , (Ung.) Pound).

On Ranunculus septentrionalis , Poir. Racine.
83. Ramularia macrospora, Fres. var. asteris, Sacc.

On Aster diffusus , Ait. (?) Somers.

86. Ovularia monosporia. (West.) Pound & Clements.

(0. obliqua. (Cke.) Prelim. List.)

91. Cercosporella cana, (Pass.) Sacc.

On Solidago canadensis , L. Racine.

111. Phyllosticta payiae, Desm.

(Ph. sphaeropsoidea , E. & E. Suppl. List.)

142. Septoria convolvuli, Desm.

On Ipomoea purpurea , Lam. Fayette. (Cheney. )
152. Uromyces trifolii, (A. & S.) Winter.

Uredo on Trifolium pratense , L. Sauk City.
(Lueders.) Racine.

Second Supplementary List.

167

152a. Uromyces euphorbiae, C. & P.

iEcidium and uredo on Euphorbia poly gonifolia,
L. Kenosha.

158. Uromyces hyperici, (Schw.) Curtis.

Uredo and teleutospores on Hypericum cana-
dense , var. minimum , Chois. Dells of the Wiscon¬
sin river.

191. Puccinia pimpinellae (Straus.) Link.

Teleutospores on Pimpinella integerrima , B. &
H. Kenosha county.

199. Puccinia rubigo-vera, (DC.) Winter.

Teleutospores on Elymus striatus , Willd. Somers.
209. Melampsora farinosa, (Pers.) Shroet.

(M. salicis-capreae , (Pers.) Wint. Prelim. List.)
215. Melampsora pirolae, (G-mel.) Shroet.

( Uredo pyrolae , (Gmel.) Prelim. List).

Uredo on Pyrola secunda , L. Three Lakes.

232. JEcidium sambuci, Schw.

On Sambucus racemosa , L. Ashland. (Cheney.)
242. ACcidium compositarum, Martens.

On Cacalia reniformis , Muhl. Kenosha county;
Senecio aureus , L. Racine.

256. Entyloma compositarum, Farl.

On Aster paniculatus, Lam. and Helenium autum-
nale , L. Racine.

258. Entyloma crastophilum, Sacc. ( E . crastophilum , Sacc.

(?) Prelim List. E. lineata , (Cke. ) Suppl.
List. )

260. Entyloma physalidis, (K. & C.) Wint.

On Phy satis virginiana , Mill. Kenosha county.

261, Entyloma microsporum, (Ung. ) Schroet.

On Ranunculus septentrionalis , Poir. Somers.

264. The fungus on Sagittaria variabilis , Engelm. referred
herein the preliminary list is Burrillia pustulata ,
Setchell; fide Setchell, Annals of Botany VI-
XXI-37.

275. Taphrina johansonii, Sadeb. ( T rhizophora , Johans.
Suppl. List.)

168 Davis — Parasitic Fungi of Wisconsin.

276. Erysiphe galeopsidis, DC.

On Stachys aspera , Michx. Racine and Scutel¬
laria galericulata, L. Madison. (Cheney.)

279. Microspmra vaccinii, C. & P.

On Vaccinium pennsylvanicum , Lam. Dells of
the Wisconsin river and Big Bay. (Cheney.)

281. Sph^erotheca humuli, (DC.) Burrill.

On Physocarpus opulifolius , Maxim. Platteville;
fide Prof. S. M. Tracy. Rubus strigosus , Michx.
Racine.

284. UNO INULA MACROSPORA, Pk.

On Ostrya virginica, Willd. Platteville; fide
Prof. S. M. Tracy.

285. Asterina gaultheri^e, Curtis.

On Arctostaphylos uva-ursi , Spreng. Three
Lakes.

331. Passalora depressa, (B. & Br.) Sacc.

This does not differ from No. 100 of the Prelim¬
inary List.

341. Melampsora scolopendrii, (Fckl.) Farl. ( Gloeosporium
phegopteridis , Frank, Suppl. List.)

351. Leptothyrium dryinum, Sacc.

On Quercus alba , L. Racine.

352. Leptothyrium periclymeni, Desm.

On Lonicera ciliata , Muhl. Three Lakes.

376. This was properly given as an additional host of No. 89,
and then inadvertently given as an additional
species under a synonym.

379. Ramularia impatientis, Pk.

On Impatiens fulva , Nutt. Kenosha county.

384. Ramularia reticulata, E. & E.

On Osmorrhiza brevistylis , DC. Somers.

387. This is referred to Septocylindrium by Pound and Clem¬
ents. (Minnesota Botanical Studies Bulletin 9,
part ix., p. 651.)

392. SCOLECOTRICHUM GRAMINIS, Fckl.

On Glyceria fluitans , R. Br. , Calamogrostis
canadensis, Beauv. and Alopecurus genicidatus ,
L. var. aristulatus, Torr. Racine.

Second Supplementary List

169

395. Septoria osmorrhizae, Pk.

(S. aegopodii , Desm. Suppl. List.)

On Osmorrhiza brevistylis , DC. Racine.

401. Septoria atropurpurea, Pk.

On Aster vimineus , Lam. Racine; Solidago lati-
folia , L. Somers.

404. Septoria canadensis, Ell. & Davis.

On Solidago serotain , Ait. Somers.

439. Septoria psilostega, E. & M.

On Galium circaezans , Michx. Racine; Galium
trifidum , L. Berryville. Sporules of the latter
40-60X1^-2 microns, but the perithecia are on
spots.

441. Septoria rhoina, B. & C.

On Rhus typhina , L. Racine.

Sporules 40-60 microns long.

449. Septoria brunneola, (Fr.)

(S. smilacinae , E. & M. Suppl. List.)

On Smilacina racemosa , Desf. Kenosha county.

450. Septoria solidaginicola, Pk.

On Aster puniceus , L. , and Solidago caesia , L.
Racine.

464. Puccinia eleocharidis, Arthur.

On Eleocharis palustris , R. Br. Kenosha.

471. Puccinia curtipes, Howe.

(P. saxifragae, Schl. Suppl. List.)

In Uredineae Exsiccatae et leones, No. 7. Ar¬
thur and Hoi way distribute specimens on Heu -
chera americana , L. collected at Madison, Wis.,
by W. Trelease, under the above name.

478. Melampsora epilobii, (Pers.) Fckl.

( Pucciniastrum epilobii , (Pers.) Otth.)

Uredo on Epilobium angustifolium , L. Forest
county.

479. Chrysomyxa arctostaphyli, Dietel.

Erroneously referred to Melampsora sparsa, Win¬
ter in the Supplementary List. Described by
Dietel in the Botanical Gazette, August, 1894.

170 Davis — Parasitic Fungi of Wisconsin.

487. Entyloma floerkeae, Holway.

Mr. Holway’s description of this species, which
I believe has never been published, is as follows:
“ Spores globose, rarely elliptical or angular, yel¬
lowish brown, thick walled, 10-12 microns in
diameter. ” The affected portions of the host are
first whitish, then brown and sere.

The fungus makes its appearance in early springs
and the newly formed spores germinate readily, when
fresh, for three or four weeks. After that a period
rest is apparently necessary. The promycelia are
about 3 microns in diameter, and of various
lengths. The sporida are 4-6 in number, 10-16
X2£-3 microns. Their bases are in contact, and
about half of them develop from their tips slender,
acute bodies 30-60X1^-2 microns, which become
free.

SPECIES NOT RECORDED IN THE PRELIMINARY OR
SUPPLEMENTARY LISTS.

496. Peronospora hydrophylli, Waite,

On Hydrophyllum virginicum , L. Racine.

497. Taphrina alni-incanae, (Kuehn) Magnus.

On Alnus incana, Willd. Sauk City. (Lueders. )
Three Lakes. On Alnus , sp. Ashland. (Cheney.)
Mason. (Cheney.)

498. Erysiphe aggregata, (Peck) Farlow.

On Alnus incana , Willd. Dells of the Wiscon¬
sin river.

499. PODOSPHAERA BIUNCINATA, C. & P.

On Hamamelis virginiana , L. Racine and Som¬
ers.

500. Asterina plantaginis, Ellis.

On Plantago rugelii, Dcsne. Racine.

501. Dimerosporium collinsii, (Schw.). Thum.

On Amelanchier alni folia, Nutt. Tomahawk.
(Cheney.) Amelanchier , sp. Blue Mounds. (Che-
ney.)

Second Supplementary List.

171

502. Phyllachora plantaginis, Ell. & Evht.

On Plantago rugelii , Dcsne. Racine.

503. Physalospora ambrosiae, Ell. & Evht.

On Ambrosia trifida , L. Payette. (Cheney.)
Racine.

504. Rhytisma andromedae, (Pers.) Fries.

On Andromeda polifolia , L. Forest county.

505. Stamnaria equiseti, (Hoffm.) Sacc.

On Equisetum hyemale , L. Somers.

506. Venturia pulchella, C. & P.

On Cassandra calyculata , Don. Forest county.

507. Ascociiyta cassandrae, Peck.

On Cassandra calycidata, Don. Forest county.

508. Cercospora caulophylli, Peck.

On Caulophyllum thalictroides , Michx. Somer.

509. Cercospora dioscoreae, E. & M.

On Dioscorea villosa , L. Kenosha county.

510. Cercospora geranii, Kell. & Swingle.

On Geranium maeulatum , L. Racine.

511. Cercospora merrowi, Ell. & Evht.

On Isopyrum biternatum , Torr. & Gr. Somers.

512. Cercospora nasturtii, Pass.

On Nasturtium palustre , DC. Racine.

513. Cercospora sedoides, Ell. & Evht.

On Penthorum sedoides , L. Racine.

514. Cercospora stomatica, Ell. & Davis.

On Solidago latifolia , L. Somers.

515. Cryptosporium caricis, Corda.

On Carex sp. Kenosha county.

516. Cylindrosporium calamagrostidis, Ell. & Evht.

On Calamagrostis canadensis , Beuv. Berryville.

517. Cylindrosporium capsell^e, Ell. & Evht.

On Capsella bursa-pastoris , Moench. Somers.

518. Cylindrosporium glycerine, Ell. & Evht.

On Glyceria nervata , Trin. Racine.

519. Cylindrosporium leptospermum, Peck in litt. ( Cercos¬

pora leptosperma , Peck.)

On Aralia nudicaidis , L. Three Lakes.

172 Davis — Parasitic Fungi of Wisconsin.

521. Cylindrosporium sparganii, (Pass.) Ell. & Evht.

On Spargamum eurycarpum, Engelm, Kenosha.

522. Dicoccum nebulosum, Ell. & Evht.

On Fraxinus americana , L. Somers.

523. Gloeosporium (Marsonia) brunneum, Ell. & Evht.

On Populns granclidentata , Michx. Racine.

524. Gloeosporium confluens, Ell. & Dearness.

On Sagittaria variabilis, Engelm. Racine.

525. Gloeosporium (Marsonia) martini, Sacc. & Ell.

On Qaercus {rubra?) Madison. (Cheney.)

On Quercus macrocarpa , Michx. Racine.

526. Gloeosporium tremuloides, Ell. & Evht.

On Popidus tremuloides, Michx. Racine.

527. Monilia linhartiana, Sacc.

On fruit of Prunus virginiana, L. Racine.

528. Phoma cryptica, (Nitz.) Sacc.

On stems and twigs of Lonicera. Racine. (P. L.
Stevens.)

529. Phyllosticta acericola, C. & E.

On Acer saccharinum , Wang. Racine. A. spic-
atum, Lam. Three Lakes.

530. Phyllosticta calaminthae, Ell. & Evht.

On Mentha canadensis, L. Racine.

531. Phyllosticta decidua, Ell. & Kell.

On Teucrium canadense, L. Kenosha county;
on Scutellaria lateriflora, L. Racine.

532. Phyllosticta fatiscens, Peck.

On Nuphar advena, Ait. f. Kenosha county.
Phyllosticta orontii, var. advena , E. & E. is a
synonym.

533. Phyllosticta ludwigiae, Peck.

On Ludwigia polycarpa, Short & Peter. Racine.

534. Phyllosticta rudbeckiae, Ell. & Evht.

On RudbecJcia laciniata, L. Kenosha county.

535. PlRICULARIA PARASITICA, Ell. & Evht.

On Phyllachora graminis, (Pers.) Fckl. Kenosha
county. Sometimes quite abundant on Elymus
and Asprella.

Second Supplementary List

173

536. Sclerotium BIFRONS, Ell. & Evht.

On Populus tremidoides, Michx. Waterford.

537. Septoria bacilligera, Winter.

On Ambrosia trifida , L. Racine.

538. Septoria besseyi, Peck.

On Fraxinus americana , L. Racine.

538a. Septoria cerasina, Peck.

On cultivated cherry. Racine.

539. Septoria nolitangere, Thum.

On Impatiens sp. Forest county.

540. Septoria petroselini, Desm.

On Apium graveolens, L. (cult.) Madison.
(Cheney.)

541. Septoria rudbeckiae, Ell. & Hals.

On Rudbeckia laciniata , L. and R. hirta , L.
Racine.

542. Septoria rumicis, Ellis.

On Rumex verticillatus) L. Racine.

543. Septoria urticae, Rob.

On Laportea canadensis , Gaud. Kenosha

county.

544. Steganosporium smilacis, (E. & M.) Sacc.

On Smilax sp. Kenosha county and Racine.

545. Uromyces caryophyllinus, Schroeter.

Abundant on carnations ( Dianthus caryophyllus ,
L.) in a greenhouse in Racine. (F. L. Stevens.)

546. Uromyces howei, Peck.

On Asclepias cornuti , Desne. and A. incarnata ,
L. Racine.

547. Uromyces minimus, Davis.

Uredo and teleutospores on Muhlenbergia syl-
vatica. Torr. & Gr. Kenosha county.

548. PUCCINIA CALTHAE, Lk.

On Caltha palustris , L. Madison (Prof. T. A.
Williams.)

549. Puccinia dayi, Clinton.

On Steironema ciliatum , Raf. Racine and
Kenosha county.

174 Davis — Parasitic Fungi of Wisconsin.

550. Puccinia pallida, Tracy.

Teleutospores on Osmorrhiza. Platteville. (Prof.
S. M. Tracy in Journal of Mycology, VII. 3-281).

551. Puccinia ribis, DC.

On Ribes prostratum, L’Her. Montreal. (Cheney.)

552. Puccinia rubefaciens, Johans.

On Galium sp. Merrill. (Cheney.)

553. Puccinia tenuis, Burrill.

iEcidium and teleutospores on Eupatorium agera-
toides , L. Kenosha county.

554. Chrysomyxa chiogenis, Dietel.

Uredo and teleutoform on Chiogenes serpyllifolia ,
Salisb. Lac Vieux Desert. (Cheney.) Forest county.

555. Uredo chimaphilae, Peck.

On Chimaphila umbellata , Nutt. Three Lakes.

556. iEciDiUM iridis, Gerard.

On Iris versicolor , L. Granite Heights. (Cheney.)

557. iEciDiUM lycopi, Gerard.

On Ly copus sp. Tomahawk Lake. (Cheney.)
Webster. (Cheney.) Ly copus virginicus , L. and L.
sinuatus , Ell. Racine.

557a. Peridermium elatinum, (A. and S.) Schm. and Kze.

On Abies balsamea, Miller. LaPointe. (Cheney.)

558. Ustilago caricis, (Pers.) Fckl.

On Carex limosa , L. Drummond. (Cheney.)
Garex stricta , Lam. Mason. (Cheney.) Carex sp.
Lac Vieux Desert. (Cheney.) Montreal. (Cheney.)

559. Ustilago longissima, (Sow.) Tul. var. macrospora.

On Glyceria fluitans , R. Br. Racine. Differs
from the type in its larger spores, 6-11, mostly
8-9 microns in diameter.

560. Entyloma castall®, Holway ined.

On Nymphcea sp. Madison ; Nymphcea reniformis ,
DC. Racine; Nuphar advena , Ait. Kenosha
county.

In 1885 Mr. E. W. D. Holway collected in Iowa
a fungus in the leaves of Nymphcea which he dis¬
tributed to correspondents as Entyloma castalice

Second Supplementary List.

175

but made no publication. The receipt of a speci¬
men is acknowledged in the 45th Report of the
N. Y. State Museum of Natural History. In 1887
Dr. Cunningham published a description of a fun¬
gus in the leaves of Nymphcea in India under the
name Rhamphospora nymphcece , establishing the
genus for its reception (Scientific Memoirs by Medi¬
cal Officers of the Army of India, Pt. III.,
pp. 27-32). During the meeting of the American
Association for the Advancement of Science in
1893, Dr. B. D. Halsted mentioned the occur¬
rence of a similar fungus in the leaves of Nymphoza
in New Jersey and it was found in Madison, Wis.,
during the meeting of the Association. In the
Botanical Gazette for May, 1894, (XIX. -5-188)
Dr. W. A. Setchell recorded the occurrence of a
fungus in the leaves of Nymphcea odorata in
Connecticut and Massachusetts and in those of
Nupliar advena in Connecticut, which he referred
to Dr. Cunningham’s species, considering it, how¬
ever, an Entyloma. I have not seen the Indian
species but infer from the description that in
the manner of formation of the spores as well as
their form and size the American form corres¬
ponds fairly well. Comparison of the germination
characters with the behavior of Wisconsin ma¬
terial in germination, however, leads to the be¬
lief that the American form is specifically dis¬
tinct.

The fungus becomes apparent in Racine early
in Juty; and from that time until after the mid¬
dle of September germination can be obtained in
slide cultures, but I have not succeeded with cell
cultures. In early July most of the spores
would germinate in 36-60 hours, but the propor¬
tion gradually decreased as the season advanced
and the vigor of germination decreased as well.
The promycelium issues from the side of the

176

Davis — Parasitic Fungi of Wisconsin .

spore and bears upon its tip three, rarely two
or four, sporidia. In the simplest type a pro¬
tuberance appears on the sporidium at a point,
above its middle which develops into a branch
equal to the sporidium above the point of branch¬
ing. The sporidium then becomes detached form¬
ing a free body consisting of three arms radiat¬
ing from a center. If the germination is a little
more vigorous two branches are formed, which,
together with the sporidium above their point of
attachment, form the triradiate body. When the
germination is very vigorous branchlets form on
the branches and these in turn may develop
branches until a tree-like growth is produced.
The detached sporidia, however, are always tri¬
radiate and remind one of the spicules of sponges.
I have seen no further development and no con¬
jugation. The absence of septa in the promy¬
celium and especially of the septate bodies de¬
scribed and figured by Cunningham, intermediate
between the promycelium and the sporidia, make
it certain either that the germination phenomena
are widely variable or that the American form is
specif cally distinct. I have therefor made use of
the only name that has been distinctively applied
to the American plant.

561. Doassansia deformans, Setchell.

On Sagittaria variabilis , Engelm., Racine.

562. Doassansia martianoffiana, (Thum.) Schrt.

On Potamogeton sp. Racine and Forest county.

563. Doassansia obscura, Setchell.

On Sagittaria variabilis , Engelm., Racine.

564. Doassansia ranunculina, Davis.

On Ranunculus multifidus , Pursh., Racine.

565. Doassansia sagittaria, (Westd.) Fisch.

On Sagittaria variabilis , Engelm., Racine.

566. Burrillia globulifera, Davis.

On Glyceria fluitans , R. Br. , Sauk City.
(Lueders). Racine.

Second Supplementary List.

177

567. Burrillia pustulata, Setchell.

On Sagittaria variabilis , Engelm., Madison.
(Trelease). Preliminary List, 264 in part jide
Setchell (Annals of Botany VI. -21-37, April, 1892).

INDEX TO HOSTS.

Abies balsamea, 557a.

Acer spicatum, 529.

Acer saccharinum, 529.

Aesculus hippocastanum, 111.
Agropyrurn repens, 67.

Alnus incana, 497, 498.

Alopecurus geniculatus, 392.
Ambrosia trifida, 503, 537.
Amelanchier alnifolia, 501.
Andromeda polifolia, 504.

Angelica atropurpurea, 331.

Apium graveolens, 540.

Arabis perfoliata, 4.

Aralia nudicaulis, 519.
Arctostaphylos uva-ursi, 285, 479.
Asclepias cornuti, 546.

Asclepias incarnata, 546.

Aspidium thelypteris, 341.

Asprella, 535.

Aster diffusus, 83.

Aster paniculatus, 256.

Aster puniceus, 450.

Aster vimineus, 401.

Cacalia reniformis, 242.
Calamagrostis canadensis, 392, 516.
Caltha palustris, 548.

Capsella bursa-pastoris, 517.
Cardamine rhomboidea, 4.

Carex limosa, 558.

Carex stricta, 558.

Carex, 515.

12

Cassandra calyculata, 506, 507.
Caulophyllum thalictroides, 508.
Chimaphila umbellata, 555.
Chiogenes serpyllifolia, 554.

Cnicus muticus, 5.

Cornns alternifolia, 40.

Crataegus, 44.

Desmodium canadense, 37.

Dianthus caryophyllus, 545.
Dioscorea villosa, 509.

Draba caroliniana, 16.

Eleocharis palustris, 464.

Elymus striatus, 199.

Elymus, 535.

Epilobium angustifolium, 478.
Equisetum hyemale, 505.
Eupatorium ageratoides, 48, 553.
Euphorbia polygonifolia, 352a.

Fagopyrum esculentum, 387.
Floerkea proserpinacoides, 487.
Fraxinus americana, 522, 538.

Galium circaezans, 439.

Galium trifidum, 439.

Galium, 552.

Geranium maculatum, 510.

Glyceria fluitans, 67, 392, 559, 566.
Glyceria nervata, 518.

Hamamelis virginiana, 499.
Helenium autumnale, 256.

178

Davis — Parasitic Fungi of Wisconsin.

Heuchera americana, 471.
Hydrophyllum virginicum, 496.
Hypericum canadense, 158.

Inpatiens fulva, 379.

Impatiens, 539.

Ipomoea purpurea, 142.

Iris versicolor, 556.

Isopyrum biternatum, 511.

Laportea canadensis, 543.
Lathyrus ochroleucus, 49.
Lespedeza, 376.

Lonicera ciliata, 352.

Lonicera, 528.

Ludwigia polycarpa, 533.

Lupinus perennis, 49.

Lycopus sinuatus, 557.

Lycopus virginicus, 557.

Mentha canadensis, 530.
Muhlenbergia sylvatica, 547.

Nasturtium palustre, 512.

Nuphar advena, 532, 560.
Nymphaea reniformis, 560.

Onoclea sensibilis, 341.
Osmorrhiza brevistylis, 384, 395.
Osmorrhiza, 550.

Ostrya virginica, 284.

Penthorum sedoides,513.

Phalaris arundinacea, 67.
Phyllachora graminis, 535.
Physalis virginiana, 260.
Physocarpus opulifolius, 281.
Pimpinella integerrima, 191.
Plantago rugelii, 500, 502.
Polygonum aviculare, 387.
Polygonum muhlenbergii, 387.
Populus grandidentata, 523.
Populus tremuloides, 275, 526, 536.
Potamogeton, 562.

Prunus americana, 43.

Prunus pumila, 43, 61.

Prunus virginiana, 527.

Prunus, 538 a.

Pyrola secunda, 215.

Quercus alba, 351.

Quercus macrocarpa, 525.

Quercus rubra, 525.

Quercus, 44.

Ranunculus acris, 49.

Ranunculus multifidus, 49, 564.
Ranunculus septentrionalis, 78, 261.
Rhus typhina, 441.

Ribes prostratum, 551.

Rubus strigosus, 281.

Rudbeckia hirta, 541.

Rudbeckia laciniata, 534, 541.
Rumex verticillatus, 542.

Rumex, 86.

Sagittaria variabilis, 264, 524, 561,
563, 565, 567.

Salix, 209.

Sambucus racemosa, 232.

Scutellaria galericulata, 276.
Scutellaria lateriflora, 531 .

Senecio aureus, 242.

Smilacina racemosa, 449.

Smilax, 544.

Solidago caesia, 450.

Solidago canadensis, 91.

Solidago latifolia, 401, 514.

Solidago serotina, 404.

Sparganium eurycarpum, 521.
Stachys aspera, 276.

Steironema ciliatum, 549.

Teucrium canadense, 531.

Trifolium pratense, 152.

Vaccinium pennsylvanicum, 279.

Zizania aquatica, 258.

ON THE LIMNETIC CRUSTACEA OF GREEN LAKE.

BY C. DWIGHT MARSH,

Professor of Biology in Ripon College .

WITH PLATES V TO XIV.

The investigations on which this paper is based were com¬
menced in August, 1893. At that time I constructed a vertical
net, which could be closed at any depth. With this net I made
twelve series of five meter hauls in a little more than twenty-
four hours. My object was to determine the facts in regard to
the diurnal migration of limnetic Crustacea, — a migration which
I was certain, at that time, took place. The material obtained
in these collections was carefully counted, the results tabulated,
and reduced to percentages, and a report on the subject was
made at the summer meeting of the Wisconsin Academy, in
June, 1894, and a brief resume was published in the American
Naturalist in the same year.

So far as difference of diurnal distribution was concerned, the
experiments gave only negative results, but certain facts in
regard to the general vertical distribution of the different
species came out very clearly. It seemed to me probable, how¬
ever, that the distribution might not be the same on different
days, and, in all probability, would differ greatly in the differ¬
ent seasons. At that time, very little had been published
in regard to the occurrence of the entomostraca in different
seasons. It seemed to me that if a systematic series of collec¬
tions could be made throughout the year, the results would be
very interesting. The matter was brought to the attention of
the trustees of Ripon College, who recognized its importance,
and made a special appropriation to pay the necessary expenses
of the investigation.

180 Marsh — Limnetic Crustacea of Green Lake.

The work was commenced in the latter part of September,

1894, During the fall the lake was visited twice each week,
and at each visit from one to four series of collections were
made. In the winter, while the lake was closed by ice, only
three collections were made. From the latter part of April,

1895, until July, collections were made at intervals of about
one week. In July and August no collections were made, but
in September the work was resumed, and collections were made
at intervals of about one month until July, 1896. From July,

1896, to December, weekly collections were made. Thus I had
a series of collections running through a little over two years,
with the exception that for the months of July and August, I
had only the collections of 1896.

During the time in which this work has been going on, con
siderable has been published on the periodicity and distribution
of the limnetic Crustacea, so that some of my results are simply
corroborative of the work of others, especially in regard to the
seasonal distribution of the Crustacea. The peculiar character
of Green Lake and its fauna and flora, however, makes simply
corroborative work important, and some of the results, I think,
are entirely new.

I wish to acknowledge the very efficient assistance of Mr.
P. S. Collins, of Ripon, in the work of making the collections
and observations. Sherwood Forest Hotel was the headquarters
of the station work, and I am greatly indebted to the proprie¬
tor, Mr. Beckwith, and Mrs. Beckwith, for innumerable courte¬
sies.

GREEN LAKE.

The general character of Green Lake has been indicated in my
former paper. (Marsh, ’91, b.) It is a long, narrow body of
water, something over seven miles in length, and with a maximum
width of less than two miles. At the eastern end where it is
fed by a small stream, Silver Creek, the shore is low and swampy.
At the western end another small stream enters, and here also
the shore is low, but most of the shore line is made of bluffs of
greater or less elevation. At Lucas’s Point and Sugar Loaf are
abrupt cliffs of Potsdam sandstone. There are a large number of

Marsh — Limnetic Crustacea of Green Lake. 181

springs on the south shore, and it is popularly supposed that
most of the water is derived from this source.

The water of the lake is clear, of a beautiful green color, and
reaches a maximum depth of two hundred and seventeen feet.
The bottom in the deep water consists of a fine, blue clay, con¬
taining a large amount of organic matter, in which are
found worms, none of which have been determined.

In the general character of its fauna, Green Lake resembles, in
a striking manner, the Great Lakes. In its abysmal fauna, we find
Pontoporeia Hoyi and My sis relicta , — species which have not
been found in America outside of the Great Lakes. In the
intermediate depths is Limnocalanus macrurus , — a species sel¬
dom found except in the larger bodies of water, and in the upper
layers are found the same species as in the Great Lakes with
two exceptions, — C. pulchellus and D. Ashlandi. There is never
any striking amount of vegetable matter in Green Lake except
in the months of July and August, when ordinarily an Anabaena,
which I think is either flosaquae or circinalis is found all over the
lake, and forms little green ridges as it is washed up on the
shore by the waves. But even this is not present in sufficient
amount to form a scum, and never fouls the collecting net to
any extent, as does the “scum” of shallower lakes.

Apstein divides lakes into two groups, which he styles Chro-
occaceae lakes and Dinobryon lakes. According to the general
characteristics which he gives to these two groups, Green Lake
should be a Dinobryon lake, and yet I have never found Dinobryon
in it.

It seems to me that our lakes in this part of North America
can naturally be divided into the two classes of “deep” and
“shallow” lakes, the faunae of the two classes being very distinct
in their general character. The “shallow” lakes have, in the
summer season, a large amount of the chlorophyll bearing algae;
there is but little distinction between the littoral and limnetic
species of Cyclops ; Limocalanus macrurus is seldom present; and
the abundant species of Diaptomus is oregonensis. Epischura
lacustris may be present in shallow lakes, but is not always
found.

In the deep water fauna of the “deep” lakes the common

182 Marsh — Limnetic Crustacea of Green Lake.

species of Cyclops are brevispinosus , pulchellus and flumatilis;
Epischura lacustris and Limnocalanus macrurus are commonly
present, and Diaptomus is represented by D. sicilis and D. minu¬
tus: D. Ashlandi , is, so far as my observations go, confined
to the Great Lakes and bodies of water in immediate connection
with them.

The distinction thus made in regard to the distribution of
Diaptomus is not without exception by any means, and I think
that m more northern lakes D. minutus is found more abundantly
in shallow lakes than it is in the region that has been more es¬
pecially the subject of my studies. Inasmuch as minutus is
found in great abundance in Greenland and Iceland, I presume
that the real cause of its greater abundance in the deeper lakes
of our latitude is not the depth of the water, but the low tem¬
perature which is coincident with depth.

Iu general, we may say that depth rather than extent of sur¬
face controls the character of the crustacean fauna. This is
strikingly shown in a comparison of Green Lake with Lake
Winnebago. Lake Winnebago is situated about twenty-five
miles from Green Lake, and is about twenty-eight miles long by
eight to ten miles broad. Through its whole extent it is very
shallow, being for the most part from ten to thirty feet in depth.
Its crustacean fauna consists of those species characteristic of shal¬
low lakes, being very different from that of Green Lake. The same
thing is noticed in comparing the fauna of Lake Mendota, as deter¬
mined by Professor Birge, with that of Green Lake, Mendota fall¬
ing distinctly into the class of shallow lakes. What depth may be
considered as characterizing deep lakes, it is difficult to state
with certainty, and I suppose it is doubtful if an exact limit
can be fixed, but I think it is about forty meters. Lake Men¬
dota, according to the soundings of Professor Birge, has a max¬
imum depth of twenty-two meters. Lake Geneva is a little over
forty meters in depth, and, judging from the collections of Pro¬
fessor Forbes, is somewhat intermediate in the character of its
fauna between the shallow and deep lakes. Lake St. Clair is
apparently an exception to this classification, as, although it is
shallow, it has also the fauna of the deep lakes. This is easily
explained, however, if we remember, as stated in my former re-

Marsh — Limnetic Crustacea of (h^cen Lake. 183

port, (Marsh, ’95, p. 4,) that Lake St. Clair has an immediate
and constant connection with the deeper lakes, and there is,
doubtless, continual migration into it of the forms characteris¬
tic of deep water.

DESCRIPTION OF THE DREDGE. — PLATES XIII, XIY.

The dredge which I have used was constructed after several
experiments, and has, I think, answered admirably the require¬
ments of my work. Inasmuch as I expected to use it entirely
for vertical work, it did not seem necessary that it should be
closed when descending, but that there should be some device
for closing it at any desired point on its upward course. The
upper frame of the dredge is a brass ring from which by three
cords is suspended the bucket. The upper frame is thirty-one
centimeters in diameter.

The bucket is like that described by Professor Birge. (Birge,
’95, p. 428). Inasmuch as the wire gauze used in the bucket
has meshes 1-100 of an inch in diameter, it does not retain the
smallest organisms, but serves perfectly well as an apparatus
for catching Crustacea.

The dredge bag is of India linen, carefully selected so as to
get cloth that is fairly uniform in texture, and is suspended
between the upper frame and the bucket. The dredge bag is
strengthened on its upper edge by heavy cloth, into which are
let the eyelets, by which it is laced to the brass rings of the
frame.

The cords between the frame and the bucket are continued be¬
low the bucket and fastened to a sounding lead weighing about
six pounds. To the upper frame are attached three cords which
unite in a brass ring, by which the dredge is suspended by the
releasing apparatus. About half way of the length of the dredge
there are attached to the suspending cords brass rings, through
which a cord runs twice in such a way that when it is drawn
tight it acts like a puckering string and closes the dredge.
This cord is attached to the dredge rope, which, after being
fastened to the releasing apparatus, hangs loosely over the edge
of the dredge.

The releasing apparatus consists of a brass frame (see PL

184 Marsh — Limnetic Crustacea of Green Lake.

XIII.) fifteen centimeters long, by five centimeters broad. The
frame is strengthened by three transverse braces. The frame
and braces are made of strips cut from sheet brass, one milli¬
meter thick and two centimeters wide.

Through the horizontal pieces of the apparatus are drilled
two holes large enough so that the heavy brass wire D E will
slide easily up and down. To the middle of this wire at E is
attached an upright piece which passes through the lower part
of the frame B, and strikes against the brace C. The wire is
held in place by a rubber band passing around the plate B.
The dredge is hun g from this central pin at E, and cannot be
detached exce pt as the wire D E is lowered so as to throw the
ring off the pin.

The releasing apparatus is fastened to the dredge rope by
copper wire passed through small holes drilled in the upper and
lower plates. The messenger is a brass cylinder five centi¬
meters long and four centimeters in diameter.

The work of dredging is done from a row boat which is fitted
with a sail. The mast is unshipped, and in the mast hole is in¬
serted an upright about six feet long, to which is attached
a cross piece extendin g over the side of the boat. Prom this
cross piece the dredge is suspended by a pulley block, and upon
the cross piece is a hook from which the messenger is suspended.
The dredge is lowered vertically, and after being raised to the
required point, is “set off” by the messenger. When the mes¬
senger strikes the releasing apparatus the top of the dredge
falls over, and it remains suspended by the middle. At the
same time the weight of the dead causes the cord around the
middle of the dredge to tighten, so that there is a double safe¬
guard against the entrance of any other organisms — - the in¬
verted top and the stricture of the suspending cord.

There is one sour ce of inaccuracy in this dredge, and that is
the loss of material, when it is released, between the top and
the cord passing around the center. My hauls, however, were
made through five meter distances, and I do not think that in
this distance, the loss would have much effect on the results,
and, of course, for comparative work it need not be considered
at all.

Marsh — Limnetic Crustacea of Green Lake. 185

For winter work, the apparatus is hung from a tripod placed
over a hole in the ice. (Plate XIV.)

The tube at the bottom of the bucket was made of a size to
fit in the top of an eight drachm homeopathic bottle, and in or¬
der to preserve material, I simply washed it with strong alcohol
immediately from the bucket into the bottle.

A buoy was anchored in from forty to forty-five meters of
water, and all collections were made from that point. In suc¬
cessive years the buoy was located in very nearly the same
place, and when collections were made through the ice, it was
intended that they should be taken at nearly the location of
the buoy.

Collections were made in all kinds of weather, but more were
made in comparatively pleasant weather, as naturally one would
prefer to visit the lake under such conditions.

The record of observations was kept in a book arranged for
the purpose. A sample page of this book appears on the next
page.

The temperatures were taken by a Miller-Casella deep-sea
maximum and minimum thermometer, which was loaned to me
by the United States Fish Commission for the purpose. As those
who have used this form of thermometer know, it is very slow
in its action, it being necessary to allow at least twenty min¬
utes for each observation. This made it impossible for me to
get a record of temperatures at intermediate depths, although
such a record is very important in determining the laws gov¬
erning the vertical distribution.

The temperature curves of the two years, 1895 and 1896, are
shown in plates V and VI, with the exception that no observations
were made in July and August, 1895. It will be noticed that
the maximum range of bottom temperature observed was from
35 to 45 degrees, thus indicating great uniformity of conditions
of temperature at the bottom.

166

Marsh — Limnetic Crustacea of Green Lake.

SERIAL COLLECTION. No. 13.96.

Made at G-reen Lake, . Aug. 3 . 1896, 6-6:40 p. m.,

with . closing dredge .

at permanent station . 4; . depth 43.5 m. ; .

water, . * _ small waves ; . wind . s w. ; . sky . . clear ; .

temperature, air .. .83;. .. temperature, surface, .. 75; ... temperature, bottom.. . 43; . ..

Observed Diaptomi, D , minutus, C. fluviatilis egg-bearing. Much fine sand in collec¬
tion : is explained perhaps by the high wind earlier in the day.

Names.

0-5

5-10

10-15

15-20

20-25

25-30

30-35

35-40

40-45

45-50

50-55

55-60

Total

Diaptomus sicilis. . .

“ Ashlandi

“ minutus

“ oregonensis

Epischura lacustris.

Limnocalanus mac-
rurus .

760

1,192

272

40

140

14

11

75

4

2,508

16

4

10

1

30

29

4

8

1

2

13

Cyclops brevispino-
sus .

‘ ‘ pulchellus . .

“ Leuckarti. . . .

4 4 albidns .

“ fluviatilis. ..

4 4 serrulatus

72

72

32

6

182

Cyclops larvae .

160

4

12

56

12

8

6

4

1

8

6

2

180

5

84

67

36

Leptodora hyalina.

Daphnia kahlberg-
iensis .

16

40

2

8

3

Bosmina .

JDaphnella .

24

Mysis relicta .

Pontoporeia Hoyi..

Notholca .

Nos

Ceratium . .

Marsh — Limnetic Crustacea of Green Lake. 187

The surface temperature varied from the freezing point of
water in winter to eighty degrees in August, 1896. In general
the rise of surface temperature in the spring, and the fall in
autumn, were both uniform and rapid, but there were some ex¬
ceptions. Very noticeable is the jog in the curve in May, 1895.
In this month there was a period of unusually warm weather,
followed by severe frosts.

There was a curious rise in the bottom temperature in the
fall of both 1894 and 1895. On November 11, 1894, I found
the bottom temperature 45, while the highest point reached
previous to that time was 42-J-.

On October 24, and November 3, 1894, I found the bottom
temperature 44, while the highest point reached previous to
that time was 43. On November 11, 1895, the bottom temper,
ature was 45, while the highest previously recorded was 42-J-.
My first impression on seeing these temperatures was that there
must have been a mistake in the observation. I felt the more
certain of this probability in one case, as the observation had
been made by my assistant without my direct supervision.
But a repetition of the work showed that there was no mis¬
take.

A similar rise in bottom temperature in November has
been noticed in Lake Cochituate (Whipple, ’95, p. 205, and
Fitzgerald, ’95, p. 74), and these authors have also noticed a
fall in bottom temperature in the spring. These apparent ab¬
normalities in temperature have been explained by the above
mentioned authors on the supposition that as the top and bot¬
tom temperatures approached each other, the water, being of
nearly equal density from top to bottom, would be in a state of
unstable equilibrium, and currents would be set in motion, which
would effect the whole depth, especially under the influence of
high winds. Whipple has shown (’95, p. 208), that under some
circumstances an overturning and mingling of the whole mass
of water in a lake may take place with almost incredible sud¬
denness.

Although no attempt was made to keep a systematic record
of other organisms than Crustacea, some notes were kept of the
appearance of other animals and of plants.

188 Marsh — Limnetic Crustacea of Green Lake .

Of plants, the only one besides diatoms, which occurred in
any abundance was the Anahaena already mentioned. In 1896
this appeared in the latter part of June, and continued well
through August. In other years, I have found it present only
during a very short time. I have notes also of a red alga that
was found in considerable abundance about the middle of
August. In one of the March collections there was also an un¬
determined green alga.

Rotifera were of course present in large numbers, but no at¬
tempt was made to keep any record of them. Notholca longi-
spina was found throughout the year, sometimes in great abun¬
dance.

Ceratium occurred quite constantly in the collections from
June to the latter part of October, and in 1896, until the middle-
of November.

From May throngh the year, Diptera are occasionally found
in the collections. This is what one would expect, for the
larvae are found in the bottom fauna.

METHOD OF COUNTING.

The method used in counting was somewhat different from
that used by other authors, and a method that perhaps could
not be used so successfully in collections containing a large
amount of vegetable material. The alcohol in the bottles was
largely replaced by glycerine in order to have the material in a
medium that would not evaporate rapidly. I had prepared for
me a glass plate sixteen centimeters in diameter, ruled with con¬
centric circles a centimeter apart. The circles were divided by
diametersa into eight segments. The plate was mounted on
a tripod such as is used in leveling gelatine plates in bacterio¬
logical work, and carefully leveled. The collection was then
poured as nearly as possible upon the exact center of the plate.
Ordinarily it would spread with great uniformity upon the
plate. The fractional part of the whole counted depended upon
the numbers of the species under consideration. Commonly I
counted only one-eighth of the JDiaptomi. Of the species present
in smaller numbers, I would ordinarily count all on the plate.
In any case all parts of the plate were examined in order to de-

Marsh — Limnetic Crustacea of Green Lake .

189

tect the presence of any unusual form. This work was done
with the aid of a dissecting lens such as is furnished with a
Reichert dissecting microscope. This lens answered every pur¬
pose so far as determining the species of the Crustacea, except
that I could not distinguish with certainty D. minulus from D.
sicilis. As the object of the counting was mainly to determine
distribution, the fact that I did not distinguish between these
species was of little importance, as their habits are the same.
In every case, however, a test of the collection was carefully ex¬
amined under the compound microscope, and in this way a fairly
accurate idea was obtained of the seasonal distribution of these
species, and notes were made also in regard to the occurrence
of other smaller organisms. No attempt, however, was made
to keep any record of diatoms.

The accuracy of this method of counting was carefully tested,
and the amount of error was found very small,— so small that I
do not think the general results would be appreciably affected.
As stated before, it is very doubtful if the method could be
applied so successfully to plankton rich lakes.

These results were afterwards reduced to percentages in order
to show the relative abundance in vertical distribution.

In the following table I have tabulated the conditions under
which the various collections were made. The table is, in the
main, self-explanatory. To indicate the condition of the surface
I have used four terms, “smooth, ripples, waves, and rough. ”

In the tables given for the various species the “total ” column
indicates the actual number obtained in my dredge. These
numbers might easily be reduced to give the actual number
per square meter by multiplying by the coefficient of the dredge,
but my object was simply to get comparative results, and, as
indicated later in this paper, I myself have only limited confi¬
dence in the value of plankton determinations. In the columns
following “total" are given the percentages found for every five
meters of depth.

190

Marsh — Limnetic Crustacea of Green Lake .

No.

Date.

Time.

Temp.

Wind.

Water.

Sky.

| Air.

Sur.

*3

O

ffl

1 9*

6:30-7:30

m.

70

S. W.

Waves .

Clear.

4^94

Oct. 6 —

10:45-11:45 a.

m.

57

60

43

S. W.

Ripples .

Clear.

5.94

Oct. 6....

2:30-3:30

P-

m.

59

59

43

S. W.

Waves .

Clear.

6.94

Oct. 6 —

4 :50-5 :45

P.

m .

s. ....

Waves .

Clear.

7 94

10-11

m.

53

s. ....

Waves .

Clouds.

8.94

Oct. 9 —

6-7

P.

m.

s .

Waves .

Clear.

10.94

Oct. 10 —

6-7

a.

m.

45

56 '

s. w.

Rough .

Clouds.

11 94

Or»t 10

9-10

N. W.

Rough .

Clouds.

12 94

Oct 16

fi-7

s. w.

Waves

Clear.

13:94

Oct. 16 -

10 :30— 11 :30 p.

m.

54

53

43

s. w.

Waves .

Clear.

14.94

Oct. 17....

6-7

a.

m.

49

53

w.

Waves .

Clear.

15.94

Oct. 17....

8:45-9:30

a.

m.

51

w.

Waves .

Clear.

16.94

Oct. 20....

11 :15— 12

a.

m.

57

53"

43*'

S. E.

Ripples .....

Clouds, fog.

17.94

Oct. 20....

2 :15— 3 :15

P-

m.

64

54

S. E.

Ripples .

Clear.

18.94

Oct. 20....

4 :40-5 :20

P-

m.

58

S. E.

Ripples .

Clear.

20.94

Oct. 24 —

10-11

P-

m.

48

54”

44"

S. ....

Waves _ _

Clouds.

21 94

Oct 25....

6-6 :50

48

s. ....

Waves .

Clouds.

22 94

Oft 25

8 :45-9 :30

s. w.

Rough

Clouds.

24.94

Nov. 3 _

2 :45-3 :30

p.

m.

45

52

44

s .

Waves .

Clouds.

25.94

Nov. 3 —

4 :30-5 :20

P-

m.

45

s. w.

Rough .

Clouds.

26.94

Nov. 8....

5:30-6:15

p.

m.

s .

Ripples .

Clear.

27.94

Nov. 8....

10-11

P-

m .

35

49"

s .

Waves .

Clouds.

29 94

Nov. 21. .

38

39

43”

w.

Ripples .

Clear.

1.95

Feb. 14 —

11 :30-12 :30

m.

29

33

38

N. W.

Ice — . .

Clear.

2.95

Mar. 9....

11 :30— 12 :30

m.

4514

36

3714

s. w.

Ice .

Cloudy, and rain.

3.95

Mar. 27 -

10 :45-12

m.

51

■S6y2

37

w.

Ice .

Clear.

4.95

Apr. 27....

1 :15— 2 :30

p.

m.

58

42

4014

N. E.

Waves . .

Clear.

5.95

May 3....

4 :30-5 :15

P.

m.

6814

47

4014

s. w.

Change .

Cloudy.

6 95

May 3....

7 :20-8

p.

m .

5314

E.

Waves .

Clear.

7.95

May 9....

4:30-5.30

P-

m.

8014

5514

4014

S. W.

Rough .

Clear.

8.95

May 18....

1 :25-2 :05

p.

m.

81

51

41

N. E.

Waves .

Clouds.

9.95

May 24....

4 :30-5 :30

P.

m.

74

54

4114

S. W.

Rough .

Clear.

10.95

June 1....

10:50-11:35 a.

m.

81

63

4114

S. W.

Rough .

Clear.

11 95

.TnriA fi

70

65

42

S. E.

Waves .

Clear,

12.95iJune 15....

4:30-5 :30

P-

m.

78

68

42

E.

Waves .

Clear.

13.95

June 22....

12 :10-1 :15

p.

m.

9014

72

4214

N. W.

Waves .

Clear.

14.95

June 28....

3 :30-4 :30

p.

m.

75

72

42

N W-NE

Waves ......

Clear.

15.95

Sept. 21 —

2-3

P-

m.

8414

7114

4214

s. w.

Rough .

Clear.

16 95

Oct. 2 —

4 :45-5 :45

p.

m.

70

60

4214

S W-S E

Ripples .

Clear.

17.95

Oct. 5....

4-5

P-

m.

70

61

4214

S. W.

Smooth .

Clear.

18.95

Oct. 24....

10-11

a.

m.

40

50

4214

S. W.

Rough .

Clear.

19.95

Nov. 11 _

1 :30-2 :30

p.

m.

48

46

45

s. w.

Waves .

Clear.

20.95

Dec. 5 —

12 :15— 1

m.

22

42

43

s. w.

Waves .

Gray.

1.96

Jan. 28 _

1-2

p.

m.

32

34

35

s. w.

Ice .

Cloudy .

2.96

Feb. 22....

12 :30-l :30

p.

m.

40

3414

3514

s. w.

Ice .

Clear.

3.96

Mar. 21 —

11 :45— 12 :30

m.

45

36

36

s. w.

Ice .

Overcast.

5.96

May 4....

3:25-4:10

P-

m.

86

52

41

N. W.

Smooth .

Clear.

6.96

May 18....

3:45-4 :30

P-

m.

74

55

42

N. W.

Waves .

Clouds in west.

7.96

June 1 . . . .

3:15-4

p.

m.

73

60

43

E.

Waves - -

Clear.

8.96

June 15....

3 :40-4 :20

p.

m.

88

69

4314

E.

Waves . .

Clear.

9.96

June 29....

12:05-12:40

m .

101

74

43

N .

Smooth .

Clear.

10.96

July 9....

11:45-12 :30 a.

m.

78

75

43

N. E.

Waves .

Clouds.

11.96

July 20....

10:20-11:15 a.

m.

78

74

4394

S. W.

Rough .

Clouds.

12.96

July 27....

3:30-4:15

p.

m

8814

75

43

S. W.

Waves .

Clouds.

13.96

Aug. 3 ...

6-6 :40

p.

m.

83

75

43

s. w.

Waves .

Clear.

14.96

Aug. 10 —

3 :35— 4 :10

p.

m.

80

4314

s. w.

Waves .

Clear.

15.96

Aug. 17 -

12-12 :45

m.

72"

7614

44

N. W.

Waves .

Clear.

16.96

Aug. 24....

3:25-4:05

p.

m.

76

74

44

w.

Waves .

Clear.

17.96

Aug. 31....

9:50-10:35

a.

m.

68

70

44

N. W.

Waves ......

Clouds.

18.96

Sept. 7....

9:25-10:15

a.

m.

7814

66

44

s. w.

Rough . .

Clear.

19.96 Sept. 15....

3.20-4 :05

p.

m.

6214

65

4414

N. E.

Waves .

Clear.

20.96

Sept. 21....

2 :45-3 :30

P-

m.

70

63

44

N. E.

Waves .

Clouds.

21.96

Sept. 28....

2.55-3.40

P-

m.

70

61

4314

E.

Ripples .

Clear.

22.96

Oct. 6....

11-11:35

a.

m.

59

58

44

N. W.

Waves .

Clouds.

23.96

Oct. 15 _

12:45-1 :20

p.

m.

67

56

4314

N .

Waves .

Clouds.

24.96

Oct. 24....

11 :30-12 :15

m.

50

5114

4314

N. W.

Waves .

Clear.

25.96

Nov. 14 —

3.50-4:40

P-

, m.

49

45

43

s. w.

Waves .

Clear.

26.96

Nov. 14....

7:20-8:45

p.

rn.

45

s. w.

Waves .

Clear, moonlight.

27.96

Dec. 3 —

11:15-12

a.

m.

ii

4114

3914

s. ....

Waves .

Hazy.

Marsh — Limnetic Crustacea of Green Lake.

191

DIAPTOMUS.

No.

Total

Per cent.

of Coll.

No.

0-5

5-10

10-15

15-20

20-25

25-30

30-35

35-40

40-

1.94..

3,912

58.64

11.63

12.48

7.16

1.23

5.11

1.43

1.02

1.23

4.94..

5,630

60.25

24.58

7.18

2.34

3.81

.85

.78

.78

.43

5.94..

4,171

72.50

14.67

3.93

4.22

.57

2.22

.86

.77

.26

6.94..

4,382

73.80

16.00

4.

3.40

.73

.32

1.40

.29

7.94..

2,023

46.27

20.56

11.86

12.46

2.37

1.98

1.19

.34

2.97

8.94..

4,585

68.57

20.54

4.62

2.62

.26

.59

1.22

.87

.70

10.94..

4,040

28.61

26.93

31.78

7.82

2.77

.74

.79

.37

.17

11.94..

3,991

54.92

14.88

17.24

3.66

1.05

7.02

.45

.50

.28

12.94..

6,439

36.77

19.32

17.52

6.21

13.36

5.60

.77

.25

.20

13.94..

4,611

57.73

13.54

16.39

5.12

5.29

1.34

.15

.24

.19

14.94..

4,347

45.73

19.05

23.92

7.72

1.84

1.14

.11

.25

.18

15.94..

3,466

46.39

27.81

14.19

9.81

.52

.38

.69

.20

16.94..

1,763

59.44

17.92

13.16

4.36

3.18

.28

.17

.11

.79

17.94..

1,542

71.92

17.38

4.60

3.76

.58

.39

.52

.26

.39

18.94..

19.94..

1,386

1,464

2,197

80.81

4.97

10.39

1.44

.58

.36

1.01

.01

.43

20.94..

59.17

18.02

i.5.66

1.86

2.82

1.91

.04

.36

.13

21.94..

1,917

35.89

27.33

25.45

4.23

2.87

2.39

1.15

.58

.11

22 94..

3,823

60.27

24.48

9.52

3.19

.71

1.59

.18

.05

24.94..

1,972

65.72

12.99

10.34

6.23

1.17

2.13

.56

.61

.25

25.94..

1,695

63.30

28.

2.53

1.35

2.80

.70

.18

.10

.10

26.94..

884

77.83

12.22

1.81

1.47

1.36

2.37

1.36

.90

.68

27.94..

6,447

28.29

21.98

25.56

13.57

9.06

.85

.39

.16

.12

29.94..

1,192

40.60

10.73

11.41

6.03

7.06

10.73

4.03

6.72

2.69

1.95..

1,374

27.80

7.57

22.13

7.57

2.04

5.53

7.57

13.68

6.11

2.95..

1,947

28.35

9.86

2.67

18.02

27.94

4.11

2.92

4.71

1.43

3.95..

2,742

68.27

4.67

4.52

2.77

4.82

3.50

5.11

3.87

2.47

4.95..

676

14.20

17.75

22.49

13.02

8.88

7.69

12.42

3.55

5.95..

686

35.27

9.91

14.58

6.99

5.25

11.67

9.04

5.25

2.04

6.95..

694

29.39

18.44

23.05

8.07

4.61

6.48

.14

5.76

4.03

7.95..

286

.69

15.39

14.69

5.59

15.39

24.48

16.08

3.50

4.19

8.95..

295

1.36

10.85

23.73

10.51

11.19

16.27

7.46

11.51

7.11

9.95..

576

44.44

22.22

4.16

10.41

6.08

4.51

2.60

2.79

2.79

10.95..

11.95. .

1,845

1,250

2,950

66.88

22.98

6.08

.16

1.30

.38

1.30

.65

.27

12.95..

40.68

29.29

14.10

10.31

j .62

3.12

.47

.14

.27

13.95..

2,612

21.44

18.07

19.91

14.70

7.66

5.51

4.90

4.59

3.22

14.95..

3,039

54.72

22.51

5.79

7.63

4.21

1.71

.66

1.45

1.32

15.95..

2,605

37.77

24.57

12.59

6.45

9.52

1.84

2.46

4.15

.65

16.95..

1,748

34.32

35.69

18.31

4.12

1.83

1.38

1.14

2.75

.46

17.95..

1,813

10.59

43.35

33.54

4.85

4.86

1.27

.88

.67

18.95..

1,667

51.35

10.32

11.52

18.23

7.32

.72

.36

.18

19.95..

647

42.04

3.71

1.24

21.02

17.93

8.65

3.71

1.70

20.95..

520

33.85

17.69

5.38

9.23

6.92

10.77

12.31

3.85

1.96..

485

19.79

4.95

3.30

36.28

13.20

17.53

1.65

3.30

2.96..

1,324

25.98

11.48

10.88

12.08

23.56

7.25

1.81

3.33

3.63

3.96..

892

35.43

23.32

11.88

9.42

6.28

5.38

5.38

2.24

.67

5.96..

1,712

74.77

5.61

5.84

2.57

.82

2.10

4.91

1.87

1.52

6.96..

297

33.67

10.77

33.67

5.39

2.70

4.04

4.71

3.37

1.68

7.96..

2,712

36.87

50.44

9.44

1.62

.89

.30

.29

.11

.04

8.96..

3,044

27.59

47.83

13.14

3.68

3.71

.65

1.70

.78

.92

192

Marsh — Limnetic Crustacea of Green Lake.

diaptomus — continued.

No.

of Coll.

Total

No.

Per cent

0-5

5-10

10-15

15-20

20-25

25-30

30-35

35-40

40-

9.96..

2,392

56.52

25.09

10.70

5.02

.75

.50

.25

.12

1.05

10.96..

2,354

39.50

33.30

8.84

6.12

.25

.69

1.44

4.76

5.10

11.96..

2,793

36.17

24.63

28.07

2.72

.46

1.25

.68

4.80

1.22

12.96..

3,612

47.84

37.65

9.74

2.99

.30

.17

.75

.17

.39

13.96..

2,508

30.30

47.53

10.84

1.60

5.58

.56

.44

2.99

.16

14.96..

3,803

64.16

19.99

6.42

3.10

2.84

2.52

.26

.71

15.96..

1,563

98.91

.13

.06

.19

.13

.19

.39

16.96..

4,785

62.90

9.01

18.06

1.25

2.01

2.67

1.33

2.17

.60

17.96..

4,933

41.60

28.81

19.62

1.87

2.59

.57

.89

2.27

1.78

18.96..

5,646

70.86

.42

15.02

4.85

.49

.98

4.83

.78

1.77

19.96..

4,766

46.37

as. 02

6.73

3.35

2.35

3.02

3.86

1.09

.21

20.96..

5,248

59.18

21.80

6.25

1.22

2.04

3.43

4.08

.69

.91

21.96..

3,772

54.72

26.73

14.21

1.06

.95

1.01

.64

.13

.50

22.96..

4,229

45.40

19.11

23.22

9.27

2.46

.11

.31

.07

.05

23.96..

4,736

78.21

7.43

8.96

4.39

.46

.25

.13

.13

.04

24.96..

1,527

54.49

16.76

23.58

4.19

.26

.20

.13

.26

.13

25.96..

746

18.23

7.51

6.43

15.55

16.09

23.59

7.50

3.76

1.34

26.96..

490

in 0-20

meter

s.

27.96..

762

42.

7.35

9.98

6.30

4.20

5.77

6.29

15.75

2.36

A glance at PI. VII will show that Diaptomus has a' strongly-
marked minimum of occurrence in December and in January.
There is an increase in February and March, but in both 1895
and 1896, the number in May was very small. Diaptomus ap¬
pears to reach its maximum in the latter part of September and
October. In the fall months, the collections consist mostly of
mature forms. In the winter months most of them are immature.
From the latter part of March to the latter part of May, nearly
all are mature, and the females egg-bearing. In June there is a
great preponderance of larvae.

Apstein (’96, 179 and following) states that the maximum
period of D. graciloides differs in different German lakes. The
time of the maximum occurrence of Green Lake Diaptomi as re¬
corded above, does not agree with any of his observations.
Birge (Birge ’95 p. 448) states that the maximum time of Diapto¬
mus in Lake Mendota is in July. Inasmuch as Diaptomus is very
little affected by differences of temperature, as will be shown
later, I think these differences in maximum periods are prob-

Marsh — Limnetic Crustacea of Green Lake. 193

ably caused by some differences in the development of food sup-
P !y-

There are only two species of Diaptomus found in Green Lake,.

_ D . minutus and D. sicilis. In the counting no distinction

was made in regard to these species, but a slide was prepared
from each collection and examined under the compound micro-
scope and thus a rough idea obtained of the relative abundance,
of the two forms. During Sept, and Oct. D. minutus was much
more, abundant. In Sept, very few of D. sicilis were found. Dur¬
ing October and November the relative number of D. sicilis in¬
creases, and in the winter months the collections were almost
entirely of D. sicilis.

In 1894 I first found D. sicilis in the collection of Sept. 28.
In 1895 it first appeared Oct. 5, and 1896 on Oct. 6. Although
I did not find this species in the summer months while I was
making my serial collections, I do not think that it was probably
entirely absent from the lake; for in 1890 and 1891 I found it in
summer collections, although I did not find it in 1892. (Marsh,
’93 p. 198.) I find, on looking over my notes of 1890 and 1891
that it was not numerous in those years, and I presume that it
occurs in the summer months, but only in very small numbers.
A reexamination of my notes on the Michigan copepods shows
that the same thing holds true there. In the collections made
by Professor Reighard in April, in Lake Michigan, D. sicilis
was always present, while in the summer collections in the
Great Lakes and Lake Michigan, D. minutus was the more com¬
mon form, as I have already noted in my paper on Michigan
copepods, and D. sicilis occurs rather infrequently. In
April and May D. minutus is entirely lacking in Green Lake,
but- appears again in June.

Inasmuch as it is claimed by some that some copepods show a
seasonal dimorphism, one might raise the question whether we
did not here have a case of that kind. I do not think that
this is so, although I have not now material to fortify my be¬
lief.

The Diaptomi are found at all depths, but in the deeper strata
only in small numbers. There were very few hauls in which I
13

194 Marsh — Limnetic Crustacea of Green Lake.

did not find some representatives of this genus in every five
meter stratum, and yet from sixty to seventy-five per cent,
were commonly in the upper ten meters.

In order to find out whether there was any difference in the
vertical distribution in summer and in winter I took the
averages in the upper three levels of collections 7.96 to 17.96
inclusive, and 24.94 to 3.95 inclusive. I took these years
because in 1894-5 I made a large number of collections in cold
weather, and in 1896 I made the largest number of collections
in warm weather.

The following table indicates the results:

0-5

5-10

10-15

Summer, 7.96-17.96 . . . .

49.31

24.49

12.26

Winter, 24.94-3.95 . . .

50.02

13.50

10.12

It appears from these averages that the seasons make no
difference in the vertical distribution of Diaptomus , but that it
is uniform throughout the year.

Apstein comes to the same conclusion. (’96, p. 180.)

The day and night collections of October, 1894, compared as
follows :

0-5

5-10

Day . . . . .

59.44

18.42

Night . . . . .

53.70

18.40

Here is no evidence of diurnal migration.

I think, then, that I am safe in saying that the vertical dis¬
tribution of Diaptomus varies but little from one end of the
year to the other and is not appreciably affected by changes in
the amount of light.

Birge finds the same thing to be true of D. oregonensis.
(Birge, ’95, 450.)

Marsh-— Limnetic Crustacea of Green Lake .

195

EPISCHURA LACUSTRI9.

No.

of Coll.

Total.

No.

Per cent.

0-5

5-10

10-15

15-20

20-25

25-30

30-35

35-40

40-

1.94..

4.94..

5.94..

6.94..
7.94.

8.94..

10.94..

11.94..

12.94..

13.94..

14.94..

15.94..

16.94..

17.94..

18.94..

20.94..

21.94..

22.94..

24.94..

25.94..

26.94..

27.94..

29.94..

1.95..

2.95..

3.95..

4.95. .

155

121

100

180

149

390

220

191

104

141

126

214

96

50

183

95

65

32

41

22

118

330

8

60

395

24

77.42

59.50
56.

87.

34.90
41.54

50.90
54.45

19.23
28.37
38.09
56.08
75.

64.

81.43
23.16

49.23

62.50
50.
31.82
74.57
53.33

20.65

33.06

24.

8.30

32.21

33.82

21.82
15.71

7.69

11.35

19.05

18.69

14.79

28.

3.27

25.26

24.61

21.88

1.23

6.61

16.

4.44

18.79

16.41

23.63

25.13

9.61

45.39

22.22

20.56

8.33

6.

8.74

47.37

21.54

9.38

25.

.83

4.

.55

2.69

.51

.99

10.74

5.13

2.72

2.09

38.46

8.51

9.52

.67

.26

.26

1.56

.51

2.09

11.54

3.54

.79

.52

.96

11.54

2.84

9.52

2.80

.96

.79

47

.93

1.04

.47

1.04

2.

.55

1.05

3.16

1.54

3.08

3.12

3.12

25.

45.45

14.41

5.45

9.09

5.93

8.49

9.09

4.55

4.24

31.52

.85

.91

100.

.30

33.33

50.63

66.67

40.

8.10

26.67

8.10

16.46

14.17

2.04

.50

33.33

.

5.95..

6.95..

7.95. .

8.95..

9.95..

10.95..

11.95..

12.95..

13.95..

14.95..

15.95..

16.95..

17.95..

18.95..
19 95..

20.95..

93

96

41

64
196

24

65
37

100

4

98.72

33.33

19.51

37.50

24.49

50.

73.84

8.11

48.

50.

1.28

58.33

78.05

37.50
69.39

12.50
18.46
64.86
20.
50.

8.34

2.44

12.50

4.08

25.

4.62

21.62

8.

12.50

2.04

4.17

4.17

1.54

4.16

1.54

5.41

16.

8.

1.96..

2.98. .

3.96..

223

96

7.79

58.33

32.29

3.59

8.34

22.87

39.46

33.33

5.96..

6.96..

7.96..

8.96..

9.96..

io

1

1 32

• 10.

. 98.

! 50.

80.

2.

50.

10.

196

Marsh — Limnetic Crustacea of Green Lake.

epischura lacustris — continued.

Per cent.

No. Total,
of Coll. No.

0-5

5-10

10.96..

11.96..

12.96..

13.96..

14.96..

15.96..

16.96..

17.96..

18.96..

19.26..

20.96..

21.96..

22.96..

23.96..

24.96..

25.96..

26.96..

27.96..

140

131

54

30

29

203

397

333

270

107

100

120

46

150

46

98

9

4

61.43
61.07

44.44

53.33
27.59
99.01
84.63
76.58
91.48
61.68
28.
46.66
34.79

69.33
69.56
93.88

in0.20
100.

34.29

7.63

44.45

13.33
48.28

.99

11.34
21.32

37.38

72.

40.

34.78

21.34

15.22

met’rs

10-15

15-20

20-25

25-30

30-35

35-40

40-

1.43

30.54

11.11

33.34

20.68

.71

.76

.71

1.43

3.45

4.03

1.80

.30

5.93

2.22

.94

.37

i3. 34
26.09
5.34
15.22

2.17

2.67

2.17

.66

.66

3.06

1.02

2.04

From the table it appears that Epischura occurs in the sum¬
mer and fall months, with no very well defined time of maxi¬
mum numbers. (See PI. VIII.) The largest numbers obtained
at single hauls were 390 in the evening of October 9, 1894,
395 from a haul made through the ice on March 9, 1895, and
397 on August 24, 1896. In the March haul a large proportion
were larval forms. Epischura disappears entirely in the latter
part of March and does not appear again until June.

The number of my winter collections was, unfortunately, very
small, so that one must be very careful about drawing infer¬
ences from them. But I think we may consider it fairly cer¬
tain that Epischura is hatched from the egg in the winter, —
probably in February or the early part of March. This in itself
is a matter of some interest, as, so far as I know, there is no
previous record of the occurrence of any considerable number
of larval forms of Epischura.

It is a curious fact that so soon after the appearance of the
larval forms, Epischura entirely disappears for several months.
I will not in this paper hazard a conjecture as to the explana-

Marsh — Limnetic Crustacea of Green Lake. 197

tion of this, as I hope in a later paper to treat more fully upon
its life history after further researches.

So far as T know there have been no preceding observations
on the seasonal distribution of Epischura. Its nearest European
relative is Heterocope , and this is stated by Apstein to occur
from the latter part of July into November, its maximum period
being in the summer. He does not record any time of the ap¬
pearance of the larval forms.

In its vertical distribution, Epischura is largely confined to
the upper regions. While laboratory experiments would seem
to indicate that it avoids bright light, the averages of my col¬
lections apparently show that it is more largely controlled by
the conditions of temperature. In my collections of August,
1893, I found 81 per cent, in the upper ten meters. The average
of the collections of 1894, extending from the latter part of Sep¬
tember to the last of November was 53.11 percent, in the upper
five meters and 19.52 per cent, from five to ten meters, thus
making 72.63 per cent in the upper ten meters. In order to com¬
pare the distribution at different seasons, I computed the aver¬
age percentages in the collections from the surface to five meters,
and from five meters to ten meters for June, July and August,
1896, and from November, 1894 to April, 1895, with the following
results:

0-5

5-10

0-10

Winter, 24.94-3.95 .

42.53

14.18

56.71

Summer, 7.96-17.96 .

60.55

28.51

89.06

This would seem to indicate that Epischura prefers the warmer
water, although it is by no means absent from the cold water of
the surface in the cold season. It occurred to me that if Epischura
were, to a large extent, controlled in its vertical distribution
by conditions of temperature, there might be a diurnal migra¬
tion caused by the cooling of the surface water at night, for the
surface responds quickly to changes in atmospheric temperature.
To determine whether any such effect would be produced, I com-

198 Marsh — Limnetic Crustacea of Green Lake.

pared the night and day collections of October, 1894. From
Oct. 6 to Oct. 24, I made five collections between six p. m. and
six a. m. Four of these were made between ten arid twelve
o’clock. In these collections between six p. m. and six a. m. ,
29.44 per cent, were between the surface and five meters, and
22.06 per cent, between five and ten, making 51.50 per cent, in
the upper ten meters.

In ten collections made during the same period between six
a. m. and six p. m., 62.24 per cent, were between the surface and
five meters, and 18.67 per cent, between five and ten meters, or
80.91 per cent in the upper ten meters. The average of all the
collections made during this time was 51.31 per cent, from the
surface to five meters, and 19.80 per cent, from five to ten
meters, making 71.11 per cent, in the upper ten meters.

These results are contrary to my expectations, for I had sup-
posed that Epischura came to the surface at night. On the con¬
trary, it appears that in October nights it migrates to greater
depths. It appears to me probable that temperature is the con¬
trolling cause of both its diurnal and seasonal migrations.

The fact that surface tows in summer evenings are sometimes
rich in Eprischau is, I think, in harmony with the statements
above. For while, as has been stated, Epischura prefers warm
water, it also avoids bright light. In the daytime during the
hot months, it is most abundant in the upper layers, but not at
the immediate surface. In the darkness of the evening, how¬
ever, it is no longer repelled from the surface by the light, and
the change of temperature may not be sufficient to affect it.

In the 1893 collections, made in warm weather in the latter
part of August, three of the hauls were made between six at
night and six in the morning. In these three night hauls, there
was an average of 82 per cent, in the 0-5 stratum, while the
average in the day hauls in the same stratum was 33.32 per
cent.

The fact that Epischura comes to the surface in such large
numbers on warm summer nights may be accounted for by the
fact that it is a large species and a strong swimmer, and moves
toward the surface because of the greater amount of food mate¬
rial there.

Marsh — Limnetic Crustacea of Green Lake.

199

LIMNOCALANUS MACRURUS.

1

T

ccn\

No. of

Total

Coll.

No.

0-z

5-10

10-15

15-20

20-

25

25-30

30-35

35-40

40-

1.94. .

72

44.

44

27.

77

5.

55

13.

88

1.

39

6.

95

4 94. .

133

2.

26

1.

50

1.

50

11.

28

38.

35

45.

11

5.94..

87

1

15

2

30

1.

15

1.

15

3.

,45

9.

20

31.

,03

50.

57

6.94. .

96

1

04

1.

04

13 .

44

8.

33

24.

90

53.

12

7.94..

113

88

88

6.

19

38.

94

20.

35

13.

,27

7.

08

12.

■05
• CO

8.94..

81

1

23

4

93

1 9.

87

9.

87

7.

40

27.

16

27.

,16

12.

35

10.94..

59

1

69

1.

69,

i !■

69

23.

73

28.

,81

13.

56

18.

,66

10.

17

11.94. .

33

. .1

6.

,06

9.

09

6.

,06

54.

,54

24

24

12.94..

79

1

27

5

06

| 10.

13

20.

,25

15.

,19

12.

,66

22.

.78

12.

,66

13.94..

38

21

05

7

90

2

63

7.

,90

13.

,16

5.

,26

21.

.05

21.

.05

14.94. .

43

1 2.

32

13.

95

16.

,28

9,

.30

25.

.58

32.

,56

15.94. .

8

12

50

12,

.50

25

50.

16.94. .

16

6.

,25

12.

.50

6,

.25

6,

!25

68.

75

17.94. .

10

10

10,

80,

18.94. .

56

1

79

1.

,79

*

7,

.14

32,

.14

37

*50

19,

.64

20.94..

30

3

33

3

33

40

3

.33

43,

.33

6

.66

21.94. .

19

26,

.32

15

.79

31

.58

26,

.32

22.94. .

8

25.

12,

,50

12

.50

50,

24.94..

20

10

10

20

60.

25.94. .

16

25

12

.50

25,

25

6

6,

26.94..

51

5,

.88

3

.92

17,

.65

, 17-

.65

5

.88

23

!53

7,

*84

15

1,

!96

27.94..

113

23.

.01

4

.42

14,

,16

1 16,

.81

8,

.85

6,

.20

19

.47

2

.66

4,

.42

29.94..

101

2,

.97

3

.96

1,

.98

: 5,

.94

27,

.72

14

.85

6

.93

7

.92

27,

.72

1.95..

25

16

48

8,

!

8

12

4

2.95..

64

37

M

1

’56

3,

]l3

i I.

‘.m

4,

.69

1

.56

6

]24

21

!ss

21

3.95..

34

2.

.94

2,

,94

8

,82

8,

.83

17

.65

11

.76

47,

.06

4.95..

140

8,

.57

22,

.87

25,

,71

i 7,

.14

14,

.28

10

7,

.86

3

.57

5.95..

90

11

.11

3

.33

4,

.44

! 4,

.44

5

.56

22

[22

27,

.78

15

.56

5,

.56

6.95..

104

11

.54

7,

.69

9,

,62

15,

.38

19

.24

18

.27

2,

.88

13

.46

1

.92

7.95..

85

3,

,53

2,

.35

17,

.65

35

.30

30

.59

8

.23

2

.35

8.95..

20

15,

10

5,

10

10

25

25

9.95..

26

3,

^85

7,

]69

26,

!92

26

.92

34

^62

10.95..

6

98,

,72

1.

,28

11.95..

5

20,

20

60

12.95..

60

3,

,33

35

40

10

11

.6T

13.95..

27

11,

.11

14,

*81

14

*82

44

" 44

14

.81

14.95..

7

14

.28

71

.43

14,

,29

15.95..

6

16

.66

16

.67

66

67

16.95..

15

6,

.66

6,

.66

26

.67

46

.67

13

.34

17.95..

16

12,

.50

56,

.25

36

.25

18.95..

1

100,

19.95..

22

13.

,64

13.

,64

4,

!55

13,

.64

13,

.63

27,

.27

13

.63

20.95..

12

8.

.33

33.

.34

16,

.66

8,

.34

33,

.33

1.96..

8

12,

.50

25

50

12,

,50

2.96..

43

9

.30

27,

,91

18

.60

18

.60

6

^98

18

*61

3.96..

76

15

.79

10

.52

3

95

15

.79

21

.05

31

.58

1,

32

5.96..

203

29

.56

1

.97

13

.79

13

.79

4

■ CO

5,

.42

23

.64

5,

.91

1,

.48

6.96..

52

1

.92

23

.08

11

.54

19

.23

15

.38

19

.23

1

.92

7,

.70

7.96..

20

5

15

30

40

10

8.96..

41

4

’54

27

.28

27,

’27

40,

.91

9.96..

4

25

75,

200

Marsh — Limnetic Crustacea of Green Lake.

limnocalanus macrurus — Continued.

No. of

Total

Per cent.

Coll.

No.

0-5

5-10

10-15

15-20

20-25

25-30

30-35

35-40

40-

10.96. .

32

6.25

6.25

43.75

43.75

11.98. .

17

23.53

5.88

5.88

5.88

17.65

41.18

12.96. .

9

11.11

11.11

11.12

22.22

44.44

13.96. .

29

3.45

13.79

27.58

3.45

6.90

44.83

14.96. .

15

6.66

13.34

19.98

6.66

26.68

26.68

15.96. .

16.96. .

42

16.66

66.68

16.66

17.96. .

21

28.57

9.52

14.29

23.81

9.52

14.29

18.96..

34

2.94

17.65

2.94

11.76

14.71

29.41

20.59

19.96. .

35

28.57

22.86

5.71

11.43

25.71

5.72

20.96. .

51

1.96

11.76

11.76

33.34

25.49

15.69

21.96. .

37

8.11

5.41

2.70

16.21

67.57

22.96. .

7

14.29

28.57

28.57

28.57

23.96. .

34

5.88

2.94

11.76

11.76

14.71

17.65

35.30

24.96..

26

3.85

3.85

26.92

3.85

11.53

3.85

11.54

7.69

26.92

25.96..

56

1.78

5.36

3.57

25.

28.57

30.36

5.36

26.96..

200

from

0-234

met’rs

106

from

0-20

met’rs

27.96..

43

6.98

6.98

4.65

11.63

16.28

9.30

34.88

9.30

Limnocalanus macrurus (see PI. IX) occurs in collections at all
times of the year, but never in very large numbers. The largest
single collection that I made was May 8, 1896. While the
numbers were very variable, I think I can say that it was
most abundant in the months of May and November, thus hav¬
ing two maximum periods, — the spring period showing greater
numbers.

In February, March, and April most of the Limnocalani are
immature.

In its vertical distribution Limnocalanus is very interesting.
From May to November it is seldom found in the day time in
the upper five meters, and only in small numbers in the upper
ten. In the winter months it is found at all depths. Thus its
vertical distribution would seem to be controlled, in part, at
least, by temperature. It also seems to be sojnewhat sensitive
to light, for the night collections in 1894 show a greater number
near the surface. As these night collections were not extended
through the year, it would perhaps be unsafe to say that Lim¬
nocalanus comes to the surface in the night, but it is certainly

Marsh — Limnetic Crustacea of Green Lake. 201

very significant that most of the evening collections show more
or less of this species in the 0-5 and 5-10 hauls.

The collections of November 14, 1896, seem to show quite con-
olusively the effect of light on the vertical distribution of Lim-
nocalanus. On this date, the temperature of the surface was 45,
and that of the bottom 43, so that the temperature was practi¬
cally uniform through the whole depth of the water. In the
collection made at about four o’clock in the afternoon, AwmocoAmws
was absent in the upper two and one-half meters, there was one
in the upper five meters, three in the layer from five to ten, two in
ten to fifteen, and an increasing number in the deeper layers.
In the evening, at about eight o’clock, there were two hundred
in the upper two and one-half meters, and a rapidly decreasing
number in the deeper layers. A surface tow taken in the eve¬
ning consisted very largely of Limnocalanus.

I think we can state with positiveness from these observations
that Limnocalanus is repelled by the higher temperature of the
surface waters in summer, and is also repelled by light. There
is a further question, however, which it is not so easy to
answer, and that is the positive reason of the vertical migration.
Why do they approach the surface when there is neither a high
temperature or light to repel them. It occurred to me that pos¬
sibly, while they are repelled by bright light, they may be
attracted by a faint light, like that of the moon. A comparison
of the collections of cloudy and moonlight nights, however,
shows no essential difference.

It is possible that the more highly aerated surface waters may
attract them; this is not probable, however, for the fact that
during such a large portion of the year they are found in deeper
water would seem to imply that they are adapted to the some¬
what stagnant conditions of those waters. It seems to me most
probable that the larger food supply of the surface waters is the
main cause of the vertical migration.

The relation of Limnocalanus to the “ sprungschicht ” is inter¬
esting. Unfortunately I have been able to make temperature
determinations for only the surface and bottom, so that I do
not know the position of the “sprungschicht ” in G-reen Lake
at different periods of the year. By the kindness of Prof. E. A.

202

Marsh — Limnetic Crustacea of Green Lake.

Birge a set of serial temperatures was taken with the thermo¬
phone September 3, 1896, which seemed to show that at that
time the “sprungschicht ” was located at about fourteen meters
below the surface. Probably its location does not change ma¬
terially during the summer months. In looking over the collec¬
tion of Limnocalanus , I find that during the summer months it
is found mostly below the fifteen meter level, its distribution
becoming gradually more general in the fall, and continuing so
until the late spring. This leads me to infer that the vertical
distribution of the Linnocalanus varies nearly as the " sprung¬
schicht” varies.

C. brevispinosus did not occur in large numbers in any of the
serial collections. The largest number obtained at one time
was 291, on June 6, 1895. In both 1895 and 1896 its occurrence
was confined almost entirely to the month of June. It was found
in both May and July, but only in small numbers. At other
times I have found it in G-reen Lake in August, but it must be
comparatively rare at that time, for in my serial collections in
1893 I did not find a single individual. I have found it in the
Michigan lakes, too, in July and August.

In regard to its vertical distribution, it appears to be most
abundant from five to twenty meters in depth. In the upper
five meters only a few are found, and they do not go below 20
to 25 meters to any extent.

Marsh — Limnetic Crustacea of Green Lake ,

203

CYCLOPS BREVISPINOSUS.

C. brevispinosus not present in collections from 1.94 to 6.95.

No. of
Coll.

Total

No.

Per cent.

0-5

5-10

10-15

15-20

20-25

25-30

30-35

35-40

40-

7.95..
8.95 .

1

100.

9.95..

10.95..

11.95..

12.95..

13.95..

14.95..

15.95..

246

291

79

166

13

87.80

10.99

10.13

19.28

61.54

4.47
16.84
10 13
62.65
15.38

4.88

1.22

8.25

20.25

3.61

7.69

.81

.41

.69

1.27

.41

8.25

54.98

50.63

6.32

14.46

15.39

1.27

16.95. .

17.95. .

18.95. .

19.95..

20.95..

1.96..

2.96..

7

6

57.15

42.85

16.66

50.

33.34

3.96..

5.96..

6.96..

7.96..

8.96..

9.96..

10.96..

11.96..

12.96..

1

33

52

36

7

3

100.

72.73

46.15

3.03

30.77

44.45

14.29

12.12

3.85

44.44

57.14

33.33

12.12

15.38

3.85

11.11

14.28

14.29

66.67

13.96..

14.96. .

15.96..

16.96..

17.96..

1

100.

18.96..

19.96..

20.96..

21.96..

22.96..

2

100.

23.96..

24.96..

25.96..

26.96..

27.96..

25

100.

204

Marsh — Limnetic Crustacea of Green Lake.

CYCLOPS FLUVIATILtS.

No. of

Total

Per cent.

Coll.

No.

0-5

5-10

10-15

15-20

20-25

25-30

30-35

35-40

40-

1.94. .

336

30.95

2.38

26.19

33.33

7.15

4.94..

530

24.15

23.39

21.89

23.77

6.04

.76

5.94..

740

16.22

41.62

14.46

23.78

1.76

.54

.27

1.35

6.94. .

707

33.94

16.97

24.33

5.76

2.12

.42

.14

7.94..

968

23.97

3.72

10.74

47.52

9.50

1.26

.42

2.94

8.94..

823

14.58

18.97

33.53

26.24

4.13

1.10

.97

.12

.36

10.94..

791

25.79

15.67

11.63

31.86

8.09

3.16

3.54

.12

.12

11.94..

783

33.72

8.43

23.50

25.29

3.58

.38

1.02

.51

12.94..

881

21.34

16.34

13.62

9.53

17.71

19.52

1.36

.34

.23

13.94..

378

42.33

22.22

17.99

3.70

9.53

2.12

.79

1.32

14.94. .

525

54.63

16.76

8.38

12.95

6.10

.95

15.94. .

535

27.66

20.93

9.72

36.64

4.86

.19

16.94..

452

17.48

21.24

27.43

22.78

7.30

1.10

.44

1.33

.66

17.94. .

378

22.22

16.93

21.43

34.66

3.17

.27

1.32

18.94. .

262

36.87

16.87

24.42

18.32

3.05

.38

.38

20.94..

1,241

20.63

5.16

58.34

11.60

3.38

.64

.08

.16

21.94. .

618

26.54

22.01

20.06

25.89

4.53

.81

.16

22.94..

625

38.40

14.08

9.60

30.40

6.55

.96

24.94..

865

55.49

14.80

9.94

11.79

6.59

.81

.23

.35

25.94..

1,043

45.60

24.35

12.20

8.40

7.70

1.10

.20

.30

.io

26.94..

1,912

42.67

33.47

13.39

4.55

3.76

.84

.89

.16

.32

27.94..

564

44.68

17.38

12.77

17.73

5.85

.53

.53

.53

29.94..

1.036

40.15

9.26

16.21

8.49

5.02

6.18

3.47

6.18

5.02

1.95

134

17.91

47.76

23.88

4.48

2.98

2.24

.75

2.95..

322

24.84

7.45

2.48

14.91

22.36

9.94

12.42

5.59

3.95..

324

54.32

6.17

6.17

2.47

6.17

4.94

7.41

4.94

7.41

4.95..

114

14.03

6.14

5.26

10.53

21.93

28.07

10.53

3.51

5.9c

138

20.29

23.19

31.88

2.17

17.39

4.35

.73

• a • •

6.95. .

154

20.78

23.38

16.88

18.18

9.09

11.04

.65

7.95..

93

81.72

16.13

2.15

8.95. .

116

91.38

6.89

.86

.86

9.95. .

58

75.87

20.69

1.72

1.72

10.95. .

415

86.75

9.64

1.93

1.44

.24

11.95. .

357

71.71

8.96

.28

13.73

4.48

.28

.56

12.95] ]

68

29.41

11.77

47.05

11.77

13.95. .

85

67.07

18.82

9.41

4.70

14.95. .

400

73.75

14.

12.

.25

15.95. .

397

8.06

2.02

65.49

14.11

10.07

.25

16. 95] ]

340

56.47

25.88

9.41

5.89

1.76

.59

17.95.

385

6.23

14.55

47.79

22.86

8.31

.26

18. 95]]

610

45.25

11.80

18.36

14.43

3.93

3.93

1.64

.66

19.95

403

23.82

11.91

36.24

19.85

3.97

3.47

.74

20.95]]

280

14.29

14.29

8.57

14.29

8.57

5.71

14.28

20.

1.96. .

91

26.38

13.19

52.75

2.19

1.09

4.40

2.96.

389

4.11

8.22

49.36

32.90

3.09

2.06

.26

3.96..

89

2.25

31.46

3.37

8.99

22.47

26.96

3.37

1.13

5.96. .

23

69.57

17.39

13.04

6.96. .

77

72.72

10.40

15.58

1.30

7.96..

124

77.42

12.90

6.45

3.23

8.96 .

136

100.

9.96..

328

82.92

4.88

12.20

Marsh — Limnetic Crustacea of Green Lake.

205

Cyclops fluviatilis— continued.

Per cent.

No. of Total

Coll.

No.

0-5

5-10

10-15

15-20

20-25

25-30

30-35

35-40

40-

10.96. .

423

92.67

1.18

2.83

2.84

.24

.24

11.96. .

607

96.21

2.63

.49

.17

.16

.34

12.96. .

546

85.35

13.19

.73

.19

.18

.18

.18

13.96. .

182

39.56

39.56

17.58

3.30

14.96. .

153

31.37

31.37

33.99

3.27

15.96. .

331

99.10

.60

.30

16.96. .

230

55.65

5.22

24.35

3.48

8.69

1.30

1.31

17.96. .

474

18.57

8.44

60.76

10.97

.84

.42

18.96..

368

32.61

.54

34.78

30.44

.54

.27

.82

19.96..

525

50.29

4.57

13.71

16.76

3.81

3.05

7.62

.19

20.96. .

619

51.70

11.63

28.43

3.23

3.23

1.62

.16

21.96..

369

23.85

19.52

32.52

18.43

2.17

.27

1.64

.55

1.09

22.96..

489

29.45

11.45

8.18

32.72

16.36

.82

.61

.41

23.96. .

396

51.01

12.12

14.14

22.48

.25

24.96..

253

28.46

17.39

22.13

25.30

2.77

.39

3.56

25.96..

342

25.73

12.86

4.68

8.19

7.02

4.68

18.72

7.60

10.52

26.96..

312

in

0-20

mete

rs.

27.96..

400

10.

8.

8.

14.

42.

2.

6.

2.

C. flumatilis (see PI. X) occurs in the collections during
the whole year, and generally in considerable numbers. The
maximum seems to be reached in the months of October and No¬
vember, although in 1896 quite large collections were made
in July, and the smallest collections were made in the months
of May and June.

C. flumatilis is found in greater or smaller numbers at all
depths, but is far the most abundant near the surface, the greater
part of the collection being ordinarily within ten meters of the
surface, and below twenty-five meters very few are found. In
many cases more than fifty per cent, were in the upper five
meters. In the winter collections, however, the numbers at the
surface were smaller, and the bulk of the collection was fre¬
quently in the intermediate regions, between ten and thirty
meters. There are apparent exceptions to this, however, as in
3.95, where 54 percent, were in the upper five meters. But in
this case the remaining fifty per cent, was distributed pretty
evenly through the deeper regions.

In order to determine with some degree of exactness the dif-

206 Marsh — Limnetic Crustacea of Green Lake.

ference in vertical distribution in cold weather as compared
with that in warm weather I averaged the percentages in the
upper five divisions from June until September, 1898, — 7.96 to
17.96 inclusive, — and from November to April, 1895,-— 24.94 to
3.95 inclusive, — with the following results:

0-5

5-10

10-15

15-20

20-25

7.96 to 17.96 — warm weather . .........

70.80

10.85

14.50

2.17

.48

24 . 94 to 3 . 95 — cold weather ...........

38.47

14.11

11.38

14.51

10.17

It is evident from these figures that there is a marked dif¬
ference in the vertical distribution in warm and in cold weather.
Nearly 71 per cent, in warm weather are in the upper five
meters, while the upper fifteen include 96.15 per cent. In cold
weather, on the other hand, only 38.47 per cent, are in the upper
five meters, and below that they are somewhat evenly distributed.

To determine the difference between day and night I averaged
the five hauls in October, 1894, which were taken between six
p. m. and six a m., and compared them with ten hauls taken
in the same month between six a. m. and six p. m. The fol¬
lowing was the result :

0-5

5-10

10-15

15-20

Night hauls . . . .

24.57

13.28

26.84

19.72

Day hauls . . .

29.27

19.88

18.72

23.58

It will be seen that the percentages are very similar, and I
infer that there is no appreciable d iurnal migration. I con¬
clude from this that they are not very sensitive to changes in
the amount of light. I take it, too, that while they are affected
by changes of temperature, they are not very sensitive to such
changes, or a larger proportion would be found in the warmer
deep water in the winter. C. fluviatilis, in this respect, differs
very markedly from Epischura lacustris) which not only has a more
pronounced seasonal migration, but moves vertically in accord¬
ance with diurnal changes of temperature in the surface water

Marsh — Limnetic Crustacea of Green Lake.

207

LEPTODORA HYALINA.

Per cent.

of Coll.

No.

0-5

5-10

10-15

15-20

20-25

25-30

30-35

35-40

40-

4.94. .

3

33.33

33.33

33.34

5.94. .

1

100.

6.94. .

12

100.

7.94. .

5

80.

20.

8.94. .

4

100.

10.94. .

5

80.

20.

11.94. .

11

18.18

9.09

54.54

9.09

9.09

12.94..

5

20.

60.

20.

13.94. .

1

100.

14.94. .

1

100.

15.94. .

2

100.

16.94..

17.94. .

18.94..

20.94..

1

100.

21.94..

2

100.

22.94. .

1

100.

3.95..

3

100.

No Leptodora from 23.94

to 2.9f

13.95..

6

83.33

No L
16.67

eptodo

ra fro

m 4.95

to 12.9

5.

14.95..

12

100.

15.95..

2

50.

50.

16.95..

17.95..

18.95..

1

100.

19.95..

20.95..

1

1.96..

2.96..

3.96..

5.96..

6.96..

7.96..

8.96..

2

50.

50.

9.96..

36

37.50

18.75

12.50

31.35

10.96..

2

50.

50.

11.96..

24

100.

12.96..

8

75.

25.

13.96..

5

80.

20.

14.96..

6

33.33

66.67

15.96..

5

100.

16.96..

22

63.63

3.82

4.55

17.96..

15

53.34

13.33

26.67

6.66

18.96..

21

90.48

4.76

4.76

19.96..

1

100.

20.96..

4

25.

25.

50.

i

21.96..

8

37.50

37.50

12.50

12.50

22.96..

1

100.

23.96..

2

>

100.

24.96..

1

100.

25.96..

26.96..

27.96..

208 Marsh — Limnetic Crustacea of Green Lake.

With the exception of three individuals in the collection of
March 27, 1895, I found no Leptodora from the latter part of
October to the middle of June. It was present pretty generally
in the summer collections, but never in very large numbers.
The largest number that I obtained in any collection was
twenty-four.

In its vertical distribution, Leptodora is commonly within ten
meters of the surface. I have found individuals at a depth of
between twenty-five and thirty meters, but it is not a common
occurrence.

Leptodora was never present in sufficient numbers in my col¬
lections so that I could draw any inferences in regard to the
effect changes of temperature would have on its vertical distri¬
bution.

It will be noticed that my observations in regard to the sea¬
sonal distribution of Leptodora correspond very closely with
what Zacharias says of Leptodora in Ploener See, for he states
that it disappears in the course of the month of October, and
appears again towards the end of May. (Zacharias, ’94, p. 100.
Also, Apstein ’96, p. 175. Fri§ and Vavra, ’94, pp. 55, 108.)

Apstein (’96, p. 80) states that Leptodora is found most abun¬
dantly in the deep water. This is certainly not according to my
observations, as they would indicate that it should rather be
considered a surface form, although it is by no means confined
to the immediate surface. As Apstein does not state what he
means by deep water in this case, the seeming contradiction in
our observations may be more apparent than real.

Trans. Wis. Acad., Vol. XI.

Temperature Curves, 1895.

Trans. Wis. Acad., Vol. XI. Plate VI.

Temperature Curves, 1896.

Trans. Wis. Acad., Vol. XL Plate VII.

Annual Distribution of Diaptomus.

<

p

£

<1

Trans. Wis. Acad., Vol. XI. Plate IX.

m •

«
P
«
o -
<

S"

m

P

£

<1 :

P

<

O ■

O

£

§

P

<3

P-

£

£

<-

Annual Distribution of Cyclops Fluviatilis.

Trans. Wis. Acad., Vol. XI. Plate Xl.

3o.w Tito. N\cu. Kft*. NViy 3 urn 3u,Vv^ _ Aug. Sqft. _ Out, Ko\). Ysn,

JJ^ml^^-rTrOrOc^ c-i

Annual Distribution of Daphnia Kahlbergiensis.

Trans. Wis. Acad., Vol. XI. Plate XII.

g

s

8

PQ

a

<

K

<•

Trans. Wis. Acad., Vol. XI

Plate XIII

Trans. Wis. Acad., Vol. XI. Plate XIV.

Deedge as Mounted foe Use on Ice.

Marsh-Limnetic Crustacea of Green Lake.

209

DAPHNIA KAHLBERGIENSIS.

No.

of Coll.

Total

No.

Per cent.

0-5

5-10

10-15

15-20

20-25

25-30

30-35

35-40

40-

1.94. .

292

60.27

24.66

13.70

1.03

.34

4.94..

372

6.45

23.66

22.58

11.83

12.90

6.45

5.91

8.60

1.61

5.94..

377

25.47

21.22

20.16

16.97

3.18

6.37

4.24

2.12

.27

6.94. .

419

39.14

21.95

.10.50

15.28

9.55

3.34

.24

7.94

419

43.91

30.55

16.23

1.91

3.82

.24

3.34

8.94..

345

46.38

32.47

14.49

2.90

.58

2.31

.58

.29

10.94..

353

31.76

37.39

14.73

6.79

3.40

1.98

1.70

1.70

.59

11.94..

414

46.37

13.53

27.06

7.24

1.93

1.93

.25

1.50

.25

12.94..

571

39.23

23.12

16.81

6.30

2.80

10.51

.70

.52

13.94..

641

77.38

16.85

2.49

1.23

.62

.31

.16

.96

14.94..

495

29.09

22.63

21.82

18.59

7.27

.20

.20

.20

15.94..

303

40.59

36.96

13.20

5.21

1.32

.33

1.66

.33

16.94..

140

62.85

21.43

10.

3.57

.71

1.42

17.94..

97

24.74

47.42

4.12

21.65

1.01

1.01

18.94..

248

77.41

8.07

9.84

1.61

1.61

1.61

20.94..

232

65.52

12.07

17.24

5.17

21.94..

236

28.81

35.59

22.03

10.13

.42

2.54

.42

22.94. .

320

48.75

37.50

6.25

5.62

.94

.62

.31

24.94..

105

51.43

22.86

11.43

7.62

5.71

.95

25.94..

106

56.60

18.90

2.80

.90

20.

.90

26.94..

90

80.01

7.78

4.44

3.33

1.11

2.22

1.11

27.94. .

242

52.07

6.65

23.14

12.81

4.54

.41

.41

29.94. .

58

62.07

5.17

12.07

3.45

1.72

1.73

13.79

1.95. .

3

66.

34.

2.95. .

2

100.

3.95..

56

100.

4.95..

5.95..

1

100.

6.95..

2

50.

50.

7.95. .

8.95. .

25

32.

64.

4.

9.95. .

9

89.

11.

10.95. .

49

81.63

16.33

2.04

11 .*95..

33

3.03

48.49

48.48

12.95..

91

8.79

70.33

3.30

17.58

13.95..

137

29.20

52.57

8.76

2.92

5.84

.73

14.95..

89

35.95

35.96

8.99

3.37

13.48

2.25

15.95..

182

4.39

35.16

6.59

26.37

13.19

13.19

1.10

16.95..

28

28.57

57.14

7.15

7.14

17.95..

57

5.26

70.18

7.02

7.02

10.52

18.95..

170

42.35

9.41

9.41

32.94

4.71

1.18

19.95..

131

48.85

12.21

3.05

24.43

6.12

4.58

.76

20.95. .

7

57.14

14.28

28.58

14

210

Marsh — Limnetic Crustacea of Green Lake.

DAPHNIA KAHLBERGIENSIS.

D. kahlbergiensis did not occur in the collections from 1.96 to 7.96 .

No.

of Coll.

Total

No.

0-5

5-10

10-15

15-20

20-25

25-30

30-35

35-40

40-

8.96..

40

7.50

60.

20.

10.

2.50

9.96..

225

42.67

17.78

21.34

17.77

.44

10.96..

129

37.21

18.60

15.50

24.81

.78

1.55

1.55

11.96..

71

11.27

56.34

16.90

7.04

1.41

4.22

2.82

12.96..

325

39.38

29.54

24.62

6.15

.30

13.96..

84

14.29

19.05

47.62

9.52

9.52

14.96..

32

62.50

37.50

15.96. .

5

20.

20.

20.

40.

16.96. .

108

3.70

81.48

11.12

.93

2.77

17.96. .

68

5.88

35.30

35.29

22.06

1.47

18.96. .

73

21.92

32.88

35.62

6.85

1.37

1.36

19.96. .

86

37.21

27.91

9.30

10.46

13.96

1.16

20.96..

92

60.87

8.70

6.52

4.35

13.04

3.26

2.17

1.09

21.96..

94

34.04

42.55

8.51

8.51

1.07

4.26

1.06

22.96..

78

10.26

30.77

35.89

12.82

3.85

2.57

2.56

1.28

23.96..

223

46.19

17.94

17.94

10.76

5.38

.89

.45

.45

24.96. .

72

13.88

22.23

33.34

27.78

2.77

25.96. .

61

59.02

26.23

6.56

6.55

1.64

26.96..

102

in

0-20

met’rs

27.96..

16

18.75

25.

12.50

6.25

12.50

25.

During the fall of 1894 (see PI. XI) the collections of
Daphnia kahlbergiensis were quite uniform in amount, reaching
a maximum in the latter part of October. During the winter
the number was very small, and they did not become numerous
again until June. There is a fall maximum again in 1895 in
the latter part of October, but, curiously, the total numbers
collected during the fall of 1895 are much smaller than in 1894.
During the winter and spring of 1896 Daphnia was entirely ab¬
sent from the collections. They appear again about the middle
of May, and the largest collections of the year were made from
June 29 to July 27. In August and September the collections
were rather small, but the number became larger the latter part
of October as in the preceding years.

Apstein (’96, p. 170) states that the species of Daphnia reach
their maximum in August, but that D. cederstroemi is somewhat
later, so that it would appear that my results in regard to the
seasonal distribution of Daphnia do not agree very closely with
his. It is probable that the various species of Daphnia may
differ considerable in their periods of maximum occurrence.

Marsh — Limnetic Crustacea oj Green Lake. 211

Daphnia may be found at all depths, but is most numerous in
the upper ten meters. In some cases, however, more than fifty
per cent, of the catch is below the twenty meter line.

Very few Daphnias occur in winter, andj[ could not distinguish
any effect of season on distribution.

The averages of the day and night hauls of ’91 were as fol¬
lows:

0-5

5-10

10-15

Day, Oct. ’94 .

38.39

24.43

15.40

Night, Oct. ’94 .

54.48

23.01

13.46

These averages would seem to indicate a movement towards
the surface at night. I am not sure that this inference is war¬
ranted, however, for the averages are of numbers with wide
limits of variation, and I accept the conclusion with consider¬
able doubt.

BOSMINA.

No.

Total

Per cent.

of Coll.

No.

0-5

5-10

10-15

15-20

20-25

25-30

30-35

35-40

40-

1.94..

9

89.

11.

4.94..

57

56.14

14.04

21.05

7.02

1.75

5.94..

112

71.43

17.86

7.14

3.57

6.94..

98

65.31

16.33

4.08

12.24

1.02

1.02

7.94..

26

11.54

61.54

7.69

3.85

15.38

8.94..

95

42.12

29.47

22.15

4.21

1 05

10.94..

57

42.10

28.08

3.51

21.06

5.27

11.94..

106

75.47

7.55

.94

15.09

12.94..

280

31.43

10.

34.29

5.71

10.

8.57

13.94..

64

37.50

6.25

18.75

9.37

25.

3.13

14 94..

40

20.

50.

20.

10.

15.94..

85

47.06

28.24

9.41

14.12

1.17

16.94..

51

78.43

3.92

5.88

3.92

5.88

1.96

17.94..

7

77.92

6.49

6.49

5.19

1.29

2.59

18.94..

212

75.47

11.32

13.11

20.94..

64

56.25

6.25

28.12

6.25

3.13

21.94..

37

13.51

43.24

43.24

22.94..

72

38.88

50.

5.55

2.78

1.39

1.39

24.94..

151

70.20

13.25

10.59

3.31

2.65

25.94..

115

70.

15.

6.10

5.20

1.70

1.70

1.

26.94..

257

80.93

12.45

1.55

1.95

1.56

.39

.39

.78

212

Marsh — Limnetic Crustacea of Green Lake.

BOSMINA.

No.

of Coll.

Total.

No.

27.94..

191

29.94..

772

1.95..

26

2.95..

30

3.95..

49

4.95..

5.95..

5

6.95..

1

7.95..

3

8.95..

4

9.95..

10

10.95..

48

11.95..

40

12.95..

91

13.95..

61

14.95..

64

15.95..

75

16.95..

42

17.95..

205

18.95..

288

19.95..

279

20.95..

232

1.96..

75

2.96..

66

3.96..

12

5.96. .

6.96..

2

7.96..

8

8.96..

165

9.96..

94

10.96..

71

11.96..

99

12.96..

79

13.96..

67

14.96..

2

15.96..

57

16.96..

86

17.96..

134

18.96..

82

19.96..

92

20.96..

479

21.96..

322

22.96..

247

23.96..

435

24.96..

109

25.96..

280

26.96..

438

27.96..

420

Per cent.

0-5

5-10

10-15

15-20

20-25

25-30

30-35

35-40

40-45

56.54

56.48

46.15

26.67

81.63

8.38

14.51

15.38

8.38

9.33

15.38

13.33

14.66
3.11
3.85

26.67
2.04

11.52

4.14

3.85

3.33

8.17

.52

3.63

4.14

7.70

3.33

4.14

3.85

3.33

.52

3.84

3.34

20.

8.16

40.

100.

100.

50.

80.

83.34

60.

52.75

52.46

25.

42.67

57.14

85.85

58.33

51.61

24.13

16.

6.06

20.

40.

50.

10.

12.50

10.

2.08

40.

8.79

13.11

37.50

10.66

4.76

7.81

8.34

11.47

6.90

32.

36.36

8.33

2.08

35.16

4.92

3.12

21.33

19.05

1.95

5.56

1.44

20.69

8.

7.58

8.34

1.10

26.23

9.38

4.

2.20

3.28

10.94

10.67

1.56

12.50

10.67

19.05

3.90
16.65
17.20

6.90
16.
25.75
33.33

.49

11.12

10.75

6.90

2.66

18.18

33.33

5.73

1.73
13.34

3.03

8.33

1.08

25.86

8.

1.52

8,34

.72

6.89

4.

1.52

100.

100.

82.42

51.06

67.60

72.72
81.01
83.58
50.
98.25

83.72
89.55
87.80
47.83
67.64

84.47
68.02
95.63
88.07
59.02
in 0-

30.48

14.55

8.51

2.82

20.20

5.06

1.21

17.02

1.40

4.04

5.06

2.98

1.82

17.02

22.53

1.01

6.33

4.48

50.

4.26

4.25

2.13

1.40

2.02

1.27

8.96

1.27

1.75

1.16

1.49

4.65

2.99

8.14

4.48

1.22

1.16

1.17

1.49

9.75

1.23

52.17

16.70

3.11

25.91

2.53
7.34

26.23
20 met

9.53

30.02

4.97

.41

1.84

1.84

6.56

ers.

11.43

2.09

.31

.40

2.50

6.21

4.86

.21

.84

.62

.31

.40

1.83

6.55

13.33

.92

1.64

9.52

19.04

2.86

2.86

.95

Marsh-Limnetic Crustacea of Gh'een Lake. 213

Bosmina (see PI. XII) was present at all times of the year.
In only one collection during something over two years, — that
of May 4th, 1896, — did I fail to find some individuals of this
genus. Its time of maximum occurrence is in November. The
numbers found in successive collections vary within very wide
limits. For instance, Oct. 20, 1894, in a collection made
between 2:15 and 3:15 p. m., I found only seven individuals,
while in a collection made about two hours later, I found 212 ;
and yet the conditions were apparently precisely the same.

In regard to its vertical distribution, its home is in the upper
layers, although it is found occasionally at all depths.

In order to determine whether there was any difference in the
vertical distribution at different seasons, I averaged the sum¬
mer collections of 1896, from June to September, — 7.96 to 17.96
inclusive, — and the winter collections of 1894-5 from November
to April, — 24.94 to 3.95 inclusive, with results as follows:

0-5

5-10

10-15

15-20

Winter, 21.94 to 3.95 .

61.07

10.89

8.08

7.60

Summer, 7.96 to 17.96 . . .

78.18

5.05

3.02

9.91

While this would indicate a somewhat larger percentage in
the 0-5 layer in summer, the difference is not very marked,
and we may say that the vertical distribution is very little
affected by the changes of season.

The averages of the night collections of 1894 compare with
those of the day collections as follows :

0-5

5-10

10-15

15-20

Night .

35.77

22.70

22.20

5.88

Day .

60.93

18.38

9.16

7.71

These figures would indicate that there is a distinctly larger
number in the 0-5 layer in the day time than in the eight, and I
infer that is attracted, to some extent, at least, by the light.

214

Marsh — Limnetic Crustacea of Green Lake.

DAPHNELLA.

No.

of Coll.

Total

No.

Per cent.

0-5

5-10

10-15

15-20

20-25

25-30

30-35

35-40

40-

1.94..

4.94..

5.94..

6.94..

7.94..

8.94..

10.94..

11.94..

12.94..

13.94..

14.94..

15.94..

16.94..

29

31

27

62

24

46

25
35

47
46
11
19

55.17
51.61
88.88
77.42
66.66

52.18
80.
45.71
59.57
86.96

9.09

15.79

20.69

9.68

7.41

1.61

16.67

26.09

12.

34.29

4.26

2.17

36.36

63.15

3.45

38.71

3.45

13.79

3.45

3.71

19.36

1.61

8.33

13.04

4.

2.86

4.26

2.17

18.18

8.34

4.35

4.

11.43

17.02

8.70

27.27

21.05

2.17

2.17

12.77

5.71

2.13

9.09

17.94..

18.94..

19.94..

20.94..

21.94..

22.94..

24.94..

25.94..

26.94. .

7

1

2

15
17

16
1
1

14.29

14.29

71.43

100.

80.

35.29

25.

13.33

11.76

12.50

6.66

47.06

37.50

5.88

25.

100.

100.

27.94. .

28.94..

29.94.

1

100.

1.95. .

2.95. .

3.95..

4.95. .

16

100.

5.95. .

6.95. .

7.95. .

8.85. .

9.95. .

10.95..
11.95 .

1

100.

12 95. .

13.95. .

14.95..
1ft 9ft

1

ft

100.

60.

66.54

33.33

12.50

40.

7.69

33.34

37.50

Ifi 9ft

30.77

i.2^50

17.95..

18.95..

19.95..

3

8

33.33

12.50

25.

20.95..

9.96..

10.96..

11.96..

12.96..

13.96..

14.96..

No

8

40

33

18

36

50

Daph

88.88

100.

48.48

88.88

33.33

4.

nella

from

I. 96

II. 12

to 8.96

48.48

11.12

66.67

96.

3.04

Marsh — Limnetic Crustacea of Green Lake.

215

d aphnella — continued .

No.

of Coll.

Total

No.

Per cent.

0-5

5-10

10-15

15 20

20-25

25-30

30-35

35-40

40-

15.96..

16.96..

17.96..

18.96..

19.96..

20.96..

21.96..

22.96..

23.96..

24.96..

25.96..

201

141

143

65

211

88

22

12

12

2

99.50

56.74

2.80

73.85

15.16

54.55

18.18

66.67

8.34

.50

2.12

.70

31.21

5.59

24.61

51.87

36.36

45.45

8.33

16.67

8.5i

89.51

1.42

1.40

1.54

26.54

9.09

36.37

25.

8.34

50.

.95

.48

66.65

50.

26.96..

27.96..

Daphnella is at its maximum in point of numbers from about
the middle of August to the middle of September. From the
last of October to the last of June, very few are found. Only
in one collection made during the winter months did I find any
Daphnella , — that of March 27, 1895. Fri§ and Vavra (’94,
p. 103) state that Daphnella occurs from April to October. The
observations of Apstein (’96, p. 166) very nearly agree with
mine.

In regard to its vertical distribution, Daphnella may be found
at any depth. By far the larger number, however, occur in the
upper layers, ordinarily from seventy to eighty per cent, being
found within ten or fifteen meters of the surface.

In order to get at the facts in regard to its vertical distribu¬
tion, and possible migrations, I computed the average percent¬
ages in the upper four or five levels for the day and night col¬
lections of October, 1894, for the August collections, — all taken
in the daytime,-— of 1896, for the September and October col¬
lections of 1894, and for the collections of 1893, about twenty
in number, made within two or three days in the latter part of
August, with the following results:

216

Marsh — Limnetic Crustacea of Green Lake.

0-5

5-10

10-15

15-20

August, 1893 .

48.30

39.27
52.01

38.28
69.07

30.60

39.89
16.28

17.89
9.84

August, 1896 . . . . .

19.60

15.46

16.54

8.23

September-October, 1894 .

October, 1894, day .

15.82

6.01

October, 1894, night . .

I do not think that the number of collections is large enough
to draw inferences final in character in regard to the vertical
distribution of Daphnella , especially since the total number in
any collection is small. It would appear, however, that the up¬
per five meters are more densely populated in September and
October than in August and that the number is also greater in
the upper five meters in the night time than in the day time.
I do not feel like speaking in any dogmatic way in regard to
the interpretation of these facts, but I venture to suggest that
Daphnella is, in its vertical distribution, controlled rather by
light and darkness than by changes of temperature. If it were
very sensitive to changes of temperature the fact that it is
found in greater numbers near the surface at night than in the
day time, and also in greater numbers in September and Octo¬
ber than in August would indicate a liking for cool water: but
if this liking were very pronounced, it would seem that it
would migrate deeper in August. If we suppose light to be
the controlling factor, we would explain the greater number
near the surface in September and October by the greater num¬
ber of cloudy days in those months. Very likely the solution
of this problem is not so simple as my speculations would indi¬
cate, and a satisfactory result can only be reached by a care¬
fully conducted investigation in the laboratory of the behavior
of the animal under different conditions of light and tempera¬
ture. It may be noticed that Apstein (’96, p. 79) states that
the time when the larger numbers are found at the surface, co¬
incides with the time of total maximum numbers, a conclusion
quite the opposite of what my observations would indicate. It
does not appear, however, that his conclusions were based on
any large number of exact observations.

Marsh-— Limnetic Crustacea of Green Lake.

217

GENERAL CONCLUSIONS IN REGARD TO VERTICAL DISTRIBUTION.

I had supposed that there was a general movement of the
whole body of erustacea in such vertical migrations as existed.
It is evident that this is not the case, for the different kinds
have their individual peculiarities of distribution.

In the case of Diaptomus there is little or no vertical migra¬
tion from any cause.

Epischura avoids bright light, and has a preference for warm
water, and shows both seasonal and diurnal migrations.

Limnocalanus is repelled by bright light and by a high tem¬
perature, hence its diurnal migration is more pronounced in
cold weather.

Cyclops brevispinosus occurs most abundantly between five and
twenty meters in depth. I have no evidence in regard to its
diurnal migrations.

Cyclops fluviatilis has no diurnal migration, but in its seasonal
distribution shows a preference for the warmer water.

Leptodora is a surface form. I have no conclusive evidence
in regard to its diurnal migrations.

Daphnia kahlbergienses apparently moves towards the surface
at night.

There is no appreciable difference in the seasonal distribution
of Bosmina. There is a distinct diurnal migration due to its
attraction to light.

Daphnella has a diurnal migration due to the fact that it is
repelled by light.

I cannot make out from my collections that the winds have
any effect on the vertical distribution of entomostraca. The dis¬
tribution when the surface is roughened by waves seems to be
practically the same as when it is smooth. Neither is there
any marked difference between dark and moonlight nights.

It must be remembered, however, that all my collections were
at five meter intervals, and that there may be migrations within
these limits of which I have no indication. I know for instance
from surface tows that the immediate surface is almost entirely
devoid of entomostraca in the day time, but is populated in
enormous numbers in the night. There is evidently a very

218 Marsh — Limnetic Crustacea of Green Lake.

marked diurnal migration of most of the forms at the immedi¬
ate surface, but it would take a series of collections at very short
intervals to determine the limits of this genera, movement.
These conclusions in regard to the surface phenomena are in
harmony with the observations of France (’94, p. 35) and
Birge (’95, p. 477).

THE HORIZONTAL DISTRIBUTION OF THE LIMNETIC CRUSTACEA.

The results of quantitative plankton determinations are en¬
tirely dependent on the assumption that the horizontal distri¬
bution of the plankton material is uniform. The laborious
methods formulated by Hensen and his co-workers are founded
on the assumption that over wide stretches of the ocean there is
a practical uniformity in the distribution of the plankton.
They believe that their investigations prove this assumption to
be a fact. Their theory, however, has not gained universal as¬
sent. Haeckel (Haeckel, ’90), among others, opposes it strongly..
The same question has arisen in regard to lakes, and here it has
a great practical importance, for if we can assume the hori¬
zontal uniformity of the plankton, then collections made in dif¬
ferent lakes under similar conditions would furnish us accurate
means of comparing the lakes in regard to the richness of the
fauna and flora.

If this could be done, it would have a practical value in rela¬
tion to the cultivation of fish, as we would expect that the lake
rich in plankton would be especially adapted to nourish large
numbers of fish. The question of horizontal uniformity of dis¬
tribution in lakes has been actively discussed by many authors,
and thus far with no uniformity of conclusions. Apstein

(’92, p. 491) expressed his conviction from the measure¬

ments of plankton hauls and the counting of three comparative
collections, that the distribution of the plankton in fresh water
was practically uniform.

Fri$ and Vavra (’94, p. 118) come to a similar conclusion
from their researches on the Unter Poyernitzer Teich.

France (’94, p. 34 ff.) from his investigations on Bala¬
ton See comes to directly opposite conclusions, and says that

Marsh — Limnetic Crustacea of Green Lake. 219

the plankton is very unequally distributed, and that the organ¬
isms occur in swarms.

Imhof (Imhof, ’92) states that many of the organisms of the
plankton occur in swarms.

Zacharias (’94, p. 129 if.) enters into the subject in con¬
siderable detail, and gives his reasons for believing that
the plankton is not uniformly distributed, one of his arguments
being the very different character of the plankton at two dis¬
tant points in Lake Pldn, as determined by him.

Apstein again (’96, p. 51 ff.) takes up the question, and
argues it at length, maintaining his original position.

Reighard (’94, p. 38) concludes that the plankton in Lake St.
Clair and Lake Erie is distributed with great uniformity, and
finds no positive evidence of swarms.

Ward in his report on Lake Michigan (’96, p. 62), con¬
cludes from his study of the plankton of that lake that there is
no evidence whatever for the existence of swarms.

In my preliminary report on vertical distribution in Green
Lake (Marsh, ’94, p. 809) I stated that apparently the Crustacea
were not uniformly distributed. The figures of my collections
of the past two years have served to confirm the opinion I ex¬
pressed in 1894. It seems to me clear, that, so far as the Crus¬
tacea are concerned, the horizontal distribution is far from uni¬
form, and inasmuch as the Crustacea ordinarily form the larger
part of any plankton collection, it would follow that the distri¬
bution of the plankton is not uniform.

It must be remembered that all my collections were made
from a buoy kept in one spot during the whole season, and in
successive seasons, an attempt was made to drop the anchor as
nearly as possible in the same spot. All collections, then, were
made from, the same depth of water in any season, and in very
nearly the same depth in ali the seasons. Now, if the distri¬
bution of the Crustacea were uniform, collections made for
the whole depth of water on the same day, or on successive days,
should show nearly the same numbers of each species. Of
course, if a species were rare, the fact that two or three indi¬
viduals were found in one collection, and none in the next would
not invalidate the assumption of uniformity. Nor even in cases

220 Marsh — Limnetic Crustacea of Green Lake.

where the numbers of a species were very large, would the fact
that a considerably larger number were found in one collection
than in another be any conclusive argument against the practi¬
cal uniformity of distribution. Nor, on the other hand should
it be assumed, because two or three successive hauls show the
same, or nearly the same numbers, that the distribution is
therefore uniform, because this could be easily explained by sup¬
posing that the swarm was of considerable extent or remained
stationary for a considerable period.

My collections made in 1893, which were reported in the for¬
mer paper, were made almost continuously in the course of two
days. Now if the plankton is uniformly distributed, those collec¬
tions should show a practical uniformity of numbers, and
the more numerous a species was, the less should be the pro¬
portional variation. Yet the collections of Diaptomus , the most
abundant genus, varied from 291 to 2,966. In many of the col¬
lections made in the fall of 1894 on the same day, or successive
days, there was a marked uniformity in the numbers of Diaptomus ,
as for example, nos. 4.94, 5.94 and 6.94 show a range of num¬
bers only from 4,171 to 5,630. If one were to base his conclu¬
sions on a small number of observations, he might well say that
here was clear evidence of uniformity. Yet a few hours later in
the same place I found only 2,023; with a difference as great as
this, we certainly cannot speak of the Diaptomi as being uniform¬
ly distributed. In hauls 21.94 and 22.94, made in the forenoon
of October 25, there was in one case 1,917 and in the other
3,823 — twice as many. Still more marked was the difference
in two collections, one made at about six p. m., and the other
between ten and eleven p. m. , November 8. In the six o’clock
collection there were 884, while in the evening collection there
were 6,447. Such an enormous difference as this is certainly
not consistent with any theory of uniformity of distribution. In
these same two collections of November 8, Cyclops fluviatilis
showed a similar wide variation, — the numbers in the six o’clock
collection being 1,912, and in the evening collection being 564.
October 24 I found between ten and eleven o’clock in the even¬
ing 1,241 C. fluviatilis, and yet the next morning between six
and seven o’clock, I found only 618.

Marsh — Limnetic Crustacea of Green Lake . 221

Limnocalanus is not a very good genus to consider in connec¬
tion with this discussion, because it does not often occur in any
large numbers. It is significant, however, that in successive
hauls there were sometimes differences of from two to five hun¬
dred per cent. On November 14, 1896, I found in a collection
made in the afternoon 56. In a collection made at about eight
o’clock the same evening, I found 200 in the upper two and one
half meters. In this case, curiously, the total number obtained
in the other hauls from the surface to twenty meters was only 106.

An examination of the numbers of the other species as col¬
lected at similar times shows the same variations. None of
them, however, seem to me to furnish such conclusive evidence
as we get from Diaptomus and C. fluviatilis , because of the smaller
number involved.

Thus my results are in harmony with those obtained by
Zacharias and France. Inasmuch as one certainly would not
question the accuracy of the work of the observers who have
come to different conclusions, the question arises whether
there is any way of explaining such differences I think a
critical examination of their work and the inferences derived
from it will show that such an explanation is possible.

In the first place I would state my entire agreement with the
school of Hen sen, that only by an enumeration of individuals
can we get at exact results in plankton work. Volumetric deter¬
minations have a value in a general way, and may be used even
in comparing different bodies of water, but only with a large
allowance for the possibilities of error. Many of the difficulties
in this method of work have been well pointed out by Ward
himself. (Ward, ’95a, p. 256 ff.). Most important is the differ¬
ence in the time of subsidence due to the differences in the char¬
acter of the plankton at different times and places. Some kinds
of material will remain suspended for an almost indefinite
period. Consequently, the volumetric method would rarely be
sufficiently accurate to indicate even very considerable differ¬
ences in horizontal distribution. There are, also, questions in
regard to the accuracy of any gravimetric method that has yet
been devised, although the amount of error by this method must
be much less than by the volumetric method.

222 Marsh — Limnetic Crustacea of Green Lake.

As a second principle I would say that only a long continued
series of observations on the same body of water will furnish suf¬
ficient evidence of the uniformity or lack of uniformity in distri¬
bution. Two or three, or even several parallel, or successive
collections do not furnish sufficient evidence.

Now, in criticising other observers, Fri§ and Vavra appar¬
ently determined the amount of plankton entirely by the method
of weighing. Reighard and Ward made their comparisons en¬
tirely by the volumetric method, but in the results of both,
there were certain discrepancies which could be most easily ex¬
plained on the assumption that some of the organisms occurred
in swarms. (Reighard, ’94, p. 37, Ward, ’96, p. 63.)

Apstein bases his opinion largely on volumetric determina¬
tions. He also furnishes an enumeration of individuals in three
parallel hauls in the Dobersdorfer See, and two sets of two each
in the Great Plbner See. These counts show a remarkable uni¬
formity in the smaller organisms, but there is a considerable
variation in the numbers of the Crustacea, the difference being
in many cases over 200 per cent. The only criticism one can make
of Apstein’s work is that the enumerations do not include a suf¬
ficient number of collections. While apparent uniformity in a
few collections would be presumptive proof of a general uni¬
formity, a single well authenticated case of unequal distribu¬
tion would overthrow any conclusions founded on such collec¬
tions.

Both Apstein and Ward raise the question as to the defini¬
tion of the term “swarm. ” Now, it seems to me, the deter¬
mination of the fact that limnetic organisms are or are not uni¬
formly distributed is of first importance, and it makes very lit¬
tle difference just what meaning shall be attached to the word
“swarm, ’’ until this question is decided. Without doubt the
term has been used without any very exact meaning, as simply
indicating a greater or less local aggregation of organisms,
with very little thought of the cause of that aggregation, or of
the exact or even approximate density of population that should
be designated by the term.

Of course, as the result of my investigations I can speak only
of the Crustacea, and not of the plankton as a whole, except as

Marsh — Limnetic Crustacea of Green Lake . 223

the plankton, in many cases, is very largely composed of Crus¬
tacea.

It seems to me that my collections clearly show that so far as
the Crustacea are concerned, while parallel or successive
collections may show great similarity in numbers, they may, in
other cases vary within such wide limits as to make plankton
determinations unreliable, unless they are made from the aver¬
age of a very large number of collections. Inasmuch as it is
practically impossible to take a sufficiently large number of col¬
lections, it follows that plankton collections largely made of
Crustacea, cannot be taken as giving the exact measure of the
productiveness of different bodies of water that some authors
would have us think. We may say, indeed, with reasonable
certainty, that one lake is much richer than another, but it
seems to me very doubtful if we can express their relative pro¬
ductiveness by any definite numerical ratio.

LIST OF PAPERS QUOTED.

Apstein, Carl. ’92. Quantitative Plankton Studien in Susswasser.
Biol. Centralbl. Bd. 12 pp. 484-512, 608.

- ’96. Das Susswasserplankton: Methode und Resultate der

quantitativen Untersuchungen. Kiel und Leipzig.

Birge, E. A. ’95. Plankton Studies on Lake Mendota. I.
The vertical distribution of the pelagic Crustacea during
July, 1894. Trans. Wis. Acad., Vol. X, pp. 421-484.
Fitzgerald, Desmond. ’95. The temperature of lakes. Trans.

Amer. Soc. of Civil Engineers, Vol. XXXIV., pp. 67-114.
France, R. H. ’94. Zur Biologie des Planktons. Biolog. Cen¬
tralbl. XIV., Band, pp. 34-38.

Fri9, Ant., und Vavra, V. ’94. Untersuchungen fiber die
Fauna der Gewasser, Bohmens, IV. die Thierwelt des
Unterpocernitzer und Gatterschlager Teiches als Resultat
der Arbeiten an der fibertragbaren zoologischen Station.
Prag.

Haeckel, Ernst. ’90. Planktonic Studien. Jenaische Zeitschrift,
Vol. XXV. Trans, in Report U. S. Fish Commission, 1889-
91, pp. 565-641.

224 Marsh — Limnetic Crustacea of Green Lake.

Imhof, O. E. ’92. Die Zusammensetzung der pelagischen
Fauna der Susswasserbecken. Biol. Centralbl. Bd. 12.

Marsh, C. Dwight. ’93. On the cyclopidae andcalanidae of Cen¬
tral Wisconsin. Trans. Wis. Acad., Vol. IX., pp. 189-224.

- ’94. On the vertical distribution of pelagic Crustacea in

Green Lake, Wis. Amer. Nat., Vol. XVIII., pp. 807-809.

- ’95. On the cyclopidae and calanidae of Lake St. Clair.

Lake Michigan, and certain of the inland lakes of Michigan
Bull, of the Michigan Fish Commission. No. 5.

Reighard, J. E. ’94. A biological examination of Lake St.
Clair. Bull, of the Mich. Fish Com. No. 4.

Ward, H. B. ’95a. A new method for the quantitative deter¬
mination of plankton hauls . Proc. Amer. Micr. Soc., Vol.
XVII., pp. 256-260.

- ’96. A biological examination of Lake Michigan in the

Traverse Bay region. Bull. Mich. Fish Com. No. 6.

Whipple, Geo. C. ’95. Some observations of the temperature
of surface waters : and the effect of temperatures on the
growth of micro-organisms. Jour. N. E. Water Works
Assoc. Vol. IX., pp. 202-222.

Zacharias, Otto. ’94. Beobachtungen am Plankton des Gr.
Ploner See’s- Forschungsberichte aus der Biologischen Sta¬
tion zu Plbn. Theil 2, pp. 91-137.

THE USE OF PARTIES IN MUNICIPAL GOVERNMENT.

ERNEST BRUNCKEN.

Few matters concerning our public affairs are discussed so
much at the present time as the improvements required in
the administration of municipal corporations. It is admitted
by everybody that our various municipal governments are far
from satisfying all reasonable demands of the citizens; but it is
not always appreciated by those who are interested in the aboli¬
tion of existing evils that there is a constant and considerable
growth towards perfection in the methods of administration, a
growth which is brought about, silently and without notice
from the newspapers, by many of the men who are employed in
administrative offices.

One of the principles which seem to be considered almost as
axioms by most of the persons taking part in these discussions
is that municipal affairs, including the election of municipal
officers, ought to be separated entirely from party considera¬
tions. Yet we observe that the great body of voters continue
to vote in municipal elections according to their affiliation with
one or the other of the national parties. May not this be one
of those cases, not unheard of in history, where the feeling
of the masses is wiser than the reasoning of the enlight¬
ened?

If the matter is put in the blunt form in which many reform¬
ers like to put it: What have the views of a candidate on the
tariff to do with his fitness for municipal office? — if, I say, the
the question is put in this way, the answer is so obvious that
the very plainness of it ought to create a suspicion that such
a question does not include the whole of the subject. Even the
despised multitude does not ordinarily entertain views which
15

226 Bruncken— Use of Parties in Municipal Government.

are absurd on their faces. May there not be a good reason why
the mass of citizens should prefer to vote for a party to voting
for individual candidates upon their own merits, even though
that party be primarily organized for purposes entirely foreign
to questions of municipal policy?

It may be doubted whether persons without actual experi¬
ence in administrative office are ever capable of thoroughly un¬
derstanding the problems of municipal government, no matter
how deeply versed they may be in the science of administration
and finance from the theoretical standpoint. By no means do I
wish to depreciate those theoretical studies. I believe that in
no way can our universities confer a greater benefit upon the
country than by fostering the growth and propagation of po¬
litical science. If our administrative officials could all receive
a training equivalent to that required of the Prussian bureau¬
cracy, our public affairs would reap an enormous benefit. Yet
I maintain that theoretical knowledge by itself is less calcu¬
lated to give a true idea of administrative problems than mere
practical experience without theoretical training.

The excellence of administrative work depends principally
upon attention to a large amount of details. This ought to be
readily appreciated by the members of this organization who
are accustomed to work in laboratories and seminaries. These
details are in their nature uninteresting and often incompre¬
hensible to outsiders. Consequently these outsiders never hear
about them. They do not furnish “news” for the papers. The
reporters pass them by with indifference as “routine matters."
But whether an administration is good or bad must be deter
mined by the manner in which “routine matters” are disposed of.

When the voters of a municipality are called upon to judge of
the cnaracter of an official’s work, what are their means of ob¬
taining evidence on the subject ? The overwhelming majority
certainly have no opportunity of becoming acquainted with the
details of the office business. Nobody can become acquainted
with them except those in the office and a few persons in other
departments of the city government. A limited number of
persons who have frequent dealings with the particular depart¬
ment may acquire a partial knowledge of the manner in which

How an Official's Work is Judged.

227

the business is done. Yet even their opportunities of intelli¬
gent judgment are limited. If their own particular affairs are
attended to courteously, promptly and skillfully, they will be
satisfied, no matter what becomes of business with which they
have no direct concern. But it may be a fair inference that, ir
the business of one person is dispatched satisfactorily, the same
will hold good as to other persons’ affairs. On the other hand,
it should not be forgotten that very often the interests of the
persons having continuous business dealings with municipal
departments are directly opposed to the interests of the city of
the people. They will, therefore, in such cases, be satisfied
with the work of an official in the exact degree in which he
neglects his duty. For this reason he will make enemies of
such men if his work is good, and friends if he does poor work.
The generality of the voters, being unacquainted with the man¬
ner in which the duties of the office have been performed, are
very apt to adopt the judgment of these few interested persons,
whom thejr conceive to be competent to judge. Moreover, these
persons, having a direct and strong personal interest in the
matter, are usually very active either in support of their friend
or opposition to their enemy, while the body of voters, who
have no interest but of that mild and generally ineffective
sort which every citizen has in good government, are indif¬
ferent and consequently powerless. Thus it very often happens
that a conscientious and skillful official fails of re-election, while
a corrupt or incompetent man gains additional popularity and
an increased majority.

Besides the small number of persons who have a measure of
opportunity of learning the manner in which business is done,
through having constant dealings with the department, there is
a larger number who come into contact with the official only
occasionally. The opportunities of these persons for judging
are evidently smaller than those of the first class, but on the
other hand such people are not so likely to have interests ad¬
verse to those of the city. They are apt to base their judgment
upon the impression received at their rare interviews with the
official. If that person has an affable, courteous manner; if he
shows a willingness to listen to complaints, crude and unintelli-

228 Bruncken — Use of Parties in Municipal Government.

gent though they may sometimes be, if he displays alacrity in
assisting them in the transaction of their business; in fine, if
they carry away with them an agreeable personal impression,
it will require a great deal of evidence to convince them that a
man who has treated them so pleasantly is not a good officer
who ought to be re-elected. Now it is certainly highly desir¬
able that a public official should be courteous and obliging in
dealing with the public; yet this is but one of the many qual¬
ities he should possess, and not the most important one of
them. Many an incompetent and even corrupt official has en¬
joyed great popularity because of his pleasant manners, while
not a few faithful, competent men, whose services were of the
highest value to the community, have lost their places merely
because they lacked the faculty of pleasing the public in this
respect.

Finally there is a third class, which comprises the great ma¬
jority of citizens, who never come into contact with municipal
officials unless it be the tax assessor. They have not even the
minimum of personal experience enjoyed by the second class to
help them in arriving at a sound opinion of an officer’s qualifi¬
cations, How shall they be guided ? Some of them may be in¬
fluenced by the views of the members of the first two classes.
But the great majority are absolutely dependent on the news¬
papers for their information.

Now it is a fact that many departments of a city government
but rarely furnish “news” for the papers; and when, once in a
while, they do have a matter which in the opinion of the report¬
ers is important enough to be published, it is of such a charac¬
ter that it does not help anybody in forming an opinion on the
conduct of the business of the office. Other departments are
more prolific of “ news, ” but even in them the amount of work
about which anything is published is infinitesimal as compared
with the amount of work actually performed. Nor is the mat¬
ter which is published always of greater importance than that
regarding which the newspapers are silent, except from the
standpoint of the reporter who wants to write a readable story.
That which is printed, from the unavoidable imperfections in
the methods of obtaining information by newspaper men,

Unjust Criticism of Officials.

229

may convey an entirely mistaken notion to the reader, even
when it is not colored by prejudice or interest. So it is seen
that the chances of the voter who relies upon the newspapers for
information to get data upon which to base an intelligent opin¬
ion, are very small indeed. These smal] chances are still further
reduced by the voter’s own negligence and indifference. For it
is safe to say that the accounts of the conduct of municipal
business are read systematically and regularly by very few
people.

From these considerations it seems to appear conclusively
that very few citizens in a large municipality are able to form
a just opinion, based on well-considered facts and not on casual
impressions, about the manner in which some particular official
conducts his business. If an opinion is nevertheless formed, it
will be found in ninety-nine cases out of a hundred that such opin¬
ion is unreasonable, no matter whether it happens to be right or
wrong. It may be that our voter happens to disapprove of
some particular measure adopted by the official. Immediately
he becomes opposed to him; for that one measure was the only
thing in the official’s career about which this particular voter
happened to know anything. Everything else the official has
ever done this good citizen disregards simply because he is
ignorant of it. Or it may be that a newspaper criticizes an
official for some act it disapproves. The voter, who possibly
has never before read or heard a word about this particular
office, generalizes the newspaper’s criticism, and while the
writer merely meant to condemn this particular act, the reader
disapproves of the official’s entire conduct of office and votes
against him at the next election. It may be that if this rash
voter had the necessary information he would find that the
officer’s administration is of extraordinary excellence.

When the candidate about whom the voter is asked to form
an opinion has not been in office before, it is even more difficult
to obtain the necessary data. In the first place the number of
people^who have a personal acquaintance with the candidate is
likely to be still smaller than that of persons who know a for¬
mer public official. For the latter has many opportunities of
making^acquaintances which the man in private station lacks.

230 Bruncken — Use of Parties in Municipal Government.

Even if the circle of acquaintances enjoyed by the latter is
large, a considerable portion of it is of a merely social nature.
But you cannot judge very well of a man’s qualifications for
public office whom you meet principally at the club and the
dinner table. Still, a man who is at all likely to be a candi¬
date must be known to a great many people who have business
relations with him and are thereby enabled to judge of his busi¬
ness qualifications. G-ranted ; but the largest circle of business
friends contains but a small number compared to the whole num¬
ber of voters in a great city. But may not these other voters
safely rely upon the judgment of numerous intelligent men who
have opportunities of judging? Assuredly they may, if those
intelligent men are also unprejudiced and disinterested. But
there’s the rub! Both friendship and interest will lead the
average man to maintain that the candidate with whom he hap¬
pens to be connected has all the qualifications needed for the
position to which he aspires. It should never be forgotten that
with all but a few men self-interest is an infinitely stronger mo¬
tive than public spirit. Where the two come into conflict,
therefore, the latter will be defeated, except upon those rare oc¬
casions when men are for a moment lifted above their ordinary
selves by the force of some strong emotion — be it love of coun¬
try or blind fanaticism. Should a man incur the ill-will of a
business friend because the public welfare demands it? That
doctrine may find theoretical assent, but no practical obedience
by the average, shrewd, hustling, money-making American citi¬
zen. In practice the voter will find, whenever he inquires about
the qualifications of rival candidates, that each is surrounded by
a body of supporters of equal intelligence, and having equal op¬
portunities of gaining information regarding him.

But a man’s qualifications for the administration of public
business may surely be learned from the success he has had in
the conduct of his private affairs? If he has succeeded in build¬
ing up a prosperous business for himself, may one not reason¬
ably expect that public affairs will prosper in his hands? This
is a theory dear to the hearts of the leaders in those spasmodic
reform movements which periodically sweep over most of our
cities, leaving disappointment and confusion behind them. Much

Merits and Qualifications of Candidates. 231

might be said on this subject — enough to swell this paper to
intolerable proportions. It must suffice here to merely suggest
two reasons why this theory does not help the voter very much
in the perplexing task of choosing between rival candidates.
In the first place it is by no means easy to say whether a man’s
success in private business is due to his ability or to other
causes. Ability is but one of many things which singly or in
combination lead to success in business. (Business, of course,
is here used in the sense most commonly attached to it in every¬
day life, that is, money-making.) Besides ability, the amount
of capital with which a man starts out; the connections which
he is fortunate enough to inherit or acquire; the presence or
absence of powerful competitors; complications of the market,
over which the individual has no control; new inventions or
discoveries which may favorably or unfavorably affect his
branch of trade; accidents of flood and fire; and a hundred
other things dependent on good or bad fortune are the factors
which help to gain success for the business man. Furthermore, it
often happens that a man is ostensibly the head of a business
enterprise when the real leading spirit, unknown to the world,
is some partner or subordinate. As the outside world can rarely
learn the details of a man’s private business, it is quite im
possible for a voter to draw reasonable conclusions as to the
qualifications of a candidate merely from his good or ill success
in private business.

In the second place, it is a fallacy to infer that a man is well
qualified for public office because he shows good ability in the
conduct of private business. Both the objects and the methods
of public and private business must of necessity differ widely,
and consequently the training received in the one does not in all
cases qualify for the other. I hope to have an opportunity some
day to analyze this difference in detail. But the mere sugges¬
tion of the fact must suffice for present purposes.

What conclusion must we draw from these considerations?
Simply this, that ordinarily it is quite impossible for the great
majority of voters in our large municipalities to obtain inform¬
ation sufficient to form an intelligent opinion as to the merits and

232 BruncJcen — Use of Parties in Municipal Government.

qualifications of candidates for municipal office. In the absence
of such opinion, how shall the citizen be guided in his choice?

Men who are in the habit of basing their judgment upon evi¬
dence will not say for a moment that the voter should be con¬
tent with an opinion based upon mere hasty generalizations
from superficial impressions, and yet, that is all the average
voter can do in the matter. He can select a particular candi¬
date because he likes his manners; or because some friend, who
may know no more than himself and who may not be disinter¬
ested, asks him to do so; or because he belongs to the same
church or order as himself ; or because he at some time or other
did some particular thing of which the voter approved. All
these motives and a hundred similar ones undoubtedly influence
voters in innumerable cases, but not one of them can be called
either intelligent or conscientious.

Here is where the utility of party in municipal government
becomes apparent. It is much easier for the body of voters to
judge of the general character of a municipal administration
than of the details of each particular branch. By no means
should it be imagined, that it is easy; but it is easier, or at
least possible. Therefore if you may treat the entire adminis¬
tration as a body, and approve or condemn them in bulk, so to
speak, your task is materially lightened, and the chances for
good government are correspondingly increased. But the only
way in which such solidarity of an administration can be at¬
tained in accordance with American institutions and habits of
doing public business is by the instrumentality of party.

Here I may possibly be met by an objection on the part of
some who admit that we should make use of party organizations
in municipal government, but maintain that municipal parties
should be distinct from those organized for the purposes of na¬
tional politics. To men who have any experience in actual
public life such a proposition hardly needs refutation. If men
were purely reasoning beings, without emotions and affections,
and above all without selfish interests, sucn a scheme might
work well. But, as human nature is actually constituted, a party
is not simply an aggregation of persons who entertain the same

Advantages of Party Responsibility.

238.

opinions on public questions, but to a far greater degree an or¬
ganization of men who are bound together by common traditions,,
prejudices, sentiments; by mutual friendships and obligations;
by the habit of working together, and finally by common inter¬
ests. Under such circumstances it would be utterly imprac¬
ticable for two sets of party organizations to exist side by side
— one for national or state, the other for local purposes, in
such a manner that men who fought shoulder to shoulder in na¬
tional campaigns might be found on opposite sides in the inter¬
vening local elections. It is clear, therefore, that we must
adapt the existing national parties, as best we may, to the pur¬
poses of municipal government if we wish so avail ourselves of
party at all.

Now let us consider a little more closely the advantage of
party government in municipal affairs. If the party is respon¬
sible for the administration, it will naturally exert its influence
upon each individual official or department to do nothing which
might involve the party in difficulties. Furthermore its influ¬
ence will tend to bring the various branches of government into
harmony. This is one of the most important conditions of a
successful administration, for nothing can prevent efficiency so
much as to have the various departments working at cross-pur¬
poses, through petty jealousies and personal dislikes. But such
a condition of things is much less apt to arise when the vari¬
ous officials have been long connected through association in
their party, than when they are for the first time brought to¬
gether for a common purpose on the day they enter upon their
respective duties.

Another advantage of party responsibility, and perhaps the
most important of all, is that it tends to protect a faithful offi¬
cer against the attacks of selfish interests and ignorant preju¬
dices. In the course of his duties a public official cannot help
incurring enmities of a more or less virulent character. It may
become necessary for him to defeat the plans of some schemer to
rob the public, or he may have to suppress some practice in¬
jurious to the public welfare but dear to the heart of its per¬
petrator. In such cases the public rarely
For it is ignorant of the facts, or indifferent, or it may shar

234 Bruncken — Use of Pm des in Municipal Government.

the prejudices to which the official ran counter. But the per¬
son that thinks himself aggrieved is full of the spirit of re¬
venge, active and loud in his denunciations. In such a case the
official is helpless and would almost invariably meet with de¬
feat, if it were not for the sentiment of party loyalty which
keeps large numbers of voters from listening to or believing the
words of a candidate’s personal enemies.

Finally, all the things which may be said in favor of party
government in national affairs apply likewise to party govern,
ment in municipal matters, and it must be admitted that all
objections to the party system are equally valid. Now, I know
very well that it is easy to make government by party appear
absurd. It may even be conceded that if the system had not
grown up gradually, but were presented for adoption in its full-
fledged forms to persons previously ignorant of its workings,
few rational beings would vote for its introduction. But it
should not be forgotten that the American people are so used to
the party system that they seem to take to it as if by instinct;
that under it we have achieved national greatness and a fair
degree of good government; that any other system will upon
trial prove to be faulty just as well as the present one. It is
impossible for the voters to judge fairly and intelligently of
the individual merits of candidates. This difficulty can be over¬
come by the party system, in an imperfect manner, to be sure,
but still overcome. Therefore, it is not the part of political
wisdom to throw aside this imperfect tool until a more satis¬
factory one has been fashioned.

The improvement of municipal government lies in another
direction. It must be found in devising ways to attract the
best talent into public service, and keeping it there after it has
been obtained. The administration of a great city in all its
departments requires much special skill, training and experi¬
ence. It is quite possible for the common-sense of all to ad¬
minister the simple affairs of a rural township; but for the
government of a metropolis that common sense must be assisted
by specially trained ability or it will become common nonsense.
The extension of civil service reform principles will go far to
obtain such assistance. But lest, through civil service reform

Party System Should he Preserved.

235

gone to extremes, we exchange our present evils for the greater
evils of a Prussian bureaucracy, followed by the death of pop¬
ular government, we must take care that the party system,
through which alone the people can exercise an intelligent
although imperfect control over its own affairs, be not lost to
us and our posterity.

Milwaukee , Wis.

THE NEED OF A MEDICAL FACULTY IN CONNECTION
WITH THE STATE UNIVERSITY.

ARTHUR J. PULS, M. D.

The medical laws in the state of Wisconsin show the follow¬
ing defects:

1st: The laws that regulate the practice of medicine are in¬
efficient.

2d: The same is true of the laws that regulate the granting
of charters to medical institutions.

3d : These laws do not provide for the appointment of a med¬
ical examining board.

4th: They do not provide for a medical faculty in connection
with the University of Wisconsin.

The only medical law on our statute books is headed “ An act
to prevent quacks from deceiving the people by assuming a pro¬
fessional title. ” This law provides that the state or any county
medical society may issue diplomas and grant licenses to prac¬
tice medicine. Furthermore, the law allows any three adult
persons, who have duly signed and filed articles of incorpora¬
tion, to establish a medical society or school, giving with it
the power to confer the degree of doctor of medicine with
the privilege to practice medicine in the state of Wisconsin.
Why is it that the Wisconsin legislators should be opposed to
medical legislation? Why will they not enact efficient medical
laws such as exist on the statute books of our neighbor
states? Simply because we have no state medical faculty nor
medical department in connection with our state institutions.
About thirty states of the union possess stringent medical laws
and fourteen states have medical colleges in connection with
their state universities.

Need of Higher , Graded Medical Schools.

287

A radical change can be brought about at once by two legis¬
lative enactments:

1st: To establish a medical department in connection with
the university of Wisconsin.

2d: To appoint a state board of medical examiners com¬
posed of members of the state medical faculty.

The formation of a medical faculty in connection with the
state university is warranted:

1st: By history — professional schools come under the do¬
main of state supervision.

2nd : By the tendency to raise the standard of the medical
profession.

3d: By a demand for medical schools promoting higher med¬
ical learning.

It is true that the development of institutions of learning
goes hand in hand with the cultivation of the people, but the
professional schools of this country have been slow in develop¬
ment because they have lacked either state support or necessary
endowments. In the old countries, to which men of the differ¬
ent professions of the new world migrate for the sake of higher
learning, the universities are under full control and support of
the government. The arts and their many branches, the sciences,
as well as philosophy, theology, law and medicine, are fostered
by the state, and the universities are dependent on the endow¬
ments of the state.

The University of Wisconsin possesses well equipped labora¬
tories for the study of the natural sciences. A pre-medical
course already exists. Now with the addition of two chairs of
the medical faculty, anatomy and physiology, students of medi¬
cine can acquire an excellent scientific foundation and will be
as well prepared to enter upon clinic work as they could in any
existing school of medicine.

The first two years of the German medical student’s work are
occupied with the study of the natural sciences, physics, chem¬
istry, botany and zoology, and with anatomy, histology and
physiology. An examination — tentamen physicum — passes the
student to a three years course of clinic and laboratory work of
the many branches of medical teaching.

238 Puls — Need of a Medical Faculty in the University .

The need of higher, graded medical schools in America is
strongly felt among the profession, and it is only a question of
time when the inferior medical colleges will cease to exist.

The American Association of Medical Colleges has taken steps
to lengthen the course of instruction from three to four years.
Likewise in the German universities a change from ten to
twelve semesters for medical departments is a subject for dis¬
cussion in the Reichstag.

The Confederation of the Medical Examining Boards has un¬
der advisement the expediency of prescribing a higher degree of
preliminary education for admission. President Eliot of Har¬
vard, after congratulating the Alumni Association of the med¬
ical department of Harvard University on its initiation of the
fourth year course, says: “The next thing for our medical
schools to do (I would urge this on all medical schools), is to
require for admission a first degree in arts, letters or science, ”
and, he continues: “The American universities have long been
peculiar in that their professional schools were wide open to
any passer-by in the street, whereas the colleges were guarded
by rigid examinations, but now our leading professional schools
should no longer be open to persons of no academic training
whatever. ”

The Johns Hopkins University is the only schoo at present
requiring a bachelor’s degree for admission, and its medical de¬
partment is modeled after the German university.

The tendency to-day in medical investigation is toward the ap¬
plication of the researches of laboratory work. Each practitioner
should be made an independent investigator. Medicine is rapidly
becoming an exact science. Surgery seems to have reached its
limits and internal medicine is harvesting the fruit of labora¬
tory work. Private schools unless well endowed will not in
time be able to compete with state schools nor meet the require¬
ments of examining boards. To ensure and to promote the fur¬
ther advance of medical learning, it is absolutely necessary to
hold the protection and support of the government and state for
the American medical schools.

Milwaukee , Wis. , December 29, 1896.

TRANSCENDENTAL SPACE.

CHARLES H. CHANDLER,

Professor of Mathematics, Ripon College.

In this paper the term “ transcendental ” has not the same
signification as when it is applied to quantities incapable of
representation by a finite algebraic expression, but it is used to
denote that which is beyond the limits of experience; and the
question is presented whether certain space under consideration
is not more than transcendental as distinguished from that
which is empirical, or, according to Kantian terminology, is
“ transcendent. ”

However cordial the welcome constantly offered by the present
age to new and broader forms of truth, it is probable that there
is no field of investigation in which radically new positions are
less generally expected than in mathematics. The fact that
there is still in very general use, as a text-book, a mathematical
treatise which has brought down through more than twenty
centuries the name of its author, even though the Euclid of to¬
day is very different from the original work, still has seemed to
furnish an ever ready proof that, whatever else might change,
mathematical principles remain the same “ yesterday, to-day,
and forever. ”

That biological or electrical science should manifest more or
less of the traits characteristic of youthful immaturity, that in
those realms of thought views formerly maintained should be
repudiated, and opposing theories vigorously asserted, might
reasonably be expected. Somewhat maturer sciences might per¬
haps so add to their stores of truth as greatly to modify their
general aspect. But to many it has seemed evident that,
while the changes in a system of thought and research
of the venerable character of mathematics may, perhaps,

240

Chandler — Transcendental Space.

greatly increase its power and widely vary its methods
and details, they surely can affect in no respect the principles
long considered to be firmly established.

That the last half of the nineteenth century should bring into
notice mathematical views quite revolutionary in character is
certainly a most unexpected fact, and one which has failed to
receive the large general attention usually bestowed upon new
views, partly on account of the greater interest along other than
mathematical lines, and in part also because of an incredulity
as to any possible place for such views as it has been thought,
could be worth the attention of such students only as are
specially devoted to the work produced by the genus “ crank. ”

So it has been largely true that theories of multi-dimensional
space have been treated as merely ingenious products of a
vagrant imagination, worthy perhaps, if ably presented, of an
honorable position among fairy stories but, to most minds, of
nothing more than that. In fact only imperfectly is it gener¬
ally realized that these theories present a field for serious con¬
sideration.

In a similar spirit have the various presentations of the geom¬
etry of “ absolute space ” been received, although in a somewhat
less marked degree, p'robably because the last-named subject
lends itself less readily to a graphic, or even romantic, treat¬
ment, such as is employed in books like “Flatland, ” “A Plane
World,” and other attempts to make higher space seem possible.

Still during the past quarter century the efforts of Dr. Balt-
zer of Giessen, and Prof. Halsted of the University of Texas,
have brought into notice the work, now nearly seventy-five years
old, of the Bussian, Lobachevsky, and the Hungarian, Bolyai ;
and have secured for them a respectful and even highly appre¬
ciative recognition, in many cases indeed, as it seems to some
who strive to consider the subject candidly, even unduly eulog¬
istic. A hearty assent to the words of Prof. Loud of Colorado,
when he writes to Prof. Halsted ‘‘You have made it impossible
for American teachers of any spirit to shut their eyes to the
4 hypothesis anguli acutV ” may perhaps not be inconsistent
with a pause for careful thought when we hear Prof. Clifford of
Cambridge say “What Vesalius was to Galen, what Copernicus

Statement of Principles.

241

was to Ptolemy, that was Lobachevsky to Euclid,” or when
Prof. Sylvester of Oxford also compares Lobachevsky’s “ release
of geometry from Euclid’s parallel axiom to Hamilton’s exten¬
sion of the power of multiplication. ”

This assertion of the broadening of geometric truth calls for
a brief statement of the essential principles of the Non-Euclidian
geometry, as it was termed by Gauss, although Bolyai gave it
the name Absolute Geometry, and Lobachevsky the somewhat
more modest title Imaginary Geometry. This system, or these
systems, of geometry are based upon a denial of the eleventh
axiom of Euclid, known as the “ parallel axiom, ” which declares
“if a straight line, falling upon two straight lines, makes two in¬
terior angles on the same side less than two right angles, these
straight lines continually produced meet upon that side upon
which the two angles are less than two right angles, ” an axiom
much longer than the other axioms of Euclid, and so differing from
them in character that it has always, as it were, rested under a
suspicion as to its being truly axiomatic. In the second cen¬
tury, indeed, Ptolemy denied its axiomatic character, although
by no means its truth, and attempted to prove it ; in which at¬
tempt he has been followed by an almost unbroken line of
seekers. The Italian priest, Saccheri, covered one hundred quarto
pages with what he considered to be a proof. Even that king
among mathematicians, Gauss, undertook the same task, and
about one hundred years ago wrote " if we could prove that a
rectilineal triangle is possible whose content may be greater
than any given surface, then I am in condition to prove with
rigor all geometry. Most ” he said, “ would indeed let that pass
as an axiom. I not. It might well be possible that, how far
soever we took the three vertices of the triangle in space, yet
this content was always below a given limit. ” In 1621 Sir Henry
Saville spoke of this axiom as “ a blemish on the most beautiful
body of geometry ; ” and this view has been so general that, as
has before been said, there has been an unbroken succession of
attempts to remove that blemish, with results mostly of such a
character that, when printed and distributed, they have been
consigned by their recipients to some limbo dedicated to the

productions of Lawrence Sluter Benson who, if still living, is
16

242

Chandler — Transcendental Space.

without doubt earnestly engaged in his unappreciated efforts, ex¬
tending over more than a quarter century, to convince the
world of the truth of sundry unique statements like his pet dis¬
covery that the area of a circle is just three-fourths of the cir¬
cumscribed square.

Yet the situation has certainly been remarkable,-— an ex¬
tended system of accepted truths resting upon an axiom which
could not but be considered as “off color,” and it is no wonder
that there came a sense of relief at the assertion of the Non-
Euclidian reformers that the parallel axiom is by no means a
blemish on Euclid’s work, but on the contrary an additional
token of the perfect logic characterizing his thought. They as¬
sert as the cause of his failure to demonstrate the truth of this
so-called axiom that it is not necessarily true, that it rests not
upon pure reason, but upon experience, that Euclid attempted
and claimed nothing more than “ perfect deduction from as¬
sumed hypotheses, ” and that “ in favor of the external reality or
truth of these assumptions he said no word. ”

They then proceed to develop a system of geometry in which
the two lines of the eleventh axiom need not meet, or, trans¬
ferring the thought from this conception to one less cumbrous,
but involving the same revolutionary change, a system in which
the sum of the angles of a triangle need not be two right
angles. Prof. Halsted considers it among the possibilities that
instruments for the measurement of angles may sometime be
devised sufficiently delicate to allow an experimental demon¬
stration that the sum of these angles differs from its long ac¬
cepted value by at least an appreciable fraction of a second.

A new space is thus presented for our consideration, differing
form the space of previous thought in that it has an attribute
of curvature, whatever that may mean. The space heretofore
recognized, Euclidian space, is said to be space of zero curva¬
ture, like the plane of accepted properties. But there may be
it is said, space of positive curvature, analogous to the surface
of a sphere, on which the sum of the angles of a triangle is
greater than two right angles; and there may be, also, space of
negative curvature, analogous to the so-called pseudo-spheri¬
cal surface formed by the revolution of the curve y= a log

Statement of Principles.

248

a + V a2 _ x2 _ y a, _ s2 on which the sum of the angles of a

x

triangle is less than two right angles. This last space is the
space of Lobachevsky, while the space of positive curvature has
been investigated by Rieman. Prof. Halsted inclines to the be¬
lief that the space of our experience is negatively curved, al¬
though so slightly that its curvature has thus far defied deter¬
mination. And it would indeed seem that the attempt to measure
this supposed curvature would not be unlike an investigation of
the curvature of the surface of the earth by means of a careful
measurement of the convexity of the surface of the water in
an ordinary tub caused by the force of gravity. This belief
about the familiar space about us is not, however, essential to
the Non-Euclidian geometry, which only assumes the possibil¬
ity of the existence of such spaces somewhere, and proceeds
to develop corresponding systems of logical reasoning.

It only remains to add that, while curved spaces have only
three dimensions, they are supposed to be contained in four di¬
mensional space, as surfaces varying in respect to curvature
are contained in space of three dimensions; and we now have
the essentials of the entire system, which may justly be termed
transcendental, as being beyond experience, even though our
familiar Euclidian space be one of the contained spaces.

Entering now upon the central thought of this paper, it
must not in candor be forgotten that a very small number of
persons are to be found who claim that they possess a concep¬
tion of four dimensional space, or more correctly, of four di¬
mensional matter; since, curiously enough, for some reason they
seem to need the material element to support their mental steps
in the so greatly widened fields. But by far the larger part, even
of those whose are inclined to believe such space to be possible,
perhaps even probable, would assent in respect to their personal
experience to the words of one of America’s greatest astronomers,
when he said that while he could not say what space of four
dimensions might mean to him in another state of existence, it
had no meaning in this. In fact it will hardly be denied that,
to our minds with their present limited conditions of heredity
and environment, transcendental space, whether it be trans-

244

Chandler — Transcendental Space.

cendental on account of its curvature or its many dimensions,
is incomprehensible. We may follow the steps of the mathemati¬
cal reasoning by which its properties are demonstrated; but
when we have done, we have a less definite idea of the archi¬
tecture of that space than a following of the dream of Cole¬
ridge along the windings of “Alph, the Sacred River” gives us
of the “stately pleasure dome ” decreed in Xanadu by Kubla
Khan.

Still, evidently this does not justify a mental consignment
of the asserted systems to the realm of fantasy. The fact that
mathematicians of acknowledged pre-eminence treat them with
respect forbids any such summary disposal. Moreover, it is
well for each one to recall the experience of his early years
along a mental route not greatly varying from that which had
been traveled by his ancestors within the period of recorded
mathematical history, and to remember how the unreal negative
quantity became a real conception; how those quantities, the
general estimate of which as mathematical fantasies is still em¬
balmed in their title as “ imaginary” quantities, came to as¬
sume a sturdy reasonable existence; how narrow truths so
broadened that the evidently true became untrue, as in the case
of the commutative law of multiplication, when the conception
of that operation was so extended as to include something more
than successive additions; and from these and many similar ex¬
periences learn to expect further changes.

But with all this caution we can hardly avoid the question
concerning such extension of our powers as will make trans¬
cendental space really an element of our thought; such as will
make it a legitimate realm of mathematical research. Or the
■consideration may be presented in another form asking whether
the mathematicians who with such patient ingenuity and su¬
preme faith in logical truth have developed their conceptions of
the possibility of absolute geometry, may not possibly have
come to value the instruments of their profession so highly on
account of their usefulness, that they have mistaken mathe¬
matical symbols for actual existences, and so have woven merely
“the baseless fabric of a dream?" May it be that the words
with which Bolyai, at the age of twenty, announced his dis-

What Does It Mean?

245

coveries to his father contain one truth more literal than he in¬
tended? He wrote of his new views " It would be damage
eternal if they were lost. Now I cannot say more, only so much,
that out of nothing I have created another wholly new world. ”
These last words may perhaps remind us of the ancient adage
"Ex nihilo nihil Jit. ”

The arithmetics of our grandfathers contained this problem: — -
"If a third of six be three, what will a fourth of twenty be?"
which presented an entirely practicable excuse for certain ele¬
mentary mathematical gymnastics, but effected no change in
the fact that a third of six can under no possible circumstances
be three.

Evidently, however, mathematical work can not be judged to
be illegitimate merely because it rests upon a suppositious basis.
But the question in any case may reasonably be asked whether the
supposition is presented as a working hypothesis, a temporary
scaffolding to be used in the erection of a real and permanent
structure, or as being in itself a finality, although but an ex¬
pression in mathematical form of an apparently inconceivable
somewhat. From a point of view implied in this we may re¬
spond to Prof. Smith of the University of Missouri, when having
stated the assumptions which distinguish the Euclidian geome¬
try from the other systems, which he terms Hyper-Euclidian,
he asserts the logical right of these systems to existence, and
adds that " they lack neither interest nor importance. ” To this
it is at least plausible to reply that such geometries, considered
as laboriously developed systems of logical reasoning, without
doubt have a right to existence, and possess great interest,
especially for those whose chosen fields of work include the
points of departure of the new thought. But it may still seem
that their importance, which, like the importance of all truths,
depends upon their place in the system of universal thought,
and their relation to other parts of the system, may not be
entirely unlike the importance of that harrowing question of
our childhood.

“If all the world were apple-pie, and all the sea were ink,

And all the trees were bread and cheese, what should we have for drink?”

246

Chandler — Transcendental Space.

After carefully following the Non-Euclidian lines of reasoning,
and recognizing their logical exactness, until their very rigid¬
ity seems to be a guaranty of a real subject of investigation,
after all the question persistently returns, “ What does it all
mean, or what real elements has it ? ”

If, however, the question be asked whether mathematics has
any right to be really transcendental, that is to deal with that
which is beyond mental experience, the questioner may be re¬
minded of the historical illustrations before mentioned, showing
that by advances into the unknown it has become the known.
But were not these advances essentially different from those of
the Non-Euclidians ? Negative quantities persistently presented
themselves without invitation, and the advances made by Des¬
cartes and Harriot and others involved no introduction of new
members to the mathematical state, but a bestowal of real in¬
telligible rights upon supposed aliens already present. The
same was true of “ imaginary quantities ” and the body of
allied facts. Hamilton’s extension of the powers of multiplica¬
tion introduced no new existences. It merely made clear the
existing relations between conceptions already recognized. If
we follow the Theory of Functions of a Complex Variable until
the magnitudes represented become too complex for our clear
comprehension, they seem none the less real; and we may still
see that the obscurity is due merely to an increasing com¬
plexity differing only in degree from that which we have
already fully grasped, and from which as a stand point we trust
we may be able to gain clear vision of that which is still beyond
our sight.

But our relations to transcendental spaces are so essentially
different from this that a belief in their existence comes near
being a true act of faith, almost sublime in its completeness,
reverently maintaining “ Thus say the formulae. We cannot
understand ; but we believe. ” Of course any fragments of ex¬
perimental evidence must be given due weight. Even though
space of four dimensions is utterly inconceivable, yet, if cer.
tain so-called spiritualistic phenomena persist in defying all
other explanation, to whatever extent the fourth dimension
makes otherwise irreconcilable facts consistent, by just so

Impossibility of the Conception.

247

much is the effect of the former inconceivability diminished.
So too the occasionally observed negative parallax of stars may
perhaps be allowed as evidence in favor of the negative curva¬
ture of that space which our ordinary experience reports to be
space of zero curvature. But perhaps this is balanced by Zoll-
ner’s work upon the darkness of the sky which he considered to
give evidence in favor of a probable positive curvature. So in
the face of these conflicting witnesses the question returns
"What is curved space?” We are referred to the analogy of
curved surfaces, and also to the impossibility of forming a con¬
ception of infinite space. We are reminded that a spherical
surface, although unbounded, is finite, and that it is reason¬
able to infer an analogous attribute of curved space. But the
curved space still declines acquaintance. Even if we seek to
cultivate such acquaintance along the converging lines of the
eleventh axiom, which after all are never fated to meet, the
two lines with the intersecting line persist in maintaining
themselves in a plane which, however, evidently cannot be the
plane of our experimental knowledge, but some sort of a curved
surface; and our space becomes still more inscrutable, as a mul¬
titude of curved surfaces stretch away beyond our mental
vision.

Assume the possibility of such space, and the discussion of
the relations between contained magnitudes is undoubtedly cor¬
rect. If we close our minds against all questions of actual fact,
the way is clear. But the old question remains, unless we are
ready to accept an ancient form of assent to theological dogma,
" I believe because it is impossible. ” Kant made all space
a transcendental form of intuition, independent of experience,
and considered the axioms of Euclid to be therefore necessarily
true. But Gauss in opposition declared, " If number is merely
a product of our mind, space has a reality beyond our mind, of
which we can not fully foreordain the laws a priori. ” Loba¬
chevsky gave a most emphatic assent to the views of Gauss,
basing his rejection of the parallel axiom on the assertion that
its truth could be determined only by experience. In his ad¬
dress at the time of entering upon his work as rector of the
University of Kasan, about one year after his presentation of

248

Chandler — Transcendental Space.

the new geometrical views he said : “ Mathematicians dis

covered direct means for the acquirement of knowledge. But we
have not long made use of those means. They are shown us by
the celebrated Bacon. ‘Stop working uselessly trying to draw
all wisdom out of the reason. Ask Nature. She contains all
truths, and will answer your questions surely and satisfac¬
torily.’ ” It cannot then be out of place in the consideration
of the views first proposed by Lobachevsky to demur at the
logical building of a geometry without the rejected axiom, pro¬
vided the “space” required for it be “absolute” in the sense of
free from all conditions of experience.

In our Euclidian space we can form clear conception of planes,
and of surfaces of greatly varying curvatures in widely separ¬
ated or in intersecting positions. There is a wonderous fascin¬
ation in the attempt to extend the analogy, and to think of
varying forms of three dimensional space scattered through
space of four dimensions, not necessarily far apart, but, like
plane surfaces here, very near each other through their whole
extent, though each of them be boundless. Perhaps we specu¬
late on the possible intersections of the different spaces in sur¬
faces, as in Euclidian space surfaces intersect in lines. We
may reach farther, and ask if it may be that the four dimen¬
sional space is in turn one of the tenants of space of five dimen¬
sions. The grandeur of the thought leads us on, as did an ob¬
solete theory that, as satellites revolve around planets, and
planets around suns, so do these suns around others, themselves
attendants on still grander centres, until, after long succession
the universe revolves about the throne of G-od. Of this fantasy
one of our most noted astronomers has said “The conception is
so grand that it seems a pity that it is not true. But there is
no evidence to support it. ” So, recalled from our dream of
spaces, awaking we seek with earnest desire for evidence, and
ask whether we must accept the belief that Hyper-Euclidian
conclusions can have no place in really scientific thought because
their space is “ transcendent. ”

Ripon , Wis.

EXPERIMENTS WITH AVAILABLE ROAD-MAKING
MATERIALS OF SOUTHERN WISCONSIN.

ELLSWORTH HUNTINGTON.

The subject of road-making has been almost entirely neglected
in this country in so far at least as its geological features are
concerned. Some attention has been paid to engineering prob¬
lems in their relation to roads, but almost nothing has been done
to find out the value of different materials in the construction
of a cheap yet serviceable surface on our common roads. In most
parts of the country the only practicable way of road-making
which will be good at all times of the year is to put a crust of
crushed stone from six to twelve inches thick on a foundation
made of whatever soil the country happens to furnish. The most
important conditions which the road-material must satisfy are
cheapness, hardness or capacity for resisting the wear of horses
and of wheels, readiness in cementing into a compact mass, and
ease and cheapness of repair.

The necessity of cheapness is of course the most important
factor. But it must always be borne in mind that the cost of a
road built of any given material includes not only the first cost
but also the cost of keeping the road in good repair. The in¬
terest on the first cost of a durable but expensive material has to
be compared with the extra annual cost of repairs where a less
durable and cheaper stone is used. This necessity of cheapness
forbids the transportation of large amounts of material for great
distances except for the most important roads. Since the
glacial drift and the various bedded rocks of the Silurian are
the only available material in southern Wisconsin and in a large
number of the other states of the Mississippi Valley, it is prob¬
able that in view of the recent increase of interest in good roads

250 Huntington — Road-Making Materials.

they will be used in the construction of thousands of miles of
roadway within the next half century. Under such circum
stances it is well worth while to investigate the most econom¬
ical and efficient ways of using the materials at hand. With
this end in view a series of experiments was begun last fall in
the laboratories of Beloit College, the results of which, as far
as they have proceeded, are given below.

Experience has shown that almost all limestones are too soft
to make good or economical roads. Although they cement readily
they quickly wear away producing a disagreeable mud and dust
and costing a great deal to keep in repair. The glacial drift, on
the contrary, consists in considerable degree of pebbles which
are much harder than ordinary limestone but do not ce¬
ment readily. This hardness is due to the fact that in the
process of glaciation the soft parts of any rock are ground to
powder and only the hardest parts are left as pebbles. In most
rocks the hardest parts are those which contain the most quartz,
and in the case of limestone the pebbles which remain in the
drift contain a great deal of infiltrated silica. While quartz
gives hardness to a stone, it is a very poor cementing material.
If we can find some way of firmly cementing the drift we shall be
able to construct good and cheap roads. In the experiments car¬
ried on at Beloit a few tests were made with Trenton limestone,
but in most cases the drift was the basis of work. The pebbles
were crushed in the way usually recognized^as best for macadam
roads, namely into fragments of various sizes, the largest not
to exceed one and one-half inches in diameter, and the very fine
material screened off. From six to ten pounds of the crushed
gravel was taken and to this was added a cement of powdered
rock sufficient to firmly bind the mass of gravel. The cement
consisted of several kinds of stone or of mixtures of the various
kinds. After the crushed pebbles and the fine material were put
together in a box and thoroughly mixed, the whole mass was
wet down and pounded and rolled and then allowed to dry. This
process was repeated several times until the whole became one
solid mass. When this was thoroughly dry it was broken to
pieces by allowing to fall upon it a weight so shaped as to give
a blow as nearly as possible like that of a horse’s hoof. In this

Tests Made.

251

way the surface was broken to pieces five or six times and the
average number of blows required to break up the different
mixtures was taken as representing their relative surface
strength, the highest being scaled as one hundred. Then the
same process was repeated with the difference that this time
the whole depth of the mass, about two and one-half inches, was
broken up into its original condition of loose gravel and fine
material, and the results scaled in the same way as before. The
average of these two ways of testing may be taken as indicat¬
ing approximately the value of the different materials and com¬
binations for use as cementing material on roads. The accom¬
panying table shows the results obtained.

Coarse

material.

Cement.

Strength
of surface.

Strength
of whole
mass.

Value.

1

Gravel .

Diabase 34? blue lime¬

stone 34 .

100.

100.

100.

2

Gravel .

Diabase^, sand % .

81.6

75.5

78.6

3

Gravel .

Fine granite 34? blue lime¬

stone 34 .

38.3

86.5

62.4

4

Gravel .

Fine granite 34? sand 34 •

48.9

75.6

62.3

5

Gravel .

Diabase .

52.0

72.2

62.1

6

Limestone .

Blue limestone .

58.8

58.8

58.8

7

Gravel .

Fine granite .

51.6

60.1

55.9

8

Gravel .

Medium granite 34? blue

limestone 34 . . . . .

53.3

55.6

54.5

9

Gravel .

Coarse granite 34? blue

limestone 34 .

45.3

62.2

53.9

10

Gravel .

Gravel .

43.4

44.0

43.7

11

Limestone .

Buff limestone .

48.6

38.6

43.6

12

Gravel .

Medium granite .

42.4

44.8

43.6

13

Gravel .

Sand . . .

45.0

27.8

36.4

14

Gravel .

Coarse granite .

25.9

28.7

27.3

With the exception of the two kinds of limestone all the stones
used in the experiments were selected from the glacial drift.
The diabase was a compact dark green or nearly black rock.
The granite of No. 3 was a fine-grained dark variety containing
a large proportion of hornblend, no mica and but little quartz.
Most of the crystals were not a sixteenth of an inch in di¬
ameter. The granite of number 8 was a little coarser, with
crystals ranging up to an eighth of an inch in diameter.
It contained rather more quartz and less hornblend than

252 Huntington — Road-Making Materials.

the preceding. The other granite was quite coarse grained
and contained a small amount of hornblend with a large pro¬
portion of quartz. The gravel used as cement was taken just
as the pebbles happened to come and represents the average
gravel of Southern Wisconsin. The sand was taken from the'
drift and had a little clay intermixed. The limestone was of
the Trenton variety, the buff being from the upper layer and of
average hardness. The blue limestone was from a shaley layer
and is the most compact and durable part of the Trenton lime¬
stone. It is, however, decidedly softer than the average peb¬
bles of the drift.

If the materials used as cement in numbers ten to fourteen,,
viz., gravel with a value of 43.7, buff limestone with a value of
43.6, medium granite 43.6, sand 36.4, and coarse granite 27.3,
could be placed on the road at equal cost, it would evidently be
folly to use either very coarse granite or sand as far as bind¬
ing is concerned. In many places where coarse granite can be
secured cheaply it may, of course, be profitably used as the
major part of the macadam if some first-class binding material
is added. The other three materials, gravel, quite fine-grained
granite, and rather soft limestone show the same cementing
value of 43. The limestone is so soft that it can never be used
profitably. Granite is usually harder than gravel, and also, for
use as the main material of a road, it has another decided ad¬
vantage. The results of a few experiments in which crushed
stone was used, and not crushed gravel, bring out this disad¬
vantage of gravel. In ordinary crushed gravel only about two-
thirds of the surface consists of fresh fractures, and these alone
cement readily. The other third is rounded and worn and not
only does not cement readily, but also by its roundness tends to
be thrown out and to make the whole mass of road material less
firm and solid. This is an evil which cannot be avoided if gravel
is used, but it may be lessened by rejecting a greater proportion
of the smaller stones. It would be worth while to transport
good granite at quite an expense by rail even if good gravel were
close at hand.

Numbers 8 and 9, which are mixtures of medium granite and
limestone, and of coarse granite and limestone, show about

Results of the Experiments.

253

what would be expected, their values being 54.5 and 53.9.
They prove that with stones like granite, which have a low
cementing power, a good quality of limestone may be of con¬
siderable value as a binder. The diabase of number 5 with a
value of 62.1, the limestone of number 6 with a value of 58.8,
and the fine granite of number 7 with a value of 55.9 show
nearly the same value as binders ; but in actual practice lime¬
stone is much inferior to the others because of its low coefficient
of wear, which is less than half that of diabase. Being rapidly
reduced to a powder, it is washed away by heavy rains or blown
away as a disagreeable dust. On this account roads on which
it is used require constant repairs and its first cheapness is
offset by this later expense. Numbers 1 to 4 are rather a sur¬
prise since they indicate that the cementing power of mixtures
is higher than that of stone of a single kind. The cements and
values of these four are as follows: diabase and limestone 100,
diabase and sand 78.5, fine granite and limestone 62.4, fine
granite and sand 62.3. In actual practice, if diabase were used
as a binder for the upper part of a macadam road made of gravel,
the cementing value would be 85 or 90 and if granite were used
the value would be about 62. This means that a road whose
surface was half gravel and half diabase would oppose twice as
much resistance to the breaking action of horses’ feet as would
one made wholly of gravel.

The results of the experiments which have been described
above are merely preliminary to future work and rest upon too
small a body of data to be taken as final. Future and more ac¬
curate tests may and undoubtedly will give results which differ
widely from those here given. There is urgent need for ex¬
tended investigations along this line. Many towns are begin¬
ning to build macadam roads and if it be true, for instance, as
these experiments indicate, that by spending fifty per cent, more
for the transportation of basic rocks like diabase for use in con¬
nection with drift material in building the upper parts of the
macadam, a road can be built which will last twice as long as
one made of pure gravel, it is time the fact were known. The
cost of building one mile of gravel macadam road fifteen feet
wide and one foot thick is about $3,500 under favorable condi-

254

Huntington — Road-Making Materials.

tions. If instead of using gravel alone, we use it only for the lower
eight inches and use a mixture of one-half gravel and half dia¬
base for the upper four inches, the cost per mile would not ex¬
ceed $4,800 in any part of Wisconsin. The interest on the ex¬
tra $1,300 at 5 per cent, would be $65, but the surface of the
road would be twice as durable and the cost of repairs instead
of being two hundred dollars per mile per year would be only
one hundred and there would be an actual saving to the tax¬
payer.

Beloit , Wis

ALUMINIUM ALCOHOLATES.

ORIN EDSON CROOKER.

We distinguish the alcoholates as being those chemical com
pounds in which the hydrogen atom of the hydroxal group in an al¬
cohol is replaced by a metal. The name “ alcoholate ” has been ap¬
plied in the past, and to some extent is applied at present, to
certain compounds which result from the direct union of the
alcohols with many inorganic salts and in which the alcohol
seems to serve in the same capacity that water of crystallization
does in crystals. In our work, however, it has been found more
convenient to give to these substances the name “ addition pro¬
ducts ” and to reserve the name “ alcoholate ” to those com¬
pounds alone which result from a direct attack upo.i the hydroxyl
group of the alcohol itself.

The results of the work which has been done on this subject
are to be found scattered throughout the chemical literature for
the last thirty or forty years. Most of the more common al¬
coholates have been prepared, but in many cases not even anal¬
yses were made of them ; for they are of so little stability, due
to their hydroscopic nature, that they do not present a held of
the greatest attraction to the chemist. Besides this we have to
take into account that there has been found as yet but one class
of alcoholates which can be purified by distillation. These are
the aluminium alcoholates. They have been worked with only
once, and that when Gladstone and Tribe prepared them about
ten years ago by means of their aluminium-iodine reaction.1 2

1 The work on the alcoholates as set forth in this paper, was done by Mr.
Holland Hastreiter and myself as thesis work in the University of Wis¬
consin under the direction of Dr. H. W. Hillyer, assistant professor of Or¬
ganic Chemistry. Mr. Hastreiter ’s work was done on the methylate and
propylate.

s J. Cem. Soc. 1881, (39) p. 1.; 1882, (41) p. 5; 1886, (49) p. 25.

256

Grooker — Aluminum Alcoholates.

Briefly told, this reaction consists in bringing aluminium, and
iodine together in the presence of absolute alcohol. Gladstone
and Tribe worked with various alcohols, purified their products
by distillation and made analyses of them which usually agreed
within one or two per cent, of the theoretical proportions. In
only one or two cases did they make melting or boiling point
determinations.

While working with aluminium amalgam for the purpose of
reducing organic compounds in neutral aqueous or alcoholic
solutions, results were obtained which led to an investigation of
the aluminium alcoholates which we found could be prepared by
means of this amalgam. When metallic aluminium is treated
with an aqueus solution of mercuric choloride it becomes amal¬
gamated, and this amalgam possesses the property of decom¬
posing water, thus liberating hydrogen, which, in its nascent
state, forms a suitable means for carrying on reduction.1 This
amalgam can be used then as a means of dehydrating alcohol or
of carrying on a reduction in an alcoholic solution if water is
present or is added. If, however, we dissolve the mercuric
choloride in the alcohol itself and place the aluminium in the
solution, the metal not only becomes amalgamated but the alcohol
itself is attacked in a way quite similar to that of the water —
hydrogen being given off and the alcoholate being formed. Dur¬
ing the reaction, which starts at once on bringing the aluminium
into the solution, there is a considerable rise in temperature,
sometimes to the boiling point of the alcohol; and in the case
of some alcohols, the contents of our flask became quite gelatin¬
ous in the course of half an hour and finally solid. This is then
distilled under diminished pressure and the product redistilled
.and fractionated, after which it is analysed.

During the whole process of the experiment the greatest care
has to be taken to keep the substance out of contact with the
air, as the slightest moisture will cause it to decompose with
remarkable rapidity. Although mercuric chloride was used in
our first experiments, it was found to be unsatisfactory because,
on distillation, our product was certain to become contaminated
by a small amount of mercury being carried over into the re

Ber. d. chem. Ges. 28, 1895.

Results of Experiments.

25 7

ceiver. Hence we made experiments to find a substitute which
would prove more satisfactory. Good results were obtained in
using platinic chloride and stannic chloride, and future work
was carried on with fuming stannic chloride.

So far, experiments have been made with five different al¬
cohols, and our results seem to indicate that the reaction is one
which can be applied to the alcohols quite generally. The fol¬
lowing are the results, briefly stated, which we have obtained
by what we call our aluminium-stannic chloride reaction.

WITH ETHYL ALCOHOL.

We used 5 grams of chipped aluminium and 7 c. c. of fuming
stannic chloride in 50 c. c. of absolute ethyl alcohol. The
action began immediately, accompanied at first by a consider¬
able rise in temperature, and continued at the temperature of
the laboratory for three or four days, when the contents of the
flask had become quite solid. This was then distilled in vacuo
as follows. The apparatus was first exhausted to a pressure of
from 12 to 25 mm. and the substance gradually heated until
the boiling ethylate was just about to pass over into the receiver.
During this first heating some alcohol always passed over, and
it became necessary to substitute a clean, dry receiver in which
to collect the distillate. After this had been done and the
pressure again reduced, the distillation was recommenced and
continued until signs of decomposition began to appear. The
distillate thus obtained was then subjected to another distilla¬
tion and fractionated, during which process its boiling point
was taken. It was then analysed. The ethylate thus obtained
was a pure white solid of a gummy consistency, boiling at 235°
C. under a pressure of 23 mm. and melting at 135° C. It was
only slightly soluble in absolute alcohol but more so in ether and
benzene. Chloroform did not dissolve it. On analysis it gave

Theoretical.

Found.

I.

II.

Aluminium .

16.66

17.86

17.57

17

258

CrooTcer — Aluminium Alcoholates.

These results show that it corresponds more closely to the
ethylate than to any other substance which might be formed,
and they agree very well, considering its hydroscopic nature.
In the beginning of the reaction there was always a deposition
of spongy tin upon the aluminium, and it was found, in using
small amounts of stannic chloride and allowing the reaction to
take place more slowly, that the yield of the alcoholate was
invariably larger.

WITH METHYL ALCOHOL.

In attempting to prepare the methylate by this reaction, Mr.
Hastreiter obtained the same result as Gladstone and Tribe.
Upon adding the usual amounts of stannic chloride to the al¬
cohol and aluminium, a reaction began but soon ceased. A larger
amount caused the action to continue, and finally a gelatinous
mass resulted. On heating, however, under reduced pressure,
no distillate could be obtained. From the reaction, however,
and from other experiments which were made, he was led to be¬
lieve that the methylate was formed, but that it decomposed on
heating even in vacuo .

WITH PROPYL ALCOHOL.

Mr. Hastreiter succeeded without difficulty in preparing the
aluminium propylate by this reaction; only it was found neces¬
sary to keep the temperature at that of the water bath during
the reaction. On distillation the yield was large and of a deli¬
cate amber color when liquid but white and opaque when solid.
It boiled at 255° C. under a pressure of 15 mm. and melted at
65° C. On analysis it gave

Theoretical .

Found.

I.

II.

Aluminium .

13.10

14.30

13.20

Results of Experiments.

259

WITH ISOPROPYL ALCOHOL.

So far, experiments with isopropyl alcohol have been, no more
successful than those with methyl alcohol. An evolution of hy¬
drogen takes place on the addition of the stannic chloride and
continues, if the temperature is kept at that of the water bath,
until a solid mass is formed; but no distillate can be obtained
on heating under diminished pressure. Here, again, indications
are that the isopropylate is formed but decomposes on heating.

WITH AMYL ALCOHOL.

With this alcohol it has been found that the amylate can
readily be obtained. It is of a dark yellow color and boils at
291° C., under a pressure of 12 mm. No analysis has as yet
been made of it.

The reaction involved in the formation of these alcoholates
would seem at first thought to be very simple, since the product
is a compound in which the aluminium has replaced, in each
molecule of alcohol, one atom of hydrogen. This change in
composition could be expressed, with common alcohol, by the
equation

3 C2 H5 O H + A1 = (C2 H5 0)3 A1 + 3 H.

But this does not explain why it is necessary, for the prog¬
ress of the reaction, to have present other things besides alco¬
hol and metallic aluminium. By the initial reaction, when the
stannic chloride is added, metallic tin is precipitated on the
aluminium, and aluminium chloride is formed thus :

2 A1 + Sn Cl4 == Sn A1 + A1 Cl3 + Cl.

Both of these products seem to have an influence, as it is found
that aluminium will not dissolve in alcohol in presence of tin
alone and but slowly when aluminium chloride is present with¬
out the tin. The reaction is probably due to the action of the
aluminium, or some compound of aluminium chloride with the
alcohol, under the strain of the electric couple of which the tin
and the aluminium are the negative and positive metals. The
alcoholates so formed are themselves of considerable interest be¬
cause they are one of a very small class of organo-metallic bodies
containing oxygen which can be distilled, and because they

260

Groover — Aluminium Alcoholates .

show how, through suitable means, such a stable group as the
hydroxyl group of an alcohol may be attacked and torn apart.

Further work which is being done will no doubt bring to
light other results of interest, and it is quite possible that the
reaction may be turned to account in a commercial way as a
means of purifying certain alcohols from traces of others which
are more easily acted upon by the amalgam.

Madison , Wis.

CODFISH. ITS PLACE IN AMERICAN HISTORY.

TAMES DAVIE BUTLER, LL. D.

The chief bearing on the escutcheon of Massachusetts might
well be a codfish. It is more than a century since the legislature
voted that the effigy of a cod-fish “should be hung up in the
room where the representatives sit, as a memorial of the im¬
portance of the cod-fishery to the commonwealth. ” But even
earlier than that date, which was March 17, 1784, the cod-fish
had been honored in the Massachusetts legislative hall, for the
vote was that it should be suspended there “as had been usual
formerly. ” The truth is such a fish had hung in the Old State
House which was burned in 1749. This time-honored monitor
hovering over the heads of legislators became the more ob»
served of all observers after a witty retort by the ultramontane
Brownson to the Congregational champion Prof. Park who had
charged Catholics with worshiping images.

“ Indeed we do, ” answered Brownson, “but what images? We
worship images of the saints while you worship the image of a
cod-fish, and that in the midst of your grand temple. ” During
the recent rebuilding of the Boston State House the ancient fish
appeared to the building commission out of keeping with the
modern improvements, and so it was relegated to a corner of the
garret. This vandalism, however, roused such indignant pro¬
tests that the venerable emblem, — reproduced in a more artistic
style, — was reinstated in its place of honor which it now holds
more firmly than ever.

There is no danger of over-rating the influence of cod-fish on
the course of American history.

It is held by not a few French writers that Breton fishermen
chasing whales, unawares pushed on so far west that they

262

Butler — The Codfish in American History.

reached the banks of Newfoundland even before the voyages of
Columbus and Cabot. It is certain that within a few years
after those voyages the Bretons began there a lucrative cod-
fishery which they have carried on to this day. When France
was expelled every where from the American main she clung
tenaciously to three fishing islands, — St. Pierre, and the two
Miquelons — as invaluable for her cod-fishery. She retains them
now a century after losing almost all her West Indian territory.

It is argued with much show of reason that but for cod-fish
the Puritans would never have set their faces toward New Eng¬
land. We talk of Plymouth rock as its chief corner stone, but
in the lowest deep behold a lower deep. Bartholomew G-osnold
who in 1602 discovered Cape Cod, so named it from the fish
that abounded there, and he thus furnished a descriptive name
for the chart of Capt. John Smith. Smith’s map was in the
hands of the Pilgrims in their temporary Holland sojourn. They
tell us that after hesitations whither to emigrate they resolved
to go where fishing was best. The name James had on that map
supplanted the cod of G-osnold but it was known to be given
for currying royal favor, and reminded men all the more of the
60,000 cod which Smith had taken there. From the first it was
foreseen that the cape could never lose the name G-osnold had
given “ till shoals of cod wTere seen swimming upon the top of
its highest hills. ” There was talk of Guiana and Manhattan
but, as Governor Bradford chronicles, “the major part inclined
to go to Plymouth, chiefly for the hope of present profit to be
made by the fish that was found in that country. ” They had
heard that fishers from the west of England had made money on
the Banks, and they trusted by planting themselves on a nearer
base to make more. When their agents at the court of King
James were asked by him what gainful business they could fol¬
low on the land-grant they sought for, their answer was the
single word, — fishing! The soil at Plymouth yielded no crops
till it had been fertilized by a fish thrown on every hill of corn.

Had the first-comers been provided with hooks or nets for
catching cod, their first winter would have been exempt from
famine. DeRasieres, — the first visitor from Dutch Manhattan,
wrote within seven years of the original landing: “The bay is

Early Importance of Cod-Fishing. 263

full of fish-of-cod. When the people have a desire for fish
they send out two or three persons in a sloop who in three or
four hours bring them as much as the whole community of about
fifty families require for a whole day. ” Had Plymouth been
nearer the grand hive of cod it would to-day probably outrank
Gloucester as much as Gloucester outranks it. Within five years
after the forefathers landed, Gov. Bradford describes a great
ship as clearing from there laden with fish well-fitted to go to
Bilboa or St. Sebastian with a cargo that would sell there for
£1800.

The larger Puritan colony at Boston a decade later than the
planting of Plymouth, was attracted thither by fishing pros¬
pects. When an early preacher to settlers in that quarter was
expatiating on their having adventured into the wilderness for
freedom of worship, Cotton Mather writes that one auditor
bluntly ejaculated; “Sir you are mistaken, our main end in
coming here was to catch fish. ” The Puritans knew that in
1563 for the increase of fishing parliament had declared it un¬
lawful to eat meat on Wednesdays and Saturdays under a pen¬
alty of £3 for each offense. They needed no such law to convince
. them that codfish were a richer mine than any one held by the
King of Spain on whose dominions the sun never set.

All along the Massachusetts seaboard fishing became the lead¬
ing industry and main reliance almost from the start. The
armorial bearing of the state was early understood by Indians
to be the cod-fish. That totem, as the aborigines would term it,
was carried by her envoys to the New York Iroquois, a distant
tribe, in 1690. Puritan punsters proclaimed a fish the best em¬
blem of justice because both bore Scales. The Indian name for
a Puritan was Kinshon , that is fish.

At every step in the history of New England the value of fish¬
eries was clear. That colony was planted and largely devel¬
oped by the aid of capital furnished from the mother country.
The exports from the new country to the old — furs, lumber,
fish and everything else were required for paying old debts or
for the purchase of new supplies. No import of money from
England could be hoped for. Nor could the emigrants keep the
little they had brought over. Within ten years after his arri-

264 The Codfish in American History.

val Gov. Winthrop writes sadly, “Our money was now [in
1640] gone.” (Journal II., 24.)

In this emergency attempts were soon made to keep money in
the country by a law which forbade carrying it out on pain of
forfeiture, and by a fiat money act for coining ninepences and
ordaining that they should pass current as shillings. Hence
originated the Pine Tree shillings of the Old Bay State now
prized so highly by numismatists. The Puritans would not read
Shakespeare, but, like his Jack Cade, they decreed that “seven
half penny loaves should be sold for a penny.”

Fortunately necessity soon invented a more excellent way for
making money plenty in every man’s pocket.

A new and better fish market than that in the mother country
was discovered and utilized to the utmost.. The navigation act
commanded that all exports be first carried to England, but
when the market there proved poor, exporters pushed on to
Spain, Portugal and Italy where it was of necessity good. In
those rigidly Catholic countries fish was indispensable, — thanks
to fasts which had been abolished in England. The demand was
great and increasing. Prices were high, and payments made,
when desired, in the one thing most lacking and so most desid- ,
erated in the homes of the Puritans, — which was money, — gold
and silver. Possibly the term cod-fish aristocracy was an
Americanism coined to define the earliest variety of blue blood
which cropped out in Boston. Cod had yielded them “ the po¬
tentiality of growing rich beyond the dreams of avarice ” which
Dr. Johnson espied in Thrale’s London brewery.

But the navigation act — based on the assumption that colo¬
nies had no rights which a mother-country was bound to re¬
spect — laid on the necks of American colonists a yoke too
heavy to be borne. From the outset it was evaded without any
conscientious scruples — especially in regard to the trade in
fish to the West Indies. It was soon so far relaxed as to au¬
thorize sending fish to all ports south of cape Finisterre — the
most northern point in Spain. The fish trade, — mainly in cod,
expanded and was differentiated. The refuse culls, known as
poor Jack became in the sugar islands the only luxury of Sambo,
the medium grades contented his creole master, while the se-

Cod-Fishing the Cradle of an Irrepressible Conflict. 265

lectest variety — the dun-fish, enabled European grandees of
the straitest sect in both church and state — to keep the most
rigorous fasts without much mortification of the flesh.*

It is safe to say that nonb of these varieties of cod tasted so
sweet to hunger-bidden fasters as the profits from them tasted
to the Yankees when they had secured free course through
southern markets. Their ciphering was of this sort: A vessel
of 100 tons with twenty men fishing on the banks and voyaging
to Portugal, Spain or Italy — perhaps selling half her cargo in
the West Indies — will expend one thousand pounds. At the
year’s end her receipts may be expected to show a gain of 200
per cent.

It is no wonder that as early as 1709 the fishing navy was
registered as already amounting to 30,000 tons, and that in
1741 the export trade equaled that of England itself and had
risen to £100,000.

The cod-fishing was the cradle of an irrepressible conflict
between the French and English colonists. In that industry
they met each other first and oftenest, as well as in a life and
death struggle. In all the history of our colonies we read of
no such prodigal outlays and that in such arduous enterprises
as those for dispossessing French fishermen. The conquest of
Canada — or New France — began on its sea coast in 1713, when
Acadia, where the Bretons had built their huts sixteen years
before the May Flower sailed, was surrendered. It came to a
final end there with the fail of Louisburg, the last maritime
French stronghold in 1745, a decade before the seven years
struggle for Quebec began. Judging by the order in which the
Canadian provinces were conquered, fisheries were “ the imme¬
diate jewel of the Yankee’s soul.” It was desirable in his view
to repel the Indians from the inland frontiers where they were
perpetually kidnapping and scalping, but the first and supreme
duty was to extirpate the French who crippled the taking and
the curing of cod.

Fisheries, in which cod has been easily the supreme element,
have always been the chief nursery of the American marine
strength, alike in war and in peace.

* Hildreth, I., 473-476.

266 Butler — The Codfish in American History.

"If we had a war to-morrow,” Admiral Porter wrote in 1888,
— "we must depend almost altogether on the fishermen of New
England to man our vessels.” Without these auxiliaries it
would seem that our revolutionary war might have been a fail¬
ure. The captures they made in the first year of it — 1776 ran
up to 342 vessels. They were the privateers who intercepted
the transport ships bound for the British in Boston and took
from them those munitions of war which turned against them
their own arms, and crowned Washington’s siege with success.
But for Glover’s brigade of Massachusetts fishermen military
critics maintain that Washington and his army must have sur¬
rendered to the British in Brooklyn. But for the skill of the
same naval experts the crossing of the Delaware — absolutely
necessary for the surprise of Trenton — could not have been accom¬
plished, — and probably would not have been undertaken. No
statue in Boston was better deserved than Glover’s on Common¬
wealth avenue.

That the fisheries were a chief corner stone of national pros¬
perity was, clearly seen by all the north during the war of inde¬
pendence. When congress began to consider on what terms
they would make peace with England all members agreed that
they would consent to nothing short of independence and terri¬
torial areas extending to the Mississippi, and the great lakes.
New England and New York went further. They demanded all
the ante-bellum fishing facilities which their people had enjoyed.
Their cry was, no peace without former fisheries. It was con¬
cerning this matter that the first important disagreement arose
between the north and the south. The north would fight for
fish abroad even as for firesides at home. But the states south
of New York, having no share in the fisheries, were urged by our
French allies not to insist on them as a sine qua non of peace.
France was a jealous competitor for the lion’s share of fishing
rights. Secret debates were long and heated. The result was
that the American negotiators went to Paris without instruc¬
tions to yield nothing of the ancient fishing privileges.

When the international commissioners came together Frank¬
lin at first demanded all Canada in the fullest meaning of
the name. He had hopes of securing this concession which

Disputed Fishing Rights.

267

would have ended the fishery dispute at once. He was,
however, constrained to be content with very nearly our
present limits. He then declared one essential of peace to
be freedom of fishing on the Banks of Newfoundland as well as
elsewhere. This claim was readily agreed to by Oswald, the
British commissioner, who wrote home in secret dispatches;
“ I own I wondered that he should think it necessary to ask for
this privilege, and I doubted whether the exclusion of the New
.Englanders could be maintained without continuing in a state
of continual quarrel with them. I suspected that drying fish
was included in Franklin’s demand though it was not men¬
tioned. ” After much debate drying was allowed on all unset¬
tled parts of Nova Scotia as well as on most coasts of Labrador
and Newfoundland. These and other piscatory claims were
most pressed by John Adams, the New England envoy, who was
indignant that he was not permitted to proclaim that there
could be no peace with the refusal of any iota of fishing free¬
dom. Nothing in his career pleased him so much as what he
thus achieved. He had a seal struck with the figure of a fish
upon it ^nd the Legend Piscemur ut olim ,* to be handed down
in his family from generation to generation.

After the peace which closed the war of 1812 it was held
by Great Britain that all fishing concessions had been annulled
by that war. This contention was resisted by the United States.
“Fishing privileges, ” said the younger Adams, “ are not a Brit¬
ish grant as Englishmen assert, they are a British acknowl¬
edgment. ” He spurned the word “ concession. ”

At the international convention of 1818 the ancient fishing
facilities were, in the judgment of Adams, substantially re¬
gained. But more than one subsequent treaty has been called
for.

Webster was charged — his friends say falsely, — with will¬
ingness to cede Oregon to Great Britain in exchange for coveted
fishing concessions. No one who knew that Webster was noth¬
ing if not a fisherman could be persuaded that he would relin¬
quish any particle of fishery rights. No man who had handled
cod lines and nets failed of faith in him when he said, “ I am

* Hor. Ep. I. 6, 57.

268 Butler — The Codfish in American History.

yours, hook and line, bob and sinker, now and forever.” A
fishing treaty negotiated in London by Cleveland’s minister,
Phelps, was refused ratification by a republican senate. A
reason given in confidence was that so good a treaty would add
to the political capital of democrats. In public, however,
the treaty was stigmatized as an unconditional surrender.

At no point is there a more galling friction in the relations
between the English mother and her prodigal sons beyond the
Atlantic. New treaties will be concluded, but no settlement,
beyond a modus vivendi seems probable until the granting of all
that Franklin asked for — namely, the annexation of the Cana¬
dian dominion to the older brother shall in " the unity and mar¬
ried calm ” of greater Britain render all treaties superfluous.

Ultimate union between us and our northern sister seems a
foregone conclusion. It would be in line with our history, which
records analogous Anions on every other side. Witness Louisi¬
ana, Florida, Texas, New Mexico, California, Oregon, Alaska.
One fifth of the population born north of us have removed with¬
in our borders, and this emigration is coming faster and faster.
We have more persons by four score thousand of Canadian than
of English birth. The Canadians who cling to their homesteads
and we are more and more drawn together by the cohesive at¬
traction of mutual interest reinforcing the ties of language and
religion, as well as of identical aspirations and endeavors.

The quarrel about fishing rights may perhaps be settled in
another way, thanks to Seward’s securing Alaska. The codfish
which are there numberless are in no point inferior to those
which are the glory of eastern waters. The occidental banks
are more enormous stretching over a larger area than the square
miles of Ireland. The facilities for the capture and curing of
fish are greater than on the Atlantic coast.

In 1890 the cod taken numbered half a million, and but for
glutting the market the supply would have been ten times
greater. This industry must advance in equal pace with the
growth of the Pacific slope and the extension of trade in the
East Indies. According to the United States commissioner’s
report the gulf of Alaska and Bering sea will whiten with mul¬
titudinous sails. In this way we shall outgrow dependence on

Influence on Monetary Nomenclature. 269

any possible British favors. Whatever in the matter of bait,
fishing or curing we have coveted and contended for will become
not worth asking for or even accepting. May our fishery fights
die such a natural death. Requiescant in pace l

The revolution wrought by codfish in our monetary nomen¬
clature has not been enough considered.

The measures which American colonists brought from Eng¬
land we still for the most part retain. Our terms for length
and area, as foot, acre and all through the scale are English.
So are our measures of capacity from least to greatest. Our
weights too from grains to tons are English. Neither the old
French arpent, nor the new French meter has been introduced.
We remain English in regard to all measures except those of
value. Cleaving to so many heir-looms of English weights and
measures why have we discarded the English measures of value,
— ignoring the pound sterling while abiding by the pound troy
and the pound avoirdupois?

Thanks to codfish! is the shortest answer and it is one not far
from the exact truth. No colonies known to me save our own
have rejected the monetary standards of their mooher countries.
But for colonial fisheries I see no reason to think that we should
not to this day reckon in pounds sterling as well as in pounds
avoirdupois and in pounds troy. But what was the genesis of
the federal currency? How could it grow up out of colonial
fisheries? How did we get our dollar? our recent apple of dis¬
cord? The answer is simple. The exported fish brought home
to us from their chief markets the bulk of the specie in colonial
circulation — namely, those dollars which naturally became the
real unit of value — wherever they had become the dominant
coin. Any other silver would have done so.

The coin “ dollar ” came into the American colonies, directly
or indirectly, chiefly from Spaniards. The name dollar — un¬
known in Spanish even now — was derived from the German
tongue — and probably came into American use from the Dutch
founders of New York.

The word dollar has a curious history. Ten miles from Carls¬
bad, so well known to American invalids, there was a Bohemian
mediaeval mine rich in silver. The place was called Joachim’s

270

Butler — The Codfish in American History.

thal, or the dale of Joachim, so named in honor of an ancestor
of St. Joseph. The richness of the mine led in the year 1518 to
a coinage with little alloy, and which thus gained high repute
and wide circulation. The name Joachim’s thaler, contracted
as all long words must be if much used, became thaler , i. e.,
valley-piece, and a synonym of good money. Hence its good
name was stolen by many inferior coins. “ There is no vice so
simple but assumes some mark of virtue in its outward form.”

Those pieces which were minted in Joachim’s thal, which was
in the German empire or Reich, were called Reichsthaler — that
is in English, Rix-dollars, in Dutch, Rijks-daalder, and in
Danish with little change from the Dutch form.

The earliest use of the word which I have observed was in
1606. Shakespeare in Macbeth (I. 2. 62). then spoke of slain

Norsemen denied burial till their king had disbursed ten thou¬
sand dollars.

When the first dollars were stamped, Spain being a part of
the German empire, it was natural that the imperial standard-
piece, the Reichsthaler, or rix-dullar, should be adopted as the
Spanish unit of value. It thus spread abroad wherever the
money minted from American mines circulated. The name, or
certainly the coin was quickly known in Egypt, for George
Sandys, travelling there in 1611, says that he hired a boat for
twelve dollars, (p. 117.) Sandys often uses the word dollar.
He tells us (p. 205) that Dutch dollers (sic) throughout Jewry
and Phenicia “ were equivalent with royals of eight, elsewhere
less by ten aspers. ” He adds (p. 86) that “ Constantinople was
well stored with pieces-of-eight which in no place lose (aught)
of their value. ” He found the monastery on Mount Sinai to be
receiving an annual revenue of 60,000 dollars from Christian
princes, and thus able to keep open house for all comers,
(p. 124.)

On the western continent the name came into use not much
more slowly than the coin. In 1642 it was ordained by Massa¬
chusetts authorities ‘‘considering the often occasions we have
of trading with the Hollanders of the Dutch plantation and
otherwise, that the Holland ducatour (sic) shall be current at
six shillings, and the rix-dollar and Ryalls-of-eight shall be five

The Codfish Dollar.

271

shillings.” (Mass. Col. Rec. II: 29.) The next year a similar
ordinance was passed in Connecticut, that good Ryall-of-eight
and Rix-dollars should pass at 5 shillings. The prefix Rix is a
corruption of the German word Reich which means empire, and
coins stamped by imperial authority bore the word Reich. From
the tendency of words to contraction, and because the syllable
Rix meant nothing to ears unused to German, it was dropped in
common parlance while the word dollar survived.

The name dollar could not fail to be extended to the Spanish
pound which is peso, or piece-of-eight, [Royals or Ryalls] and to
supplant in English speech that latter circumculotion. The
value of each was the same. Besides, when a single word ex¬
presses the meaning of a phrase, the shorter expression will
displace the longer. Thus the French word portage ousted the
English word carryingplace.

Pieces-of-eight flowed into New England from southern Eu¬
rope and the West Indies, partly in return for fish and partly
from the half piratical buccaneers who made booty on Spanish
commerce. In early Plymouth Gov. Bradford describes one
Capt. Cromwell who in 1646, having made rich prizes, scattered
a great deal of silver among the pilgrims, and as was feared, a
great deal more sin than silver. In 1740 Capt. Hull of New¬
port, made such a capture that the share of every man on his
ship was proclaimed in the . Boston News Letter to amount to
more than a thousand pieces-of-eight. In 1687 the Yankee
skipper Phips, with his divers, brought up a million and a half
of such pieces from the sunken wreck of a single Spanish gal¬
leon. But these spasmodic windfalls were trifles compared with
the steady streams which gushed forth from the perennial fish¬
ery fountains.

The codfish dollar thus became early the real unit of value,
though the pound so continued in name till near the close of
the eighteenth century. The Spanish divisions of the dollar, —
as well as the dollar itself, predominated in American circula¬
tion, while English names were given to the pieces. Thus the
Ryall, or royal was called a nine-pence and its half a four-
pence-ha’ penny. These Spanish fractions formed most of the
small silver — or change — current in the United States during

272 Butler — The Codfish in American History.

the first half of the present century. This fact is shown by the
rates of postage which up to 1845 were fixed in conformity to
the size of those bits. We see on old letters the postage
marked 6^ cts. because the smallest Spauish silverling passed
at that value. Otherwise, full postage could not be fully paid
as no quarters of a cent were minted. Economical men used to
pay in copper, and thus saved four per cent, on their outlays.
During 23 years before 1828 not one half dime was issued from
the U. S. mint, and the whole number before issued was but
little over a quarter of a million, (265,543); $13,279 in other
American coins were struck off on a similarly scanty scale.

Thus we owe our currency formally adopted by congress in
1786, but used in business long before, to codfish. It brought us
the coin dollar as its monetary unit, and the name dollar with
all its divisions — ■ and some that still survive, as really as
though every cod had held in his mouth a silverling like the fish
in which St. Peter found the stater for paying his tribute and
his Master’s.

The minor relations and uses of our great Yankee fish are not
to be despised.

The cod is of voracious appetite — and is even less fastidious
than the ostrich. It has hence been praised as the great col¬
lector of deep-sea specimens otherwise unattainable by natural¬
ists. Many are the rare and curious shells which have been
obtained from its capacious and omnivorous stomach.

The oil of cod-fish has often proved more precious than its
flesh. No animal oil has been found so digestible as that ex¬
pressed from the livers of cod. Nothing more enriches blood
with red corpuscles or adds more to the store of fat. As a rem¬
edy for rheumatic diseases and general debility its therapeutic
excellence has been long known and appreciated. Its importance,
however, as a specific for pulmonary consumption it was re¬
served for a recent period to discover, or at least to exploit to
its fullest and best applications. The medicinal virtues of cod
can be here only hinted at. Were half of them declared in this
paper it would be accounted a quack advertisement in disguise.
Let me fall under no such suspicion.

In Puritan ages codfish yielded a dish too dainty to be sent

Cape Cod Pork.

273

away altogether to papists and heathen. It formed so large an
element in the Massachusetts food supply that it long ago had
the sobriquet of Cape Cod pork. The Puritan would not touch
it on Friday lest he should become like his customers Catholic
or pagan. But on Saturday he fed upon it with a zest that was
all the sharper for his Friday fast, and gathering up the frag¬
ments that nothing be lost, ate the remnant on Sunday with
double appetite, since he knew he was not breaking the Sabbath
by non-necessary cookery.

Surveying the past and present of codfish one easily believes
that the greatest is behind. Let no man say that blessings as
yet unhoped for and undreamed of are not hidden within the
multitudinous depositors in our national fishing banks, blessings
that shall be revealed to us or to our children till the Puritan’s
thanksgiving that God had vouchsafed him to suck of the
abundance of the seas * shall have a tenfold fullness of meaning.

* Dent. 33, 19.

Madison , Wis.

18

PLANKTON STUDIES ON LAKE MENDOTA. II.

THE CRUSTACEA OF THE PLANKTON FROM JULY,
1894, TO DECEMBER, 1896.

E. A. BIRGE,

Professor of Zoology, University of Wisconsin.

INTRODUCTION.

The following paper is a continuation of the work done by
myself with Messrs. Olson and Harder, in the summer of 1894,
published in the preceding volume of the Transactions of this
Academy. (Birge, ’95.) The study carried on in that month
showed a vertical distribution of the Crustacea so unexpected
and peculiar that it seemed to me worth while to continue the
investigation throughout an entire year. A few observations
were made in the latter part of August, 1894, and on Septem¬
ber 18th, regular observations were begun and were continued
until the close of December, 1896. During the fall of 1894 ob¬
servations were taken on 28 days. In 1895 observations were
taken on 110 days, and on 126 in 1896. The details of the
number of observations and of the days on which they were
taken will be found stated in Table A given at the close of
this paper. During the late spring and summer months as
many as three observations per week were taken. During the
winter season, the late fall and early spring, observations were
necessarily fewer in number, and occasionally a period of two
weeks would pass without an observation. At this time of the
year, however, the Crustacea are not varying greatly in num¬
ber, so that small error results from these gaps.

I had intended at first to carry my observations through one
year only, but as a peculiar annual development of the crusta-

Introductory.

275

cea was found in the course of the year 1895, it seemed to me
advisable to continue the observations through the season
of 1896, in order to determine whether the course of develop¬
ment would be the same as in 1895. Until August, 1896, the
number of the Crustacea in each catch was determined separately,
and the average catch for each two-week period was computed.
After that date the catches for each two-week period were
mingled together, and the average number only was determined.
Up to August, 1896, therefore, the average, maximum, and min¬
imum catches are given for each period, in the tables of the
appendix, but after that date it is possible to state the aver¬
ages only. This “two-week average” is the main number
used in this paper.

The net employed was that described by me in my former
paper, and the method of counting was substantially the same,
except that a smaller fraction than one-sixth was often used to
determine the large number of Crustacea from the upper levels
of the lake — one-tenth to one-fifteenth being ordinarily employed,
with a view to making the last figure of the resulting number 5
or 0, in order to facilitate adding and multiplying in subse¬
quent operations.

The multiplications to reduce the catch to the number per
square meter of surface were performed by the aid of Crelle’s
Tables. The products are stated in this paper in thousands and
tenths, in order to avoid the constant use of ciphers in the last
two places. The result would have been quite as accurately ex¬
pressed in most cases if the nearest thousand had been stated,
but in case of the smaller numbers it was necessary to state the
hundreds, and as the products were read off directly in all cases
in hundreds, I concluded to leave them in the printed results,
although, of course, understanding that no reliance is to be
placed on the exactness of the enumeration in the last place of
figures if the total is large.

The total number of serial observations was 333 besides 97
single catches, and as there were at least six collections in each
series, and from three to eleven species of Crustacea to be deter¬
mined, the number of single observations is very large — over
10,000. It has been my aim in preparing this paper to exhibit

276

Birge — The Crustacea of the Plankton.

these results in a graphic form so that they might appeal to the
eye, and to print only the summaries of my observations; rather
than to confuse the reader by presenting him with the great
mass of figures which would be needed to exhibit the results of
the single observations.

In preparing the diagrams which accompany this paper, the
average number of Crustacea for each two-week period was
determined and was platted at the center of the space rep¬
resenting the period; and the averages of successive periods
connected by a line.

It has been found impossible to use the same scale in platting
the annual distribution of the different species of the Crustacea.
Where numbers range from less than 25,000 to over 3,000,000
per square meter, it is not practicable to use the same scale for
all species. The scales employed range from 25,000 to one ver¬
tical space, to 200,000 for the same distance. In all cases the
scale is stated on the margin of the diagram. No attempt is
made to show by a curve the rate of variation within the two-
week period, since this variation is quite too irregular to per¬
mit a curve to be drawn with any accuracy.

I had intended to introduce this paper by a preliminary account
of lake Mendota accompanied by a hydrographic map. Some
hundreds of soundings have been made by myself and by the De¬
partment of Civil Engineering of the University of Wisconsin,
but the preparation of the map has been delayed, and it is there¬
fore impossible to insert the account at this place. I must
therefore refer to the brief account given in my former paper,
merely stating here that the lake is about 6 miles (9 kilometers)
in length by 4 miles (6 kilometers) in greatest breadth, of
a somewhat regular shape. No greater depth than 24 meters
has been found; a large part of the lake is deeper than 18 me¬
ters, and the bottom is very fiat without irregular depressions.
The principal observing station was near the southern side of
the lake, about 2,700 feet (850 meters, from the southern shore,
and in 18.5 meters of water. The second principal station was
about a mile and a half (2 kilometers) from the southern shore,
and in 22 meters. The principal station was marked by a buoy,
so that the observations were taken at the same spot.

Introductory.

277

During the winter observations were made through the ice,
the net being suspended from a tripod. While it is very easy
to make a single haul of the net at any temperature in the win¬
ter, it is very difficult to make a series if the temperature is ma¬
terially below — 6° C. At lower temperatures, or even at
this temperature on a cloudy day and with northerly wind, the
net freezes so rapidly that work is extremely difficult and slow,
as time must be taken for the net to thaw in the water before a
second haul can be made. The line also becomes so heavily
coated with ice and so slippery and stiff that it is impossible
to secure accuracy in the time of raising the net. While there¬
fore the pleasant warm days of winter offer the best possible oc¬
casions for working the dredge, the average work in winter is
extremely disagreeable. It is, however, more difficult to secure
continuous observations during the periods immediately pre¬
ceding the formation and the breaking up of the ice than it is
in winter. The lake freezes near the shore so that it is difficult
to get out with a boat, while the ice is still too thin to bear
the weight of a man; and as there is no current in the lake,
the breaking up of the ice in the spring is ordinarily very slow
and there is always a number of days in which the ice is too
weak for safety. After the breaking up of the ice a continua¬
tion of north winds may keep the sludge ice on the southern
shore, and thus still further delay observations, as was the case
in 1896.

In carrying out this work it has been my endeavor to make
a contribution to the natural history of an inland lake as “a
unit of environment,” to employ Eigenmann’s appropriate
phrase. (Eigenmann ’95, p. 204.) I have, therefore, discussed
somewhat freely the causes which seem to me to have contrib¬
uted to the peculiarities of the annual and vertical distribution
of the Crustacea. I do not suppose that my conclusions are cor¬
rect in all particulars, still less that they are complete. The
causes determining the biological conditions of a lake are far
too numerous and various, and their inter-relations far too
complex to be understood at present with any accuracy.
It has seemed to me, however, that the aim of plankton investi¬
gations should be to reach an understanding of these conditions,

278 Birge — The Crustacea of the Plankton.

and I have therefore put out the suggestions of the final sec¬
tions of each part of my paper, with the hope that they will
stimulate others to similar attempts and thus lead to an en¬
largement of our knowledge and to the correction of whatever
errors may be present in my conclusions.

THE COEFFICIENT OF THE DREDGE.

One of the most difficult and unsatisfactory portions of plank¬
ton investigation has been the determination of the coefficient
of the dredge. It is well known that the net when raised
through the water offers a certain resistance to the passage of
the water, so that a part only is filtered by the net, while an¬
other fraction is displaced. The determination of the relative
amounts of water filtered and displaced is the determination of
the coefficient of the dredge. Many attempts have been made
to determine this quantity. The most elaborate investigations
have been made by Hensen (Hensen, ’87, p. 11, and Appendix;
’95, pp. 67-86). Reighard (’94, p. 57) has also devised and car¬
ried out another method of determining the coefficient. Hensen
has attempted to work out a formula by which the coefficient for
a net of given cloth and given area could be determined, and
has finally given the best and easiest method of determining the
coefficient in lakes abounding in vegetable plankton (’95, p. 92).
Reighard’s method depends upon mixing with the water a known
number of particles and determining the relation between those
caught by the net when drawn through the water and the num¬
ber known to be present. This method was entirely inappli¬
cable to a net constructed like mine, and it was impossible for
me to enter upon any elaborate investigation of the coefficients
of the cloth which I used. I confined myself, therefore, to a de¬
termination of the coefficient of my net under the conditions in
which it was used. In the serial investigations which formed
the greater and more essential part of my study, the dredge
was raised through a distance of three meters. The speed was
approximately one half meter per second, although ordinarily a
little less, the total time occupied by raising the dredge through
3 meters, being from 6.5 to 6.75 seconds. In order to ascertain
the coefficient of the dredge I determined to ascertain the num-

The Coefficient of the Dredge .

279

ber of Crustacea in a column of water 3 m. in length and 10 cm.
in diameter and to compare with this number the catch of the
net. For this purpose a tin tube was made, of the size indi¬
cated. This tube was provided at the lower end with a slide in
which was placed a carrier bearing a net and bucket. The car¬
rier and net could be slipped to one side so as to leave the open¬
ing of the tube entirely free, and by means of a cord reaching
to the surface, they could be drawn back so as to hang immedi¬
ately below the opening of the tube. The slide and carrier
were made of brass plates carefully scraped aud fitted together,
so that no Crustacea could escape between the bottom of the tube
and the top of the net, and the net was closely covered when
slipped to the side of the tube.

The tube was lowered into the water with the net moved to
one side of the opening and was lowered slowly so that the
water within the tube might remain at the same level as that
without and no appreciable currents should be set up in the
water. The tube was also provided with a close fitting cap on
the top, which could be closed after the top of the tube had
sunk about one-half meter below the surface. When the tube
had been lowered this cap was closed and the slide with the net
drawn across the bottom of the tube. There was thus im¬
prisoned a column of water 10 cm. in diameter and 3 m. long.
The tube was then slowly raised to the surface and lifted out of
the water so that the contained water might be filtered through
the net, leaving behind the plankton. Several successive hauls
of the tube were made, aud the number of Crustacea so taken
was compared with that obtained from a similar number of hauls
of the net made at the same time and through the same dis¬
tance. The number of Crustacea thus obtained was carefully
determined, TV to TV of the number being counted where
the number was great, and £ where the number was small. In
determining the coefficient of the dredge, it was assumed that
the tube took all of the plankton in the column of water which
it contained, and the number of Crustacea caught by the tube
was compared with that caught by the net. Since the opening
of the net was four times that of the tube the catch ought to
have been four times as great, provided all of the water was fil-

280

Birge — The Crustacea of the Plankton.

tered. As a matter of fact, the net caught about twice as many
Crustacea as the tube, thus indicating that its coefficient is about
two.

In this method of determining the coefficient the quantities
compared -are by no means uniform; indeed, it is known that
the number of Crustacea caught in a given haul of the tube may
be only one-half the number caught in a second haul within a
few seconds. A single comparison has therefore very little
value and accuracy in the determination of the coefficient by
this method can be reached only by a considerable number of ob¬
servations. In my own work I made use of six sets of obser¬
vations, taken on May 14th, October 12th and 25th, 1895, Feb¬
ruary 25, May 18th, and July 11th, 1896. By distributing
the observations over so long a time it was possible to get at
the coefficient of the net at different times in its life and under
different conditions of plankton. In May the number of Crus¬
tacea is at a maximum, and the amount of algae is small. In
October the number of Crustacea is considerable, but the veget¬
able life is at a maximum ; while in February the amount both
of animal and vegetable life is of course small. From four to
six pairs of observations were taken in each set. The ratio of
the catch of the tube to that of the net was computed for each
observation in the set, and the average of these ratios was com¬
puted, using the method of least squares. As a result of
these determinations, the following ratio was established :
Tube : net : : 49.85 : 100. The probable error of the deter¬
mination is ± 1. The appended table shows the general results
Several facts appear from the table. It will be noticed
that the amount of difference between the maximum and mini¬
mum numbers caught varies greatly on different occasions. It
is plain also that the net shows no greater amount of variation
on the whole than does the tube. On the contrary, on those
occasions where the numbers are approximately constant in the
tube, they are similarly constant in the case of the net; and
where the numbers vary considerably in the case of the net,
they vary to much the same degree in the case of the tube.
There is therefore no reason to suspect any considerable irregu¬
larity on the part of the net due to the stoppage of its openings,
or to any other cause.

The Coefficient of the Dredge.

281

Table I. — Results of determination of coefficient of net.

Date.

Pairs

of

catches.

No. of
resulting
ratios.

Counted
fraction
of catch.

Catch op Tube.

Catch op Net.

Max.

Min.

Max.

Min.

1895, May 14.......

4

16

1-10

2,910

2,400

4,760

2,920

Oct. 12.......

4

16

1-5

1,482

1,170

2,292

1,770

Oct. 25. .. ....

6

36

1-10

8,490

4,290

14, 520

10,560

1896, Feb. 25.......

5

25

1-4

1,420

760

3,500

1,750

May 18. .. ....

5

25

1-10

5,940

4,310

12,100

10,480

July. 11.. ....

5

25

1-15

4,215

2,430

8,370

5,680

Total.. .. ....

29

143

Minimum Ratio; Tube : net : : 21 : 100.

Maximum Ratio; Tube : net : : 100 : 100.

Average Ratio ; Tube : net : : 49.85 ± 1 : 100.

Area of opening of tube : area of mouth of net : : 1 : 4.

Hence coefficient of net = 2, approximately.

Area of opening of net == 314.1 sq. cm.

Hence to state catch of net in terms of sq. meter of surface, multiply catch by
10 000

X 2 = catch X 63.6, which factor was used.

«£L4.1

In determining the number of Crustacea caught by tube or
net, each species was counted separately. The individual species
show just about the same amount of variation as does the total
catch; although in the case of less abundant species the maxi¬
mum number caught was not infrequently three times the mini¬
mum. In the case of the tube no difference could be detected
in the range of variation of the numbers of species which are
active, like Diaptomus , and those which, like Chy domes, or Cy¬
clops, are relatively slow in their movements. During the sum¬
mer of 1896 an attempt was made to determine the coefficient
of the dredge from the number of spherules of Gloiotrichia, but
as this plant is found mainly in the uppermost strata of the
water on calm days, it proved an unsuitable object, and its
variations in number in successive catches wore greater than
those of the Crustacea.

It may be added that there was no constant position of maxi¬
mum or minimum catch in any series which was made, but the
numbers varied in a wholly irregular fashion.

282

Birge — The Crustacea of the Plankton.

In all of the work reported in this paper and done before the
11th of July, 1896, a single net was employed. After that
date the net was replaced by one of silk bolting cloth, number
16, containing about 3600 meshes to the square cm. This net
was cut from the same pattern as the old one. In order to
compare the two nets they were similarly mounted in the same
frame, and a series of comparisons made to determine their
relative coefficient.

To my surprise the two nets showed practically the same co¬
efficient. The numbers caught necessarily varied considerably,
but the average of each of two series of five pairs showed prac¬
tically the same number of Crustacea; the silk net catching on
the whole about 5 per cent, less than the old net. It did not
seem necessary therefore to alter the coefficient of the dredge
with the change of the net. On the 20 th of August the dredge,
with all its appurtenances, was lost by the accidental breaking
of the line, and the work for the remainder of the year was
done with a similar instrument of smaller size, having a square
opening of 100 square cm. The coefficient of this net was de¬
termined by comparing it with the tube, one set of comparisons
being made by determining the number of the Crustacea. A
second set was made by determining the bulk of the plankton
caught by the tube and net when allowed to settle for the same
length of time in similar tubes. Two other determinations
were made by Hensen’s last method. (Hensen, ’95, p. 92.) The
net was fitted with a cover having an opening of 2.5 square cm.
Ten successive hauls of the net were made with the small open¬
ing and their contents mingled. This was preserved and allowed
to settle and compared with the amount of plankton caught with
the full opening of the net, the two quantities being similarly
preserved and allowed to settle in similar tubes. The result of
these three methods of determination of the coefficient of the
net was substantially identical, the coefficient varying from 1.81
to 2.04. The coefficient 1.9 was selected, and as a result the
catch of this net is multiplied by 190 in order to give the num¬
ber of Crustacea per square meter of surface area.

An important question has been raised, first by Hensen (’87,
p. 12) and especially by Kofoid (’97, p. 11) regarding the vari-

The Coefficient of the Dredge.

283

ation in the coefficient of the net due to the accumulation of the
plankton within it as the net is drawn through the water. Un¬
questionably the stoppage of the openings of the net by the
.accumulating catch raises the coefficient, and if the net accum¬
ulates a sufficient amount of plankton it will wholly cease fil¬
tering the water. In plankton-rich lakes, therefore, serious
error may be introduced from this source. Since lake Mendota
during the summer and autumn contains very large amounts of
vegetable plankton, it was quite possible that the stoppage of
the net should cause errors. In order to determine whether
these errors existed, I regularly made hauls of the net from the
bottom of the lake to the surface during the season of 1895
and compared the number of Crustacea obtained in the hauls
from the bottom with the sum of those caught in the six suc¬
cessive levels of my series. I append a table showing the num¬
ber of Cyclops caught in the months from January to July,
1895, in order to compare the series and the single haul. It will
be seen that the number of Cyclops varies, often considerably.
Out of 41 cases prior to July 1, the total haul exceeded the sum of
the series in 24 cases and fell below it in 17 cases. There was
thus no decided advantage on the side either of the series or
the single haul. If the amount of variation in this table be
compared with the amount shown in the catches of the tube in
Table I, it will be seen that the differences are of much the same
crder as those disclosed by the tube. There is therefore no
evidence that under .these circumstances the net suffered any
stoppage in passing through the 18 meters of the lake which
altered its coefficient to any marked degree ove,r that of the net
used through 3 meters.

After the first of July Anabaena and similar small plants de¬
veloped rapidly in the lake, and the amount of vegetable plank¬
ton increased to a great amount. Under these circumstances
the number of Crustacea caught in the total haul varied widely
and irregularly from the sum of the series, and soon became
uniformly lower than the sum. It was found therefore that the
coefficient of the net has been raised by the amount of algae
present and the catches made by the total hauls were not em¬
ployed in reckoning the number of the Crustacea after the first

284 Birge — The Crustacea of the Plankton.

Table II. — Showing the number of Cyclops caught by the net at the
same date and place in a series of six hauls of 3 m. each , and in a
single haul of 18 m.

Date.

Sum of
series .

Single

haul.

Date.

Sum of
series.

Single

haul.

1895.

1895.

400

460

May 16 .

11,940

14,300

Jan. 9 .

378

550

17,530

505

600

May 18 .

19,470

19,200

800

May 20 .

11,780

16,000

Feb. 15 .

870

1,220

May 22 .

12,850

11,240

900

May 27 .

16,710

15,625

Feb. 23 .

2,350

1,180

May 30 . . .

16,220

17,900

1,430

June 1 .

13,220

15,200

Mch. 6 .

345

620

•Tuna 3 .

10,010

10,080

Mch, 7 .

678

859

.Tuna 10 .

8,020

7,800

Mch. 12. .

719

844

.Tnnft 12 .

8,070

3 640

Mch. 23 .

780

1,355

June 17 .

4,530

5,600

Apr. 12 .

690

710

•Tuna 18 .

3,809

3,240

880

5,680

Apr. 15 .

1,000

600

Jnnft 22 .

4,760

3, 750

Apr. 18 .

2,520

1,290

June 24 .

3, 710

2,120

Apr 23 .

2,925

3,550

•Tnna 29 . . .

3,299

2,400

Apr. 30 .

9,055

9,510

July 1 . . .

3,190

3,700

6,960

3,600

7,620

J uly 4 .

3,920

3,300

5,250

July 6 .

6,105

3,960

May 4 .

15, 470

15, 450

July 9 .

3,416

2,560

May 7 .

13, 630

18,200

July 11 .

2,960

3,080

May 12 .

11,980

19,680

July 19 .

3,434

3,120

July 24 .

2,791

1,840

of July. The comparisons of net and tube show no appreciable
difference in coefficient between the catches of October when the
vegetable plankton is at its maximum, and those of February
and May, when it is greatly reduced in quantity. There is
therefore no reason to suppose that the coefficient of the dredge
is appreciably altered by being raised through the distance
of three meters. It may be added that results similar to those
obtained in the above table would be shown if any other species

The Coefficient of the Dredge.

285

of Crustacea had been selected, or if the total of all the Crusta¬
cea had been chosen.

There is still a third question relating to the coefficient to
the dredge, namely, does the net function similarly on different
occasions, or does its coefficient vary irregularly and in such a
way as to vitiate conclusions based on the hauls of the net?
This question is partially answered by the determination of the
dredge coefficient, as shown in Table I. A second answer can
also be given. During the winter the numbers of Daphnia and
Diaptomus do not increase by reproduction, and the successive
catches should therefore show no very great variation. In a sub¬
sequent section, dealing with the question of swarms, I have
given the figures for the catches of these genera during the
winter of 1895, from which it appears that the variation in suc¬
cessive catches made within a short time of each other is no
greater than may be found between catches made on the same
day. Still further, a diagram is given (Fig. 21), showing the
numbers of Cyclops caught during the year 1895. This diagram
shows plainly that when the average number of Cyclops is ap¬
proximately constant, the individual catches do not ordinarily
vary greatly from the average, no more than would be expected
from Cyclops ’ necessarily somewhat irregular distribution in the
lake. An examination of the maximum and minimum catches
in the tables for the different species shows the same result.

I do not pretend that I have determined the coefficient of my
nets with absolute accuracy, nor that the coefficient of the net
is exactly the same on different occasions; but the careful study
whose results are summarized above has convinced me that the
coefficient of the net is quite as constant as any of the factors
entering into the determination of the plankton. The number
of the Crustacea certainly varies from point to point in the lake.
Where a fraction only of the Crustacea are counted, the deter¬
mination of the number caught is an approximation and is sub¬
ject to error. This error, is, of course, multiplied greatly in
stating the number of Crustacea in terms of square meter of
surface. Among the variables and approximations which en¬
ter into the statement of the results of plankton work, I think
it may fairly be said that the coefficient of the net is one of the

286

Birge — The Crustacea of the Plankton.

most constant factors, and that it may be quite as accurately^
determined as any other.

TEMPERATURES.

Figs. 1-5.

The following account of the temperatures of the lake is nok
intended as a complete discussion of the subject. My tempera¬
ture observations were made at first with the aim of securing'
approximate results in order to determine the biological rela¬
tions of temperature. The methods employed until July, 1896,
while accurate enough for these purposes, are not sufficiently
accurate for other ends. I have therefore refrained from print¬
ing the observations of temperature, and discuss chiefly the
temperature diagrams, which give the result of my observa¬
tions by weekly or rather, quarter-monthly averages.

A. Methods.

Surface temperature observations were taken from the begin¬
ning of my study, and temperatures from all depths after Octo¬
ber 1st, 1894. A w7ater bottle and thermometer were the instru¬
ments employed until July 27th, 1896, after which date a ther¬
mophone was used. The latter instrument has proved extremely
useful and accurate. A full description of the instrument may
be found in Science, Vol. II. of 1895, page 639. As constructed
for my work, the instrument ranges from minus 5 to plus 30>
degrees C., each degree being graduated into fifths. There is
no difficulty in reading the instrument to less than 0.1 degree^
C., and its readings are exceedingly accurate, agreeing exactly
with those of a standard thermometer with which it has been*
constantly compared. Observations can be made very rapidly,
the time of a single reading varying from one to one and a half
minutes, according to the amount of change of temperature-
from the last reading.

Tha temperature bottle contained about 1^- litres and had a
small neck. It was lowered to the desired depth; allowed to re¬
main from one to three minutes for the glass to acquire the tem¬
perature of the water; was then uncorked by a sudden jerk on the-

Trans. Wis. Acad., Vol. XI. Plate XV.

oo

o

oo

o

03 03 03

00 50

03

00

O

00

o

Fig. 1. — Surface and bottom (18 m) temperatures, 1895. Full line, surf°~ .i line, bottom.

Trans. Wis. Acad., Vol. XI. Plate XVI,

Temperatures.

287

line, and allowed to fill. It was then drawn rapidly to the sur¬
face and the temperature read by means^of a long-stemmed ther¬
mometer graduated to one-fifth of a degree. The time of rais¬
ing the bottle from the bottom of the lake was ordinarily about
ten seconds; and the small size of the opening prevented mix¬
ture of the upper water with that in the bottle. The tempera¬
ture of the water in the center of the bottle, which was meas¬
ured by the thermometer, did not change perceptibly during the
time required for the thermometer to set. The water from the
lower part of the lake, however, was somewhat warmed by con¬
tact with the glass and the air in the bottle. This error was
carefully determined by comparison with the thermophone, and
is about one- fifth of a degree C., when the difference between
surface and bottom is about 10 degrees.

Errors much more considerable than this occur with the use
of the temperature bottle at the thermocline. In this region
the temperature may fall as many as nine degrees in a single
meter, and not infrequently as much as three or four degrees
in a quarter of a meter. It is impossible that the bottle should
take in all of its water from the stratum in which its mouth lies
as the escaping air sets up currents so that a mixture of the
water occurs. A difference of half a degree may therefore oc¬
cur between the readings of the thermophone and the bottle in
this region. In one case the error amounted to two degrees,
where the bottle was opened a few inches below the upper level
of the cold water and took in a mixture of this water with the
lower part of the warm stratum above. The errors at this re¬
gion, however, while considerable, make little difference in the
average results of observations, since their only effect is to
make the upper level of the cold water appear to be a fraction
of a meter lower than it really is. Since this level is subject
to irregular variations, under the influence of the wind, which
may amount to two or even more meters, the errors introduced
by the bottle are insignificant in the average of a week’s read¬
ings. It was intended to correct the observations of the bot¬
tle by means of the thermophone and to introduce the correc¬
tion in the diagrams of temperature. It was found, however,
that the amount of correction to be introduced in the diagrams

288

Birge — The Crustacea of the Plankton.

was so small as to make it inadvisable to insert it. In Figure 4
the change from bottle to thermophone is made in the last week
of July, and it will be seen that the lines come together with
great accurac}^.

Above the thermocline the bottle and thermophone agree
exactly, except at the surface on calm, sunny days, when
the reading of the thermometer is higher than that of the ther¬
mophone, since by means of the thermometer the temperature
of a very thin stratum can be taken, while the thermophone
coil is of such a shape that it reads only the average tempera¬
ture of a stratum some eight centimeters in thickness.

During the period April — December, 1896, 189 sets of obser¬
vations were made on 135 days varying from 3 to 6 per week.
In 1895, 196 sets of observations were made on 126 days in the
same period.

The temperature observations were made at all hours of the
day; rarely by night, and must be taken as representing the
day temperatures of the water. Little difference, however,
would be made in the diagram if the night temperatures had
been introduced, as has been shown by an elaborate series of
observations made in 1897. Observations were regularly made
by single meters by the thermophoue, and also by the bottle
when the difference between single meters exceeded one- half
degree C., and often when the differences were less.

After recording the temperatures, those for meters not directly
observed were interpolated, and the average was taken of the
observations for each meter and each quar ter-month.

In preparing Figs. 3 and 4 the average temperatures for each
meter and quarter-month were platted at the proper depth, and
in the center of the space representing the quarter-month on
the diagram. The position of the full degrees was then platted
on the assumption that a uniform decline of temperature is
found within a single meter. This assumption is incorrect in
the region of the thermocline as the zone of the most
rapid decline of temperature is frequently less than a meter in
thickness, but as this zone varies in thickness and shifts its
vertical position under the influence of the wind, little error
results from using this method of platting the average observa-

Temperatures — Winter.

289

tions of a week. Lines were then drawn connecting the posi¬
tions of the full degrees. In 1895 the diagram is carried to 18
meters only, the depth at my regular station. In 1896 the
temperatures were carried to 22 meters, observations being
taken at that depth nearly every week. Two other temperature
diagrams are given, showing the movement of the surface and
bottom temperatures from April to December of the years 1895
and 1896.

B. Results.

Winter Temperatures.

Lake Mendota freezes at very different dates during the early
winter in different years, and the time of opening also varies
greatly. The lake is so large that continued high winds prevent
its freezing even after long continued low temperatures, and as
there is no large affluent, there are no spring floods to move the
ice, which therefore remains until it is greatly weakened by the
effect of the sun and is broken up by the wind. In 1894 the
lake froze on December 28th, and opened April 8th, 1895, being
closed for 100 days. In 1895-96 the lake froze December 6th and
opened April 28th. The first and last observations through the
ice were made on January 1st and March 23d, 1895; and De
cember 9th, 1895, and March 28th, 1896. In the winter of
1896-97 the lake froze December 29th, then broke up again and
did not freeze the second time until January 7th, 1897. It op¬
ened on April 10th, 1897. The ice usually reaches a thickness of
over 60 cm., and in 1895 became nearly 1 m. thick.

During the winter the temperature of the surface of the water
is, of course, zero. The water at the bottom when the lake
freezes has a temperature which varies in different years. If
the lake is prevented by wind from freezing during the first cold
weather of December, it may remain open for days or even
weeks, cooling very slowly. This was the case in 1894, and the
temperature at the bottom on January 1st, 1895, was barely one
degree, and at nine meters was about 0.5°. In 1895
when the ice on December 9th permitted observations, the tem¬
perature was as follows: 0.5 m., 0.3°; 5 m., 1.2°; 18 m., 1.7°

19

290

Birge — The Crustacea of the Plankton.

It is, of course, possible that the lake should freeze when the
bottom is at any temperature between 4° and zero. It is hardly
probable, however, that it often freezes permanently when the
bottom is lower than 1° or higher than 2.5°. Below the ice the
temperature of the water rises rapidly, being half a degree or
even more within less than half a meter of the ice, and below
this level the temperature rises very slowly and regularly to the
bottom of the lake, the difference between the water at 0.5 m.
and the bottom rarely exceeding two degrees. The mud is or¬
dinarily decidedly higher in temperature than the water just
above it. (See FitzGerald, ’95, p. 81.) The difference between
the temperature of the mud and the water half a meter from the
bottom was sometimes found to be as great as 0.7-0. 9° in
1894-5, and 1895-6, by the aid of the water bottle; while the
thermophone in 1897 showed differences of 0.3-0. 8°. This dif¬
ference varies in different parts of the lake without any assign¬
able reason.

The temperature of the water of the lake rises during the
winter, especially during the latter part of February and March
(Cf. Apstein, ’96, p. 18). In 1895 the temperature reached
nearly 2.5° at the bottom, and 1.5° close to the ice on the 27th
of March. In 1896, on March 28th, the temperature at one-
half meter was 2.9°, at the bottom (18 meters) 3.1°. This was
a rise of from 1.5 to 2° during the winter. In 1897, the tem¬
perature on January 23rd was: 1 m., 0.6°; 18 m. , 1.8°, On
March 29th, at 1 m. the temperature was 1.4°, at 18 m. , 2.1°.
This warming of the water is due to the sun. If it were due to
warm water coming from springs the bottom temperature would
necessarily rise to 4° before the change appeared in the upper
water. But this is not the case. The temperature at the bot¬
tom has not reached 4°, in any of the three winters during
which observations have been taken, until after the breaking up
of the ice in the spring. It would appear, therefore, that this
warming must be due to heat which enters the water from above.

While this rise in temperature is very gradual and is small in
amount, it has important biological results. The reproduction of
Cyclops and of the rotifers goes on very much more rapidly at
a temperature above 1.5° than at a temperature near 1°. In-

Temperatures — Spring.

291

deed, at the lower temperature the progress of the development
of eggs is almost suspended, while at a temperature of 2.5 to 3°
the development of eggs into nauplii and of nauplii into young
Cyclops goes on with considerable rapidity, and at 1.5-2° it
is present, though decidedly slower. The history of Cyclops in
the spring, therefore, depends to a considerable degree on this
warming of the water under the ice. If the winter is cold, so
that the warming does not take place, or the rise is only slight,
the number of Cyclops may remain almost unaltered during the
winter; while conditions like those of the winter of 1895-96
permit the development of large numbers of young Cyclops
ready to take advantage of the increased warmth and food in
early spring, and so to develop enormous numbers of this genus.

The spring rise of temperature.

A glance at Figs. 1 and 2 will show that the warming of
the lake in the springs of 1895 and 1896 was singularly alike.
In each year the month of April was pretty steadily warm, and
the surface of the lake rose rapidly and uniformly in tempera¬
ture for about six weeks following the breaking up of the ice.
Immediately after the disappearance of the ice the temperature
of the lake frequently falls, since the breaking up of the ice is
often caused by a north wind accompanied by a much lower
temperature than had preceded the breaking up of the ice. This
fall in the temperature of the water amounted to over one de¬
gree in 1896. But this slight drop is quickly recovered, and if
the weekly averages are considered it will be seen that the sur¬
face temperatures in both years rose rapidly and steadily. For
a time the rise in temperature at the bottom is as rapid as that
at the surface. The length of this time varies, of course, with
the amount of wind. A succession of warm days, accompanied
or followed by high wind, will mix the warmed surface water
with the body of the lake and thus secure uniformity in temper¬
ature. In neither 1895 nor 1896 were these conditions long
realized; the temperature of the bottom began to lag behind that
of the surface, and by the middle of May there was a difference
of 7° to 8° between the surface temperature and that of the bot-

292

Birge — The Crustacea of the Plankton .

tom. In six weeks the temperature of the bottom had risen
about 5° or 6°, while that of the surface had advanced about 15°.

The relation of the wind to this warming of the lake is well
stated by Whipple (’95, p. 207).

In both of the years of observation, and also in 1897, there
came in the middle or latter part of May a marked decline in tem¬
perature accompanied with high northerly winds. The effect of
this was two-fold : first, the surface water was cooled; secondly, the
wind mingled pretty thoroughly the water of the lake, thus caus¬
ing a sharp rise of temperature in the lower strata. On the 12th
of May, 1895, the difference in temperature between top (15.6°)
and bottom (7.7°) was 7.9°; on the 16th the difference was only
1.5°, and on the 18th only one degree (12.6°-11.6°). On May
11th, 1896, there was a difference of 8.3° between top (18°) and
bottom (9.7°), and a thermocline was evidently formed be¬
tween 4 and 6 meters. On May 17th the difference between top
(15.6°) and bottom (13.4°) was only 2.2°. Thus in both
years there was a rapid rise of 3-4° in the temperature
of the bottom water. It is probable that if temperatures could
have been taken at the most favorable time the lake would have
been found nearly homothermous in late May, at a temperature
not far from 11° in 1895, and 13.5° in 1896. The effect
of the spring warming was therefore to warm a mass of water
18 to 24 meters deep from an average temperature between 2°
and 3° in March to an average of 11° to 14° at the latter part
of May ; with the differences between the top and bottom not ex¬
ceeding 1° to 2° at the beginning and end of the period.

From these facts it appears that the bottom temperature of
the lake may vary greatly in different summers, and that the
bottom temperatures of lakes of the same depth, in the same
region and season may also vary greatly — much more than the
temperatures of the surface. Four factors are effective in de¬
termining the bottom temperature; three constant, and one
variable: (1) the depth of the lake, (2) its area relatively to its
depth, (3) the shape of the lake and the nature of its surround¬
ings as favoring or hindering the influence of the wind, and (4)
the amount of warmth and of wind during the spring and the times
of occurrence of gales and the succession of warm and cold

Temperatures — Summer.

293

waves. The same factors are also the chief powers in deter¬
mining the position of the thermocline and its rate of down¬
ward movement.

Very few of the inland lakes of Wisconsin are more than 25-30
meters in depth, and their bottom temperatures vary more with
relation to their area than to any other one factor. In the
Oconomowoc lakes, which are in the same region as lake Men-
dota, and are of the same depth approximately, but are much
smaller in area, the temperature of the bottom water does
not rise much above 7° during the summer. The same is
true of Cochituate lake, Massachusetts, having a depth of 60
feet and an area of less than one and one-half square miles.
(FitzG-erald, ’95. ) Green lake and lake Geneva, Wisconsin,
both of them not greatly differing in area from lake Mendota,
but having a depth of 150 to 200 feet, have bottom temperatures
of about 6°.

In a lake of large area, like lake Mendota, and about 24 me¬
ters in greatest depth, the temperature at the bottom may dif¬
fer widely in different summers. In 1896 the bottom tempera¬
ture at 18 meters at the first of June was nearly 15°;
in 1895 about 12°, and in 1897 about 11.4°. At 22 meters it
was about 0.5° lower in each year. Had it not been for the
gales in the latter part of May the bottom temperatures would
have been much lower; possibly from 7° to 9°. The extreme pos¬
sible range of bottom temperature in summer for lake Men¬
dota in different years may perhaps be stated as from 8° as a
minimum to 18°, as a maximum, and the probable range as
from 10° to 15°.

Summer temperatures.

The temperature of the surface rose rapidly and evenly after the
fall in the temperature and mixture of water in the latter part of
May. In 1895 the weekly average rose from about 13.6° to 22.5°
in three weeks, a rate of nearly three degrees per week. In 1896
the surface rose from 15.4° to 25.1° in six weeks, rising some
what less regularly and at a much lower average rate. The period
of the summer maximum was reached about the middle of June
in 1895, when the average temperature was 23.5°, and about

294

Birge — The Crustacea of the Plankton.

the 1st of July in 1898, when the maximum was about 2.5°
higher. The maximum surface temperature recorded was 25.2°
Aug. 1, 1895, and 27.8° July 28, 1896, both at 5 p. m. After
the maximum has been reached there follows a period in
which the temperature of the surface is nearly stationary, and
in which the weekly averages do not vary more than two
degrees. This period was exceptionally long in 1895, lasting
from the middle of June to the third week of September, about
three and one-half months, in which time the weekly averages
were between 22° and 24°. In 1896 it lasted only about six
weeks, from the first week of July to the middle of August,
at a temperature of 24° to 26°. At the close of this period the
surface temperature falls and the decline once started goes on
pretty uniformly as shown by the weekly averages, until the
lake nears the freezing point. In 1895 the temperature fell 3°
in as many days at the last of September. In 1896 there was
a fall of 4.4° during the last ten days of August.

At the opening of the summer period the temperature of the
bottom rises somewhat rapidly in the latter part of May, gain¬
ing perhaps 1.5-2° in two weeks. After this the bottom
temperature is stationary or rises very slowly, not gaining
a degree in three months. The bottom temperature at 18 me¬
ters lay between 13° and 14° in 1895; close to 15° in 1896,
and near 12° in 1897. At the depth of 22-23 meters the
temperature was from 0.4° to 0.6° lower in each year. Late in
September the water of the lake becomes mingled from top to
bottom and the temperature becomes uniform. At this time the
bottom temperature rises rapidly by the mixture of the bottom
water with the warmer water above.

During the early parts of the period when the bottom tem¬
perature is nearly stationary, that of the surface rises until the
difference between bottom and surface amounts to 10° and even
15° in late July or early August. As the surface tempera¬
ture declines, the difference between top and bottom becomes
less and usually amounts to between 4° and 5° in late Septem¬
ber, just before the time when the lake is rendered homother-
mous by the fall gales.

Temperatures,

295

The Thermocline.

During the summer, then, the difference in temperature
between the surface and the bottom may amount to 10°, 12°, or
even 15°. The decline in temperature from surface to bottom
is, however, not uniform as the depth increases. If a series
of temperatures is taken about the first of August it will be
found that there is a layer of surface water from 8 to 12
meters in thickness whose temperature is nearly uniform, the
difference between that of the surface and that at 9 or 10
meters being usually only a fraction of a degree and frequently
nothing. Immediately below this mass of warm water lies a
stratum in which the decline of temperature is extremely rapid.
This stratum may be two or three meters in thickness with a de¬
cline of as many degrees per meter. It may be only a meter or
even less in thickness, and a decline of as many as nine degrees
has been observed in a single meter. This layer in which the
temperature changes rapidly may be known as the thermo¬
cline — the Sprungschicht of German authors. Below the ther¬
mocline the temperature decreases toward the bottom at first
more rapidly and then more slowly as the depth of the water
increases, but never showing the sudden transitions which are
characteristic for the thermocline, the rate of decline rarely
exceeding one degree per meter of depth. The thermocline was
first noticed by Richter (’91) in a study of the Alpine lakes.
Its origin was attributed by him to the alternate action of the
sun warming the surface in the day, followed by a cooling at
night. The alternation of conditions resulted in the formation
of a layer of water of nearly uniform temperature above the
colder bottom water. I do not wish to argue against the cor¬
rectness of this theory as applied to the lakes which have been
studied by Richter and others, but in lake Mendota the concur¬
rence of gentle winds and hot weather are essential to the for¬
mation of the thermocline. In other words, the warmth of the
surface water, received from the sun, is distributed by the wind
through a certain depth of the lake, a depth which is propor¬
tional to the violence of the wind and the area of the lake.
(Cf. FitzGerald, ’95 ; Whipple, ’95.) It can readily be seen that

296

Birge — The Crustacea of the Plankton.

in a lake of the size of Mendota the water would be of uniform
temperature from top to bottom if the lake were always agitated
by violent winds. On the other hand, if the weather were per¬
fectly calm, the lake would be warmed only to the depth which
the rays of the sun could directly penetrate. As a matter of
fact, the formation of the thermocline is due to the concurrence
of gentle winds and a temperature high enough to warm the sur¬
face water rapidly.

The temperature observations on lake Mendota have been
made chiefly at a station about one-half of a mile from the south
shore. On bright days in May, with a gentle north (on shore)
breeze, it not infrequently happens that a thermocline is
formed, there being a mass of water four or five meters in
thickness of uniform temperature, below which there is a rapid
descent in temperature to the cooler water below. When, how¬
ever, the direction of the wind changes and blows off shore,
this warm water is carried to the other side of the lake, and
the temperature shows a fairly uniform rate of descent from the sur¬
face to the bottom. If, however, this condition of warm weather
and gentle wind continues, there is produced a mass of warm
water on the surface, so thick that however the wind may blow
there is always a warm stratum floating on the colder water;
and when this condition has been established, a permanent
thermocline has been formed.

A study of Figs. 3 and 4 will show the formation and movements
of the thermocline as disclosed by the weekly averages. It will be
seen that in the early part of May the gain of heat is rapidly dis¬
tributed through the whole mass of water. The bottom lags behind
the surface, of course, but the difference in temperature between
them rarely exceeds 5° and the temperature of the surface water
reaches the bottom in 10 days or 2 weeks. During the rapid
warming of the early summer this condition ceases. The sur¬
face warms rapidly, the winds are not constant or strong
enough to distribute the heat throughout the water, and the
own ward movement of the isotherms no longer extends to the
bottom, but they penetrate for an increasingly shorter distance
into the water. In 1895, for example, the surface reached an
average temperature of 15° during the last week in May,

Trans. Wis. Acad., Vol. XI.

Plate XVII.

.

Plate XVIII.

Trans. Wis. Acad., Vol. XI.

Depth. April.

May.
15° 16°

Aug.

25°

Oct. Depth.
15°

April. May. June. July. Aug. Sept. Oct.

Fig. 4. — Summer temperatures, 1896. See p. 296.

Temperatures — The Thermocline.

297

and the isotherm of 15° penetrated nearly 10 meters of
the lake in a week; it went down 3 meters further in another
week, but thereafter moved downward at a rate little exceeding
one meter per month. In 1896 the 15° isotherm was in¬
cluded in the May depression of temperature, but in late May
it moved downward nearly 15 meters in one week, 1.5 in the
week following, and only one meter in the next two and a half
months. As the temperature of the surface rises above 15°
the warmth penetrates to a distance increasingly small and
the isotherms accordingly bend toward the horizontal at a
level nearer the surface. The gain of heat, however, becomes
rapidly distributed through the upper water to a depth of 8 to 10
meters, so that the thermocline becomes permanent at about
these depths. When the thermocline has once been formed it
moves downward very slowly. Beginning at about 8 meters in
late June, it descends somewhat rapidly to about 10 meters,
but after that moves downward slowly and irregularly, its
descent depending rather upon the wind than upon the tem¬
perature of the air. In both years the thermocline reached
the bottom of the lake in the last of September, which would
make its downward movement about 4 meters per month, but
the last 5 or 6 meters were passed very rapidly in consequence
of the gales of late September.

In 1895 the 18° isotherm was near the center of the ther¬
mocline; it oscillated about the 9 meter level in late June,
sank nearly 3 meters in July, about 2.5 meters in August,
and 4.5 in September, the last 3 in the latter half of the month.
In 1896 the 20° isotherm was near the center of the ther¬
mocline at the outset and crossed the 6 meter level about
July 1st. It lay at 7.5 meters during the first week of July,
reached 9 meters about the 20th of the month, oscillated be¬
tween 9 and 10 meters for more than three weeks following that
date — weeks of unusually hot weather — until the middle of
August. At that time the weather changed and continued cool
with much northerly wind, under whose influence the thermo¬
cline rapidly sank more than 2 meters during the last half of
the month and continued this downward movement through Sep¬
tember until it disappeared in the latter part of the month.

^98

Birge — The Crustacea of the Plankton.

These temperature diagrams, which give the weekly averages
'of temperature, do not show the actual condition of tempera¬
ture, and especially the temperature of the thermocline, on any
single date. The thermocline oscillates up and down under or¬
dinary conditions of weather through a meter or more; and the
effect of averaging the observations of a week is to increase the
apparent thickness of the thermocline and thus to diminish the
rapidity of descent of temperature in it. Without any consid¬
erable change either of wind or temperature the thermocline may
oscillate through 2 or even more meters. The action of severe
wind is much more apparent. Fig. 5 shows temperature dia¬
grams for August 2, 24, 26, 27, and 28, 1898. It will be seen
that the diagrams for the 2nd and 24th of the month were
closely similar, although the surface water had cooled a degree
or more and the thermocline had descended about 1 meter. On
the 24th there was a decided fall in temperature of the air ac¬
companied by violent winds from the northwest. The surface
water fell more than one degree in two days, while the thermo¬
cline was temporarily depressed at the observing station more
than 4 meters. It lay on the 24th between 10 and 11 meters;
on the 26th between 14.5 and 16 meters. The temperature at
the bottom, 18 meters, was raised about 0.4°, at 14 meters 5.6°,
at 12 meters 4.3°, at 10 meters there was a loss of about 0.6°.
On the 27th, the wind having fallen to a calm, the thermocline
had risen nearly 3 meters, while on the 28th, with a gentle
south wind, it had risen still further, and the temperature curve
had greatly changed in form. During these three days the
temperature to a depth of 8 meters had varied very little — too
little to show in the diagram. This example of changes which
are going on all the time, shows the following facts : 1. The

isotherms of diagrams 3 and 4 represent only the average posi¬
tion of the thermocline. 2. The decline of temperature in the
thermocline is ordinarily much more rapid at any given date
than is indicated by the average of the week. In other words,
the thermocline is not nearly as thick as the week’s average
would indicate. 3. The greatest daily variation in temperature
during summer is found at the thermocline, where a range of 5
or more degrees may be registered in a day. These variations

Trans. Wis. Acad., Vol. XI.

Plate XIX.

14° 16° 18° 20* 22* 24*

Fig. 5. — Temperatures, August, 1896. See p.
298. The dates of observations are indicated on
the temperature curves.

Temperatures— Autumn.

299

are not caused by the warming or cooling of the water but by
the fluctuations in the level of the thermocline. These fluctua¬
tions go on to a certain extent without an assignable cause, but
the larger movements* at the station where observations were
taken, are plainly due to the wind. 4. The upper layers of the
vcool water become mingled by the action of the wind with the
lower part of the warm water above it and are taken into the
'warm layer. Thus the thermocline moves constantly downward
^during summer, while the water below it is little or not at all
^changed in temperature. 5. The water below the thermocline
is practically stagnant during the summer, and is cut off from
direct exposure to sun and air. As a result, it may become unfit
to support most forms of animal life, as is the case in lake Men-
dota. 6. The larger changes in temperature below the thermo-
'dine are due to currents caused by winds.

Autumn temperatures.

By the latter part of September the temperature of the sur¬
face water has fallen so that it exceeds that of the bottom by
barely 5°. At this time also gales from the north are
.apt to occur whose effect is to break the thermocline and
render the lake homothermous. This result is reached at
•different dates for different depths, but in both years the
lake became homothermous in its deepest parts about two or
three days after the time when a similar condition was reached
•at 18 meters. In each year the homothermous condition was
reached at a temperature not much exceeding 16°; and in
.general the temperature for the 1st of October may be stated
as about 16°.

The breaking up of the thermocline is accompanied by a
marked rise in the temperature of the bottom water. In 1895 this
rise amounted to 2.8° from the 26th to the 28th of September;
and in 1896, to about 1.5° in the same time.

During October and November the temperature falls with
singular uniformity, as indicated by the weekly averages, pass¬
ing the temperature of the maximum density of water late in
November. The decline continues steadily until a temperature
is reached between 2° and 3°, after which the cooling goes

300

Blrge — The Crustacea of the Plankton.

on very slowly. The difference of temperature between the
surface and bottom of the lake during this time is very small.
In the morning the lake is entirely homothermous. On bright,
calm days, the temperature of the surface rises, and may become
as much as 2° warmer than the bottom. This condition
of things, however, is uncommon, and ordinarily it is difficult to
find differences between the surface and bottom exceeding 0.1° or
0.2°. It is a feature of especial interest in lake Mendota
that the fall homothermous period begins so early and at so
high a temperature. The autumnal multiplication of many of
the species of Crustacea goes on after this period has been fully
established, and their vertical distribution at this time is there¬
fore independent of temperature. In the deeper lakes, or
in smaller lakes of the same depth the homothermous condition
is reached much later. In Green lake, as reported by Professor
Marsh (Marsh, ’97, p. 187), it occurs in November at a bottom
temperature of 4.7°, and at a depth of about 45 meters.
The rise at the bottom was 1.4°. In Cochituate lake, near
Boston, at a depth of 18 meters, the homothermous condition
is reached at about the same time, and at the same temperature.
(FitzGerald, ’95, p. 74.) This lake has an area of less than one and
a half square miles.

During the last of November and the early part of December
cooling goes on very slowly. The surface temperature fre¬
quently falls to zero, as the result of a calm night, and the lake
may skim with ice, which is broken up again by the wind.

The Annual Distribution of the Crustacea.

801

THE ANNUAL DISTRIBUTION OF THE CRUSTACEA.

I. General Relations of the Plankton Crustacea.

Figs. 6-11.

Lake Mendota has eleven species of limnetic Crustacea, which
may be grouped as follows :

A. Perennial species —

a. Appearing in great numbers —

Copepoda.

Diaptomus Oregonensis Lillj.

Cyclops brevispinosus Herrick.

Cyclops Leuckartii Sars.

Cladocera.

Daphnia hyalina Leyd.

Chydorus sphaericus O. F. M. var. minor Lillj.1

b. Usually appearing as isolated individuals —

Copepoda.

Epischura lacustris Forbes.

Ergasilus depressus Sars.2

B. Periodic species —

a. Appearing in great numbers —

Cladocera.

Daphnia pulex DeGr. var. pulicaria Forbes.
Daphnia retrocurva Forbes.3
Diaphanosoma brachyurum Sars.

b. Appearing as isolated individuals —

Cladocera.

Leptodora hyalina Lillj.

To these might be added Bosmina of which a very few indi¬
viduals appear, chiefly in winter, but of which there are never
enough to make a fair determination of their number a possi-

’Sometimes absent but not properly periodic.

2 The specific identification is not certain.

3 Formerly classed as a variety of D. Kahlbergiensis or D. cucullata.

802

Birge — The Crustacea of the Plankton.

bility. Most of the littoral forms of Crustacea also appear oc¬
casionally in the plankton, especially after storms, as also do
Hydrachnids and Ostracoda.

Of these eleven species, the isolated forms do not contribute
any appreciable addition to the number of limnetic Crustacea.
Their combined number is rarely as great as one per cent, of
the total Crustacea present. They have, therefore, been neg¬
lected in determining the total number of Crustacea, and this
general account will deal with the eight abundant species only.

The limnetic Crustacea on lake Mendota show a rhythm of de¬
velopment quite complex, but recurring in closely similar form
during the time covered by my observations, July, 1894 — De¬
cember, 1896. (Fig. 6.) Observations less numerous have been
continued to the present date, September, 1897, and show a
similar development during the present year. The following
periods can be distinguished:

Winter minimum .

Spring maximum .

Early summer depression
Mid-summer maximum..

Late summer minimum . . .

Autumn maximum .

There are, thus, three maxima and minima which are of un¬
equal value. The spring maximum is by far the greatest, the
Crustacea reaching a maximum number of 3,000,000 per sq. m.
of surface, and in 1896 reaching an average of nearly 2,500,000
for the first half of May. This maximum is due almost entirely
to the rapid development of Cyclops brevispinosus. After the
maximum has passed, this species rapidly declines in number,
and the total number of Crustacea sinks with it, so that by tho
middle or last of June the number is reduced to less than half
the maximum. This is the early summer depression, which may
be greatest at any time from the middle of June to the first
week in July. A rapid, but slight, recovery follows, due chiefly
to renewed reproductive activity on the part of the species al¬
ready present in the lake, leading to the mid-summer maximum,
in July, Then follows a decline, usually somewhat slow, reach-

December to April, then increase to the
In May, followed by a great decline to the
June or early July,

July,

Late July or August,

September and October, declining to the'
winter minimum, through late October,
November and early December.

Total Crustacea, 1894-1896. Scale, 1 vertical space = 200,000 Crustacea per sq. meters. See p. 302.

Trans. Wis. Acad., Vol. XI* Plate XX.

The Annual Distribution of the Crustacea . P03

ing a point of greatest depression about the last of August.
During this period of decline, most of the periodic species are
introduced, but their numbers do not usually compensate for the
falling off in the number of the permanent species. In 1896, how¬
ever, Chydorus increased so rapidly during this time as to more
than counterbalance the decline in other species.

In September a rise in the number of Crustacea begins, caused
chiefly by increase in Daphnia of all species and in Cyclops.
This increase culminates in the last of September or in October.
This is the fail maximum, which, in general, is decidedly greater
than the early summer maximum, the Crustacea at this time
reaching a number perhaps two-thirds as great as that of the
spring maximum. During the later part of the fall and the
early winter, the number declines very rapidly at first, and then
more or less slowly, until the winter conditions are established
with the freezing of the lake in December or early January.
The rapidity of the decline varies in different seasons, depend¬
ing upon the abundance of the periodic forms and upon the num¬
ber of young Cyclops and Daphnia hyalina , which are produced
in late autumn. The climatic conditions also affect the rapidity
of decline; the rate of fall of temperature, the storms, etc., hav¬
ing a decided influence in hastening or retarding the approach
of the winter conditions. Near the last of December, however,
these conditions are fairly established, and the Crustacea pass
through the winter with but little change in number and aver¬
aging from 100,000 to 200,000 per sq. m. of surface.

A glance at Fig. 6 will show that this complex rhythm
recurred with an exactness quite surprising. While the abso¬
lute number of Crustacea present varies considerably, the shape
of the curves indicating the movement of the limnetic popula¬
tion is strikingly similar. The resemblance is the more surpris¬
ing when we consider that these maxima and minima are due to
the increase and decrease of eight species of Crustacea, whose
numbers are independent of each other, and which appear in
very different numbers at different seasons and at the same sea¬
son in different years. The lines of diagram 6 represent, there¬
fore, the sums of a number of independent variables, never fewer

304 Birge—The Crustacea of the Plankton.

than three in winter nor more than eight in the period from
July to October.

In the study of this rhythm of development, three facts may
well be noticed in the first place. First, the number of Crus¬
tacea in lake Mendota is to a singular extent dependent upon
the perennial forms. In other lakes it often happens that the
periodic forms are the dominant members of the summer popu¬
lation. Of these forms, Bosmina is practically entirely absent
from lake Mendota; Diaphanosoma appears in small numbers
only; and Daphnia retrocurva only rarely equals in number the
related species, Daphnia hyalina. There is, therefore, no great
increase in numbers in summer dependent on summer forms
alone. Indeed, the influence of the periodic species is not
greatly felt until September, and the shape of the developmental
curve would not be greatly altered, were the periodic species
omitted.

Second, Chydorus occupies a peculiar place among the plank¬
ton Crustacea. It is properly a marginal form, and appears in
the limnoplankton only under favorable conditions. Apstein
has connected its presence in the limnetic region with that of
Chroococcaceae. My observations seem to connect its abundance
in the limnoplankton with an abundant development of these and
similar plants. In other words, it seems true for lake Mendota that
periods when the diatoms and Ceratium are the only abundant algae,
are periods when Chydorus is present in small numbers; while
in periods when the Schizophyceae or Anabcena abound, Chydorus
is also abundant. The maxima of this species, therefore, have
occurred without close reference to temperature or season, and
may come at any time from June to late October. These maxima
are also very irregular in amount, number, and duration.

Chydorus , also, is peculiar in the limnoplankton on account of
its small size. It contains little more animal matter than a good-
sized nauplius, and decidedly less than an embryo Daphnia.
While, therefore, a great abundance of one form of plankton
Crustacea usually affects unfavorably the number of other spe¬
cies, Chydorus appears to be more independent of the presence
of other forms. It seems, as it were, superposed on the regular
limnoplankton, rather than a part of the general limnetic life,

The Annual Distribution of the Crustacea. 805

and its rise and fall seem measurably independent of the condi¬
tions to which the other species respond.

A third fact concerns Daphnia pulicaria. This species had a
biennial period of development about thirteen months long, ex¬
tending from July to August of the following year, and a period
of rest, in which it was almost entirely wanting in the plankton,
extending from late August to the following July. In 1894 a
few representatives of this species were found in July, and it
wholly disappeared in August. In 1895 they were an important
constituent of the crustacean life from. July on, increased greatly
in late fall and early winter, and continued numerous through¬
out the winter. In April and May, they increased enormously,
producing males and sexually mature females, and then declined,
practically disappearing in September. This species was there¬
fore a constant and important factor in the number of the Crus¬
tacea during the last half of 1895, the following winter, and the
spring and early summer of 1898. It was absent during the
latter half of 1894 and the spring and early summer of 1895.

I will now pass to a brief discussion of the general crustacean
life as it appears in the different seasons. I shall reserve most
of the discussion of the causes and conditions affecting the num¬
ber of Crustacea to a later chapter.

The Crustacea in Winter.

All of the perennial Crustacea are, of course, constituents of
the winter plankton, and their numbers are not very unequal.
The number is by no means small, averaging about 125,000 per
sq. m. from January to the middle of April, 1895, and about
235,000 from January to April 1st, 1896. The following list
shows the species present during the two winters in question.
Table III. — Species, with average number of each per square meter.

1895.

1896.

Diaptomus .................. . . . . . . . .

24,500

52,100

46,200

84,800

120,900

22,700

48,400

7,900

244,500

Cyclops . . . . . .

Daphnia hyalina . . . . .... . . .

Daphnia pulicaria . . . . . . .

Chydorus . . . .

Total. . . . . . .

122,800

20

306

Birge — The Crustacea of the Plankton.

It will be seen that in 1895 there were present only three
species, while in 1896 two others were added. In 1897 the con¬
ditions were essentially similar to those of 1895. Indeed, while
the time from which my observations have extended by no means
warrants any positive assertion in the matter, there seem to be
distinct indications of a biennial periodicity in the plankton in
respect to Crustacea, algae, and rotifers. Observations must be
continued, however, over a much longer time before any definite
statement can be made on this subject.

The winter numbers of each species are on the whole singu¬
larly constant through the season, as will be seen by reference
to the tables giving the numbers of the several species. The
death rate must be very low. During the period, January-
March, the variation in the number of Crustacea taken in
twenty or more catches made each winter vary to an extent
hardly greater than might be found in catches made close to¬
gether on the same day. It would be very difficult to prove
any considerable decline in numbers of Diaptomus or Daphnia
during the winter and they do not increase by reproduction.
Cyclops produces eggs much more abundantly than the other
species, and the adults seem to become fewer in late winter and
late spring, but their number is more than made good by young
individuals. In 1895 Cyclops began to show numerous egg clus¬
ters in February, and about ten per cent, of the specimens were
egg-bearing females. These eggs developed very slowly, and
few nauplii and almost no young Cyclops were seen. In 1896
the reproduction of the Cyclops hardly stopped at all during
winter. In the middle of January nearly one-half the Cyclops
bore eggs, and numerous nauplii were present. By the middle
of March the nauplii had grown to young Cyclops , from three-
fourths to seven-eighths of the total number of the species were
immature young.

The winter minimum therefore falls in the period before
Cyclops has begun this winter reproduction. In 1895 the mini¬
mum came in January and in February in 1896. Yet through¬
out the winter months the numbers are so constant that no well
marked minimum can be placed at any date. In 1897 the condi¬
tion of Cyclops was intermediate between those of 1895 and 1896.

The Annual Distribution of the Crustacea . 807

Young Cyclops began to appear under the ice, but the condi¬
tion of the species in the middle of March resembled that in
the middle of February in 1896, and the progress of the develop¬
ment was in general about a month later.

The rotifers also show similar differences in reproduction in
different seasons. Of this group there are regularly present
during the winter, Triathra , two species of Notholca , Anurea
aculeata, , cochlearis , and brevispi?iosa1 Synchaeta pectinata , and a
species of Oecistes. All these reproduce more or less actively,
and become quite abundant before the breaking up of the ice.
Other species are present in smaller numbers.

The difference in the reproductive activity of these animals
in different years seems to depend upon the temperature of
the water, as will be explained at length in a later section of
this paper. In all seasons there is an abundance of food. One
of the chief winter algae is Aphanizomenon, which continues its
development vigorously throughout the entire winter. Several
species of the diatoms are also present, and in 1896 Fragilla-
ria and Diatoma contributed largely to the plankton algae, but
in 1895 and 1897 were insignificant in quantity, as compared
with Aphanizomenon. There is no season of the year in which
the Crustacea fully overtake the food supply, except at the time of
the spring maximum. During the winter the Crustacea are ac¬
tive and fat, but those species which do not reproduce do not
increase in size. Careful measurements of numerous individuals
of Daphnia hyalina showed no appreciable increase in the aver¬
age size between December, 1894, and April, 1895. When the
temperature of the water is between 1.5 degrees and 2.25 de¬
grees C., Cyclops develops very slowly or not at all from the
nauplius state to that of the immature Cyclops , but at tempera¬
tures above 2.5 degrees the development goes on, although, of
course, more slowly than at higher temperatures.

The Crustacea in Spring.

Lake Mendota has no large affluent, and the breaking up of
the ice is slow, since it is due to the combined action of rain,
sun and wind. The date of the disappearance of the ice differs
greatly in different years. In 1895 the last expedition on the

308

Birge — The Crustacea of the Plankton.

ice was made March 27th; in 1896, March 29th. The first col¬
lection in water was made April 12th, 1895, April 4th, 1896.
In general, the lake opens either wholly or over the greater
portion of its surface about the 1st of April. The period im¬
mediately following the opening of the lake seems to be a time
of trial for most of the limnetic Crustacea. The temperature of
the water increases very slowly at first, or, indeed, may be
lowered temporarily; and the surface is, of course, agitated by
gales which are so frequent in April.

During the spring Cyclops ordinarily increases in numbers
with a rapidity dependent on the rise of temperature in the
water, and upon the reproductive condition of the species at the
time of the disappearance of the ice. Diaptomus and D. hyalina
do not begin to rise in numbers until after the first of May, as
may be seen by reference to Pigs. 8 and 9. During April these
species are wont to decline in number, so that the smallest
catches made during the year ordinarily come in the latter part
of April or the first of May. Cyclops, however, increases with
great rapidity. Reference to the diagrams and tables will show
that in 1895 Cyclops increased more than fourfold in number
during two weeks, and that this increased number was nearly
quadrupled during the next two weeks. In 1896 Cyclops ad¬
vanced with even greater rapidity and about two weeks earlier
than in 1895. In each year the increase in Cyclops was about
a month in advance of that of Diaptomus or Daphnia hyalina , and
in 1896, about two weeks ahead of the multiplication of Daph¬
nia pulicaria. The spring maximum is reached during the
month of May, either in the first or the latter part of the
month, according to the temperature. At the maximum the
population of the lake consists largely of Cyclops , about 70 per
cent, of the total in 1895, and 80 per cent, in 1896 consisting of
this species.

The multiplication of the Crustacea and rotifers during the
spring seems to be more rapid than that of the algae, and in late
spring at the time of the maximum, the algae are far less
numerous with respect to the Crustacea than at any other season
of the year. In a word, the eaters multiply in excess of the
food. This undue multiplication of the Crustacea puts a check

Trans. Wis. Acad., Vol. XI. Kale XXL

be

a

3s

e3

<D

I

00

6

April. Mat. June. July. Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec.

Fig. 9. — Leading Crustacea, 1896. Scale, 1 space = 100,000 Crustacea per sq. meter. See p. 308, 316.

8

8

H

gj

2

April. Mat. June. July. Aug. Sept. Oct. Diaptomus

The Annual Distribution of the Crustacea. 309

on their development. At the time of the maximum Cyclops
may number more than 2,500,000 per sq. m. of surface, but of
this enormous number only a very small fraction ever become
sexually mature. In any catch made at this season of the year,
not more than five per cent, are mature, and not more than one
or two per cent, are egg-bearing females. The great majority,
therefore, of these Cyclops die without reaching maturity, and
after the maximum has been passed the number of Cyclops de¬
creases even more rapidly than it rose. The decline may go so
far that in June the number of this species is scarcely larger
than in March.

During this decline of Cyclops , the other perennial species are
increasing in number, but their combined increase is more
than counterbalanced by the decrease in the number of Cyclops ,
so that the late spring and early summer show a marked decline
in the total number of Crustacea.

The Crustacea in Summer.

The summer life of the Crustacea begins with the decline from
the spring maximum to the early-summer minimum. This de¬
cline is dependent in part on the decrease of Cyclops. In part,
also, it depends on the fact that both species of Dap/mia regu¬
larly decline after a brief maximum in late May or early June,
and in 1895 Diaptomus showed the same decline. The total
number of Crustacea may be thus reduced to one-fourth, or less,
of the number present at the spring maximum. The lowest
point of numbers was about the middle of June in 1896, and
about the first of July in 1895. In 1894, when observations be¬
gan, during the first week of July, the Crustacea were apparently
at their minimum, which was exceptionally low in that year,
owing to the peculiar character of the vegetation during that
season. It was not greater than the number in the winter of
1895-96.

The Crustacea increase in number after the early-summer
minimum. This increase seems to be due to two causes. First,
the development of species hitherto represented in small num¬
bers. In all years there comes at this time an increase of Cy¬
clops Leuckartii. The numbers of this species differ greatly in

810 Birge — The Crustacea of the Plankton.

different seasons. In 1894 it was only a small fraction of the
total number of Cyclops present, while in 1896 it was quite as
numerous as Cyclops brevispinosus. In 1896 Chydorus developed
in great numbers in the latter part of June and early July.
This development coincided with the presence of great quantities
of Aphanizomenon. In 1895, which was characterized by a pre¬
dominance of diatoms among the plankton algae during the sum¬
mer, there was no marked development of Chydorus until au¬
tumn. The second cause of this midsummer increase is the re¬
newed reproductive activity of the perennial species, especially
Daphnia hyalina. These species has a marked reproductive period
and maximum in the spring, (Fig 16) at which time from five to nine
eggs may be produced. After the production of the spring
broods the reproduction is greatly checked, and the species de¬
clines rapidly in number; but when the summer temperature of
the water has been established, the species again reproduces, so
that its numbers increase rapidly. Only two eggs are, however,
regularly produced at once during the summer.

The result of these additions of new forms and increase of
old ones gives a marked rise of the total number of the Crus¬
tacea in late June and early July. This rise was very feeble
in 1894, owing to the wholly peculiar condition of the vege¬
tation, as stated elsewhere.

From this mid-summer maximum all of the species, except
Chydorus , usually decline steadily and somewhat uniformly until
the middle or the last of August. Three possible causes may
be assigned for this decline: first, the exclusion of the Crustacea
from the deeper water of the lake; second, the increased tem¬
perature of that part of the lake inhabitable by them; third,
the great development of Ceratium , which regularly* becomes a
predominant alga during this period, and which is much less
available as food than the diatoms and Schizophyceae. Cera¬
tium exerts a more unfavorable influence on the number of the
Crustacea from the fact that the young Crustacea are quite un¬
able to eat it. It is so large and its shell is so hard that they
cannot master it, yet Ceratium occupies, with its enormous
swarms, the upper strata of water, which naturally belong to
the young Crustacea. While, therefore, the adult Crustacea may

The Annual Distribution of the Crustacea , 811

find abundant food in the deeper strata, the young are unable
to develop, and thus the total number of the limnetic Crustacea
slowly declines. The insect enemies of the Crustacea, notably
Corethra, are also very numerous at this time, but the number
of these which I have found is not great enough to account for
the decline in the number of the Crustacea, and the increase of the
Crustacea begins in September, before the insect larvae begin
to decline. I assign most influence to the first and third of the
unfavorable influences which I have named. During this time
the periodic species are added but their numbers are usually
not great until after the first of September.

The Crustacea in Fall.

The number of the Crustacea begins to increase with the
opening of September (compare Figs. 6-9) and the increase
continues during that month and into October. This increase
is due in part to the increase in number of the perennial species.
Daphnia hyalina and Cyclops brevispinosus multiply and reach a
maximum in late September or in October. To these species
are added the periodic forms, which are present in August, but
ordinarily not in sufficient numbers to balance the decline in
the other species. During September, however, all increase in
number together, and bring the total number at the fall maxi¬
mum to a point more than half as great as that at the spring
maximum. In 1894 the maximum, 821,000 per sq. meter was
reached in the first part of October; in 1895, the maximum was
768,000, in the early part of October ; in 1896, there were two
maxima, one in early September, numbering 1,441,000, of which
more than half was due to Chydorus. The other, the fall maxi¬
mum proper, was 1,368,000 and came in early October, or leav¬
ing out Chydorus, 1,123,000 in late October. The figures are
the semi-monthly averages. The difference in these dates is
apparently dependent upon temperature. If October is warm
and pleasant, the development of the Crustacea continues longer,
and the maximum is greater than under other climatic condi¬
tions. In all seasons food is present in superabundance at this
time of the year. The algae are at a maximum, and are enor¬
mously in excess of any demands made upon them by the crusta-

312

Birge — The Crustacea of the Plankton .

cea. The species present are those which are most easily avail¬
able as food, so that both in kind and quantity of food, the
Crustacea find the most favorable possible conditions from early
September to the latter part of November. Temperature is the
predominant factor in influencing their development.

In 1894 and 1896 Chydorus was present in great numbers.
Both of these seasons were characterized by the great abundance
of Aphanizomenon. In 1895 and 1897, when the predominant algae
were almost exclusively diatoms, the number of Chydorus was
extremely small. Diagram 10 shows the number of Crustacea from
July to December, after subtracting Chydorus. It will be seen
that the form of the curves is strikingly similar in all years,
and that the numbers are extremely close for 1895 and 1896,
with the exception of a great rise in late October, 1896, which
was due to the sudden multiplication of Daphnia hyalina at that
time.

From the fall maximum the number declines, at first rapidly,
and afterwards more slowly toward the winter minimum. The
rapidity of the decline depends upon several factors. If a large
number of young forms are produced late in the season, many
of them die as well as their parents, and the decline in num¬
bers is correspondingly rapid. The number of the periodic
species also exerts a great influence. In 1896, when Daphnia
retrocurva was present in large numbers, its sudden disappear¬
ance at the close of its sexual period aided to cause a rapid de¬
cline in the total number of Crustacea present. The climatic
conditions also exert a great influence. A rapid decline in tem¬
perature, accompanied by violent storms, causes the numbers to
sink more rapidly than a more equable approach of winter tem¬
peratures. In any case the number of the Crustacea falls off
rapidly during November, more slowly during December, and
by the middle or last of that month the lake freezes and the
winter conditions are fairly established.

The different species of limnetic Crustacea enter the winter in
very different conditions. Daphnia hyalina produces in the late
fall large numbers of young, which serve to carry the species
through the winter. The old individuals disappear during No¬
vember and December, very few lingering into January. Dur-

Trans. Wis. Acad., Vol. XI.

Plate XXIII.

Fig. 7.— Leading Crustacea, 1894. Beale, 1 space = 100,000 Crustacea
per sq. meter. See p. 308.

D. hyalina . # _____ r, _____

Cyclops .

Diaptomus ... 3

July. Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec.

Fig. 10. — Total Crustacea, July-Dee., after deducting Chydorus. Scale,
1 vertical space = 100,000 Crustacea per sq. meter. See p. 312.
1894.... g - © -

1895....

1896.... 9 - -

The Annual Distribution of the Crustacea. 31S

ing the same months, those individuals of Daphnia retrocurva
disappear, which have survived the reproductive period. Diap-
tomus begins its decline in September or early October, and
seems to make no special provision for winter forms. Cyclops
continues its reproductive activity through the year, at least in
periods when the temperature of the lake is above 2° C., but
with a rate of multiplication declining as the temperature falls
below 15°. Larval Copepods are present in great numbers at
all seasons, but their development into later stages is checked in
winter. Chydorus seems to have the same habit as Cyclops; butr
for causes as yet unknown, it almost disappeared in the winters
of 1894-5, 1896-7, although abundant in the preceding autumns,,
and present in considerable numbers in the winter of 1895-6.
Daphnia pulicaria had a marked reproductive period in early
December, and continued reproduction at a slower rate through¬
out the winter. Diaplianosoma disappears in October, and
Leptodora in late November or early December.

Table IV. — Average number of Crustacea for each two-week period and
their sum , stated in thousands and tenths per sq. meter of surface.

Diap-

tomus.

clops.

D. puli¬
caria.

D. hya-
lina.

D.

retro¬

curva.

Chy¬

dorus.

Diap-

hano-

soma.

Total.

1894.

July 1-15 .

242.2

39.8

6.4

19.8

a

a

a

306.2

July 16-31 .

398.9

151.0

8.3

13.3

a

a

0.8

472.3

August 1-15 .

218.7

161.0

1.1

16.6

a

a

6.3

401.1

August 16-31 .

September 1-15 .

87.4

200.3

0.8

60.7

a

15.0

18.0

382.2

September 16-30 .

54.6

190.1

a

148.4

a

378.9

19.6

691.6

October 1-15 . .

67.6

347.1

a

207.6

a

193.3

5.2

830.8

October 16-31 .

38.3

261.3

a

353.5

a

202.0

3.0

757.1

November 1-15 .

44.0

246.4

a

183.1

a

97.9

a

571.4

November 16-30 .

December 1-15 .

23.9

75.0

a

121.5

a

9.5

a

219.9

December 16-31 .

(16.7;

(44.5)

a

(49.0)

a

(1.65)

a

(111.9)

1895.

January 1-15 .

17.5

Z 1.5

a

40.8

a

1.3

a

81.1

January 1-15 .

(15.9)

(40.0)

a

(55.9)

a

(2.0 )

a

(111.8)

February 1-14 .

(44.5)

(80.8)

a

(75.3)

a

a

a

(200.6)

514

Birge — The Crustacea of the Plankton.

Table IV. — Continued.

Diap-

tomus.

Cy¬

clops.

D. puli-
caria.

D. hya-
lina.

D.

retro-

curva.

Chy-

dorus.

HDiap-

hano-

soma.

Total.

1895.

February 15-28 . .

28.0

73.1

a

65.8

a

a

a

166.9

March 1-15 ..............

28.3

55.7

a

34.7

a

a

a

118.7

March 16-31 .............

34.7

66.2

a

63.6

a

a

a

164.5

April 1-15 . . .

U.O

53.9

a

26.4

a

a

a

94.3

April 16-30 .

20.6

242.5

a

16.3

a

scat.

a

229.4

May 1-15........ . .

34.4

864.9

a

28.9

ifr-

a

12.1

a

940.3

May 16-31........... .

207,9

944.4

a

250.7

a

16.5

a

1419.5

June 1-15 . .

285.0

616.9

a

319.2

a

36.7

a

1256.6

June 16-30 ..............

190 6

262.6

a

135.6

Scat.

21.9

a

610.7

July 1-15 .... - ........

187.4

323.6

Scat.

139.9

9.7

156.8

Scat.

817.6

July 16-31 . . .

217.8

131.4

11.6

275.3

31.5

163.4

6.9

837.9

August 1-15 .............

110.5

107.6

19.9

273.0

68.2

78.6

31.5

689.1

August 16-31 . .

101.3

129.6

38.1

252.8

50.1

18.7

32.2

622 8

September 1-15 .

224.6

142.0

33.8

202.8

23.8

15.6

27.1

669.7

September 16-30.. .

331.5

226.0

98.2

201.6

53.6

Scat.

17.2

928.1

October 1-15 . .

148.4

327.5

26.9

180.5

72.5

8.6

3.4

767.8

October 16-31 . .

79.7

219.7

23.5

76.6

70.9

8.1

a

478.5

November 1-15 .

55.8

144.7

49.6

56.2

59.3

25.9

a

391.5

November 16-30. .

46.0

135.4

58.3

48.2

24.2

19.7

a

331.8

December 1-15 . .

33.6

90.2

141.1

35.0

5.0

15.9

a

320.8

December 16-31 . .

58.0

89.1

99.8

44.6

0.7

20.9

a

313.1

1896.

January 1-15 . . .

48.6

111.0

88.2

36.2

a

10.1

a

294.1

January 16-31 . .

28.3

151.0

24.8

17.3

a

19.5

a

240.9

February 1-14 - .......

38.9

91.6

64.1

19.6

a

4.8

a

219.0

February 15-29. ...... —

35.0

82.0

43.9

27.0

a

3.8

a

191.7

March 1 15 ............. .

March 16-31..... . .

33.3

212.5

20.9

13.5

a

1.4

a

281.6

April 1-5 . .

35.2

400.7

28.0

14.6

a

1.9

a

480.4

April 16-30 .

29.9

1,011.2

118.2

15.2

a

9.8

a

1,184.3

May 1-15 .

102.3

1858.4

284.9

124.6

a

28.0

a

2398.2

May 16-31 . .

360.2

705.9

533.6

270.8

a

30.8

a

1901.3

June 1-15 — ............

343.5

189.5

168.6

55.6

a

87.6

a

844.8

June 16-30 . .

386.2

358.7

78.2

211.1

a

230.8

a

1,265.0

July 1-15. .... ............

202.9

371.0

39.3

319.0

a

382.0

a

1,314.2

July 16-31.... ..........

152.1

317.5

11.8

65.5

2.5

245.1

Scat.

776.5

The Annual Distribution of the Crustacea.

315

Table IV.— Continued.

Diap¬

tomus.

Cy¬

clops.

D. puli-
caria.

D. hya-
lina.

D.

retro¬

curva.

Chy¬

dorus.

Diap-

hano-

soma.

Total.

1896.

August 1-15 . . . .

91.9

326.8

3.7

95.2

27.6

406.5

8.9

960.4

August 16-31 .

167.0

209.0

5.9

60.9

57 1

426.0

147.4

1073.3

September 1-15 .

125 9

157.1

23.5

120.4

157.7

748.6

108.3

1440.9

September 16-30 .

163.4

228.6

3.4

192 5

238.6

263.0

32.9

1112.4

October 1-15 .

52.8

364.8

0.4

228.0

199.3

433.7

0.4

1368.4

October 16-31 .

48.8

469.5

a

511.5

92.7

191.9

a

1314.8

November 1-15 .

29.8

267.7

Scat. ..

314.6

9.9

62.7

a

684.8

November 16-30 . .

23.5

173.9

Scat...

266 0

a

69.3

a

537.7

December 1-15 .

29.3

115.5

Scat...

182.8

a

38.2

a

365.8

December 16-31 .

24.7

93.1

Scat. . .

138.9

a

28 1

a

284.8

In this table maxima are indicated by bold faced type and
minima by italics, a, means absent; scat., scattering individ¬
uals not enough to count. Parentheses indicate that observa¬
tions were made on a single date in the two week period ; — ,
indicates no observations.

Although the general course of the development of limnetic
orustacea is so nearly the same in successive years, yet the com¬
position of the crustacean population may differ very widely.
This will readily be seen from the tables, and still more easily
by the diagrams which show the numbers of the individual
species of Crustacea in the different years. A single illustration
is given in Figs. 11, 12, and 13. These diagrams represent
the average number of the Crustacea in the latter half of Sep¬
tember, 1894, 1895, and 1896. The area of the circles is pro¬
portional to the total number of Crustacea, and the size of the
several sectors is proportional to the number of the individual
species. It will be seen that while the total numbers are not
very widely different, there is a great divergence between the
individual species. Diaptomus , for example, is by far the most
numerous in 1895, while in 1894 it is the next to the smallest.
In 1894, on the other hand, Chydorus is by far the largest;
while in 1895 it is not represented at all. D. retrocurva is one

316

Birge — The Crustacea of the Plankton .

of the most important species in 1896, and had a fair develop¬
ment in 1895, while in 1894 it was wholly absent. No reason
can be given in most cases for these variations in individual
species; but where a cause can be assigned, the subject is dis¬
cussed in the section which deals with the single species in
detail.

Diagrams 8 and 9 show on single charts the numerical rela¬
tions of the most important limnetic Crustacea during the sea¬
sons of 1895 and 1896. Several facts become very plain from
these diagrams. First, the development of Cyclops precedes-
that of Daphnia and Diaptomus by nearly a month, and precedes
that of D. pulicaria by something more than two weeks. This
relation held in both years, although the development of all
the Crustacea was some two weeks earlier in 1896 than in 1895.
Second, in both years Daphnia hyalina and Diaptomus began
their development together in the spring and rose together to
the spring maximum. This coincidence was probably due to the
rapid warming of the lake in both seasons. Figs. 1 and 2
show that the temperature of the water rose with much the same
rapidity in the two years. Diaptomus requires a higher tem¬
perature for its development than does Daphnia , as is shown
by the fact that it declines steadily after the lake falls below a
temperature of 20°, while Daphyiia has its great autumnal pe¬
riod of reproduction in the month of October when the tempera¬
ture is below 15°. In the spring of 1897 the warming of the*
lake was slower than in either of the two years covered by my
study, and the development of Diaptomus lagged decidedly
behind that of Daphnia. I am not able, however, to give the-
exact numerical relations.

Diagram 9 shows also that Daphnia pulicaria began its course
of development about two weeks in advance of Daphnia hyalina .
Another fact is disclosed by Figs. 8 and 9, namely, that in.
each summer some one species of limnetic crustacean appears-
to take the lead, and decidedly dominates the other forms. In

1894, as shown by Fig. 7, this species was Diaptomus . In

1895, as shown by Fig. 8, Daphnia hyalina maintained its
numbers full through July and August, gradually declining
through the autumn, and being nearly twice as numerous as-

Trans. Wis. Acad., Vol. XI.

Plate XXIV.

The Annual Distribution of the Crustacea.

317

the other two leading genera. In 1896 Cyclops held a similar
place, recovering rapidly from its early summer depression and
maintaining its numbers full throughout July and the early part
-of August.

The diagrams show further how all the species of Crustacea
increase in September, and that the rise persists to different
dates in the later autumn. In 1895 Diaptomus showed a max¬
imum in late September, and that of Cyclops came in the first
half of October. In 1896 Daphnia hyalina and D. retrocurva
rose together from the latter part of August to the middle of
■October, when the former species had a period of enormous re¬
production, while D. retrocurva , which had produced its ephip-
pial eggs, rapidly declined in number. The increase of Cyclops in
this year also continued until late October. The diagrams show
further how all species rapidly decline in number in November,
.and then more slowly during December, reaching their perma¬
nent winter condition in December, or at latest about the first
of January.

The feature of the annual distribution of the Crustacea which
surprised me most in the progress of my work is the great dif¬
ference between the numbers of the same species of Crustacea
present in successive years. I do not refer so much to the larger
or smaller numbers of forms like Cyclops, for whose variations
causes can be assigned, at least in part, but rather to such facts
as those shown by Daphnia retrocurva and by Diaphanosoma ,
which are either absent, or present in very small numbers in
one season and appear in great numbers in another year. For
such variations it is very difficult to assign even conjectural
•causes.

A similar fact has appeared in the succession of the algae.
It is not true for lake Mendota that the forms of algae suc¬
ceed one another in a definite order in successive seasons,
so that one can be sure of finding certain forms at certain
times of year, as would be the case with plants of woodland or
prairie. For example, in the winter of 1894-95 Aphanizomenon
.and Clathrocystis were the predominant algae after the early part
of January. In the succeeding winter these plants were almost
entirely absent and Diatoma was the predominant form. In the

318 Birge — The Crustacea of the Plankton.

winter of 1896-97 Aphanizomenon and Diatoma were present
together; the latter form being more abundant at the opening
of the winter and the former relatively increasing towards
spring. Asterionella has been regularly present in all years as
a small part of the summer plankton, but never has been predomi¬
nant except during a short time in the spring of 1897. Ceratium
has been a leading alga in the summers of 1895 and 1896, but in
1894 and 1897 there was no Ceratium period. Lyngbya predom¬
inated in July, 1895, but scattered filaments only were present
during the succeeding two seasons, while in August and Sep¬
tember, 1897, it was again present in considerable numbers,
though nowhere near as great as in 1894. The summer of 1895
was definitely a diatom season, as was also that of 1897, very
few of the Schizophyceae being present; while in 1896 the latter'
plants predominated, although a considerable number of dia¬
toms were always present. In the autumn there has always
been a diatom period, but the predominant forms have been
Diatoma , Fragillaria , and Melosira in different seasons. The
first alga to develop in the spring is one of those which has
predominated during the winter, but the order of succession
in the forms which follow is wholly uncertain, as the few illus¬
trations given above sufficiently indicate.

LARGEST NUMBER OF CRUSTACEA PER CUBIC METER.

The following list shows the largest number of Crustacea found,
per cubic meter. It is computed on the assumption that the ani¬
mals are equally distributed through the three meter space cov¬
ered by each haul of the net and gives the average per cubic
meter for the distance of three meters. In reality the maximum
at the stratum of greatest abundance would be greater than the
table shows. Probably 600,000 would not be too high as
the maximum for the total number in a cubic meter. The
numbers are given as thousands per cubic meter. All, except.
D. pulicaria are from the upper, or 0-3 meter level.

Largest Number of Crustacea per Cubic Meter.

319

Table V.

Diaptomus.

Cyclops.

D. hyalina.

June 17, 1894 . 88

June 12, 1895 . 84

September 16, 1895 . 98

June 5, 1896 . 120

October 8,1894 . 56

May 18, 1895 . 180

May 8,1896 . 290

July 24, 1895 . 101

Aug. 21, 1895 . 102

June 29, 1896 . 145

July 7, 1896 . 170

June 10, 1896 . 157

Oct. 26, 1896 . 122

D. pulicaria.

Chydorus.

Total Crustacea .

Aug. 22, 1895. .41, 9-12 meters

Sept. 22, 1894 .

.. 71

May 9, 1896 .

. 347

Sept. 22, 1895. .41, 15-18 meters

July 12, 1895 .

.. 45

May 18, 1896 . .

. 392

Dec. 23.1895. .73, 0- 3 meters

June 22, 1896 .

.. 96

June 19, 1896 .

. 415

May 18, 1896.. 78, 0- 3 meters

July 7,1896 .

.. 131

June 22, 1896 .

. 337

Ane. 6. 1896 .

.. Ill

July 7, 1896 . .

420

It thus appears that where most thickly massed, the Crustacea
number nearly one to 2 ccm. of water.

Diaptoinus Oregonensis Lillj.

Figure 14. Table D, Appendix.

The numbers of Diaptomus have varied from season to season
less than those of any other species of the limnetic Crustacea
and they are also the least variable in daily numbers. Possibly
the greatly developed locomotor organs of the animal aid in
securing uniformity of distribution and also enable it to obtain
so much food in times of scarcity, that its numbers remain con¬
stant when others decline.

Diaptomus does not reproduce during the winter and its num¬
bers show little variation during that time, as the following
table will show\

320

Birge — The Crustacea of the Plankton.

Table VI .— Diaptomus. Average number expressed in thousands per
square meter of surface.

1894-5.

1895-6.

1896.

67.6

148.4

52.8

October 16-31 .

38.3

79.7

48.8

November 1-15 .

44.0

55.8

29.8

N ovember 16-30 . .

46.0

28.5

December 1-15 .

23.9

33.6

29.3

December 16-31 .

(16.7)

58.0

24.7

Jannarv 1-15 .

17.5

48.6

.Tanuarv 16-31 .

(15.9)

28.3

Fehrnarv 1-15 .

(44.5)

38.9

February 16-31 .

28.0

35.0

March 1 -15 .

28.3

March 16-31 .

34.7

33.3

April 1-15 .

14.0

35.2

April 16-30 .

20 6

29.9

May 1-15 .

34.4

102.3

May 16-31 .

207.9

360.2

Numbers enclosed in a parenthesis rest on observations made on a single day during
the half-month.

These figures show that Diaptomus begins to decline toward
its winter condition early in the autumn. There is no marked
reproductive period in the fall which supplies the individuals
which are to live over winter, but the numbers steadily and
rather rapidly decline after the time when the lake has decid¬
edly cooled from its summer temperature. The table also shows
that the mortality must be very small in winter. In spite of
the fact that there is no reproduction, the numbers show very
little decline after the winter conditions are fairly established,
and only a slow decrease in the late autumn. Indeed from the
middle of October until the first or middle of May, the semi¬
monthly averages show no more variation than might easily
appear in two catches made on the same day at the same place.
This persistence of the numbers of the species must be attributed
to the absence of competition and of enemies during this season.
The food supply is ample for the winter stock of Crustacea and

Fig. 14.— Diaptomus. Annual distribution, 1894, 1895, 1896. Scale, 1 vertical space = 50,000 Crustacea per sq. m. See p. 319.

d

w

d

£

>

Kl

d

d

K|,

O

o

►3

o

<!

Trans. Wis. Acad., Vol. XI. Plate XXV.

Diaptomus.

321

the reproduction of the Crustacea in winter is slower than that
of the algae. It is not impossible that the slight decline in
numbers noticeable in 1895-6 may be attributable to the multi¬
plication of Cyclops in that winter. The decline in Diaptomus
is too small to allow of certainty in the inference, but the adult
Cyclops fell off rapidly in March of that year as they did not in
the preceding winter when little reproduction took place. Food
also became much more scanty in the spring of 1896 than in the
preceding year. The amount of food material in the spring of
1895 was estimated as at least four times as great relatively to
the number of Crustacea present.

The chief enemies of the Crustacea are the larvae of insects and
the young fish, both of which are absent or few during the winter.
Leptodora also, though living chiefly on Cyclops and Daphnia ,
must devour some Diaptomi during the summer; while it is
wholly absent in winter. At this season the perch, which also
feed on the small Crustacea, are at the bottom and apparently
do not feed at all. There seem therefore to be no enemies of
the Crustacea during the winter and their numbers are corres¬
pondingly constant.

Throughout this season also Diaptomus is fat — fatter than in
summer, as the drain on tissue for reproduction is absent.

In April after the ice breaks up the Crustacea are wont to de¬
cline in numbers. This is especially true for those species whose
reproductive period comes somewhat late in the spring, and in
which only the individuals which have lived all winter are pres¬
ent in the spring. These find the conditions of the open water
of the early spring harder than those under the ice, especially
as they are exposed to the competition of the increasing swarms
of Cyclops and sometimes of D. pulicaria. The smallest catches
of Diaptomus which are met during the year, are obtained in
the latter part of April when the number of Cyclops has risen
greatly — more rapidly than the food has increased.

In May there comes a great increase in the number of Diapto¬
mus. It shows itself first by the presence of a great number of
immature animals in the upper strata of the water. In both
years the appearance of these new members of the species was
very sudden, as will be seen from the following table.

21

322

Birge — The Crustacea of the Plankton.

Table VII.— Showing the actual number of Diaptomus caught during

May.

1895.

1896.

May 4- .

270

Mav 2 .

730

May 7 .

410

May 4 .

660

May 12 .

710

Mav 6 .

980

May 16 .

780

Mav 8 .

600

May 18 . . .

2,200

May 9.... .

560

May 20 .

1,650

Mav 11 .

1,945

May 22 .

3,820

May 15 .

6, 110

May 18 .

10,250

May 21 .

3,690

It will be seen that these catches divide very sharply into two
sets, the division coming between the 16th and 18th of May in
1895 and between the 9th and 11th in 1896. Catches earlier
than those given in the table show the same general character
as those given, as also do those taken later. There is no earlier
catch which is larger than 1000, nor one later in May smaller
than 2,000 in 1895 or 3,500 in 1896.

There is no reason to think that the increase of numbers is
due to small, local aggregations of the species. The increase
persists without intermission for long periods of time during
all conditions of wind and weather. This alone shows that the
large numbers must occur over great areas of the lake. On
May 15, 1896, observations were made at different points, and
the numbers were found practically constant at a distance of
2.5 kilometers in various directions from the regular place of
collecting.

It will be seen that the spring increase came just a week
earlier in 1896 than in 1895 — on May 11th and May 18th, re¬
spectively. This acceleration of development, which was shared
by all of the Crustacea, was chiefly due to the higher tempera¬
ture of the water in the latter year.

In 1895 the ice went out on April 8th, in 1896 on April 2d.
In each year cold and rainy weather followed the departure of the
ice and at the middle of the month the temperature of the water
was almost the same in both years.

Diaptomus.

823

April 15.

1895.

1896.

Rn rf a p.r .

4.5°

o

C

««*

Bottom . . . . . . .

4.2

3.9

Later the temperature showed a nearly parallel rise at the
surface, but a marked acceleration at greater depths for 1896,
the following table shows:

SUEFACE.

Bottom.

1895.

1896.

1895.

1896.

April 18 .

6.0°

7.2°

5.0°

6.1°

April 24 .

8.0

8.0

5.8

7.4

April 30 .

11.5

9.6

6.9

8.5

May 7 . . .

10.8

16.4

6.3

9.9

May 18 .

15.5

15.2

11.2

13.4

It thus appears that the average temperature of the water was
decidedly higher in 1896 than in 1895, and to this fact I attri¬
bute the earlier appearance of the spring swarms of Crustacea.
There was nothing apparent in the increase of the algae to
make any difference.

When the young Diaptomus appear the number rapidly rises to a
maximum which is maintained for some weeks, as the table shows :

Table VIII. — Average number of Diaptomus during late spring and sum¬
mer stated in thousands per square meter of surface.

1894.

1895.

1896.

May 1-15 . . . . . . . . .

34.4

102.3

May 16-31 .

207.9

360.2

J une 1-15 . .

285.0

343.5

June 16-30 . . . . .

190.6

386.2

July 1-15 . . .

242.2

187.4

202.9

July 16-31 . . .

298.9

217.8

152.1

August 1-15 . . .

273.3

110.5

91.9

August 16-31 . . . . .

87.4

101.3

167.0

It will be seen that the numbers found in all three years are
closely parallel. Indeed the July averages for the three years

324 Birge — The Crustacea of the Plankton.

differ no more widely than catches might differ though made on
the same day and close together.

In each of the two years where the conditions of the preced¬
ing winter were known, the summer maximum was close to ten
times the winter average. In all three years there was a
marked decline of numbers to a late summer minimum in Au¬
gust; at which time the average number is to J of the max¬
imum. In 1895 there was a very marked drop in numbers
about the first of July; while in 1896 the maximum number was
maintained throughout June and early July and then there was
a steady decline for a month or more. In 1894 observations began
on the first of July. Diaptomus was practically stationary during
the month and rapidly declined after the early part of August.

These variations in number in different years are at present
without complete.explanation. Yet the most singular fact — the
notable drop in numbers about July first, 1895 — certainly extended
to the species all over the lake. Observations were made between
the first and tenth of July in that year even in the remoter
parts of the lake, and with substantially uniform results. What¬
ever the cause it was probably the same as produced a similar
fall in the numbers of Daphnia hyalina at the same time.

The autumnal condition of Diaptomus varies with the temper¬
ature of the early fall. In 1894 and 1896 there was substan¬
tially no recovery from the August minimum. 1896, indeed,
showed minor variations of number but on the whole the num¬
ber did not increase. In 1895 on the other hand there was a
very marked rise of numbers in September, culminating in the
third week of that month. We shall hardly be wrong in at¬
tributing this additional brood of Diaptomus in 1895 to the
higher temperature of the water in that year. There was very
little decline of temperature until the very last days of the
month as the following observations will show:

1895.

Sept. 2,

6 a.m.

Sept. 26,

6 a. m.

Sept. 30,

6 a. m.

0 meters . . .

21.9°

20.0°

16.3®

10 meters . . . . . . .

20.9

20.0

16.5

18 meters .

13.9

17.7

16.5

Diaptomus.

325

Thus the decline of temperature for the month occurred in the
last three days. In 1896 the temperatures at the opening and.
close of the month were much the same as in the preceding year,
but the decline was pretty equably distributed.

1896.

Sept 1,
9:30 a. m.

Sept. 17,

4 p. m.

Sept. 28,
Noon.

0 mot, firs . . . .

21.2°

18.4°

16.0°

10 meters .

20.2

18.2

15.75

18 meters . . .

15.3

16.1

15.6

It therefore appears that the long continued

warmth

Of 1895

gave Diaptomus a chance for an additional brood which did not
appear in 1894 or 1896. Food, of course, is always present in
superabundance during September.

Table IX. — Diaptomus. The. autumnal numbers stated in thousands
per square meter of surface.

1894.

1895.

1896.

RflptfimVifir 1— 15

224.6

125.9

September 16-30 .

54.6

331.5

163.4

October 1-15 .

67.5

148.4

52.8

October 16-31 . . . .

38.3

79.7

48.8

November 1-15 .

44.0

55.8

29.8

November 16-30 .

46.0

28.5

December 1-15 .

23.9

33.6

29.3

December 16-31 .

(16.7)

58.0

24.7

The winter numbers are seen to be reached early in the season
— at latest in the first part of November. The winter numbers
are also seen to be not very different in the three years in ques¬
tion and are strikingly independent of the condition earlier in
the season, The number in September, 1895, was nearly six
times as great as in the preceding year, while in December the
difference was less than 50 per cent, in favor of 1895.

The maximum catches of Diaptomus were 460,000 June 12,
1895; 651,000 May 18; and 741,000 June 10, 1896. The females
carry 20-30 eggs in a single sac, during the spriag. In sum¬
mer the number declines to 9-15.

326 Birge — The Crustacea of the Plankton.

Apstein (’96, p. 179), finds that D. graciloides has its
maximum in lake Ploen in winter and in the Dobersdorfer
See in summer. Its relations in the latter lake agree very-
well with those of the same genus in lake Mendota. He con¬
cludes from the striking difference in the two lakes that tem¬
perature has no effect on the species. Marsh, who finds that
D. minutus has its maximum in Green lake in September and
October (’97, p. 192), also thinks that temperature affects the
genus very little. I am unable to agree with this conclusion,
so far as the form studied by me is concerned. It is the first
of the perennial Crustacea to slacken its reproductive activity
in the autumn, and this occurs when food is at its maximum. I
can attribute this check only to the fall in temperature. Indeed,
my observations show that the reproductive activity of D. Oregon -
ensis is more promptly checked by the decline of temperature
than is that of any other of the perennial species.

Cyclops.

Figures 15, 21. — Table E, Appendix.

There are two species of Cyclops which are at times conspicu¬
ous in the plankton of lake Mendota, C. brevispinosus Herrick
and C. Leuckartii Sars. C. pulchellus Koch was rarely seen.
C. brevispinosus is by far the more numerous and is practically
the only species except in summer. From October to May only
scattered individuals of any other species are met, but during
summer brevispinosus declines and Leuckartii may be as numer¬
ous as it or even more so. The numerical relation has not been
determined because of the great labor involved in discriminating
the species, especially in the immature examples which always
constitute by far the greater part of the catch.

Cyclops brevispinosus is the most abundant species of limnetic
Crustacea at almost all times, and at its maximum is far more
numerous than any other species ever becomes. It is the only
abundant Copepod which reproduces under the ice; Daphnia
pulicaria among the Cladocera has the same habit.

The winter numbers are as follows, stated in thousands per
square meter of surface:

Cyclops .

327

Table X. — Winter number of Cyclops , stated in thousands per sq. m.

1894-95.

1895-96.

1896.

November 1-15. . . .

246.4

144.7

267.7

November 16-30 . . . . .

135.4

173.9

December 1-15 . . . . . .

75.0

90.2

115.5

December 16-31 .

(44.5)

89.1

93.1

January 1-15 .

21.5

111.0

January 16-31 . . .

(40.0)

151.0

February 1-14 .

(80.8)

91.6

February 15-28 .

73.1

82.0

March 1-15 . . . . .

55.7

old. yg.

March 16-31 . . . . .

66.2

51.2 161.3

April 1-15 .

53.9

400.7

April 16-30 .

242.5

1011.2

It will be seen that the winter numbers are more variable
during the season than are those of Diaptomus. This results
from two causes; first, the fact that reproduction continues
longer in the autumn than in Diaptomus and therefore the spe¬
cies reaches its winter minimum at a later date; second, re¬
production may begin again during the winter and cause a con¬
siderable increase before the opening of the lake in the spring.
A third fact ought to be added. During the winter there are
often caught large numbers of Cyclops in the deeper water,
where there are plainly aggregations of the species. Such
catches of course raise the average for the two-week period in
which they happen to come.

The spring rise comes on immediately after the opening of
the lake or, as already said, begins while the lake is still covered
with ice. The increase is rapid but by no means so sudden as
is the case in Diaptomus. This may be seen from the following
table of catches, in which by no means all the observations of
the periods are given.

328

Birge — The Crustacea of the Plankton.

Table XI. — Cyclops. Average number per square meter , stated in
thousands per sq. m. of surface.

1895.

1896.

April 12 .

43.8

April 4 .

297.0

April 18 .

90.3

April 11 . . . .

358.7

April 25 .

112.8

April 14 . .

863.2

April 30 . .

575.8

April 20 . .

770.8

May 3 .

979.8

April 30 .

984.5

May 12 . . .

763.2

May 2 .

1,710 2

May 18 .

1,234.2

May 9 .

2,359.5

May 30 . . .

1,030.4

May 18 .

1,294.9

June 6 .

636.0

May 26 .

386 6

June 11 .

293.1

June 1 .

176.1

June 6 .

168.5

June 15 .

139.2

In each column the numbers begin with the first catch after
the disappearance of the ice. It will be seen that on April 12,
1895, there was no evidence of increase over the winter average
and that none of the catches prior to that of April 30, are de¬
cidedly larger than those of the winter. In 1896, on the con¬
trary the open season begins with numbers far larger than those
of the winter and there is a steady and rapid increase from the
very first.

Table XII. — Cyclops. Average for the spring and early summer stated in
thousands per square meter of surface.

1895.

1896.

April 1-15.... .

53.9

400.7

April 16-30 . . .

242.5

1,011.2

1,858.4

705.9

May 1-15 . . .

864.9

May 16-31 .

944.4

June 1-15 . . .

616.6

189.5

June 16-30 . . .

262.6

358.7

The maximum came earlier in 1896 than in 1895. The great¬
est number were caught from May 18th to 30th in 1895, and from

Trans. Wis. Acad., Vol. XI.

Plate XXVI.

Fig. 15. — Cyclops. Annual distribution. Scale, 1 vertical space = 100,000 Crustacea per sq. m. See p. 326.
1894.... e - - —

1895....

Cyclops.

329'

May 2d to 9th in 1896. The entire month may be included in
the maximum in 1895, as all the catches made between May 3d
and June 6th, 26 in number, were between 636,000 and 1,234,000
per sq. m. In 1896 the limits of the maximum period may be
set at April 14th and May 20th, during which time the numbers
ranged from 763,000 to 2,359,000 per sq. m. The observations
were 20 in number. The maximum catch recorded was nearly one-
third larger than any other, although there were 7 catches
made, ranging from 1,300,000 to 1,700,000 per sq. m.

From these figures and from the averages, it is plain that the
numbers were far greater in 1896 than in the former year. I
attribute the difference to the earlier start which the species
had in 1896. In that year reproduction began under the ice so
that the numbers at the opening of the season were three or
more times as great as in 1895. While the lake warmed some¬
what more rapidly in 1896, the difference was chiefly marked by
the higher temperature of the lower water, which would aid the
development of the species during the first part of April.

The decline of Cyclops is seen from Table XI and diagram 15, to
be as steady and rapid as its rise. In 1896 the numbers in the
first half of June were smaller than in the latter part of March.
In less than two weeks after the maximum the number had fallen
to less than one-sixth of the maximum and a week later it was
less than one-half of the smaller sum.

This decline is doubtless due to the scarcity of food, to the
increasing temperature of the water and, to increasing competi¬
tion. At no time during the spring rise are as many as five per
cent, of the species provided with egg-sacs and almost none of
the animals in the lower strata of the water become sexually
mature. This fact indicates that the lake becomes so crowded
with the early swarms of the species that the food is insufficient
to allow their development to maturity. Not only so, but those
individuals which are compelled to migrate into the deeper
water find there little food and must perish in a short time.
At the height of the Cyclops period there is very little alga
visible in the catch.

The influence of temperature is shown by the fact that the
maximum is reached when the temperature of the lake is about

330

Birge — The Crustacea of the Plankton.

15° and that no considerable rise comes later in the season until
the lake has fallen to about the same temperature in the fall.
Development, begun actively while the water is little above
zero, is gradually checked as the water warms during the spring,
yet the nauplii may be very abundant in summer.

A reaction follows the early summer minimum and there is a
moderate increase in the numbers of Cyclops. This is due
chiefly, if not wholly, to the introduction of C. Leuckartii. This
species is very rare during the cooler parts of the year, though
always seen occasionally, and at all times capable of reproduc¬
tion. In the summer, however, it develops more rapidly and
numbers of the species may considerably exceed those of C. bre¬
vispinosus. This was not true in 1894, especially in July. At
that time the number of Cyclops was very low, lower indeed
than in the winter following. The rise ia August of that year
was largely although not wholly due to C. Leuckartii, and was
apparently maintained into September when brevispinosus again
became abundant. In both the other years Leuckartii declined
in August and brevispinosus did not increase so that there was
visible a late summer minimum during the whole or part of
that month. The small numbers of 1894 are probably due to
the excessive development of Lyngbya in the early part of that
summer, as is stated more fully on page 353.

Table XIII. — Cyclops. Average numbers for the last half of the years.

1894.

1895.

1896.

July 1-15 .

39.8

323.6

371.0

July 16-31 . . .

151.0

131.4

317.5

August 1-15 .

161.0

107.6

326.8

August 16-31 .

200.3

129.6

209.0

September 1-15 . . . . .

142.0

157.1

September 16-30 . . . .

190.1

226.0

228.6

October 1-15 . .

347.1

327.5

364.8

October 19-31 . . .

261.3

219.7

469.5

November 1-15 .

246.4

144.7

267.7

November 16-30 .

135.4

173.9

December 1-15: . . . .

75.0

90.2

115.5

December 16-31 . . . . . . . . .

(44.5)

89.1

93.1

Cyclops.

381

The foregoing table giyes the average numbers of summer and
autumn for the three years, stated in thousands per square me¬
ter of surface.

The table shows an autumnal maximum in October, followed
<by a steady decline and a slow one as compared with that
which follows the spring maximum. The fall increase is due
wholly to C. brevispinosus and the maximum comes when the
lake is at or below 15° C. The decline is occasioned partly by the
gales of autumn causing the death of adults, and chiefly by the
increasing slowness of development of the nauplii as the tem¬
perature of the water falls. The eggs are still produced and
the nauplii hatched, but the young Cyclops are slower in com¬
ing forward and the deaths exceed the production of young.
Food is present in excess of the demands of the Crustacea and
.so forms no factor in the decline.

By the middle of December if not earlier the winter condi¬
tions are fairly established although the number of the species
may continue slowly to decline until February.

A comparison of the charts showing the curve for Cyclops
and that for the total Crustacea brings out the fact that Cyclops
is the dominant factor in determining the number of Crustacea.
All the peculiarities of the general curves are repeated in those
for the genus. Cyclops is absolutely the most numerous species
except in the summer, when it is sometimes surpassed by Diap-
tomus and Chydorus and less often by Daphnia hyalina. Two
causes contribute to this relative disadvantage of Cyclops
in summer. First, the species is unfavorably affected by the
warmth of the water; second, it is unable to retire into the
•cooler and deeper water as it might do in lakes which are habit¬
able below the thermocline. In such lakes it may well
be found that Cyclops leads the number of Crustacea through¬
out the year. A few observations indicate this to be true for
Pine lake, but the facts are not well known as yet.

Zacharias (’96, p. 54) finds only a fall maximum for C. oitho-
.noides in lake Ploen. There is a trace of a spring maximum but
very feebly marked. Apstein (’96, p. 178), finds maxima in the Do-
bersdorfer See in May, September, or July and thinks that the
maxima may come at any time in summer. He finds on this

332

Birge — The Crustacea of the Plankton.

species 5-6 or at most 9 eggs and considers the small number
an adaptation to limnetic life. C. brevispinosus often carries
18 eggs in each sac without difficulty. He finds no eggs from
October to February, while I find egg bearing females at all sea¬
sons. Marsh (’97, p. 205), gives the maximum for C. fluviatilis in
Green lake in the autumn and gives no spring maximum. I
think that the difference in our observations is a characteristic
of the species rather than of the lakes examined.

Epischura lacustris Forbes.

This species found only occasionally in my collections. It is so
large in the adult condition as to be readily distinguishable by
the unaided eye and was counted in this way along with Lepto-
dora. Young, if present, were doubtless counted as Diaptomus.
No observations were made on this species in 1894. In 1895 it
appeared on June 20fch, two specimens being seen. It was not
seen again until July, in which month it was found in 6 out of
18 observations, the number not exceeding 2 individuals in any
one catch. In August they were seen 6 times out of 13 obser¬
vations, the maximum being 4, and the total number being seen
during the month being 12. In September the number was
about the same, but in October the number was greater, aver¬
aging 6 in each of the 5 cases where they were seen, with a
maximum of 9. In November they were present in every ob¬
servation, 7 in number, up to the 20th, with an average of 6.5,
and a maximum of 19. The species thus showed a decided ten¬
dency to a maximum in late autumn. In 1897 the species ap¬
peared on May 17th and in the latter part of that month aver¬
aged 4 in each catch. In the first half of June the average was
3, and maximum 7 ; in the last half the average was 4, and the
maximum 7. In July the average was 2, and the maximum 7.
Only a very few scattered individuals were seen in August, and
none were found later.

It is evident that the records of the two years are not at all
similar, and that the numbers of the species which were found
are too small for profitable discussion.

Ergasilus — Nauplii.

333

Ergasilus depressus Sars.

This animal is about the same size as Cyclops, although
readily distinguishable both by color and form. I am not sure of
the correctness of the specific identification, although lean see no
differences between my specimens and Sars’ description. It is
present at all seasons of the year, ordinarily in very small num¬
bers. More than one individual is rarely found when one-tenth
to one-twentieth of the catch is counted. This number is so small
and the resulting probable error in computing averages so great
that it has not been thought profitable to state the numbers in
terms of a square meter of surface, and to include them in the
total number of limnetic Crustacea.

Ergasilus is present throughout the year, although it may
often be missed for long periods from the collections. It was
first noticed in July, 1895, although doubtless present before,
and from 1 to 9 specimens were seen in each collection. The
number increased during the latter part of August and in Sep¬
tember, when from 10 to 13 specimens were found, indicatiug
nearly 10,000 per sq. m. In the latter part of September the
numbers rose to a maximum of 27-30 specimens, or nearly 27, 000
per sq. m. In October only 1 to 5 were present, and the species
was found occasionally during the winter and spring in single
specimens. In July and August, 1898, it became more plentiful;
about as is 1895. But no such large number was found in Sep¬
tember as in the former year. The animal seems to prefer the
stratum of water just above the thermocline, but is not confined
to this layer.

Copepod Larvae — Nauplii.

The dredge with which my study was carried on until the
middle of July, 1896, was provided with a bucket whose open¬
ings were closed by a wire mesh of 1-100 in. This, while re¬
taining the Crustacea and a great part of the nauplii, did not
retain all of the latter, so that no study was given to these
larval forms until work began with the silk net. The following
table shows the average number of larvae from the middle of
July to the end of December, and also the numbers found in

384

Birge — The Crustacea of the Plankton.

single observations made since that date. In all cases the larvae
of all species of Copepoda were counted together; it being
practically impossible to assign them to their proper forms.
Unquestionably, however, the great majority of these animals
belonged to Cyclops brevispinosus. All larvae beyond the nau-
plius stage were assigned to and counted with their proper
genera.

Table XIV. — Nauplii. Average numbers , expressed in thousands per

square meter .

1896.

July 16-31 . . .

1113.8

October 16-31 .

712.5*

477.8

350.8

613.7

606.6-

August 1-15 . . .

529.7

November 1-15 .

August 16-31 .

685.9

November 16-30 .

September 1-15 .

310.9

December 1-15 .

September 16-30 .

408.8

December 16-31 .

October 1-15 .

200.4

Maximum, July 18, 2,037,920.

1897.

Nauplii.

Cyclops.

Nauplii.

Cyclops.

January 11 .

1,550

118

April 17 .

204

390

January 21 .

1,284

76

April 28 .

418

619

February 17 . .

513

70

May 4 .

357

1,121

March 3 .

722

93

May 10 .

1,007

921

March 29 .

714

87

May 15 . . .

616

774

April 8 .

726

154

May 21 . . .

257

1,767

April 14 .

798

560

June 6 .

2,470

1,169

It is difficult to correlate the numbers of the nauplii with
those of the older and adult Crustacea. While Cyclops remained
numerous throughout the summer of 1896 there was no such rise
of numbers in late July and August as would be expected from
the great number of larvae which were present in the latter part
of July. The number of nauplii found in the early and middle*
part of October is not as great as the increase in the number
of the Crustacea would have led us to expect. It is evident,
however, that the decrease of the Copepoda in the late fall and'
during the winter is due rather to the failure of the nauplii to
develop toward the adult form than to the absence of these*

Nauplii — Daphnia hyalina.

335

larvae, or to the failure of Cyclops to produce eggs. It will be
seen that the nauplii were exceedingly numerous throughout
the winter and into the spring, and during the month of May a
certain relation can be traced between the numbers of nauplii
present and those of immature Cyclops — -the nauplii decreasing
in number as the Cyclops increase. It is evident further that
the death rate of these larvae during the winter must be very
low, or that the losses are balanced by the production of young
which develop to this stage, without going further until the
warming of the water in the spring.

During the month from the middle of July to the middle of
August numerous determinations were made, from which it
appeared that the maximum and minimum numbers of the
nauplii vary in about the same ratio as do those of the adult
Crustacea. In July, out of six observations the maximum was
3.8 times the minimum, and in August the maximum was 3.4
times the minimum. The largest number observed was 2, 040, 000
per sq. m. of surface on July 18th. A larger series of observa¬
tions would undoubtedly have shown, in the spring of 1897,
numbers equal to this.

Daphnia hyalina Leydig.

Figure 16. — Table F, Appendix.

The autumn numbers in both years show a decline to a minimum
which extends throughout the winter and until the first or mid¬
dle of May. In 1895 this minimum was established in Novem¬
ber, but in 1894, not till late December or January. In 1895
there was no marked reproductive period in the autumn. This
was apparently due to the continuation of summer conditions,
until near October 1, and the sudden change at that time.
The final reproductive period of this species lies at the end of
October or early in November. After the close of this period,
the old females rapidly decrease in number, and almost, or
wholly, disappear before the first of January. The young grow
somewhat rapidly until they have reached about half the mature
size, and after that, grow very little or none at all until the fol¬
lowing spring. Reproduction is practically wholly absent during
the winter, although it occasionally happens that a single female
can be found in March, having eggs in the brood-case.

336 Birge — The Crustacea of the Plankton.

The following table gives the average number of D. hyalina
from fall to spring.

Table XV. — D. hyalina. Averages from October to June expressed in
thou sands per square meter.

1894.

1895.

1898.

October 16-31 .

252.5

76.6

511.5

November 1-15 . .

183.1

56 2

314.6

November 15-30 .

48.2

268.0

December 1-15 .

121.5

35.0

182.8

December 16-31 . .

(49.0)

44.6

138.9

January 1-15 . . .

40.8

36.2

January 16-31 .

(55.9)

17.3

F'ehrnary 1-11 .

(75.3)

19.6

TPehrnary 15-23 .

65.8

27.0

March 1-15 .

34.7

March 16-31 .

63.6

13.5

April 1-15 . .

26.4

14.6

April 16-30 .

16.3

15.2

May 1-15 .

28.9

124.6

May 16-31 . . . . .

250.7

270.8

Numbers enclosed in a parenthesis rest on observations made
on a single day.

The females which have lived over winter produce at least
three broods of young, and die in June, chiefly in the early part
of the month. Those individuals which have lived over winter
are readily distinguished from those hatched in the spring by
the smaller size and different shape of the head. It is easy,
therefore, to determine the average length of their life at about
six to eight months, from early October to early June, as a
maximum. It is not possible to get similar data for the sum¬
mer form of this species, for the shape of the head-crest gradu¬
ally alters in all individuals as the water cools in the autumn.

The swarms of young produced in October rapidly diminish
in number at first, but an equilibrium is reached by the first of
January, and thenceforward the decline through the winter is
very slow, or imperceptible. The statements made regarding
Diaptomus fully apply to this species also. During April and

Daphnia hyalina.

337

and the early part of May, the species declines on the whole,
and the smallest catches of the year have been made at this
time. The rise in number in the spring comes on very rapidly.
The species apparently reproduces first in the warmer and
shoaler waters at the edge of the lake, and the individuals thus
produced are distributed over the surface of the lake by favor¬
able winds. This supposition is necessary in order to account
for the extraordinarily rapid increase in numbers which the spe¬
cies shows. The following table gives the actual number caught
in 1895 and 1896 on the dates stated:

Table XVI .—D. hyalina. Actual number of specimens caught.

1895.

1896.

April 25 . . .

144

April 22 . . .

380

April 30 . . .

510

April 27 . . . . .

120

May 7 .

442

April 30 . .

140

May 12 .

1,000

May 2 . . .

1,360

May 16 .

380

May 4 .

1,140

May 18 .

3,060

Mav 8 .

1,600

May 20 . .

1,210

May 11 .

1,620

May 22 . .

4,820

May 15 .

5,660

May 27 .

4,510

May 20 . .

4,900

May 26 .

5,460

It will be seen that the number of the species increased
nearly tenfold in two days, and that this sudden increase was
held with fair uniformity, so that, while all the catches up to
May 16, 1895, and April 30, 1896, were small, all those made
after those dates were large.

In 1895, the appearance of the eggs was carefully studied.
On April 15th, when the surface temperature was 4.5° C.,
all of the specimens seemed to have freshly molted, and one con¬
tained eggs. Three days later more than a third of the speci¬
mens contained eggs, which were mostly young. On the 25th
all had eggs, many of which were half developed. On May 4th,
young were found. On May 12th, a very few young were seen,
including one male, but many had no doubt been hatched at this
time, as on the 18th the numerous young were developing ovaries,
22

338 Birge — The Crustacea of the Plankton.

and the head-crest was fairly well grown. On the 22d, a very few
of the first generation born in the spring, had laid eggs. On
May 12th males were first seen, but 175 females were counted with¬
out finding any males. On June 3d, it was noted that many of
the individuals which had lived over winter were affected by a
microsporidial disease, and the young in the brood sacs were
attacked and killed by fungus. They were also attacked by
bacterial diseases. At this time, or a little earlier, the old
individuals were settling into the lower strata of the water,
and on the 6th of June nearly all were gone.

In 1896 the development of the species was in general parallel
to that of 1895, but was some two weeks earlier, owing partly
to the more rapid warming of the water and partly to the fact
that the temperature of the water in winter was slightly higher,
and the animals emerged from the winter life in a more ad¬
vanced condition of development. In each season the surface
water had reached an average temperature of 15° C., when the
marked rise in numbers occurred.

The summer numbers of this species appear from the follow¬
ing table:

Table XVII. — D. hyalina — Average numbers, June — December, stated
in thousands per square meter.

1894.

1895.

1896.

June 1-15 .

No

319.2

55.6

June 16-30 .

Obs.

135.6

211.1

July 1-15. .

19.8

139.9

319.0

July 16-31 . . . . . .

13.3

275.3J

273.0

65.5

August 1-15 . . .

16.6

95.2

August 16-31 .

60.7

252.8

60.9

September 1-15 . . .

No obs.

202.8

120.4

September 16-30 .

148.4

201.6

192.5

October 1-16 .

207.6

180.5

228.0

October 16-31 . . . . .

252.5

76.6

511.5

November 1-15 . .

183.1

56.2

314.6

November 16-30 . . .

No obs.

48.2

266.0

December 1-15 . . . . . . .

121.5

35.0

182.8

December 16-31 . . .

(49.0)

44.6

138.9

Daphnia Jiyalina.

389

The table shows that the summer history of this spe
cies was very different in the three years of my study. In
July and August of 1894 the numbers were exceedingly smal1
smaller than in any of the three winters during which I have
studied the species. In 1895 the numbers were large and re¬
mained large throughout the summer, gradually declining in
September and October, and falling off rapidly in the latter
part of October to the winter minimum without showing any
marked reproductive period in late autumn. In 1894 and 1896
the numbers, which were small and nearly equal in the latter
part of August, rose steadily through September and October
to a maximum in the latter part of October, and then fell off
rapidly to reach the winter minimum in December or January.
In late October, 1896, there were present enormous broods of new
hatched Daphnias, which raised the number for that period beyond
the records of any other. In 1896 the spring maximum was
followed by a minimum about the middle of June, in which the
numbers were scarcely one-quarter of the maximum. From this
minimum there was a rapid recovery, which lasted for about a
month and was followed by another marked depression. In 1895
the spring maximum continued into June, and the early summer
minimum came about the first of July. Portions of this mini¬
mum are included for the averages of the latter part of June and
the early part of July, so that the number at the minimum ap¬
pears greater in the tables and diagram than it actually was.
As a matter of fact, there was very little difference in the num¬
ber present in 1895 and 1896. In 1895 the recovery of the
species from the early minimum came on as in 1896, but there
was no reaction from the increase, and the number remained
substantially unchanged through the entire summer.

No observations were made in the spring of 1894, but the proba¬
ble history of the species was similar to that in the other years.
There was a spring maximum followed by a marked minimum
from which there was no reaction. This failure of the species
to develop a summer brood seems to have been due to the pres¬
ence of Lyngbya in the upper strata of the water.

The largest catches of this species were 331,000 per sq. m. ,
Oct. 17, 1894; 565,000 June 6, 1895, and 1,049,000 Oct. 26, 1896.

340

Birge — The Crustacea of the Plankton.

Males are found during and after the spring and fall reproduct¬
ive periods, although in very small numbers, never exceeding 4 per
cent, of the number of females and rarely being as numerous as this.
Ordinarily it is only possible to find one or two males by careful
search through the entire collection. These males are somewhat
more abundant after the fall reproductive period than earlier,
and may be found as late as the middle of December or even the
first of January. It seems, therefore, that originally this spe¬
cies had two main reproductive periods, in the fall and spring.
Each of these was probably closed by the production of males
and the development of ephippia. The sexual reproduction has,
however, almost entirely disappeared, and the species has prac¬
tically passed into a acyclic condition.

Apstein (’96, p. 167,) finds that Daphnia hyalina is present
from September to July, with a maximum in winter. This his¬
tory is so wholly different from that of the species as found in
lake Mendota that no profitable comparison can be made.

Daphnia pulex var. pulicaria Forbes.

Figure 17. — Table G-, Appendix.

The following table gives the average number of Daphnia
pulicaria taken during the period of my investigation. From
this and from the diagram it appears that the species was pres¬
ent in very small numbers during July and August, 1894; that
it then entirely disappeared until the early part of July, 1895;
it increased in numbers during the summer and autumn, in¬
creased greatly during December, and was present in consid¬
erable numbers during the winter. About the middle of April,
1896, a period of rapid reproduction began, the species rising
to a maximum in the latter part of May. At this time, and in
the early part of June the males appeared and not infrequently
numbered from one-third to one-fourth of the total catch. The
females developed ephippia and the sexual eggs were produced
early in June. The species rapidly declined after this date, al¬
though present in somewhat larger numbers early in September.
Scattering individuals only were found from the first of Octo¬
ber through the winter of 1896-97. The species entered upon

■

.

*

, '

Trcins. Wis. Acad., Vol. XI. Plate XXVIli.

Fig. 17. — D. pulicaria. Annual distribution, 1895, 1896. Scale, 1 vertical space = 50,000 Crustacea per sq. m. See p. 340.

Daphnia pulicaria.

341

a new period of development in July, 1897. From this state¬
ment of fact it appears that Daphnia pulicaria , as found in
lake Mendota, has a biennial period of development extending
from July of one year to July of the next, followed by a year in
which the species is either absent or its numbers are exceed¬
ingly small. The study made in July, 1894, seems to have
taken the species at the very end of its developmental period
after the production of the sexual eggs. One entire cycle was
included from July, 1895, to July, 1896, and a second period
when the numbers were extremely small, although never en¬
tirely absent, from July, 1896, to July, 1897.

Table XVIII. — D. pulicaria. Average number per sq. meter, expressed

in thousands.

1894.

1895.

1896.

a

88.2

January 16-31 . . .

a

24.8

February 1-14 . . . . . .

a

64.1

February 15-28 .

a

43.9

March 1-15 .

a

March 16-31 .

a

20.9

April 1-15 .

a

28.0

April 16-30 .

a

118.2

May 1-15 .

a

284.9

May 16-31 .

a

533.6

June 1-15 .

a

168.6

June 15-30 .

a

78.2

July 1-15 .

6.4

s

39.3

July 16-31. .

8.3

11.6

11.8

August 1-15 . . . . .

1.1

19.9

3.7

August 16-31 .

0.8

38.1

5.9

September 1-15 .

a

33.8

23.5

September 16-30 .

a

98.2

3.4

October 1-15 .

a

26.9

0.4

Octobor 16-31 .

a

23.5

a

November 1-15 . . .

a

49.6

s

November 16-30 .

a

58.3

s

December 1-15 .

a

141.1

s

December 16-31 .

a

99.8

s

a, absent ; s, scattering individuals only .

342

Birge — The Crustacea of the Plankton.

The following statement shows the general numerical relations
of the species, observations beginning in July, 1894:

Season.

1894.

1895.

1896.

1897.

Spring.. .

Early summer . . .

Tiate slimmer .

? Abundant . .

? Ephippia . .

Few .

Absent .

Few .

Abundant ....

Abundant.. ..

Abundant....

Abundant....

Adult males
and females

Few .

Very few. ..

Increasing .

Abundant..

Autumn .

Absent .

Very few .

Winter .

Absent .

Very few .

As was stated in my former paper, (Birge, Olson, and Har¬
der, ’95, p. 473), this species is found through the summer in
the deeper water only. Scattering individuals may be found
extending to the surface, but even where one-sixth of the total
number of Crustacea was counted, the number of this species
found rarely exceeded one individual; and in my studies during
1896, no individuals of the species were found from the upper
levels of the lake. As will be stated more at length on the sec¬
tion on vertical distribution, D. pulicaria is confined in lake
Mendota during the summer to the space immediately about the
thermocline. It is unable to rise higher on account of
the high temperature of the water, and is unable to descend
lower on account of the impurity of the deeper water in late
summer and early autumn. This fact limits greatly the num¬
ber of the species during the warm season of the year, and in
lakes whose bottom water is cold and not contaminated by de¬
composition products the number of the species is far greater
during the summer months, and the period of active sexual
reproduction is a much longer one.

This species varies much more in numbers from day to day
than does any other of the species whose numbers are at all
considerable. The station at which most of the observations
were made was not far from the southern shore. As a result of
the action of the wind the thermocline is subject to
considerable variation. A violent southwest wind, especially
has the effect of driving out the warm water near the bottom
of the lake, and thus temporarily raising the temperature of the

Daphnia pulicaria.

343

deeper levels at the station. Under these conditions the mem-
bers of this species which ordinarily live between the station
and the shore become driven out from their ordinary place of
abode, and the numbers at the observing station are corres¬
pondingly increased. Thus on August 21, 1895, the number of
this species caught was 493, a number not far from the average
of the month up to that time. On the next day, the wind being
strong from the southwest and the thermocline lying at
an unusually low level, the number caught was 2,600. On the
following day 954 were taken, and four days later only 85. The
following table shows the details.

Table XIX.

Date.

Wind.

Depth.

Temp.

No. D. pulicaria.

1895.

Above 9 m. 0

9 m.

21.4°

9-12 m. 480

Aug. 21 .

Southeast .

12 m.

18.4°

12-15 m. 5

15 m.

15.4°

15-18 m. 5

18 m.

13.8°

Aug. 22 .

Southwest.

Above 9 m. 90

Strong all day. ..

9 m.

21.7°

9-12 m.2,120

12 m.

20.4°

12-15 m. 360

15 m.

17.3°

15-18 m. 18

18 m.

14.7°

Above 9 m. 90

Aug. 23 .

Nearly calm .

9 m.

22.08

9-12 m. 640

12 m.

20.8°

12-15 m. 220

15 m.

14.8®

15-18 m. 40

18 m.

13.8°

Aug. 27 .

Calm .

9 m.

22.0°

Above 9 m. 0

12 m.

20.8°

9-12 m. 0

15 m.

17.3°

12-15 m. 80

18 m.

13.9°

15-18 m. 5

In September of the same year 415 specimens were taken on
the 18th, 2980 on the 22nd, and 3615 on the 25th. The condi¬
tions of temperature in the deeper water were much the

844

Birge — The Crustacea of the Plankton.

same as~on the former occasion. The rise in numbers shown
by the tables and diagram in the latter part of August and in
September are therefore due to these unusual accumulations of
the species and do not indicate a corresponding average rise in
numbers extending over any considerable area of the lake. The
case is wholly different with the increase which comes in late
November and December. This is occasioned by a very rapid
multiplication of the species. The brood-sacs contain from 5
to 9 eggs. This ^reproductive period does not begin until after
the temperature of ; the lake has fallen below 10°, and mul¬
tiplication continues, although at a slower rate, throughout
the winter.

In the spring comes the main period of reproduction; and
during May, 1896, the numbers were uniformly large, yet even
here they were subject to very considerable variation. At the
time of the maximum, the species was the most abundant of
the limnetic Crustacea, with the exception of Cyclops , and since
the individuals are so much larger than Cyclops, the species
was the most important constituent of the crustacean plankton.

It would seem necessary to suppose that the ephippial eggs
deposited in June and July of one year remain unhatched for
nearly a year. This is a very long period, and I have no direct
observations which would make the conclusion certain. I am
sure, however, that the species was practically absent from the
plankton after August, 1894, since it was carefully looked for
and only one specimen was found, and that in December. There
was also no reproductive period in 1896 after the first of August,
the increase in numbers in September of that year depending
on an aggregation of individuals corresponding to that in 1895,
there was no reproductive period during November or De¬
cember, and the species declined in number, so that it was not
practicable to enumerate it in the plankton. The winter eggs of
Diaphanosoma must remain unhatched from about Oct. 1 to
June of the next year.

The peculiar history of Daphnia pulicaria in lake Mendota
is conditioned in great part by the fact that the species
is unable to live in the cooler water of the lake below the
thermocline. In lakes which are relatively plankton -poor, the

. s

/

i

'

- ;

Trans. Wis. Acad., Vol. XI. Plate XXIX,

July. Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. __ Aitg« Sept. Oct. Nov.

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Daphnia retrocurva.

345

species is found in far greater abundance during the summer in
the cool, deeper water, and extends to the bottom of the lake. In
the lakes of the Oconomowoc group, this species is abundant
and is by far the'^most conspicuous of the Crustacea which are
found below the thermocline.

Daphnia retrocurva.

Figure 18. — Table H, Appendix.

Table XX. — Number per sq. meter of surface stated in thousands.

1895.

1896.

June 16-30 . .

s

a

July 1-15 . . .

9.7

s

July 16-31 .

31.5

2.5

August 1-15 — . .

August 16-31 .

68.2

50.1

27.6

57.1

September 1-15 . . . . .

23.8

157.7

Spsptfimher 16-30 .

53.6

228.6

October 1-15 . . .

72.5

299.3

October 16-31 . . .

70 g

59.3

92.7

November 1-15 . . .

9.9

November 16-30 . . .

24.2

s

December 1-15 .

5.0

s

December 16-31 . . . .

0.7

a

Daphnia retrocurva belongs to the periodic Crustacea, and its
numbers have been very different in the three seasons of my
study. In 1894 the species was practically absent; two
specimens only were seen in July, and none were found in later
months. In 1895 it was present in moderate numbers, and in
1896 the numbers in September and October were very consid¬
erable. The small number in 1895 is probably the result of the
absence of the species in 1894. Perhaps also the competition of
Daphnia hyalina had something to do with preventing the in¬
crease of the species in 1895. In that year Daphnia hyalina
was present in large numbers throughout the late summer and
the autumn. In 1896 D. hyalina declined greatly in numbers in

346

Birge — The Crustacea of the Plankton.

August, and in the latter part of the month both retrocurva and
hyalina were practically equal and their numbers rose together
during September and October. It is quite possible also that
the lower temperature of the water in September, 1896, as com¬
pared with the same month in 1895, favored the development of
both species. In 1895 the summer temperature of the lake was
maintained until late in September. The result of this was
apparently a great increase in the number of Diaptomus , and a
steady decline in the number of Daphniae.

D. retrocurva first appears in the latter part of May. The
numbers are small, but two or three specimens can be found by
search in almost every catch. During June it apparently disap¬
pears, or is much more rare than on this first appearance. It
is not possible to estimate its numbers with any accuracy be¬
fore July or August. The males begin to appear in late Sep¬
tember or in October. They were first noticed on September
17th, 1895, and October 1st, 1896. The ephippia developed
during October, and the species declines rapidly in November,
and finally disappears from the lake by January 1st. The ephip.
pia float, and many of them are doubtless driven to the shore,
so that if the level of the lake is much lower in the spring and
summer than it was in the fall, these ephippia may fail to develop,
and thus cause a scarcity of the species.

The maximum of this species coincides with the presence of
the males. These, when at their greatest abundance number
from 18 to 50 per cent, of the full number caught. They are
always more abundant, relatively, in the upper strata of the
water than are the females, agreeing in this particular with
the young of most species of the limnetic Crustacea.

The food of this species agrees with that of the other members
of the same genus. It eats Anabaena and diatoms in prefer¬
ence to other plants. It makes very little use of Ceratium and
avoids Clathrocystis whenever possible.

Marsh (’97, p. 210) assigns the maximum of D. Kahlbergiensis
to late October, thus agreeing with the corresponding species
in lake Mendota. He does not say anything about males and
since the species was present during the winter of 1894-5 it
would seem to belong to the perennial Crustacea of Green lake.

Diaphanosoma brachyurum.

347

Zacharias (’96, p. 53), gives August and September as the
maximum, and also says nothing about males. The species
was only occasionally present in the winter. Apstein (’96, p.
170), gives August as the date of the maximum for all species
of Daphnia. He does not mention a sexual period, though he
gives no especial attention to the subject. Had there been
.such a period as is shown by D. retrocurva it could not have
been missed.

Diaphanosoma brachyurum Sars.
Figure 19. — Table I, Appendix.

Table XXI. — Average number per square meter of surface , .
thousands and ten ths.

stated in

1894.

1895.

1896.

•July 1-15 .

s

s

-July 16-31 .

0.8

6.9

s

August 1-15 .

6.3

31.5

8.9

August 16-31 .

18.0

32.2

147.4

September 1-15 .

No obs.

27.1

108.3

•September 16-30 .

19.6

17.2

32.9

October 1-15 .

5.2

3.4

0.4

October 16-31 . . .

3.0

0.0

0 0

This species is the least numerous of the limnetic Crustacea
which appear in large numbers, and has the shortest season.
Scattering individuals may be seen as early as the middle of
May, but they do not become a regular constituent of the plank¬
ton catch before the middle of July or the earlier part of Au¬
gust. They disappear in October, and are greatly reduced in
number by the cold storms which usually come in late Septem¬
ber. Males appear about the middle of September, and the win¬
ter eggs are then produced. The species was far more abundant
in 1896 than in either of the two preceding years, which agree
with each other fairly well. For this difference I can assign no
reason. The numbers were constantly greater in 1896, so that
the increased number was not the result of a few large

348

Birge — The Crustacea of the Plankton.

catches. The life history of this species practically belongs to*
the period when the temperature of the upper water of the lake-
is above 20°.

Apstein (’96, p. 166), Fric and Vavra (’94, p. 103) find the
relations of Diaphanosoma quite as I have done. It does not
seem to belong in lake Ploen. Marsh (’97, p. 215) gives the
species as present from June to November in Green lake. All
find it a little earlier in the spring than I have done.

Chydorus sphaericus O. F. M.

Figure 20. — Table J, Appendix.

Table XXII .—Chydorus sphaericus. Average number per square meter
expressed in thousands.

1894.

1895.

1896.

January 1-15. . . .

1.3

10.1

January 16-31 . —

a

19.5

February 1-14 .

a

4.8

February 15-28 . . .

a

3.8

March 1-15 .

a

No obs.

March 16-31 .

a

1.4

April 1-15 .

a

1.9

April 16-30 . .

to

c

1

s

9.8’

#c

May 1-15 .

ct

;

12.1

28.0

May 16-31 .

t

s

16.5

30.8

June 1-15. . . . .

■s

36.7

87.6

June 16-30 . . .

c

S3

21.9

230.8

July 1-15 .

s

156.8

382.0

July 16-31 .

s

163,4

245.1

August 1-15 .

s

78.6

406.5

August 16-31 .

15.0

81.7

426.0

September 1-15 . . .

No obs.

15.6

748. 0>

September 16-30 . . . . .

278.9

s

263.0

October 1-15 . . .

193.3

8.6

423.7

October 16-31 . .

202.0

8.1

191.9

November 1-15 .

97.9

29.9

62.7

November 16-30 . .

No obs.

19.7

69.3

December t-15 .

9.5

15.9

38.2

December 16-31 . . .

1.6

20.9

28.1

s

I

I

i

I

I

Trans. Wis. Acad., Vol. XI. Plate XXX.

April. May. June. July. Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov.

Ghydorus sphaericus.

349

The above table shows that the number of this species is sub¬
ject to very great variation; yet there is a certain degree of reg¬
ularity in its appearance. The years 1894 and 1896 resembled
each other in having a maximum in autumn, which was wholly
absent in 1895. A large number was also found in July, 1895
and 1896, while practically none were present in 1894. In the
winter of 1895-6, Chydorus was regularly present; while in that
of 1894-5 there were found only isolated individuals from time
to time. I believe that these periods of abundance are correlated
with the abundance of Anabaena and allied algae in the water.
The autumn of 1894, and the whole season of 1896 were charac¬
terized by a great abundance of these plants; while they were
exceedingly rare in 1895 after the spring and early summer.
The summer of 1894 was marked by an enormous development of
Lyngbya , an alga quite too large to serve as food for Chydorus ,
and at the same time occupying the upper stratum of the water
to the exclusion of the smaller algae.

The development of Chydorus is therefore dependent on the
kind of food to a degree unusual among the limnetic Crustacea.
It is also dependent on temperature. In both 1895 and 1896 it
was the last of the perennial Crustacea in its development, no
marked rise occurring before the last of June or the first of July.
This is the more noteworthy, since eggs may be found in the brood
sac at any time during the winter.

In 1894 and 1896 the maximum came about the middle of
September, while in 1895 only one small maximum was present,
and that was in July. In 1896 there was no decline of the
species in August, but rather an increase, and in this season
Anabaena and allied forms were abundant throughout the
summer.

In 1894 the number increased very greatly between the 6th
and 10th of June, as is shown by the following record of the
.number of individuals caught.

June 3 . 90

June 5 . 450

June 6 . 120

June 10 . 4,200

June 13 . 4,430

June 17 . 1,740

June 19 . 4,100

350

Birge — The Crustacea of the Plankton.

Earlier and later catches agree with those given. On the 8th.
and 9th of the month there was a violent wind from the north
and northwest, which probably brought this species out from
shore water where it had been developing.

These facts indicate that Chydorus is not properly a limnetic
form but that it gets into the limnetic region by accident and
maintains itself there so long as suitable food is present. I agree
with Apstein in regarding this form as characteristic for lakes
abounding in Chroococcaceae or, perhaps, Schizophyceae. He
has not observed its dependence on the seasonal appearance of
these plants in the lake, as is the case in lake Mendota. In the
limnetic region the species is acyclic so far as my observations
go. The largest catches of this species were 440,000 per sq. m.
Sept. 21, 1894; 221,000, July 28, 1895; 661,000, July 7, 1896;,
674,000, Aug. 15, 1896.

Leptodora hyalina Lillj.

Table XXIII. — Leptodora hyalina. Average catch per square meter of '

surface.

1894.

1895.

1896.

June 1-15 . . .

No obs.

63

s.

June 16-30 .

No obs.

680

254

July 1-15 .

324

986

1,208

July 16-31 .

362

827

585

August 1-15 . . .

445

2,512

642

August 16-31 — . . . . .

1,081

3,078

1,881

September 1-15 . .

No obs.

1,068

2,850*

September 16-30 .

871

775

2,945

October 1-15 .

1,469

457

2, 375 -

October 16-31 . .

966

661

1,026’

November 1-15 .

95

292

247

Nr»Vftmhf»r 16-30 .

25

31

The table given above shows the average number of Lepto¬
dora during the seasons of 1894, 1895, and 1896. The species
first appears in May, being first observed May 29th, 1895, and
1896. The nauplii must appear earlier, but I have never seem

Leptodora hyalina.

351

one, although careful search was made for them in both years.
The number of the species is so irregular that the average per
square meter represents very little. On August 22nd, 1895, the
species was present in the upper meter at the rate of nearly
2700 per cubic meter. These were all young females, either
without eggs or having the eggs just laid. On October 6th,
1894, three sets of observations gave respectively a catch of 9,
38, and 13 individuals. On July 19th, six catches, at different
hours, gave 0, 34, 11, 4, 3, 0. On August 1st and 2nd, there
were taken: 4, 24, 16, 10, 4, and 2 individuals at different
hours. These examples are sufficient to show that the figures
for Leptodora are subject to a far greater variation than those
of the other Crustacea. For this reason, and also because the
size and habits of Leptodora are quite different from those of
the other limnetic Crustacea, the species has not been included
in the total number of Crustacea. The maximum catch was 79,.
Aug. 7, ’95; 75, June 22, 96; about 5,000 per sq. m.

Males of this species appear in October, the numbers decline
rapidly during November, and no individuals were caught by
the vertical net after November 26th in either year. Horizon¬
tal collections, however, show that they were present until
after December first. The limits of this species, therefore, ex¬
tend from the middle of May to the first of December, and the
maximum numbers occur in late summer and early fall. It is
worthy of note that in no year does the maximum number coin¬
cide with the production of males. This is to be expected,
as the large summer catches were due to the presence of num¬
bers of young or half grown Leptodora at the place where the
net was hauled. It is therefore not surprising that these
swarms should be irregular, and they would not be expected at
the time when the adult females are producing the winter
eggs.

Many observations were made upon the food of Leptodora ,
and it was found that they eat chiefly Cyclops and Daphnia.
The attempt of the animal seems to be to squeeze out and swal¬
low the interior of the prey. In a considerable number of in¬
stances the intestine or the ovary of Daphnia , nearly entire,,
was seen in the stomach of Leptodora , and only occasionally

352

Birge — The Crustacea of the Plankton.

were any parts of the skeleton of this species found. The legs
and similar appendages of Cyclops were not infrequently seen.
Large Daphnias have ordinarily a shell so thick that the weak
jaws of Leptodora are unable to pierce it, and a very large joro-
portion of the Daphnias seized by Leptodora escape apparently
uninjured.

Apstein (’96, p. 175), notes that this animal in the Einfelder
See was very large, over 1 cm. long. It is not at all uncom¬
mon to find specimens measuring 18 mm. in lake Mendota. The
average size is dependent apparently on the abundance of food.
In Green lake and the Oconomowoc lakes the length is decid¬
edly less than 1 cm.

FACTORS DETERMINING THE ANNUAL DISTRIBUTION.

Our knowledge of the conditions of limnetic life is at present
far too fragmentary to permit any complete explanation of the
factors which determine the number of Crustacea present in the
plankton. Certain provisional results however, may, be reached
as a result of this study of the Crustacea. The following factors
are present and combine to determine the total number of the
orustacea present at any time and the number of the members of
each species.

1. The food, both in quantity and quality.

2. Temperature.

3. Competition.

Food.

It is plain that the quantity of available food must set an
upper limit to the number of Crustacea. Available food must
be carefully distinguished from plant material, since all plants
are by no means equally edible by the Crustacea. Gloiotrichia ,
for example, is present in lake Mendota in considerable num¬
bers from the latter part of July to the early part of Septem¬
ber. It is never the dominant alga, as it is apt to be in the
plankton-poor lake. But it is often the most prominent alga
to the eye, and is present in such numbers as to form on calm
days a thin scum on the surface. It does not appear, however,
that any species of Crustacea regularly eats it. I have given
very careful study to this point during three seasons, and have

Factors Determining the Annual Distribution. 853

never seen any evidence that any of the limnetic Crustacea feed
upon it. Of course in cases of necessity it may be eaten, but
even where other food is comparatively scanty, Gloiotrichia
seems to be avoided. It should, therefore, be subtracted from
the quantity of available food.

Glathrocystis and Goelosphaerium appear also to be far less
readily eaten than other species. I have made very numerous
observations upon Daphnia of all three of the species present
in lake Mendota and have uniformly found that while the dia¬
toms, Anabaena, and Aphanizomenon are greedily eaten, the
colonies of the genera first named are uniformly rejected. Dur¬
ing the autumn and winter of 1894-5, Glathrocystis and Aphan¬
izomenon were almost the only algae present. The food of Daph¬
nia was almost exclusively the latter species, and I have seen
hundreds of Daphnia persistently rejecting Glathrocystis , while
greedily collecting and devouring Aphanizomenon. Daphnia
eats freely all of the filamentous diatoms, including Fragillaria ,
Melosira and Diatoma , while Diaptomus seems to prefer Ana¬
baena and Aphanizomenon to the diatoms, when all are present
in large numbers. Since these preferences for various
kinds of food are so strikingly marked among the Crusta¬
cea, it may easily happen that a period when vegetation is su¬
perabundant in the lake may be one of scarcity for the Crusta¬
cea. The most conspicuous case of this sort occurred in the
summer of 1894, when my observations on the Crustacea began.
In July and early August of that year a species of Lyngbya
overgrew all the other species of plants, constituting more than
95 per cent, in bulk of the vegetable plankton. It was so
abundant as to constitute a thick scum on the surface of the
lake during calm weather. The filaments of Lyngbya are large
and perhaps for other reasons than size are little available as
food. The Daphnias present were carefully examined and hardly
a single filament of the species was found in them, nor could I
find any evidence that the other species ate it, although the re¬
mains of diatoms and other species of plants were found in their
intestines. The number of every species of limnetic Crustacea,
except Diaptomus , was far smaller during this period than in
other years, as the following table will show :

354

Birge — The Crustacea of the Plankton.

Table XXIV.— Number of limnetic Crustacea during July, 1894-1896 ,
stated in thousands per sq. m. of surface.

July.

1894.

1895.

1896.

Diaptomus .

260.5

202.2

177.5

flyfllnps .. .

95.4

227.8

244.2

Daphnia hyalina . . . .

15.5

207.6

192.2

Chydorus .

160.1

313.5

Daphnia retrocurva was entirely absent in 1894, while begin¬
ning its regular development in the two latter years.

It seems quite evident that the presence of Lyngbya in the
lake was the determining factor in causing the numbers of all
species except Diaptomus to be so exceptionally small. The
influence of this alga is not by any means confined to the adults.
It is even more important in its action upon the young. In all
the species of Crustacea the immature forms are found near the
surface, and during the day the upper one-half meter, or there¬
abouts, is occupied by immature Crustacea. This is the same
region as that in which the Lyngbya is most abundant, and
since Lyngbya is wholly unmanageable as food for the immature
Crustacea, its presence in the upper water exerts a very unfa¬
vorable influence upon the development of the new broods which
may be hatched while it is the predominant alga. It is note¬
worthy that Diaptomus , which maintained its numbers through
the Lyngbya period, is the species of Crustacea which combines
great locomotive powers with effective means of collecting food.
Daphnia has the most effective food collector, but is inferior in
locomotive powers. Cyclops is inferior to both species in both
ways, but ordinarily has an advantage in its omnivorous habits
and its greater adaptability to different conditions of life.

In late July Lyngbya began to decline, and Aphanizomenon
and Melosira began to develop. Parallel with this change in
the character of the algae, Cyclops and Daphnia hyalina in¬
creased rapidly, and in late August, when Melosira was the
predominant alga, Cyclops and Daphnia were the predominant
Crustacea. Chydorus had fairly entered upon its period of rapid
multiplication at this time but its numbers only became large as
Aphanizomenon multiplied in September.

Factors Determining the Annual Distribution. 355

Ceratium offers an instance of an alga which, while not ab¬
solutely unavailable as food, is far less rapidly eaten than other
species. So far as my observations extend, the adult Cyclops
devour it more freely than do any other species of Crustacea.
Cyclops , indeed, is the most omnivorous of the plankton Crustacea.
It seizes and devours rotifers, nauplii, and other small animals,
as well as plants. I have seen it pounce upon and devour Cer¬
atium several times, while I have never seen Diaptomus do the
same, and have only very rarely found fragments of Ceratium
in the intestine of Diaptomus. During 1895 I did not find in
a single instance Ceratium within the shell of Daphnia , but
in 1896 I found it in a very few cases. Ceratium is a prominent
alga during the summer, and at some time ordinarily becomes
the dominant form, so that there is fairly a Ceratium period.
In 1895 this period fell from the middle of June to the middle
of July, and for a week on each side of the first of July, Ceratium
constituted more than 90 per cent, of the plankton algae. In
1896 this period was later, coming in August aud early Sep¬
tember. It was present in large numbers from the early part of
the summer, but seemed to be hindered in its development by the
great numbers of Aphanizomenon , which were present in the
water. For nearly a month it seemed doubtful whether there
would be a Ceratium period at all, but finally in August,
Ceratium predominated decidedly over Aphanizomenon , although
a considerable quantity of the latter species and Anabaena was
always present. Ceratium , like Aphanizomenon , occupies the
upper strata of the water, and its presence there is a hindrance
to the development of the young Crustacea, since it is so large
and its shell is so hard that it cannot be eaten by them. The
Ceratium period in 1895 marked the beginning of a decline in
the numbers of the Crustacea. The same was true to a less
marked extent in 1896. I have no doubt that the presence of
this alga in great quantity is one of the factors which influences
the late-summer minimum in the numbers of the limnetic Crus¬
tacea. In 1894, Ceratium was present, but its numbers were
always far inferior to those of of Lyngbya.

The quantity of food also exerts an influence on the number
of the Crustacea. In a lake in which the plankton is so abun-

356 Birge — The Crustacea of the Plankton.

dant as in lake Mendota, the quantity of algae is ordinarily in ex¬
cess of the demands of the Crustacea, and any scarcity of food
is wont to be brought about rather by changes in the quality of
the algae than by an inadequacy in the total supply of vegeta¬
ble material. There is, however, one line of facts regarding
the quantity of food to which sufficient attention has not as yet
been given, namely, the correspondence of the relation of the
rhythm of development of the algae with that of the Crustacea.
As is well known, the successive species of plankton algae come
on in waves of development, and between the periods when
given species are plentiful, there are intervals, longer or shorter,
when the food supply may be small. This relation may be best
seen in lake Mendota at the time of the spring maximum. The
Crustacea, during the spring, increase more rapidly than the
algae, and when the Crustacea are at their maximum, the mass of
plankton appears to the eye to consist of little except Crustacea.
Under these circumstances the food supply must be inadequate,
the number of Crustacea must fall off, and, especially, their re¬
productive power must decline. If the rate of increase of the algae
coincided with that of the Crustacea, so that the time of maxi¬
mum amount of food agreed with the time of maximum needs
on the part of the Crustacea, this quantitative oscillation would
be of little importance; but, if at any time the decline of the
dominant algae coincides with the reproductive period of a
species of Crustacea, it may be long before the species recovers
from the injury thus caused. This relation between food and
Crustacea is one of the most important, and at the same time
one of the most difficult to investigate, and one to which as yet
but little study has been given. It is plain, however, that the
number of a species of Crustacea must be determined — so far as
determined at all by food — by food relations when most unfavora¬
ble, and that the quantitative relations of food and Crustacea
must be followed from day to day, if this relation is to be un¬
derstood.

Zacharias (’96, p. 60) expresses his surprise that the small
Crustacea do not increase beyond a certain number when they
are provided with so abundant food throughout the year. To
this question he states that there is at present no answer. I

Factors Determining the Annual Distribution. 357

am very far from supposing that I can answer the question
completely, yet Zacharias’s own figures show that at certain
times of the year the food supply must be exceedingly small.
For example, his figures show that the quantity of plant life is
apparently abundant during the spring and early summer, but
that in the late summer the amount of vegetation is small in
proportion to the number of eaters.

On August 20, 1895, the number of Crustacea (1. c., p. 45)
was nearly 1,360,000 per square meter of surface, the diatoms
less than. 30,500 ; Dinobryon, Eudorina , and Ceratium 459,010;
and Gloiotrichia 70,650. Thus, including Gloiotrichia , there was
less than one colony of algae to 2.5 Crustacea. On Sept. 20,
there was hardly more than one plant to 10 Crustacea. Under
these conditions a daphnia would have to strain a good many
liters of water to satisfy her eternal hunger.

It never happens in lake Mendota that the ratio of food to
Crustacea falls as low as these observations in lake Ploen, and
while I am convinced that the occasional scarcity of food is an
important factor in limiting the number of Crustacea, I am
equally sure that there must be other conditions, still unknown,
which at times are even more important. My studies on the
vertical distribution of the Crustacea in 1895 and 1896 show that
all or nearly all of the increase of the Crustacea which causes
the fall maximum is brought about by the increase in the num¬
bers of the Crustacea in the deeper part of the lake from which
they are excluded during the summer. In other words, the num¬
ber of Crustacea in the upper three meters of the water remains
nearly constant from a date near the close of the spring max¬
imum to the decline in numbers in late autumn. In 1896 the
number of the Crustacea in the upper strata increased somewhat
during the autumn, owing to the occasional presence of large
numbers of new-hatched individuals, but even in this year more
than three-fourths of the increase in the number of the Crustacea
was due to the increase of the population of the lake below the
nine-meter level. In the upper water, however, the increase of
plants is most rapid. It begins in August at latest, and the
quantity of vegetation goes on increasing, for two months at
least, until in October the amount of food may easily be four

858 Birge — The Crustacea of the Plankton.

or five times as much as in mid-summer. During this period
the conditions of temperature are by no means unfavorable for
reproduction, and it is at present impossible to see why Crus¬
tacea should not increase more rapidly and thus reach a greater
number at the period of the fall maximum.

Temperature .

The temperature of the water, as such, independent of its in¬
fluence on the food supply, determines the reproductive powers
of the Crustacea and the rate of their development, and thus
limits their numbers. Perhaps, also, it exerts an influence on
the length of life of the adults, although this influence is less
certain.

The different species of limnetic Crustacea differ greatly in
their relation to temperature. The periodic species are neces¬
sarily more greatly influenced by it than are the perennial.
Diaphanosoma brachyurum is the most stenothermous of the
periodic species. The first scattering individuals appear late
in May but the species does not become a regular constituent
of the plankton until late in July or early in August. The species
increases in number throughout August and early September.
The males appear towards the middle or last of September, when
the species rapidly declines and wholly disappears from the
plankton before the 1st of November. Its active period, there¬
fore, lies during the time when the temperature of the water
of the lake to a considerable depth equals or exceeds 20° C.
The individuals found in October are the survivors of the Sep¬
tember swarm, which show no reproduction and which disappear
rapidly.

Daphnia retrocurva comes next in its relations to tempera¬
ture. The species first appears late in May, but develops very
slowly, and does not become plentiful enough to be counted as
a regular constituent of the plankton until late in July or early
in August. Its appearance thus coincides approximately with
that of Diaphanosoma, but its autumnal history is quite dif¬
ferent. The species continues to increase sexually until mid-
October. The immature males appear late in September or early
in October. The females begin to develop ephippia in the first

Factors Determining the Annual Distribution. 359

half of October. The first ephippial females were seen on Octo¬
ber 1st, 1895, and October 13th, 1896. By the middle or last
of October nearly all the females bear ephippia, and the ephippia
are cast off before November 1st. After this date the species
rapidly declines, and the last females practically disappear about
the first of December, although scattering individuals may re¬
main until after January 1st. The sexual period of this species,
therefore, instead of coming, like that of Diaphanosoma , when
the temperature of the lake is still in the neighborhood of 20°,
does not begin until the temperature has fallen below 15°. It
should be remarked that in all these cases of an autumnal sexual
period, scarcity of food can play no part in bringing it on. At
this time the lake is crowded with algae of those species which
are most greedily eaten by the Crustacea, and in the case of the
Daphnias there is always present a large mass of food material
between the legs.

Leptodora is closely parallel to Daphnia retrocurva, although
of course, its numbers are far smaller. I have never been able
to see the nauplius of this species, though I have looked for it
carefully. The young females appear late in May. The species
reaches a maximum in late August or September. The males
appear in late September or early October, and the species dis¬
appears about the middle or last of November.

In the perennial species the effect of temperature is chiefly
seen in its action upon reproduction. Cyclops brevispinosus is
by far the most indifferent to low temperatures. Its chief re¬
productive period is in the spring, and the young may appear
during the winter beneath the ice, when the temperature of the
water is below 3.0° C. The rate of reproduction increases as the
lake warms, but the maximum of the species is reached by the
time the surface of the water has been warmed to 15°. During
the summer the species makes no marked recovery from the
spring decline. In Pine lake this species is found during the
summer in great numbers, close to the thermocline, living
chiefly in the colder water just below it. It seems probable,
therefore, that the species is unable to reproduce rapidly in the
warm water of lake Mendota, to which it is confined during the
summer. The young of the fall reproductive period do not ap-

B60

Birge — The Crustacea of the Plankton.

pear in large numbers until after the lake has fallen below 15°
C. The production of eggs and nauplii continues throughout
the year, but the development goes on with increasing slowness
as the temperature of the lake falls. When the temperature of
the lake has fallen below 2.0° C., there seems to be little or no
development of the nauplii into young Cyclops , but as the
water of the lake warms toward the spring, the development
goes on once more. There is, however, no time in the year
when female Cyclops may not be found in considerable numbers
bearing eggs.

In summer the number of Copepoda is smaller than that of the
nauplii would lead us to expect. It is fair to conclude that
at this time the temperature is higher than the optimum for
their development into the adult forms.

Diaptomus does not reproduce during the winter, although a
very few females may be found in late February or March bear¬
ing egg-sacs. No nauplii of this species have ever been seen
during the winter, and the total number seen with eggs has
not exceeded a dozen during the three winters of my study. Nor
does reproduction begin immediately upon the disappearance
of the ice. Females bearing eggs are seen from the middle of
April on, but the young Diaptomus do not appear in numbers
until the water of the lake, to a considerable depth, is near 15°
C. Although the numbers of the species vary through the sum¬
mer, it remains on the whole more constant during the heated
term than any of the species, and the late-summer decline in
August is apt to be less marked than in other forms. The number
of eggs is less in summer than in spring. It may be as great
as 30 early in the season but declines to 10-15 later. In 1895,
there was a marked rise in the number of Diaptomus during
September, which was not seen in 1894 or 1896. Since in all
years food is abundant at this season, we must look for the
cause of this exceptional increase in 1895 to the persistence of
the warm weather during September of that year. A glance at
Figs. 1 and 2 will show that in 1895 the surface temperature
of the water remained practically constant through the sum¬
mer and to the end of September above or near 20°, while in
1896 the temperature began to decline about the middle of Au-

Factors Determining the Annual Distribution. 861

gust, and the decline continued steadily through September.
Similar conditions of temperature to those of 1896 were found
in 1894.

There is no fall reproductive season for Diaptomus , but as
the temperature declines the number of egg-bearing females
diminishes, and the number of individuals of the species be¬
comes steadily smaller. The winter level is reached compara¬
tively early, in late October or the very first of November.
After this level is reached, no increase takes place until after
May 1st of the following year. The number however, remains
singularly constant throughout the winter, and the individual
members are well nourished, containing large quantities of fat
at all times during the winter.

Daphnia hyalina has two great periods of reproduction, in tho
spring and fall. The ovaries begin to develop before the ice
has disappeared from the lake in late February and in March,,
when the temperature of the water is 2.5° C., or above.
A very few of the largest individuals produce eggs at this time,,
but no considerable number of eggs are found until the temper¬
ature of the lake reaches 4-4.5° C., which has been about
the middle of April. In 1895 the first numerous broods of young
Daphnias appeared about the middle of May, when the upper
water of the lake had reached an average temperature of about.
15° C., and the reproductive period lasted until about the
middle of June. During this time the number of eggs is con¬
siderable, usually as many as five and occasionally nine, or
even more. These eggs are smaller than those produced in the
summer, the yolk is peculiar in color, and in general the eggs
resemble more nearly those of the ephippia than the eggs pro¬
duced in midsummer. About three broods are produced during
the month by the females. Toward the end of this reproduc¬
tive period males appear in small numbers. They never exceed
4 per cent, of the total number of the females, and I have never
found ephippial females at this season though I have searched
carefully for them.

During the first part of June those females die which have
lived through the winter, and at the same time there seems to be
a break in the reproductive activity of the species. Whether

362

Birge — The Crustacea of the Plankton.

this is due to the increase in the temperature of the water or
not, I find it difficult to decide. In each year, as will be seen
by reference to Fig. 16, the number of this species fell off rap¬
idly and greatly at the close of the spring reproductive period,
and this decline was followed by an equally rapid rise. So great
a fall, followed by so great a reaction can hardly be attributed
to the progressive rise of the temperature of the water, and it
seems to me probable that this break in reproduction is due
rather to a reproduction-pause following the imperfectly indi¬
cated sexual period. This species seems to have had originally
two reproductive periods, which would naturally have been
closed by the production of sexual eggs. There is left now
barely a trace of sexual reproduction, but the break in the
sexual reproduction is still indicated in the history of the
species for spring and early summer.

When reproduction again goes on rapidly during mid-sum¬
mer, the females produce only two summer eggs, which are
large, transparent, and quite different in appearance from those
laid in the spring. The number of eggs increases to four in
early September if the temperature of the water has fallen from
the summer condition.

The period of rapid reproduction in the spring falls at a time
when the temperature of the water is from 15° to 18° C. In
the autumn the main reproductive period is not entered upon
until after the lake has fallen to a temperature of 15° C.

Daphnia pulicaria. The reproductive periods of this species
are also limited by temperature. A high temperature exerts
an effect more unfavorable than it produces on Daphnia hyalina,
and the main periods of reproduction come earlier in the spring
and later in the fall than do those of its sister species. Repro¬
duction also continues through the winter with considerable
rapidity. The period of active reproduction in the fall begins
after that of Daphnia hyalina closes, and the largest broods ap¬
pear in late November and early December, when the tempera¬
ture of the lake has fallen below 5° C. It is apparently not
until the lake has fallen below 10° C. that eggs are produced in
great numbers, and in the cold water of the late fall, the females
deposit in the brood-sacs from five to nine eggs, and the birth

Factors Determining the Annual Distribution. 363

<of these broods is followed by a marked rise in number. As the
take cools and freezes, reproduction still goes on, though more
.'slowly than at the earlier date and more slowly than in Cyclops.
Yet, during the winter of 1895-6, when Daphnia pulicaria was
abundant, it was always possible to find females bearing in the
>brood-sac eggs in various stages of development. Active repro¬
duction begins again in the spring, as soon as the ice has dis¬
appeared. The temperature of the water rises so rapidly and
^uniformly at this season that it is impossible to state the opti¬
on um temperature, but the large spring broods were produced
shortly after May 1st, when the lake had reached a temperature
'somewhat over 12° C. The maximum number of the species was
ifound about the middle of May, at a time when the maximum
rate of reproduction was past. Males appeared in the latter
ipart of May, and the ephippia were ripe early in June and were
-deposited before the middle of that month. After this date the
(species rapidly declines, but lingers for a time in the cool bot¬
tom water of the lake. The numbers become so few in late July
tand in August that no fair average can be given. They did not
-entirely disappear, however, in 1896, as they did in 1894, and
'it was always possible to find a few individuals in each catch
Fby careful search.

This species is confined to the cool water of the lake during
dhe warm season of the year. In plankton-poor lakes it occupies
the whole region below the thermocline. In lake Mendota this
iregion is not inhabitable except at the very top, and the species
is confined to the narrow zone which includes the thermocline.
It is probable that this unfavorable influence on the life of the
species is the cause of its disappearance or great reduction in
number during the warm season of the year.

The relations of Chydorus to temperature are less definite
than those of the regular plankton Crustacea. I have already
said that Chydorus is a littoral form, which occupies the lim¬
netic region only under favorable conditions. These seem to be
rather determined by food than by temperature. The active
-life of the species, however, lies from the first of June to the
Hast of October, and the maxima may fall at almost any time
within these limits. In 1894 the species was practically absent

864

Birge — The Crustacea of the Plankton

during the latter part of August, rising rapidly to a maximum?
in September (Fig. 20), and then declining slowly until late-
October, when it fell off more rapidly and finally disappeared,
with the exception of occasional scattered individuals. In 1895-
it reappeared in May, reached a small number which it main¬
tained about six weeks, rose rapidly to a maximum in July,,
and then declined to a small number which was maintained with
approximate constancy from the latter part of August, through^
the autumn and winter, declining, but not quite disappearing,,
in the following April. In 1896 the species was much more-
abundant than in either year, a fact which I have connected-
with the greater abundance of Aphanizomenon during that
season. The species had a great development from July to the*
middle of October, reaching its maximum early in September.
There was also a minor maximum in early July and one in the-
first half of October. It appears, therefore, that the maxima of*
this species have come in July, 1895, in September, 1896, and!
in October, 1894, and that in other years these months have
been marked by the presence of very small numbers of the'
species or its total absence in other years. It is, therefore,,
impossible to say more on the relation of temperature than that
the maxima fall in the warm season of the year. During the*
winter of 1895-6, when the species was regularly present, re¬
production went on, as was evidenced by the regular presence'
of eggs in the brood-sac of the females.

Summing up these results of temperature, it may be said that
in lake Mendota, temperature exerts a greater control over the-
number of the plankton Crustacea than does food. The number-
of the Crustacea falls off in autumn, while food is still abundant;
reproduction is checked in winter, although the food present
would permit reproduction; and the reproductive periods of the-
perennial species are arranged rather with reference to temper¬
ature than to food supply.

If I were to sum up my impressions as to factors affecting
the numbers, I should state them as follows:

1. Food sets an upper limit to number.

2. The algae of the upper strata of water determine the de¬
velopment or failure of the young broods.

3. Temperature determines the rhythm of reproduction.

Factors Determining the Annual Distribution.

865

Competition.

The connection between the number of a species and the com¬
petition to which it is exposed from the other limnetic Crus¬
tacea is a subject on which little can be said, yet indications of
the effect of competition are not wanting in my observations,
and it may be worth while to point out some of them. The de¬
tails fo heve trtical distribution of the Crustacea show that
while the number of individuals present in the upper strata of
the water may vary considerably from year to year, neverthe¬
less the number does not rise beyond a certain maximum during
the season, and when this maximum has once been reached the
number remains singularly constant. We cannot, therefore,
avoid the conclusion that there is a certain number of Crustacea
which the water can support, and that this number cannot be
greatly exceeded. If this is the case, the numbers of one species
must exert an influence, more or less unfavorable, on the number
of the other forms present.

In each of the summers during which I have studied the
Crustacea, one form predominated in the plankton, and in
each year the species J was different. In 1894 Diaptomus was
more numerous than 'all the other Crustacea put together. In
1895 Daphnia hyalina was the predominant species in number,
and still more in bulk, as its individuals are so much larger
-than the other species. In 1896 Cyclops was almost equally
predominant, although at times Daphnia was nearly or quite
as important. My explanation of these facts is that when a
species secures possession of the water it is difficult for another
species to oust it so long as its reproductive power continues.
The causes which give an opportunity to any given species thus
to occupy the water are still largely unknown, or conjectural.
It may be said, however, that as the species become successively
predominant, a form whose reproductive period is at hand at
the time of the decline of a dominant form wilhbe able to occupy
the vacant space for a time.

An instance in which the numbers of a species seem to
have been affected by competition is afforded by Daphnia retro -
•curva. In August, 1895 and 1896, the number of this species

366

Birge — The Crustacea of the Plankton .

was substantially equal, being 57,000 per square meter, im
1896 and 50,000 in 1895, but in 1895 the number of Daphnia
hyalina was very great, being 260,000 or more during the en¬
tire month; while in 1896 Daphnia hyalina had fallen off to
61,000 in the latter part of August, being therefore substan¬
tially equal with D. retrocurva.

The autumn history of D. retrocurva was very different in
the two years. In 1895 it declined in the early part of Septem¬
ber and showed only a feeble rise in October, while in 1896-
both species of Daphnia rose together at an equal rate, and re¬
mained practically identical in numbers until the sexual repro¬
ductive period of D. retrocurva was passed. I can hardly at¬
tribute this difference in the development of the species to any¬
thing excepting the occupation of the water by D. hyalina in
1895.

Another case in which competition may possibly play a part
may be found in the spring development of the Crustacea. In
no year do Diaptomus or Daphnia hyalina begin to develop
their swarms in the upper water until Cyclops has begun to de¬
cline, and its numbers in the upper water are greatly reduced.
It would seem as though these latter species waited until
Cyclops was out of the way before they began their main devel¬
opment. But in this case the increasing temperature of the
lake is uuquestionably a factor in the development, and the re¬
lation of competition is accordingly more doubtful.

HORIZONTAL DISTRIBUTION: SWARMS.

“ Ob man die Befunde als Beweise der Ungleichheit oder der
Gleichformigkeit bezeichnen will, kann freilich so lange Ge-
schmacksache bleiben, als man den Ausdruck nicht pracisirt.
Falls man aber pracisirt und gleichmassig nennt wenn durch-
schnittlich die Dichte nur um das Doppelte oder Dreifache wech-
selt, ungleichmassig also, wenn die Yertheilung als so unre-
gelmassig erweisen wird, wie etwa die Bewohnung der Erd-
flache durch Menschen oder Thiere, so kann eine Meinungsver-
schiedenheit nicht wohl bestehen bleiben. Ich betrachte die
Bewohnung einer Stadt noch als ziemlich gleichmassig und wenn.

Horizontal Distribution — Swarms.

367

einmal an einer S telle einige tausend Menschen zusammenstrb-
men, so wird dadurch die Bewohnung noch nicht ungleichmassig. "
(Hensen, ’95, p. 172.).

I have placed at the head of this section Hensen’s words
which seem to me to express with great clearness and
wisdom the general truth regarding the still disputed question
of the uniformity of the distribution of plankton animals. On no
question relating to the plankton are opinions so widely at vari¬
ance, yet no question is more fundamental to the value of numer¬
ical work in investigation. For example, Wesenberg-Lund says
(’96, p. 153) that plankton animals occur “saa godt som altid i
Svaerme. ” On the other hand Apstein says: (’96, p. 64) “ Es
ist bis jetzt nicht ein einziger wohl verbuergter Schwarm beo-
bachtet worden. ” Thus in the same year opinions diametrically
opposed are expressed, each based upon investigation. Under
these circumstances the result of my work extending over two
and a half years, including some 400 catches, each of which con¬
tained from 3 to 12 species, may contribute something to the
discussion.

It is not easy to define what is meant by a “swarm. ” No
student of the plankton expects to find the plants and ani¬
mals distributed with absolute uniformity, and it is impossible
to state the degree of variation in distribution which will en¬
title us to say that the species in question occurs in swarms. I
agree with Apstein (’96, p. 53) that two- to fourfold variations
are not to be counted as swarms. Apstein computes the actual dis¬
tance of individuals of Diaptomus when the numbers are about
198,000 and 540,000 per square meter, and finds in the first case
the average distance would be 2.2 mm. and in the second 1.36
mm. He rightly states that such a difference in distance does
not justify the name of swarm. Most will agree, I think, that
a ten-fold difference in numbers will justify the statement that
such species occur in swarms. Certainly animals whose number
differ to that extent are very irregularly distributed, and if
they were found in large numbers in compact areas, and the
space between these areas was thinly populated, it would not
be unfair to say that the species appears in swarms.

In general, there is no evidence of swarms in my observations*

368

Birge — The Crustacea of the Plankton.

either of all the Crustacea or of single species. It will be
seen from the tables giving the maximum and minimum catches
for each two week period that in the more numerous species the
maximum catch is about four times the minimum, when the
species is neither increasing or decreasing in numbers to any
marked degree. Where the species is present in small numbers,
the range of variation is far greater. Thus, in July, 1895, Lep-
todora showed a variation from 1 to 50 individuals in the 39
catches made during that month. It varied from 1 to 19 in
catches made on the same day, and was wholly irregular in its
variations during the month. During the same month the catch
of Cyclops varied from 1290 to 6100; and on no day were two
catches made in which one was double the other. In each of 12
days in 1895 and 1896 two catches were made at points about
two kilometers apart, and the ratio of the predominant species
in these 12 cases was as follows:

Average

ratio.

Maximum

ratio.

Minimum

ratio.

Diaptomus . . .

A: B:: 1:1.62

1:2.4

1:1.1

Cyclops .

A:B:: 1:1.55

1:2

1:1.1

D. hyalina .

A : B : : 1 : 1 . 58

1:2

1:1.1

In each case A denotes the smaller catch, which was about
equally divided between the two stations.

Again, if comparisons are made of catches extending over
a period of time when the average number remains nearly con¬
stant, and when there is no reproduction, the distribution can
readily be inferred. Fifty -six catches of Diaptomus were made
between December 1st, 1894, and March 30th, 1895. Of these
there were:

Below 10,000 per square meter, 1 catch. Between 40,000 and 50,000,5 catches.

Between 10,000 and 20,000, 14 catches. Between 50,000 and 60,000, 2 catches.

Between 20,000 and 30,000, 21 catches. Over 70,000 per square meter, 1 catch.

Between 30,000 and 40,000, 12 catches.

The figures also show that all of the December and January
catches were below 30,000, all of March above 20,000, and only
about one-fourth of them below 30,000; while the February

Horizontal Distribution — Swarms.

369

catches were scattered from 15,000 to 50,000. While there is
considerable variety in these catches, yet, when the length of
time and the number of observations are considered, the extent
of variation lends no support to the theory of occurrence in
swarms.

Table XXV. — Diaptomus and Daphnia. — December, 1894— April, 1895.
Expressed in thousands per sq. meter .

Diapto¬

mus.

Daphnia.

Diapto¬

mus.

Daphnia.

19

103

February 15 .

17

51

13

144

32

42

28

154

February 19 .

38

76

27

93

41

109

24

100

35

83

22

116

29

86

18

78

February 23 .

36

54

25

91

43

60

December 7 . .

26

138

48

66

17

118

March 6 . . . .

24

30

December 19 .

17

57

29

41

23

41

March 7 .

31

48

J anuary 1 .

13

45

32

69

17

52

51

45

25

55

March 9 .

36

56

January 2 .

12

48

27

26

22

65

March 12 .

28

28

22

41

45

63

January 6 ..........

15

36

56

60

8

39

27

39

11

36

March 16 .

34

83

January 9 .

29

54

45

102

16

57

33

86

20

60

71

103

January 16 .

16

53

AT a rr’.h 18 . .

32

69

13

61

34

72

23

53

March 23 .

33

39

February 14 .

23

43 j

27

40

The foregoing table shows the numbers of Diaptomus and
Daphnia hyalina during the winter of 1894-5. Similar results
24

870

Birge — The Crustacea of the Plankton.

were found in the same species during the winter of 1895-6 and
indeed similar tables could be constructed for any species fairly
numerous, and neither increasing nor declining in numbers.

On July 21 and August 15, 1896, a series of catches was made
extending across the lake some 5 kilometers, at approximately
equal distances. The result of the latter catch is given in the
accompanying table; the other was substantially the same.

Table XXVI.— Collections on August 18 , 1896 , expressed in thousands

per square meter.

I.

II.

III.

IV.

VI.

VII.

Diaptomus .

27

51

40

80

74

83

Cyclops .

184

203

142

136

127

145

D. pulicaria .

57

31

3.3

D. hyalina .

37

31

15

33

33

38

D. retrocurva .

13

16

7

11

3.3

20

Diaphanosoma .

10

18

13

27

33

49

Chydorus .

35

217

184

154

174

147

Leptodora .

0.7

1.5

0.2

0.5

0.5

Ergasilus .

17

16

3.3

8.9

0.5

Nauplii .

241

337

1

236

134

167

Corethra .

6

8

1.1

1.2

1.3

4.4

Asplancha .

114

101

33

66

40

45

Total Crustacea .

631.7

921.5

*407.6

686.1

678.8

650

* No nauplii included.

The number of Cyclops when at its maximum showed sur¬
prisingly little variation. In 1895 from May 1st to June 6th,
26 catches were made on 13 days. The catch ranged from
10,000 to 20,000 individuals actually caught. In 1896, 18 catches
were made on 16 days. The numbers ranged from 9,000 to 37,000.
A figure is added (Fig. 21) showing the number of Cyclops
caught during the year 1895. It will be seen that the diagram
gives no warranty to the conclusion that this species appears
in swarms. Similar illustrations could be taken from any year,
and from almost any species, with the qualification that the range
in number is greater in the case of those species whose num¬
bers are small.

Trans. Wis. Acad., Vo!. XI.

Plate XXXI.

Fig. 21. — Cyclops. Number of each catch, 1895- The curve indicates the aver¬
age. Scale, 1 vertical space = 100,009 Crustacea per sq. m. See p. 370.

Horizontal Distribution — Swarms.

871

The following table gives the variations of the total number
of the Crustacea during three months of 1896. It will be seen
the variations are somewhat smaller than are those of the single
species but are of a similar character, and also resemble those
of Table XXVI.

Table XXVII. —Total Crustacea, May — July, 1896.

Average.

Maximum.

Minimum.

No. obser¬
vations.

May 1-15 . . . . .

2,398

2,966

1,615

8

May 16-31.... . .

1,901

2,963

1,177

8

June 1-15 . . . .

845

1,977

561

9

June 16-30 . . . .

1,265

1,908

890

9

July 1-15 . . . .

1,314

2,332

1,005

6

July 16-31 . . . . .

795

1,266

511

11

I think that I have given here and in the tables of the ap¬
pendix, sufficient evidence to enable the student to undertands
the extent of the variation in the distribution of the Crustacea.
I do not know whether the figures will be interpreted as show¬
ing an equal or unequal distribution. I judge that Marsh, from
his discussion of the subject (’97, p. 218, if.) would regard the dis¬
tribution as irregular. I think that it is quite as uniform as
Apstein would expect. For myself, I have never supposed that
every square decimeter of the surface of the lake covered an
equal number of Crustacea. I have been surprised that a net
20 cm. or 10 cm. in diameter should disclose such a uniform
number as it actually shows, especially in the case of organisms
so highly organized as the Entomostraca.

On the other hand, there is clear evidence for swarms in cer¬
tain species of Crustacea, and at certain times. (1) The dis¬
tribution of Daphnia pulicaria is very irregular, far more so
than that of any of its congeners. This species in lake Men-
dota is confined during summer to the region of the ther-
mocline, and as this stratum works downward through the lake
in summer, the area inhabitable by the species is contracted
around the edge of the lake, and the Crustacea as they move out
from the shore to keep in the cool water, may accumulate in
swarms. These have already been mentioned in connection with

372 Birge — The Crustacea of the Plankton.

the species. The most conspicuous case occurred in August,

1895. On the 21st of the month the catch of Daphnia pulicaria
was somewhat under 500; on the 22d it was nearly 2,600, and
on the 27th it was only 85. This aggregation of the species
was due to the wind carrying a current of warm water through
the deeper levels at the point of dredging and so driving into
deep water the individuals near shore, and the decline in number
was due to the removal of the large numbers by currents rather
than to the final scattering of the swarm.

When a species has once aggregated in this manner, the aggre¬
gation may last for a cod siderable length of time; and Daphnia
pulicaria always showed a greater range of variation in its
numbers than did any other species, apparently due to these tem¬
perature aggregations in summer. For example, on April 18th,

1896, at one point in the lake, 3,060 of this species was caught;
while another catch, at a distance of some two kilometers,
showed only 230. On December 23, 1895, two catches were
made of 260, and 3,440 respectively. See also the lateral dis¬
tribution in Table XXVI, above, which discloses a similar want
of uniformity. A distribution so irregular as this, it seems to
me, fairly warrants the title of “swarm. ” I may add that late
in the spring the species become more uniformly distributed,
and when at its maximum showed a variation of less than three¬
fold in 10 catches, distributed over 21 days.

(2) Apstein has found no case where a swarm has been seen.
I have observed true swarms of Daphnia hyalina on at least three
occasions. On October 17th, 1895, about 9 a. m. a large swarm
of this species was seen at the surface near the dredging sta¬
tion about 800 meters from the shore. The water was perfectly
calm, and the sun was bright. The Daphnias were aggregated
at the surface to a depth of about 5 cm. or less and within that
depth the water was completely filled with them. The swarm
was about 50 meters in width, and its edges were perfectly dis¬
tinct, as the boat passed slowly in and out of it. The length of
the swarm was probably three times the width. All of these
animals were adult, so that they were easily seen with the naked
eye. The occurrence was the more unusual as the bright sun
should have kept this species well below the surface.

Horizontal Distribution — Swarms.

373

Two similar swarms of the same species were seen in 1896 on
October 3rd, and on November 3rd; both days wrhen the lake
was perfectly calm. On the first occasion there was a fog on
the water; on the second occasion the sky was clear.
These swarms were nearer the shore and were much more exten¬
sive. On the first occasion the Daphnias occurred in patches of
irregular extent and shape — perhaps 10 meters by 50 meters,
and these patches extended in a long belt parallel to the shore.
The surface water was crowded by the Daphnias, and an im¬
mense number of perch were feeding upon them. The swarm
was watched for more than an hour, during which the fog passed
away, and the water could be seen disturbed by the perch along
the shore as far as the eye could reach as one was standing in
a boat. After a time a light breeze sprang up and, of course,
prevented further observation. On this occasion the number
was determined to be 1,170,000 per cu. m. in the densest part
of the swarm. On November 3rd a similar swarm was seen,
and water was again dipped up from the denser part of the
swarm. The Crustacea were crowded into an extremely thin
layer, not more than 2-3 cm. thick. The surface water only
was allowed to fall into the vessel and the number determined
in 6 catches made by straining 10 liters of water, was from
800,000 to 1,492,000 Daphnias per cubic meter, about 99 per
cent, adult. In addition there were present about 1,000 Cyclops
per cubic meter, but nothing else was found. On this occasion
one ephippial female was present, the only one that I have ever
seen in this species; the ephippium was fairly developed, but
no eggs had been deposited in it. No males were in these swarms.

The highest number is found nearly ten times the maximum
number of this species per cubic meter, as derived from the
three-meter hauls. It is also nearly fifty per cent, more than
the maximum catch of this species as obtained from a depth of
18 meters, and nearly five times as great as the average for
November 1-15. On November 3d, catches were made below
the swarm from 0.3m. to 3.3m. The average of two gave per

cubic meter:

Diaptomus . 4,900

Cyclops . 26,600

D. hyalina . 18,200

C'hydorus . . . 15, 700

874

Birge — The Crustacea of the Plankton.

The average of D. hyalina in the 0-3m. level for the first half
of November was 32,200 per cubic meter, of which at least half
were immature, so that the catch of November 3d was not an
exceptionally low one. These facts show that the swarm in
question was a lateral aggregation and not merely a gathering
at the surface of the individuals ordinarily below it.

Great numbers of individuals broke through the surface film
of the water on all of these occasions.

This aggregation of Daphnia hyalina in swarms is probably
more frequent than the number of observations would indicate.
The swarms are found in the surface water, so that they are
dislodged by the slightest breeze, and it is impossible to see
them unless the water is entirely smooth. This condition is not
often reached, and I have felt myself exceedingly fortunate in
being able to observe this phenomenon on so many as three oc¬
casions. I may say, however, that during the autumn of 1896,
I looked for these swarms on every calm day when it was possi¬
ble for me to go out on the lake, but found them only twice.

The significance of these aggregations is difficult to state.
The habits of the animal are completely reversed in one respect.
The adults are strongly negative in their relation to light, and
under the conditions of all these occasions should have been
found at a depth of one-half to one meter below the surface. It
is possible that these aggregations represent the remains of
a former sexual period. This may be indicated by the presence
of the ephippial female. I have no doubt that Daphnia hyalina
had at one time two sexual periods, in spring and fall, of which
these swarms may be a remainder, but since the few males
which appeared in the fall came at a time decidedly later than
the earlier of these aggregations, I do not feel warranted in
positively interpreting the swarms in this sense.

These swarms of Daphnia seem to be phenomena of the same
order as those described by France (’94, p. 37). In one case the
swarm was near the littoral region, as were those described by
him. In the other cases they were well out in the limnetic re¬
gion. The swarm was confined within vertical limits even nar¬
rower than the one meter named by him and in all three cases
the swarm was “von weitem erkennbar. ”

The Vertical Distribution of the Crustacea. 875

While, therefore, I find swarms occasionally present, I find
also that the Crustacea of lake Mendota are in general distrib¬
uted with marked uniformity. Marsh (’97, p. 220) finds an ordi¬
nary variation of ten-fold in the numbers of Diaptomus and an
even greater variation in the case of other limnetic Crustacea.
With the exceptions already noted the range of variation in
lake Mendota has not often exceeded four fold. The number of ob¬
servations, therefore, necessary to give a fair average for the
population of the lake is not so great as that spoken of by Marsh.
The examination of my records shows that the general development
of the Crustacea can perfectly well be determined by catches
taken at intervals of a week and that the vertical distribution,
if computed from such observations, would agree very closely
with that reached from the very much larger number actually
used. Of course the larger and rarer forms, like Episclmra and
Leptodora , vary in number very greatly. No one would at¬
tempt to compute the population of a lake from the presence of
a single Leptodora in the catch, or from the occasional presence
of half a dozen, or more, but the numbers of the Crustacea which
are the regular constituents of the limnoplankton vary within
comparatively narrow limits in lake Mendota, and I feel confident
that my averages fairly represent the crustacean population.
The variation of the numbers of the Crustacea in lake Mendota
does not support extreme views either on the side of uniformity
of distribution or the opposing theory of swarms.

In connection with reconnoisance observations it may be well
to remember the following: Exceptionally large catches are
due to the presence of great numbers of young, and exception¬
ally small ones usually contain few young. A catch containing
great numbers of young may therefore be suspected to be un¬
usually large and one with few young, if taken in summer or
fall, to be small for the lake from which it comes.

THE VERTICAL DISTRIBUTION OF THE CRUSTACEA.

In making collections to determine the vertical distribution of
the Crustacea the same general method was followed as that de¬
scribed in detail in my former paper. (Birge, ’95, p. 429.) The

376 Birge — The Crustacea of the Plankton.

dredge was lowered to the bottom of the level from which speci¬
mens were to be taken, raised through the proper space, and
then closed by means of a messenger sent down the line. It
was then drawn to the surface, washed out, and the collection
preserved for future study.

My observations show so much variation in catches made at
the same place and in succession that 1 have little confidence
in the differential method of determining vertical distribu¬
tion; unless a very large number of observations is made aud
averaged, so as to eliminate the chance of variation in the sin¬
gle observation. See p. 281.

The distance employed in all of my collections was three
meters. This interval was selected because it divided the
lake at the point of observation into six levels of uniform
thickness, and also because of the close correspondence be¬
tween three meters and ten feet. Experience has shown that
the distance was fortunately chosen as the number of Crus¬
tacea begins to decline rapidly between 2 and 3 m. from the sur¬
face. The place of regular observation is about 850 me¬
ters from shore, where the water is about 18.5 meters in depth
or somewhat more when the water is highest in the spring of
the year. The greatest depth observed in the lake is between
23 and 24 meters. The slope of the bottom in the deeper water
is very gradual, and a depth substantially greater than 18
meters is only reached at a considerably greater distance from
the shore. If observations had been made in the deepest part
of the lake, the distribution as shown in thousands per cubic
meter would not vary from the facts as shown in the tables, nor
would the summer percentile distribution be altered, since dur¬
ing the summer the deeper parts of the lake contain no Crustacea.
During the fall and winter months the distribution is nearly uni¬
form in the lower water. The average percentile distribution
would, of course, be changed by the addition of one or more
levels during winter, and the aggregations of Crustacea, espe¬
cially Cyclops , which are found in the bottom levels, would
of course, be moved from the 15-18 m. level to those lying be¬
low. Observations were made occasionally in the deeper water,
as often as once a week during the summer and fall months; less

The Vertical Distribution of the Crustacea. 377

frequently during the winter. But as the observations were few
in number in comparison with those made at the regular point
of observation, they have not been used in the preparation of
the tables.

During the last half of the year 1894, 75 serial observations
were made, 127 during 1895, and 131 during 1896. These were
most numerous during the summer months. In general it may
be said that on every day on which observations were made as
stated in Table A of the appendix, a series was taken, and on
some occasions more than one. The general distribution, of
the observations, however, can be ascertained from the table.
At least five were made in each two week period from the mid¬
dle of April to the middle of November. During the winter of
1895, some observations were made by six meter intervals in
the lower water of the lake, and the result of these observations
was equally divided between the two levels covered by them.

In Table B, accompanying this part of the report, the popu¬
lation of each level is given in thousands per cubic meter, the
total population of the level being divided by three on the as¬
sumption that the Crustacea are equally distributed throughout
the level. Under some circumstances this assumption is incor¬
rect. In the 0-3 m. level, the upper meter contains more than
one-third of the Crustacea, especially when there are large
numbers of young. It may contain twice as many as any meter
below. On the other hand, on bright calm days, when few
young Crustacea are present, the upper meter may contain less
than one-third of the total catch from the upper level.

In the level which includes the region of the thermocline the
population of the single meters varies greatly, as will be shown
later in this paper; the Crustacea being found in considerable
numbers above this stratum and practically absent below it. A
third error arises at times when large numbers of Crustacea are
settling to the bottom and dying. This occurs with Cyclops
during the winter and spring, and with Daphnia hyalina in the
early part of June. At such times the lower meter of the lower
level would contain more than one-third of the Crustacea present
in that level. These variations from an approximately uniform dis¬
tribution are however so varying themselves that it has not been

'378

Birge — The Crustacea of the Plankton.

thought wise to attempt to distribute the Crustacea among the
three meters of each level on any other assumption than that of
uniform distribution.

, *

THE GENERAL VERTICAL DISTRIBUTION OF THE CRUSTACEA.

Figs. 22-28, Tables B and C, Appendix.

Winter — January , February , March.

The months during which the lake is covered with ice show a
great equality of distribution on the part of the Crustacea. This
.is due to several facts. First, the lake is thoroughly homo-
thermous, at least in a biological sense. Differences exceeding
a degree between the temperature of the water at one meter from
the surface and at the bottom of the lake are only found in late
winter. Second, the food has no such concentration toward the
surface as is found in the summer, though the algae are more
abundant in the upper strata. Third, the action of the wind
is removed, and the influence of the sun is greatly reduced,
both by the snow and ice and by the low temperature of the
water. Fourth, there is no reproduction of most species of
Crustacea and consequently no difference in age to influence dis¬
tribution.

A few forces act in the other way: First, the food is more
plentiful near the surface, as the algae reproduce more abund¬
antly there. Second, when Daphnia pulicaria is present it is
far more abundant in the upper strata of the water than below.
Third, Cyclops often appears in swarms near the bottom of
the lake. Fourth, If Cyclops reproduces during the winter
the young are more numerous toward the surface.

Tables B and C of the appendix show that during January, Feb¬
ruary, and the early part of March, 1895, there was very little dif¬
ference in the population of the four upper levels. In January of
that year the lower strata were decidedly poorer in number than
those above; while in the latter part of the winter they were
the most populous, owing to the accumulation of Cyclops in
those levels. In the winter of 1896, the 0-3 m. level was at
least twice as populous as any below, owing to the large num-

Trans. Wis. Acad., Vol. XI.

Plate XXXII.
Sept. Oct. Noy. Dec.

0- 3 m Mch. Apr. Mat. June. July. Aug.

6- 9 m

Fig. 22. — Population of the 3 m. levels, 1895. Scale, 1 space = 100,000 Crusta¬
cea. The 25,000 and 50,000 divisions are indicated. See page 387.

Trans. Wis. Acad., Vol. XI.

Plate XXXIII.

0- 3 m Mch. Ape. Mat. June. July. Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec.

Fig. 23. — Population of the 3 m. levels, 1896. Scale, 1 vertical space
= 100,000 Crustacea per sq. meter. See p. 387.

Vertical Distribution of the Crustacea — Winter. 379

ber of Daphnia pulicaria present in that winter. The 15-18
m. level was the second in population, except in the early part
of January, owing again to the accumulation of Cyclops in that
region. The middle strata of the lake were the poorest in popu¬
lation in both years.

Some illustrations ma}r be added showing the concentration of
the two species in question in the lower and upper water of the lake
respectively. On February 15th, 1895, out of 870 Cyclops taken
by the net, 570 were below 12 meters; on the 19th 880 out of
1,130. On March 9th, 1,017 were found below 15 meters, out
of a total of 1,650; on March 12th, 485 out of 710. This aggre¬
gation at the bottom was not seen in January, and some few
catches of later date did not display it.

In 1896 the same tendency was shown, and began as early
as January. On the 7th of that month 1,250 Cyclops out of
12,070 were below 12 meters, and similar catches were made
through January and February. In March the old Cyclops were
greatly reduced in number, aggregated only about 640 indi-
. viduals for the whole depth, and showed no tendency to col¬
lect at the bottom. At this time the young Cyclops were pres¬
ent, averaging over 2,000 to the catch, and the 0-3 m. level
contained about twice as many as any other.

Daphnia pulicaria was absent in 1895 but was numerous in
1896. During January and until the middle of February there
were at least five times as many in the 0-3 m. level as in any
■lower one. As the numbers declined in February they fell off
-chiefly where they were the greatest and the 0-3 m. level be¬
came about twice as populous as any below.

Thus the tables of distribution in winter for 1895 and 1896
show resemblances and differences. In 1895 the 0-3 m. level
shows no noteworthy excess over those below, while in 1896 it
is about twice as populous. Between 65 and 70 per cent, of the
population of this level in 1896 are due to Daphnia pulicaria.
In both years the bottom water is more populous than that at the
middle of the lake, due to the settling of Cyclops. This species
furnished from 75 to 85 per cent, of the population of the bot¬
tom level in both years. The average population per cubic
meter is much greater in 1896 than in 1895, especially so in

380

Birge — The Crustacea of the Plankton.

January; but the population fell off more rapidly in the latter
part of that winter, and there was no very noticeable difference
in March.

Table XXVIII. — Average percentile distribution for the winter — Jan¬
uary , February , March.

Pee cent, in each 3 m. level.

Aver¬
age No.

0-3 m.

3-6.

6-9.

9-12.

12-15.

15-18.

1895 .

123,000

18.1

19.3

13.7

12.8

15.8

20.3

1896 .

237,000*

34.1

15.7

14.8

10.8

10.3

13.6

* Chydorus omitted on account of its rapid decrease in late winter.

Spring — April and May.

Tables B, C, Appendix.

The distribution of the Crustacea during the first half of Apri
is on the whole fairly equal in the different levels of the lake,
but with irregularities which mark it as an accidental distribu¬
tion. The ice breaks up in the first days of April, and the lake
is consequently exposed to the action of the wind. The tem¬
perature is fairly uniform at all depths, and the algae hardly
begin rapid multiplication much before the middle of April.
The water at this time has a more active circulation than
at any other, as is shown by the presence in the net of numer¬
ous particles of vegetable debris from the soft mud at the bot¬
tom of the lake.

During this time Cyclops begins its rapid increase towards
the spring maximum, if the multiplication has not already begun
under the ice. Its swarms of young are in the upper strata of
the water. It may be laid down as a general rule that large
numbers of young of any species of Crustacea appear first in the
upper levels of the water, and the animals later pass toward
the middle of the lake; and later still, occupy the water toward
the bottom. It may be said, therefore, in general, that the
presence in the upper water of a very high percentage of the
catch of any species indicates the beginning of a period of re-

Trans. Wis. Acad., Vol. XI. Plate XXXIV.

9-18 m

CO

I

CD

B

I

i

i

i

I

«-i

d

2!

>

d

O

S!

o

<l

Trans.’ Wis. Acad., Vol. XI. Plate XXXV.

Vertical Distribution of the Crustacea — Spring. 881

production of the species, while the presence of a larger number
in the bottom water of the lake than in the surface water indi¬
cates that the species is past its maximum and is already be¬
ginning to decline in numbers.

In both years the numbers of Crustacea in the upper water
show an increase during April, due to the multiplication of
Cyclops. This increase went on, as was shown in the early part
of this paper, much more rapidly in 1896 than in 1895. As a
result, the population both of the surface water and of the
lower levels increased much more rapidly in 1896, and the latter
part of April, 1896, represents about the same condition of the
development of the Crustacea, as does the first half of May in
1895. In each case more than 40 per cent, of the Crustacea
were present in the upper stratum, while the 15-18 m. level
had not increased greatly in numbers above its condition in
winter. In the latter part of April, 1896, the 15-18 m. level
contained less than 3 per cent, of the whole number of Crustacea
present; and in the first part of May, 1895, it contained less than
7 per cent. As the number of Cyclops and Daphnia pulicaria be¬
came greater, they moved downward into the deeper water, so that
it became relatively more populous. In the latter part of May,
1895, the 15-18 m. level contained 10 per cent, of the Crustacea,
while in 1896 it contained over 40 per cent. This increase in
the population of the lower strata goes on after a considerable
decline has come in that of the upper strata. The lower
water lags behind the upper both in the increase and decrease
of its population, and the maximum population of the lower
strata comes from two to three weeks after the maximum popu¬
lation of the lake has passed.

These relations become more obvious if we divide the lake some¬
what arbitrarily into three levels, 0-3 m. , 3-9 m. , 9-18 m.
The distribution of the Crustacea among these three regions is
shown in Figs. 24 and 25. By reference to these it will be
seen that in 1895 the two upper levels increased much more
rapidly than did the lower half of the lake from the latter part
of April to the middle of May. In the latter part of May the
reverse is true; and in early June the population of the lower
water was stationary, while that of the upper half of the lake

382 Birge — The Crustacea of the Plankton.

was rapidly declining. In late June the population of all levels,
declines altogether.

This relation is even more conspicuous in the diagram for
1896. The population below 9 meters did not increase at all
until the end of April, while that of the upper levels increased
several fold, the 0-3 m. level growing more rapidly than that
below. In the first half of May the lower half of the lake-
gained absolutely more than either of the levels above, its gains
per cubic meter being about half as great as those of the upper
water. In the last of May the levels below 12 meters continued
to gain, while the 9-12 m. level was approximately stationary,
and the upper strata fell off rapidly and about equally. At this
time the lower half of the lake contained nearly 40 per cent, of
the total number of Crustacea, nearly equally distributed, while
the upper three meters contained only about 28 per cent. In
early June all the strata below the 0-3 m. level lost heavily*
owing to the disappearance of the spring broods of Cyclops
and D. pulicaria ; while the 0-3 m. level remained approx¬
imately stationary, the new broods of Chydorus and Diaptomusy
which appeared in that level, compensating for the decline in
other species. The result of this decline in the population
of the lower water serves to give the 0-3 m. stratum over 50
per cent, of the whole population, and the number in this level
continues between 45 and 50 per cent, during the remainder of
the summer.

Bummer — From the middle of June to the middle of September.

The change from the late spring to the early summer has just,
been spoken of. The most important fact influencing the ver¬
tical distribution at this time is the formation of the thermo-
cline, and the accompanying exclusion of the Crustacea from the
lower waters of the lake, and ultimately from the entire region
below the thermocline. The thermocline was observed in each year
about the middle of June — June 11th, 1895, June 13th, 1896 —
and was present regularly afterward. The depopulation of the-
lower waters does not coincide with these dates, as will be seen,
from the tables. This would be expected since the exclusion of the
Crustacea is due to the chemical condition of the lower water,.

Vertical Distribution of the Crustacea — Summer . 383-

resulting from the temperature conditions. In both years the pop¬
ulation of the lower half of the lake in the latter part of June
is equal to or greater than that in the same region in the early
or even the latter part of April. The population of the 9-12 m.
level remained substantially stationary until the middle of June,
1895, and the same was true of this level and the level below
until the middle of July, 1896. In June, 1895, the population
of the bottom level was high, owing to the accumulation there
of large numbers of diseased and dying Daphnia hyalina ; but
as soon as these had died, the numbers rapidly fell off, and the
population in the 15-18 m. level was very small in the first half
of July.

In 1894, observations begun with the 1st of July, and at that
time the population below 9 m. was extremely small, far smaller
than in either of the succeeding years. At that time the
temperature conditions below the surface were not observed,
but it is fair to infer that the thermocline was established at a
comparatively early date in that year. A second fact which
influenced the distribution in 1894 is the unusual preponder¬
ance of Diaptomus among the Crustacea in that year. A very
high percentage of this species is found at all times in the up¬
per water, while Cyclops , whose per cent, in the lower water is
greater than that of any other species, was represented by very
small numbers.

During July the population of the waters below 9 m. declines
very rapidly, as will be seen from the table which gives the
population of the lower water during the months of June, July and
August.

Table XXIX. — Population per cubic meter.

1895.

1896.

9-12 m.

12-15 m.

15-18 m.

9-12 m.

12-15 m.

15-18 m.

June 1-15 .

45,000

36,000

46,600

24,000

12,600

30,600

June 16-30 . . .

13,300

9,200

17,500

24,200

18,800

15,000

July 1-15 . . . .

14,200

4,200

2,200

25, ICO

20,900

2,600

J uly 16-31 . .

10,900

2,100

1,400

9,700

700

300

August 1-15 .

27,500

4,100

600

11,200

1,200

20

August 16-31 .

32, 700

3,500

550

49,600

6,900

500

384

Birge — The Crustacea of the Plankton.

While the absolute population of the lake during the summer
months has varied very greatly in the three years of my obser¬
vation, the vertical distribution of the animals has been almost
exactly the same, as may be seen from the following table :

Table XXX.— Average percentile distribution of Crustacea June 15-Sept.
15. {In 1894 , July 7-Aug. 23.)

Average No.

Pee cent, in each 3 m. level.

0-3 in.

3-6.

6-9.

9-13.

i3-i5.:

15-18.

1894...

. 406,000

45.5

30.2

16.0

6.7

1.3

0.4

1895...

44.0

24.6

18.4

8.9

2.2

1.9

1896...

..1,116,000

45.1

27.5

14.9

7.7

3.4

1.2

From this it appears that from 44 to 45.5 per cent, of the
Crustacea were present in the upper three meters of the lake
from the middle of June to the middle of September, and from
25 to 30 per cent, more between 3 and 6 meters, from 15 to 18
between 6 and 9 meters, leaving from 8.5 to 13 percent, for the
lower half of the lake.

The percentile distribution of the Crustacea during the summer
and its relation to the thermocline are shown in Figs. 26 and 27. In
each diagram the depth is computed above which were found in each
half month, respectively 25, 50, 75, 90, and 95 percent, of the
Crustacea, on the assumption that the Crustacea in each of the
3m. levels were equally distributed through it. The points repre¬
senting the depths for the corresponding percentages were
platted on the diagram a. I then connected by lines. There is
added in each diagram the position of the isotherm of 20°
which lay in the thermocline in both years, although in 1896
the lake cooled below 20° before the thermocline disappeared.
In Fig. 26, the temperature for each date was computed from
the average of the week preceding and that following the date.
The temperature-line of Fig. 27 is taken from Fig. 4.

The diagrams show that 25 per cent, of the Crustacea are al¬
most always found in the upper two meters of the lake. No
doubt the position of this line would be higher if it had been

irt

o

>

rd

a

u

<

in

g

in

U

2

H

>

Fig. 26. — Percentile vertical distribution of Crustacea, summer of 1895. See p. 384.

Trans. Wis. Acad., Vol. XI. Piate XXXVlI.

Fig. 27. — Percentile vertical distribution, summer of 1896. See p. 384.

Vertical Distribution of the Crustacea — Summer. 385

possible to indicate the real concentration of the Crustacea in
the upper meter. During May the percentage lines all moved
downward, owing to the downward movement of Cyclops during
that month, as its numbers rose to their maximum. The move¬
ment extends into June, 1895; while in the early part of June,
1896, the center of population moved upward more than 3
meters, owing to the earlier death of the spring broods of Cy¬
clops in that year. The center of population then remains close
to the three meter line until the middle of August. In late
June and early July of both years there is a rapid decrease of
numbers in the lower levels of the lake. The 90 and 95 per
cent, lines reach the level of the thermocline early in July, and
they remain there through July, August, and early September,
closely following the thermocline as it moves downward through
the water. The center of population, which remains for some
time near the 3 m. level, moves downward rapidly in September,
and reaches a depth between 7 and 8 meters in October. If the
Crustacea were uniformly distributed throughout the lake it
should lie at 9 meters. The 90 per cent, level was as high as
8 m. in July and August, 1896; and between 9 and 10. m in 1895,
but moves downward to about 16 m. in October.

This practical exclusion of plant and animal life from the
lower water during summer is a factor of great importance in
the life of the lake, as the following considerations show: First,
during this period the number of Crustacea and the quantity of
the plankton is independent of the depth of the water below
the level which the thermocline has reached. Second, the ex¬
clusion from the lower water of species unfavorably affected by
warmth prevents their appearance in the plankton or causes
them to decline during the summer, while in the other lakes in
which the deeper water is inhabitable their numbers may go on
multiplying. This is pre-eminently true of Daphnia pulicaria,
whose numbers are small in lake Mendota during the summer,
while in many of the Ocohomowoc lakes it is abundant during
the same period and inhabits the entire depth of the lakes below
the thermocline. The summer decline of Cyclops brevispinosus
may also be due to the same cause. Third, the total number of

the Crustacea during the summer is far smaller than it would
25

386 Birge — The Crustacea of the Plankton.

be if the deeper water could be utilized. It is not impossible
also that one factor in determining the small number of the
periodic species of Crustacea in lake Mendota may be in the fact
that the upper water is so completely occupied by the perennial
forms as to leave little chance for the development of other
species. Fourth, the Crustacea are not excluded from the deeper
water of the lake by the low temperature of the water, as is
proved by the occurrence of the same species in the far colder
water of other lakes in the same district. The exclusion is due
to the accumulation of the products of decomposition in the
lower water, which remains entirely stagnant after the thermo-
cline has been formed and is never exposed to the action of sun
and air. This water in lake Mendota acquires an offensive smell
and a disagreeable taste, though in. neither respect does it go
as far as certain waters mentioned by the Massachusetts Board
of Health (Drown, ’90, p. 553.) It is always clear and bright
to the eye.

The products of decomposition of the algae and Crustacea of
winter and spring remain stored in the deeper water, and un¬
doubtedly the addition of this store of nutritive material to the
water of the lake as the thermocline gradually moves downward
is one of the factors which occasions the enormous increase of
the vegetable plankton in the late summer and autumn.

Autumn — -October, November , and December.

The summer conditions of distribution end with the breaking
of the thermocline and the resulting establishment of the fall
homothermous period. This occurs at different times in different
years. The date depends on: First, The rapidity of cooling
of the surface; Second, The summer temperature of the bottom;
Third, The amount and direction of the winds, especially of gales.
In 1895 and 1896, the “turn over” came in the last week of Sep¬
tember ; in 1894 the distribution of the Crustacea shows that it did
not come until the first week of October, and it was equally late
in 1897. In the year 1894 no observations were made in the first
half of September, but the distribution in the latter part of
September of that year closely resembles that in the early part

Vertical Distribution of the Crustacea — Autumn.

387

of the month in 1895, and in the latter part of August, 1896.
The distribution in the first half of October, 1894, is not very-
different from that two or three weeks earlier in the preceding
years.

The leading general feature of distribution during the late
summer and autumn is the progressive occupation by the Crus¬
tacea of the deeper strata of the lake as the thermocline moves
downward through August and September, and the coincident rise
in number of the Crustacea toward the fall maximum. It is a fact
which was wholly unexpected by me that the 0-3 m. level shows
little or no increase in the number of its Crustacea after the
early summer maximum in early June or late July. In 1895 its
numbers steadily declined, or at best were stationary, after
July 15th. (See Figs. 22, 23.) In 1896 there was considerable
variation in numbers, but on the whole there was no increase
except a sharp temporary rise in late October, due to the occur¬
rence of great swarms of young Daphnia hyalina at that time. In
1894 the numbers in the upper level rose in the autumn, as
would be expected, since they were at an abnormally low level
in July, owing to the peculiar condition of the vegetation of
the lake in that year.

The Crustacea between 3 and 9 meters show also the same re¬
lation in their summer and autumn numbers ; while those below 9
meters show a great increase, beginning in the 9-12 m. level,
as the thermocline moves downward through it in August.
The increase steadily proceeds to the the lower levels of the
lake. It is very rapid in September and early October, and
continues until the storms of late October, when the popula¬
tion decreases in all levels of the water. This result is the sum
from 5 to 7 species of Crustacea, and of course it does not hold
accurately for each species. It is also true that since the
broods of young appear in the upper level, they may temporarily
increase the number of a species there, but this excess of one
species is balanced by a deficiency in another, and often for the
single species the semi-monthly averages agree pretty well with
the general law.

A good example of the effect of age upon distribution can be
seen from the case of Daphnia hyalina in the latter part of Oc-

888

Birge — The Crustacea of the Plankton.

tober, 1896, when great numbers of young appeared on several
occasiocs, and when the old animals were nearly all full grown,
so that there were very few half developed individuals. This is
given on p. 398.

During November and December the population of the lake
falls off pretty uniformly in all levels, more rapidly in Novem¬
ber than later, and at this time the distribution of the animals
may be more even than at any other period. If Daphnia puli-
caria is present it rises toward the surface in December and in¬
creases the population of the upper strata. This occurred in
1895. In all years the distribution in November is more uni¬
form than that of December, in which month the population of
the lower levels of the lake seem to decline more rapidly than
that of the upper stratum.

Table XXXI.— Average percentile distribution Oct. 1 — Dec. 31.

Average

No.

Per cent, in each 3 m. level.

0-3 m.

3-6.

6-9.

9-13.

13-15.

15-18.

1894 .

595,000

25.8

18.8

16.0

15.7

14.0

9.8

1895 .

436,000

29.7

18.3

14.3

14.9

12.2

10.6

1896 .

759,000

25.9

21.0

15.3

13.9

12.4

11.4

Figures 22 and 23 represent the total population of each of
the 6 levels into which the lake was divided. The scale is
100,000 Crustacea to each vertical interval. If the scale be di¬
vided by 3 the same diagrams will serve to show the population
of each level per cubic meter. The relations of the increase
and decrease of the population in the several levels are shown
very plainly from these diagrams. For instance in 1895 it will
be seen that while the two upper levels began to increase dur¬
ing the latter part of April, the population of the lower levels
scarcely changed from the winter condition until about the first
of May. The population of the three upper levels reached its
maximum in the latter part of May, while in the lower part of
t he lake the population went on increasing, or at least remained
.stationary, until near the middle of June. The 6-9 m. level

Vertical Distribution of the Crustacea — Autumn. 389

hardly shared in the rise to the early summer maximum until
two weeks after the 0-3 m. level, while in the lower part of the
lake the population declined, or remained stationary throughout
July. In August the Crustacea of the 9-12 m. level increased in
number as the thermocline moved downward into that level,
while no increase was perceptible in the population of the lake
below 12 m. until after the middle of September; after which
date the numbers rapidly increased.

No increase of population was seen in the upper levels of the
lake after the month of July; and if this diagram is compared
with Fig. 6 which shows the changes in the total population of
the lake, it will be seen that the autumnal maximum, which is
clearly indicated, comes entirely from the increase of population
in the lower water of the lake.

The same general facts appear in the diagram for 1896, but,
if possible, in a form even more striking. The 0-3 m. and 3-6 m.
levels follow each other closely, while the spring increase in
population comes later in the lower levels of the lake. In the
9-12 m. level the population remains stationary during May,
when that of the upper levels is rapidly falling, and at the
same time the Crustacea in the water below 12 m. are increas¬
ing in number; more rapidly in proportion to increased depth.
In the 0-3 m. level at the first of June the population was sub¬
stantially stationary, while that in the water below was falling
rapidly. This condition was brought about by the new broods
of Chydorus, which nearly made up for the loss in numbers of
other species.

In 1896 the thermocline moved downward much more rapidly
than in the preceding year and as a result of this movement,
the Crustacea in the lower water began to increase in numbers
at an earlier date. (See Figs. 3, 4, 26, 27.) A marked increase
occurs in August in the 9-12 m. level and begins about two
weeks later in the levels below. As in 1895, so also in 1896, the
fall maximum is caused by the increase in the population of the
lower water, with the exception that in late October of 1896
there was a great increase in the number of the Crustacea in the
0-3 m. level, due to the appearance of great broods of D. hyalina
at this time. These soon disappeared, so that the Crustacea in

390

Birge — The Crustacea of the Plankton.

this level fell off in number even more rapidly than they had in¬
creased — so rapidly, indeed, that no effect was produced by
these broods upon the population of the water below 3 m. , ex¬
cept perhaps to check in some degree the rate of decrease
toward the winter minimum. There was also a small rise in
December in the 0-3 m. level, caused by the increase of D.
pulicaria.

It would seem from these facts that there is a maximum pop¬
ulation per cubic meter beyond which the Crustacea are unable
to multiply and which differs in different seasons. It is difficult
to see what it is that sets a limit to this population in the
autumn. At this time the food is in enormous abundance as
compared with the number of the Crustacea, and it would be
expected that the numbers in all levels of the lake would in¬
crease together. I am quite unable to give a reason for their
failure to do so, but the fact recurred exactly in all three years
of my observations, making allowance for the peculiar condi¬
tions in the early summer of 1894.

Fig. 28 represents the average percentile vertical distribu¬
tion of the Crustacea for Oct. 1-15, 1896, March 1-15, 1895,
August 1-15, 1896. The corresponding figures are given in
Table C, appendix. In the diagram each horizontal space rep¬
resents 10 per cent, of the Crustacea and each vertical space, 3
m. On each 3 m. line is platted the percentage of Crustacea
found below it, and these points are connected by a line which
extends from 100 per cent, at the surface to 0 at the bottom.
From the intersection of these curves with the vertical lines can
be seen approximately the percentage of the Crustacea above
and below the depth indicated at the intersection. If the dis¬
tribution were uniform there would be 16.6 per cent, in each
vertical space and the percentile distribution would be marked
by a straight line running from corner to corner of the diagram.
The curve for October approximates very closely to this, the
percentage being larger in the surface stratum and somewhat
smaller below 12 m. , but, in general, the line lies very closely
parallel to the diagonal. The distribution for March is almost
equally uniform, but here the bottom level has an excess, due
to Cyclops , and the 0-3 m. level is slightly below the average.

Trans. Wis. Acad., Vol. XI.

Plate XXXVIII.

Fig. 28. — Percentile vertical distribution of Crustacea, March 1-15,
1895; August 1-15, 1896; October 1-15, 1896. See p. 390.

Mabce....mm
Aug . j

Oct.

Vertical Distribution of Individual Species. 891

In October the distribution of all of the species of Crustacea is
approximately equal. In the winter the equality of distribution
is brought about by the excess of Daphnia and Diaplomus in
the upper strata, nearly balancing the excess of Cyclops near
the bottom. (See Fig. 30.) The curve for August shows a
very large percentage in the upper 3 meters and a very small
number in the lower water. It is a characteristic distribution
for middle summer.

THE VERTICAL DISTRIBUTION OP THE INDIVIDUAL SPECIES.

After this full discussion of the vertical distribution of the
total crustacean population I do not intend to describe that of
the individual species in similar detail, but I shall confine my¬
self to pointing out the individual peculiarities of each species,
devoting more space to those which depart in a marked way
from the average vertical distribution. One general law holds
for nearly all the species, as already stated: the broods of young
appear first in the upper water of the lake and the increase of
population extends downward, becoming approximately uniform
at all depths as the species reaches its maximum, and later in
its life becoming more numerous in the deeper water of the
lake. To the first part of this rule the only exception is Daph¬
nia pulicaria during summer. There are, however, several fac¬
tors which prevent the full carrying out of the latter part of the
rule. The most important of these is the formation of the ther-
mocline, by which all of the crustacean life is confined to the
upper waters of the lake during that period when the develop¬
ment of several species is going on actively. In the late au¬
tumn also the numbers of the Crustacea decline so rapidly after
the fall broods appear that it is not easy to find any accumula¬
tion at any low level of the lake. The downward movement of
the older forms is shown most clearly by Cyclops and Daphnia
hyalina during the spring, and by the accumulation of Cyclops
in the deeper water of the lake during the winter, by the dis¬
appearance of D. hyalina and D. retrocurva in autumn. Sim¬
ilar, though less striking, illustrations can be found in all of the
species of limnetic Crustacea.

392

Birge — The Crustacea, of the Plankton.

Each species of Crustacea, also, has individual peculiarities of
distribution, which recur from year to year with surprising
similarity and which are independent of the absolute number
present. These peculiarities appear when the average of any
species is taken, although of course it is entirely possible that
the distribution should depart widely from this average at any
single observation. In general it may be said that the summer
distribution of the Crustacea follows very closely the figures
which are given in my former paper (Birge, ’95), and that the
variations in the distribution which have been found during the
two years and a half succeeding the observations reported in
that paper, have been of the same type and in general of the
same degree as those which were found during the single month
of our first study. It seems to me, therefore, unnecessary to
point out again these variations in detail for each species.

In order to show the resemblances and differences in the per¬
centile distribution of the Crustacea during the summer months,
when their numbers are great and the distribution is most
characteristic, I have averaged this distribution for the
summers of three years: 1894, 1895, 1896. I have included the
three standard representatives of the limnetic Crustacea which
are regularly present in full numbers during this time; Diap-
tomus, Cyclops, D. hyalina. The period included is from the mid¬
dle of June to the middle of September, in 1895 and 1896; and
July and August of 1894. It will be remembered that no ob¬
servations were taken in 1894 before July or during the first
part of September, but as the summer conditions were thor¬
oughly established at the first of July of that year and contin¬
ued until the first of October no noteworthy difference would
appear in the averages had it been possible to extend the period.
It will be seen from these averages that the distribution of Cy¬
clops in the three years in question varies surprisingly little;
the percentile difference in the 0-3 m. level being less than
1.5. This close correspondence in distribution exists in spite
of the fact that the numbers of the genus were very different
in the three years. The same general agreement is seen in
the tables of semi-monthly distribution. Compare July, 1894
and 1896 in Table C, Appendix.

Vertical Distribution of Individual Species.

393

Table XXXII — Percentile distribution. Summer — Diaptomus.

Average

No.

Per cent, in each 3 m. level.

0-3 m.

3-6

6-9

9-13

13-15

15-18

1894 .

226,000

49.2

29.3

16.6

4.1

0.5

0.3

1895 .

172,000

42.7

29.0

20.9

6.1

0.7

C.6

1896... .

188,000

52.6

27 4

12.4

5.9

1.9

0.5

Cyclops.

1894 .

138,000

40.7

28.4

20.1

9.4

1.7

0.3

1895 .

183,000

39.3

25.2

19.0

10.0

3.1

3.4

1896 .

290,000

40.2

27.1

15.6

10.1

4.8

2.3

Daphnia hyalina.

1894 .

27,000

41.9

23.8

21.4

6.7

1.0

r

0.3

1895 . . .

210,000

52.3

20.8

17.6

6.6

1.3

1.2

1896 .

145,000

44.7

22.2

16.1

11.7

4.7

1.3

The variations in the distribution of Diaptomus are greater,
although its numbers were more nearly constant, but in each
year the same characteristics are shown. The percentage of the
population found below the middle of the lake is 7.5 or less,
while in the case of Cyclops the number ranges from 11.5 to
more than 17 per cent. Daphnia hyalina also varies more in
the upper strata, but is in general intermediate in its distribu¬
tion between the other two genera. The older individuals of
Daphnia hyalina are much more apt to accumulate in the lower
part of the water accessible to them than is the case with Diap-
tomus , and consequently the lower levels are apt to contain a.
larger percentage of this species. On the other hand the spe¬
cies does not extend to the thermocline in numbers anything
like as great proportionately as does Cyclops , so that the lower
part of the inhabited water always contains a larger proportion
of Cyclops than of any other species.

The vertical distribution of Daphnia hyalina , therefore, dif¬
fers very considerably in different years. If the species is pres¬
ent in large numbers and the young are constantly appearing, a

394

Birge — The Crustacea of the PUmkton.

very large percentage of the population is found in the upper
level of the lake and even in the upper meter. This was the
case during the summer of 1895, when this species was the
dominant member of the limnetic Crustacea throughout the en¬
tire summer. Under these circumstances its vertical distribu¬
tion approximates very closely to that of Diaptomus. On the
other hand, if the species is declining and the young appear in
small numbers, there is a much larger proportion of the species
in the lower levels of the lake. This was the case in 1896. In
August of that year the numbers of Daphnia rapidly declined,
so that in the latter part of the month there were present less
than half as many as in the latter part of July, and in connec¬
tion with this decline the population of the three upper levels
was nearly equal. In this year the vertical distribution of
Daphnia hyalina approximated very closely to that of Cyclops.

The vertical distribution of D. hyalina illustrates very strik¬
ingly the dependence of distribution on specific habit rather
than on number.

The illustration given in my former paper (Birge, ’95, plate
VIII) fairly illustrates the characteristic differences in the sum¬
mer distribution of the different genera, and the percentage
diagram, Fig. 29, given herewith indicates the difference in dis¬
tribution during the summer of 1896.

Diaptomus Oregonensis Lillj.

Figure 29 — Table D, Appendix.

In general Diaptomus is more abundant in the upper strata
of the lake than in the lower at all seasons of the year. There
is rarely less than 70 per cent, of the species in the upper half
of the lake even in the winter, and the only times when the
average distribution approaches equality are in late fall and at
the period of the minimum numbers of the species in the latter
part of April, or early in May. The other extreme of distribu¬
tion is reached when the new broods appear and as their appear¬
ance is somewhat irregular the distribution is correspondingly
variable. The maximum average number in the 0-3 m. level
was reached in the latter half of May, 1895, where the average

Trans. Wis. Acad., Vol. XI.

Plate XXXIX.

Pr. ct,.Q 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

Fig. 29 — Summer distribution, 1896. Diaptomus, Cyclops, D. hya-
lina. See p. 394.

D. hyalina . , _ _ _ . . ____

Cyclops . . . .

Diaptomus ....

Vertical Distribution of Individual Species . 395

was 61.5 percent.; and in June, 1896, where the average for
the whole month was 69 per cent. Each of these numbers is
higher than the average for July, 1894, which was less than 53
per cent., and higher than the highest average per cent, for any
period of July, 1894, which was 63 per cent, in the second period.
The variations which are found in the percentile distribution are
substantially like those which are recorded in my former paper .
(Birge, ’95, p. 455.) In no case do the older individuals of this
species show a tendency to accumulate in the deeper water of
the lake but as the broods which appear in the spring, or later,
become older and the water becomes more crowded, they migrate
progressively into the deeper levels, but appear to prefer to
stay near the surface.

Marsh (’97, p. 194) finds that the vertical distribution of Di-
aptomus in Green lake is uniform throughout the year. This
is entirely different from the facts as I find them, since the up¬
per three meters in summer contain more than twice as many
of the species as they do in winter. Apstein (’96, p. 80) finds that
Diaptomus was chiefly in the deep water from January to April.
Here again his observations differ from mine, since there was
hardly a trace of a descent of the species in lake Mendota.
Apstein thinks that this descent in winter on the part of Diap¬
tomus and Cyclops may be due to their desire to seek the
warmer water at the bottom of the lake. This motive cannot
hold in the case of lake Mendota, where the temperature of the
water is almost the same at all depths during the winter. The
• aggregations of Cyclops in the deeper water are apparently com¬
posed of feeble individuals, which do not rise again to the sur¬
face.

Cyclops.

Figures 29, 30. — Table E, Appendix.

Of all the limnetic Crustacea Cyclops seems to be most inde¬
pendent of external influences in its vertical distribution. The
maximum percentage in the upper levels is reached when the
spring or summer broods appear. While the absolute numbers
of these broods in the spring are much greater than in summer,
multiplication goes on so rapidly in May that the animals are

396 Birge — The Crustacea of the Plankton.

quickly forced to move toward the deeper water of the laker
and, since the entire lake is accessible to them in spring, there*
rarely occurs as great a percentage in the upper stratum as is
the case in summer. The highest average per cent, in the 0-3
m. level, reached in the spring of 1895, was 42.7 in the first
part of May; and 35 per cent, was the average in the latter
part of April, 1896. In July of each year the percentage in the
upper stratum rose to about 50, owing to the coincidence of
swarms of young in the upper water while the lower strata corn
tained a very scanty population. The fall rise in numbers does
not cause any noteworthy increase in the percentage in the
upper strata, since at this time the entire lake is accessible to
the animals and food is abundant at all levels, and the autumnal
gales aid to distribute the species through the lake.

In the winter there is a strong tendency of Cyclops toward
the bottom and as many as 50 per cent, may be found in the
lower three meters, and as many as 70 per cent, in the lower
six meters of the lake. Illustrations are given on page 379.
Since many of the older representatives of the species die during
the winter and the new individuals appear towards spring in
the upper water, the population of the lower levels decreases in
the early spring, both absolutely and relatively. Diagram 30
shows the percentile distribution of Cyclops in the first part of
March, 1895, and in the latter part of July of the same year, in
which the extremes of its distribution were found.

The spring broods of Cyclops show exceedingly well the progres¬
sive occupation of the water of the lake by the increasing num¬
bers of the species; the way in which the numbers of a declin¬
ing species disappear first from the upper waters of the lake,
where they first appeared; and the equality of distribution
during the decline. The following table shows the spring history
of Cyclops during 1896. The story for 1895 would be substan¬
tially the same.

Vertical Distribution of Individual Species. 397

Table XXXIII. — Cyclops, 1896. Number per cubic meter stated in thou¬
sands.

Depth, meters.

0-3.

3-6.

6-9.

9-12.

13-15.

15-18.

April 1-15 .

17.2

11.7

18.9

20.3

12.8

15.0

April 16-30 .

109.4

84.1

52.5

28.8

18.8

9.6

May 1-15 . .

190.2

124.9

117.4

84.5

52.9

42.7

May 16-31 . .

37.0

37.3

34.3

35.2

42.1

64.8

June 1-15 .

20.5

13.7

7.6

6.7

5.7

14.1

June 16-30 . . .

59.2

32.4

17.9

13.4

6.7

9.5

Marsh (’97, p. 204) finds that Cyclops ftuviatilis is present in
great numbers near the surface. Its distribution, therefore,
agrees more nearly with that of Diaptomus than it does with
C. brevispinosus. The latter species is present in Green lake
in very small numbers apparently in and below the thermocline
in summer.

Daphnia hyalina.

Figure 29. — Table F, Appendix.

There are two facts which give the peculiarities of vertical
distribution of Daphnia hyalina and the allied species D. retro-
■curva. These are: First, a decided tendency of the young
animals to accumulate in the superficial strata of the water,
frequently in the upper meter. Second, a tendency on the part
of the older animals to settle toward the bottom. These species,
therefore, show a very high percentage in the upper levels of
the lake in periods when they are increasing, and especially at
those times when the broods of young appear. On the other
hand, when the species is declining in numbers, and in the in¬
tervals between the appearance of broods, the distribution may
be comparatively equal throughout that part of the lake inhab¬
ited by the species. As examples, compare the table on page
398, and the detailed figures of Table F, Appendix.

The percentage in the upper level rarely falls below 25, even
in the winter. In May, when the spring broods appear, the
average number in the 0-3m. level ranges from 45 to 55 per
cent., and the same ratio is found during the summer when the
species is increasing in numbers. On the other hand, when the

398

Birge — The Crustacea of the Plankton.

species declines in numbers, as it sometimes does in August,,
the percentage in the lower levels may be nearly, or quite, as;
great as in the 0-3 m. level. (See August, 1896.) At the time of
the fall maximum great numbers of young often appear at once.
At this time the brood sacs of the females contain from five to nine'
eggs. There are very few half-grown animals, and the eggs
may all hatch in the course of a week. At such a time it is not
difficult to determine the difference in distribution of the young
and old, and the following tables show these relations in the
latter part of October, 1896:

Table XXXIV. — Daphnia hyalina , per cubic meter.

Depth.

October 26, Noon.

October 27, 8 A. M.

Young.

Adult.

Young.

Adult.

0-3m .

122,200

0

30,400

1,200

3-6 . . .

27,500

250

13,300

760

6-9 .

15,800

380

1,900

6,300

9-12 .

1,600

4,100

2,500

3,800

12-15 . . .

0

2,500

2,500

8,900

15-18 .

950

1,300

19,000

After the production of the young in late October or early
November, the old females die off rapidly; some few remaining
as late as the first of January. In the latter part of May, or
the early part of June, according to the progress of the sea¬
son, those individuals that have lived over winter become weak,
are attacked by various diseases, caused by fungi, bacteria, and
microsporidia, settle toward the bottom of the lake and die.
This downward movement of the older and weaker individuals
causes an increase of the number in the lower part of the lake,
which was quite conspicuous in June, 1895, and in the latter'
part of May, 1896.

Shortly after this date the Crustacea begin to disappear en¬
tirely from the lower water, and during the remainder of the
summer the life of the species goes on, like that of the other
Crustacea, in the region above the thermocline.

The vertical distribution of this species does not appear to
have been carefully studied by other authors.

Vertical Distribution of Individual Species.

899

Daphnia pulicaria.

Figures 30-32. — Table G, Appendix.

The vertical distribution of this species is so peculiar that it
demands a somewhat more detailed account than has been given
to the other species. The history of the species begins or¬
dinarily in the early part of July of the odd numbered years.
During the first part of July it has been present only in very
small numbers, but in the second part of July, 1895, its numbers
were so large that it appears in the lists. At that time more
than 50 per cent, of the species was found between 6 and 9
meters, in the region of the thermocline, and nearly all of the
remainder was found between 9 and 15 meters. In August the
species moved downward, following the downward movement of
the thermocline, and continued in this position until the coming
on of the autumnal homothermous period in late September and
October. During October the species was distributed with
approximate uniformity through the water of the lake. In
November, as the lake cooled, the animals began to move toward
the surface, and in late November and December a period of
active reproduction began. The young animals were found in
the upper level of the lake, most numerously in the upper meter,
and as the result of this distribution, the numbers in the upper
level were far greater than those in any other portion of the
lake. This relation continued throughout the winter of 1895-96,
during which time reproduction also continued, although more
slowly, until in March and the early part of April reproduction
nearly ceased and the numbers of the species declined somewhat
rapidly. At this time the distribution was uniform, or such
irregularities as were present seemed to be accidental. In the
latter part of April the spring period of reproduction began
and an enormous number of young were produced in the upper
water. At this time as many as 80-85 per cent, of the species
were found in the upper level; a larger proportion than has
been found there of any other species except Chydorus. In the
early part of May a reproductive pause occurred, during which
the animals were pretty evenly distributed through the water;

400

Birge — The Crustacea of the Plankton.

the largest number being found in the bottom stratum. A
second reproductive period came on in the latter part of May,
in which the upper water was again crowded, although the
numbers increased so rapidly that the population of all the
upper levels of the lake was greatly increased. During the
early part of June the distribution became once more equal,
with the largest number again in the bottom level, and during
the latter part of the month the population rapidly declined,
falling off most in the upper levels. At this time more than 60
per cent, of the species was found below the 12 m. level and
less than 2 per cent, in the upper level.

Late in June the species began to move away from the bot¬
tom water, or perhaps it would be more correct to say that
the individuals at the bottom of the lake died off more rapidly
than those in the levels immediately above, so that in the early
part of July nearly 60 per cent, of the species was between 12
and 15 meters and only 6.5 between 15 and 18 meters. As the
species declined in numbers the decline took place chiefly in the
lower levels of the lake, so that in July and August the few
representatives of the species that were left were concentrated
in the region of the thermocline, thus occupying the same posi¬
tion that they had held in the corresponding months of the pre¬
ceding year. The following table shows the numerical relations.

Table XXXV. — D. pulicaria, 1896. Population per cu. m. of each
level stated in thousands.

Depth, meter .

0-3

3-6

6-9

9-13

13-16

15-18

April 1-15 .

1.0

1.5

3.2

2.5

1.3

0.6

April 16-30 .

41.6

5.2

0.4

0.7

0.9

0.2

May 1-15 .

10.4

12.8

15.5

9.2

13.3

17.8

May 16-31 .

55.4

33.7

37.4

28.8

19.8

23.4

June 1-15 .

10.3

5.9

8.8

12.5

5.9

10.9

June 16-30. .

0.4

1.5

2.8

3.7

10.9

4.4

July 1-15 .

0.1

1.1

3.5

7.3

0.8

July 16-31 .

3.2

1.7

0.1

0.1

Fig. 31 shows the movement of D. pulicaria during the late
summer and autumn of 1895. Points were established indicat-

Fig. 30. — Cyclops, March and July, 1896; D. pulicaria, August,
1895, and April, 1896. See pp. 396, 399.

Cyclops . .

Trans. Wis. Acad., Vol. XT. Plate XL.

Fig. 32. — Percentile vertical distribution of D. pulicaria, August-December, 1895. See p. 401.

Oo to «D 05 OS

B g B B 3 3

Trans. Wis. Acad., Vol. XI. Plate XLI.

Vertical Distribution of Individual Species. 401

ing the level below which the respective percentages of the
species were found and these were connected by lines. The dis¬
tribution is based on assumption that the individuals of the
species were uniformly distributed throughout the 3 m. level in
which they were found. This assumption is peculiarly incorrect
for D. pulicaria , since the species is limited to the region of the
thermocline. It is often confined within a space of 1 meter,
or even less, yet it often passes beyond these narrow lim¬
its, as is indicated by the fact that not inconsiderable numbers
may be found in two or even three levels. While, therefore, the
diagram spreads out the distribution of the species during the
summer more than is correct, the general relations are well
enough indicated by its lines. It will be seen that in the latter
part of August more than 65 per cent, of the species was found
between 9 and 12 meters and that the species moved downward
during September as the thermocline moved down. In
October, after the breaking up of the thermocline, the
distribution was much more nearly equal. The center of popula¬
tion rose rapidly and regularly from the latter part of September
to the middle of November, lying near 14 meters in late Septem¬
ber and at 4 meters in the first part of November. After a
small fluctuation in the latter part of November, it rose once
more, and in the latter part of December lay about two meters
below the surface, where it remained during the early part of
the winter, until the decline in numbers came on in March or April.
If this diagram were reversed it would serve fairly well to indi¬
cate the downward migration of the species in the spring.

In Fig. 30 are given curves for the percentile distribution of
D. pulicaria for April 16-30, 1896, and August 16-31, 1895,
showing the extreme variation of its average distribution.
The diagram is similar to that described on p. 384.

I have not found any other case recorded of a Daphnia which
in summer remains at or below the thermocline. At least one
other species of the genus has the same habit in this region. A
form which I have identified as D. longiremis Sars, belonging
to the cristata group, is regularly confined to the region be¬
low the thermocline in some of the lakes of the Oconomowoc
system and in lake Geneva.

26

402

Birge — The Crustacea of the Plankton.

Daphnia retrocurva Forbes.

Table H, Appendix.

This species belongs to the periodic Crustacea and is present
in the lake from July to December. Its numbers during July
are small and the proper history of the species does not begin
until the latter part of this month, or the early part of August.
In 1896, indeed, the numbers were very small until the decline
of D. hyalina in the middle and latter part of August gave an
opportunity for the presence of this species.

In vertical distribution this species agrees very closely with
D. hyalina , as would be expected. In the early part of periods
of increase, from 45 to 60 per cent, may be found in the upper
level. This was the case in the latter part of July, 1895. It
was also true in late September and early October, 1896, although
the Crustacea moved rapidly downward so that the two- week
averages do not disclose the fact. In the old age of the broods,
as the numbers are declining, they are found chiefly in the
lower water of the lake. This was especially obvious in late
November and in December, 1895, when the species disappeared
quite slowly and lingered latest in the lower waters of the
lake. In 1896 the formation of the ephippia was nearly simul¬
taneous on the part of all of the females and the species disap¬
peared rapidly and completely in the early part of November, so
that this phenomenon of the old individuals lingering in the
lower water did not appear.

Marsh (97, p. 210) finds the distribution of Daphnia Kahl-
hergiensis in Green lake very similar to that of D. retrocurva
in Mendota. He finds, however, a marked difference between
the vertical distribution by day and night, which I have not
seen. The fact, however, that D. retrocurva descends to a some¬
what greater depth during the day than does D. hyalina seems
to indicate a greater sensitiveness to light than that of its con¬
gener, although this sensitiveness does not lead to as great
movements as Marsh’s observations would indicate for Green
lake.

Vertical Distribution of Individual Species.

403

Diaphanosoma brachyurum Sars.

Table I, Appendix.

This species belongs to the periodic Crustacea, its active de¬
velopment extending from the first of August to the middle of
October. It is provided with very large antennae and is one of
the most powerful swimmers among the limnetic Crustacea. It
is also positive in its relations to light. In both these respects
it resembles Diaptomus and its vertical distribution very closely
agrees with that of the latter genus, although its numbers are
very much smaller. In the early history of the species
50 to 70 per cent, of the whole number are found in the upper
stratum of the lake. The distribution becomes more equal dur¬
ing the decline of the species and at no time is there found any
aggregation of individuals in the lower waters of the lake. The
distribution of the small numbers present in the decline of the
species is, however, quite irregular and the number in the
upper part of the lake becomes smaller than that in the lower
water.

Marsh (’97, p. 216) suggests that the vertical distribution of
Diaphanosoma is controlled by light rather than temperature.
He finds it negative to light and thinks that it prefers cool
water. In the laboratory Diaphanosoma moves toward the light
along with Diaptomus , so that my observations would indicate
that it is positive in its relations to light. I find also uniformly
a larger percentage of adult animals in the upper meter by day
than I find of the species of Daphnia. There is, therefore, noth¬
ing in my observations to confirm the idea that the species is
negative in its relations to light. Since, however, the absence
of Crustacea from the upper centimeters of the lake when the
light is most intense, indicates a certain negative relation on
the part of nearly all forms, it may well be that this species
finds the light in the clear water of Green lake too strong, and
responds to it more definitely than in lake Mendota.

404

Birge — The Crustacea of the Plankton.

Ghydorus sphaericus.

Table J, Appendix.

This species belongs properly to the littoral Crustacea and
its presence in the limnetic region depends apparently on the
presence in abundance of Anabaena and allied forms. Since these
plants tend to aggregate in the upper water of the lake, Chy-
dorus shows an equal tendency in the same direction and the per¬
centage of this species which may be found in the upper levels
exceeds that of any other of the limnetic Crustacea. It is true,
however, for this species, as for all others, that the largest
numbers are found in the upper level at the time when the num¬
bers are rapidly increasing, and that when the numbers are de¬
clining the distribution may be more equal, or may vary in an
accidental fashion. During the periods of rapid increase from
50-80 per cent, of the individuals are found in the 0-3 m. level.
These high percentages have been reached in September, 1894,
July, 1895, and June and August, 1896.

In October and later the species becomes quite equally dis¬
tributed through the water, but it showed no marked tendency
to aggregate in the lower water at times when it is declining,
until the numbers became very small in late winter, 1896. It is
very abundant during the day in the upper meter and, like
Cyclops , is one of the last forms to disappear at the thermo-
cline.

The fact that Chydorus is relatively very abundant near the
surface is noted by Apstein (’96, p. 80).

Leptodora.

The number of Leptodora caught is so small and so variable
that it is difficult to give any positive general conclusions regard¬
ing its vertical distribution. The following table shows the
average distribution for the months of July, August, and Septem¬
ber, 1895, with which that of 1896 closely agrees.

The Annual Distribution of the Crustacea ,

405

Table XXVI.

1895.

Total

Number

taken.

Pee Cent, in each 3m. level.

0-3m.

3-6.

6-9.

9-12.

12-15.

15-18.

July ................

285

33.3

34.4

24.6

7.4

0.3

0.0

August .............

680

41.0

28.8

19.5

8.5

1.9

0.2

September .........

156

34.0

28.2

17.3

9.6

9.6

1.8

This table shows that the average agrees very closely with that
of the other limnetic Crustacea. During this season a consider¬
able number of observations were made after nightfall, but
neither in 1894, nor in this year was there any evidence of a
movement of Leptodora toward the surface at night, as meas¬
ured by the three meter intervals. The species is nearly, or
quite absent from the upper meter or so during the day, but
comes to the surface again with the other Crustacea after night¬
fall.

In August, 1895, the number caught in the 0-3 m. level, ranged
from 1 to 43 individuals; in the 3-6 m. level, from 1 to 33; and
in the 6-9 m. level, from 0 to 46. Below this level, of course, few,
or no individuals were obtained. With this range of variation,
the percentages might easily be altered greatly by a single ob¬
servation.

Nauplii.

Figure 33.

The vertical distribution of the nauplii has been very vari¬
able, as may be seen from the following facts: On July 17th
50 per cent, of the very large number taken were caught be¬
tween 6 and 9 meters and only 7 per cent, in the 0-3 meter
level. On the 18th the distribution was substantially the same,
while on the 20th 38 per cent, were found between 0 and 3 me¬
ters, and 31.5 per cent, between 6 and 9, and on the 21st 49 per
cent, were found in the upper level and only 19 per cent, be¬
tween 6 and 9 meters. On the 5th of August 90 per cent, were
found between 6 and 12 meters, and on the 8th 23 per cent, be¬
tween 9 and 10 meters, and 50 per cent, between 6 and 10.

406

Birge — The Crustacea of the Plankton.

These observations were all made in the day and under substan¬
tially similar conditions of weather and temperature. During
August and September, 1897, numerous observations were made
by means of net and pump and in nearly all cases the great ma¬
jority of the nauplii were found in the lower part of the inhab¬
ited water, although a considerable number was also found in
the surface levels. On the 13th of September a very large num¬
ber of nauplii were found in the upper half meter, by far the
largest number being found at the surface itself. (See Table
XXXVIII, J. ) The number very rapidly declined from the surface,
reaching a minimum at about 1 meter. They began to increase
again at about 5 meters and reached a great number in the lower
levels, substantially as shown in Fig. 33. The nauplii in the
upper water were well developed and apparently about to change
into the form of the immature Copepods, while the great number
lying between 10 and 13 meters was composed of very young
individuals. It seems probable, therefore, that the nauplii dur¬
ing their younger life dwell in the lower part of the inhabited
water and move toward the surface when they are about to
leave the nauplius stage. The immature forms, both of Diapto-
mus and Cyclops , are present in large numbers in the upper
strata of the water and the egg-bearing individuals are present
in larger numbers in the lower strata, although they are never
absent from the upper water. In all the lakes which I have
examined in summer the great majority of the nauplii have
been found in the region of the thermocline; either just above
it, or immediately in and below it. I infer, therefore, that this
distribution is a common one.

In October and later the distribution becomes uniform and
so continues until late in the winter. In March, as the larvae
begin to change into Cyclops forms, they approach the surface.

Apstein (’96, Table IV.) does not appear to have found the
nauplii more abundant in the deeper water than near the surface.

The Distribution in the Upper Meter.

407

THE DISTRIBUTION IN THE UPPER METER, AND THE DIURNAL MOVE¬
MENT.

Figures 32, 33.

The observations recorded in my former paper showed uni¬
formly that there was no general diurnal movement of the Crus¬
tacea and no movement at all which couid be detected by the
use of three-meter intervals. This conclusion has been con¬
firmed by all of the observations which I have since made.
During 1895 and 1896 considerable attention was paid to the
distributiou of the Crustacea in the upper meter, with the de¬
sign to determining whether or not there was a diurnal move¬
ment of the limnetic forms within narrower limits than three
meters. A large number of observations were made in 1896 in
order to determine the relative number of Crustacea in the upper
meter and the remainder of the 3 m. level. These observations
were begun early in August and continued until the last of No¬
vember; twenty sets of observations being made in all. In
some cases the Crustacea were taken meter by meter and the
numbers compared. In other cases the Crustacea of the upper
meter were caught and their numbers compared with those ob¬
tained from the entire depth. A single illustration of the
former method is given; partly in order to show the results,
partly also to illustrate the amount of agreement and difference
between the three catches of one meter each and that made
through the entire distance of three meters.

Table XXXVI. — Number of Crustacea caught August 24, 1895. 6 P. M.

Depth, meters.

Diapto-

mus.

Cyclops.

D. hyalina.

D. retro-
curva.

Diaphan-

osoma.

Chydorus .

0-1 .

700

360

2,120

280

140

100

1-2 .

340

360

2,060

200

140

120

2-3 .

460

370

1,150

160

50

50

Total . . .

1,500

1,090

5,330

640

330

270

0-3. .

1,780

1,050

4,250

475

350

375

As would naturally be expected, the ratio between the c i
tacea of the upper meter and those of the entire level varies

408

Birge — The Crustacea of the Plankton.

very greatly. On some occasions the catch of certain species
from the upper meter was larger than that obtained by a second
catch from the entire three meters. Such instances were due
to the presence of very large numbers of young in the upper
meter, with a somewhat irregular distribution, so that the
catches varied considerably. Upon the whole, however, the
average number derived from these twenty observations agreed
surprisingly in all the species. It was found that the upper
meter contained an average of 43 per cent, of the entire catch
of Diaptomus from the upper three meters; 47 per cent, of Cy¬
clops; and 50 per cent, of Daphnia hyalina. These catches
were made during the day and may be taken as fairly indicating
the relative number of Crustacea in the upper meter during the
daylight hours. It will be seen that these observations fully
justify the statement made in my former paper (Birge, ’95,
p. 479) that “ a general movement of the Crustacea as much as one
meter would have been detected, ” and indicates that at no time
is the population of the upper meter of the lake notably de¬
ficient. The minimum percentages were very irregularly dis¬
tributed and depended more upon the presence or absence of
young individuals than upon any influence of light, weather, or
wind.

These observations also indicate the extent to which the lines
of Figs. 29 and 30 should be altered in the upper three meters
in order to express the average distribution within that level.

During 1897 observations were made with a view of deter¬
mining the exact distribution of the Crustacea in the upper
meter. They were made by two methods: First, a net with an
opening ten centimeters in diameter was supported so that it
could be drawn horizontally through the water for a known dis¬
tance at an uniform rate of speed. The Crustacea so obtained
were counted and the number present at a given level was thus
determined. Second, a pump was taken out in the boat, by
whose aid the water of the lake was pumped through a hose and
strained by the plankton net, the mouth of the suction hose be¬
ing placed at the successive levels. Water was taken from the
surface at a depth varying from two or five centimeters in calm
weather, to ten when the lake was agitated by the wind ; at one-

The Distribution in the Upper Meter.

409

half meter; at one, two, and three meters, and sometimes deeper.
The results of these two methods were the same and can be
stated in general as follows:

1. On calm sunny days the upper ten centimeters of the lake
may be almost devoid of Crustacea, as was the case on August
1st, 2d, and 25th. At a depth of half a meter, however, the
numbers become considerable and may be very great. On
August 25th the total population of the water at this depth was
at the rate of nearly 70,000 Crustacea per cubic meter, without
including the nauplii, which numbered 18,000 more. At one
meter the population was nearly 200,000 per cubic meter and
below that depth the numbers rapidly declined. A large num¬
ber of similar observations were made on other days, and in one
of the cases where the observations with the pump were ex¬
tended throughout the inhabited water the results have been
diagramed and are shown in Fig. 33.

2. The population of the upper meter is largely composed of
immature Crustacea, the percentage of young varying in dif¬
ferent species. It is most marked in Diaptomus , Daphnia hya-
lina , and D. retrocurva. Great numbers of young are found in
the upper meter, as was the case on August 25th, and especially
on September 8th, and the adults may be entirely absent.
At the depth of a half meter a very few half-grown individuals
are present, while they are fairly numerous at one meter and at
the same depth the adults begin to appear. Below one meter
by far the most conspicuous part of the population consists of
adults, although the young may be present in numbers as great
as the comparatively few adults. A similar relation of distri¬
bution holds for Daphnia retrocurva, although the proportion of
this species in the upper meter by day seems to be smaller than
that of its congener. The adults of Diaphanosoma approach
nearer the surface when the sun is bright, than those of Daph¬
nia, but at least 75 per cent, of the individuals found between
the half meter level and the surface are immature. The same state¬
ment is true for Diaptomus. Cyclops shows the least difference ;
females carrying eggs being regularly found in considerable
numbers at half a meter, or even above that level, coming to
the surface on cloudy days and occasionally in sunshine. Yet

410

Birge — The Crustacea of the Plankton.

while it is not easy to determine the exact proportions of young,
it is very obvious that the majority of the immature Cyclops are
near the surface.

3. A far larger proportion of Cyclops is usually obtained from
the upper five or ten centimeters than comes from any of the other
forms of limnetic Crustacea, and it may be present at the very
surface on hot, calm, sunny days, as on Sept. 13.

4. The nauplii are found in considerable numbers in the up¬
per water during the day and frequently extend to the very sur¬
face, yet ordinarily the number at the surface is only a third,
or even a smaller fraction of that found at one-half meter.
Older nauplii may be found in large numbers at the surface and
confined to the upper one-half meter.

5. In windy and cloudy weather the Crustacea approach nearer
to the surface, the numbers of Diaptomus and Cyclops being es¬
pecially increased by the change in the condition of the sky.
Daphnia hyalina also may come nearer the surface. But the num¬
bers of these species during the day in the upper ten centimeters
are always decidedly smaller than at one-half meter, so far as
my observations extend.

6. At night the population of the upper meter changes in
character. The young, instead of being concentrated in swarms
in this layer, become more evenly distributed, and the adults
which were found below the one-meter level rise toward the
surface. Leptodora and larval Corethra have been regularly
taken at the surface in considerable numbers at night. During
the day these animals are rarely, if ever, found close to the sur¬
face, although they may be abundant enough above the three
meter line. It would appear, therefore, that these animals
move toward the surface at night, together with the Crustacea
on which they feed. Epischura seems to have the same habit.

The Distribution in the Upper Meter.

411

Table XXXVII. — Typical catches f rom the upper water giving the rate
of population in thousands per cu . m. at the depth specified.

2

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£

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A.

Aug.l. Noon.

0-0.1

1.2

26.0

22.5

2.5

25.0

Light north
breeze. Net

0. 5-0.6

12.0

5.0

drawn horizon- j
tally 20 met-

1. 0-1.1

43.8

5.7

11.7

2.2

63.4

9.2

2.0

-ers. 1

1.5-1. 6

14.0

2.4

14.8

1.6

0.4

33.2

2.4

2.2

.

0-0.1

8.2

2.2

1.4

0.1

11.9

1.4

1.4

B.

Aug. 2. 5 p.

m. Light

7.8

0.5-0. 6

9.2

12.0

1.4

30.4

11.6

1.6

.

-clouds. Calm. -
Net drawn 15

1. 0-1.1

11.6

9.2

18.4

2.2

41.4

3.6

0.04

0.04

0.08

meters.

2.0-2. 1

9 6

10.4

9.6

2.8

32 4

5.6

0.04

0.08

1

r

3.0-3. 1

20.0

8.6

9.0

2.4

41.0

5.0

0.02

12.2

0.02

0.05

0.4

’ 0.6

0.6

1.6

40.2

C. 1

Aug. 6, 2 p. m. |
light clouds, ■{

0.5

22.5

4.1

0.75

0.4

7.8

56.2

8.6

.

light S. E. i
breeze. Pump. I

1

12.0

9.0

6.0

5.0

32.0

77.2

0.05

7.5

2

22.5

15.0

23.7

12.2

73.4

8.2

s

0.2

(

0.05

1.0

0.5

1.5

6.0

113.0

10.5

O 1

0.5

18.5

12.7

4.5

31.5

67.2

18.0

0.1

Aug. 25, noon, j
calm, clear.]

1.0

61.5

21.7

51.7

63.5

198.4

5.2

3.7

Pump.

2.0

45.7

18.7

8.7

6.5

8.2

4.5

81.3

6.0

2.0

2.0

4.5

3.0

1

3.0

10.0

6 0

2.0

29.0

1.5

r

0.1

6.5

12.0

13.0

12.0

43.5

4.5

E. j

Aug. 27, 5 1

p. m. clear, ■{
•fresh N. W.

0.5

9.0

16.7

50.3

1.8

13.0

90.0

0.2

1.0

8.0

17.5

17.0

9.5

51.0

0.1

breeze. Pump. |

l

2.0

9.0

24.0

12.0

11.5

56.5

0.1

0.1

5.6

10.4

3.2

14.8

34.0

13.2

0.5

10.8

14.0

27.6

12.8

65.2

19.2

F.

1.0

16.2

17.4

26.4

12.6

72.6

17.4

Aug. 28, 11 a.
m.Cloudy , fresh'

2.0

12.0

24.6

17.3

13.8

67.7

16.8

S. W. breeze.

Pump.

3.0

15.6

40.8

4.8

9.6

1.8

72.6

12.6

4.0

7.6

20.0

5.6

6.4

39.6

18.4

1

5.0

6.4

12.0

5.2

1 1.6

.

25.2

7.2

412

Birge — The Crustacea of the Plankton.

Table XXXVII. — Continued.

The preceding tables show the results of some of the more
important observations of this kind made in 1897. The fig¬
ures of these tables express the rate per cubic meter found at
the given depths, not the actual population between certain
depths as is done in the tables based on the vertical net.

In most of these lists, the preponderance of Cyclops in the
upper stratum is striking. In A, all of the Diaptomi at 0.5 and
1 m. were young. The same was true of D. hyalina at 0.5 m.,
and above. In all catches 85-95 per cent, were young at 1 m. on
sunny days. The effect of cloud is plainly visible in B, C, and
F, and of wind in E and G-. The tendency of Gloiotrichia to
aggregate at the surface is well seen in D.

In the following tables the record for two more complete ob¬
servations is given, together with one illustration of a night
distribution. In the latter there were almost no nauplii, an
exception to what has usually been found at night. The popu¬
lation for the given depths in the catch of September 8th has
been platted in Fig. 33, and Fig. 32 shows the upper three
meters of the two sets of observations on September 13.

Trans. Wis. Acad., Vol. XI.

Plate XL1I.

20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 220 Nauplii.

Depth. 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 Crustacea.

1 space = 20,000; temperature, 1 space = 1 degree. See p. 413.

The Distribution in the Upper Meter.

418

Table XXXVIII. — Typical catches with the pump from the entire depth.
The numbers are stated in thousands per cu. m and give the rate of
the population at the depth specified.

Depth, meters.

Temperature.

Diaptomus.

Cyclops. i

Adult D. [hya-

lina.

«5

A

A

§.s

O'-*

tH

D. retrocurva.

Diaphanosoma.

Ergasilus.

Total Crustacea.

Nauplii. j|

r

0.1

22.2^

1.5

3.8

9.3

2.0

16.6

15.5

0.5

6.0

12.0

78.0

10.5

106.5

27.0

1

21.8

15.0

15.7

7.5

44.5

5.3

5.3

93.3

19.5

2

21.6

11.3

16.5

5.3

8.3

5.2

5.3

51.9

55.5

3

12.5

23.5

8.0

7.5

3.5

3.0

58.0

40.5

4

21.5

3.0

12.5

4.3

1.0

1.2

0.5

22.5

21.0

6

21.4

3.5

16.0

7.5

3.5

3.5

34.0

50.2

ii.

Sept. 8, noon,

8

20.5

2.8

8.2

2.2

2.5

C.7

0.5

16.9

55.0

-clear; lights. W.-{

10

20 1

1.8

3.7

1.2

4.5

1.0

11.2

135.0

Fig. 33.’

11

19.8

0.9

4.2

0.9

1.3

0.2

0.5

8.0

143.0

12

19.7

3.8

2.3

2.8

10.9

225.0

12,5

0.3

6.6

1.4

0.1

0.2

1.0

10.2

108.0

13

19.4

2.1

2.1

22.5

13.5

16.6

0.4

0.4

15

14.3

1

f

"23

11.8

0.02

.

26.5

0.5

9.0

0.05

9.55

141.0

0.10

0.3

2.1

0.5

2.9

95.0

0.25

1.0

3.2

0.6

4.8

65.0

0.5

4.5

6.0

17.5

2.0

1.5

31.5

19.5

0.75

3.0

5.0

25.0

3.5

3.5

40.0

16.0

1.0

24.9

8.5

7.0

2.5

11.5

10.5

1.5

41.5

19.5

1.5

5.5

18.0

4.0

7.0

3.0

1.5

39.0

18.5

2

23.8

6.5

24.5

1.5

3.5

2.0

1.0

1.5

40.5

22.5

i

3

22.2

3.5

22.0

2.0

0.5

28.0

33.5

I. !

Sept. 13, 2 p. m. ; J

5

21.8

4.5

22.5

4.0

3.0

2.5

36.5

51.0

clear, calm ; pump.

See Fig. 32.

7

21.3

1.0

17.0

0.3

0.1

0.1

18.5

112.0

9

20.2

0.5

7.5

2.0

3.0

13.0

122.0

11

19.3

1.3

11.2

1.0

1.3

14.8

259.0

13

18.7

0.2

10.5

0.9

0.1

0.5

11.7

246.0

15

17.8

10.0

0.1

0.2

13.0

52.0

16

15.6

0.3

0.05

0.05

0.4

2.0

18

13.2

0.05

0.05

1

. 20

12.4

414

Birge — The Crustacea of the Plankton.

Table XXXVIII — Continued.

-ii

A

0,

<D

A

Temperature.

Diaptomus.

Cyclops.

Adult D. hya-

lina.

Young D. hya- '

lina .

D. Retrocurva.

Diaphanosoma .

Ergsailus.

Total Crustacea.

Nauplii. J

0.1

10.5

22.0

3.5

4.5

2.5

12.5

35.5

0.5

7.5

13.5

5.5

12.5

10.0

11.5

60.5

J.

Sept. 13. 9 p. m. -

1.0

6.0

20.5

7.0

3.5

1.0

14.5

53.5

.

2.0

12.5

11.5

6.0

3.5

5.0

13.5

52.0

3.0

.

7.5

11.0

6.0

4.5

8.0

32.0

67.0

.

These observations (and I could adduce many more) show that
there is a clearly marked diurnal movement of the Crustacea
in lake Mendota but that it is confined within the narrow limits
of the upper meter, or meter and a half. The day population
of the upper centimeters, especially in bright, calm weather, is
very small, but the number at one-half meter, even under such
conditions, is nearly or quite as large as that at any greater
depth, and may be the maximum number. The day population
of the upper meter consists chiefly of young and immature Crus¬
tacea; most of the older individuals of all species being found
at greater depths. This relation of age to distribution is most
marked in the Daphnias and Diaptomus and least marked in Cy¬
clops. At night the population of the upper meter agrees in
general character with that of the water below, the older indi¬
viduals ascending, and the younger descending. I have found
no evidence of an aggregation of adult Crustacea close to the
surface at night, but my observations have been confined to the
hours before midnight.

In general, these conclusions regarding the diurnal movement
of the Crustacea agree with those of France, (’94, p. 35), with
the important difference that while the movements described by
him are measured by meters, those which I have observed take
place within the narrow limits of the upper meter, or even
within a smaller distance. There are, however, some note¬
worthy exceptions to the agreement. I do not find that the

The Distribution at the Thermocline.

415

Cladocera aggregate at the surface at night, but find that the
upper water, in the early part of the night at any rate, is ten¬
anted by a larger proportion of Copepoda than of Cladocera and
that a smaller fraction of adult Cladocera is found among those
present at this level than at the depth of half a meter, or more.
I do not find that a strong wind brings about an even distribu¬
tion of the Crustacea, although it assists in doing so. In
moderate winds the Crustacea approach somewhat nearer the sur¬
face than in quiet, sunny weather, and during violent winds tho
distribution in the upper three meters is more uniform than in
cloudy weather, but in case large numbers of young are present,
there is always a high percentage in the upper meter.

THE DISTRIBUTION AT THE THERMOCLINE.

During the latter part of the summer of 1896 observations
were made with the net, in order to determine more exactly the
distribution of the Crustacea at the thermocline. The net was
raised from the bottom of the lake to the bottom of the ther¬
mocline and then closed and drawn to the surface. After wash¬
ing out the collection it was lowered to the depth at which it
was closed, opened, raised through one meter and closed again.
In this way the population was determined by single meters for
the two or more meters including the thermocline and the
water immediately above. Great care was taken that the move¬
ment of the net should be regular, and the messenger was sent
down the line in such a way as to close the net immediately on
its reaching the upper level of the meter under investigation.
The results show that the crustacean population usually passes
into the thermocline and often toward its lower part, but that here
it ends often with great abruptness. If the temperature conditions
are such that the thermocline is spread out over two or three
meters the population ends less abruptly than when the thermo¬
cline is concentrated into a meter or a half meter. The obser¬
vations showed a population per cubic meter of only a few hun¬
dred below the thermocline, while in it and above it the popu¬
lation might range from 40,000 to 60,000 per cubic meter. As
these observations agree in general with the more exact results
reached by the pump in 1897, the details will not be given.

416

Birge — The Crustacea of the Plankton.

In 1897 similar observations were made by the aid of the
pump; 40 liters of water being ordinarily pumped from
each level. The results were substantially the same, al¬
though the number of Crustacea found in and above the thermo-
cline was smaller, since the population of the lake was smaller
in 1897 than in the preceding year. The following table shows
the results of some of the observations. It will be noticed that
the abruptness with which the Crustacea stop is evidence that
the pump did not draw water from any considerable distance
from the mouth of the suction hose.

Table XXXIX. — Typical catches from the thermocline stated in thousands per
cubic meter. See also Table XXXVIII.

Depth, meters.

Temperature.

Diaptomus.

Cyclops.

.2

>>

rd

ft

D. retrocurva.

cS

«s

o

'B

a

A

Diaphanosoma .

Ergasilus.

o

+3

ft

ffi

A

Total crustacia .

Nauplii.

Corethra. 1

t 1

9

21.6°

8.7

7.6

6.8

0.2

4.8

0.8

0.05

50.5

4.1

0.05

10

21.5

6.0

8.8

8.7

1.5

5.3

1.3

0.05

53.1

3.2

11

17.5

4.8

1.8

0.5

0.3

0.02

24.7

11.8

0.1

12

15.9

4.0

8.7

28.6

5.8

0.15

13

15.1

0.2

11

20.6

1.0

5.0

5.0

4.3

15.3

9.2

12

19.0

1.0

5.0

2.8

1.5

1.8

12.1

10.0

13

15.0

0.1

0.1

0.08

11

21.3

10.2

8.4

3.0

3.0

24.6

11.4

12

21.2

7.8

13.8

7.2

0.6

3.9

23.3

11.1

12.5

20.4

2.4

29.3

1.6

1.2

34.5

16.5

13

16.2

0.1

0.1

0.2

0.05

14

15.0

0.05

0.05

0.05

0.15

0.05

10

20.5

1.4

7.8

5.0

2.5

16.7

19.5

11

20.4

2.5

9.2

8.2

2.5

22.4

42.5

0.05

12

17.6

1.3

13.2

1.0

10.0

25.5

34.4

0.15

13

15.6

0.05

0.1

0.02

0.17

0.15

14

15

15.0

13.0

0.05

0.1

0.1

0.25

0.2

A.

Aug. 17. Sur¬
face tempera¬
ture, 21.8°.

b. ;

Aug. 25. Sur-J
face tempera- j
ture, 22.7°. I

C.

Aug. 27. Sur¬
face tempera--*
ture 21.5°.

D.

Aug. 28. Sur¬
face tempera¬
ture 21.2°.

The Distribution at the Thermocline.

417

The distribution of the nauplii at the thermocline is especially
noteworthy. During the period of the observations there w ere
frequently found enormous numbers of larval Copepods in the
lower water. The numbers began to increase at ten or even
eight meters, at a point several meters above the level at
which the temperature began to fall, so that this distribution
does not seem to depend on temperature. The number of nau¬
plii rose to a maximum rate of more than 300,000 per cubic
meter in and above the thermocline, but ended with very great
abruptness. This termination of the population often took place
within the space of half a meter.

The number of algae also declines very rapidly at the thermo¬
cline and those which are obtained below this level are dead or
dying. The amount of algae thus obtained is, however, far
greater than the number of Crustacea; indeed the algae below
the thermocline are many times more abundant in rela¬
tion to the number of Crustacea present than is the case in lakes
like those of the Oconomowoc system, in which there is a large
crustacean population in the lower waters. It is obvious, there¬
fore, that the exclusion of the Crustacea from these deeper
waters is not due to the absence of food.

The algae at times appear to accumulate above the thermo¬
cline, and to pass it, as they settle, only after considerable
delay. I have attempted to discover whether this delay was
due to the greater density of the water, occasioned by the dim¬
inution in temperature. A large glass tube, six centimeters
in internal diameter and about two meters long, was filled with
water and the lower half meter placed in a vessel of ice-water.
After a few hours a very marked thermocline was formed, the
temperature falling some 6° C. in the space of about 10 cm.
Water containing algae, chiefly diatoms, was introduced at the
top of the tube and the algae gradually sank through the water.
On reaching the artificial thermocline they paused for a few
minutes, but rapidly acquired the temperature of the water, as
would be expected, and then sank to the bottom of the vessel.
The delay at the thermocline could not have amounted to more
five minutes for an individual alga. It seems probable from
27

418

Birge — The Crustacea of the Plankton.

these experiments that temperature does not cause the accum-
mulation of algae often found above the thermocline. Their
death and consequent rapid sinking in the deeper water account
for their small numbers below the thermocline.

In this region Cyclops is the least sensitive of the limnetic
Crustacea to the influences which exclude them from the lower
water. Chydorus is close to it in this respect when present in
large numbers. A larger proportion of these species than of
any others is found in the water immediately above the ther¬
mocline, and of the few Crustacea which are found below that
level by far the greater portion is composed of these genera. When
Chydorus is extremely abundant more individuals of this species
than of any other may be found below the thermocline. At one
time nearly 70 individuals were taken by the net between eleven
meters and eighteen, more than four times as many as all the
other Crustacea together. An examination showed that all, or
nearly all of these individuals were in the process of moulting
and had apparently become in some way entangled in the shell,,
so that their presence in this deeper water was an evidence of
injury or weakness. The Crustacea below the thermocline are,
however, not dead or dying when brougnt to the surface.

The larvae of Corethra are found in considerable numbers be¬
low the thermocline and seem to be the only limnetic animal
which normally inhabits these waters. Not infrequently the
numbers of Corethra are far greater than the total number of the
Crustacea obtained. Indeed this is regularly the case when Core¬
thra is present in any considerable numbers. Since Corethra
can carry a stock of air in its breathing tubes it is easy to
understand the possibility of its living in the water below
the thermocline. It is less easy to see why it should go there
unless it retains in lake Mendota the habits which it has in the-
far more numerous lakes whose lower waters are habitable by
Crustacea.

Factors Determining Vertical Distribution.

419

FACTORS DETERMINING VERTICAL DISTRIBUTION.

The following factors contribute to determine the vertical
distribution of the limnetic Crustacea.

1. Food.

2. Temperature.

3. Condition of the water in respect to dissolved oxygen and

other substances.

4. Light.

5. Wind.

6. Gravity.

7. The age of the members of any given species.

8. Specific peculiarities.

Food.

Food influences the distribution of the Crustacea both by its
amount and its quality. As a general proposition, the Crus¬
tacea should be most numerous where food is most abundant and
least numerous where food is least plentiful. Since, therefore,
the reproduction of the limnetic algae goes on most rapidly in
the upper strata of the lake, it is natural that the Crustacea
which feed upon these algae should also be most numerous there.
Yet this simple relation of food and eater does not at all cover
the facts of vertical distribution. The amount of the algae in
lake Mendota is in general so great in proportion to the num¬
ber of Crustacea that the quantity of food is rarely the pre¬
dominant factor in vertical distribution. In early spring the
Crustacea, and especially Cyclops , increase more rapidly than
does the food. But after the opening of summer the food
appears to be almost always in excess of the Crustacea,
and their distribution, therefore, does not follow variations in
its distribution.

For example, it is well known that the limnetic algae appear
in what may be called successive waves of development. A sin¬
gle species rises to a maximum, predominates for a short time,
then declines and nearly disappears, and its place is taken by
another species. During the period of decline, especially in the
case of diatoms, there is a time when the algae are sinking and

420

Birge — The Crustacea of the Plankton.

when they are more abundant in the deeper strata of the water
than near the surface. At such times the Crustacea do not fol¬
low the food downward, but retain their normal summer distri¬
bution. Again, in the autumn there is a period, beginning
a little before the first of October and extending to the freezing
of the lake, when the algae are present in immense quantities,
and are distributed with approximate equality through the
whole mass of the water. Yet the Crustacea are not by any
means as uniform in their distribution, and at times some
species are as closely aggregated near the surface as in summer.
Their position depends on age and other factors rather than on
food.

The position of Daphnia pulicaria , also, cannot be determined
by the food. It may be added that the Crustacea in the deeper
strata of the water are usually less numerous in comparison to
the food present than they are in the upper strata.

On the whole, while the quantity of food accounts for many
of the larger facts of vertical distribution, it leaves wholly un¬
explained most of the details of the distribution of all of the
species. It entirely fails to account for the position of Daph¬
nia pulicaria , or for the absence of Crustacea from the deeper
water in summer.

The quality of the food at different depths is of some importance
in the distribution of the Crustacea. Anabaena , Aphanizomenon ,
and allied genera of algae are found in larger numbers in the
upper strata of the water, while the diatoms, with their siliceous
shells, tend to be more evenly distributed and never accumulate
at the surface. Anabaena and allied forms, also, being small in
size and devoid of skeleton, are more readily eaten by the young
Crustacea than the diatoms, while the diatoms in turn can be
very readily eaten by the older and larger Crustacea. There is,
therefore, a tendency for the young of nearly all species of
limnetic Crustacea to seek the algae in the surface strata of the
lake, and the difference in the distribution of the algae is no
doubt one of the factors which keep so high a percentage of the
young near the surface.

The fact that the Crustacea in the 0-3 m. level do not rise
above a certain number (p. 387) shows that food is not the only

Factors Determining Vertical Distribution . 421

regulating factor, since the amount of food in that level in au¬
tumn is more than sufficient to support the total crustacean
population.

Temperature.

Temperature may be considered under three heads: (1) the
rise and fall of the average temperature of the water from
spring to late autumn, (2) the diurnal variation of temperature,
(3) the vertical distribution of temperature.

I have not been able to discover that the warming or cooling
of the water in spring or fall affects directly the vertical dis¬
tribution of any species except Daphnia pulicaria. The move¬
ments of this species are undoubtedly determined by the rise or
fall of the general temperature of the water. It is a sub-ther-
moclinal species in plankton-poor lakes and in summer it keeps
as near as possible to the cool water in lake Mendota.

The diurnal variation of temperature has no noticeable direct
effect on vertical distribution.

The most striking fact in the vertical distribution of temper¬
ature is the formation in the lake during summer of the thermo-
cline which forms the lower limit of the Crustacea from July on.
The Crustacea follow accurately the position of the thermo-
cline. This layer has a vertical oscillation of two or even three
meters, being affected by the direction of the wind. In every
case the lower limit of the Crustacea oscillates with the posi¬
tion of the thermocline and follows it downward as it gradually
descends during the summer.

The statement made in my former paper (Birge, ’95, p. 481)
that “during July, only the upper twelve meters are tenanted by
Crustacea, and over ninety per cent, are in the upper nine
meters” should be modified so as to read, that ninety-five per cent,
or more of the Crustacea are found above the thermocline, which
in July is situated from nine to twelve meters below the sur¬
face. Yet, close as is this correspondence between Crustacea
and thermocline, the temperature is not the fact which limits
their downward extension. This will be shown under the next
head.

I have no doubt, however, that the thermocline is always an

422

Birge — The Crustacea of the Plankton.

important factor in determining the position of the Crustacea,
Diaphanosoma is pre-eminently a summer form and flourishes
only when the temperature of the water is at or above 20° C.
It would hardly extend its range into the cold bottom water.
In Pine lake and Oconomowoc lake, in both of which many
Crustacea extend freely through the thermocline, Diaphanosoma
is confined to the region above it. Marsh states that Epischura
occupies the same position in Green lake, in which lake also
most of the Crustacea extend far below the thermocline.

In all small lakes whose deeper water is habitable it will
probably be found that the limnetic Crustacea (and the rotifers
also) can be divided into three sets :

1. Those permanently above the thermocline, including Di¬
aphanosoma, Epischura (Marsh, ’97, p. 195), and probably
some forms of Daphnia hyalina and Ceriodaphnia.

2. Those below the thermocline, including D. pulicaria and
longiremis and Limnocalanus (Marsh, ’97, p. 201).

3. Those which are found on both sides of the thermocline, in¬
cluding Diaptomus , Cyclops , and others. These forms are named
on small evidence in most cases, and the list must be regarded
as suggestive only. The thermocline and the upper meter or
two are certainly the two important strata in vertical distribu¬
tion.

Above the thermocline there are no differences in temperature
which could determine the distribution of the Crustacea. There
is rarely a difference exceeding two degrees between the top of
the thermocline and the surface of the lake, and the variations
in the vertical distribution of the Crustacea above this layer
must depend on other causes than temperature.

After the first of October, lake Mendota is nearly homother-
mous. Differences exceeding one degree are rarely found, and
only in the warmer parts of bright and calm days. This
condition is assumed while the temperature is fairly high — 16°
to 18° — and so early in the autumn that the development of the
Crustacea goes on actively for a month or more. During this
period, therefore, other factors than temperature or food must
determine the vertical distribution. Uniformity of distribution,
however, is not attained until the decline in numbers of the

Factors Determining Vertical Distribution. 423

several species of Crustacea. So long as the Crustacea are mul¬
tiplying, the higher strata may contain as high a percentage
as they do in summer. (Cf. p. 398. )

One indirect effect of temperature should be noticed. A
higher temperature increases the sensitiveness of the limnetic
Crustacea to light, and thus aids in driving from the upper
strata those species which are negatively affected by light, es
pecially Daphnia hyalina.

Chemical relations of the water.

The abrupt limitation of the downward extension of the
Crustacea in lake Mendota by the thermocline is not due to the
change in temperature. This is shown by the fact that in
lakes which are poor in plankton the Crustacea extend far below
the thermocline and in many cases the colder water is the more
densely populated part of the lake. The Crustacea are excluded
from the lower water by the accumulation in it of products of
the decomposition of the plankton plants and animals. Thes
accumulate in the stagnant water below the thermocline and
their decomposition finally, and in lake Mendota rapidly, fills
the water with decomposition products and exhausts the oxygen.

The State Board of Health of Massachusetts in 1889 and 1890
made elaborate examinations of the condition of the deeper water
of numerous ponds in that state. It was found (Drown, ’90,
p. 554) that in the deep water there was “ an accumulation of in¬
termediate products of decomposition of nitrogenous organic
matter, the hydrogen compounds of carbon, sulphur, phosphorus,
and nitrogen, which, owing to the exhaustion of the supply of
free oxygen, cannot be further oxidized. ” It was found also
that “in foul water of this character the varieties of animal and
vegetable life which we find in water nearer the surface are
almost, if not altogether, absent. ” In 1891 investigations were
made of the amount of oxygen in the bottom water, showing
(Drown, ’91, p. 373) a rapid decline in the dissolved oxygen
below the thermocline and its total disappearance from the bottom
water of the ponds. It is not possible to state positively
whether it is the absence of the oxygen or the presence of the
decomposition products which excludes the Crustacea from the

424 Birge — The Crustacea of the Plankton.

lower water, in the absence of more exact investigations on the
subject.

In lake Mendota the lower water is always clear, but the
whole region below the thermocline rapidly becomes unfit to
support life, so that the life in the lower waters ceases very
shortly after the formation of the thermocline. In lakes
with a smaller amount of plankton the bottom water may
become unfit to support life in late summer, although the
plants and animals extend far below the thermocline. In
Pine lake on September 5, 1896, Cyclops was by far the most
abundant crustacean in the cold water, and numbered 21,000
per cubic meter between 12 and 15 meters, and 3,000 between
15 and 18 m. It was practically wholly absent between 18 and
24 m., only 8 individuals being taken by the net within that
distance, and no other forms of Crustacea were taken. In Okau-
chee lake the Crustacea are numerous to a depth of 24 m. in Sep¬
tember, but between 24 and 27. 5 m. they were very few. In lake
Geneva, Wisconsin, the Crustacea in September extend to the
bottom at a depth of more than 42 meters. This lake is ex¬
tremely poor in plankton. The statistics given by Marsh for
Cyclops and Diaptomus (’97, p. 191, 204) may indicate a partial
exclusion of the Crustacea from the lower water of Green lake in
late summer and autumn.

While the plants and animals of the upper water are excluded
by this means from the lower part of the lake, animal life is by
no means entirely wanting. Worms are found in the mud at
the bottom, as also is Cyclas, in considerable numbers. There
must, therefore, be oxygen enough in the water to support some
life.

Cyclops and Chydorus are the least sensitive of the limnetic
Crustacea to these injurious influences. As shown by the tables
on page 416, they always predominate in the lower strata of the
inhabited water and form almost the entire population of the
water below the thermocline.

It is possible that the exhaustion of the oxygen from the
lower strata of the water is the cause of the death of Cyclops
and liaphnia hyalina at the bottom in spring and early summer.

I have, however, no positive evidence on this point and in the

Factors Determining Vertical Distribution. 425

case of the latter species a great majority of the old animals
are so affected by various diseases as to need no other explan¬
ation of their death.

Undoubtedly the condition of the water in summer causes the
rise of the survivors of the spring broods of D. pulicaria from
the bottom to the region of the thermocline.

Light.

In lake Mendota the direct effect of light is confined to the
upper meter or two, within which distance it has a powerful
influence in determining the position of the Crustacea.

Laboratory study shows that the relation of the Crustacea to
light differs in different species. Daphnia in all of the limnetic
species has a strongly negative movement. Diaptomus, Dia-
phanosoma , and Chyclorus are strongly positive while Cyclops
is, on the whole, positive, but is not very strongly affected
either way. Yet the vertical distribution of these species is
not very different when studied in the lake by three-meter inter¬
vals. Compare Fig. 30, and the percentage tables on p. 393
Diaptomus and Daphnia show an especially close correspond¬
ence in spite of their opposite relation to light. These species,
placed in a glass vessel near a window, will segregate, Diapto¬
mus collecting near the surface and toward the light, while
Daphnia goes to the bottom and to the side furthest from the
light. This movement away from the light is not shared by every
Daphnia present; some may move toward the light, usually not
more than one per cent, of the adult or half-grown individuals.
Young Daphnias , especially the newly hatched, are attracted by
the light. The adult individuals of Diaptomus are found in a
higher level of the lake than those of Daphnia.

The young Crustacea have a monopoly of the upper haif-meter,
or thereabouts, during the day. It is easy to see the advant¬
age of this arrangement to the species. In the upper meter,
plant-life is most abundant, and is represented chiefly by small
forms like Anabaena which are especially adapted as food to
the small Crustacea. On the other hand, the adult Crustacea
find an abundance of food suited to their size and masticatory

426 Birge — The Crustacea of the Plankton.

organs, in the diatoms, which are more uniformly distributed
in the water. The young, therefore, are freed in part during
the daytime, by the action of light, from the competition of
most of the older forms of the same species for the food which
is especially adapted to the young.

On August 26th, 1895, there was an alternation of cloud and
sun, which made the day especially favorable for the study of
the relation of light and the vertical distribution of Daphnia .
It was found by numerous observations that the adult and half-
grown Daphnias were approximately one meter below the sur¬
face during the sunny periods, but rose to about one-half meter
during the cloudy intervals. The rise immediately followed the
obscuring of the sun and the return was as prompt when the
sun again shone. It was as though the Daphnias were depressed
by a force against which they were contending, and they rose
when the sun disappeared with the promptness of a compressed
spring when relieved of weight.

In laboratory experiments Diaptomus and young Daphnias
move quite to the light end of the box in which they are placed.
If sunlight is reflected by a mirror, they still move toward it
and find no light too strong which can thus be sent to them.
It would seem, however, that the direct sunlight of the open
lake is too strong for them, or they would be present in larger
numbers in the upper centimeters of the lake. If the warmth
of the water repelled them we should expect this stratum to be
tenanted as the lake cools in the fall, and should also expect
that the young Crustacea would gradually withdraw during the
day as the surface warms. Neither in autumn nor in early morn¬
ing, however, do we find the Crustacea close to the surface. The
withdrawal from the upper quarter meter or so continues at
least until the first of November, and the Crustacea descend
from the surface very promptly after sunrise. As already
stated, the old nauplii are the only Crustacea which I have
found in large numbers immediately at the surface on calm,
bright days. A high temperature, however, increases the neg¬
ative action of light and a low temperature lessens or reverses it.
In early winter when the ice is transparent, D. pulicaria and
j D. hyalina may often be seen in large numbers immediately

Factors Determining Vertical Distribution. 427

below the ice. This is especially noticeable in the case of the
former species.

The position of D. pulicaria must be controlled by tempera¬
ture. I have never been able to detect any noteworthy differ¬
ence between Daphnia pulicaria and Daphnia hyalina in their
relation to light, by means of laboratory experiments. Nor
have I as yet been able to find any difference in sensitiveness to
light between Daphnias brought from a depth of three meters
and those from a depth of twelve or more meters.

The conclusion is, therefore, that in the upper meter and per¬
haps within a range not exceeding two meters from the surface,
light is an extremely important factor in determining the vertical
position of the Crustacea. Below this depth, however, there are
no effects which can be definitely ascribed to light. I am not
at all inclined to deny that, in lakes whose water is more
transparent than that of Mendota, light may influence the Crus¬
tacea to a greater depth. During the summer the water of
lake Mendota is always turbid with vegetation, which cuts off
the light very rapidly. My brass-topped dredge can rarely be
seen to a depth greater than two meters, and frequently disap¬
pears between one-half and one meter. Vegetation, also, is
especially effective in cutting off the violet and blue rays, on
which the action of the light chiefly depends. In lakes whose
water transmits these rays more freely, light may be a far more
important factor in controlling distribution.

The diurnal movement of the Crustacea, which is clearly
present during summer within the narrow limits of the upper
meter, is chiefly due to light. Wind or calm alter the condi¬
tions of movement but during summer can hardly be considered
factors in causing it.

Wind.

On the whole, wind has only a small influence on the vertical
distribution of the Crustacea, although its effect varies greatly
with the season and with the condition of the several species of
nrustacea. The action of the waves prevents the formation of the
dense swarms of young Crustacea which are apt to be near the
surface during calm weather. These young Crustacea seek the

428

Birge — The Crustacea of the Plankton.

algae which on calm days accumulate near the surface. When
the lake is rough the algae are distributed to a greater depth,
and the Crustacea follow them to some extent; although, even
when the wind blows with considerable force, the young Crus¬
tacea still form the chief population of the upper meter of the
water. I have not been able to discover any descent of the
Crustacea during windy weather, but, on the contrary, have
always found the upper meter fully occupied by them even when
the lake was so rough as to make it very difficult to go
out with a row-boat.

The wind may affect the vertical distribution, also, by creating
currents in the water. These are either lateral or vertical; we
are concerned only with the latter. During the summer the
vertical currents can penetrate no deeper into the water than
the thermocline; that is, from six to fifteen meters, according
to the time of year. These currents, however, seem to produce
very little effect on the distribution of the Crustacea — at any
rate, at a distance of 850 m. from the shore, where my observa¬
tions have been made. In the next section it will be shown
that Crustacea must be able to move through a distance of at
least 100 meters vertically per day, and that the larger individ¬
uals move through four or five times that distance. There is,
therefore, no difficulty in their maintaining any position in the
water they may choose to occupy, against the somewhat slow
vertical currents produced by the wind. Indeed, the wind
affects the vertical distribution of the limnetic algae much less
than would be expected. I have frequently collected after severe-
gales, and, in summer, have never failed to find the algae of
the upper three meters far more numerous than those from
lower levels. I have never been able to detect vertical currents,
produced either by wind or sun, which were capable of dis¬
tributing the algae uniformly through the mass of water in
summer, and of course the active Crustacea are far more inde¬
pendent of these currents than are the algae.

In the autumn the entire mass of water in the lakes is put
into somewhat active circulation by the autumnal gales. The
algae are at a maximum and are pretty uniformly distributed
through the water. Neither the quantity nor the quality of the

Factors Determining Vertical Distribution. 429

iood, therefore, give any reason to the Crustacea for moving to
any particular level. The effect of light, also, is lessened by
the declining temperature of the water. Hence the Crustacea
are far more apt to yield to the action of wind and gravity
than they do in summer, and become more evenly distributed
through all levels of the water.

In the spring a similar distribution occurs immediately after
the breaking up of the ice, when the lake is homothermous, and
the Crustacea and the algae have not yet started their spring
development. Very soon, however, the surface strata contain
much more food material than those below, and the young Crus¬
tacea tend to remain near the surface until crowded down by
the swarms of newly-hatched forms. The lake, too, rapidly be¬
comes heterothermous and the circulation of the water in late
April and early May is by no means as complete as it is during
the long homothermous period of the autumn.

A slight effect is also produced by the wind on the vertical
distribution of the Crustacea, since it causes the thermocline to
oscillate through one or more meters. In general, it may be said
that the on-shore wind tends to depress the thermocline, piling
up the warm water on top of it; while the off-shore wind tends
to raise it by stripping off the warm water of the surface. This
general law, however, is subject to many modifications owing to
the irregularities in the outline of the lake and in the confor¬
mation of its bottom. Whatever effect however, the wind pro¬
duces on the thermocline it also exerts, of course, on the lower
limit to which the Crustacea extend.

Gravity.

The action of gravity has more influence on the position of
Crustacea than I had supposed on beginning this investigation.
Its effects are most plainly seen in Daphnia , and least in Diap-
tomus. Gravity does not act as an accelerating force upon the
movements of the Crustacea, and yet their ordinary movements
are adjusted with some reference to it. If Daphnias are watched
in an aquarium, it will be seen that they usually remain at about
the same level, permitting themselves to sink and then with a few

430

Birge — The Crustacea of the Plankton.

strokes of the antennae resuming their former position. In this
way they pass up and down through the water utilizing the
material available for food. After a time the animal may swim
off to a new place, but soon begins to repeat these alternate
movements. The movements of Diaptomus are far less regular,
yet it, too, keeps at about the same level, unless some at¬
traction causes it to move up or down. Cyclops , which hunts
for food of all sorts, and is decidedly a more predacious ani¬
mal than either of the first two named, is far less regular in
its movements, and Leptodora , as a true carnivore, swims ac¬
tively in all directions.

The amount of energy required of the Crustacea in order to
maintain their position in the water is not inconsiderable, and
is doubtless the main muscular labor demanded of them. They
are all of them heavier than water, and sink at a rather rapid
rate, which very quickly becomes uniform. The full-grown
Daphnia , 3 to 4 millimeters long, sinks at the rate of 20-30
centimeters per minute even with expanded antennae. Small,
newly-hatched individuals, one millimeter or less in length, have
a rate less than one- third as great, from 5 to 10 centimeters
per minute. The specimens experimented upon almost always
fell edgewise through the water, with the head down, if the an¬
tennae were folded, and with the head up, if the antennae were
expanded. Diaptomus sinks at about the rate of about 12 cm.
per minute, and medium-sized adult Cyclops without eggs at a
rate of 9.5 cm. per minute.

Live Daphnias sink at the same rate as those freshly poisoned,
as far as the eye can determine. This is easily determined in
the case of half-grown and adult individuals, but young speci¬
mens are so active that it is hard to be accurate. At the rate
given, an adult Daphnia would sink through as many as 250-400
meters in a day, and must, therefore, maintain itself against the
force which would cause it to fall through this distance. Of course
the weight to be lifted is very small, being the excess of the weight
of the animal over that of an equal bulk of water. It seems im¬
possible that the animal should ever sleep. As the creatures be¬
come older and larger the exertion becomes greater than in the
case of young individuals, and the older and, especially, the

Factors Determining Vertical Distribution . 481

feebler animals, tend gradually to sink and accumulate in the
deeper waters of the lake.

Such aggregations of Cyclops are often found at the bottom
of the lake in winter. In March, 1895, for example, from fifty
to seventy per cent, of this species were in the lower three
meters. Daphnia hyalina shows a similar downward movement
in late May and early June on the part of those individuals,
which have lived over winter. In late autumn, also, the adult
members of this species are far more numerous in the lower
strata than they are at higher levels. Since, at this time, there
is a superabundance of food at all depth of the water, and,,
since the Crustacea are relatively few iu number, this distribu¬
tion can hardly be due to any other cause than gravity. (See
p. 398.)

Diaptomus and Diaphanosoma with their very powerful swim
ming organs, rarely show this tendency to sink. Perhaps the
large amount of fat usually present in Diaptomus also aids in
preventing sinking.

Age.

It is a general rule that the young individuals of a species
appear near the surface, When the Crustacea begin to multiply
in the spring, the increase appears first in the 0-3-meter level.
All very exceptionally large numbers of any species obtained
during the summer have been caught in the upper three meters,
and usually consisted of young and half-grown animals. No sim¬
ilar aggregations have been found in the deeper water, except as
noted for Cyclops in the last section.

When a species is declining in numbers, the distribution is
more uniform, and as the decline goes on, the lower levels may
contain a larger number than the upper. If the Crustacea
obeyed this law with mathematical accuracy, there would be a
sort of progress of the members of a brood from the top to the
bottom of the lake, the successive broods of the young contin¬
ually displacing the older in the upper strata.

Good illustrations of the distribution of the young and adult
•individuals can be obtained from the fall broods of Daphnia
hyalina , as stated on page 398

432

Birge — The Crustacea of the Plankton.

The nauplii of the Copepods seem to form an exception to
this rule of age. During the period when the thermocline is
present, the maximum numbers of nauplii usually occur in the
neighborhood of this layer, although not confined to it. In
Pine lake, also, the thermocline and the level immediately below
it contained more than sixty per cent, of the nauplii present.
In Mendota they cannot go below the thermocline, but they
congregate in and above it as shown in Pig. 33. The young
Cyclops and Diaptomus , however, congregate near the surface
by day, yet are by no means so closely confined to the surface
as is the case with Daphnia. In autumn and winter the nauplii
are pretty uniformly distributed.

The causes of this distribution by age are to be found in the
different relations of old and young to light, food, and gravity.
Light and food are probably the most important factors. Cer¬
tainly it is true that Cyclops , which, of all the limnetic Crus¬
tacea, is least affected by light and most omnivorous in diet,
never shows as complete a separation of old and young as do
the other genera. Yet even in this case there are more egg¬
bearing females, in proportion to the total number, in the deeper
strata than near the surface. This is possibly due to gravity,
which would have a greater effect on females laden with eggs.

Specific peculiarities.

It must be remembered that these various factors affect
highly organized animals, which therefore do not respond with
the mechanical uniformity of bacteria or of swarm-spores. Yet,
in looking over my lists for catches which would illustrate ex¬
ceptions to the principles given and to the averages of the
tables, I have had difficulty in finding them. A few exceptional
catches of Diaptomus occurred in all summers, where the 6-9 m.
level in perhaps half a dozen cases contained more than the
0-3 m. But even such cases are very rare and in general the
several species of Crustacea follow their law of distribution
with the range of variation already noted.

It is in the nature of the response of the species to these factors
that the specific differences usually appear, rather than in aber¬
rations from the general law. It has been very interesting to

Bibliography.

483

see how these specific differences regularly presented themselves
in my averages in spite of great variations in absolute numbers.
Even those so small that they were at first supposed to be
merely accidental recurred with great uniformity.

In conclusion I would repeat what I said in my introduction,
that this discussion of general causes is to be regarded as sug¬
gestive. I shall be quite satisfied if it indicates lines of invest¬
igation to students of the fresh water plankton.

LITERATURE TO WHICH REFERENCE HAS BEEN MADE.

Apstein, ’96. Das Siisswasserplankton. Methode und Resul-
tate der quantitativen Untersuchungen. Carl Apstein.
Kiel, 1896.

Birge, ’95. Plankton Studies on Lake Mendota. I. E. A.
Birge. Trans. Wis. Acad. Sci., Arts and Letters. Vol.
X., pp. 421-484.

Birge, ’97. The Vertical Distribution of the Limnetic Crustacea
of Lake Mendota. E. A. Birge. Biol. Centralblatt, Vol.
XVII., pp. 371-374. 1897.

Drown, ’90. Interpretation of the Chemical Analysis of Water.
T. M. Drown, Ph. D. Mass. State Board of Health, 22d
Report, pp. 533-578. 1890.

Drown, ’91. Dissolved Oxygen in Waters of Ponds and Reser¬
voirs at Different Depths. T. M. Drown, Ph. D. Mass.
State Board of Health. 23d Report, pp. 353-373. 1891.

Eigenmann, ’95. Turkey Lake as a Unit of Environment and
the Variation of its Inhabitants. C. H. Eigenmann.
Proc. Indiana Acad. Sci., Vol. V., pp. 204-296. 1895.

EitzG-erald, ’95. The Temperature of Lakes. Desmond Fitz¬
Gerald. Trans. Am. Soc. Civil Eng. Vol. XXXIV., pp. 67-
114. 1895.

France, ’94. Zur Biologie des Planktons. R. H. France. Bio¬
log. Centralblatt, Vol. XIV., pp. 33-38. 1894.

Fric and Vavra, ’94. Die Thierwelt des Unterpocernitzer und
Gatterschlager Teiches. Dr. Ant. Fric und Dr. V. Vavra.
Unters. u. d. Fauna der Gewas. Bohmens, IV. 1894.

28

484 Birge — The Crustacea of the Plankton.

Hensen, ’87. Ueber die Bestimmung des Planktons. Dr. V.
Hensen. Fiinfter Ber. der Kom. zur Wiss. Unters. der
Deutschen Meere. Kiel. 1887.

Hensen, ’95. Methodik der Untersuchungen bei der Plankton-
Expedition. Dr. V. Hensen. Kiel u. Leipzig. 1895.
Kofoid, ’97. Plankton Studies. I. Methods and Apparatus.
C. A. Kofoid, Ph. D. Bull. Ill. State. Lab. Nat. Hist.,
Vol. V., pp. 1-25. 1897.

Marsh, ’97. On the Limnetic Crustacea of Green Lake. C.
Dwight Marsh. Trans. Wis. Acad. Sci., Arts and Lett.
Vol. XI., pp. 179-224. 1897.

Reighard, ’94. A Biological Examination of Lake St. Clair.

J. E. Reighard. Bull. Mich. Pish Commission, No. 4. 1894.
Richter, ’91. Temperturverhaltnisse der Alpenseen. E. Richter.

Verh. d. 9ten Deutsch. Geographentages zu Wien. 1891.
Wesenberg-Lund, ’96. Biologiske Undersoegelser over Fersk-
vandsorganismer. C. Wesenberg-Lund, Vid. mea. natur.
For. pp. 105-168. KjObenhavn, 1896.

Whipple, ’95. Some Observations on the Temperature of Surface
Waters and the Effect of Temperatures on the Growth of
Micro-Organisms. G. C. Whipple. Journal N. E. Water
Works Ass’n., Vol. IX., pp. 202-222. 1895.

Zacharias, ’96. Forschungsberichte aus der Biologischen Station
zu Ploen. Theil 4. Dr. O. Zacharias. 1896.

Diagrams — Errata.

485

LIST OF DIAGRAMS.

Plate. Page.

Fig. 1. Temperature, surface and bottom, 1895 . xv 286

Fig. 2. Temperature, surface and bottom, 1896 . xvi 286

Fig. 3. Summer temperatures, 1895 . xvii 296

Fig. 4. Summer temperatures, 1896 . . xviii 296

Fig. 5. Temperatures, August, 1896 . xix 296

Fig. 6. Total Crustacea, 1894-1896 . xx 302

Fig. 7. Leading Crustacea, 1894 . xxiii 312

Fig. 8. Leading Crustacea, 1895 . xxi 308

Fig. 9. Leading Crustacea, 1896 . xxii 308

Fig. 10. Total Crustacea, 1894-6, deducting Chydorus .. . xxiii 312

Figs. 11-13. Crustacea, Sept. 16-30, 1894, 1895, 1896 _ xxiv 316

Fig. 14. Diaptomus, 1894-1896 . xxv 320

Fig. 15. Cyclops, 1894-1896 . . xxi 328

Fig. 16. Daphnia hyalina, 1894-1896 . xxvii 336

Fig. 17. Daphnia pulicaria, 1894-1896 . xxiii 341

Fig. 18. Daphnia retrocurva, 1894-1896 . xxix 344

Fig. 19. Diaphanosoma, 1894-1896 . xxix 344

Fig. 20. Chydorus, 1894-1896 . xxx 348

Fig. 21. Cyclops, single catches, 1895 . xxxi 370

Fig. 22. Vertical distribution, by 3 m. intervals, 1895 _ xxxii 378

Fig. 23. Vertical distribution, by 3 m. intervals, 1896 _ xxxiii 378

Fig. 24. Distribution, 0-3 m., 3-9 m., 9-18 m., 1895 . xxxiv 380

Fig. 25. Distribution, 0-3 m., 3-9 m., 9-18 m., 1896 . xxxv 380

Fig. 26. Percentile vertical distribution, 1895 . xxxvi 384

Fig. 27. Percentile vertical distribution, 1896 . xxxvii 384

Fig. 28. Percentile vertical distribution, March, 1895,

August, October, 1896 . xxxviii 390

Fig. 29. Summer distribution, 1896 . xxxix 394

Fig. 30. Cyclops and Daphnia pulicaria . xl 400

Fig. 31. Night and day distribution, Sept. 13 . xl 400

Fig. 32. Percentile vertical distribution, D. pulicaria. . . . xli 400

Fig. 33. Distribution of Crustacea, etc., Sept. 8 . . xlii 412

ERRATA.

Page 289, line 18, for April 28th, read April 2nd.

Page 289, line 21, for Dec. 29th, read Dec. 19th.

Page 400, line 2 from bottom, for Fig. 31, read Fig. 32.

Page 412, line 2 from bottom, for Fig. 32, read Fig. 31. Also in Table
XXXVIII, I.

Page 425, line 17, for Fig. 30, read Fig. 29.

In Fig. 13, for D. pulicaria 34, read D. pulicaria 3.4.

APPENDIX. — Table A. — Dates on which collections were made.

436

Birge — The Crustacea of the Plankton.

1

H

Dates.

§§ s' a

NhN .-pH £1 S(N“£5tH<c5‘4

^ aS.8^VS3„-S

No. ob¬
serva¬
tions.

-^co^ih •' o oo c~ c- o os coo c- c~ooc~ooc-C'-»mni«

144

No. of
days.

‘cowininc-t-t- oo c- t-t-t-oot-c-inioco

] 126

1895.

Dates.

w2:.6’.9.::::: ::::::::

14 .

15,19, 23 .

6, 7, 11, 12 .

16,18,23 .

12, 15 .

18,23, 25,30 .

4, 7, 10. 12 . .

16, 18, 20. 22, 27, 30....
1, 3, 6,10, 12,14 .. ...

17, 18, 20, 22, 24, 27, 29.

1, 3, 4, 5, 6, 9, 10, 11,

13, 15 .

17, 19, 22, 24, 27 .

2, 5, 7,9, 12, 14,15 ....
17, 19, 21, 22, 23, 27,

29, 31 .

2,4, 7,9,13 .

16, 18, 22, 25, 27,30....

3, 4, 8, 11, 14 .

17, 20, 23, 26, 30 .

kW:.“: ::::::::

1, 9, 11, 14 .

18, 21, 23 .

No. ob¬
serva¬
tions.

NWCOOHOO^MfflHN^OO »« <*>00 ifSSOlOUSlOOOTtl'sW

187

No. of
days.

i-i r-l CO -it' JO <NJ ■** T* tO CO 00 O lO t-OO ifS «C 1® »0 1® CO CO

110

Jan. 1-15 ....
Jan. 16-31....
Feb. 1-14....
Feb. 14-28....
Mob. 1-15....
Mch. 16-30....
Apr. 1-15...
Apr. 16-31....
May 1-15....
May 16-31....

June 1-15 _

June 16-30 —
July 1-15 —

July 16-31.. .

Aug. 1-15...
Aug. 16-31 . . .

Sept. 1-15 . . .
Sept. 16-30 . . .
Oct. 1-15....
Oct. 16-31....
Nov. 1-15...
Nov. 16-30...
Dec. 1-15....
Dec. 16-31...

i

H

Dates.

S3 S3 S3

S' S3 .

Mfls „

5*S it

No. ob¬
serva¬
tions.

ocg geo joa t-g >® ;ON

109

°4

-**co :t- -#oo m :cO'p-i

July 1-15.....
July 16-31 .

Aug. 1-15 .

Aug. 16-31 .

Sept. 1-15 ....
Sept. 16-30 ....

Oct. 1-15 .

Oct. 16-31 _

Nov. 1-15 .

Nov. 16-30 .

Dec. 1-15 .

Dec. 16-31 .

Appendix — Statistical Tables .

437

Table B. — Average number of Crustacea per cubic meter in each
three meter level , 1895 , 1896.

See Figs. 22, 23.

Depth .

1895.

0-3

3-6

6-9

9-12

12-15

15-18

Jan. 1-15.. . )

Jan. 16-31... )

6.9

5.0

4.7

5.2

2.6

2.6

Feb. 1-14.... 1

Feb. 15-28 .. )

5.2

8.7

6.6

5.3

14.1

14.1

March 1-15. ..

5.7

8.4

6.1

5.0

3.7

10.8

March 16-31 . .

12.4

11.7

5.2

5.2

10.1

10.1

April 1-15 _

10.3

5.8

3.7

3.1

4.1

4.2

April 16-30....

36.1

21.7

12.6

7.6

6.1

9.0

May 1-15 .

134.0

76.8

41.1

22.4

14.1

20.7

May 16-31 .

188.0

90.7

64.4

38.4

38.8

47.1

June 1-15. ....

148.4

83.3

59.9

45.0

36.0

46.6

June 16-30 _

84.4

41.3

30.3

13.3

9.2

17.5

July 1-15 .

142.1

61.4

46.0

14.2

4.2

2.2

July 16-31 ....

119.0

75.8

67.8

10.9

2.1

1.4

Aug. 1-15 .

101.1

61.8

34.7

27.5

4.1

0.5

Aug. 16-31 ....

87.1

45.0

38.4

32.7

3.5

0.6

Sept. 1-15 .

89.4

60.4

44.8

21.4

6.5

1.7

Sept. 16-30 _

93.7

62.6

45.8

34.6

42.0

24.1

Oct. 1-15 .

76.8

39.3

38.2

35.8

36.6

33.9

Oct. 16-31 .

41.6

23.9

23.8

25.4

20.8

21.1

Nov. 1-15.- _

29.1

22.9

17.1

21.2

17.5

11.0

Nov. 16-30 _

23.9

19.3

17.3

18.5

14.1

13.2

Dec. 1-15 .

33.2

28.2

17.0

10.6

8.5

6.5

Dec. 16-31 .

45.6

16.3

10.0

15.4

9.8

7.2

1896.

0-3

3-6

6-9

9-12

12-15

15-18

41.7

20.6

17.4

8.4

11.9

13.7

23.8

9.2

9.3

5.6

5.5

11.8

29.9

11.5

8.3

9.1

8.9

12.9

20.5

10.8

7.7

7.8

7.8

9.1

23.9

12.3

18.3

11.5

8.0

5.7

26.5

19.6

33.9

35.5

21.2

21.0

159.2

97.1

58.5

43.5

22.1

11.4

254.4

179.6

154.3

98.2

69.3!

62.2

197.8

118.7

117.2

94.4

81.1

99.6

188.1

69.0

30.4

24.0

12.9

30.6

252.2

106.8

43.8

24.2

18.8

15.0

230.4

135.2

56.8

25.1

20.9

2.6

127.2

76.9

47.5

9.7

0.8

0.3

163.0

82.7

42.6

11.2

1.2

0.2

119.9

118.6

62.9

49.8

6.9

0.5

150.6

111.9

84.8

70.5

47.0

14.4

107.0

61.1

50.1

51.9

53.2

47.1

105.7

84.1

81.3

63.6

61.3

59.8

192.0

66.9

51.2

41.9

42.5

43.6

56.1

47.1

30.9

36.8

28.9

28.2

52.2

29.8

24.7

27.9

22.7

19.6

26.5

38.2

15.9

24.6

22 0

23.2

14.6

27.5

22.0

10.3

10.3

10.4

488

Birge — The Crustacea of the Plankton.

Table C. — Average number and percentile vertical distribution of the

Crustacea.

Per cent, in each 3 m. level.

Av. No.

0-3.

3-6.

6-9.

9-12.

12-15.

15-18.

1894.

July 1-15 _

306.2

45.7

29.5

16.9

5.5

1.9

0.5

July 16-31....

472.3

51.2

30.6

12.3

4.9

0.8

0.1

Aug. 1-15 _

401.1

43.4

27.3

21.6

7.6

0.1

0.1

Aug. 16-31 . . .

382.2

42.6

29.0

21.1

7.2

0.1

0.0

Slept. 1— 15 . . . .

No

observa

tions.

Sept. 16-30...

691.6

46.2

26.0

14.5

9.8

3.2

0.3

Oct. 1-15 .

820.8

28.6

20.8

16.2

14.4

11.1

8.9

Oct. 16-31....

757.1

21.0

19.5

17.6

15.8

16.4

9.8

Nov. 1-15 .

571.4

20.7

18.6

i5. 8

19.8

16.3

8.8

Nov. 16-30....

No

observa

tions.

Dec. 1-15....
Dec. 16-31....

| 219.9

| 32.8

16.2

14.4

11.8

12.4

12.4

1895.

J an . 1-15 _

Jan. 16-31...

l 81.1

| 25.5

18.5

17.4

19.2

9.6

9.6

Feb. 1-14 _

Feb. 15-28....

j 166.9

| 9.6

16.3

11.9

9.8

26.1

26.1

Mch. 1-15....

} 118.7

14.2

21.1

15.6

12.6

9.2

27.2

Mch. 16-31....

164.5

22.9

21.3

9.5

9.5

18.4

18.4

Apl. 1-15....

94.3

32.8

18.4

11.7

10.0

13.5

13.7

Apl. 16-30....

229.4

38.7

23.3

13.5

8.3

6.6

9.6

May 1-15.....

940.2

43 5

24.8

13.3

7.2

4.5

6.7

May 16-31....

1,419.5

40.2

19.4

13.8

8.2

8.2

10.0

June 1-15 _

1,256.6

35.4

20.0

14.3

10.7

8.6

10.9

June 16-30...

610.7

43.0

21.6

15.5

6.8

4.7

8.4

July 1-15 _

817.6

52.6

22.8

17.0

5.3

1.5

0.8

July 16-31....

837.9

42.9

27.4

24.4

3.9

0.7

0.5

Aug. 1-15 _

689.1

44.0

26.9

15.0

12.0

1.8

0.2

Aug. 16-31....

622.8

42.0

21.7

18.4

15.8

1.6

0.3

Sept. 1-15 _

669.7

39.8

26.9

20.0

9.6

2.9

0.8

Sept. 16-30...

928.1

30.9

20.7

15.1

11.4

13.9

7.9

Oct. 1-15 .

767.8

29.5

15.1

14.6

13.7

14.0

13.0

Oct. 16-31....

478.5

26.6

15.2

15.2

16.2

13.3

13.5

Nov. 1-15 _

391.5

23.8

18.8

14.0

17.4

14.3

11.5

Nov. 16-30....

331.8

22.6

18.2

16.3

17.3

13.2

12.4

Dec. 1-15....

320.8

31.9

27.1

16.3

10.2

8.1

6.2

Dec. 16-31....

313.1

43.7

15.6

9.6

14.7

9.4

6.9

1896.

J an. 1-15 _

294.1

36.6

18.0

15.2

7.4

10.5

12.2

Jan. 16-31....

240.9

36.5

14.1

14.1

8.6

8.6

18.1

Feb. 1-14....

219.0

37.1

14.3

10.0

11.3

10.1

17.0

Feb. 15-29....

191.7

32.2

17.1

12.1

12.1

12.1

14.3

Mch. 1-15....

No

observa

tions.

Mch. 16-31 . . .

281.6

29.7

15.4

22.7

14.1

10.0

8.1

Apl. 1-15....

480.4

16.8

12.4

21.5

22.5

13.4

13.4

Apl. 16-30....

1,184.3

40.6

24.6

14.9

11.2

5.7

2.8

May 1-15 _

2,398.2

31.1

21.9

18.9

12.0

8.4

7.6

Appendix — Statistical Tables.

439

Table C. — Continued.

Av. No.

Per cent, in each 3 m. level.

0-3.

0-6.

6-9.

9-12.

12-15.

15-18.

May 16-31....

1,901.3

27.9

16.7

16.5

13.3

11.4

14.1

June 1-15 _

844.8

53.0

19.4

8.5

6.7

3.6

8.6

J une 16-30 _

1,265.0

54 7

23.1

9.5

5.3

4.1

3.2

July 1-15 _

1,314.2

48.9

28.7

12.1

5 3

4.4

0.6

J uly 16-31 _

776.5

48.4

29.2

18.1

3.7

0.3

0.12

Aug. 1-15 _

960.4

54.2

27.4

14.2

3.7

0.4

0.0

Aug. 16-31 _

1,073.3

33.4

33.1

17.5

13.9

1.8

0.1

Sept. 1-15 _

1,440.9

31.3

23.3

17.7

14.7

9.8

3.0

Sept. 16-30 . . .

1,112.3

28.6

16.2

13.4

13.9

15.3

12.4

Oct. 1-15....

1,368.4

23.0

18.4

17.8

14.0

13.4

13.1

Oct. 16-31....

1,314.8

43.9

15.2

11.7

9.6

9.7

9.9

Nov. 1-15 _

684.8

24.6

20.7

13.5

16.1

12.7

12.4

Nov. 16-30 _

537.7

29.5

16.8

14.0

15.8

12.8

11.1

Dec. 1-15 _

365.8

18.0

25.7

11.0

16.6

14.9

15.8

Dec. 16-31....

285.0

15.4

29.0

23.1

10.8

10.8

11.0

TableD. — Diaptomus. Average , maximum , and minimum numbers.
Percentile vertical distribution.

Per cent, in each 3 m. level.

Av.

Max.

Min.

0-3.

3-6.

6-9.

9-12.

12-16.

15-18.

1894.

July 1-15 . .

242.2

290.6

178.0

48.9

31.6

15.6

3.1

0.4

0.4

July 16-31 . .

298.9

553.3

155.8

53.6

31.2

13.0

2.1

0.07

0.06

Aug. 1-15 . .

218.7

394.3

126.5

45.5

26.8

20.9

6.5

0.2

0.1

Aug. 16-31 . .
Sept. 1-15 . .

87.4

117.9

43.8

49.7

27.6

17.4

5.0

0.2

0.1

Sept. 16-30 ..

54.6

84.5

10.8

58. i

20.4

1.2.2

8.0

i.o

0.3

Oct. 1-15..

67.2

92.8

38.9

38.5

23.2

13.1

11.4

10.1

3.4

Oct. 16-30 ..

38.3

72.0

3.6

25.4

20.3

17.2

14.7

15.9

6.3

Nov. 1-15..
Nov. 16 30 ..

44.0

95.4

26.0

28.6

17.6

16.1

16.9

13.0

7.8

Dec. 1-15..
Dec. 16-31 . .

23.9

16.7

43.2

16.5

?28.2

15.2

12.5

13.0

16.2

14.9

440

Birge — The Crustacea of the Plankton.

Table D. — Continued.

Per cent, in each 3

M. LEVEL.

Av.

Max.

Min.

0-3.

3-6.

6-9.

9-12.

12-15.

15-18.

1895.

Jan. 1-15 . .
Jan. 16-31 . .

17.5

15.9

28.9

22.9

8.0

13.3

| 28.2

23.1

20.2

17.4

5.5

5.5

Peb . 1-14 l
Feb. 15-28 5

28.0

47.7

16.5

22.6

23.1

21.3

12.0

10.5

10.5

Mch. 1-15 . .

28.3

55.6

23.8

Mch. 16-31 . .

34.7

70.5

27.1

22.7

25.6

20.0

14.7

9.3

7.7

Apl. 1-15 . .

14.0

23.5

10.8

28.1

19.0

13.5

13.5

12.9

12.9

Apl. 16-30 . .

20.6

52.7

0.2

32.7

32.1

13.3

9.6

5.5

6.8

May 1-15 . .

34.4

45.1

17.2

58.2

22.6

12.0

3.3

2.0

1.9

May 16-31 . .

207.9

284.2

49.6

61.5

21.7

11.3

3.6

1.1

0.8

J une 1-15 . .

285.0

459.8

178.1

57.3

24.1

9.6

3.3

2.6

3.1

June 16-30 . .

190.6

396.9

95.4

51.1

24.9

14.9

5.7

1.3

2.1

July 1-15 . .

187.4

397.5

105.5

41.4

30.1

22.6

4.8

0.8

0.3

July 16-31 ..

217.8

366.3

127.8

31.1

24.9

36.5

6.7

0.5

0.3

Aug. 1-15 . .

110.5

169.8

61.7

47.2

29.9

13.8

8.3

0.5

0.2

Aug. 16-31 . .

101.3

264.5

45.2

45.3

27.7

19.2

7.1

0.5

0.2

Sept. 1-15 . .

224.6

311.6

69.3

40.4

36.4

18.4

3.8

0.8

0.3

Sept. 16-30 . .

331.5

586.3

152.0

40.3

26.1

15.8

10.1

5.4

2.3

Oct. 1-15 . .

148.4

323.1

101.7

27.4

15 4

15.6

13.4

17.2

11.8

Oct. 16-31 ..

79.7

115.1

42.6

22.1

17.7

14.8

17.1

14.5

13.6

Nov. 1-15 . .

55.8

71.8

42.6

13.2

14.7

19.3

20.5

20.1

12.1

Nov. 16-30 . .

46.0

54.1

43.8

12.8

19.8

16.6

17.9

17.5

15.3

Dec. 1-15 . .

33.6

47.1

22.8

13.1

20.0

23.3

20.8

13.1

9.5

Dec. 16-31 . .

58.0

67.4

22.8

25.2

21.4

13.7

20.8

12.1

6.8

1896.

Jan. 1-15 . .

48.6

62.9

40.0

26.2

24.0

21.9

9.9

9.3

8.7

Jan. 16-31 . .

23.3

34.3

22.8

25.4

16.2

20.7

20.7

14.0

3.0

Peb. 1-14 . .

38.9

57.5

27.3

28.0

24.4

11.9

14.0

14.6

7.0

Feb. 15-29 . .

34.9

33.0

16.3

16.4

14.4

10.8

9.1

Mch. 1-15 ..

24.1

16 0

20.0

18.3

11.7

10.0

Mch. 16-30 . .

33.3

38.8

26.7

19 0

14.6

23.4

30.7

6.0

6.3

Apl. 1-15..

35.2

43.4

21.6

26.2

24.0

21.9

9.9

9.3

8.7

Apl. 16-30 . .

29.9

66.7

9.5

16.3

28.3

19.6

19.6

10.9

5.3

May 1-15 . .

102.3

388.5

38.2

48.2

31.3

17.7

1.8

0.9

0.1

May 16-31 . .

360.2

645.5

227.6

38.2

22.4

18.5

10.6

6.1

4.0

June 1-15 . .

343.5

740.9

152.6

67.9

23.7

5.6

1.8

0.4

0.6

June 16-30 . .

386.2

725.6

103.0

69.9

22.9

5.0

1.6

0.2

0.3

July 1-15 . .

202.9

319.2

178.7

49.0

28.0

16.0

5.4

1.3

0.3

July 16-31 . .

152.1

222.6

93.4

62.6

23.2

9.6

4.0

0.3

0.1

Aug. 1-15 . .
Aug. 16-31 . .
Sept. 1-15 . .
Sept. 16-30 ..
Oct. 1-15 . .

91.9

65.0

24.8

8.8

1.0

0.2

0.0

167.0

31.8

37.4

13.6

15.7

1.2

0.0

125.9

37.2

28.2

21.6

7.5

3.1

2.3

163.4

30.1

22.8

13.0

9.3

11.2

13.5

52.8

25.2

19.8

12.6

10.8

22.6

9.0

Oct. 16-31 . .

48.8

39.0

20 6

15.6

14.4

7.8

2 6

Nov. 1-15 . .

29.8

28.9

18.5

23.6

11.5

17.5

0.0

Nov. 16-30 . .

28.5

15.6

18.7

6.3

21.9

15.6

21.9

Dec. 1-15 . .

29.3

19.3

30.0

3.9

19.2

14.5

13.1

Dec. 16-31 ..

24.7

23.1

27.0

20.7

11.6

9.2

8.4

Appendix — Statistical Tables.

441

Table E. — Cyclops. — Average , maximum, and minimum numbers.
Percentile vertical distribution.

Av.

Max.

Min.

Per cent, in each 3 m. level.

0-3.

3-6.

6-9.

9-12.

12-15.

15-18.

1894.

July 1-15...

39.8

63.6

11.2

37.4

24.6

21.9

11.3

4.5

0.3

July 16-31...

151.0

347.2

53.2

44.4

31.2

13.8

9.8

1.8

0.1

Aug. 1-15 . .

161.0

297.6

85.2

41.0

28.8

22.5

7.4

0.1

0.1

Aug. 16-31 . .
Sept. 1-15..

200.3

270.3

130.3

39.5

28.7

22.4

8.9

0.4

0.1

Sept. 16-30. .

190.1

272.2

129.7

42.3

25.7

16.2

12.1

3.1

0.6.

Oct. 1-15...

347.1

421.6

251.8

33.5

21.6

15.7

13.9

8.4

6.9

Oct. 16-31...

261.3

383.1

173.0

15.7

20.1

17.4

17.8

18.4

10.6

Nov. 1-15 . .
Nov. 16-30 . .

246.4

440.1

108.8

12.9

17.8

15.9

22.4

21.2

9.8

Dec. 1-15 . . .

75.0

243.5

44.5

22.7

15.6

13.5

10.8

15.3

22.1

Dec. 16-31. . .

44.5

46.1

42.6

29.6

14.1

17.4

15.3

12.0

11.6

1895.

Jan. 1-15...

21.5

48.3

13.3

24.8

17.2

16.0

21.6

10.3

10.1

Jan. 16—31. . .

40.0

50.9

32.1

5.1

8.8

25.8

25.8

17.2

17.3

Feb. 1-14 )
Feb. 15-28 $

82.7

112.6

55.3

5.1

9.1

7.1

8.3

35.2

35.2

Mch. 1-15..

55.7

104.9

39.4

9.3

13.2

8.5

9.9

8.9

50.2

Mch. 16-31. .

66.2

143.1

49.6

15.2

17.0

9.9

9.9

24.0

24.0

Apl. 1-15...

53.9

63.6

38.2

29.2

17.1

13.3

10.2

15.1

15.1

Apl. 16-30...

242.5

604.8

82.0

39.3

22.1

33.7

7.9

6.8

10.2

May 1-15...

864.9

1252.8

759.0

42.7

23.8

14.2

7.5

4.8

7.0

May 16-31...

944.4

1234.2

715.3

30.5

17.6

15.3

10.6

11.5

14.5

J une 1-15 . .

616.9

966.7

231.5

21.3

17.8

17.5

13.9

12.6

16.9

June 16-30 . .

262.6

361.8

197.7

33.0

22.4

13.9

7.6

7.4

15.7

July 1-15...

323.6

388.0

148.2

52.5

19.3

16.2

7.0

3.1

1.8

July 16-31...

131.4

218.4

85.2

32.8

31.8

25.4

8.9

0.3

0.8

Aug. 1-15 . .

107.6

189.1

64.8

46.0

27.2

14.0

10.1

2.5

0.2

Aug. 16-31 . .

129.6

343.7

108.1

36.4

27.7

20.7

13.5

1.3

0.3

Sept. 1-15 . .

142.0

237.2

169.8

34.7

23.1

24.0

12.8

3.9

1.4

Sept. 16-30 . .

226.0

308.4

169.8

24.5

20.5

18.3

16.3

11.7

8.7

Oct. 1-15...

327.5

338.5

313.5

26.6

15.3

14.9

15.4

14.6

13.3

Oct. 16-31...

219.7

242.3

202.2

23.9

15.2

15.7

18.8

15.6

10.7

Nov. 1-15 . „ .

144.7

157.7

138.6

18.2

15.8

14.0

19.7

17.0

15.3

Nov. 16-30. . .

146.3

158.3

136.1

16.4

14.0

16.2

20.7

16.5

16.1

Dec. 1-15...

90.2

100.4

76.3

14.3

20.0

15.7

17.3

17.1

15.5

Dec. 16-31...

89.1

104.3

52.1

11.2

11.9

14.7

26.6

16.9

18.7

1896.

Jan. 1-15...

111.0

131.6

78.8

16.0

12.2

13.3

10.0

21.3

27.2

Jan. 16-31. . .

151.0

237.8

105.5

29.2

13.3

12.6

7.4

9.2

28.3

Feb. 1-14 . .
Feb. 15-29 . .

91.6

82.0

108.1

75.6

12.5

22.4

10.4

13.3

13.2

11.6

17.4

13.9

16.6

14.7

29.9

24.0

Mch. 1-15..

Mch. 16-31..

212.5

239.4

74.4

30.4

15.1

21.1

15.0

11.0

7.5

Apl. 1-15...

400.7

763.2

183.1

17.7

12.0

19.5

20.9

14.3

15.6

Apl. 16-30. . .

1011.2

1607.8

543.7

34.9

26.8

16.9

12.3

6.0

3.1

May 1-15 . . .

1858.4

2359.6

1071.6

30.6

20 7

18.9

13.6

8.5

7.8

May 16-31. . .

705.9

1294.8

176.8

14.8

14.9

13.7

13.8

16.8

26.1

442

Birge — The Crustacea of the Plankton.

Table E. — Continued.

Av.

Max.

Min.

Per cent, in each 3 m. level.

0-3.

3-6.

6-9.

9-12.

12-15.

15-18.

J une 1-15 . .

189.5

297.6

139.2

30.0

20.0

11.1

9.8

8.3

20.5

June 16-30 . .

358.7

716.1

223.2

42.6

23.3

12.8

9.6

4.8

6.8

July 1-15...

371.0

442.0

341.5

37.0

29.0

14.6

9.0

9.3

1.0

July 16-31...

317.5

412.1

138.0

49.5

30.0

18.7

1.4

0.2

0.1

Aug. 1-15 . .

326.8

48.8

25.2

20.8

4.8

0.3

0.0

Aug. 16-31 . .

209.0

30.0

32.7

10.8

24.0

2.0

0.5

Sept. 1-15..

157.1

33.8

22.5

15.8

12.6

9.9

5.3

Sept. 16-30..

228.6

29.2

13.7

14.4

18.4

14.2

10.1

Oct. 1-15...

364.8

18.3

22.6

18.7

14.3

14.3

11.7

Oct. 16-31. . .

469.5

27.7

20.8

15.5

12.6

12.2

11.2

Nov. 1-15 . .

267.7

18.1

19.8

12.2

19.2

14.2

16.5

Nov. 16-30 . .

173.9

25.1

13.6

12.0

15.3

12.4

11.6

Dec. 1-15...

115.5

14 3

29.2

10.7

16.0

12.6

17.1

Dec. 16-31. . .

93.1

6.5

20.8

19.8

13.0

17.0

22.9

Appendix— Statistical Tables .

443

Table F. — D. hyalina. Average , maximum, and minimum numbers.
Percentile vertical distribution.

Av.

Max.

Min.

Per cent, in each 3 m. level.

0-3.

3-6.

6-9.

9-12.

12-15.

15-15.

1894.

July 1-15...

19.8

32.8

8.5

38.1

23.4

20.2

14.1

3.2

0.9

July 16-31..

13.3

34.4

2.7

43.4

33.5

19.7

2.5

0.9

0.0

Aug. 1-15. .

16.6

33.3

9.3

43.5

26.5

23.5

6.2

0.0

0.3

Aug. 16-31.
Sept. 1-15..

60.7
No ob

82.7

servat

47.8

ions.

42.7

29.0

22.2

4.2

0.0

0.0

Sept. 16-30.

148.4

212.7

74.4

30.6

25.2

21.1

16.3

6.0

0.8

Oct. 1-15...

207.6

461.7

117.3

32.0

26.1

17.5

9.7

6.2

8.4

Oct. 16-31 .

252.5

531.0

98.3

31.7

19.6

17.1

11.7

11.6

8.3

Nov. 1-15 . . .
Nov. 16-30.

183.1

462.6
No ob

92.2

servat

37.1

ions.

21.3

13.9

12.2

8.9

6.6

Dec. 1-15. .
Dec. 16-31

121.5

(48.8)

154.2

56.9

78.2

40.7

41.1

16.0

16.7

12.0

8.7

5.5

1895.

Jan. 1-15. . .

40.8

65.4

36.7

24.1

18.7

16.7

18.7

10.9

10.9

Jan. 16-31 .

55.9

61.0

53.4

30.4

27.7

5.3

11.2

12.7

12.7

Feb. 1-14 \

Feb. 15-28

65.8

109.4

41.9

18.1

19.9

11.0

9.8

20.6

20.6

Mch. 1-15 .

34.7

69.3

25.6

22.9

26.9

19.2

12.4

9.1

9.5

Mch. 16-31.

63.6

102.3

39.1

28.1

22.7

8.1

8.1

16.5

16.5

Apl. 1-15...

26.4

24.2

12.7

42.7

21.0

10.1

7.5

9.3

9.4

Apl. 16-30 .

16.3

43.8

3.2

37.5

29.7

9.4

11.3

5.1

7.0

May 1-15 . . .

28.9

81.4

7.9

67.0

22.2

5.7

2.6

1.3

1.1

May 16-31 .

250.7

349.8

71.2

59.1

24.3

9.9

3.0

2.3

1.4

June 1-15 .

319.2

564.8

183.1

42.2

19.4

12.5

11.5

6.6

7.8

June 16-30.

135.6

327.5

31.8

51.0

13.3

19.2

6.6

4.3

5.5

July 1-15...

139.9

263.9

21.0

56.1

20.9

17.7

4.4

0.5

0.4

July 16-31 .

275.3

464.3

129.7

58.3

24.1

15.7

0.9

0.2

0 8

Aug. 1-15 .

273.0

417.2

78.2

47.6

26.6

13.8

10.7

1.1

0.3

Aug. 16-31 .

252.8

428.6

143.1

51.1

17.6

17.8

12.6

0.7

0.2

Sept. 1-15 .

202.8

349.1

169.8

49.5

23.2

21.3

4.6

1.1

0.3

Sept. 16-30.

201.6

248.0

148.1

37.0

20.8

16.9

11.4

9.6

4.3

Oct. 1-15...

180.5

253.1

123.3

36.9

14.9

12.1

12.5

10.9

12.7

Oct. 16-31 .

76.6

111.3

54 0

37.9

15.9

15.1

13.0

10.3

7.8

Nov. 1-15 . ,

56.2

72.5

38.8

32.8

21.9

12.7

14.7

10.6

7 2

Nov. 16-30.

48.2

60.4

36.2

31.3

15.8

15.0

14.8

12.8

10.3

Dec. 1-15 .

35.0

41.9

26.4

33.9

32.7

18.7

7.3

4.2

3.2

Dec. 16-31.

44.6

52.7

11.4

38.5

29.2

9.3

12.1

9.5

1.4

1896.

Jan. 1-15. . .

36.2

57.8

15.2

31.7

35.8

19.9

4.8

4.2

3.6

Jan. 16-31 .

17.3

20.3

10.8

41.0

25.4

19.1

6.4

4.7

3.4

Feb. 1-14 .
Feb. 15-29 .
Mch. 1-15 .

19 6
27.0

29.6

13.3

26.9

37.6

24.2

21.2

12.7

15.3

10.7

7.0

10.6

14.1

14.9

4.7

Mch. 16-31.

13.5

27.3

6.9)

32.1

14.1

34.9

10.4

4.7

3.8

444

Birge — The Crustacea of the Plankton.

Table F. — Continued.

Av.

Max.

Min.

Per cent, in each 3 m. level.

0-3

3-6

6-9

9-12

12-14

15-18

1896.

Apl. 1-15....

14.6

18.4

7.6

4.5

9.1

36.4

22.7

22.7

4.6

Apl. 16-30 / .

15.2

27.9

7.6

21.5

28.6

23.8

11.9

9.5

4.7

May 1-15/...

124.6

360.0

52.1

45.0

32.9

16.4

2.5

2.8

0.4

May 16-31 ..

270.8

427.3

78.8

44.9

11.4

16.1

12.1

9.8

5.6

June 1-15 . .

55.6

156.4

6.3

59.4

20.3

12.6

5.6

1.3

0.5

June 16-30..

211.1

496.7

106.8

55.0

27.4

13.4

3.4

0.4

0.2

July 1-15 ..

319.0

783.4

132.9

56.4

26.0

13.6

3.3

0 6

0.1

July 16-31..

65.5

104.6

40.2

45.3

27.1

17.7

9.4

0.4

0.0

Aug. 1-15 . .

95.2

55.8

18.6

17.5

7.8

0.2

0.0

Aug. 16-31..

60.9

36.5

23.2

24.0

14.0

2.3

0.0

Sept. 1-15 . .

120.4

29.1

9.1

17.9

20.5

15.1

8.3

Sept. 16-30. .

192.5

26.5

18.4

15.4

16.3

12.0

11.4

Oct. 1-15....

228.0

50.5

15.8

7.5

5.4

8.3

12.5

Oct. 16-31 . .

511.5

69.3

7.9

6.3

4.8

4.9

6.8

Nov. 1-15 . .

314.6

31.1

20.2

14.1

14.6

10.7

9.0

Nov. 16-30..

266.0

35.2

19.4

12.3

15.2

9.0

8.9

Dec. 1-15 ..

182.8

19.7

24.3

11.0

15.5

15.5

14.0

Dec. 16-31 . .

138.9

.

20.4

35.7

27.4

8.0

4.8

3.7

Appendix — Statistical Tables.

445

Table G. — D. pulicaria. Average , maximum , and minimum num¬
bers. Percentile vertical distribution.

1895-96.

Av.

Max.

Min.

Per Cent, in Each 3 m. Level.

0-3.

3-6.

6-9.

9-12.

12-15.

15-18.

July 16-31...

11.6

17.1

0.2

0.0

0.0

53.1

12.5

32.8

1.6

Aug. 1-15 . . .

19.9

42.3

8.0

0.0

0.0

11.0

65.0

22.0

1.0

Aug. 16-31..

38.1

164.7

5.4

0.0

1.6

2.3

80.2

14.8

1.0

Sept. 1-15...

33.8

57.2

8.3

0.0

2.2

4.5

68.8

22.6

1.8

Sept. 16-30. .

98.2

125.9

10.5

0.0

1.5

2.2

3.4

58.8

33 7

Oct. 1-15....

26.9

49.6

12.7

14.1

13.8

14.1

19.2

17.1

21.7

Oct. 16-31. . .

23.5

46.4

5.4

22.5

21.9

22.3

12.7

9.6

11.0

Nov. 1-15...

49.6

102.3

17.8

42.7

27.3

8.7

9.2

5.5

6.6

Nov. 16-30..

58.3

82.0

39.5

25.2

29.2

19.6

15.1

5.7

5.2

Dec. 1-15....

141.1

221.9

25.0

51.6

35.5

7.9

2.8

1.9

0.2

Dec. 16-31. . .

99.8

57.2

24.8

37.8

31.1

11.4

11.1

7.7

0.9

Jan. 1-15 _

88.2

137.3

40.0

68.3

14.5

12.7

3.5

0.5

0.5

Jan. 16-31. . .

24.8

31.8

13.3

77.9

8.4

8.4

2.1

2.1

1.1

Feb. 1-14....

64.1

81.4

29.8

75.8

9.1

5.0

2.8

2.4

4.8

Feb. 15-29. . .

43.9

43.4

20.3

8.7

11.5

8.7

7.3

Mch. 1-15...

Mch. 16-31..

20.9

50.9

10.1

34.0

18.9

27.0

9.4

7.6

3.2

Apl. 1-15. . . .

28.0

47.0

11.4

10.4

14.6

31.2

25.0

12.5

6.3

Apl. 16-30...

118.2

251.8

12.1

84.9

10.6

0.8

1.5

1.7

0.5

May 1-15 _

284.9

683.2

85.8

13.1

16.2

19.5

12.0

16.7

22.4

May 16-31. .

533.6

763.4

291.2

28.0

16.9

18.8

14.5

10.0

11.7

June 1-15...

168.6

260.7

56.6

17.5

10.0

15.0

21.3

10.1

25.8

June 16-30. .

78.2

157.7

13.3

1.9

6.2

11.7

16.0

45.8

18.5

July 1-15....

39.3

52.1

19.7

0.0

0.9

8.6

27.0

57.0

6.5

July 16-31. . .

11.8

38.2

0.6

0.0

0.0

62.8

33.4

2.0

1.8

Aug. 1-15 . . .

3.7

0.0

10.0

17.0

71.0

2.0

0.0

Aug. 16-31..

5.9

0.0

0.0

0.0

80.0

20.0

0.0

446

Birge — The Crustacea of the Plankton.

Table H. — D. retrocurva. Average , maximum , and minimum num
bers. Percentile vertical distribution.

Av.

Max.

Min.

Per cent, in each 3 m. level.

0-3.

3-6.

6-9.

9-12,

12-15

15-18.

1895.

July 1-15....

9.7

14.6

0.0

47.0

25.5

13.1

14.4

0.0

0.0

July 16-31...

31.5

59.7

3.5

50.0

24.0

24.8

1.2

0.0

0.0

Aug. 1-15. . .

68.2

154.8

8.9

37.1

26.1

16.8

18.5

1.3

0.1

Aug. 16-31 . .

50.1

96.0

20.5

41.1

21.3

22.7

13.7

1.1

0.1

Sept. 1-15...

23.8

37.5

11.5

46.4

23.5

20.3

6.4

2.9

0.5

Sept. 16-30. .

59.6

74.4

21.6

33.8

24.1

15.7

11.6

7.8

6.9

Oct. 1-15 _

72.5

103.6

50.9

35.9

15.2

17.9

7.5

11.7

11.7

Oct. 16-31...

70.9

65.5

33.7

29.2

10.0

12.3

10.6

9.1

28.7

Nov. 1-15....

59.3

79.5

42.6

24.2

20.2

12.6

18.4

14.2

10.3

Nov. 16-30. . .

24.2

37.5

19.1

30.7

20.2

14.9

12.3

10.0

11.9

Dec. 1-15....

5.0

11.4

1.9

3.7

0.0

41.3

17.5

18.7

18.7

Dec. 16-31. . .

0.7

0.9

0.0

0.0

0.0

27.3

36.4

18.2

18.2

1896.

July 16-31. . .

2.5

Irreg

ular

near

surfa

ce.

Aug. 1-15. . .

27.6

59.0

32.4

8.0

0.4

0.2

0.0

Aug. 16-31..

57.1

36.5

23.2

24.0

14.0

2.3

0.0

Sept. 1-15. ..

157.7

26.2

17.3

19.3

19.4

12.4

5.3

Sept. 16-30. .

228.6

26.5

18.4

15.4

16.3

12.0

11.4

Oct. 1-15....

199.3

26.4

20.0

14.3

10.8

13.0

15.5

Oct. 16-31. . .

92.7

43.5

18.8

8.8

10.8

10.4

7.6

Nov. 1-15 _

9.9

29.0

30.7

0.0

0.0

13.5

26.8

Appendix — Statistical Tables.

447

Table I. — Diaphanosoma . Average , maximum , and minimum num¬
bers. Percentile vertical distribution.

Ay.

Max.

Min.

Per cert, in each 3 m. level.

0-3.

3-6.

6-9.

9-12.

12-15.

15-18.

1894.

Sept. 16-30..

19.6

68.4

6.9

50.0

29.4

8.1

7.9

4.6

0.0

Oct. 1-15....

5.2

7.8

0.7

34.1

24.4

20.7

4.9

11.0

4.9

Oct. 16-31. . .

3.0

5.4

0.0

0.0

25.0

43.8

0.0

25.0

6.2

1895.

Aug. 1-15 . . .

31.5

47.0

25.1

52.9

29.6

13.5

3.8

0.2

0.0

Aug. 16-31..

32.2

56.1

17.8

39.3

28.4

24.6

6.8

0.6

0.3

Sept. 1-15...

27.1

63.6

15.2

36.6

35.7

19.7

6.0

1.7

0.2

Sept. 16-30..

17.2

37.3

2.9

41.7

19.5

14.0

17.7

7.1

0.0

Oct. 1-16....

3.4

10.8

1.2

11.3

0.0

34.0

32.1

22.6

0.0

1896.

Aug. 1-16. . .

8.9

73.5

24.1

1.8

0.6

0.0

0.0

Aug. 16-31..

147.2

45.1

28.3

19.3

6.1

1.0

0.1

Sept. 1-15 . . .

108.3

30.7

24.0

21.0

12.4

10.7

0.1

Sept. 16-30 . .

32.9

31.2

20.2

11.5

13.3

11.5

12.3

Oct. 1-15 ....

0.4

448

Birge — The Crustacea of the Plankton.

Table J. — Chydorus. — Average , maximum , and minimum numbers.
Percentile vertical distribution.

Av.

Max.

Min.

Per cent, in each 3 m. level.

0-3.

3-6.

6-9.

9-12.

12-15.

15-18.

1894.

Sept. 16-30..

278.9

440.7

96.6

55.0

26.9

10.6

5.6

2.0

0.0

Oct. 1-15....

193.3

251.2

92.8

12.3

13.3

16.4

21.6

21.6

14.8

Oct. 16-31...

202.0

304.6

82.0

14.2

17.8

18.0

18.7

19.9

11.3

Nov. 1-15....

97.9

261.3

13.3

7.3

15.5

18.6

28.4

19.3

10.8

Dec. 1-15....

9.5

15.9

3.8

16.7

20.6

13.3

16.7

18.7

14.0

1895.

June 1-15 . . .

36.7

92.8

11.1

41.9

24.9

13,0

9.4

5.0

5.6

June 16-30 . .

21.9

45.7

6.9

83.1

13.4

2.4

1.1

0.0

July 1-15....

156,8

271.5

13.3

61.1

25.3

11.0

2.2

0.4

0.0

July 16-31. . .

163.4

283.6

89.0

42.8

35.2

20.3

1.2

0.2

0.2

Aug. 1-15 . . .

78.6

157.7

16.8

43.2

30.4

18.4

7.3

0.5

0.1

Aug. 16-31 . .

18.7

48.7

5.0

32.7

33 3

21.8

11.2

1.1

0.0

Sept. 1-15 . . .

15.6

39.4

8.9

45.5

23.6

22.8

4.8

3.4

0.0

Sept. 16-30..

Scatte

ring

only.

Oct. 1-15....

8.6

14.3

5.0

17.6

17.6

6.6

12.5

14.7

30.9

Oct. 16-31...

8.1

12.0

3.8

46.8

14.1

7.8

23.5

7.8

0.0

Nov. 1-15 _

25.9

46.4

10.8

11.4

15.3

14.3

24.3

21.3

13.4

Nov. 16-30. . .

19.7

29.8

13.9

9.2

18.8

24.0

21.6

]6.1

10.3

Dec. 1-15....

15.9

19.7

12.0

26 0

6.6

18.2

10.5

16 8

22.0

Dec. 16-31...

20.9

36.8

8.9

23.0

18.6

11.8

22.6

17.6

6.3

1896.

May 1-15 _

28.0

48.3

19.0

15.9

23.4

23.8

16.2

8.9

11.8

May 16-31 . . .

30.8

68.6

13.3

34.0

23.6

15.9

19.9

4.3

2.3

June 1-15 _

87.6

279.8

4.4

77.6

15.8

4.7

1.0

0.4

0.3

June 16-30..

230.8

346.0

145.6

65.0

24.4

7.0

2.6

0.5

0.3

July 1-15 _

382.0

661.4

169.8

57.0

33.6

6.9

2.0

0.3

0.0

July 16-31. . .

245.1

465.5

129.1

43.2

34.1

20.0

2.7

0.2

0.0

Aug. 1-15 _

406.5

54.8

32.0

10.4

2.2

0.5

0.0

Aug. 16-31 . .

426.0

32.4

36.2

21.0

8.5

1.7

0.1

Sept. 1-15 . .

748.6

34.9

26.7

17.0

15.2

5.6

0.7

Sept. 16-30..

263.0

25.0

14.8

14.9

12.2

18.1

14.9

Oct. 1-15....

423.7

10.3

15.0

25.8

21.0

14.5

13.4

Oct. 16-31. . .

191 9

16.9

18.1

17.1

12.8

16.6

18.4

Nov. 1-15 . . .

62.7

18.7

22.4

13.0

13.4

12.7

19.8

Nov. 16-30 . .

69.3

21.3

12.0

26.7

17.3

10 6

12.1

Dec. 1-15 _

38.2

15.0

16.2

13.4

19.1

16.2

20.1

Dec. 16-31. . .

28.1

12.8

25.0

15.0

17.6

19.6

10.0

Trans. Wis. Acad., Vol. XI. Plate XLIII.

Trans. Wis. Acad., Vol. XI.

Plate XLIV.

Fig. 1.— Ratio 1:2:3.

Fig. 3.— Ratio 2:3:4.
1 double point.

Trans. Wis. Acad., Vol. XI. Plate XLV.

A

Fig. 5.— Ratio 2:4:5.
2 double points.

Fig. 6. — Ratio 3:4:5.

Trans. Wis. Acad., Vol. XL

Fig. 9. — Ratio 3:6:7.
6 double points.

Trans. Wis. Acad., Vol. XI.

Fig. 10. — Ratio 3:4:9.
6 double points.

Plate XLVII.

Fig. 11.— Ratio 3:5:9.
4 double points.

Fig. 12.— Ratio 4:5:9.

Trans. Wis. Acad., Vol. XI.

Fig. 13— Ratio 4:6:9.
6 double points.

Fig. 14. — Ratio 4:6:9.
6 double points.

Fig. 15. — Ratio 4:7:9.

Trans. Wis. Acad., Vo]. XI.

Fig. 16. — Ratio 4:8:9.
12 double points.

Plate XLIX.

Fig. 17.— Ratio 5:6:9.
4 double points.

Fig. 18. — Ratio 5:6:9,
4 double points.

Trans. Wis. Acad., Vol. XI.

Fig. 19.— Ratio 5:7:9.

Fig. 20.— Ratio 5:8:9.

HARMONIC CURVES OF THREE FREQUENCIES.

CHARLES S. SLIGHTER,

Professor of Applied Mathematics, University of Wisconsin.

Much interest attaches to the plane curves which result from
compounding two harmonic motions of different frequencies at
right angles to each other. This interest is doubtless due as
much to the intrinsic beauty of the curves themselves as to their
actual importance in physics and mechanics. Lissajous’ famous
memoir1 on “L’Etude Optique des Mouvements Vibratoires”
has probably contributed more to make his name known than
all of the rest of his scientific work taken together. As a matter
of fact, however, the path described by a particle of an elastic
body is frequently not a plane curve resulting from the compo¬
sition of two harmonic motions, but is a curve of double curva¬
ture in space, being the resultant of three harmonic motions in
three different directions and of different frequencies. The
present paper has for its object the description of a simple form
of apparatus designed to give stereoscopic photographs of curves
of this class. The apparatus enables one to produce stereoscopic
photographs of the path of a particle resulting from compounding
three harmonic motions, provided the component motions are in
phase and at right angles to each other.

Plate XLIII represents the apparatus used. A Blackburn
pendulum, B P', nearly three meters long, carries a small elec¬
tric pea lamp L, and can be adjusted by the clamp 01 so that
the bob P' will describe a Lissajous’ curve having for its fre¬
quencies two of the three frequencies desired. A stereoscopic
camera C is clamped in the Y of the pendulum shown in the
left of the diagram, so that the optical centers of the lenses are

1 Annales de Chimie et de Physique, 1857, 3e serie, tome LI.

29

450 Slichter — Harmonic Curves of Three Frequencies.

approximately in line with the two steel points which support
the pendulum P. If the pendulum bob P be adjusted so that
the pendulum has the third desired frequency, then when the
pendulum P is vibrating, the image of the lamp L will describe
upon the sensitive plate of the camera harmonic ^notion of the
desired frequency. To secure a photograph containing a curve
possessing all three of the frequencies, the bob of the Black¬
burn pendulum is held at one corner of the table by the elec¬
tro-magnet E' and, at the same time, the camera pendulum is
held at the end of its swing by the electro-magnet E. The elec¬
tro-magnets are on the same circuit and are controlled by the
key K'. The key K is then pressed to illuminate the electric
lamp L, and immediately afterwards the pendulums are released
by the key IT. At the close of the complete period of the com¬
pound harmonic curve, the key K is released, extinguishing the
light L.

There are given in figures 1-20 copies of stereoscopic photo¬
graphs taken by means of the apparatus above described. The
camera could be placed on either of two adjacent sides of the
table and two views made of the same curve, if so desired. Fig¬
ures 1 and 2, also 17 and 18, present views of the same curves
taken from adjacent sides of the table. Figure 14 shows the
same curve as figure 13, but is taken from a point opposite the
corner of the table.

Mr. Elting H. Comstock, at that time a senior in the Uni¬
versity of Wisconsin, succeeded in working out, by an original
method, the number of intersections or double points in the
plane harmonic curves, and, by the same method, succeeded in
obtaining the number of double points in harmonic curves of
three frequencies. The formulas obtained by him are as follows :

Let n: r: s be the ratio of the periods of the component har¬
monic motions. Let a be the highest common factor of r and s,
P the highest common factor of s and n , and y the highest
common factor of n and*r. The number of double points is then
given by

(n__l)(a_ 1) I (r — 1) ((5 — 1) , (s-l)(r-l)

2 * 2 2

_ («- !)(/?-!) __ (yg-l)(r-l) __ (y-l)(a-l)

2 2 2

(1>

Slichter — Harmonic Curves of Three Frequencies. 451

If n and r are prime to each other, this^reduces to

(n-l)(a-l) {r l)(/3 1) (a -1)03-1)

2 ”r~ 2 2 ^

If n is prime to both r and s , this reduces to

(w-l)(g-l)

2 w

If n, r and s are prime to each other, there will be no double
points at all.

The derivation of these formulas is given in Mr. Comstock’s
paper, which immediately follows the present one.

Madison , Wis., Nov . #7, 1897.

THE REAL SINGULARITIES OF HARMONIC CURVES
OF THREE FREQUENCIES.

ELTING H. COMSTOCK.

INTRODUCTION.

In the year 1800, Thomas Young1 called attention to the paths
traversed by any particle in a vibrating string. This led
Wheatstone2 in 1827 to study the vibrations of a rod fixed at
one end. He found that if the rod was square or circular in
section, the vibration of any point of the rod was in a plane
passing through the axis of the rod, unless forced out by an ex¬
ternal disturbance. When the rod was rectangular in section
the path described by any point was no longer a straight line,
or more properly the arc of a circle, but the point followed a
complex path, depending for its complexity, upon the ratio of the
lengths of the two sides of the rectangle forming the section.
Lissajous,3 in 1857, in his well known memoir on “L’etude Op-
tique des Mouvements Yibratoires, ” made an exhaustive study
of these curves and from that fact they are now commonly desig¬
nated as “Lissa'ous’ Curves The equations of the Lissajous’
Curves are

x = cos ( rt + ex) y — cos ( st -f- e3),
t being the parameter, r/s the ratio of the number of vibra¬
tions parallel to the x axis to the number of those parallel to
the y axis, and e1 and e2 the differences in phase.

Wilhelm Braun4 has studied these curves from the geometri-

1 Phil. Trans, for 1800, pp. 106-150.

9 Quart Jour. Sci. for 1827, Vol. I, pp. 344-351; also Poggend. Annal. for
1827, Vol. X, pp. 470-480.

3Annales de Chimie et de Physique, 1857. 3© serie, tome LI.

4 Dissertation Erlangen. Mathematische Annalen, 1875. Band VIII, s.
567-573.

Comstock — Real Singularities of Harmonic Curves. 453

cal standpoint. He finds the algebraic equation to be of the
2rth order (r being by supposition greater than s). He then
determines the algebraic equation of the general curve. As the
equation can be expressed by means of a parameter, its de¬
ficiency is zero and therefore it has the maximum number of
double points, which is (2 r — l)(r — 1). These he next lo¬
cates. He then finds the class of the curve to be 2 (r — s),
which gives for the number of double tangents 2 (r 4- s)2
— 3 (r + s) 4- 1. He then makes use of PHicker’s formulae and
finds the number of inflexions, and finally discusses the curve
on a Riemann’s surface.

For the curve whose phase difference is zero, he finds the
number of real double points to be

(A)

(r- 1) (s - 1)
2

and the number of real inflexions

(B) r-s-1

(r being greater than s).

In the work which follows I shall obtain the number of real
double points of the curve x = cos rt, y = cos st by determin¬
ing the number of pairs values of t which make the two val¬
ues of cc, corresponding to these values of t, equal and also makes
the values of y , corresponding to the £’s, equal. The real in¬
flexions will be found by the consideration of the conditions which
can cause the second derivative to change sign between differ¬
ent values of t.

The object of the present paper is to determine the number
of double points in the curve which results from compounding
three harmonic motions, in phase, at right angles to each other.
The equations to such a curve are

x — cos nt y — cos rt z — cos st.

The method used for these curves of double curvature is simi¬
lar to the method used in the case of the plane harmonic curves.

454 Comstock — Real Singularities of Harmonic Curves.

If n and r have a common factor c, n and s a factor 8, and r
and s a factor y, I find that the number of real double points is

(C)

( n — 1) ir — 1) , (r — 1) (8 — 1) , (s — 1) {e — 1)

2

+

+

(r “ 1) (8 - 1) (8 - 1) (fi - i) (8 - 1) (r - 1)

2 2 2

If £ is equal to unity, that is, if n and r are prime, this num¬
ber will evidently reduce to

(D)

(n-l)(y-l) . (r~l)(8~l) (y - 1) (8 - 1)

2

+

2

If £ is equal to unity and 8 is equal to unity, that is, if n is
prime to both r and s, the number reduces to

(E)

(n — 1) (y — 1)
2

If all three numbers ?i, r, and « are prime to each other,
there are no double points, for then c, S, and y will each equal
unity and the formula above written reduces to zero. In each
of the last three special cases the number of double points can
be found by an independent method, without using the general
formula.

The conditions of symmetry for both classes of curves have
been found and are given for all cases that can arise. The con¬
ditions for the plane curves were given in Lissajous’ original
article, but I believe those for the curves of double curvature
have never before been worked out.

PLANE CURVES.

1 1. Periodicity of the curve. —

It is easy to show that the curve x = cos rt, y == cos st is
completed in a cycle in which t passes from 0 to tt.

It is also easily shown that if r = 8 a and s = 8 /?, (8 being
the highest common factor of r and s) the curve x — cos rt,
y = cos st is a 8 fold trace of the curve x = cos a tt y = cos fit.

Plane Curves.

455

§ 2. To determine the number of double points in the curve x =
cos rt , y = cos st , r and s being considered prime to each other.
Since, when the numbers r and s are prime to each other, the
curve is traversed but once in the interval from t = 0 to t = 7r,
in order that a double point may exist there must be two val¬
ues of t less than 7 r for which the corresponding values of x and
y are equal. Suppose a double point occurs when t = an/b, in
which a > b, and a and b are prime to each other. The co-ordi¬
nates of the double point will then be

rare san

x — cos . , y — cos ^ '

Of course b cannot be a factor of r or of s. If we call t the
second value of t corresponding to the double point, we know
from the properties of the cosine that t must be of such form
that the co-ordinates of the double point will be given by

= cos

2hn ±

r a 7t\
~b~ ) ’

Therefore € must equal both

y

2 h

r

/ cyl sa7t\

= COS ( 2JC7C ± -jp-J

a\ n /2 k a\

± y)* and (— ± y)*.

Since € can have but one value, these two values must be equal
to each other, that is,

m 2 _h _ 2 _k a_

() ~ ± b — T ± b

The signs before a/b on each side of this equation cannot be
the same, for if they were the equation would become h/r = k/s.
This, since r and s are prime to each other, can only be true
when h and k are equal integral multiples of r and s respect¬
ively. Let h — er and k = es. Then t' equals 2e?r ± air/b which,
since by hypothesis a is less than b, would be greater than tt;
but t cannot be greater than tt for a single tracing of the
curve. Hence h and k can never be equal integral multiples of
r and s respectively, and the signs before a/b on each side of
the equation (1) must differ.

456 Comstock — Real Singularities of Harmonic Curves.

Now h and k cannot be greater than [r/ 2] and [s/2] respect¬
ively, as, in case they should, (2 h/r ± a/b)ir or (2 k/s ± a/b)ir
would be greater than ir.

It was shown above that in the equation

(2 h/r ± a/b ) 7C = (2 k/s ± a/b) it

the signs before a/b in each term must differ. Therefore we
can change the form of the equation to

If we assume that a/b is in its lowest terms, b must then equal
rs, since hs — kr is a whole number. This then gives rise to
the conditions for the entrance of double points, viz. :

(2)

± a = kr — hs.

in which k > [s/2] and A > [r/ 2], and k can have [s/2] values
and h can have [r/2] values, provided no two values for ia so
given are equal.

To show that no two values of ± a given by (2) can be equal
to each other, we write (2) in the form of a congruence,

kr = ± a (mod s).

Multiplying each side of this congruence by r^(s)_1 and sim¬
plifying by means of Fer mats’ theorem, we find that

k = ±arep&-1 (mod s)

which shows that for a given value of ± a , there is an interval
of s units between successive values of k giving rise to the same
value of ± a. As was shown above, the values of k in (2) must
all be less than [s/2], so that no two values of k can differ by
s units. Therefore in the series of values for ± a given by (2)
no two can be equal.

As a result of the ambiguous sign in (2), there will be a posi¬
tive and a negative value of a for every set of values of h and
k. Since we are examining the curves for values of t between

Plane Curves.

457

0 and 7 r only, we do not consider the negative values of a, as
these would evidently give rise to negative values of t. There
will be, then, \r/ 2] [s/2] values of a for which the correspond¬
ing t gives rise to one crossing, or to one double point.

If we substitute the values of the positive a, which we shall
from now on denote by a , in the equation for determining t', we
find that tf will equal ir (hr + hs)/rs. For the sake of brevity we
shall denote (hr + Its) by a'.

From the symmetry of the values of the cosine, we might ex¬
pect that 7 r — air/rs would also give rise to a double point with
the second crossing when t = ir — air/rs. Substituting these
values in the equation of the curve we get

/

a it\

x' = cos r \

/

a'Tt '

x = cos r

Tt —

- ) 5

( 71 —

\

rs /

\

rs >

= ± cos

rait

— ± cos

ra'it

rs

f

ait\

rs

f

a'rt'

y' = cos S (

y = cos s

( 7C~

- ) >

Tt —

rs /

\

rs ,

sait

sa'Tt

= ± cos

= ± cos

rs rs

which, as is easily seen from the form of a and a’, are the co¬
ordinates of double points.

We have now to determine whether any of the double points
given by 7r — air/rs are the same as those given by air/rs. Three
cases can arise: r and s can both be odd; r even and s odd; or
s even and r odd.

In the first case it is evident, from the form of the equations
in (3), that the coordinates of the double points for 7 r — air/rs
are all the negatives of those for air/rs, since cos [(2n 1) ir — 0]
= — cos 0. If, then, no two values of air/rs give rise to double
points, each of which has as coordinates the negatives of the
coordinates of the other, and the point £c = 0, y — 0, is not a
double point given by air/rs, the double points of ir — air/rs are
all distinct from those of air/rs. To show that no double point
given by air/rs has as either coordinate, the negative of the cor¬
responding coordinate of another double point, given by another
value of air/rs , we suppose that hr — hs gives rise to one value
of a, and h'r — h's gives rise to another value of a. In order

458 Comstock — Real Singularities of Harmonic Curves .

for one double point to have as abcissa the negative of the ab-
cissa of the other,

cos

r{kr — hs)

rs

it = cos £(2/i 4 -l) ft ±

r(k'r — h's)7t~y

rs J

or

r(fcr-ftg) rWr-hU

rs ' rs

which is easily seen to reduce to

k ± k' = (2^ + 1 ?h' + h)
s r 1

a relation which is manifestly impossible since Jc > [s/2] and
h > [r/2], and r and s are prime to each other.

In a similar manner it can be shown that no two ordinates
given by air/rs can be the negatives of each other. As the rea¬
soning for either abscissas or ordinates does not depend on
both r and s being odd, these proofs hold equally well in the
cases when r is even and s odd, and when r is odd and s even.

In order that a? = 0, y — 0, may be a double point given by
«7r/rs, cos r air/rs and cos san/rs must both equal zero, rair/rs
and sair/rs must then be of the form mir/2. Call rair/rs, m^/rs
and s air/rs, m$r/ 2; a must then both equal m^/2 and m2r/2,
which is impossible since a Os and r and s are prime to each
other.

Therefore, when r and s are both odd, the double points given
by 7r ~ air/rs are all distinct from those given by air/rs and the
number is then 2[r/2][s/2] which equals,

{r — 1) {s — !)

2

In case r is even and s odd it is easily seen from an exami¬
nation of equations (3) that aWrs and ir—air/rs can give rise to
the same double point only when an/rs is such that y — 0, and
that, whenever such is the case, air/rs and 7r — a-rr/rs do give
rise to the same double point.

y = cos saTt/rs = cos s{kr — hs)Tt/rs == cos {kit — hsn/r) — 0.
only when A = r/2, k having any value, k has (s — 1)/2 possible
values. Therefore, for (s— 1)/2 values of an/rs, an/rs and * — air/rs

Plane Curves,

459

give rise to the same double point. Therefore, there are, when
r is even and s odd,

2 [r/ 2] [s/2] - [s/2] or
double points in the curve.

In case r is odd and s even it is easily seen that a similar
reasoning holds, giving

2 [r/2] [s/2] - [r/2] or
double points in the curve.

Thus we see that in any case which may arise the number of
double points is equal to

(r — l)(s — 1)

2

The examination above made has shown that the double points
which are counted twice are either all on the x axis (the case
in which r is even), or are all on the y axis (the case in which
s is even). In case r and s are both odd, double points can ex¬
ist on neither axis. In no case can double points exist simul¬
taneously on both axes.

I 3. To determine the number of points of inflexion in the curve
x = cos rt , y — cos st. —

For convenience suppose that s is less than r.

When t = mr/r

.... d2x _ r2& cos mt

' dy2 — s 3 sin 2 nsit/r

When t — (n + 1)? r/r

d2x _ r8scos ( n -j- 1)tc

' dy 3 — s3 sin3 (n-j-1) sit/r

Since the sine appearing in the denominator of the second
derivative is always squared, its value will not change sign for
any value of n, and the sign of the second derivative will then
depend only on that of the cosine in the numerator. Now
cos mr = — cos ( n + 1 )tt, so that the sign of the second deriva¬
tive in (1) is the negative of that in (2), therefore the curva¬
ture changes between t — mr/r and ( n + 1)7 r/r. It is obvious

460 Comstock — Real Singularities of Harmonic Curves.

that the curvature can change but once in one of these inter¬
vals, since as t takes on values from mr/r to (n + 1 )ir/r9 the co¬
sines of multiples of these values of t present a continuously de¬
creasing or increasing series of values in this interval.

There are two ways in which the second derivative, and hence
the curvature, may change sign. Either the curve passes
through a point of inflexion or else is perpendicular to the axis
of y.

It can become perpendicular to the axis of y only when
dx/dy = oo. For this case

dx — r sin rt _

dy — s sin st

when sin st = 0.

Now sin st equals zero only when t — mir/s and there are evi¬
dently only s — 1 values of t of the form mic/s between 0 and tt.
If r is greater than s , let r = s + a. There will then be 5 + a — %
intervals between successive tfs of the form mr/r and (n + 1 )ir/r.
Now the intervals between mr/r and (n + l)v/r are shorter than
those between mir/s and (wi + l)w/«, so that no two values of
mn/s can coexist in an interval from mr/r to ( n + Y)ir/r.

Now since there are s + a — 2 changes of sign in the second
derivative and but s — 1 of these are caused by the curve be¬
coming perpendicular to the axis of y , there must be a — 1 points
of inflexion. Therefore there are (r — s — l) points of inflexion
when r is greater than s.

Similarly it can be shown that if s is greater than r the num¬
ber is (s — r — 1).

§ 4. The conditions of symmetry. —

Three cases can arise, r and s both odd, r even and s odd, or
r odd and s even.

In the first place let t' be a value of t giving rise to the points
x\ y on the curve. If we use tt — t' we obtain — x\ — y, as the
co-ordinates of the resulting point. Therefore the curve is
symmetrical with respect to the origin.

In the second case if t' gives rise to the point x\ y\ ir — t' will
give rise to the point x\ — y\ so that the curve is symmetrical
with respect to the axis of y.

Curves of Double Curvature.

461

In the third case if tf gives rise to the point x y\ 7 r — t' will
give rise to — x\ y\ and the curve will be symmetrical with re*
spect to the x axis.

CURVES OF DOUBLE CURVATURE.

1 1. Periodicity of the curve

x =* cos nt y = cos rt z = cos st.

It is easy to see that the period of the curve of double curva¬
ture is 7 r, the same as in the case of a plane curve. It is also
easily shown that if n , r , and s have a common factor 3, the
curve is a S-fold tracing.

I 2. To find the number of double points in the curve
x = cos nt y — cos rt z == cos st.

Let us assume that n and r have a highest common factor c,
n and s a highest common factor 8, and r and s a highest com¬
mon factor y.

If a double point arises, suppose the first passage of the
curve through the point occurs when t — an/b. Then

x — cos nan/b, y — cos ran/b , z == cos san/b

give the coordinates of the double point.

For the second passage of the curve through the point, t
must be such that the values of x, y and z will be the same for
the new t as for aWb. Call the new t , t'. Then t' must be of
a form such that

nt' = 2 hit ± nait/b
rt' — 2k7C ± rait/b
st =2jrt ± sait/b

since for these values only can the two corresponding sets of
values for tc, y and z be equal.

The number t ' will then equal

(1) 2 hit/n ± ait/b — 2kjc/r ± an /b = 2jn/s ± an/b

462 Comstock — Real Singularities of Harmonic Curves.

Since t' cannot be greater than 7 r for a single tracing of the
curve

(2) h > [n/2], k > [r/2] and 3 > [s/2],

unless all signs in (1) before air/b are negative. If all the
signs of air/b in (1) are the same we have

2 h/n — %k/r — 2 //«,

which can only be true for A, k, and j equaling respectively
ft, r, and s, which is impossible by (1), as € is less than 7r.

The sign before a7r/& in one of the members must then differ
from the other two, giving rise to the three cases:

2 hit/n =F aic/b — %kit/r ± ait/b — 2jn/r ± ait/b

(3) 2 hit/n ± «7T/6 = ‘Zkit/r =f ait/b = 2j7r/s ± atf/fr
2 hit/n ± ait/b == 2&7r/r ± a?r/6 = 2^’^r/s T a?r/6

Let us consider the first case. Putting the first member equal
separately to the second and third and simplifying, we obtain
the relation

a _ kn — hr _ jn — hs

~b nr ns

Since ft, r, and s have no common factor, b must equal nrs in
order for this relation to be satisfied.

Putting b = nrs we obtain the relation ± a — kns — hrs
=jnr — hrs or Jc/j — r/s. For this to be true it is necessary that
k = lx r/y and j=ll s/y where lx > [y/2]. Then ± a will be given
by the relation ± a — lx srn/y — hrs in which lx > [y/2] and
[n/2]. Using a method exactly similar to that used in §(3)
Plane Curves, it can be shown that, except for (y — 1)/2 values
when ft is even and (ft — 1)/2 values when y is even, double
points also arise when t — ir— an/nrs , so that in all there will be
(y — l)(ft — l)/2 double points.

If we use the second equation of (3) we obtain in the same
way (8 — 1)(? — 1)/2 double points and from the third we get
(s — l)(e — ■ l)/2. Some of the values, counted in the first case,
in the (y— l)(ft — l)/2 values, were also counted in the second
case, in the (8 — l)(r — l)/2 values.

In the value for ± a — lxnrs/y — hrs we should note that as lx

Curves of Double Curvature .

463

passed through all values to [y/2], h passed through values of
the form l2 n/8. The results for ± a given by these [y/2] [S/2]
values were evidently again given when l2 passed through val¬
ues to [S/2], and k was of form lxr/ y. The number of double
points must then be diminished by (S — l)(y — 1)/2 if 8 and y
are both odd, as in that case w — an/nrs also gives rise to
(8 — l)(y— l)/4 double points counted twice.

If, however, 8 is even, then (y — 1)/2 values were not counted
twice, for these (y — 1)/2 values were thrown out above with
(r — 1)/2 — (y — l)/2 others. If y is even, (8 — - 1)/2 values were
not counted twice. In either case this will give either
(y - 1)8/2 - (y - l)/2 - (y - 1)(8 - l)/2 or (8 - l)y/2 - (8 - l)/2
= (y-l)(S-l)/2.

Similarly in the first and third cases (y — l)(e — 1)/2 values
must be thrown out, and in the second and third cases
(8— l)(c— 1)/2 values must be thrown out. This accounts for
all double points counted twice, so the total number of double
points in the curve of double curvature x — cos ntf y = cos rt,
z — cos st is equal to

(n-l)(r-l) , (r-D(d-l) (« — 1) (e — 1) (y~l)(8~l)

2 ' 2 ' 2 2

(«— l) (* — 1) (r-D(e-i)

2 2

y being highest common factor of r and s, 8 being highest com¬
mon factor of n and s, e being highest common factor of n and r.

1 3. For the special cases when either y, 8, or e or any two or
all three are equal to unity, we can derive the formulae either
by independent proofs or we can deduce them from the results
obtained in the last paragraph. If y equals unity the formula
for the number of double points becomes

(r — 1) (# — 1) , (« — 1) (a — 1) (* — )(« — 1)

2^2 2

If 8 and y are both unity the formula becomes

(«—•!) (g-2)

2

and if all three are unity, that is if n, r and s are all prime to
each other the number of double points in the curve reduces to
zero.

464 Comstock — Real Singularities of Harmonic Curves.

I 4. To find the points, axes and planes of symmetry for the curve
x — cos nt y — cos rt z = cos st.

Divide the curves into three classes: First, those with n , r ,
and s all odd; second, those with two odd and one even; third,
those with one odd and two even. If n, r, and s are all odd,
substituting (?r — t ) for t in the equations gives the x for ( tt — t)
as the negative of that for t , the y for (tt — t) as the negative of
that for t , and the 2 for (7 r — t) as the negative of that for t, so
that the origin is a center of symmetry for the curve.

If two of the numbers n, r and s are odd, say, for conven¬
ience, n and r , and the other even, substituting (tt — l) for t,
gives the x and y for (7 r — t) as negatives of the x and y for t
but the 2 for (?r — t) is the same as the 2 for t. Thus the curve
is symmetrical with respect to the 2 axis.

Similarly when n and s or r and s are odd, and r or n even,
the curves are symmetrical about the y or x axis respectively.

When one number is odd and the other two even, say n odd
and r and s even, the curve will be symmetrical with respect
to the yz plane. In this case the y and 2, coordinates for (7 r — t)
will equal those for t, while the x for the (tt — t) will be the neg¬
ative of that for t.

University of Wisconsin, June 1 , 1897.

EARTH MOVEMENTS.

ADDRESS OF RETIRING PRESIDENT, C. R. VAN HISE.

The part of the world of which we have definite knowledge
•consists, as stated by Powell,1 of three moving envelopes, an
atmosphere, a hydrosphere, and a lithosphere. That the air
moves we are aware; that the waters of river and lake and
ocean move we well know; but that the rock constituting the
outer part of the supposed solid earth as certainly and as con¬
tinuously moves as do these envelopes of air and water, we may
not understand. It is true that the majority of the greater
earth movements are so slow that they ordinarily escape our ob¬
servation; yet their cumulative effects are of the same order of
importance as the movements of air and water. The atmos¬
phere may be called the second hand of the world clock, the
hydrosphere the minute hand, and the lithosphere the month or
year hand.

Kinds of Earth Movements. — With volcanic phenomena we are
more or less familiar. The majority of the important active
volcanoes are located along or near the continental borders, but
this statement is not applicable in the case of the several great
past periods of igneous activity.

As a consequence of volcanic action material within the earth
is brought to the surface. In historic times the material thus
transferred has been considerable in amount, but in the past
at different periods and in various regions volcanic products
have buried great regions to the depth of hundreds or thousands
of feet. Accompanying volcanic outbursts of material, great
transfers of liquid rock from one place to another have occurred
within the outer part of the earth, no evidence of which appears

1 Physiographic features, by J. W. Powell: Nat. Geog. Mon., Vol. I,
No. 1, 1895, pp. 1-23
30

466

Van Hise — Earth Movements.

in volcanic phenomena. It has been supposed by Russell 1 that
some of the great mountain uplifts of the United States are due
to the interior transfer of molten material. If this be so, the
question remains as to the cause of the transfer. For such
transfer reasons are later assigned. Some of the intruded igne¬
ous material, long after solidification, has reached the surface
by the removal of the covering rock through epigene agencies.
Probably a much greater part still remains below the surface.

That the lithosphere locally has movements which we call
earthquakes is well known. It is not so well known that minor
tremors continuously affect much or all of the surface of the
earth,2 but the majority of these tremors are so feeble as not to
be called earthquakes, even by scientists who classify as earth¬
quakes many very slight shocks which the senses do not detect.
But even the most violent earthquakes are very insignificant
rock waves, being only a few centimeters in amplitude, and the
permanent effects of earthquakes upon the earth are compara¬
tively slight. It is of course well known that in some cases
volcanoes and earthquakes are most disastrous to the living
things which chance to occupy the disturbed tracts.

With the exception of earthquakes and active volcanoes, we
are accustomed to think of the lithosphere as motionless. Yet
these phenomena are far less important than other existing earth
movements. As in so many cases, the exceptional has attracted
the greater share of attention, while the slow, general move¬
ments have escaped notice.

The latter earth movements may be classified into mass move¬
ments and molecular movements. The mass movements are ver¬
tical and horizontal. As a result of the vertical mass move¬
ments the continents are now above and now below the waters
of the ocean. Such movements were named by Gilbert epioro-
genic. As a result of the vertical and horizontal mass
movements combined, mountain ranges here and there on the

1 Igneous intrusions in the neighborhood of the Black Hills of Dakota,
by I. C. Russell: Journ. of Geol., Vol. IV, 1896, pp. 23-43; On the nature

of igneous intrusions, Ibid., pp. 177-194.
v 2 Popular lectures and addresses, by Lord Kelvin: Vol. Ill, 1891,
pp. 158-9.

Relations of Continental Masses to Oceanic Basins. 467

earth, and at various times in its history, have been formed.
Such movements are called orogenic movements. No sooner are
mountain masses formed than they begin to be wasted away
by surficial, or epigenic, forces. In many regions mountain
ranges have arisen and fallen several times during the history
of the earth. The molecular movements of the rocks
may affect the shape and arrangement of their constituent par¬
ticles, or the very composition of the particles themselves may
be changed. As a result the character and structure of the
rock masses affected may be wholly altered, and even under
quiescent mechanical conditions the solid rocks beneath our feet
may be so changed as not to contain one trace of the original
minerals composing them.

It is the purpose of this paper to inquire into the character
and effects of these various earth movements.

Relations of Continental Masses to Oceanic Basins. 1 — Before con¬
sidering the earth movements it is necessary to recall the relations
of the continental masses to the oceanic basins. The bed of the great
world ocean is for the most part a continuous plain, surpassing
in evenness, as it does in extent, any plain upon the continental
masses. Below the general level of the plain are smaller areas
called deeps, such as the Tuscarora Deep. In most
cases the passage from one level to the other is very gradual.
Above some of these deeps are 30,000 feet of water. One may
imagine himself on the floor of the vast ocean plain, traveling
toward the continental area. As he nears the continental mass
a gentle but great slope rises before him. Climbing this slope*
which places him 14,000 feet farther from the center of the earth
than when on the ocean bed, he finds himself upon another plain*
less even than the first, being broken by mountain ranges and other
irregularities. This plain is the world continent. When this
upper plain is reached he may still be 100 or 150 miles from the
border of the continent as we ordinarily think of it, for the
great land masses are fringed by shallows varying from a few
miles to 150 miles in width. The lands below these shallows belong

1 On the height of the land and the depth of the ocean, by John Murray:
Scottish Geog. Mag., Vol. IV, 1888, pp. 1-41.

468

Van Rise — Earth Movements.

with the continent, are a part of it, and the continental mass must
be considered as ending where the great slope begins which de-
cends into the abyss of the ocean. Thus defined, there is but one
great continent, for the Americas, Greenland, Eurasia, and
Africa are connected by the continental shoals; but for conven¬
ience the word continent will be used in the ordinary sense.
The heights of continental areas average between 2,000 and
2,500 feet above the level of the sea1 although a number of
extensive plateaus have altitudes from 5,000 to 12,000 feet,
and a few mountains have altitudes between 20,000 and 30,000
feet. The total vertical distance between the deepest parts of
the ocean and the tops of the highest mountains is more than
50,000 feet. But the great features of the earth are the deep-
lying ocean plain and the low continental plain.

Whether or not a greater or less portion of the continental
masses chances to be a few hundred feet above or below the
water is a comparatively small matter, but to bring any part
of the oceanic bed to the surface would involve a vertical move¬
ment of 15,000 or more feet. Vertical movements which have
placed all or nearly all parts of all continents below the ocean
have recurred at various times in the past. Of vertical move¬
ments which have brought extensive areas of the deep-lying bed
of the ocean to the surface we have scant evidence.

The Permanence of Continents. — The continents and ocean beds
alike are ever subject to omnipresent gravity. The continental
masses down to the level of the bed of the ocean are plainly heavier
than the water standing opposite them. This being so, two ex¬
planations have been offered for the permanent existence of the
continents. Either the rocks composing them and underlying them
must be strong enough to sustain their own enormous mass, upon
an average 16,000 to 16,500 feet above the bed of the sea and only
partly balanced by the water of the ocean, or else the rocks un¬
derlying the ocean must be heavier than those constituting the
continents and their downward extensions. Geologists now
believe that no such strength can be premised for the rocks as

1A summary of estimates is given in Text-book of Geology, by Sir Archi¬
bald Geikie: 3d ed., 1893, pp. 39-40

Theory of Isostacy.

469

is involved in the first supposition, and hence we are driven to
the ’second, i. e., that the continental and sea areas are ap¬
proximately in isostatic equilbrium. 1

In other words, the continents are mainly sustained above the
level of the ocean in the same way as a ship. The hull of a
great vessel rises 20 or more feet above the surface of the water,
because upon the average it is lighter than the water which
surrounds it. As the ship is loaded it sinks deeply into the water;
when emptied, it rises higher above the surface.

Theory of Isostacy .- — In many discussions of isostacy it is
assumed that the level of the sea is absolute, and that its sur¬
face is a safe datum plane. However, it is evident that all
shifting of earth material, either vertically or horizontally,
either by deformation or by denudation, results in changing
the level of the ocean in the absolute sense, that is, the aver¬
age distance of its surface from the center of the earth. Thus,
an important subsidence in one region may produce an apparent
movement of all continental shores. If the subsidence be of
the sea bed, this will result in apparent uplift of the continents.
If it be of some continental region, this will result in the ad¬
vance of the sea over this region, and because of the consequent
absolute fall of the sea, there will be an apparent small
uplift of the great undisturbed remainder of the continental
masses.

Evidence of the existence of approximate equilibrium of con¬
tinental and sea areas has been found in gravity determinations,
and especially in recent determinations of the force of gravity
by pendulum experiments made by Putnam. 2

As a result of these we find we cannot suppose that there is
any such delicate adjustment of the earth masses as might be

1 Appendix to Babbage’s Ninth Bridgewater treatise, by Sir John
Herschel, 1837, pp. 212-213. A treatise on attractions, Laplace’s func¬
tions, and the figure of the earth, by John H. Pratt: 4th ed., 1871. On
some of the greater problems of physical geology, by C. E. Dutton: Phil.
Soc. Wash., Vol. XI, 1888-91, p. 53.

s Results of a transcontinental series of gravity measurements, by G. R.
Putnam, and notes on gravity determinations reported by G. R. Putnam,
by G. K. Gilbert: Bull. Phil. [Hoc. Wash., Vol. XIII, 1895, pp. 31-76, PI.
V, Figs. 1-3.

470

Van Hise — Earth Movements.

implied by the illustration of the ship. The rocks have a very
considerable rigidity, and in order that a readjustment shall
begin, the difference in vertical stresses must be sufficient to
overcome the rigidity of the rocks. The stress -difference re¬
quired is probably far short of the elastic limit of rocks as de¬
termined by experiment under ordinary conditions of pressure
and temperature. According to Gilbert,1 the excess of gravity
in the Rocky Mountains is measured by some 2200 feet of
material. This is steadily tending to lower this area. Whether
it is sufficient to cause any movement is uncertain. Wher¬
ever there is an excess of material sufficient to cause sub¬
sidence, it is probable that the movement is exceedingly slow,
for nowhere is the weight of the excess known to approach the
crushing strength of the stronger rocks. The excess required
to give a weight sufficient to crush such rocks would be a thick¬
ness of rock material of about 20,000 feet.2 In areas where
the excess is sufficient to produce subsidence, the process would
doubtless go on with decreasing speed, because of the steady
decrease of the stresses. Movement resulting from excess of
pressure will not continue until perfect equilibrium is reached,
because it will cease the moment the stresses are unable to
overcome the rigidity of the rocks. But as explained later
(See p. 472), equilibrium may possibly result from loading of
one area, combined with denudation of another.

As a result of the erosive action of wind, water, and ice,
the continents are constantly being degraded, and the higher
they stand above the surface of the seas, other things being
equal, the more rapidly does the process go on. If, with a suf¬
ficient number of locomotives, all the freight cars in the United
States were continuously at work carrying to the sea the earth
of our continent, the average haul being taken at 1,500 miles,
and no time being taken for loading or emptying, there would
be carried to the sea but a little more than twice the amount
of material contributed to the Gulf of Mexico by the Missis-

1 New light of isostacy, by G. K. Gilbert: Journ. of Geol., Vol. Ill,
1895, p. 332.

2 Principles of North American pre-Cambrian geology, by C. R. Van
Hise: Sixteenth Ann. Rept. U. S. Geol. Survey, Pt. I, 1896, p. 592.

Theory of Isostacy.

471

sippi river.1 It has been calculated that if the present rate of
erosion continued, and no uplift occurred, North America would
be reduced to sea level by erosion in 3,000,000 years, and Europe
in 2,000,000 years.2 * * * * * * 9

However, it must be remembered that as the elevation of the
land areas is lessened by erosion, the rate of degradation rapidly
decreases, for the speed of erosion largely depends upon the
amount of precipitation and the declivity of the slopes. At a
low elevation both the quantity of water in the streams and the
declivity of the streams are less than at high elevations. Con¬
sequently to actually reduce the continents to the level of the sea
by erosion, even if no further uplift occurs, would undoubtedly
require a far longer time than indicated by calculations based
upon the present rate of erosion.

However, under present conditions it is plain that as a secon¬
dary result of the movements of the atmosphere and hydro¬
sphere there is a horizontal movement of great magnitude of
earth material from the continent to the ocean, combined with
a relatively small but important vertical movement. The hori¬
zontal movement is from less than a mile to thousamds of miles.
The vertical movement is from less than a foot to thousands of
feet. Gravity is the force which causes the transfer, both hori¬
zontal and vertical. It is to be noted that the transfer is cu-

1 According to the report (1894) of Messrs. Humphrey and Abbot, the

engineers charged with the investigation by the United States Govern¬

ment, the amount of mud carried in suspension and solution by the Mis¬
sissippi river is 812,500,000,000 lbs. per year. The amount rolled along
the bottom is 126,360,000,000 lbs. per year. Thus the yearly contribution

of the Mississippi to the Gulf of Mexico is 938,860,000,000 lbs. of mud.

The number of freight cars in the United States, according to the report
of the Railroad Commissioner for 1894, is 1, 191, 866. If each of these carry

30, 000 lbs., the amount of one load of all these cars would be 35, 755, 980, 000

lbs. A round trip of 3,000 miles, 1,500 miles each way, would be made in
about 6 days, giving about 60 trips per year. The cars would thus carry
in a year about 2,145,358,800,000 lbs. Thus the amount carried by the
cars would be a little more than twice the amount transported by the Mis¬

sissippi.

9Einleitung in die Geologieals historische Wissenschaft, by J. Walther:
Theil III, 1894, P. 580, Text-book of geology, by Archibald Geikie: 3rd ed.,
1892 , pp. 462-5.

472

Van Else — Earth Movements.

mulative. The water that goes to the ocean or some equiva¬
lent amount is returned to the land through the atmosphere
by the power of the sun. The land dumped into the sea does
not return, but remains to build up a great deposit fringing
the coast.

In this process of erosion two things are happening to the
continental ship: its interior is being unloaded, and its periph¬
ery is being loaded. If there were isostatic equilibrium at
the beginning, or at some time during the process, and erosion
afterwards long continued, this would result in differential
stresses between the interior and the periphery of the conti¬
nents. At the first place the pressure is upward, and at the
second downward. A study of the coastal features of the conti¬
nents by physiographers shows beyond all question that where
many of the great deposits are forming, there the border is
sinking. As evidence of this subsidence, and the consequent
encroachment of the ocean are the keys, estuaries, divided
rivers, and other phenomena. There is also clear evidence in
deformed beaches of lakes, that the interior and northern parts
of the north American continent, which is being unloaded, is
rising.

In order that these correlative movements shall occur, deep-
seated flow of material under the continental border toward the
interior must take place.1 Such deep-seated flowage does not
involve more than a slight movement of any part of the mater¬
ial, just as when a faucet is opened the cubic inch of water oc¬
cupying the front of the pipe is the first to issue, and there is
an average forward movement of but an inch all along the pipe.

The lateral transfer of material involved in denudation may
work toward or from isostatic equilibrium. If the land area has
an excess of material and the adjacent sea is deficient in mater¬
ial, the work is at first toward isostatic equilibrium, and this
state may finally be attained, although it is improbable that this
ever exactly occurs. When the excess of material is removed
from the land, if the area is still above sea level, denudation
continues, and from this time the removal of material from the

1 The mechanics of Appalachian structure, by Bailey Willis: Thir¬
teenth Ann. Kept., U. S. G. S., Part II, 1893, pp. 280-281.

Theory of Isostacy.

47&

land results in a disturbance of isostatic equilibrium, the land
becoming more and more deficient in gravity. At the same
time the adjacent sea area may become overloaded. Where a
sea border is subsiding, and the corresponding unloaded land
area is rising, this shows that there is not exact isostatic equi¬
librium, but a disturbing stress, which surpasses the elastic
limits of the rocks under the conditions in which they exists
although the movement tends to prevent further departure from
equilibrium.

The ordinary explanation .offered for the sinking of the con¬
tinental border and the rising of the interior is the loading of
the one and the unloading of the other.

While it cannot be doubted that this is a factor in the process,
it is by no means clear that this is the only or chief cause. As
shown later, other forces are at work resulting in earth
movements, and consequently in advances and recessions of
the sea coast of the most complicated character. During these
earth movements great stress-differences may be produced be¬
tween the borders and the interiors of the continents, and in the
same direction as those of erosion. Under these conditions the
loading of the sea borders and the unloading of the interiors
may give the additional force necessary to produce a vertical
stress-difference greater than the rigidity of the rocks can con¬
tinuously resist, and therefore inaugurate such movements as
described.

Where bordering the sea an area is under stresses so great that
it responds by uplift or subsidence, because of its rigidity it
may carry with it a smaller adjacent area not similarly stressed,
and thus shift the sea shore.

Where denudation of the continents and deposition in the ad¬
jacent sea beds are the only causes disturbing equilibrium, before
movements begin a considerable slice must probably be removed
from the continents, and a thick deposit be formed in the sea, in
order to accumulate a sufficient stress-difference to overcome the
rigidity of the rocks. How great this difference must be in
order to act slowly can only be conjectured.

It is possible that successive relative uplifts may result from
the contractional forces, in connection with an alternation of

474

Van Else — Earth Movements.

nearly sufficient and greatly deficient amounts of material. As
just seen where as a result of erosion an area becomes deficient
in material, upward movement will not begin until the deficiency
is so great that this and the other forces combined, sur¬
pass the elastic limit of the rocks. The movement, once set up,
would continue even if the deforming forces were less than at
first, for when rigidity is once overcome less force is required
to continue deformation. Relative uplift might continue faster
than denudation, until the differential stresses became too small
to produce further effect. Denudation would then continue its
work until the area was so deficient in gravity that the differ¬
ential stresses would again overcome the rigidity of the rocks,
and a second uplift would occur. This is offered merely as a
partial explanation for some local uplifts ; for general uplifts,
as explained (pp. 483-4), probably result from differential sub¬
sidence of sea beds and of continental areas or from changing
rotation.

At all times and places no sooner is the land above the water
than the epigene forces begin their work of denudation. At
various times in many regions a land area remained so long
above the ocean that the epigene forces were able to hew it
nearly or quite to the surface of the water before the vertical
movement came which relatively raised the area or lowered
it, and in the latter case caused the sea to override the land.

If there are no differential movements of subsidence which re¬
sult in relative elevation of the land, the epigene forces always
conquer. The part of the continent above the sea is slowly, al¬
though surely, cut away. To illustrate, we may direct our at¬
tention to North America. It is certain that before the rocks
were deposited which bear evidence of the earliest life, three
times were the land masses overridden by the sea and sub¬
sequently emerged from it. Since the time of the earliest
life at least three times more have the seas overridden the
North American continent, and three times have the continen¬
tal masses again emerged from the water. Also there have been
a number of other every great differential movements which have
resulted in the submergences and emergences of considerable

Condition of the Interior of the Earth.

475

parts of the continent. During the erosion intervals large parts
of the regions were reduced nearly to sea level by subaerial
erosion.

Condition of the Interior of the Earth f — In order to under¬
stand how great vertical earth movements may occur, it is nec¬
essary to mention modern conclusions as to the condition of the
interior of the earth. It is certain that the material deep down
is highly heated. Most lines of calculation indicate that the
temperature near the center of the earth must be several thousands
and may be many thousands of degrees. Such temperatures as
probably exist at the earth’s center would at the surface make
the most refractory rock as liquid as water, if indeed it did not
vaporize it. However, it does not follow that under the tre¬
mendous pressures deep within the earth the material is gaseous
or even liquid. It is a well known law of physics that bodies
which contract on solidifying may be held in a solid condition
by great pressure at temperatures which would render them liq¬
uid if under less pressure. It has been concluded by some physic¬
ists that the pressures within the earth are so great that even at
the high temperatures calculated the material is held in the solid
condition. Deductions based upon the tide-producing force of the
sun and moon show beyond all question that the earth has an ex¬
ceedingly high rigidity when subjected to great and not long con¬
tinued stress. As Kelvin states it, the earth “Is not, as com¬
monly supposed, all liquid within a thin solid crust of from 30
to 100 miles thick, but that it is on the whole more rigid cer¬
tainly than a continuous solid globe of glass of the same diam¬
eter, and probably than one of steel. ”2 While this conclusion
is not doubted by geologists if it be confined to the rigidity
shown by the earth to the daily tidal stress, their observations
lead them to believe that the earth shows real plasticity when
subjected to long-continued, moderate stresses. Experiments
upon viscous wax show that under pressure it becomes highly

^he mathematical theories of the earth, by R. S. Woodward: Am.
Journ. Sci., 3rd ser., Vol. 38, 1889, pp. 337-355.

9 Treatise on natural philosophy, by Thompson and Tait: Part II, 1890,
p. 485. See also Popular lectures and addresses, by Lord Kelvin: Vol.
II, 1891, p. 306, and Vol. Ill, 1891, pp. 189-190.

476

Van Else — Earth Movements.

rigid.1 Molasses candy when subjected to the sudden stress of
a blow is as brittle as glass. Under slight but long continued
pressure it is readily deformed without fracture. We know so
little about the state of matter at the temperatures and pres¬
sures, over 3,000,000 atmospheres,2 3 that must exist at the center
of the earth that we could not assert that a viscous liquid
would not there be as rigid as glass or steel when subjected to
stress of brief duration, and thus the conclusion be reached that,
the liquid is a solid. But it would not be wise to apply either
of the terms solid or liquid to it. We know what these terms
mean in reference to matter under temperatures and pressures
obtainable by experiment, but to apply them in the same sense
to the material deep within the earth, which is subject to pres¬
sures and temperatures far beyond our experience, is certain to
lead to misconception.

It is believed that the material of the interior of the earth
is so highly heated that it would be liquid or gaseous at the
surface, and that it is very rigid when subjected to stresses
of short duration, but is plastic under long-continued, moderate
stresses. Whether this material exists as crystallized minerals,
or as highly viscous amorphous substance, or in some state of
matter of which we have no knowledge whatever, or of a combi¬
nation of these, cannot be asserted.

Contraction of the Earth. — -How vast and varied are earth
movements has to some extent been stated. The main cause
ordinarily assigned for these movements is a more rapid con¬
traction of the interior of the earth than of its exterior shell.
As a result the outer part is deformed in such a way as to bring
its too large outer part into adjustment with the inner part.
The chief, and ordinarily the only cause given for such contrac¬
tion is the loss of heat due to secular cooling. In another place a
I discuss the various other important causes for contraction,

1 The flow of solids, by William Hallock: Phil. Soc. of Washington,
Vol. XI, 1888-91, pp. 509-511.

’Physics of the earth’s crust, by Osmond Fisher: London, 1881, p. 33.

3 Estimates of crustal shortening, and causes for the same, by C. R.
Van Hise: Journ. of Geol., Vol. VI, Jan-Feb., 1898.

Contraction of the Earth.

477

some of which may be of equal or of greater importance than
secular cooling, and here therefore only summarize them.

As a result of vulcanism vast quantities of igneous rocks
hiave been intruded within the crust of the earth, and extruded
upon its surface. The extrusions lessen the volume of the inte¬
rior mass, and therefore are an important cause for nucleal con¬
traction. Moreover, the material intruded within the crust of
the earth expands it, and tends to make it too large to fit the
already proportionally smaller nucleus. Thus the transfer of
liquid material from the interior of the earth iuto the outer
part has a double effect in forming corrugations. The immen¬
sity of regional eruptions is considered later. It is only when
the enormous volume of igneous rocks which must have been
intruded and extruded during geological time is appreciated,
that the importance of this cause of nucleal contraction can be
understood. It is possible that it is of equal or greater im¬
portance than that due to secular cooling.

Peirce1 and G. H. Darwin2 have calculated that at a time in the
remote history of the earth, its rate of rotation was about four
times as fast as at present. As a consequence the earth then had
a greater oblateness. Supposing the mass not to have changed,
its surface must have been larger than at the present time, for
a sphere contains a greater volume with a less surface area than
any other form of solid. The difference in superficial area as a
result of this change in oblateness, upon the hypothesis of a
spheroid of uniform density, as calculated by Prof. C. S. Slich-
ter at my request, is about 200,000 square miles.

Also at the time of more rapid rotation the pressures at any
point within the earth were considerably less than at present,
because of the greater centrifugal force at the time of rapid
rotation, and the consequent lessened effectiveness of gravity,
and therefore the earth in the past time could not have been so
•dense as at present. As the rotation decreased in speed, the

:The contraction of the earth, by B. Peirce: Proc. Am. Acad. Arts and
Sci., Vol. 8, 1873, pp. 106-108.

2 On the precession of a viscous spheroid and on the remote history of the
earth, by G. H. Darwin: Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc., Vol. 170, Part 2, 1879, p.
505

478

Van Rise — Earth Movements.

pressure increased to the present amount, and important con
r action may have resulted from the increased pressure.

The surficial contraction due to change of oblateness and
that due to increased pressure, may together be of equal and
possibly of greater importance than that due to secular cooling.

Important contraction has doubtless also resulted from a
change in the physical condition of a part of the earth’s interior.
In the change from liquid rock to a solid amorphous condition,
a contraction occurs1. Further, more important contraction re¬
sults from a change from the glassy to a crystalline condition.
In the direct change from a liquid to a crystalline condition
the contraction equals the sum of the contractions of the two
stages mentioned. In the case of one rock, the amount of this
contraction, as shown by Barus, is as much as 13 per cent.
Contraction to some small extent may also have resulted by
a change from a less complex to a more complex molecular
structure. If physical changes of these kinds have been ex¬
tensive during geological time, and this can hardly be doubted,
this is an important cause for contraction. However, some of
these physical changes may have been a part of the conse¬
quences of increased pressure and secular cooling, in which case
these causes are not wholly independent.

Finally, the water and air now upon the surface of the earth,
and possibly also gas and water which have been lost to the
earth2, may have been originally occluded deep within its inter¬
ior. The escape of this water and gas from the interior would
result in contraction.

The cumulative effects of these various causes for surficial
contraction are possibly sufficient to explain all the observed phe¬
nomena of mountain-building, and if they are not, still other causes
for contraction may be discovered in the future. Thus the objec¬
tions to the contract] onal theory of mountain-making have far
less weight than they had when only a single cause, loss of heat
due to secular cooling, was assigned for contraction.

1 Manual of geology, by J. D. Dana: 4th ed., 1895, p. 265.

2 A group of hypotheses bearing on climatic changes, by T. C. Cham¬
berlin: Journ. of Geol., Vol. V, 1897, pp. 653-683.

Origin of Continents.

479

Furthermore, it is believed, as explained in another place,1
that some estimates of the amount of shortening of the outer
part of the earth have been too great.

As a result of the contraction of the interior of the earth and its
change of form, due to the causes given, and doubtless others, the
outer part becomes too large to fit the inner part. Pulled down by
gravity, enormous lateral stresses are set up, which could not
be resisted by the rock, though it were 30 times as strong
as the finest steel, or from 600 to 1,000 times as strong as
granite.2 Consequently the outer part adjusts itself to the les¬
sened nucleus by various earth movements.

However, the above changes, so far as they occurred before
the formation of the outer solid crust of the earth, can have
produced no effects which would be permanently retained. Af¬
ter such a crust was formed they would all result in epiorogenic
and orogenic crustal movements.

Origin of Continents. — Dana 3 and Gilbert,4 assuming that the
earth in the remote past was in a liquid condition, have sug¬
gested that the continental plateaus originated at places where
the molten lava first began to solidify. These would probably
be places of low heat conductivity. As the rock changed
to the solid condition it contracted5 and sank below the
liquid surface, which in turn solidified and sank. Much of
this material which passed below the surface might have
been re-melted, but by the long-continued process at last a
solid mass was formed, which extended from the surface far
below. This solid mass being built up of successive portions of
the outer part of the liquid world would be lighter than the re¬
mainder, and therefore would project above it. Even if solidifi-

1 Estimates of crustal shortening, and causes for the same, by C. R. Van
Hise: Journ. of Geol., Vol. VI, Jan.-Feb., 1898.

2 Some mechanical conditions of the earth’s mass, by R. S. Woodward:
Phil. Soc. Washington, Vol. XI, 1888-91, p. 532.

3 Manual of geology, by J. D. Dana: 2nd ed., 1874, p. 738.

4 Continental problems, by G. K. Gilbert: Bull. Geol. Soc. Am., Vol. 4,
1893, pp. 183-190.

5 Report on earthquakes and volcanic action, by Wm. Hopkins: Brit.
Assoc. Rep., 1847, p. 46. Treatise on natural philosophy, by Thompson
and Tait: new ed., Part II, 1890, p. 483. Popular lectures and addresses,
by Sir Wm. Thompson: Vol. II, 1894; p. 306.

480

Van Rise — Earth Movements.

-cation of the earth began at the center, in advance of the sur¬
face, as conjectured by Hopkins,1 this conclusion would probably
hold, for it is hardly probable that consolidation did not also begin
at the surface long before the earth was completely solidified.
Whenever consolidation finally began at the surface the process
outlined would take place. When a protruding continent had
formed, and afterwards what is now the bed of the ocean had
solidified, it was heavier than the continental masses, because
the lightest material had already passed from a liquid condition.

Another cause for the formation of the continents is suggested
by an experiment made by Daubree.2 He painted parts of the
surfaces of an inflated rubber ball in patterns. Part of the
nir was then allowed to escape, and it was found that the un¬
painted parts of the ball contracted radially more than the
painted portions, the unpainted portions thus forming synclines,
and the painted portions forming anticlines. This was attrib¬
uted to the greater stiffness of the painted portions. Where
on the surface of the earth considerable areas of rock at first
solidified, there would be greater stiffness, and hence this cause
would operate, and tend to develop the continental masses
and the oceanic areas. This supposed difference in stiffness
of different parts of the earth’s surface may not have been of
great importance, but it possibly produced some effect, working
in conjunction with other causes.

The above explanations of the origin of the continents are
based upon the supposition that the earth was once in a liquid
condition. Chamberlin,3 however, questions the existence at
any time of such a liquid earth. He suggests that the earth
may have segregated from a meteoric swarm, so slowly that the
temperature at the surface was at no time sufficient to liquefy
the rocks. Under this theory he thinks that the continental
elevations and oceanic depressions are caused by the readjust¬
ments of various kinds of the heterogeneous materials during
the slow growth of the earth.

1 Loc. cit., pp. 45-49.

aGeologie experimental, by A. Daubree: Vol. I, 1879, pp. 585-590.

8 A group of hypotheses bearing on climatic changes, by T. C. Cham¬
berlin: Journ. of Geol., Vol. V, 1897, pp. 670-675.

Origin of Continents.

481

Darwin,1 apparently also working on the hypothesis that the
continents were formed after the earth became somewhat rigid,
suggests that the protrusion of the continental masses is due
to the tides. The secular distortion consequent upon tidal action
due to inertia would result in " screwing action ” upon the earth.

" Now this sort of motion, acting on a mass which is not per¬
fectly homogeneous, would raise wrinkles on the surface which
would run in directions perpendicular to the axis of greatest
pressure. In the case of the earth the wrinkles would run
north and south at the equator, and would bear away to the
eastward in northerly and southerly latitudes; so that at the
north pole the trend would be northeast, and at the south pole
northwest. Also the intensity of the wrinkling force varies as
the square of the cosine of the latitude, and is thus greatest at
the equator, and zero at the poles. Any wrinkle when once
formed would have a tendency to turn slightly, so as to become
more nearly east and west, than it was when first made. The
general configuration of the continents (the large wrinkles) on
the earth’s surface appears to me remarkable when viewed in
connection with these results. There can be little doubt that,
on the whole, the highest mountains are equatorial, and that
the general trend of the great continents is north and south in
those regions. The theoretical directions of coast line are not
so well marked in parts removed from the equator. " He further
concludes that if this be a correct explanation “ The view must
be held that the general position of the continents has always
been somewhat as at present, and that, after the wrinkles were
formed, the surface attained a considerable rigidity, so that the
inequalities could not entirely subside during the continuous ad.
justment to the form of equilibrium of the earth, adapted at
each period to the lengthening day. ”

As has been seen, geologists would not agree that the conti¬
nental masses are sustained by their own strength. However,
this tendency to produce wrinkles might work in connection
with the tendency for lighter materials first to segregate, with

1 Problems connected with the tides of a viscous spheroid, by G. H. Dar¬
win: Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc., Vol. 170, 1879, Part 2, pp. 587-590.

31

482

Van Else — Earth Movements.

the slower contraction of the continental regions than of the
oceanic regions because of the lower conductivity of the former,
and with the effects of changing rotation. As has been seen, as a
result of decreased speed of rotation there is decreased oblateness,
and increased density caused by the increased effectiveness of
gravity. Both of these effects require very important adjust¬
ments of the outer part of the earth. The actual work of the
tides may give a direction to these adjustments in the manner
explained by Darwin, and thus the forces of changing rotation
concur with the immediate stresses of tidal movements in form¬
ing differences in elevation between the oceanic basins and the
continental plateaus, the two being in approximate equilibrium.

Davison 1 further suggests, in support of Darwin’s theory, that

“Soon after the formation of these wrinkles, that is, in
the initial period of the Earth’s history as a solid, or nearly
solid, globe, the unstrained shell must have been very close
to the surface of the Earth, and the surface of greatest stretch¬
ing also so near to it that stretching by lateral tension must
have affected the form of the surface features. But, owing to
the pressure of the continental wrinkles, the amount of stretch¬
ing under them must have been very much less than under
the great oceanic areas. Thenceforward, therefore, crust¬
stretching by lateral tension must have taken place chiefly be¬
neath the ocean basins, deepening them and intensifying their
character. And, in leading to the continual subsidence of the
ocean-bed, it is evidently a physical cause of the general per¬
manence of oceanic areas: a cause, it is true, continually
receding from the surface, and diminishing in intensity with
the increase of time, but probably even now not quite inef¬
fective. ”

The above suggestions as to the origin of the continental
masses are not all exclusive of one another, but on the contrary
several of them to a large extent supplement one another. How¬
ever, the explanation must be considered as provisional and

1 On the distribution of strain in the earth’s crust, resulting from secu¬
lar cooling; with special reference to the growth of continents and the
formation of mountain chains, by Charles Davison: Phil. Trans. Roy.
Soc., Vol. 178, Part A, 1887, p. 241.

Submergences and Emergences of the Continents. 483

very incomplete. But plausible suppositions are more satisfac¬
tory than no explanation. However unsatisfactory the explana¬
tions offered, we know that for some reason, in some way, the
continental masses and oceanic basins were formed. As has
been seen, we further have strong evidence that the specific
gravity of the continents and their downward extensions is less
than that of the masses below the deep seas, so that the grav-
itative pressure due to the sea beds and the superjacent water
is approximately the same as that of the continental areas, or
in other words, the earth is in approximate isostatic equili¬
brium.

Submergences and Emergences of the Continents. — The various
submergences of the continents by the sea, and the subsequent
emergences, which by the rock records are known to have oc¬
curred, are believed to be due mainly to gravity, working
in conjunction with contraction. So far as I know Prevost 1
was the earliest to see that it is unphilosophical to premise
that there are active vertical forces which absolutely .raise
the continental masses. In a cooling spheroid of lessening
rotation, the effect of gravity must ever be to steadily con¬
dense the earth. In the last analysis both vertical and lateral
earth movements are due to the force of gravity. This being
the case, it is impossible to believe that the result of a grav-
itative movement can be other than to carry the center of grav¬
ity of the masses moved nearer to the center of the earth than it
was before the movement. It, however, does not follow that great
masses of material may not be pushed farther from the center
of the earth as a result of the earth movement, but in this case
equivalent or greater masses must have moved a correspond¬
ing amount toward the center of the earth. Under these prin¬
ciples it is believed that the great vertical earth movements
are those of differential subsidence or of elevation, the sum
total of any movement, combining all its parts, being downward.

It is not to be expected that the subsidence of the outer part
of the earth, due to the various causes, would be equal on every
part of it. Where the subsidence of a continental mass is
slightly greater than the average of that of the bed of the seas,

1 Bull. Geol. Soc. of France, Vol. XI, 1840, pp. 183-203.

484

Van Rise — Earth Movements.

a part of the continental land sinks below the level of the water.
After an area has subsided below the water, it has been supposed
that for some unknown reason titanic forces below pushed up the
continents against gravity, but in favor of such a supposition no
adequate reason was given. As has been seen it cannot be sup¬
posed that the great continental masses have anywhere been by
any forces pushed farther from the center of the earth, unless
at the same time another mass approached nearer the center of
the earth. However, the continents would emerge from the
sea if the sea bed sank upon the average faster than the conti¬
nents, as certainly as they would if the continental masses rose
absolutely, and this, it is believed, is the explanation of the
emergences of the continents from the sea.1

When a great subsidence of a sea or land area anywhere oc¬
curs, the only possible earth movement which, in the first event,
would avoid elevation with reference to the sea of all of the con¬
tinents an amount equal to the subsidence, and in the second
event other parts of the continents, a much smaller amount, is
the equal simultaneous subsidence of all the land masses at the
same rate as one another, and at the same rate as the average
subsidence of the sea beds. That such a remarkable adjustment
should at any time occur is highly improbable, and therefore,
it is to be expected that relative subsidence or elevation is at
all times somewhere taking place.

If the above theory of great continental submergences and
emergences by differential subsidence be true, it would follow, as
just explained, that the emergence of one land area by the sink¬
ing of the sea bottom faster than the land area would be ac-

1 The fundamental idea involved in this explanation was stated by Con¬
stant Prevost many years ago. (Loc. cit., p. 186.) I quote Dana’s transla¬
tion (Am. Journ. Sci. & Arts, H, Vol. 3, 1847, p. 179):

“ Are we not then forced to admit that while the bottom of the sea has
been raised above the level of the sea and made dry land, by a series of dis¬
placements, still larger terrestrial areas have disappeared from submer¬
gence; and in such a way that the depressions formed were greater than
the elevations, a condition without which, I repeat it, the low parts of our
existing continents could not have been emerged, a condition requiring for
its fulfillment, no aid from the suppossed agent of ‘ soulevement,’ since this
would produce a contrary effect.”

Submergences and Emergences of the Continents. 485

companied by the emergence of all other land areas which were
not under a greater depth of water, unless they too^subsided
more rapidly than the land area which emerged. After such
land areas emerged they would be eroded. After this, as a re¬
sult of their erosion or subsidence, one or more of the land areas
might be submerged. The submergence of one area would not
necessarily result in the submergence of all which emerged at
the same time, for the subsidence of land areas may be differ¬
ential. However, the land areas which emerge at the same
time might finally be again submerged. If this idea of simul¬
taneous emergence of land areas in different continents and their
subsequent submergence, either simultaneously or successively,
be true, it would follow that certain unconformities are inter¬
continental. It is to be noted that such partial continental
equivalence of unconformity is producible by the initial subsi¬
dence of the sea bottom. The greater breaks in the geological
succession give a certain amount of confirmation to this idea of
intercontinental unconformity. Some of the great interconti¬
nental unconformities are (1) the break at the base of the Cam¬
brian, (2) the break between the Upper Silurian and Lower Si¬
lurian, or between the Silurian and Ordovician, and (3) the
break between the Mesozoic and Paleozoic.

It is not supposed that the above general statement is com¬
plete. There are various disturbing factors which make the
problem of differential subsidence, resulting in positive or neg¬
ative movement of the sea shore, very complicated. One of the
greatest of these disturbing elements is the lengthening day.

It has already been seen that the rate of rotation of the earth
has been decreasing for millions of years. Concurrent with
this, there has been a decreasing oblateness. Blytt 1 explains
that the water of the ocean would adjust itself at once to the
changing speed, and as a result of the lessened centrifugal force
would fall at the equator and rise in the polar regions. He
further argues that the rigid earth would lag behind in its ad¬
justment, until the stresses accumulated so as to overcome the
rigidity of the rocks, when movement, once begun, would take

1 A probable cause of the displacement of beach lines, by A. Blytt:
Christiania, 1889, p. 89.

486

Van Else — Earth Movements.

place rapidly. Consequently at first land would emerge from
the water in the equatorial region, and land would be submerged
in the polar regions; and later a reverse effect would occur.
Moreover, he finds as a result of the precession of the equinoxes
and changing eccentricity of the earth’s orbit, that the lessened
rotation has not occurred uniformly, but irregularly, and this
affords a cause for the recurrence of lagging and readjust¬
ment of the earth, the sea each time, however, adjusting itself
promptly to the changing period of rotation. Uniting these
factors, he thinks he finds an adequate cause for important
shifting of the beach lines, first in one direction and then in the
other, but at any given time in opposite directions in the polar
and equatorial areas. Suess 1 and Blytt,2 find evidence that in
late geological time there have been actual shiftings of the
beach lines, such as demanded by Blytt ’s theory. If these
movements have the potency advocated by Blytt, it would fol¬
low that in the equatorial regions and in the polar regions there
are two sets of more or less extensive intercontinental uncon¬
formities. However, they would be in an opposite sense. When,
as a result of the ready adjustment of the sea and the lagging
behind of the land, due to the changing speed of rotation, the low-
lying polar land areas were submerged and therefore areas of
deposition, the low-lying equatorial areas would stand above
the sea and therefore be subjected to erosion. When the
stresses had sufficiently accumulated, the equatorial land areas
sank, and the polar land areas rose. As a result the low-
lying districts formerly eroded in the equatorial regions
would .become areas of deposition, and the formerly low-lying
areas of deposition in the polar areas would be above the water,
and be areas of erosion. However, it is not supposed that these
alternating intercontinental unconformities are of the same order
of magnitude as those mentioned upon page 485, for which an¬
other cause is assigned.

It is to be noted that the change of the form of the sphe¬
roid as a result of lessening rate of rotation causes the polar
areas to rise absolutely. This, however, is no exception to the

1 Antlitz der Erde, by E. Suess: Vol. II, 1888, pp. 697.

2Loc. cit., pp. 87-92.

Orogenic Movements .

487

general principle of gravitative adjustment already explained,
for an equal or greater mass at the equatorial areas subsides a
corresponding amount.

Another factor disturbing the clear-cut effects of differential
subsidence is the lateral attraction between the land and sea.
Where adjacent to the sea the land is high, the water is raised
above the normal level. The same effect would be produced to
some extent by a continental ice sheet. Woodward1 calculates
that if there were a North American ice sheet 10,000 feet thick
sloping to the sea, the water would be raised several hundred
feet as a result of lateral attraction.

Other important factors affecting the submergence and emer.
gence of the land areas are orogenic movements and vulcanism.
As shown later, more or less extensive elevations and depressions
may result from these processes, and the sea shore thereby be
greatly shifted.

Finally, it has been seen that epigene transfer of material
may also produce a wide shifting of the beach lines.

But however complicated are the causes of movements and the
resultant movements, the center of gravity of the entire mass
moved is lower than before the movements. When the land
areas subside with relative rapidity, they fall below the sea;
when the sea beds sink more rapidly the water follows, leaving
the land areas at an apparently higher level. Thus we have
great vertical movements 2 of the surface of the earth, the effect
of which is now to place large parts of the continents above the
water, now below the water, the greater phenomena being the
result of differential subsidence. Furthermore, there is every
reason to believe that these differential vertical movements
affect the continents all the time, and there is no reason to be¬
lieve that any extensive area is ever quiescent. However, the
movements are exceedingly slow.

Orogenic Movements . — Accompanying the vertical continen¬
tal movements of the first order of magnitude, there are im-

1 On the form and position of the sea level, by R. S. Woodward: Bull.
U. S. Geol. Surv., No. 48, 1888, p. 70.

2 The extension of uniformitarianism to deformation, by W. J. McGee:
Bull. Geol. Soc. Am., Vol. 6, 1894, pp. 55-70.

488

Van Hise — Earth Movements,

portant horizontal movements in the crust of the earth, and ver¬
tical movements of the second order of magnitude. We may
think of the standard illustration of the russet apple, with the
smooth skin of the autumn. During the winter season there is
a loss of water by evaporation, and the skin sinks to accommo¬
date itself to the lessened bulk of the apple. The chief move¬
ments of the skin with reference to the apple are centerward,
but beside this movement the skin as it sinks becomes wrinkled,
and parts of it are pushed farther from the center. In this
same way the greater movements of the crust of the earth are
centerward. But there are local areas in which the strata of
the solid rock are elevated, bent, broken, crenulated, or even
corrugated. Folds, joints, faults, and secondary structures are
formed. Vulcanism and earthquakes result. The total effect
is to produce elevated plateaus and mountain ranges. These
areas correspond to the wrinkles upon the surface of the apple.

The analogy between the orogenic earth movements and the
wrinkling of the skin of an apple is only of the most general
kind. The forces at work in the two cases are different, and
their effects in one are much more complex than in the other.

In mountain areas, because of the corrugations and thrust
fractures, the average thickness of the strata is increased, just
as in the case of ice ridges upon a lake formed at a time of
relative warmth and consequent expansion. The mountain
masses may rise far above the elevation required for isostatic
equilibrium. The only theoretical limit is the sustaining power
of the rocks, and so far as gravity determinations have gone,
this limit is nowhere reached. In order that there shall be
local elevation, there must be regional depression. Indeed,
the vertical downward forces resulting in regional depressions
are partly transformed, first into horizontal thrust, and this
again into upward thrust, and therefore are believed to be the
cause of local elevations. As stated above, since the active
force which caused both the regional depressions and the local
elevations is gravity, it cannot but be that in a combined epior-
ogenic and orogenic movement the center of gravity of the mass
moved shall be nearer the center of the earth after the move¬
ment than before, just as in the case of epiorogenic movements

Orogenic Movements.

489“

alone. When the time shall come, for any reason, that in any
part of the earth a regional movement becomes less forceful, or
altogether ceases, the excess of weight of the plateaus and
mountain masses may dominate, and local subsidence, tending
toward isostatic equilibrium, may slowly begin. From the fore¬
going we see that mountain-making movements are local dis¬
turbers of isostacy.

It seems reasonable to suppose, as above explained, that the
rigidity of the rocks is sufficient to explain the uplift and to
sustain the comparatively narrow mountain masses. But the
question arises as to the cause of the elevation of the broad
mountain systems and extensive plateaus of the earth such as
those of Thibet and western America, and how they are sus¬
tained. Some of the mountain systems are tens or scores of
miles across. Thibet is said to have an area of several hundred
thousands of square miles, and an average elevation of 14,000
or 15,000 feet. The plateaus of western America above 6,000
feet in height are extensive. The larger plateaus are traversed
and bounded by mountain ranges or systems. Many plateaus
are partly composed of marine rocks of comparatively late age.
Elsewhere rocks of the same age are at low levels. If the ele¬
vation of the plateaus were explained by differential subsidence
alone, it would be necessary to believe that other portions of the-
continental areas bearing similar rocks and the bed of the sea
had subsided to a far greater extent than the plateau districts.
This would involve a differential subsidence amounting to sev¬
eral thousands of feet since Eocene time. It seems rather im¬
probable that the surface of the sea could have been so far from
the center of the earth at so recent a date, and if this were not
the case, there must have been absolute elevation of the plateaus.
In order to have produced absolute elevation there must have
been thickening of the outer crust by plications along the mount¬
ainous areas, and deep-seated flowage of material under the non-
plicated areas from other places.

In order that the crust shall be thickened by plications over
an extensive area, it is necessary that the effects of the contrac¬
tion of the outer part of the earth shall be largely concentrated
along certain zones. We may suppose that the plications first

490

Van Rise — Earth Movements .

thickened the strata along a relatively weak belt. After a time
the increased thickness of material is sufficient to present a
greater total resistance to deformation than the equivalent thin¬
ner layers adjacent. The stresses now deform them, and they
are plicated and thickened. These areas now resist deformation,
and the stresses deform the adjacent thinner belts, which in
turn are thickened and plicated, and so on. In this manner
various zones of plications and consequent thickening and eleva¬
tion may be produced in a plateau area.

The second cause suggested for elevation, deep-seated flowage,
is dependent upon the hypothesis that the rigidity of the super¬
ficial rocks is sufficiently great so that under the horizontal
stresses in each region there arise a series of arches, which in
a measure support themselves. Consequently the stresses are
less than normal below the arches, and greater than normal upon
the flanks, because of the transmitted thrusts. These stress-
differences would result in deep-seated flowage from the flanks
of the arches toward their central parts. This is a modification
of Willis’s1 theory of competent structure. The explanation dif¬
fers from his in that the broad arches are supposed to be only
partly supported by the strength of the superficial rocks. If, on
account of increased temperature, or because of this and decreased
pressure, the deep-seated rocks are less rigid than in the super¬
ficial spherical shells, it would only be necessary for the arches
to be partly supported by the strength of the rocks. The deep-
seated materials, as soon as subject to stress-differences greater
than their rigidity, would ever closely follow the arches and help
to support them.

The character of the plateau areas accords with this explana¬
tion. As already noted, they are regions of alternating mount¬
ain chains or systems, and intervening unfolded or gently folded
areas. The mountain ranges are the areas of thickening and
greatest elevation. The intervening unfolded areas may be those
of the arches and partial self-support. The sides of the mountain
zones receive the downward thrusts of the intervening arches.
These forces and the downward pressures of the mountain masses

1 Mechanics of Appalachian structure by Bailey Willis: Thirteenth
Ann. Kept. U. S. Geol. Survey, Pt. II, 1893, p. 250.

Orogenic Movements.

491

themselves, place the deep-seated materials below them under
great stresses, and they flow from beneath them toward the in¬
tervening arches, where the stresses are less than normal, and
thus helps to support them.

Looked afc in another way, an entire plateau may be consid¬
ered as a great arch of such magnitude that the strength of the
rocks is insufficient to support the mass. At various zones the
arch collapses. At such places the rocks are plicated and thick¬
ened and these zones are the traversing mountain ranges. This
point of view does not substantially alter the principles of up¬
lift as above given.

It may, perhaps, be doubted whether the explanation offered
is adequate to account for the existence of the more extensive
plateaus. But, if the causes assigned are not adequate, I am
unable to suggest supplementary causes. However such plat¬
eaus may have been produced, it appears highly probable from
gravity measurements, made by Putnam,1 and discussed by him
and Gilbert, that the plateaus of western America have an
amount of material in excess of that of the low lands, correspond¬
ing in most cases to their elevation. Therefore it appears cer¬
tain that whatever the causes of these uplifts the rigidity of the
rocks is sufficient to sustain them for a long time, and it may
be plausibly argued that if the rocks are strong enough to sus¬
tain the excess of material, they were strong enough to produce
the uplift as suggested. Whether or not Thibet has an excess
of material corresponding to its elevation is unknown. This
■can only be ascertained by gravity observations. Until such
observations determine the excess of material in this region,
we cannot tell to what extent this plateau is sustained by the
rigidity of the rocks.

Returning to the mountain systems, we find they are not lo¬
cated by accident. The rule appears to be, as stated by Hall,2
that where great masses of sediments are being piled up as a

1 Results of a transcontinental series of gravity measurements, by G. R.
Putnam; and Notes on the gravity determinations reported by G. R. Put¬
nam, by G. K. Gilbert: Phil. Soc. Wash., Vol. XIII, 1895, pp. 31-76.

2 Contributions to the geological history of the American continent, by
James Hall: Proc. Am. Assoc. Adv. Sci., Vol. 31, 1882, p. 55.

492

Van Eise — Earth Movements.

result of the erosion of the land, there future mountain ranges
may be born.

We may anticipate that in the border of the Gulf of Mexico,
where the sediments of the Mississippi have accumulated to a
great thickness, and are still accumulating, at some future
time a mountain system may exist. That Hall’s law is true is
shown by the vast thicknesses of sediments which are found in
the Appalachians, in the Sierra Nevadas, in the Alps, in the
Himalayas, and in all other great mountain systems of the earth.
As shown by Willis,1 an important cause for the location of
mountain ranges in areas of great sedimentation appears to be
the initial dips of the strata of the geosynclines of deposition.
Further, under the stresses at work during deposition the solid
rocks below the sediments are flexed. When later, great hori¬
zontal thrust comes, as a result of contraction, it finds the
strata in a loaded area already somewhat bent. When a rigid
mass is once slightly bent at any place it bends farther
much more easily at that place than elsewhere. Furthermore,
newly-formed unconsolidated sediments form an outer zone of
relative weakness.2 Hence it follows for any given period that
a large part of the effects of the outer contraction of the earth
is concentrated along the comparatively narrow zones of moun¬
tain-making.3

1 The mechanics of Appalachian structure, by Bailey Willis: Thirteenth
Ann. Kept. U. S. G. S., Part II, 1893, pp. 249-250.

8 Le Conte, in supposing that the rise of mountains in areas of great ac¬
cumulation is due to the weakness and softness of the strata caused by the
rise of the isogeotherms, altogether overlooks the fact that in regions of lit¬
tle or no sedimentation the rocks at corresponding depths are equally and
probably more highly heated. Otherwise it would have to be supposed
that complete isothermal equilibrium had been restored in the areas of sedi¬
mentation before mountain-making began. (Loc. cit., p. 557.)

3 As suggestedjby Babbage and Herschel, and advocated by Reade, the
localization of mountains may possibly also partly be explained by the
rise of the isogeotherms. (Babbage’s ninth Bridgewater treatise, with
appendix by Sir John Herschel, 1837, pp. 187-197, 214-217. The origin of
mountain ranges, by T. Mellard Reade, 1886, pp. 107-116. Manual of
geology, by J. D. Dana, 4th ed., 1895, pp. 258, 381-383.) It has been held by
Reade that if this expansion be concentrated it would be sufficient to ex¬
plain the rise of mountains. Davison has pointed out (Expansion theory

Vulcanism.

493

In the above the contractional theory of mountain-making is
accepted. However, it is a contractional theory materially
modified from that proposed by Prevost, Dana, and Le Conte,
in which the cause assigned was the loss of heat due to secular
cooling. We have seen that there are other causes for superficial
contractions, some of which may be of equal or greater importance
than this. These are vulcanism, the increased density and de¬
creased oblateness of the earth due to decreasing speed of rotation,
change in part from a liquid to a solid crystalline condition,
change in molecular composition, and possibly also loss of oc¬
cluded water and gases.

Vulcanism. — It has been held that epiorogenic, orogenic, and
epigene movements alike are gravitative, and that their result¬
ant is ever earth-centerward. It remains to see that the same
is true of vulcanism.

It is certain that vulcanism is a phenomenon attending epio¬
rogenic and orogenic movements. The living volcanoes are in
regions of known earth movements. In regions of relative
quiescence there are no active volcanoes. In regions in which
vulcanism has been prominent in the past, the field evidence is
clear that these were also regions of simultaneous crustal move¬
ments. Moreover, it is certain that rising lava takes advantage
of openings formed by earth movements. The rows of active
volcanoes are presumably located along zones of faulting or
jointing. The dikes intruded during ancient periods of vulcanism
generally conform to the faults and joints, and in many districts

of mountain-evolution, by 0. Davison, Geol. Mag., new ser., Vol. II, 1895,
pp. 308-309), that Reade does not sufficiently explain how the effects of
heat are to be concentrated along mountain ranges, and more important
than this, the heat causing the expansion by the rise of the isogeotherms
must be derived from somewhere else, and if derived from somewhere
else, there must be contraction corresponding in amount to the expansion
where the mountain ranges are formed. Further the question is perti¬
nent as to how far the expansion due to the rise of the isogoetherms is
compensated for by condensation of the unconsolidated sediments also
resulting from the same cause. Possibly the rise of the isogeotherms may
be the real cause, among others, for the localization of mountain changes,
but even if so, it is plainly but auxiliary to the contractional theory
of mountain-making.

494

Van Hise — Earth Movements.

they may be seen to be arranged in definite systems occupying
a portion of one or more of the systems of joints of the districts.
This is nowhere more beautifully illustrated than by the numer¬
ous granite dikes which have been intruded along the joints in
the Sierra Nevada granite. In the magnificent exposures of the
Yosemite Valley this may be beautifully seen. The sills and
laccolites have taken advantage of the partings along bedding
planes.

Cause of Liquefaction. — If Mallet’s1 theory be accepted, that
the heat liquefying the rock for vulcanism is produced by
the mechanical crushing of orogenic movements, the for¬
mation of magma is certainly due to gravity, for orogenic move¬
ments are the direct result of gravity, or the indirect result
arising from tangential thrust, which in most cases is caused,
as already explained, by the general settling of the outer part
of the earth. However, even if this theory were accepted a&
adequate to explain the source of magma for local volcanic action
such as now exists, few would regard it as sufficient to account
for the vast regional extrusions and intrusions of great periods,
of volcanic activity such as those of the pre-Cambrian (Kewee-
nawan) of the Lake Superior region; the Silurian of G-reat
Britain; and the Tertiary of India, New Zealand, Abyssinia,
Great Britain, and western America. The volcanic material of
this last period surpasses in quantity that of any previous pe¬
riod. But this does not show that the extrusives of the remote
volcanic periods were less extensive; for the further back the
eruption, the greater the proportion of the igneous rocks which
have been transformed into sedimentary rocks by the epigene
agencies. The predominant lavas of regional eruptions appear
to be of an intermediate or basic character.

If the liquid rock is not produced from the crystallized crust
by mechanical crushing alone, it must be supposed to be resid¬
ual liquid material of the earth or to be produced from highly
heated rigid or potentially liquid rock, held in the solid state by
great pressure. If as a result of the release of pressure due to

1 Volcanic energy; an attempt to develop its true origin and cosmical re¬
lations, by Kobert Mallet: Phil. Trans. Koy. Soe. London, Vol. 163, 1873,
p. 167.

Rise of Lava Caused by Gravity.

495

denudation, or the uprise of an arch of rigid rock supported in
part by its limbs, or to deep-seated fractures, or to all of these
combined, the rock below changes to a less rigid condition
than normal for a given depth, or possibly into a liquid condi¬
tion, this modification of form is due to gravity, for it has
already been seen that all of these processes in the final analysis
are gravitative. In this change it is entirely possible, perhaps
probable, that the heat of dynamic action, as suggested by
Mallet, may be an important factor, although this factor does
not have the dominating value which he attributed to it.

Rise of Lava Caused by Gravity. — The plastic or liquefied rock,
whether original or produced, is ready to take advantage of any
crack, whether it be called joint or fault, and may begin to rise,
exactly as water rises in a fractured sheet of ice nearly to the sur¬
face, a relatively large mass of the rock, like the ice, settling a
small distance, to compensate for the considerable uprise of a
small amount of liquid material. The rise of ice and lava alike
are therefore gravitative. Probably, however, or at least pos¬
sibly, liquid rock is upon the average somewhat heavier than
the superjacent solid material, just as water is heavier than
ice. In this case it would not rise to the surface. However,
if the solid material were supposed to be in an amorphous, or
crystalline condition, the change to the liquid condition would
lessen the specific gravity, for a given mass of liquid rock occu¬
pies more space than an equivalent mass of glass of the same
character (in the case of diabase 3 per cent.1), and in the amor¬
phous solid condition occupies more space than in the crystalline
condition (in the case of diabase about 10 per cent.1) The
average specific gravity of the known solid crust of the earth is
about 2.7. That of diabase glass, a rock fully as basic and
heavy, as the average of extrusives, is 2.717.1 The specific
gravity of fused diabase at ordinary pressures is about 2.635.
Furthermore the development of steam bubbles may greatly lessen
the specific gravity of the magma. It therefore appears probable
that upon the average the liquid rock cannot be supposed to be
heavier than the subjacent solid material. Locally the magmas

1 High temperature work in igneous fusion and ebullition, by C. Barus:
Bull. U. S. Geol. Survey, No. 103, 1893, pp. 26, 38.

490

Van Rise — Earth Movements.

may be more basic than the average, and such undoubtedly have
a greater specific gravity than the average of the known crust.
Also, in many places the crust has a lower specific gravity than
the average. At localities where either or both of these condi¬
tions obtain this would be unfavorable to the rise of the magma
to the surface. Furthermore, the friction of viscous magma
upon the walls of the orifices and within itself, during uprise,
is great. Because of the approximate balance in density between
magmas and the known crust, because of friction, and because
many of the openings entered by magma do not extend to the
surface, by far the larger part of the material which starts on
an upward movement is probably stayed before it reaches the
.surface. The amount of material which does reach the surface
is indeed vast, but this amount is believed to fall far short of
the simply enormous quantity of igneous material which stops
within the upper crust of the earth as great batholites, laccolites,
sills, and dikes.

It has been said that a part of the magma does reach the sur¬
face. During regional eruptions it wells forth in enormous
quantities from numerous long fissures or from throat-like ori¬
fices and floods the country. The amount thus poured forth at
warious periods and in different regions has been sufficient to
bury thousands or tens of thousands of square miles to a depth
of thousands of feet.

Although the absolute amount of material emitted by active
volcanoes is very large, it is indeed small compared with
regional extrusions. The material extruded in late Tertiary
time is probably far greater than the amount that would
be thrown out during an entire era at the present rate.
During the regional eruptions great numbers of volcanic
mountains, similar to those now in action, are also built up,
and in a manner similar to the present volcanic mountain
building. This is especially the case in the last epoch of a
period of regional volcanic activity. In the Cascade region it
was at this stage that the great volcanic mountains, such as
Rainier, Hood, Helens, Three Sisters, Jefferson, Adams, and
others were piled up.

As already explained, it is believed that the dominant force

Vulcanism and Compressive Movements.

497

which is behind the great regional extrusions of igneous ma¬
terial, is gravity. Further it has been noted that these ex¬
trusions are contemporaneous with great crustal movements.
The phenomenon may be considered under the headings of, vul¬
canism in connection with regional compressive movements,
vulcanism in connection with regional tensile movements, and
local vulcanism.

Vulcanism in Connection with Regional Compressive Movements .
During regional compressive movements the effects of great
lateral forces are concentrated along certain belts, and there
the rocks are thickened, plicated, and broken. Broad anticlinal
mountain ridges are separated by wide synclinal depressions.
The heaping up of the material gives sufficient pressure to cause
the magma to reach the surface at the lower levels by gravita¬
tional adjustment, just as in a lake covered by a thick layer of
ice, where on the depressed areas adjacent to expansion ice
ridges which form during times of rising temperature, water
rises to the surface of the lighter ice and floods it. Under this
theory the material would be extruded through cracks in the
depressed areas, or from the flanks of the folds, in which case
it would flow toward the depressions. If the magma passes
through cracks in the depressed area, it must be supposed that the
mechanica movements or the local release of pressure at the cracks,
or both, suffice to soften the deep-seated rock so that it rises.1

If the passage of the magma be through the flanks of the folds,
in addition to the factors already mentioned tending to soften
the rocks, there is still another. Such places are adjacent to
the anticlinal ridges. There, because of the partial transmis¬
sion of the load along the limbs of the arches, under the prin¬
ciple of competent structure, the deep-seated material is under
less pressure than the average, and this also tends to make it
plastic or liquid.

When once the extrusion of material has begun, its weight
must be added to the load of the solid rock, and if deformation
continues tending to depress the synclines and to raise the anti -

1 Geikie thinks that cracks are not necessary, but that the magma may
drill its way “ through rocks independently of faults.” (Ancient volca¬
noes of Great Britain, by Sir Archibald Geikie, Vol. II, 1897, p. 473.1
32

498

Van Else — Earth Movements.

dines, the extrusion of magma may continue until a great thick¬
ness of volcanic material is accumulated.

If the force behind the magma be sufficient to drive it to the
surface, it may be sufficient to force it along the partings be¬
tween the layers, or other fractures or planes of weakness, and
thus form sills, laccolites, batholites, or other intrusive masses.
As stated by Gilbert1 this is especially likely to be the case if
the magma has a greater specific gravity than the upper part of
the solid crust; for, disregarding the forces necessary to flexure
the rocks overlying the intrusive, the work required to intro¬
duce a given quantity of magma below the surface is less than
that required to carry it to the surface. In either case the
boundary between the rock and air is at the same level, but if
intruded, the center of gravity of the sill or laccolite and the
overlying solid rock is lower than the center of gravity of this
same mass of solid rock and the extruded lava spread over an
equivalent area of the surface. Because of this principle it
happens in many regions that after the forces are too feeble to
press the magma to the surface, vast quantities may still be in¬
truded into the rocks near the surface. This is illustrated by
the ancient vulcanism of Great Britain.2

To some extent the expansive force of the dissolved waters
known always to be contained in the magma may assist in the
process of regional eruptions.3 A portion of the water is prob¬
ably original. Another part may be derived from underground

1 Geology of the Henry mountains, by G. K. Gilbert: Kept. U. S. Geol.
Survey, 2nd ed., 1880, pp. 66-74.

2 Loc. cit., p. 474.

3 It is not my purpose to here only discuss the source of the water. It is
probable that an important source is by percolation through the surface
rocks. This is especially true of local volcanoes. In regional extrusions
it, however, appears highly probable that the occluded water has been held
largely by the magma from the first. The gas pressure resulting from its
presence would depend upon the quantity of water occluded per unit mass
and the temperature of the occluding rock. Since both of these factors
are unknown, it is useless to speculate upon the resulting pressure, but
unless the amount of water be assumed to be great, and the temperature
be assumed to be very high, there is no doubt that the pressure of the
superincumbent rock would vastly surpass that of the gas pressures result¬
ing from the water contained, except at very superficial depths.

Vulcanism and Compressive Movements. 499

waters of superficial origin. If this water were superheated
before absorption it might help to give liquidity to the magma,

When the magma nears the surface a part of the occluded
water may separate as steam bubbles. The energy spent in the
formation of steam bubbles, and consequently in expanding
and lifting the lava, is derived from the heat of the rocks
solid or liquid. So far as this heat is mechanical, as suggested
by Mallet, its source is gravity. If the heat be derived from
the stores within the earth, its source is as certainly gravity,
only in this case a very long time interval has elapsed between
the accummulation of the heat during the segregation of the
earth by gravity, and its transfer to the water. Thus in any
case the energy of the steam used in vulcanism is indirectly
obtained from the force of gravity.

In the process of steam bubble development in magma the vol¬
ume is increased, and the specific gravity of the liquid mass is
thereby lessened. Consequently the magma may reach the surface
at places where gravitation would not have carried it but for
its decreased density. It is well known that some
intrusive rocks are amygdaloidal. Moreover, such rocks are
known in regions which have undergone considerable denuda¬
tion since the intrusions occurred,1 thus showing that steam
bubbles may begin to form at considerable depths, and there¬
fore may greatly help the magma to reach the surface. The im¬
portance of the phenomenon doubtless largely depends upon the
quantity of water occluded. If it be supposed that this process
of deep steam bubble formation .does extensively occur, great
outflows of lava might take place rather high upon the ridges,
and inundate large areas of a region.

The facts in some of the great lava regions of the world cor¬
respond with the above explanation. Geikie 2 has shown that
the great Silurian, Carboniferous, and Tertiary regional erup¬
tions in the British Isles mainly occurred through comparatively
low-lying fissures. Corresponding with this rule, the vast
masses of lava of the Keweenawan of Lake Superior seem

1 Ancient lava flows of Great Britain, by Sir Archibald Geikie: Vol. II,
1897, pp. 31 and 130.

8 Loc. cit., p. 468.

500

Van Hise — Earth Movements.

to have been poured out over a depressed area. Moreover,
these extrusions and those of the Tertiary of Britain1 are very
largely amygdaloidal. The cavities resulted from steam sep¬
aration, and the specific gravity of the magmas was consider¬
ably lowered. That this change partly or largely took place
after the extrusions is highly probably, but it is not unlikely
that the formation of bubbles occurred somewhat extensively at
a considerable depth, and if so, as already explained, it was an
important factor in the eruption of the lavas. Whether the
bubbles were originally formed before or after the extrusions,
they made their way toward the upper and lower surfaces of
the lava flows before solidification. Many of the bubbles which
once existed may have escaped. Only those which were re¬
tained in the solidified lava furnished cavities for the formation
of amygdules.

Whether or not in the lavas of the other areas of regional
vulcanism amygdaloidal lavas are abundant, I have been unable
to ascertain from the literature.

Vulcanism in Connection with Regional Tensile Movements. —
It is believed that the same principle of gravitative rise, per¬
haps through the assistance of steam is also applicable to reg¬
ions in which the deformation is largely that of tension. The
plateau region of the western United States belongs to this class.
As explained by Gilbert and others this is a region of normal
faulting and block tilting. The fractures are believed in such
cases to be due to tension. If this be so, it is favorable to their
extension to a great depth. The fractures are generally not ex¬
actly vertical. In the case of the rock masses upon opposite
sides of a given inclined fracture, the base of the overhanging
mass carries a greater weight per unit area than the average of
the region, and the base of the opposite mass a less weight.
The deep-seated rock is therefore under greater stress than the
average for the region, in the first place, and under less stress,
in the second place. As a consequence, the mass on one side
sinks, and on the other side rises. This necessitates flowage
from below one mass to below the other. The potentially liq¬
uid rock far below the surface is largely released from pressure

1 Loc. cit., p. 187.

Local Vulcanism.

501

at the immediate place of fracture, and to a less extent under the
mass giving less than the average pressure per unit area. Where
the pressure is lessened, as a result of this cause, and perhaps as a
result of mechanical movement, the rock is softened and it be¬
gins to rise and overflow the subsiding area. The process once
begun, the weight of the ejected material must be added to that
of the overhanging block, and thus tends to continue the process.
Furthermore, as in the case of regional eruption by crustal com¬
pression, the formation of steam bubbles may be an important
assistance in the uprise of the lava. It is not supposed that the
disturbed gravitative equilibrium is entirely compensated for by
extrusions. It is partly compensated for by the movements of
the blocks in opposite directions. The position of the extensive
lava fields and cones at various places in the plateau country
of western America appears to accord with this explanation.
The lavas have flowed from fissures and in many places they
also built up rows of cones. On one side of each fissure there
probably has been depression, and upon the other side equiva¬
lent uprise. However, a part of the subsidence of the great
basin blocks have been compensated for by extrusions of the lavas.

During tensile movements, exactly as in the case of com¬
pressive movements, much or all of the magma formed or moved
may be intruded instead of extruded, and thus dikes, sills,
laccolites and batholites be produced.

Local Vulcanism. — In the case of volcanoes such as now
exist, it may be supposed that the expansive force of steam is
a relatively more important factor than in regional eruptions.
In most districts of living volcanoes, as a consequence of various
eruptions, volcanic mountains have been built. In such a case the
weight of the mountain is to be added to that of the adjacent crust.
The total stress is sufficient to raise the lava part way up the fun¬
nel. If as a result of earth movements fissures form on the
flank or at the base of a mountain, gravity may be sufficient
to cause an extrusion. When any considerable quantity of lava
is extruded during a given eruption, it is generally through low-
lying fissures. Through them lava may easily escape. How¬
ever, many extrusions are over the lower lips of the craters. It
is not to be expected that the downward pressure of the solid

502

Van Else — Earth Movements.

material is sufficient to raise the dense lava to the place of over¬
flow, and nowhere does this appear to be the case. However,
as the lava becomes porous as the result of the formation of
steam bubbles, it becomes lighter and may rise to the top. The pro¬
cess once begun, the steam bubbles may form rapidly, in which
case there is an explosive eruption. They may form rather uni¬
formly, and be evenly distributed through the lava, in which case
the lava quietly overflows. After an eruption of a given volcano
there is ordinarily a period of relative quiescence, during which
time the slow formation of steam bubbles may continue until
the density of the lava is sufficiently decreased so that another
eruption may occur.

Thus, even in the case of ordinary vulcanism the direct action
of gravity is given a dominant place among the causes. The
frequent inward sagging of sedimentary rocks observed about
ancient volcanic necks is important evidence in favor of this
view.

I would not underestimate the power of steam in vulcanism,
but that its expansive power is the chief force in the transfers
of liquid material within the earth seems to me to be wholly
unproved. The dominating force as explained is believed to be
that of gravity. In these earth movements, as in others, the
resultant of the gravitative movements is earth-centerward. 1

Growth of Continents. — I shall now consider the joint effects
of epigene transfer of material by erosion, of the compensating
transfer of deep-seated flow toward the continents, of differen¬
tial subsidence, and of vulcanism, upon the growth of continents.

1 The outline of the processes of vulcanism above given is largely inde¬
pendent of other authors. However a comparison with the writings of
Hopkins, Prestwich, Geikie and Russell will show that to a greater or
less degree these authors have expressed views similar in various respects
to those given.

Researches in physical geology, by Wm. Hopkins: Phil. Trans. Roy.
Soc., 1842, Pt. I, p. 53.

Chemical, physical, and stratigraphical geology, by Joseph Prestwich:
Vol. 1, 1886, pp. 210-211.

Ancient volcanoes of Great Britain, by Sir A. Geikie: Vol. I, 1897, pp.
12 and 13.

Volcanoes, by I. C. Russell: 1897, pp. 297-326.

Growth of Continents.

503

It has been a very general belief among geologists that the con¬
tinental masses are gradually expanding, or that they grow.

By erosion the rock materials above the water are transferred
to the borders of the continental platform, and are there de¬
posited in the shallow water and upon the slope. To some ex¬
tent deep-seated inland flow may compensate for this.

However, it has been seen that where great thicknesses of
sediments are formed, there land areas or even mountain masses
may subsequently be found, and thus the continents may grow.1
No sooner do the land areas rise than erosion begins, and a
large part of the material is transported seaward and thus still
farther builds out the continental platform. This statement
remains true even if in some cases still greater masses of
material are transported to a mediterranean sea, as may have
been the case at the time of the deposition of the sediments of
the Alleghany mountains. The continuation of this process,
provided no other forces were at work, would finally result in
extending the continental border at the expense of altitude, for
wherever the land arises above the sea, that part is cut off and
transported to the continental border. Finally, if no other
forces were at work except superficial seaward movement and
compensatory hypogene flow, they would result in reducing the
continental platform to the level of the sea and in enlarging its
borders. And ultimately, as suggested by Gilbert,2 as a result
of solution, the entire continental platform would be immersed.
However, it appears probable that with these forces others are
at work.

How vast is the quantity of intruded and extruded rocks has
already been seen. This material, stopping in the outer part of the
earth or reaching the surface, becomes a prey to erosion, and like
the other land materials, and in a similar manner, is distributed
along the border of the continents, helping in their growth.
This igneous material comes from far below. Moreover, there is
no reason to believe that during the periods of regional vulcanism
the volcanic regions subside an amount equivalent to the intrusions

1 J. D. Dana: Phil. Mag . , Vol. 46, 1873, p. 49.

3 Continental problems, by G..K. Gilbert: Bull. Geol. Soc. Am., Vol. 4,
93, p.18 9.

504

Van Else — Earth Movements .

and extrusions. On the contrary vulcanism seems to be usually
connected with general uplift of the volcanic districts. If this
be so, the intruded and extruded material must be compensated
for by the deep-seated flow from the continental areas or from
the sea beds. If from the former, no additional effect is pro¬
duced upon continental growth, but if from the latter, this gives
a source of material for continental growth. When it is re¬
membered that the majority of the living volcanoes are adjacent
to the ocean, and that many of the ancient volcanoes have occu¬
pied a similar position, it can hardly be doubted that the com¬
pensating flow has often, in part at least, come from the sea.
Where the volcanoes are beyond the main land areas, as in the
case of the great line of volcanoes extending from the Aleutian
through the Kurille, Japan, Phillipine and East India islands,
this position is particularly favorable for continental growth,
as they are almost immediately adjacent to the deep sea, and
the epigene agencies rapidly transfer a part of the material to
the continental slope.

In the supposed deep-seated flowage of material from the
oceanic basins towards the lands areas, it is not meant to im¬
ply that any part of the material has moved all the way
to the roots of the volcanoes. As already explained (p. 472),
the result may be accomplished by a small continent -ward
movement of a large mass, rather than by a long movement of
a smaller mass. In the case of the igneous material thus fed to
a volcano, the movement of any given particle would doubtless
be slower, the more remote from the volcano, just as that of a
particle of water in a lake remote from the outlet. However, if
there be any movement of the material below the bed of the
ocean toward the land, this is a real source of material for con¬
tinental growth. If the continental masses formed during the
partial or complete solidification of a liquid earth (pp. 479-483), it
would follow that there was, and perhaps is still, a real cause for
deep-seated flowage of material from the sea beds toward the land
areas. It was supposed that after the continents had formed,
and the first crust under the sea had solidified, the two were ap¬
proximately in isostatic equilibrium. After the continents had
formed, because of the greater thickness of the solidified mater-

Growth of Continents.

505

ial as compared with the sea bed, solidification would go on
more rapidly at the latter place than at the former, until finally
the thickness of the solidified material below the sea beds might
approximate to that below the continental areas. But as rocks
solidify, and especially as they crystallize, they contract a very
considerable amount.1 Barus 2 has shown this combined contrac¬
tion for diabase, a rock of average composition, to be about 12
per cent. Furthermore, it has been supposed that the regions
below the sea have a higher conductivity than the continents and
their downward extensions. If this be so, the former regions
would ever continue to coo] more rapidly than the latter, and would
contract more.3 Both of these contractions would result in
concentration of the rocks of the sea bed and in bringing them
nearer to the center of the earth than the continental masses.
Hence gravity would be more effective on the mass below the sea
than elsewhere, and differential stresses would result. The quanti¬
tative value of the increased effectiveness of gravity on the mass
of the sea beds should be estimated upon various numerical
suppositions, but the amount of contraction in cooling, solidifi¬
cation, and crystallization is so great that it can hardly be
doubted that its effectiveness would be considerably increased.
As a result of the unequal contraction the continental ship
would be no longer in isostatic equilibrium. Differential vert¬
ical movement would be set up, and material below the sea
areas would tend to flow toward the land areas, and thus tend
to elevate the continents, but the average of the movements
would be downward. Whether the continents absolutely or
relatively rise under these stresses would depend upon the aver¬
age amount of contraction of the earth. It is probable that
this contraction would more than counteract the tendency to
uplift, and therefore that relative elevation, and not absolute

1 Manual of geology, by J. D. Dana: 4th ed., 1895, pp. 264-265.

*The contraction of molten rock, by C. Barus: Am. Journ. Sci., 3rd
ser., Vol. 42, 1891, pp. 498-499.

8 Davison expresses the idea that early in the history of the earth below the
level of no lateral stress “ crust stretching by lateral tension must have
taken place chiefly beneath the ocean basins, deepening them and intensi¬
fying their character.” (Phil. Trans. Royal Soc., Vol. 178, 1887, p. 241.)

506

Van Hise — Earth Movements .

elevation would occur. The process above outlined might con¬
tinue until approximate isostatic equilibrium had again been
reached. We thus have a real cause for a very long continued
growth. When the hypogene forces causing more rapid subsid¬
ence of the sea beds than of the continents, and consequently
relative upheaval of the continental masses, shall have finally
exhausted themselves, it cannot be doubted that the epigene
forces will win, and that the continental masses will be re¬
duced to an even platform slightly below the level of the sea.

Rock Structures Resulting from Earth Movements. — Returning
now to the corrugations of the earth, I would direct attention
more closely to the structures and rock alterations resulting
from mountain-making.

During these movements the strata are bent into great com¬
plex flexures or folds; they are faulted, jointed, and fractured;
new structures are produced in them; their composition and
mineral character are changed.

In the outer part of the surface where the rocks are not suffi¬
ciently loaded, numerous joints and faults are formed; very
numerous parallel fractures and slight displacements may occur
which break the rock up into thin leaves, these leaves being
parallel to the bedding or intersecting it; and finally, the rock
may be broken into irregular fragments, or even into rubble.
This is the zone of rock fracture. Deeper down, where the load
is great, even the most rigid rocks are bent like paper or are
mashed like dough, showing no macroscopic evidence of crevice
or fracture. It has been calculated that for even the strongest
rocks this depth can not exceed 40,000 feet.1 This is the
zone of rock flowage. It is in this deep-seated zone that true flex¬
ure folds are produced. In the zone of fracture, folds of similar
form may be developed by slight rotations of the small blocks
between multiple parallel joints. The result is similar to that
of an arch made of rectangular bricks, there being slight open¬
ings between the bricks on the convex side of the arch.

Folds in rocks may be compared with waves of the sea. Each

1 Principles of North American pre-Cambrian geology, by C. R. Van
Hise: Sixteenth Ann. Kept. U. S. Geol. Survey, Pt. I, 1896, p. 592.

Rock Structures Resulting from Earth Movements . 507

large wave has superimposed upon it waves of the second order *r
upon these are waves of the third order and on these waves of
the fourth order, and so on. Moreover, running across the most
conspicuous waves, at various angles up to perpendicularity, may
be other waves of an equally composite character. As observed
from a ship at sea, the waves of the first order are so large and
have such gentle slopes that they are often overlooked, while
the steeper waves of the second order are noticed, because more
conspicuous. Upon account of their small size the waves of a
higher order than the second are usually unnoticed, as are also
the waves of all orders which are transverse to the more con¬
spicuous set.

If when stirred by a great storm the surface of the sea could
in an instant be frozen we should obtain some idea of the com¬
plexity of the waves. We should see primary elevations and
depressions of circular, oval, and lenticular horizontal sections,
in different sets, crossing one another in various directions*
and upon these would be other sets of waves of like complexity
of the second, third, and fourth orders, and so on.

The rock waves of the earth are of greater size and of equal
or greater complexity than the waves of the sea. The rollers
of the sea, when not wind-forced, may be compared with the
long gentle folds of rock. At first sight they seem simple, but, like
the rock folds, when observed closely they are found to possess
secondary crenulations. At the other extreme are the highly
complex waves running in various directions at the same time,
formed by the shifting winds of a storm, by currents and tides,
together. The sea in this condition may be compared with the
rocks in which each set of primary folds has superimposed upon
it folds of the second order, and upon these those of a higher
order up to the ttth order. The smaller orders of folds are micro¬
scopic. Such complexly deformed rock folds are called- crumpled,
plicated, or implicated.

Deep-seated, homogeneous rocks, when deformed, flow in the
same way as would a flat, thick cake of dough if subjected to
stresses similarly disposed. In this change no particles, small
or great, weak or strong, escape the effect of the pressure. All
are deformed. In extremely closely folded stratified or hetero-

508

Van Rise — Earth Movements.

geneous rocks, the mashing process may have gone so far as to
impose on them nearly the same mass effects as in homogeneous
rocks, the numerous layers being pressed until they lap back
upon themselves, like the plications of a closed fan. The hard¬
est and most brittle pebbles of quartz or of jasper may be flat¬
tened so that they are several times as long as broad, or may be
pressed into thin paper-like leaflets, or even so far that their
original outlines are altogether lost. During the flowage, as a
result^ of the flattening and rotation of the particles, and of the
formation of new minerals in the rock and their rotation, the
rock may gain a capacity to part in one direction more readily
than in others. This property is called cleavage, and is best
illustrated by slates, which with a wedge may be split into thin
layers. The cleavage may or may not accord with the original
structure.

Rock Alterations. — But perhaps the most surprising of all the
earth movements are the minute ones. By our modern method
of microscopical study of rocks in thin section, we look through
even the black rocks as though they were transparent, and we
see that no rocks are stable. We see one mineral changing into
another. We see minerals grow. We see one mineral replaced
by another. In short, we see one kind of rock transformed into
another kind. Minerals stable under one set of conditions may
not be stable under another. No rock is so dense that water may
not penetrate to its innermost part. Water, driven by gravity, is
the great transporting and transforming agent of the earth, as
well within the mass of the rock as upon the surface.

Wherever as a result of the forces of deformation the rocks
are fractured, creviced, or brecciated, there waters freely enter.
These waters may take the materials of the rocks in solution,
and thus are explained the caves of the earth. Within the
cracks, crevices, and openings in the rocks through which the
percolating waters pass, a portion of the material in the solu¬
tion may be deposited, and thus the rocks be healed of their
wounds, becoming as strong as before broken. But usually differ¬
ences between the original and secondary materials enables one
to trace the histories of the transformations. The water de¬
posits in rock crevices are of great interest to man, for from

Bock Alterations.

509

them are taken nearly all of the valuable metalliferous ores.
Our stores of zinc, of lead, of copper, of silver, of gold, and of
iron, are nearly all produced by water concentration, either in
openings in the rocks or else as replacements of their materials.
It is to be remembered that the original materials of the earth
are igneous, and it is only rarely that these contain a sufficient
quantity of the useful metals to be available.

At a given place the conditions may be such that minerals are
being dissolved at one time and being deposited at another.
Some minerals may be dissolved at the same time other min¬
erals are being deposited. In the same cavity a mineral may be
in the process of solution in one part and in the process of
deposition in another. In the same opening a dozen different
combinations of minerals may be deposited in succession. The
conditions for the deposition of the later minerals may be favor¬
able for the solution of those earlier deposited. All of these
phenomena and many others are illustrated in the clefts and
caves bearing lead and zinc in the southwestern part of our own
state.

From the foregoing it should not be concluded that minerals
have any such mobility as has life. The transformations of
minerals in most cases is exceedingly slow. Where the envir¬
onment remains the same as that in which the minerals devel¬
oped, they may continue the same indefinitely, for under given
conditions minerals form which are stable under those condi¬
tions. The meteoric stones which fall to the earth may have
had the same mineral composition which they now possess since
their segregation, perhaps before the history of the solar system
began. But when the conditions of environment are profoundly
changed, as for instance when the meteoric stones leave the inter¬
planetary or interstellar spaces and fall to the surface of the earth,
mineral transformations will begin. Within the outer part of the
earth itself the most important changes in environment are
those due to orogenic movements or to erosion.

At first a mineral may crystallize in a lava bed, or in a deep-
seated intrusive. The physical and chemical forces may now at¬
tack it. By the physical forces, it may be mashed, and from one
mineral particle may be produced a multitude of particles. The

510

Van Else — Earth Movements.

mineral may be of the kind which is capable of changing into an
entirely different mineral having the same chemical composition.
In this case the motions are merely molecular, and yet the
mineral is fundamentally changed. It acts differently in refer,
ence to light, in reference to heat; it cleaves differently, and
has various other different properties. For instance, in its
original condition the filtered light from a white complex ray
may emerge reddish or brownish, whereas after the transforma¬
tion the light which passes through may be green or blue. The
mineral may have its chemical composition changed. Certain
elements may be taken from it by percolating waters, or certain
elements may be added to it or both may occur, any of these
changes producing a different mineral. The mineral without ad¬
dition or subtraction of material may alter chemically into one
or more different minerals. Finally, the entire mineral particle
may be taken into solution, and its place be taken by other
mineral particles.

As a result of profound erosion in a region, the rocks are
gradually transferred from deep within the earth to the zone of
rapid water percolation. The conditions are now favorable for
change. Where, as a result of continued erosion the materials
are brought above the level of underground waters, the conditions
are still more favorable for rapid alteration of the mineral
particles, for here they are attacked by the powerful chemical
agents; they are in the zone of active disintegration, decom¬
position, and solution.

At last a mineral particle reaches the surface of the earth.
It is then directly attacked by the forces of erosion. By them
it may be altered, or be torn from its matrix, with little or
no alteration. It may then be caught up by running water,
and transported to the sea. If decomposed its elements will
certainly be widely distributed, and if not, it may be mechan¬
ically broken into many parts, so that its distribution is scarcely
less wide, but ultimately much of its material will be deposited
along the continental border, and be buried under thick de¬
posits. It is now in a position where future land areas may
be formed, and thus its parts may again go through another
cycle of change.

Rock Alterations.

511

When the environment changes, different minerals behave very
differently, some being capable of existing under many condi¬
tions, others under only particularly favorable ones. Such
minerals as leucite, nepheline, and olivine, are changed with
comparative rapidity. Quartz, or rock crystal, upon the other
hand, is comparatively permanent.

This mineral is one of the commonest ones in the abundant
rock granite. Granite crystallizes from a molten magma far be¬
low the surface of the earth. When a quartz individual below
the surface passes through a mountain-making period, it is re¬
crystallized, or crushed into numerous granules, but in either
case the material is of essentially the same character as the orig¬
inal. At the surface, weathering agencies have little effect upon
quartz, except very slowly to dissolve it. However, they may
break the quartz from its setting. The particles may be ground
against one another as they are carried down the river, or they
may beat against one another on the sea shore until they are
rounded. These dirt-covered grains may be deposited in a sand
bed and become deeply buried by newer deposits. Through the
pores of this sand-rock later solutions may pass, bearing the ma¬
terial out of which quartz can be made. The mineral particles,
notwithstanding all the vicissitudes through which they have
gone, notwithstanding their millions of years of age, are able to
take material like themselves and add it to themselves, and build
up new, perfect crystals.

The total effects of the interior alterations of minerals and
the transportation of mineral material by underground waters
are enormous. If one looked only at the result, and thought
not of the vast time it took to accomplish the work, he would
conclude that such refractory minerals as quartz are as soluble as
sugar. In the cementation of a great sand-rock formation to a
quartzite, thousands of cubic miles of quartz are deposited from
the mineral-bearing solutions. This almost incredible statement
is fully justified when the extensiveness of the quartzite forma¬
tions, and the amount of material required for the cementation
of the original sandstones are considered. Some of the single
quartzite formations cover thousands of square miles, and are
several thousands of feet thick. If the original sandstones from

512

Van Hise — Earth Movements.

which these quartzites were made be assumed to have been com¬
posed of spherical grains of uniform size, the amount of quartz
required to fill the spaces would be .26 of that of the original
grains of sand.1 The minute interspaces are so well filled and
the grains so firmly cemented that a quartzite breaks across the
original particles rather than around them, giving a smooth
conchoidal fracture like glass. But the change from sandstone
to quartzite is a comparatively simple one. Far more profound
changes have occurred on as great a scale in many countries.
In some regions great igneous formations thousands of feet in
thickness have been transformed into rocks which do not now
contain a discoverable vestige of any original mineral. In other
regions in which orogenic movements of the crust have occurred,
the deeper seated rocks throughout have been completely re¬
crystallized.

It is to be finally noted that as a result of the work of under¬
ground solutions the transferred material is on the average car¬
ried to a lower level. In the upper zone and especially that of
weathering, material is dissolved, to be deposited deeper down
in the earth, or to be brought to the streams for transportation
to the sea. It is well understood that the underground waters
may carry material upward, but it is certain that a much more
than equivalent amount is carried downward. Thus the work
of underground waters, like that of the surface agencies, is
gravitative.

The Power of Gravity. — Summarizing, we have seen that
differential subsidence slowly but surely causes the continental
masses to rise or fall with reference to the surface of the sea.
As a result of the subsidence of great areas, smaller areas,
such as the plateaus and mountain ranges and systems, may be
elevated. The horizontal stresses, thickening the strata along the
zones of plication and producing the mountain systems and pla¬
teaus, are but incident to the larger movements of subsidence.
By vulcanism vast masses of magma are introduced into the outer
part of the crust of the earth, or spread over its surface. The con¬
tinental areas, wherever they are above the sea, are being de-

1 R. S, Woodward: Bull. Geol. Soc. Am., Vol. 1, 1890, p. 220.

The Poiver of Gravity.

513

graded by the wasting forces of water, ice, and wind. Concur¬
rent with these movements is deep-seated flowage. As a result
of these movements it is possible that the continents may grow.
The remote cause to which continent-making, differential sub-,
sidence, mountain-making and attendant phenomena, epigene
transfer, vulcanism, and deep-seated compensatory flow, are due,
is the force of gravity persistently working upon a plastic con¬
tracting mass; and therefore the center of gravity of the vari¬
ous masses moved, is nearer the center of the earth as a result
of the movements.1

Furthermore gravity is ever working toward isostatic equilib¬
rium, but the rigidity of the rocks ever prevents its perfect ac¬
complishment. The limit of excess or deficiency maintained by the
strength of the rocks in any district is measured by the elastic limit
of the rocks deformed, under the varying conditions of deformation.
Some of these varying conditions are the magnitudes of the
masses, the character of the rocks, the temperature of the rocks,
the water content of the rocks, and the rapidity of the deforma¬
tion. The greater the length and breadth of the mass moved,
the less the thickness of the excess or deficiency which may be

1 This generalization is in accord with that which Prevost urged many
years ago, as is shown by the following quotation from the Bull, of the
Geol. Soc. of France, Vol. XI, 1840, p. 186:

“ 1. Que le relief de la surface du sol est le resultat de grands affaise-
ments successifs, qui, par contre-coup, et d’une maniere secondaire, ont
pu occasioner accidentellement des elevations absolues, des pressions lat¬
erals, des ploiements, des plissements, des ruptures, des tassements,
des failles, etc.; mais que rien n’autorise a croire que ces divers accidents
ont ete produits par une cause agissant sous les sol, c’est-a-dire, par une
force soulevante;”

“2. Que les dislocations du sol sont des effets complexes de retrait, de
contraction, de plissement et de chute;”

“3. Que les matieres ignees (granites, porphyres, trachytes, basaltes,
lavas, ) loin d’avoir souleve et rompu le sol pour s’eschapper, ont seule-
ment profite des solutions de continuity qui leur ont ete offertes par le re¬
trait et les ruptures, pour sortir, suinter et s’epancher audehors.”

As proof of this paper is passing through my hands, through the gen¬
erous courtesy of Major J. W. Powell I am in receipt, in advance of publi¬
cation, of his manuscript on An Hypothesis to Account for Earth Move¬
ments (to be published in the Jan. -Feb. number of the Journal of Geol.

33

514

Van Hise — Earth Movements.

maintained. The greater the depth of the mass moved, the
greater the thickness of the excess or deficiency of the mass
which may be maintained. The harder the rocks, the greater
the thickness of the excess or deficiency which may be main¬
tained. The higher the temperature, the less the thickness of
the excess or deficieny which may be maintained. The greater
the water content, the less the thickness of the excess or defi¬
ciency which may be maintained. The more rapid the deforma¬
tion, the greater the thickness of the excess or deficiency which
may be maintained. All of these statements are sufficiently
self-explanatory except the last. Where rocks are deformed rap¬
idly, the elastic limit is higher than where deformed slowly.
Also during uplift of the continental areas, erosion works in the
opposite direction. The more rapid the uplift, the more effective
is erosion. As the elevation becomes great, erosion becomes
very rapid, and uplift slow, because the elastic limit of the rock
is neared. Therefore the actual limit of uplift is less than that
which could be temporarily sustained by the strength of the
rocks.

Conclusion. — I hope this paper has made it clear that in the
part of the earth we know there is movement everywhere; that
the forces are constantly at work re-shaping, re-making the
world. Even within the rocks themselves, porous or apparently

ogy, Chicago). The central thesis of this paper is that the modulus of
compression of rocks varies under pressure in various ways under different
conditions. As illustrative of his applications, erosion may be taken.
Because of the shifting of material by epigene agencies to the sea shore,
there is additional weight, and consequent compression, which results in
subsidence. The denudation of the land removes load, which results in
expansion, and therefore elevation. If Major Powell’s hypothesis be ac¬
cepted, it seems to me to accord with the law above advocated, that is,
the sum-total of the movements are gravitative. For the compression is
compensated for by expansion, and the lateral transfer is accompanied by
downward movement.

I would make gravity explain the phenomena of deformation “ of the
earth’s crust as the law of gravity explains the constitution of the celestial
systems.” (Powell.) Indeed, the geological history of the geoid is the
part of the astronomical history which has been studied in detail. The
geoid continues to be controlled in its deformation through geological
time as it has in pre-geological time, and as are other worlds and the suns,
— by the force of gravity*

Conclusion.

515

solid, are everywhere forces producing movement and change.
Moreover there is abundant reasons for believing that these
forces are still as potent and their resultant transformations
as rapid as in the past. The earth is not finished, but is now
being, and will forevermore be re-made.

I am keenly aware that I have failed to give any adequate
idea of the constancy, universality, and complexity of earth
movements. Whatever the degree of complication which any of
us may grasp, we may be absolutely certain that the facts are
indefinitely more complicated. It is ever so in nature. The ex¬
planation first offered of a complex set of phenomena is always
exceedingly imperfect. In succession, year after year, as new
facts and principles are discovered, new statements, nearer the
truth, are made. If the first work was good the explanation
offered was not false, — it was incomplete. The later, larger
explanation includes and adds something to the previous imper¬
fect one. Each succeeding generation brings the explanation
nearer completion, nearer perfection. This principle is well
illustrated by the multiplicity of causes now assigned for the
contraction of the earth, this being at first wholly attributed to
secular cooling.

It is often remarked that it is scarcely worth while to learn
the scientific theories of today — they will be changed tomor¬
row. By certain people, because of this, we are frequently
warned not to place confidence in the conclusions of science.
However, the change in science is its chief merit.- Science is
ever moving nearer the truth. If we would know the secrets
of the world, the only way is to learn science as it is today,
and move forward as it moves. The subject in which ideas are
fixed, in which theories do not change, is dead.

We may be certain that all who hold a light opinion of science
because its theories change lack a grasp of the methods of
science. They may know some of its facts, — of little or no
value, without at least a partial understanding of the underly¬
ing principles which control them, — but they are as ignorant
of the real teachings and merits of science as is the savage
The latter may see the electric car move, driven by an invisible
power. He may be wonder-struck by many other phenomena

516

Van Rise — Earth Movements.

of science. He, at least, has the feeling that here is profound
mystery, while to the average civilized person it does not even
occur to marvel, much less to try to understand the significance
of the phenomena of the Universe in which he lives. He has
ears to hear, and yet hears not. He has eyes to see, and yet is
as if born blind. He has a reason to understand, but yet is as
the ox that lies in the field and chews his cud in contentment.
A being that lives in this world without a desire to know the
meaning of the phenomena of the Universe cannot lay just claim
to the name of man. He who has a desire to know, and ceases
to strive until he has attained as much of an understanding of
the Universe as his mind is capable of, is a sloth. But, how¬
ever the mightiest intellect may labor, it may never hope to have
more than an incomplete understanding of the simplest thing.
Complete knowledge of the constitution of, and forces at work
within, even a grain of sand can be obtained only through infi¬
nite capacity.

MEMORIAL ADDRESSES.

JAMES J. BLAISDELL.

James Joshua Blaisdell was born in Canaan, New Hampshire,
February 8th, 1827. In 1834 his family removed to Lebanon,
New Hampshire, where he grew up. He spent a few months in
the Kimball Union Academy, entered Dartmouth College in 1842,
and graduated in 1846, fifty years ago last Commencement. In
speaking once of the formative influences of his life, Professor
Blaisdell said that among them he recognized especially his hon¬
orable ancestry, his grandfather being a revolutionary soldier
and a member of one of the early Congresses of our country, and
his father an eminent member of the New Hampshire bar, of
whom he always spoke with great veneration and love; his rear¬
ing amid scenes noble in landscape of mountain and river; and
the fact that those among whom he was brought up were
strenuous and plain people, doing their work thoroughly and
fearing God. After leaving college he taught a year in Mon¬
treal. He then studied law between two and three years with his
father, but during the study of the law his thoughts turned toward
the work of the ministry, and leaving his father’s office he went
to Andover, Massachusetts, and there spent three years in the
study of theology, graduating in 1852. He was pastor of the
Third Presbyterian Church, Cincinnati, Ohio, from 1852 to
1857. In 1853 he married Miss Susan A. Allen, who had been
brought up near him, under like influences, and who has been
to a rare degree the companion of his home, of his thought, of
his work. In 1859 he was called to Beloit College to the chair
of rhetoric and English literature. In 1865 he was transferred
by his own desire to the chair of mental and moral philosophy,

518

Eaton — Memorial Address.

those themes being especially germane to his own thinking.
He was chaplain of the 40th Wisconsin Volunteers during their
one hundred days’ service in the vicinity of Memphis; “an
ideal chaplain, ” Col. (now Bishop) Fallows called him. He
traveled in Europe in 1869 and 1870. In 1873 he received the
degree of Doctor of Divinity, both" from Knox College and from
Dartmouth, his alma mater. He was sought for the presi¬
dency of two of our leading western colleges, but in each case
decided to remain in Beloit and to make his work as a teacher
center there and in Wisconsin. He died on the 10th of October,
1896.

Between the lines of these simple statements we of the Acad¬
emy and all who knew him, read the record of a noble and mem¬
orable life. Professor Blaisdell was a marked man as a thinker.
You knew him in the breadth, the catholic range of his thinking.
He loved best the great thinkers, but he found those great
thinkers in many lands and ages. Isaiah and Paul and the seer
of Patmos, Plato and Aeschylus, Dante and Aristotle, — these
were men with whom he loved to hold converse. Of Puritan stock,
he had the Puritan predilection for high themes and for wrest¬
ling with great problems of human destiny. In such society he
found his chosen companionship; and with great men of recent
years he also was in close touch and fellowship. Anyone who
thought deeply on any line found in Professor Blaisdell an in¬
terested and sympathetic fellow-thinker. While certain lines
were dearest to him, there could be no profound thought any¬
where that did not attract him and tempt him to follow it. His
library was the library of a man who thought widely, and whose
sympathies were wide; and this was part of the charm of his per¬
sonality to those who knew him. We all of us are aware that
the distinguishing trait of his thinking was its spiritual qual¬
ity. A Puritan, austere in appearance and serious and stren¬
uous in his thinking and his life, he was also a mystic, lov¬
ing the subtle, spiritual qualities of thought, and absolved
from the limitations of any age or condition. With him
all nature was intensely spiritual. Behind the physical mani¬
festation shone the spiritual, as a light shines through an
alabaster vase. He sunk himself deeply in these spiritual rela-

James J. Blaisdell.

519

tions of mind and matter. He loved to soar on strong wings
into spiritual ranges of thought and feeling, and lift with him
the thought of others. He could well have said

1 ‘ I have felt

A presence that disturbs me with the joy
Of elevated thoughts; a sense sublime
Of something far more deeply interfused,

Whose dwelling is the light of setting suns,

And the round ocean, and the living air,

And the blue sky, and in the mind of man;

A motion and a spirit, that impels

All thinking things, all objects of all thought,

And rolls through all things.”

As a teacher Professor Blaisdell has had a marked place in the
life and history of Wisconsin. For thirty-seven years he has
been an instructor of young men in this state, and by voice
and pen in wider circles. He was not a conventional teacher.
He was not in some respects a modern teacher. He had little
interest personally in the laboratory method of teaching. He
shrunk from it with a sense that somehow it reduced study to a
mechanical or dead thing. I have thought that he gave too lit¬
tle weight and value to certain current methods. But in his
own method he was easily a master. With him every pupil
was an individual, spiritual personality. And while he believed
profoundly the things he taught, he used these truths not for
their own sake so much as for the developing power there
might be in them for the minds with which and upon which
he worked. He sought to know each individual student inti¬
mately, in his modes of thought, in his modes of living.
He was not content unless he could in some genuine way come
into personal, vital, throbbing touch with each pupil. This
attempt of his, instinctive and deliberate, was almost always
crowned with a remarkable degree of success. His students he
grappled to himself with hooks of steel. Men would look for¬
ward for years to reaching that part of their course where they
would come under his influence, and they went forth from the
college impressed with his personality, molded by his thinking,
and yet empowered by him in a remarkable degree to be in¬
dividual thinkers and actors in a living world. It was this
that made him what I may term the Thomas Arnold of Wis-

520

Eaton — Memorial Address.

consin. And what Matthew Arnold said of his father may very
properly be said of Professor Blaisdell:

“ But thou wouldst not alone
Be saved, my father; alone
Conquer and come to thy goal,

Leaving the rest in the wild.

Still thou turnedst and still
Beckond’st the trembler, and still
Gavest the weary thy hand.

Therefore to thee it was given
Many to save with thyself;

And in the end of thy day,

O faithful shepherd, to come
Bringing thy sheep in thy hand.”

Perhaps not less marked was Professor Blaisdell’ s relation to
the commonwealth of Wisconsin as a citizen. The fact that his
life was that of a thinker and teacher never in the least tempted
him to excuse himself from the life of a practical man of affairs
devoted to the welfare of his state. He loved Wisconsin. He had a
generous pride in her citizens, in her resources, in her history, in
her future. Any fruit that was grown in Wisconsin was interest¬
ing to him. The forests of the state were dear to him and he
lifted his voice for their conservation. The hills of Wisconsin
were hardly less dear to him than those higher hills of his own
Granite State. A mystic, he was yet clear-sighted and resolute.
He studied, and as far as man could do it, he solved the prob¬
lems of civic life and of the life of the commonwealth, and his
counsel was sought by men of affairs. The mayor of Beloit
would come to him for counsel, and he would go to the mayor
of Beloit with suggestions as to the city’s civic welfare. He
was the President of the Wisconsin Children’s Home Society, in
whose development he felt the keenest, the most glowing in¬
terest, believing that by this method of taking children out of
unhopeful environments and placing them in families of character
we may undercut the forces of evil and save our commonwealth.
He was President of the Wisconsin Home Missionary Society
and gave in the last two or three years of his life a vast amount
of effort to the cherishing of the Christian work of feeble
churches in our state. He was chairman of the committee on Re¬
formatories and Penitentiaries of the State Conference of Chari¬
ties and Corrections, and wrote reports in this capacity which

James J. Blaisdell.

521

may become classic in the literature of the care of depend¬
ent classes. In all of these ways and in the countless influences
that went forth from him as a citizen and as a man, he aided
this commonwealth in the effort to produce and maintain a
noble life.

It seemed to us that in his seventieth year he was at the
summit of his power. His intellectual activities never seemed
more clear and keen nor the wings of his imagination more
strong for flight. His hold upon his students never was more
absolute, in their confidence in him, and. devotion to him; and
we hoped that for many years to come he might be spared to
do the work that was given him to do in Wisconsin. And yet
during the past few months we detected in him a feverish eager¬
ness which was, it seemed to us, somewhat ominous. He could
not give due thought to the question of the limitations of his
power. It was as if, seeing the westering sun, he felt that he must
work with growing intensity and the more rapidly as the time
grew short. And so at the end of the last college year, and after
meeting his college class of fifty years ago and pouring out his
spirit with them in reminiscence and in hope, he came home
spent. He went to seek rest beside the great lake, but the bal¬
ance of his powers could not be renewed ; the harp of his spirit, so
delicately strung, sounded chords that were strange and be¬
wildering, and in a moment of conflict in which we cannot follow
him save with awe and fear, he passed from life. It was as when
a warrior falls in the front line of the charge. As the soldier,
seeing the greatness of his country’s need, puts his life in
jeopardy and reckons not the chances of its sudden end, so Pro¬
fessor Blaisdell, realizing with deepening intensity the need of
mankind, the need of the commonwealth, flung himself so without
reserve upon the hosts of evil that he fell wounded to death.

On an October day, such as he himself so greatly loved, when
the air was full of mellow haze and the sun shone with softened
radiance and the brilliant leaves were dropping to the ground,
we passed from the college chapel, where throughout the morn¬
ing he had lain, that students and friends might look again upon
that face, so strong, so peaceful, so natural. The Grand Army,
who loved him and shared his love, bore the precious burden

522

Butler — Memorial Sketch.

from chapel to church; from the church the Seniors and Juniors
of the college by turn bore him the half mile to the cemetery ; and
there, gathering about the grave, while flowers were dropped upon
the casket from the hands of students, and soldiers, and children,
with hushed breath and upturned faces we looked whither he had
gone for higher thought and larger service. A great citizen of
the republic of letters, a great citizen of our commonwealth,
a loyal citizen of the kingdom of G-od, has passed out of the
life of our state and become a part of its enduring memory and
wealth.

Edward D. Eaton.

Beloit , Wis.

GEORGE P. DELAPLAINE.

George P. Delaplaine was born in Philadelphia, September 23,
1814. His father, Joseph Delaplaine, projected and in 1815 had in
part executed an extensive work, “Repository of the Lives and
Portraits of Distinguished American Characters. ” This enter¬
prise seems to have been undertaken at too early a date to secure
the needful patronage, and only three volumes of it were issued.
His lineage was traceable to Nicholas de la Plaine, a Huguenot
who came from France to New York about 1672. His mother was a
Livingston, and connected with the Jay family so prominent in
early New York and in making the first treaty between the
United States and Great Britain.

At the death of his father in 1824 he was separated from his
mother either at school or when employed as a store-boy. But
his vacations of all sorts were spent among his Jay kindred at
the Jay mansion in Bedford, Westchester Co., New York, where
Chief Justice Jay was still surviving. His death was in 1829.
Through contact there with people of such high culture and re¬
finement his ideals of life and scholarship were elevated, and he
was roused to life-long aspirations and endeavors for self-im¬
provement. The names Ann Jay and Blanche Livingston which
he gave his daughters show how fondly he remembered those
early haunts.

George P. Delaplaine.

523

His coming to reside at Madison in 1838 was only one year
after the first settlers had arrived, and at his death, April 29,
1896, he had outlived all but one of those who had made their
homes there before him. In 1837 he had seen the Madison
pioneers start from Milwaukee. Still earlier, in 1835, he had
been a rodman under Capt. G-arret Vliet, United States
surveyor in that region, until thrown out of business by an
order from Washington suspending the work. Then, with one
Joseph Green from Rutland, Vt., a schoolmate of the present
writer, he roved about the unknown country in quest of mill-
sites. In October, 1836, these prospectors came to Madison
where they saw Fourth Lake ridge covered with Winnebagoes
who were gathering in a harvest of fish for winter — the braves
spearing fish, the squaws spreading the captures to dry on
frames, children bringing up the scaly store, and pappooses
hanging up near by. The Indian summer was at its height and
the scene fascinated Delaplaine with a first love which he never
forgot. His companion and he were, however, afraid to lodge
among the fishers, and fled as far as possible before nightfall.
Their fear was of losing at least their single pony. This inci¬
dent was related to the writer by Mr. Delaplaine nearly forty
years ago.

Mr. Delaplaine served the first three Wisconsin governors as
private secretary. He is described in 1846 by General Hobart,
who was then in the territorial council, as “ the life and soul
of Governor Dodge’s office. If there was anything to be looked
up or any information to be secured he was the man we went to.
He was withal the wittiest man in the State in those times and
his wit was of a refined nature. ” Another councilman says,
" His fund of anecdote has never been equalled in my experi¬
ence. ”

For many years our associate held offices in the State militia.
In the civil war he became engineer- in-chief with the rank of
brigadier general, and did efficient service in making troops
ready to take the field. As Park commissioner he was largely
instrumental in getting trees planted alongside Madison’s
streets, indeed, many of those earliest planted he had set out
with his own hands.

524

Butler — Memorial Sketch.

In 1870 he was a charter-member of the “ Wisconsin Academy
of Sciences, Arts and Letters.” As its first treasurer and long
afterward his cooperation was valuable. In all his relations he
may be best described as a humanitarian. Hence, as a boy in
Ohio, he became a sort of conductor on the underground rail¬
road. He was a champion of women’s rights; — before Dr. Berg
was heard of he had " regarded the life of his beast. ” He was
a good Samaritan to many who had fallen helpless by the way-
side, and whom priest and levite, despairing of lifting up, had
passed by on the other side.

In regard to religion while his faith was small his hope and
charity were large. He never ceased to be a seeker of light
concerning the spiritual, eternal, heavenly and divine. “ The
world is my country and to do good is my religion ” was a say¬
ing often in his mouth.

While diligent and successful in his business as a dealer in
real estate he was never so buried in it as to have no leisure
hours for the best books of the best authors in widely devious
paths of literature.

The immediate cause of his death was heart failure, which
followed after chronic asthma and insomnia during six previous
months. It was in the last half of his eighty-second year

“ When, like a clock worn out with eating time,

The weary wheels of life at last stood still.”

James D. Butler.

Madison , Wis.

SIMEON MILLS.

Our late associate Simeon Mills was born February 14, 1810,
and died June 1, 1895. His birth was at Norfolk in the state
of Connecticut, but he was brought up in northeastern Ohio, to
which his parents removed in his infancy. In the fall of 1836
he went west on an exploring tour and was in Belmont during
the legislative session there when, on November 28, Madison
was decided upon as the site of the territorial capital.

He came to Madison the next season. On June 10th, 1837, he
walked alone from Janesville to the site where Madison was to

Simeon Mills.

525

be built, and found there the thirty-seven first comers, — the
pioneers who had arrived on the morning of that day from
Milwaukee, having been eleven days on the way.

He worked on the first house there built, was employed in the
first store, was the first deputy post-master, and the first mail-
contractor. He was a footpost to and from Milwaukee, crossing
rivers by ferries but oftener by fording. The mail-matter was
never cumbersome.

He was an original member of the Board of Regents of the
State University — and their treasurer for half a dozen years.
During his service in this capacity the University largely paid
its running expenses by buying city lots and selling them. At
one time its acreage amounted to a square mile or about double
its present extent. But before 1856 this area had shrunk to
about fifty acres.

The State Historical Society, from its start in 1849, had the
favor and assistance of Mr. Mills. He may be called a ^re-
charter member of it. From 1854 he was one of its curators
and from 1878 till his death a vice-president. In early years
he offered to give an eligible site for a building that would show
and safeguard its collections. This present the Society was
then too weak to stretch out its hands for receiving. Knowl¬
edge that a fire-proof edifice would make it sure that the his¬
toric treasures shall not perish from among men, was a solace
to him in the chronic languishing of his last illness.

Our associate outlived all save one or two of the forty first
founders of Madison. The sabbath of his years was spent in
full view of the spot where he had stepped ashore into the
forest from the Indian canoe, and in the midst of the cit)T which
was more to him than ail the world beside.

Had Mr. Mills been taught chemistry he would have done
something to extend the area of that science. He was an original
thinker in many lines, and printed his views not only in news¬
papers but in several little books which he published.

Mr. Mills early became a member of the Academy. He fur¬
thered its researches by excavations in aboriginal mounds, and
read papers on various themes at its meetings.

James D. Butler.

Madison , Wis.

526

Chandler — Memorial Sketch.

NEWTON STONE FULLER.

Newton Stone Fuller, son of Leonard F. and Mary I. (Hunt)
Fuller, was born February 9, 1860, in Providence, R. I. His
preparation for college was made in the High School of his native
city, and he graduated from Brown University in 1882. He
taught in Colby Academy, at New London, N. H., for a year
after his graduation, and in a private academy at Poughkeepsie,
N. Y., during the second year. In 1884 he was elected Profes¬
sor of Latin in Ripon College, which position he occupied for
ten years, resigning it in 1894 on account of his health which
had been such as to require his absence in Colorado during the
preceding year. He died of consumption at Colorado Springs,
May 8, 1895. He married, June 29, 1886, Miss Harriet Peirce
who, with their two daughters, survives him.

Professor Fuller’s first years in Wisconsin were so fully occu¬
pied by the immediate duties of the position to which he had
been called at an early age that he had little opportunity for
other work; so that, although he had previously attended one
or more meetings of the Academy, he became a member only
two years before his failing health forbade further efforts; and
therefore the fidelity which was the marked characteristic of his
life was little known beyond the narrow circle of his intimate
associates, who have placed on record their testimony that "as
a man of scholarship, strong character, cultivated tastes, skill
in instruction, gentleness combined with firmness, and steadfast
devotion to duty, he made himself a place of usefulness and
effective service rarely surpassed.”

Chas. H. Chandler.

Ripon , Wis.

THE WISCONSIN ACADEMY OF SCIENCES, ARTS, AND

LETTERS.

OFFICERS.

President.

C. Dwight Marsh,

Ripon College, Ripon.

Vice-President of Sciences ,
Harriet B. Merrill,

South Side High School, Milwaukee.

Vice-Presidents of Arts ,

E. D. Eaton,

Beloit College, Beloit.

Vice-President of Letters ,

F. J. Turner,

University of Wisconsin, Madison.

Secretary ,

A. S. Flint,

University of Wisconsin, Madison.

Treasurer ,

L. S. Cheney,

University of Wisconsin, Madison.

Librarian ,

W. S. Marshall,
University of Wisconsin, Madison.

Curator,

H. F. Lueders,

Sauk City.

528 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters.

COUNCIL.

The President, Vice-Presidents, Secretary, Treasurer, and Past
Presidents retaining their residence in Wisconsin.

COMMITTEE ON PUBLICATION.

C. Dwight Marsh, Ripon, President.

A. S. Flint, Madison, Secretary.

C. S. Slichter, Madison.

J. G. Gregory, Milwaukee.

COMMITTEE ON LIBRARY.

W. S. Marshall, Madison, Librarian.

R. G. Thwaites, Madison.

Charles H. Chandler, Ripon.

COMMITTEE ON MEMBERSHIP.

A. S. Flint, Madison, Secretary.

A. S. Mitchell, Milwaukee.

D. P. Nicholson, Appleton.

A. L. Ewing, River Falls.

J. J. Davis, Racine.

PAST PRESIDENTS.

Honorable John W. Hoyt, M. D., LL. D., Washington, *D. C.,
1870-76.

Professor P. R. Hoy, M. D.,* 1876-78.

President A. L. Chapin, D. D.,* 1878-81.

Professor R. D. Irving, Ph. D.,* 1881-84*

Professor T. C. Chamberlin, Ph. D. , LL. D., Chicago, Ill.,
1884-87.

Professor Wm. F. Allen, A. M.,* 1887-89.

Professor E. A. Birge, Ph. D., Madison, 1889-90.

Librarian George W. Peckham, LL. D., Milwaukee, 1891-93.
Professor C. R. Van Hise, Ph. D., Madison, 1894-96.

* Deceased.

Honorary and Life Members.

529

HONORARY MEMBERS.

Agassiz, Alexander, Cambridge, Mass.

A. B., S. B. (Harvard) ; LL. D. Curator of Museum of Comparative Zoology,
Harvard University.

Chamberlin, Thomas Chrowder, 5041 Madison av., Chicago, Ill.

A. B. (Beloit); Ph. D. (Wisconsin, Michigan) ; LL. D. (Michigan, Beloit,
Columbian). Head Professor of Geology and Director of Walker
Museum, University of Chicago.

Gilman, Daniel Coit, Baltimore, Md.

A. B., A. M. (Yale) ; LL. D. (Yale, Harvard, St. Johns, Columbia, North Caro¬
lina). President of Johns Hopkins University.

Harris, William Torrey, 914 23d st., Washington, D. C.

A. M. (Yale) ; Ph. D. (Brown) ; LL. D. (Missouri). United States Commis¬
sioner of Education ; Officer d’ Instruction Publique of France.

Shaler, Nathaniel Southgate, 25 Quincy st. , Cambridge, Mass.

S. B., S. D. (Norwood) ; S. D. (Harvard). Professor of Geology, Harvard Uni¬
versity ; Dean of Lawrence Scientific School.

Whitman, Charles Otis, Chicago, Ill.

A. B., A. M. (Bowdoin) ; Ph. D. (Leipzig) ; LL. D. (Nebraska). Head Professor
of Zoology, University of Chicago ; Director of Marine Biological
Laboratory, Woods Holl, Mass.

LIFE MEMBERS.

Barnes, Charles Reid, 616 Lake st. , Madison.

A. B., A. M., Ph. D. (Hanover). Professor of Botany, University of Wisconsin.

Birge, Edward Asahel, 744 Langdon st. , Madison.

A. B., A. M. (Williams) ; Ph. D. (Harvard) ; S. D. Professor of Zoology
and Dean of the College of Letters and Science,

University of Wisconsin.

Davies, John Eugene, 523 N. Carroll st., Madison,

A. B., A. M. (Lawrence) ; M. D. (Chicago Medical) ; LL. D. (Northwestern).
Professor of Electricity and Magnetism, and Mathematical
Physi'cs, University of Wisconsin.

Hagerman, J. J.,
Hastings, Samuel Dexter,

Address unknown.

827 S. Monroe st. , Green Bay.

Ex-Treasurer State of Wisconsin ; Ex-Secretary State Board of Charities and

Reform.

Hill, James L.
34

Address unknown.

530 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts , and Letters .

Hobbs, William Herbert, Madison.

S. B. (Worcester Polytechnic); A. M., Ph. D. (Johns Hopkins). Assistant
Professor of Mineralogy and Petrology, University of Wisconsin;

Assistant Geologist, U. S. Geological Survey.

Hoyt, John Wesley, 4 Iowa Circle, Washington, D. C.

A. M. (Ohio Wesleyan); M. D., LL. D. (Missouri). Chairman of Committee

on Establishment of the University of the United States.

Mitchell, John L., Milwaukee.

U. S. Senator from Wisconsin.

Peckham, George Williams, 646 Marshall st., Milwaukee.

LL. D. (Wisconsin). Librarian Public Library.

Van Cleep, Frank Lewis, Ithaca, N. Y.

A. B. (Oberlin, Harvard) ; Ph. D. (Bonn). Professor of Greek, Cornell
Universty.

Van Hise, Charles Richard, 630 Francis st., Madison.

B. Met. E., S. B., S. M., Ph. D. (Wisconsin). Geologist in charge of Lake

Superior Division, U. S. Geological Survey ; Non-Resident Professor
of Pre-Cambrian Geology, University of Chicago ;Pro-
fessor of Geology, University of Wisconsin.

ACTIVE MEMBERS.

Adams, Charles Kendall, 772 Langdon st., Madison.

A. B., A. M. (Michigan) ; LL D. (Harvard). President of University of Wisconsin.

Anderson, Mrs. W. E., 134 Twentieth st. Milwaukee.

Austin, Louis Winslow, 22 Mendota Court, Madison.

A. B. (Middlehury) ; Ph. D. (Strassburg). Assistant Professor of Physics,
University of Wisconsin.

Axtel, Wayland Samuel, Rochester.

A. B., A. M. (Beloit.) Principal Rochester Academy.

Bacon, Charles Alfred, 641 Church st. . Beloit.

A. B., A. M. (Dartmouth.) Professor of Astronomy, Beloit College • Director
of Smith Observatory.

Baetz, Henry 2820 Highland Boulevard, Milwaukee.

Ex-Treasurer, State of Wisconsin. Purchasing Agent of Pabst Brewing

Company.

Balg, Gerhard Hubert, 623 Fifth st., Milwaukee.

A. B. (Wisconsin) ; A. M., Ph. D. (Heidelberg). Philologist and Teacher.

Active Members.

531

Bille, John, River Falls.

Teacher.

Blackstone, Dodge Pierce, 921 Wisconsin st., Berlin.

A. B., A. M., C. E. (Union). Banker.

Blake, William Phipps, Tucson, Arizona.

A. M., Hon. (Dartmouth) ; Ph. B. (Yale) ; Chevalier Legion of Honor,
France. Professor of Geology and Mining, University of Arizona ;

Director, Arizona School of Mines.

Bremer, Alice Aikens (Mrs. Hugo), 579 Frederick st. , Milwaukee.
Brown, Eugene Anson, 123 E. Johnson st., Madison.

M. D. (Hahnemann Medical). Physician and Surgeon.

Browne, George Merwin, Oshkosh.

Bruncken, Ernest, 269 Seven teeth st., Milwaukee.

Attorney at Law; Assistant City Attorney. Secretary Wisconsin State
Forestry Commission.

Buckley, Ernest Robertson, 408 W. Washington ave. , Madison.

S. B. (Wisconsin). Assistant Geologist, Wisconsin Geological and Natural
History Survey.

Buell, Charles E., University Heights, Madison.

S. B., LL. B. (Wisconsin). Attorney (Buell and Hanks).

Buell, Ira Maynard, 562 Broad st. , Beloit.

A. B., A. M. (Beloit). Assistant Geologist, U. S. Geological Survey.

Burgess, A. J. , M. D. , 1102 Grand av., Milwaukee.

Burke, J. F.,

15 Mack bldg., Milwaukee.

Butler, James Davie, 518 Wisconsin ave., Madison.

A. B., A. M., LL D. (Middlebury). Minister and Teacher.

Chandler, Charles Henry, 308 Thorne st., Ripon.

A. B., A. M. (Dartmouth). Professor of Mathematics and Astronomy, Ripon

College.

j 308 Thorne st., Ripon.

(212 W. Gorham st. , Madison.

A. B., A. M. (Ripon). Graduate Student, Applied Mathematics, Physics,
and Astronomy, University of Wisconsin.

Chandler, Elwyn F,

Chandler, Willard Harris,

State Inspector of High Schools.

Madison.

Chapin, Robert Coit, 709 College st., Beloit.

A. B., a. M. (Beloit) ; D. B. (Yale). Professor of Political Economy, Beloit

College.

582 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters .
Cheney, Lellen Sterling, 318 Bruen st., Madison.

S. B., S. M. (Wisconsin); Assistant Professor of Pharmaceutical Botany,
University of Wisconsin.

Clas, Alfred Charles, 628 Jackson st., Milwaukee.

Architect (Perry and Clas), 419 Broadway, Milwaukee.

Clements, Julius Morgan, 609 Lake st., Madison.

A. B., A. M. (Alabama) ; Ph. D. (Leipsic). Assistant Professor of Geology,^
University of Wisconsin; Assistant Geologist, U. S. Geological
Survey.

Collie, George Lucius, 902 College av., Beloit.

A. B., A. M. (Beloit) ; Ph. D. (Harvard). Professor of Geology, Beloit College.

Comstock, George Cary, Observatory Hill, Madison.

Ph. B. (Michigan) ; LL. B. (Wisconsin). Professor of Astronomy ahd Direc¬
tor of Washburn Observatory, University of Wisconsin.

Conover, Sarah Fairchild, 501 N. Henry st. , Madison.

Conrath, Adam, 630 Chestnut st., Milwaukee.

Ph. G. (Philadelphia College of Pharmacy). Pharmacist.

Culver, Garry Eugene, Stevens Point.

A. M. (Denison). Professor of Physical Science, State Normal School.

Daniells, William Willard, 515 N. Carroll st., Madison.

S. B., S. M. (Michigan Agricultural). Professor of Chemistry, University of

Wisconsin.

Dapprich, Emil, 558-568 Broadway, Milwaukee.

Director National German-American Teachers’ Seminary.

Davis, John Jefferson, 504 Monument sq., Racine.

S. B. (Illinois); M. D. (Hahnemann). Physician.

Densmore, Hiram Delos, Montgomery Park, Beloit.

A. B., A. M. (Beloit). Professor of Botany, Beloit College.

Desmond, Humphrey J., 375 E. Water st., Milwaukee.

L. B. (Wisconsin). Lawyer.

Desmond, William J. , 810 Van Buren st.., Milwaukee.

Principal Fourth District School, Milwaukee.

Dowling, Lirineaeus Wayland, 231 W. Gilman st., Madison.

Ph. D. (Clark). Instructor in Mathematics, University of Wisconsin.

Downing, Elliot Rowland, 512 Public av. , Beloit.

S. B., S. M. (Albion). Teacher Beloit College Academy.

Doyle, Peter, 102 Fourteenth st., Milwaukee.

LL. B. (Yale). Ex-Secretary of State, Wisconsin ; Lawyer.

Eaton, Edward Dwight, 847 College av., Beloit.

A. B., A. M. (Beloit); D. B. (Yale) ; LL. D. (Wisconsin) ; D. D. (Northwest¬
ern). President and Professor of History, Beloit College.

Active Members.

533

Ely, Richard Theodore, University Heights, Madison.

A. B., A. M. (Columbia') ; Pb. D. (Heidelberg) ; LL. D. (Hobart"). Professor
of Political Economy, and Director of the School of Political Science,
Economics and History, University of Wisconsin.

Estee, Mrs. James B., 1422 Wells st. Milwaukee.

Ewing, Addison Luther, River Falls.

S. B., S. M. (Cornell). Professor of Natural Science, State Normal School.

Ferry, George Bowman, 275 Farwell av., Milwaukee.

Architect (Ferry and Clas).

Fischer, Richard, 403 W. Mifflin st. , Madison.

Ph. G., S. B. (Michigan). Instructor in Practical Pharmacy, University
of Wisconsin.

Flagg, Rufus Cushman, Ripon.

A. B., D. D. (Middlebury). President of Ripon College.

Flint, Albert Stowell, 420 Mary st., Madison.

A. B. (Harvard), A. M. (Cincinnati). Assistant Astronomer, Washburn
Observatory, University of Wisconsin.

Frankenburger, David Bower, 115 W. Gilman st., Madison.

A. M., Ph. B., LL. B. (Wisconsin). Professor of Rhetoric and Oratory,
University of Wisconsin.

Frost, William Dodge,

311 Charter st. , Madison.

S. B., S. M. (Minnesota). Instructor in Bacteriology, University of Wisconsin.

Fulcomer, Daniel, 639 Twenty-ninth st., Milwaukee.

A. B., A. M. (Western).1 Professor of Psychology and Pedagogy, State Noi*mal

School.

Gibbs, George, Milwaukee.

Mechanical Engineer; Chicago, Milwaukee and St. Paul Railroad.

Giese, William Frederick,

823 W. Dayton st. , Madison.

A. B., A. M. (Harvard). Assistant Professor of Romance Languages, Univer¬
sity of Wisconsin.

Goodhue, William Fletcher, 45 and 204 Grand av. , Milwaukee.

Civil Engineer.

Gordon, Mrs. George, 1144 Humboldt av. , Milwaukee.

Grant, Fanny, 817 Newhall st., Milwaukee.

Gregory, John Goadby, 717 Jefferson st., Milwaukee.

Associate Editor, The Evening Wisconsin.

Haessler, Luise, 443 Madison st., Milwaukee.

Teacher of Modern Languages, South Side High School.

Hall, Mary F., City Hall, Milwaukee.

Director of Primary Instruction.

534 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.

Harrison, Caleb Notbohm, 900 N. Fulton av., Baltimore, Md.

B. C. E. (Wisconsin). Graduate Student, Johns Hopkins University.

Harvey, Nathan Albert, West Superior.

Teacher of Natural Science, State Normal School.

Harwood, Mary Corinthia, Bartlett Cottage, Ripon.

L. B., L. M. (Lawrence). Preceptress and Instructor in French and German,
Ripon College.

Haskins, Charles Homer, 629 Francis st., Madison.

A. B., Ph. D. (Johns Hopkins). Professor of Institutional History, University
of Wisconsin.

Heald, Fred de Forest, Fairfield, la.

S. B., S. M. (Wisconsin). Professor of Biology, Parsons College.

Henry, William Arnon, University Farm, Madison.

Agr. B. (Cornell). Dean of the College of Agriculture and Director of the
Agricultural Experiment Station, University of Wisconsin.

Hillyer, Homer Winthrop, University Heights, Madison.

S. B. (Wisconsin) ; Ph. D. (Johns Hopkins). Assistant Professor of Organic
Chemistry, University of Wisconsin.

Hodge, Willard Addison, Madison.

A. B., A. M. (Ripon).

Hollister, Albert Henry, 9 Langdon st. , Madison.

Colonel, Acting Engineer-in-Chief, W. N. G. ; Pharmacist.

Hooper, Sanford Adelbert, Milwaukee.

A. B., A M. (Beloit). Principal South Side High School.

Hubbard, Frank Gaylord, 227 Langdon st., Madison.

A. B. (Williams) ; Ph. D. (Johns Hopkins). Associate Professor of English
Philology, University of Wisconsin.

Huntington, Ellsworth, Beloit.

Jackson, Dugald Caleb, 433 Lake st.. Madison.

O. E. (Pennsylvania State). Professor of Electrical Engineering, University
of Wisconsin.

J astro w, Joseph, 237 Langdon st., Madison.

A B. A. M. (Pennsylvania) ; Ph. D. (Johns Hopkins). Professor of Psychol¬
ogy, University of Wisconsin.

Jegi, J. I., Milwaukee.

Professor of Physiology and Psychology, State Normal School.

Johnson, Warren Seymour, 120 Sycamore st., Milwaukee.

Mechanical Engineer.

Jones, Edward David, 209 W. Gilman st. Madison.

S. B. (Ohio Wesleyan); Ph. D, (Wisconsin). Instructor in Statistics and
Economics, University of Wisconsin.

Active Members .

585

Kahlenberg, Louis, 306 Lake st. Madison.

S. B., S. M, (Wisconsin) ; Ph. D.(Leipsic). Instructor in Physical Chemistry,
University of Wisconsin.

King, Franklin Hiram, 1540 University av., Madison.

Professor of Agricultural Physics, University of Wisconsin.

Knowlton, Amos Arnold, University Heights, Madison.

A. B., A. M. (Bowdoin) ; Assistant Professor of Rhetoric, University of Wis¬
consin.

Kremers, Edward, Wingra Park, Madison.

Ph. G., S. B. (Wisconsin) ; Ph. D. (Gottingen). Professor of Pharmaceutical
Chemistry, University of Wisconsin.

Krueger, Henry, 376 Twenty-seventh av. , Milwaukee.

^Principal Tenth Primary School, No. 3.

Kuhn, Harry, 168 Lyon st. , Milwaukee.

Ladoff, Isidor, City Hall, Milwaukee.

Analytical Chemist, Office of Commissioner of Public Health.

Laird, Arthur Gordon, Madison.

Assistant Professor of Ancient Languages, University of Wisconsin.

Lamb, Francis Jones, 212 N. Carroll st., Madison.

Attorney at Law.

Lane, George Frederick, Ripon.

Director of Conservatory of Music, Ripon College.

Legler, Henry E., 426 Bradford st., Milwaukee.

Secretary of School Board.

Libby, Orin Grant, 21 W. Gilman st., Madison.

L. B., L. M., Ph. D. (Wisconsin). Instructor in History, University of Wis¬

consin.

Lincoln, Azariah Thomas, 224 Murray st., Madison.

S. B. (Wisconsin). Assistant in Chemistry, University of Wisconsin.

Lueders, Herman Frederick, Sauk City.

S. B. (Wisconsin). Principal High School.

Mallory, Mrs. R. B. , 909 Cambridge av., Milwaukee.

Marks, Solon, 6 Prospect av., Milwaukee.

M. D. (Rush) Professor of Fractures and Dislocations and Military Surgery,

Wisconsin College of Physicians and Surgeons.

Marsh, Charles Dwight, Ripon.

A. B., A. M. (Amherst). Professor of Biology, Ripon College.

Marshall, Ruth, & Madison.

S. B. (Wisconsin). Teacher of Science, High School.

536 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , awe? Letters.
Marshall, William Stanley, 324 N. Carroll st., Madison.

S. B. (Swarthmore) ; Pli. D. (Leipsic). Assistant Professor of Zoology, Uni¬
versity of Wisconsin.

Maurer, Edward Rose, 1033 W. Johnson st., Madison.

B. C. E. (Wisconsin). Assistant Professor of Pure and Applied Mechanics,
University of Wisconsin.

McKenna, Maurice, 78 Third st., Fond du Lac.

Attorney at Law.

McMinn, Amelia, 279 Twenty-seventh st., Milwaukee.

S. B. (Wisconsin). Instructor in Biology, West Side High School.

Meachem, John Golds borough, Jr. 745 College av., Racine.

M. D. (Rush). Consulting Physician St. Luke’s Hospital; President Board

of Health.

Merrell, Edward Huntington, Ripon.

A. B., A. M. (Oberlin); D. D. (Lawrence) ; LL. D. (Middlebury). Professor
of Mental and Moral Philosophy, Ripon College.

Merrill, Harriet Bell, 661 Jackson st., Milwaukee.

S. B., S. M. (Wisconsin). Instructor in Biology, South Side High School.

Merrill, Mary Ellen, (Mrs. S. S.), 3355 Grand av. , Milwaukee.
Meyer, Balthasar Henry, 311 Brooks st., Madison.

L. B., Ph. D. (Wisconsin). Instructor in Sociology, Extension Lecturer in
Economics, Secretary of Extension Department, University of Wisconsin.

Middleton, Perry H., Milwaukee.

Miller, William Snow, 615 Lake st., Madison.

M. D. (Yale). Assistant Professor of Vertebrate Anatomy, University of

Wisconsin.

Mitchell, Andrew Stuart, 436 Milwaukee st., Milwaukee.

Ph. G. Analyst and Teacher of Chemistry ; Chemist, State Dairy and Food
Commission, Madison.

Moorehouse, George Wilton, Wauwatosa.

L. B., L. M. (Wisconsin); M. D. (Harvard). Massachusetts General Hos¬
pital (until Jan. 31, 1899).

Morris, William Augustus Pringle, 240 Langdon st., Madison.

A. B. (Hamilton). Attorney at Law.

Nader, John, 302 W. Main st., Madison.

Architect and Civil Engineer.

Nehrling, Henry, 254 Twenty-first st., Milwaukee.

Curator Public Museum.

Nicholson, Dexter Putnam, 524 John st., Appleton.

S. B., S. M. (Lawrence). Professor of Natural History, Lawrence University.

Active Members.

537

Norton, Richard Greenleaf, 110 Monona av., Madison.

Mechanician.

Noyes, George Henry, 204 Prospect av. , Milwaukee.

A. B., LL. B. (Wisconsin). Attorney ; Ex- Judge Superior Court.

O’Connor, Charles James, 1242 E. Dayton st. , Madison.

A. B. (Wisconsin). Teacher.

O’Shea, M. Vincent, 431 Lake st. , Madison.

L. B. (Cornell). Professor of the Science and Art of Teaching, University of

Wisconsin.

Owen, Edward Thomas, 014 State st. , Madison.

A. B. (Yale). Professor of the French Language and Literature, University
of Wisconsin.

Pabst, Fred, Milwaukee.

Parker, Fletcher Andrew, 14 W. Gilman st. , Madison.

Professor of Music and Director of School of Music, University of Wisconsin.

Pereles, James M. , 529 Astor st. , Milwaukee.

LL. B. Lawyer. Ex-President Public School Board; President Public

Library.

Pereles, Jennie W. (Mrs. J. M. ), 529 Astor st. , Milwaukee.

Treasurer Wisconsin Training School for Nurses ; Secretary Milwaukee Flower
Mission and Mission Kindergarten.

Pereles, Nellie W. (Mrs. T. J.) 535 Astor st. , Milwaukee.

Pereles, Thomas Jefferson, 535 Astor st., Milwaukee.

LL. B. (Wisconsin). Attorney at Law (Nathl. Pereles and Sons). Commis¬
sioner of the Public Debt of Milwaukee. President
High School Alumni.

Preusser, Christian, 289 Knapp st. , Milwaukee.

Jeweler ; President Milwaukee Mechanics Fire Insurance Co.

Plantz, Samuel, Appleton.

Ph. D., D. D. President of Lawrence University.

Porter, William, 735 College st., Beloit.

A. B., A. M., D. D. (Williams). Professor of Latin and Dean, Beloit College.

Post, Harriet L. , 525 Cass st., Milwaukee.

M. D. (Woman’s Medical College of New York Infirmary). Teacher of Bi¬
ology, East Side High School.

Pretts, W. W., Monroe.

Puls, Arthur John,

L. B. (Wisconsin) ; M. D. (Heidelberg). Physician.

116 Mason st. , Milwaukee.

538 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts , and Letters.

Putney, Frank Howell, 105 Park av., Waukesha.

Attorney at Law.

Rainey, Frank Lewis, 4122 Vincennes av., Chicago.

S. B. (Purdue). Teacher of Biology, Harvard School.

Ramsey, Robert Craig, Peshtigo.

Superintendent of Schools.

Rankin, Walter L., 201 East av., Waukesha.

A. M., Ph. D. (Princeton). President, Carroll College.

Reul, Miss Matilda E., Baraboo.

S. B., S. M. (Wisconsin). Teacher, Baraboo High School.

Richter, Arthur William, 315 Mills st., Madison.

B. M. E., M. E. (Wisconsin). Assistant Professor of Experimental Engineer¬
ing, University of Wisconsin.

Roeseler, John Samuel, Sauk City.

L. B. (Wisconsin). County Superintendent of Schools.

Rogers, Augustus J., 318 Ogden av., Milwaukee.

Ph. B. (Cornell). Principal of East Side High School.

Ruenzel, Henry Gottlieb, 753 Third st., Milwaukee.

Ph. G. (Wisconsin). Pharmacist.

Russell, Harry Luman, 1532 Univ. av., Madison.

S. B., S. M. (Wisconsin) ; Ph. D. (Johns Hopkins). Professor of Bacteriology,
University of Wisconsin.

Salmon, Edward Payson, 618 Church st., Beloit.

A. M. (Beloit). Congregational Minister.

Sanborn, John Bell, 210 Langdon st., Madison.

L. B., L. M. (Wisconsin). Graduate Student, University of Wisconsin.

Sanford, Albert Hart, 1022 Clark st., Stevens Point.

L. B. (Wisconsin) ; A. B. (Harvard). Instructor in History and Civics, State
Normal School.

Saunders, Arthur Percy, Ottawa, Ontario.

A. B. (Toronto) ; Ph. D. (Johns Hopkins).

Saunderson, George William, Ripon.

A. B., A. M. (Dartmouth) ; LL. B. (Boston). Professor of English Literature
and Oratory, Ripon College.

Schlundt, Herman, 506 Milwaukee st., Milwaukee.

S. B., S. M. (Wisconsin). Teacher of Physics, West Side High School.

Scott, William Amasa, 251 Langdon st., Madison.

A. B., A. M, (Rochester) ; Ph. D. (Johns Hopkins). Professor of Economic
History and Theory, University of Wisconsin.

Active Members.

589

Secrist, Henry Thomas, Roxbury District, Boston, Mass.

Minister, Unitarian Church.

Sharp, Frank Chapman, 27 Mendota Court, Madison.

A. B. (Amherst), Ph. D. (Berlin). Assistant Professor of Philosophy, Uni¬
versity of Wisconsin.

Simonds, William Day, 15 West Dayton st., Madison.

Pastor, Unitarian Church.

Simons, A. M., 4662 Gross av., Chicago, Ill.

Sinnott, Charles P., 213 Nineteenth st., Milwaukee.

S. B. (Howard). Professor of Natural Sciences, State Normal School.

Skinner, Ernest Brown, 414 Mary st., Madison.

A. B. (Ohio). Assistant Professor of Mathematics, University of Wisconsin.

Slaughter, Moses Stephen, 619 Langdon st. , Madison.

A. B., A. M. (De Pauw);Ph. D. (Johns Hopkins). Professor of Latin, Uni¬
versity of Wisconsin.

Slichter, Charles Sumner, 636 Francis st., Madison.

S. B., S. M. (Northwestern). Professor of Applied Mathematics, University
of Wisconsin.

Smith, Erastus Gilbert, - Beloit.

A. B., A. M. (Amherst) ; A. M., Ph. D., (Gottingen). Professer of Chemistry

and Mineralogy, Beloit College.

Smith, Leonard Sewell, 939 University av., Madison.

B. C. E., C. E. (Wisconsin). Assistant Professor of Topographical Engineer¬

ing, University of Wisconsin.

Smith, Thomas Alexander,

1023 Chapin st., Beloit.

A. B., A M. (Muskingum) ; Ph. D. (Yale). Professor of Mathematics and
Physics, Beloit College.

Starr, William J., Eau Claire.

LL. B. (Columbia). Commissioner of Fisheries, Wisconsin.

Stuart, James Reese, 245 Langdon st., Madison.

Artist.

Teller, Edgar E., 3303 Cedar st., Milwaukee.

Thwaites, Reuben Gold, 260 Langdon st., Madison.

Secretary State Historical Society.

True, Rodney Howard, Wir.gra Park, Madison.

S. B. (Wisconsin) ; Ph. D. (Leipsic). Assistant Professor of Pharmacognosy.

Turner, Frederick Jackson, 629 Francis st., Madison.

A. B., A. M. (Wisconsin) ; Ph. D. (Johns Hopkins). Professor of American
History, University of Wisconsin.

540 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters .

Uihlein, August, Milwaukee..

Updike, Eugene G-rover, 148 Langdon st., Madison.

S. B., S. M., D. D. (Lawrence). Pastor, First Congregational Church.

Upham, Arthur Aquila, 106 Conger st. , Whitewater.

Professor of Natural Sciences, State Normal School.

Urban, Leopold Charles, 647 Third st., Milwaukee.

Ph. G., Ph. M. (Wisconsin). Pharmaceutical Chemist, Kremers and

Urban Co.

Walker, Milo S., Racine.

Van Velzer, Charles Ambrose, 134 W. Gorham st. , Madison.

S. B. (Cornell) ; Ph. D. (Hillsdale). Professor 'of Mathematics, University
of Wisconsin.

Viebahn, Charles Frederick, 703 Western av. , Watertown.

Superintendent of Schools and Principal of High Schools .

Weidman, Samuel, 911 W. Johnson st., Madison.

A. B., S. B. (Wisconsin).. Assistant Geologist, Wisconsin Geological and Nat¬

ural History Survey.

Whitcomb, Mrs. H. F., 721 Franklin st., Milwaukee.

Whitnall, William, 1184 Humboldt av., Milwaukee.

Wingate, Uranus O. B., 204 Biddle st., Milwaukee.

M. D. (Dartmouth). Professor of Diseases of the Nervous System, Wiscon¬
sin College of Physicians and Surgeons ; Secretary
of State Board of Health.

Wolff, Henry C., 123 University av., Madison.

S. B. (Wisconsin). Graduate Stndent in Mathematics and Geology, Univer¬
sity of Wisconsin.

Woll, Fritz Wilhelm, 424 Mary st. , Madison.

S. B., Ph. B. (Christiania) ; S. M. (Wisconsin). Assistant Professor of Agri¬
cultural Chemistry, University of Wisconsin.

Zimmermann, Charles Frederick A., 622 Otjen st., Milwaukee.

Ph. B. (Illinois Wesleyan) ; A. M. (Charles City). Principal Seventeenth Dis¬
trict School.

Zimmermann, Oliver Brunner, 622 Otjen st., Milwaukee.

B. Mec. E. (Wisconsin). Instructor in Manual Training, West Side High

School.

Corresponding Members.

541

CORRESPONDING MEMBERS.

Abbott, Charles Conrad, Trenton, N. J.

M. D. (Pennsylvania) . Biology, Archaeology, Literature.

Andrews, Edmund, 65 Randolph st. , Chicago, III.

A. B,, A. M., M. D., LL. D. (Michigan). Professor of Clinical Surgery, North¬
western University ; Surgeon of Mercy Hospital ; Consulting Surgeon
Michael Reese Hospital and Illinois Hospital for Women
and Children.

Armsby, Henry Prentiss, State College, Pa.

S. B. (Worcester Polytechnic) ; Ph. B., Ph. D. (Yale). Director of Experiment

Station.

Bascom, John, Park st. , Williamstown, Mass.

A. B., A. M. (Williams) ; D.D. (Iowa) ; LL. D. (Amherst). Professor of Polit¬
ical Science, Williams College.

Bennett, Charles Edward, 1 Grove Place, Ithaca, N. Y.

A. B. (Brown). Professor of Latin Language and Literature, Cornell Uni¬
versity.

C 217 S. Broadway. Los Angeles, Calif.
Bridge, Norman, -] Oct. and Nov. each year, Rush Med-
(_ ical College, Chicago, Ill.

A. M. (Lake Forest); M. D. (Northwestern, Rush). Prosessor of Clinical
Medicine and Physical Diagnosis, Rush Medical College.

Cavernor, Charles, Boulder, Colorado.

A. M. (Dartmouth) ; LL. D. (California). Pastor Congregational Church.

Coulter, John Merle, Chicago, Ill.

A. B., A. M., Ph. D. (Hanover) ; Ph. D. (Indiana). Head Professor of Botany,
University of Chicago.

Crooker, Joseph Henry, Troy, N. Y.

Minister, Unitarian Church.

Davis, Floyd, 317 Iowa.Loan and Trust bldg. , Des Moines, la.

Ph. B., C. E., M. E. (Missouri) ; Ph. D. (Miami). Analytical and Consulting

Chemist.

De Vere, Maximilian Freiherr Schaie,

University Station, Charlottesville, Va.

Ph. D. (Greifswalde) ; J. U. D. (Berlin). Professor of Modern Languages,
University of Virginia.

Eckels, William Alexander, 210 McMecken st. , Baltimore, Md.

A. B., A. M. (Dickinson). Graduate Student, Johns Hopkins University.

Fallows, Samuel, 967 W. Monroe st. , Chicago, Ill.

A. B., A. M., LL. D. (Wisconsin); D.D. (Lawrence). Presiding Bishop of
the Reformed Episcopal Church ; Chancellor of the University
Association.

542 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.

Fiske, Edward Oliver, 1208 S. E. 7th st., Minneapolis, Minn.

A. B., A. M. (Beloit). Life Insurance Agent.

Foye, James Clark, Armour Institute, Chicago, Ill.

A. B., A. M. (Williams) ; Ph. D. (De Pauw) ; LL. D. (Lawrence). Professor
of Chemistry, and Director of Department of Chemistry, Armour
Institute.

Hendrickson, George Lincoln, 5730 Woodlawn av. , Chicago, Ill.

A. B. (Johns Hopkins). Professor of Latin, University of Chicago.

Higley, William Kerr, 2421 Dearborn st., Chicago, Ill.

Ph. M. (Michigan). Professor of Botany and Pharmacognosy .Department
of Pharmacy, Northwestern University.

Hodge, Clifton Fremont, 11 Tirrell st., Worcester, Mass.

A. B. (Ripon) ; Ph. D. (Johns Hopkins). Assistant Professor of Physiology
and Neurology, Clark University.

Holden, Edward Singleton,

Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D. C.

S. B., A. M. (Washington) ; S. D. (Pacific) ; LL. D. (Wisconsin and Colum¬
bia). Astronomer.

Holland, Frederick May, Main st., Concord, Mass.

A. B. (Harvard).

Horr, Asa, 1311 Main st., Dubuque, Iowa.

M. D. (Western Reserve). Physician; Chief of Staff, Mercy Hospital.

Hoskins, Leander Miller, Stanford University, Calif.

S. B., S. M., B. C. E., C. E. (Wisconsin). Professor of Applied Mechanics,
Leland Stanford, Jr., University.

Hubbell, Herbert Porter, 168 E. Broadway, Winona, Minn.

State Agent for Life Insurance.

Iddings, 'Joseph Paxson, 5730 Woodlawn av., Chicago, Ill.

Ph. B. (Yale). Professor of Petrology, University of Chicago.

Kinley, David, Urbana, Ill.

A. B. (Yale) ; Ph. D. (Wisconsin). Dean of the College of Literature and
Arts, and Professor of Economics, University of Illinois.

Leverett, Frank, Denmark, Iowa.

S. B. (Iowa Agricultural). Assistant Geologist, U. S. Geological Survey.

Litton, Robert Tuthill, 45 Queen st., Melbourne, Aust.

A. M. Consul General for Liberia ; Consul' for Paraguay, Uruguay, and

Australia.

Loomis, Hiram Benjamin, 1818 Ashland av., Evanston, Ill.

A. B. (Trinity); Ph. D. (Johns Hopkins). Assistant Professor of Physics,
Northwestern University.

Lurton, Freeman Ellsworth, Monticello, Minn.

S. B., S. M. (Carleton). Superintendent of Public Schools.

Corresponding Members.

548

Luther, George Elmer,

136 S. Prospect av., Grand Rapids, Mich.

Chief Mortgage Clerk, Michigan Trust Co. ; Treasurer of the Historical
Society of Grand Rapids.

Marcy, Oliver, 703 Chicago av., Evanston, Ill.

A. 'B., A. M. (Wesleyan) ; LL. D. (Chicago). Professor of Geology, and Curator

of Museum, Northwestern University.

Marx, Charles David, Stanford University, Calif.

B. C. E. (Cornell) ; C. E. (Carlsruhe). Professor of Civil Engineering, Leland

Stanford Jr., University.

McClumpha, Charles Flint, Minneapolis, Minn.

A. B., A. M. (Princeton) ; Ph. D. (Leipsic). Professor of English Language
and Literature, University of Minnesota.

Orton, Edward, 100 Twentieth st., Columbus, Ohio.

A. B., A. M., Ph. D. (Hamilton) ; LL. D. (Ohio). Professor of Geology, Ohio
State University ; State Geologist of Ohio.

Peet, Stephen Denison, 5327 Madison av., Chicago.

A. M., Ph. D. (Beloit). Clergyman; Editor, American Antiquarian.

Potter, William Bleecker, 1225 Spruce st. , St. Louis, Mo.

A. B., A. M., M. E. (Columbus). Mining Engineer and Metallurgist.

Power, Frederick Belding, 535 Warren st., Hudson, N. Y.

Ph. G. (Phila. Coll, of Pharm.) ; Ph. D. (Strassburg). Director of Wellcome
Research Laboratories, London, Eng.

Raymond, Jerome Hall, Morgantown, W. Va.

A. B., A. M. (Northwestern) ; Ph. D. (Chicago). President of University of
West Virginia.

Safford, Truman Henry, Williamstown, Mass.

A. B. (Harvard) ; Ph. D. (Williams). Field Memorial Professor of Astronomy
Williams College.

Salisbury, Rollin D., Chicago University, Chicago, Ill.

A. M. (Beloit). Professor of Geographic Geology, University of Chicago;
Geologist, State Geological Survey, New Jersey.

Sawyer, Wesley Caleb, Belmont, Calif.

A. B., A. M. (Harvard) ; A. M., Ph. D. (Gottingen). Professor of German and
French, Belmont School.

Shipman, Stephen Vaughn, 269 Warren ave., Chicago, Ill.

Architect.

Somers, Amos Newton, Lancaster, N. H.

A. B. (Roanoke). Clergyman.

Steele, George McKendall, 19 Chalmer Place, Chicago, Ill.

A. B., A. M. (Wesleyan) ; D. D. (Northwestern) ; LL. D. (Lawrence).

Stump, I. W Oswego, N. Y,

544 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters.

Tatlock, John, Jr., 32 Nassau st., New York, N. Y.

A. B., A. M. (Williams); F. R. A. S. Assistant Actuary, Mutual Life In¬
surance Co.

Tolman, Albert Harris, 5750 Woodlawn av. , Chicago, Ill.

A. B. (Williams) ; Ph. D. (Strassburg). Assistant Professor of English Liter¬
ature, University of Chicago.

Tolman, Herbert Cushing, Nashville, Tenn.

A. B., Ph. D. (Yale). Professor of Greek, Vanderbilt University.

Townley, Sidney Dean, { 755 ^^Arborfmch.’

S. B., S. M. (Wisconsin); S. D. (Michigan). Instructor in Astronomy,
University of Michigan.

Trelease, William, Botanical Garden, St. Louis, Mo.

S. B. (Cornell) ; S. D. (Harvard). Director of Missouri Botanical Garden and
Henry Shaw School of Botany, Englemann Professor of
Botany, Washington University.

Van de Warker, Ely, 404 Fayette Park, Syracuse, N. Y.

M. D. (Albany Medical and Union). Surgeon Central New York Hospital
for Women; Consulting Physician St. Ann’s Maternity Hospital.

Van Vleck, Edward Burr, Middletown, Ct.

A. B., A. M. (Wesleyan); Ph. D. (Gottingen). Instructor in Mathematics,
Weslyan College.

Verrill, Addison Emory, 86 Whalley av., New Haven. Ct.

S. B. (Harvard) ; A. M. (Yale). Professor of Zoology, Yale University.

Winchell, N. H., 120 State st., Minneapolis, Minn.

A. M. (Michigan). State Geologist of Minnesota.

Young, Albert Adams, P. O. Box 326, Harvey, Ill.

A. B., A. M. (Dartmouth). D. B. (Andover). Clergyman.

MEMBERS DECEASED

SINCE THE ISSUE OP VOLUME X.

Blaisdell, James J., D. D., Professor of Philosophy, Beloit Col¬
lege, Beloit.

Fuller, Newton S., Professor of Latin, Ripon College, Ripon.
Meachem, John G., Sr., M. D., Racine.

Orton, Harlow S., LL. D., Ex-Chief Justice Supreme Court of
Wisconsin.

CONSTITUTION OF THE WISCONSIN ACADEMY OF
SCIENCES, ARTS, AND LETTERS.

' [As amended in Article VII at the regular meeting of December, 1897.]

Article I. — Name and Location.

This association shall be known as the Wisconsin Academy of
Sciences, Arts, and Letters, and shall be located at the city of
Madison.

Article II. — Object.

The object of the Academy shall be the promotion of sciences,
arts, and letters in the state of Wisconsin. Among the special
objects shall be the publication of the results of investigation
and the formation of a library.

Article III. — Membership.

The Academy shall include four classes of members, viz. : life
members, honorary members, corresponding members, and active
members, to be elected by ballot.

1. Life members shall be elected on account of special serv¬
ices rendered the Academy. Life membership in the Academy
may also be obtained by the payment of one hundred dollars
and election by the Academy. Life members shall be allowed
to vote and to hold office.

2. Honorary members shall be elected by the Academy and
shall be men who have rendered conspicuous services to science,
arts, or letters.

3. Corresponding members shall be elected from those who
have been active members of the Academy, but have removed
from the state. By special vote of the Academy men of attain-

36

546 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters.

ments in science or letters may be elected corresponding mem¬
bers. They shall have no vote in the meetings of the Academy.

4. Active members shall be elected by the Academy and shall
enter upon membership on the payment of an initiation fee of
two dollars and the annual assessment of one dollar. The an¬
nual assessment shall be omitted for the president, secretary,
treasurer, and librarian during their term of office.

Article IV. — Officers.

The officers of the Academy shall be a president, a vice-presi¬
dent for each of the three departments, sciences, arts and let¬
ters, a secretary, a treasurer, and a custodian. These officers
shall be chosen by ballot, on recommendation of the committee
on nomination of officers, by the Academy at an annual meeting
and shall hold office for three years. Their duties shall be
those usually performed by officers thus named in scientific so¬
cieties. It shall be one of the duties of the president to pre¬
pare an address which shall be delivered before the Academy at
the annual meeting at which his term of office expires.

Article V. — Council.

The council of the Academy shall be entrusted with the man.
agement of its affairs during the intervals between regular meet¬
ings, and shall consist of the president, the three vice-presi¬
dents, the secretary, the treasurer, and the past presidents who
retain their residence in Wisconsin. Three members of the
council shall constitute a quorum for the transaction of busi¬
ness, provided the secretary and one of the presiding officers be
included in the number.

Article VI. — Committees.

The standing committees of the Academy shall be a commit¬
tee on publication, a library committee, and a committe on the
nomination of members. These committees shall be elected at
the annual meeting of the Academy in the same manner as
the other officers of the Academy, and shall hold office for the
same term.

1. The committee on publication shall consist of the president
and secretary and a third member elected by the Academy.

Constitution.

547

They shall determine the matter which shall be printed in the
publications of the Academy. They may at their discretion
refer papers of a doubtful character to specialists for their opin¬
ion as to scientific value and relevancy.

2. The library committee shall consist of three members and
shall include the librarian.

3. The committee on nomination of members shall consist of
five members, one of whom shall be the secretary of the Academy.

Article VII. — Meetings.

The annual meetings of the Academy shall be held between
Christmas and New Year, at such place as the [council may-
designate; but all regular meetings for the election of the
board of officers shall be held at Madison. Summer field meet¬
ings shall be held at such times and places as the Academy
or the council may decide. Special meetings may be called by
the council.

Article VIII. — Publications.

The regular publication of the Academy shall be known as its
Transactions, and shall include suitable papers, a record of its
proceedings and any other matter pertaining to the Academy.
This shall be printed by the state as provided in the statutes of
Wisconsin. All members of the Academy shall receive gratis
the current issues of its Transactions.

Article IX. — Amendments.

Amendments to this constitution may be made at any annual
meeting by a vote of three-fourths of all the members present;
provided, that the amendment has been proposed by five mem¬
bers, and that notice has been sent to all the members at least
three months before the meeting.

PROCEEDINGS.

SECRETARY’S REPORT.

THIRD SUMMER MEETING*

Milwaukee, June 6-8, 1895.

Thursday, June 6th.

EVENING SESSION.

The Academy was called to order in the hall of the North
American Gymnasium Union, at 8 o’clock by President C. R.
Van Hise. An address of welcome was made by Geo. W. Peck-
ham, President of the Natural History Society of Wisconsin.

President Van Hise replied briefly on behalf of the Academy.

The Chairman of the Local Committee made announcements
regarding excursions and other matters.

The opening address was then delivered by Charles Kendall
Adams, President of the University of Wisconsin, on “ Reforms
in Germany after the Napoleonic wars. ”

Friday, June 7th.

MORNING SESSION.

The morning session was opened at 9 A. M. in the German
American Academy rooms, the President in the chair.

The minutes of the Twenty-fifth annual meeting were read
and approved.

The following papers were then read:

1. The relation of pooling to some phases of the transporta¬
tion question. A. M. Simons.

Secretary's Report.

549

2. The forms spontaneously assumed by folk-songs. J. Com¬
fort Fillmore. This paper was illustrated by Indian songs re¬
produced by graphophone and piano. The paper was discussed
by various persons.

3. Negro suffrage in Wisconsin. J. G. Gregory. Discussed
by various members.

4. The union of the Free Soil and Whig parties in Wiscon¬
sin, 1853-5. Theo. C. Smith. Discussed.

5. The Booth case and Wisconsin nullification sentiment.
Vroman Mason.

6. State making in the West, 1774-89. Frederick J. Turner.

7. The legal aspects of trusts. Edgar F. Strong. Bead by
title.

The Committee on Membership reported, recommending that
the following named persons be elected active members. The
report was accepted, and the Secretary instructed to cast the
ballot for them; which was done and they were declared elected:
Paul S. Reinsch, Madison. R. C. Spencer, Milwaukee.

D. E. Roberts, Milwaukee. Geo. B. Ferry, Milwaukee.

Mrs. D. E. Roberts, Milwaukee. Geo. Merwin Browne, Oshkosh.
C. P. Cary, Milwaukee. Samuel Plantz, Appleton.

Dr. A. J. Burgess, Milwaukee. Jerome H. Raymond, Chicago.
Ernest Bruncken, Milwaukee. Milo S. Walker, Racine.

Geo. B. Bergen, Milwaukee. A. M. Simons, Cincinnati, O.

C. F. A. Zimmerman, Milwaukee Edgar F. Strong, Madison.

Wm. Whitnall, Milwaukee. Theo. C. Smith, Madison.

Mrs. Wm. Whitnall, Milwaukee.

After announcements by the Local Committee the Academy
adjourned.

AFTERNOON SESSION.

The afternoon of Friday was spent in an excursion to the
railroad shops of the C. M. & St. P. R. R. , at West Milwaukee
and the famous cement quarries which are located in the only
Devonian rocks in the state and are of great interest. The C. ,
M. & St. P. R. R. courteously placed a special train at the dis¬
posal of the Academy.

550 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.

EVENING SESSION.

In the evening, at 8:00 o’clock at the Athenaeum, a reception
was tendered by the citizens of Milwaukee to members and
visitors of the Academy.

Saturday, June 8th.

MORNING SESSION.

The Academy was called to order by the President, at 9:10
o’clock, in the rooms of the G-erman-American Academy.

The following papers were read :

8. Some observations on the lateral moraines at Devil’s Lake.

D. P. Nicholson.

9. Geology of Mts. Adam & Eve, Orange Co., N. Y. G. L.
Collie. Read by title.

10. Certain uses of topographical maps. G. L. Collie.

11. The production of electrical energy directly from carbon.
A. J. Rogers.

12. A contribution to the mineralogy of Wisconsin. Wm. H.
Hobbs.

13. Some new occurrences of minerals in Michigan and Mon¬
tana. Wm. H. Hobbs.

14. On a diamond from Kohlsville, Wis. Wm. H. Hobbs.

15. From pinene to carvacrol. Edw. Kremers.

16. A dredge for collecting Crustacea at different depths. C.
Dwight Marsh.

17. Method of determining the coefficient of a plankton net.

E. A. Birge.

18. The pelagic Crustacea of Lake Mendota during the winter
and spring of 1894-95. E. A. Birge.

19. The biological history of Daphnia Hyalina, Leydig. E. A.
Birge.

20. The periodic system as a didactic basis. Edw. Kremers.
Read by title.

21. Observed and computed precession. D. P. BlacJcstone.
Read by title.

22. The dells of Wisconsin. C. R. VanHise.

Secretary's Report.

551

The local secretary, Prof. A. T. Rogers, announced the details
of the afternoon excursion.

The Committee on Membership reported the following names
o? persons for election as active members. The Secretary was
directed to cast the ballot for them and they were declared
elected :

Dr.U.O.B. Wingate, Milwaukee. T. J. Pereles, Milwaukee.

Dr. Wm. F. Becker, Milwaukee. Mrs. J. W. Pereles, Milwaukee.
P. H. Middleton, So. Milwaukee. Mrs. N. W. Pereles, Milwaukee.
Mrs. S. S. Merrill, Milwaukee. Dr. Harriet L. Post, Milwaukee.
Mrs. J. B. Estee, Milwaukee. M. D. Kimball, Milwaukee.

Mrs. W.E. Anderson, Milwaukee. J. F. Burke, Milwaukee.

3. C. Emery, U. S. Signal offi- Rev. H. T. Secrist, Milwaukee.

cer, Milwaukee. Miss L. Haessler, Milwaukee.

Jilius H. Pratt, Milwaukee. Henry Krueger, Milwaukee.
Wm. J. Desmond, Milwaukee. Mrs. R. B. Mallory, Milwaukee.
J. M. Pereles, Milwaukee.

r he Committee on Membership also recommended that the fol¬
lowing be elected honorary members:

Dr. D. C. Gilman, President of Johns Hopkins University,
Baltimore, Md.

Er. W. T. Harris, U. S. Commissioner of Education, Wash¬
ington, D. C.

Pr. N. S. Shaler, Professor of Geology, Harvard University,
Cambridge, Mass.

The Secretary was directed to cast the ballot for these as
honorary members. It was done, and they were declared elected.

The Secretary presented the following resolutions, which were
adopted as expressing the feelings of the Academy:

Resolved , 1. That the Academy desires to express its high
appreciation of the labors of the Local Committee of Arrange¬
ments (particularly of the chairman, Prof. A. J. Rogers), and
the Ladies’ Reception Committee, in providing so completely for
the meetings and social entertainment of the Academy.

2. That the thanks of the Academy be returned to the citizens
of Milwaukee, for their cordial and generous hospitality in the
entertainment of the Academy.

/

552 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters .

3. That the Academy recognizes gratefully the liberality of
the C., M. & St. P. R. R. through Chief Engineer D. J. Whit-
temore, G-eneral Manager A. J. Earling and Superintendent
W. B. Underwood, in placing a special train at the disposal of
the Academy, for the visit to the cement quarries and its West
Milwaukee Shops; where the courteous attentions of Mr. Geo.
Gibbs, Mechanical Engineer, and Mr. Barr, Superintendent of
Motive Power, were much appreciated.

The kindness of Mr. Bartlett and Superintendent Berthelot of
the cement quarries is also gratefully acknowledged.

The Academy then adjourned sine die.

C. R. Barnes,

Secretary.

The afternoon was spent in inspecting the plant of the Pabst
Brewing Co. and the private museum of the late Daniel Green,

Secretary's Report.

553.

TWENTY-SIXTH ANNUAL MEETING.

Madison, December 26-27, 1895.

Thursday, December 26th.

AFTERNOON SESSION.

The Academy was called to order at 2 :45 o’clock in the rooms
of the Horticultural Society at the Capitol, by Vice-president
J. J. Blaisdell.

The meeting was opened with prayer by Dr. J. D. Butler.

The minutes of the Third Summer Meeting were read and ap¬
proved.

The report of the Treasurer was read and referred to an Audit¬
ing Committee "consisting of Messrs. W. W. Daniells, D. P.
Blackstone and J. H. Clements.

The Treasurer tendered his resignation on account of his re¬
moval to G-reen Bay. The resignation was reluctantly accepted.
Mr. L. S. Cheney was elected Treasurer to fill the unexpired
term.

The report of the Secretary was presented informally showing
that since the last annual meeting 39 new members have been
added to the Academy and Volume X of the Transactions has
been published. The report was accepted.

The report of the Librarian was read and accepted. The re¬
port included his resignation on account of special and pressing
duties at the University. The nomination of a Librarian to fill
the unexpired term was referred to the Committee on Member¬
ship.

The Secretary for the Committee on the Bill for Natural His¬
tory Survey, reported the'mode of campaign adopted by the Com¬
mittee in presenting this bill to the Legislature and the failure
to secure a favorable report of the same from the Committee on
Ways and Means, which killed the bill for the present. The re-

554 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

port was accepted. The thanks of the Academy were returned
to the Committee for its energetie efforts, and the Committee
was discharged.

The following papers were then read:

1. The poisonous action of dissolved salts and their electro¬
lytic dissociation. Louis Kahlenberg and R. H. True.

2. The scientific importance of more complete vital statistics
in the state of Wisconsin. U. 0. B. Wingate.

It was then voted that during the remainder of the session
no departure from the order of the published program be al¬
lowed without unanimous consent of the Academy.

The following papers were then read:

3. Some uses of the low potential alternating current in the
chemical laboratory. Milo S. Walker.

4. The floral structure of some G-ramineae. Herman F. Lued-
ers.

5. Some native hybrid verbenas. H. F. Leuders.

6. The periodic errors of the right ascensions of the funda¬
mental stars. Geo. C. Comstock.

7. Recent criticism of the Newtonian law of gravitation. Geo.
C. Comstock.

The chair announced that in place of Messrs. Birge, Rogers
and Marsh of the Committee on Membership, who were absent,
he would appoint Messrs. H. W. Hillyer, H. F. Lueders and G-.
L. Collie, pro tern.

The academy then adjourned until evening.

EVENING SESSION.

At 8 o’clock Vice-president J. J. Blaisdell delivered an address
upon “ The methods of science as being in the domain of logic. ”
No business was transacted.

Secretary's Report.

555

Friday, December 27th.

MORNING SESSION.

The Academy was called to order by the secretary at 9 :45
o’clock, neither President nor any Vice-president being present.

Dr. J. D. Butler moved that the Secretary preside. The
motion was put by him and it was so voted.

The Auditing Committee reported that the Treasurer’s ac¬
counts were correct and that the funds of the Academy (a bond
for $1,000 and a check for $206.25) had been placed in the hands
of the Treasurer elect.

The following papers were then read:

8. Some stages in the development of rivers as illustrated by
Deer river, Michigan. J. Morgan Clements.

9. The adjustment of railroad rates in Prussia. B. H. Meyer.

10. The development of the English system of convict trans¬
portion. Mrs. Helen F. Bates.

11. English convicts shipped to colonial America. Jas. D.
Butler.

12. The freehold qualifications for suffrage with especial refer¬
ence to Connecticut. Florence Robinson.

13. The importance of round numbers in estimating wages.
Edward D. Jones.

The Academy adjourned to 2:30 o’clock.

AFTERNOON SESSION.

The Academy was called to order by the Secretary at 2 :45
o’clock.

The report of the Committee on Membership was read, recom¬
mending that the following named persons be elected active
members:

Linnaeus W. Dowling, Madison. Edw. D. Jones, Madison.

B. H. Meyer, Madison. A. G. Laird, Madison.

Mrs. H. F. Bates, Madison. Chas. E. Buell, Madison.

J. H. Hamilton, Madison. Fannie Grant, Milwaukee

Charles F. Smith, Madison. W. W. Pretts, Monroe.

556 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.

The Secretary was directed to cast a ballot for these persons,
who were thereupon declared elected.

The Committee further reported the name of G. L. Hendrick¬
son, as Librarian. He was thereupon elected to fill out the un¬
expired term (one year).

The following papers were then read:

14. Discussion of poetic and Ionic influence in Thucydides.
Chas. F. Smith.

15. Notes on Attic vocalism. A. G. Laird.

The following papers in the absence of the authors were read
by title:

On the composition of water from an artesian well at Marin¬
ette, Wis. W. W. Daniells.

Note on Wittstein’s method of estimating carbon in graphite.
W. W. Daniells.

The origin of conglomerates. G. L. Collie.

Money and prices. W. A. Scott.

Proposed emendation in Lucretius. G. L. Hendrickson.

The rationale of tolerance. H. J. Desmond.

The Secretary announced that the annual supper placed upon
the program would be omitted because of the small attendance
of members outside of Madison.

The Academy then adjourned sine die.

C. R. Barnes,

Secretary \

Secretary's Report.

557

TWENTY-SEVENTH ANNUAL MEETING.

Milwaukee, December 28-30, 1896.

Monday, December 28th.

EVENING SESSION.

The Academy assembled in the State Normal School building
at eight o’clock, together with members of the Wisconsin
Teachers’ Association and of the general public, and listened
to an address by Professor Rollin D. Salisbury of the University
of Chicago, on “ Greenland. ”

The address was illustrated with the lantern and was compli¬
mentary to the members of the Wisconsin Teachers’ Association.

Tuesday, December 29th.

MORNING SESSION.

The meeting was called to order by President C. R. Van Hise
at 9:15 o’clock in the State Normal School building.

The minutes of the Twenty-sixth annual meeting were read and
approved.

The report of the Secretary was read and accepted.

This report included the following:

Vol. XI. (1896-97) of the Transactions is in press, 150 pages
having been printed and authors’ separates mostly distrib¬
uted.

The membership of the Academy is now constituted as follows:
Honorary 6, Life 9, Active 162, Corresponding 47. Total 224.

One resignation has been sent; Mrs. Clarissa T. Tracy, Ripon.

558 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters.

The following deaths have occurred since the last Annual
meeting:

Professor James J. Blaisdell, Beloit College, October 10, 1896.

Professor Newton S. Fuller, Ripon College, May 8, 1895.

The report of the Treasurer was read and referred to the Au¬
diting Committee, consisting of Messrs. A. S. Mitchell, C. S.
Slichter, J. S. Roeseler.

The President appointed the following members as a commit¬
tee on nomination of officers: Messrs. C. R. Barnes, Chas. H.
Chandler, G. W. Peckham.

A communication was read from the President of the Gelogi-
cal Society of America, regarding the Pasteur Monument Fund,
requesting the co-operation of the Academy in this movement.
The Treasurer was appointed to receive and transmit in the
name of the Academy any subscriptions which might be made.

A communication was read from F. A. Bather, Secretary of
the British Association Committee on Zoological Bibliography
and Publication, regarding various desiderata of publication.
The Secretary was directed to reply that the Academy already
complied with the recommendations of the Committee, except
that author’s separates are distributed in advance of general
publication; and that the Academy deems it necessary to con¬
tinue the practice inasmuch as a volume of the Transactions can
be published only once in two years. The Secretary was further
directed to add to the date of publication already printed on
the separates the words, “In advance of general publication. "

The following papers of the program were then read :

1. Aluminium alcoholates. Orin E. Grooker. Discussed by
A. S. Mitchell.

Papers 2-5 were postponed owing to the absence of the au¬
thors.

6. Some distillations from spirits of pine tar. W. S. Leaven¬
worth. Read by title only.

7. The Berlin and Utley quartz porphories and Waushara
granite. Samuel Weidman. Discussed by E. R. Buckley and
C. R. Van Hise.

8. The pre-Cambrian volcanic rocks of the Fox river valley.

Secretary’s Report.

559

W. H. Robbs , C. K. Leith and W. W. Pretts. Discussed by
E. R. Buckley and C. R. Van Hise.

9. Glacial phenomena of the Baraboo district. Rollin D. Sal¬
isbury. Discussed by C. R. Van Hise.

The next paper on the program was postponed on account of
the absence of the author.

11. Experiments with road-building materials of Southern
Wisconsin. Ellsworth Huntington.

12. Relations of faults, complex fractures, fissility and cleav¬
age to lengthening and shortening of the crust of the earth.
G. R. Van Hise. Discussed by W. H. Hobbs, A. S. Mitchell
and R. D. Salisbury.

5. The addition products of nitrosyl chloride, nitrosyl nitrite,
and nitrosyl nitrate to unsaturated hydrocarbons. Edward
Kremers.

After announcements by the President the Academy adjourned
until 2 o’clock.

AFTERNOON SESSION.

The Academy was called to order at 2:15 o’clock by the Secre¬
tary.

The following papers of the program were presented :

13. Transcendental space. Charles H. Chandler. Discussed
by C. S. Slichter and C. R. Van Hise.

The next paper was passed over on account of the absence
of the author due to illness.

15. Photographs of three dimensional curves. C. S. Slichter.
Discussed by W. H. Hobbs and C. R. Van Hise.

16. Some problems in the theoretical investigation of the
motion of ground waters. Charles S. Slichter. Discussed by
W. H. Hobbs and C. R. Van Hise.

17. On the flow of viscous liquids. P. E. Doudna. Read by
title only.

18. Habits and instincts. George W. Peckham. Discussed by
Harriet B. Merrill, L. S. Cheney and others.

The following two papers were read by the Secretary:

19. On the limnetic Crustacea of Green Lake. C. Dwight
Marsh.

560 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters.

20. Forces determining the vertical distribution of the lim¬
netic Crustacea. Edward A. Birge.

The Academy adjourned at 5:40 o’clock.

EVENING SESSION.

President C. R. Van Hise called the Academy to order at
7:30 o’clock and introduced the subject of the advisability of
again presenting before the State Legislature the bill for a geo¬
logical and natural history survey of the state.

The discussion which followed was participated in by Messrs.
C. S. Slichter, J. G-. Gregory. Chas. H. Chandler, C. Dwight
Marsh, G. L. Collie, and C. R. Barnes. All of the speakers
agreed in the desirability of presenting the bill again to the leg¬
islature.

It was voted that the Council be directed to appoint a com¬
mittee to present and push the bill which was drafted last year,
the committee to have power to modify the bill as seems neces¬
sary.

President Edward D. Eaton of Beloit College then read a
memorial address on the late Professor James J. Blaisdell, a
Vice-president of the Academy.

The Secretary read memorial notices of the late General Geo.
P. Delaplaine and Mr. Simeon Mills, who were members of the
Academy.

These memorials were prepared by Dr. James D. Butler.

The Academy then adjourned.

Wednesday, December 30th, 1896.

MORNING SESSION.

The Academy was called to order at 9:10 o’clock by the Pres¬
ident, C. R. Van Hise.

The regular program of the meeting was resumed and the
following papers were read:

23. Codfish: its place in American history. James D. Butler.

Secretary's Report.

561

The following two papers left over from the preceding session
were next read:

21. The relations of Daphnia hyalina to light. John Ar-
buthnot.

22. What is bark ? C. R. Barnes.

Also the following paper not on the printed program was read:

Nerve endings in the eye of Aulostomum. Harriet B. Merrill.

24. The usefulness of parties in municipal government. Er¬
nest Bruncken.

25. The qualifications of voters. John G. Gregory. Dis¬
cussed by F. J. Turner and C. H. Chandler.

26. Influence of research and criticism on history. H. J.
Desmond.

27. The projected French expedition of George Rogers Clark
against Louisiana. Frederick J. Turner.

28. The quantity theory. William A. Scott. Read in the
absence of the author by B. H. Meyer.

29. The Scandinavian immigrant. John H. Bille. Read by
title only.

30. The need of a medical faculty in connection with the
State University. Arthur J. Puls. Discussed by A. S. Mitchell,
W. W. Daniells, Edward Kremers, C. R. Van Hise, C. S. Slichter.

Professor A. S. Mitchell exhibited two diamonds found at
Burlington and Schlesingerville, both in Wisconsin.

The report of the Committee on Membership was read recom¬
mending the following persons for membership:

Ellsworth Huntington, Beloit.
Howard S. Brode, Beloit.

H. A. Allen, Milwaukee.

Alice A. (Mrs. Hugo) Bremer,
Milwaukee.

Mrs. H. F. Whitcomb, Milwaukee.
J. I. Jegi, Milwaukee.

Daniel Fulcomer, Milwaukee.

S. A. Hooper, Milwaukee.
August Uihlein, Milwaukee.

W. D. Frost, Madison.

George Gibbs, Milwaukee.

7

Fred Pabst, Milwaukee.

N. A. Harvey, West Superior.

E. W. Clark, Ripon.

F. M. Erickson, Ripon.

F. M. Lillebridge, Ripon.

F. H. Putney, Waukesha.

W. L. Rankin, Waukesha.

Chas. N. Gregory, Madison.

M. S. Slaughter, Madison.
Richard Fischer, Madison.

S. E. Sparling, Madison.

562 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters.

The Secretary was instructed to cast the ballot of the Academy
for the persons named. This was done ahd they were declared
elected as active members.

The report of the Auditing Committee was read and adopted.

The report of the Committee on Nomination of Officers was
read recommending the following as officers for the regular term
of three years:

President: C. Dwight Marsh, Ripon.

Vice-Presidents: Harriet B. Merrill, Milwaukee; E. D. Eaton,
Beloit; F. J. Turner, Madison.

Secretary: A. S. Flint, Madison.

Treasurer: L. S. Cheney, Madison.

Librarian : W. S. Marshall, Madison.

Curator: H. F. Lueders, Sauk City.

Committees.

On Library: The Librarian; W. S. Leavenworth, Ripon; R.
G. Thwaites, Madison.

On Membership: The Secretary; D. P. Nicholson, Appleton;
A. S. Mitchell, Milwaukee; A. L. Ewing, River Falls; J. J.
Davies, Racine.

On Publication : The President; the Secretary; J. G. Gre¬
gory, Milwaukee.

The Secretary was directed to cast the ballot of the Academy
to elect as officers the persons named. This was done and these
officers declared elected.

The Committee on Membership also recommended the follow¬
ing for election to be corresponding members :

Chas. F. McClumpha, Minneapolis, Minn.

Geo. L. Hendrickson, Chicago, Ill.

Edward B. Van Vleck, Middletown, Vt.

David Kinley, Urbana, (Champaign), Ill.

AFTERNOON.

The Academy adjourned for the afternoon in order to attend
the meeting of the College section of the Wisconsin Teachers’
Association.

Secretary's Report.

568

EVENING SESSION.

The Academy assembled at 8:30 o’clock with friends from the
public and listened to the address of the retiring President,
Professor Charles R. Van Hise of the University of Wisconsin,
on “ Earth Movements. ”

This closed the Twenty-seventh Annual meeting of the Acad¬
emy.

All sessions were held at the State Normal School building.

Chas. R. Barnes,

Secretary \

Note: — The following amendment to the Constitution was proposed at
some time in the meeting of December, 1896: — To add after the word
“ year ” in the first sentence of Article VII concerning meetings the fol¬
lowing words:— “or at such other place as the Council may designate.”

564 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts , and Letters.

TWENTY-EIGHTH ANNUAL MEETING,

Milwaukee, Wis., December 27-29, 1898.

PRELIMINARY REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

The printing of Vol. XI (1896-7) of the Transactions is nearly-
completed, 460 pages having been printed and nearly all of the
authors’ separates distributed.

The following resignations from active membership have been
received :

W. A. Eckels, Baltimore, Md.

W. S. Leavenworth, Ripon.

C. W. Pearson. Beloit.

Mrs. D. E. Roberts, Milwaukee.

Dr. J. H. Hamilton, Syracuse, N. Y.

The membership, of the Academy at present is as follows:
Honorary 6, Life 9, Active 186, Corresponding 50. Total 251.

The resignations reported were accepted. On recommendation
of the Committee on Membership the following were elected ac¬
tive members:

G. A. Tawney, Beloit College.
Amelia McMinn, Milwaukee.

E. H. Merrell, Ripon College.

H. C. Wolff, Madison.

O. B. Zimmerman, Milwaukee.
Isidor Ladoff, Milwaukee.

J. B. Sanborn, Madison.

E. T. Owen, Madison.

H. C. Legler, Milwaukee.
Henry Nehrling, Milwaukee.
E. H. Comstock, Milwaukee.
E. P. Chandler, Ripon.

G. P. Lane, Ripon.

William Starr, Eau Claire.

A. C. Clas, Milwaukee.

Mary C. Harwood, Ripon.
Herman Schlundt, Milwaukee.
Rosalia A. Hatherell, River Palls
Edgar E. Teller, Milwaukee.
Mary P. Hall, Milwaukee.

M. V. O’Shea, Madison.

Geo. B. Perry, Milwaukee,
(Elected also in June, 1895).

Secretary's Report.

565

The following having been active members, but removed from
the state, were elected corresponding members:

F. L. Lurton, Monticello, Minn.

S. D. Townley, Ann Arbor, Mich.

J. H. Raymond, Morgantown, W. Va.

W. A. Eckels, Baltimore, Md.

Jos. P. Iddings, Chicago.

The following were elected life members, on account of special
services to the Academy:

Chas. R. Van Hise, Madison.

Chas. R. Barnes, Madison.

Samuel D. Hastings, Green Bay.

The following amendment to the Constitution was adopted:

To add after the word “Year” in the first sentence of Arti¬
cle VII, concerning meetings, the following words : “ or at such
other place as the Council may designate; but all regular meet¬
ings for the election of officers shall be held at Madison. ”

On recommendation of the Committee on Nomination of Offi¬
cers, Chas. H. Chandler was elected to fill the vacancy on the
Library Committee made by the resignation of W. S. Leaven¬
worth.

A. S. Flint,

Secretary.

LIBRARIAN’S REPORT, 1895.

Madison, Wis., Dec. 25, 1895.

To the Wisco?isin Academy of Sciences, Arts , and Letters :

Your Librarian begs leave to submit the following report con¬
cerning the conduct of his office during the past year, and the
present condition of the library.

The number of additions to the list of exchanges during the
past year has been comparatively small. The Librarian, owing
to lack of time, has not been able to give sufficient attention to
the soliciting of exchanges, and regrets exceedingly that he has
to report so little progress in this direction.

There have been many accessions of volumes, partially or
wholly completing imperfect sets of publications, due for the
most part to the efforts of Professor Van Cleef, my predecessor
in office. The most notable accession is a complete set of the
Memoirs of the St. Petersburg Academy, forty volumes.

Volume X of the Transactions of the Academy has been dis¬
tributed to all members of the Academy, and to all correspond¬
ents. A large number of back volumes of the Transactions have
been distributed to the libraries of colleges, universities and
other educational institutions and to foreign correspondents.

The occupation of the library for a large part of the year by
committees of the Legislature and compilers of the state census
has hampered the work of the Librarian somewhat. Access to
the shelves has at times been very difficult, and sometimes im¬
possible.

The large accessions to the library during the past four
years have almost completely filled the shelf room. The over¬
crowded condition of many cases has made a re-arrangement
of sets of books necessary, so that the printed catalogue is not
always a sure guide. As there is prospect of ample shelf- room

Librarian's Report.

567

in the quarters designated for our library in the new building
projected for the State Historical Society, it may not be advisa¬
ble to take steps for the increase of shelf room in our present
quarters. It is possible, however, that something may have to
be done to give temporary relief in the near future.

No cataloguing has been done in the past two years, and for
this reason a large number of dissertations are at present prac¬
tically inaccessible.

The number of unbound volumes is at present quite large. If
the financial condition of the Academy will permit, these vol¬
umes should be bound as soon as practicable, that they may be
better preserved and more easily handled.

A very important part of the Librarian’s duty is the solicit¬
ing of exchanges. It has seemed to the present librarian that
much more effective work in this direction might be done by a
fuller co-operation with the librarians of the State Historical
Society and of the State University.

The Librarian feels himself obliged at this time to resign his
office. Increasing demands upon his time during the past year
have seriously interfered with his conduct of this office, and fur¬
ther continuance in it is at present an impossibility. His resig¬
nation is hereby tendered.

Respectfully submitted,

F. G. Hubbard,

Librarian.

REPORTS OF TREASURER.

TREASURER’S REPORT, 1895.

Madison, Wis., Dec. 26, 1895.

To the Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters:

The following is a statement of the financial transactions of
the Academy during the past year:

Balance on hand as per last year’s statement . $316 57

Received for interest on permanent fund . 73 33

Received from initiation fees of 37 new members . 74 00

Received from members, annual dues . 94 00

Received from Librarian for Transactions sold . 4 18

- $562 08

The disbursements, upon the order of the President
and Secretary, have been as follows :

1894.

Dec. 27 S. E. Barnes, for clerical work . $3 68

27 A. Zeese, for zinc cut map . 1 73

27 A. Zeese, for zinc cut map . 1 28

27 F. G. Hubbard, for postage, etc . 6 42

1895.

March 29 Tracy, Gibbs & Co., for printing . 61 00

29 S. E. Barnes, for clerical work . 2 00

April 17 A. Zeese & Co., engraving, etc . 13 79

17 C. K. Leith, writing, etc . 69 80

17 F. E. Morrow, drawing maps . 6 00

17 C. R. Barnes, for postage . 2 00

May 24 Franklin Engraving & Electrotyping Co. . 27 83

24 Franklin Engraving & Electrotyping Co. . 12 38

July 15 C. R. Barnes, postage stamps . 2 00

15 F. E. Morrow, drawing maps . 22 80

15 C. K. Leith, clerical services . 7 67

31 S. E. Barnes, clerical work . 7 25

31 F. G. Hubbard, Librarian, for postage, ex¬
press age, freight, etc . 20 65

Aug. 19 Tracy, Gibbs & Co., printing.... . 12 25

- $280 63

Balance on hand Dec. 26, 1895 . $281 45

Treasurer's Report.

569

Owing to the fact that the property that was mortgaged to
secure the $1,000 permanent fund of the Academy, was recently
sold, the money was returned and the mortgage discharged.

After trying without success to find a mortgage of a thousand
dollars on property in Dane county, in which this fund could
be invested, after consultation with the President and Secretary
of the Academy, and in accordance with their advice, the money
was placed in the hands of the Savings Loan and Trust Com¬
pany of Madison, Wis. ; for which the Academy holds the com¬
pany’s debenture bond No. 1039, dated October 31st, 1895, for
one thousand dollars with interest at the rate of five per cent,
per annum .payable semi-annually on the first of January and
July at the company’s office or at the First National Bank of
Madison.

SUPPLEMENTARY REPORT.

Since the foregoing was written there have been receipts and

disbursements as follows :

Balance brought forward . $281 45

Received for initiation fees and annual dues . . . . . . 11 00

$292 45

Disbursements:

Democrat Printing Co., for printing . $71 95

S. D. Hastings, for postage and envelopes for 3

years . . 14 25 86 20

$206 25

Balance Dec. 26, 1895 . $206 25

Respectfully submitted,

Saml. D. Hastings,

Treasurer.

The Auditing Committee report that they have found the report
of the Treasurer correct according to accompaning vouchers and
check for the balance due the Academy $206.25 and bond for
$1,000. All effects of the office have been turned over to
L. S. Cheney, Treasurer-elect.

W. W. Daniells,

D. P. Blackstone,

J. Morgan Clements,

Committee.

570 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.

TREASURER’S REPORT, 1896.

Madison, Wis., Dec. 29, 1896.

To the Wisconsin Acadeyny of Sciences , Arts , and Letters :

The following is a statement of the financial transactions of
the Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters, for the
year 1896:

RECEIPTS.

Dec. 26, 1895. From retiring Treasurer . $206 25

From Dec. 26, 1895, to Dec. 29, 1896. Dues from mem¬
bers . 112 00

1896.

Jan. 1 Check returned by Tillie Snyder . 150

June 9 From J. G. Gregory for printed covers _ 150

Sept. 25 Interest on bond for 6 months, ending

July 1 . 33 33

Jan. 29 Stamps received as dues . 100

- $355 58

DISBURSEMENTS.

1895.

Dec. 28 To C. K. Leith, for clerical work and

stamps, Vr. 1 . $12 60

Dec. 28 To A. S. Kingsford, for clerical work, Vr. 2 2 29

Dec. 28 To W. E. Ferguson, for cartage on vol. x

Transactions, Vr. 3 . 7 00

Dec. 28 To F. G. Hubbard, for postage, Vr. 4 _ 28

Dec. 28 To Tillie Snyder, for typewriting, Vr. 4. . , 1 50

1896.

Jan. 30 To L. S. Cheney, for postage, Vr. 5 . 5 00

Feb. 11 To Tracy, Gibbs & Co., for printing, Vr. 6 12 25

Feb. 16 To C. R. Barnes, for postage, Vr. 7 . 2 00

Feb. 18 To Mrs. S. E. Barnes, for clerical work,

Vr. 8 . . . 106

March 2 To C. K. Leith, for clerical services, Vr. 9 2 00

March 6 To Taylor & Gleason, for printing, Vr. 10. 1 25

April 10 To Franklin Engraving & Electrotyping,

Co., for plates, Vr. 11. . 4 95

Sept. 3 To F. G. Hubbard, for foreign postal cards,

Vr. 12 . 10 00

Treasurer' s Report.

571

Oct. 1 To Tracy, Gibbs & Co., for stationery and

printing. Vr. 13 . . . $2 75

Oct. 1 To Franklin, Engraving & Electrotyping

Co., for plates, Vr. 14 . 13 35

Oct. 25 Stamps received for dues applied for use of

Academy, vr. 15 . . . 1 00

Dec. 24 To F. G. Hubbard, for balance due for ex¬
penditures, Vr. 12 . 75

- $80 03

Balance cash on hand . $275 55

Debenture bond . 1,000 00

Total . $1,275 55

Respectfully submitted,

L. S. Cheney,

Treasurer.

The committee appointed to audit the accounts of the Treas¬
urer of the Wisconsin Academy beg leave to report that they
have examined the books and vouchers of said officer and have
found them to be correct.

Chas. S. Slichter,

John S. Roeseler,

Committee.

TREASURER’S REPORT, 1897.

Madison, Wis.

The following is a report of the receipts and expenditures for
the year ending Dec. 28, 1897.

RECEIPTS.

Balance in treasury Dec. 29, 1896, as per report . $275 55

Dues received from members . 141 00

Interest on bond for $1, 000.00 at 5 per cent, for one year. . 50 00

For binding separates . . . . . 1 00 $467 55

$467 55

572 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , cmcZ Letters.

DISBURSEMENTS.

Jan. 19 To C. K. Leith, for clerical services and post¬
age, Vr. 1 . $1914

22 To C. D. Marsh, expenses incurred for Acad¬
emy, Vr. 2 . . . 7 84

28 To W. J. Buckley, reporting address, Vr. 3 . . . 7 50

Feb. 1 To L. S. Cheney, for stamps purchased, Vr. 4. . 5 00

25 To C. D. Marsh, expenses incurred for Acad¬
emy, Vr. 5 . 20 09

March 1 To Tracy, Gibbs & Co., for printing, Vr. 6 _ 10 50

5 To C. D. Marsh, expenses incurred for Acad¬
emy, Vr. 7 . 19 75

June 18 To C. D. Marsh, expenses incurred for Acad¬
emy, Vr. 8 . 3 90

28 To H. M. Esterley, for labor, Vr. 9 . 90

Aug. 24 To Franklin Engraving and Electrotyping Co.,

for plates, Vr. 10 . 26 43

Dec. 13 To Franklin Engraving and Electrotyping Co.,

for plates, Vr. 11 . 76 76

13 To W. S. Marshall, transferring books to Sci-

Hall, Vr. 12 . 17 78

13 To Mrs. H. A. Flint, for clerical services, Vr. 13 2 25

13 To A. S. Flint, for stationery and postage, Vr. 14 8 44 226 28

Balance on hand . . . . . $241 27

Respectfully submitted,

L. L. Cheney,

Treasurer .

The report of the Treasurer for 1897 was approved by the
Auditing Committee, Messrs. Ernest Bruncken, G. E. Culver, and
E. R. Buckley, and adopted by the Academy, December 29, 1897.

A. S. Flint,

Secretary.

GENERAL INDEX.

[The numbers connected with a hyphen cover several references between the pages
indicated.]

Adams, Chas. K., address before the Acad¬
emy, title of, 548.

Addresses, memorial, 517 ; miscellaneous, 49,
149, 261.

others given before the Academy, titles
of, 548, 557.

of retiring president, 465.

Adjustment of railroad rates in Prussia, 78.
Age, affecting Crustacea, 431.

Alcoholates, aluminium, 255.

Algae, 188, 304, 317.

Crustacea, relation to, 308, 353.
food for Crustacea, 307, 346, 419.
seasonal variation, 307, 353.
at thermocline, 417.

Aluminium alcoholates, 255.

America, Danes in, 1.

history of, codfish in, 261.

Anabaena, 181, 304, 346, 349, 353, 420, 425.
Analysis of water from an artesian well, 112.
Andropogon furcatus, 110.

Aphanizomenon, 307, 310, 318, 353, 364, 420.
As erionella, 318.

Axiom, parallel, of Euclid, 241, 247.

Bacteria, 338, 398.

Basins, oceanic, relations of continental
masses to, 467.

Bernese congress, 91.

Bible, quotations from, by Dante, 150.
Bibliography of,

Crustacea, 223, 433.
the Danes in America, 39.
geology (foot notes), 465.
legal status of trusts (foot notes), 127.
Bille, John H., 1.

Birge, Edward A., 274.

Blaisdell, James J., 49, 517.

Bosmina, 211, 301, 304.

Brucken, Ernest, 225.

Butler, James D., 149, 261, 524, 525.

Cement for road- making materials, 250.
Ceratium, 188, 304, 310, 318, 346, 355.
Ceriodaphnia, 422.

Chandler, Charles H., 239, 526.

Chemical condition of water, affecting
Crustacea, 423.

Chemical laboratory, electric arc lamp in,
115.

Chroococcaceae, 181, 304, 350.

Church, Danish, in America, 13, 16.
Chydorus, 304, 310, 348, 364, 382, 404, 407, 418,
424, 448.

Classics, quotations from, by Dante, 150.
Clouds, effect on Crustacea, 410, 426.

Clathrocystis, 317, 346, 353.

Codfish, its place in American History, 261 ;

dollar, 271.

Coelospherium, 353.

Colonization scheme for Danes in Amer¬
ica, 26.

Combination, commercial, forms of, 130.
Committees of the Academy, 528.
Competition, effect on Crustacea, 321, 365.
Computing the numbers of Crustacea, 275.
Comstock, Elting H., 450, 452.

Conochilus, 411.

Constitution of the Academy, 545.

amendment to, 565.

Continents, growth of, 502.
masses, relations to oceanic basins, 467.
origin of 479.
permanence of, 468.
and sea areas, equilibrium of, 469.
submergences and emergences, 483.
Contraction of the earth, 476.

nucleal, 477.

Corethra, 310, 410, 418.

Corporations, monopolistic, 134.
partnership of , 130.
stockholding, 132.

Council of the Academy, 528.

Counting Crustacea, method of, 188.
Crooker, OrinE., 255.

Crustacea, 179, 274.
age, effect of, 391, 423, 431.
algae, relation of numbers td, 308, 353.
bibliography , 223, 433 .
computing, methods of, 275.
counting, method of, 188.
diseases, 338, 398.

distribution, annual, 302: factors affect¬
ing, 352 ; horizontal, 218, 366 ; seasonal,
207, 305, 375 ; uniformity of, 222 ; verti¬
cal (See Vertical distribution),
diurnal movement, 179, 417.
eggs, 332, 360.

method of dredging for, 277.
limnetic, of Green Lake, 179.
literature, 223, 433.

Mendota, in lake, 274.

net coefficient, determination of, 279.

number, average 313.

numbers, 302, 365, 437 ; determined by
food, temperature, competition, 352.
plates, 435.

reproduction, 291, 306, 321-9, 335, 342-351,
358-364.

seasonal effects, 301.
sinking, rate of, 430.

species found, determined mainly by
depth, 182.
swarms, 222, 366.
tables, 313, 436.

Current, alternating, uses of in a chemical
laboratory, 114.

574 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.

Curvature of space, 242.

Curves, harmonic, formulae for intersec¬
tions, 450.

of three frequencies, 449, 452, 461.
Lissajous’ 449, 452.
stereoscopic photographs of, 449.

Cyclas, 424

CycJops and C. brevispinosus, 181, 208, 284,
291, 306-319, 326-337, 351-9, 368-370,

379-385, s393-6, 407-430, 441.
fluviatilis, 204, 332.

Leuckartii, 310, 326, 330.
oithonoides, 331.
pulchellus, 326.

Danes in America, bibliography of 39.
census of, 42.
churches, 13, 16.
colonization scheme for, 26
Grundtvigian, future of. 33.
history of, 1.
religious factions, 30.
scattering of, 13.
schools, 20,24.
society to unite, 28.

Daniells, W. W., 112.

Dansk Folkesamfund, 28.

Dante, freedom from monotony, 162.
human interest of the poet, 158.
originality of, 149, 156, 163.
poetical justice, 161.
quotations by, 149.
religious quality, 156.
style. 162.

woman, types of, 161.

Daphnia hyalina, 305-319, 335-340, 351-3,
361-373, 383-397, 406-430, 443.
Kahlbergiensis, 209, 301, 346.
longiremis, 401, 422.

pulicaria, 313-9, 340-5, 352, 362, 371, 379,
385-8, 399, 413-427, 445.
retrocurva, 312-317, 345-6, 358-9, 366. 402-7,
445.

Davis, J. J., 165.

Delaplaine, George P. , 522.

Denmark, Grundtvigian schools in, 4.

immigration from, 8.

Diabase in road-making, 251.

Diagrams, methods of making, Birge, 276,
384-390.

Diaphanosoma, 313, 347, 358, 403-9, 422-5,
445-6.

Diaptomus, 182, 191, 308-328, 353, 360,368-9,
384, 393-4, 407-430, 439.

Diatoma, 307, 318, 353.

Diatoms, sinking of, 417.

Dimensions, space of four, 243.

Dinobryon, 181, 357.

Diptera, 188.

Dollar, history of the word, 269.

Dredge for collecting Crustacea, Marsh,
183.

Earth, area, difference of, due to changing
oblateness, 477.
compressive movements, 497.
contraction of, 476.

nucleal, due to change of oblateness and
of rotation, 478.

from change of physical condition in in¬
terior, 478.

epigene forces, action of, 474.
interior, condition of, 475.
lateral tension in crust, 482.
liquefaction of rocks, 494.
movements, 465.

movements, rock structures resulting
from, 506.

oblateness, effects of change in, 485.

Earth, orogenic movements, 487.
rotation, effect of change, 485, on internal
pressures, 477.
tensile movements, 500.
vulcanism in, 493 ; local, 501 ; and regional
movements, 497, 500.

Eaton, Edward D., 522.

Electric arc lamp in chemical laboratory,
115.

Epischura, 332, 412, 422.
lacustris, vertical distribution by sea¬
sons, 190.

Equilibrium of continental and sea areas,
469.

isostatic, 513.

Ergasilus, 333, 413-6.

Errata, vi.

Experiments with available road-making
materials of southern Wisconsin, 249.
Eudorina, 357.

Euclid, parallel axiom of, 241, 247.

Erosion in geology, 470.
in the transformation of minerals, 510.

Fillmore, John C., 119.

Folk-songs, forms spontaneously assumed
by, 119.

Folk-songs, Navajo, 120; Omaha, 124.

Food, affecting Crustacea, 419.

Floral structure of some Gramineae, 109.
Freezing of lake Mendota, 289.

Fragillaria, 307, 318, 353.

Fuller, Newton S., 526.

Fungi, parasitic, of Wisconsin, 165.

Geology, earth movements, 465. _

Geometry, non-Euclidian, principles of, 241.
Germany, relation of government to rail¬
roads, 81.

Glacial drift as road-making material, 250.
Gloiotricliia, 352-7, 410.

Government, municipal, use of parties in,
225.

Gramineae, floral structure of some, 109.
Granite, crushed, for road-making, 252.
Gravitation, effect on vertical distribution
of Crustacea, 429.

Gravity, power of, 512.

Green Lake, 180.

limnetic Crustacea of, 179.

Gregory, John G., 94.

Grundtvig, N. F. S., 2.

Harmonic curves of three frequencies, 449,
452, 461.
plane, 454.

Heterocope, 197.

History, American, codfish in, 261.

of the Danes in America, 1.

Hosts of parasitic fungi, 165.

Huntington, Ellsworth, 249.

Hydrachnids, 302.

Ice, in lake Mendota, thickness of, 289.
Immigration from Denmark and Scandina¬
via, 8.

Interior of the earth, condition of, 475.
Isostacy, theory of, 469.

Kinshon, Indian for “ Puritan,” 263.

Lake, deep, 181.

Green, limnetic Crustacea of, 179.
Mendota (see Mendota).
peculiar temperatures, 187 .
plankton studies, 221, 274.
shallow, 181.

General Index.

575

Lava, rise of, due to gravity, 495.

Law, common, and trusts, 139.

Laws, medical, in Wiscousin in, 236.

Legal status of trusts, 127.

Legislation, against trusts, federal, 140.
state, 144.

Leptodora, 350, 404.

hyalina, 207, 313, 350, 359, 368, 404, 410.
Library, committee on, 528.

Light, effect on vertical distribution of
Crustacea, 409, 425.

Limestones as road-making materials, 250,
253.

Limnetic Crustacea of Green lake, 179.
Limnocalanus, 181, 199, 422.

Lissajous’ curves, 449, 452
Logic, the domain of, 49.

Lueders, Herman F., 109.

Lyngbya, 318, 339, 849, 353-4.

Macadam roads, 253.

Magma, volcanic, 486, 498.

Marinette, analysis of water from artesian
well, 112.

Marsh, C. Dwight, 179.

Medical faculty, need of, in connection with
> the state university, 236.

Medical laws in Wisconsin, 236.

Melosira, 318, 353.

Members of the Academy, active, 530 ; cor¬
responding, 541 ; deceased, 544 ; elect¬
ed, 549-564 ; honorary, 529 ; life, 529.
Membership, committee on, 528.

Memorial addresses, 517.

Mendota, lake, 182.
algae, 304, 350, 417.
anabaena, 346,353.
bacteria, 338, 399.
chemical condition, 423.

Crustacea, 274.
freezing and opening, 289.
ice, thickness of, 289.
size, 276.

temperature, 286.
thermocline, 295.
transparency. 427.

Methods of science and the domain of logic,
49.

Meyer, Balthasar H., 78.

Microsporidia, 338.

Mills, Simeon, 524.

Minerals, transformation of, 509.
Monopolies, 134.

Motions, harmonic, 449, 452.
Mountain-building, 478, 488, 491.
Movements, earth, 465.
epiorogenic, 466.
orogenic, 487.

Municipal government, use of parties in,
225.

Music, folk, primitive forms, 119.

Mysis relicta, 181.

Nauplii, 306-7, 313, 334-5, 360, 405-417, 432.
Navajo folk-songs, 120.

Negro suffrage in Wisconsin, 94.
test trial, 99.

Norwegians, concentration of, in America,
13.

Notholca, 188, 307.

Oblateness of earth, effects of change in,
477.

Ocean basins, deepened by lateral tension,
482.

relations of continental masses to, 467.
Oecistes, 307.

Officers of the Academy, 527.

Omaha folk-songs, 124.

Orogenic movements, 487.
Ostracoda, 302.

Panicum Proliferum, 109.

Parallel axiom, of Euclid, 241, 247.
Parasitic fungi of Wisconsin, Second sup¬
plementary list of, 165 .

Parties in municipal government, use of,
225.

Past presidents of the Academy, 528.
Permanence of continents, 468.
Phonographic records of folk-songs, 120.
Photographs, stereoscopic, of curves, 449.
Pieces-of-eight, 271.

Plankton, condition for exact results in
work, 221.

of Lake Mendota, the Crustacea in, 274.
studies, 179, 221, 274.

Plates, list of, ii.

Politics, municipal, 225.

Pontoporeia Hoyi, 181.

President, retiring, address of, 465.
Presidents, past, of the Academy, 528.
Pressure internal of the earth, 475.

affected by change in rotation, 477.
Proceedings of the Academy, 548.

Prussia, railroad rates in, 78.

Publication, committee on, 528.

Public and trusts, 147.

Puls, Arthur J., 236.

“ Puritan, ” Kinslxon , Indian for, 263.

Railroads, 66, 78.

Bernese congress, 91.
business, peculiar nature of, 82.
joint ownership, 76.
national council in Prussia, 86.
organization in Prussia, 79.
pools, effect on rates, 66.
rates, discrimination in, 71 ; affected by
trusts, 75 ; under German federal gov¬
ernment, 81 ; principle of, 67 ; in Prus¬
sia, 78; publicity of, in Prussia, 93.
traffic associations, 70; in Prussia, 90.
Reason, ultimate, 52.

Religion of Grundtvig, the Dane, 2.
Rix-dollars, 270.

Road-making materials of southern Wis¬
consin, experiments with, 249.

Rock, alterations of, 508.
liquefaction of, 494.

structures resulting from earth move¬
ments, 506.

Rotifers in winter, 291.

Salisbury, Rollin D., address before the
Academy, title of, 557.

Schizophyceae, 304, 310, 318, 350.

Schools in America, Danish, 20.
Grundtvigian, 20.
parochial, Danish, 24.
parochial, 24 ; influence of, 37.

Schools in Denmark, Grundtvigian, 4.
Science and logic, 49.

Science, the problem of, 50.

Sea and continental areas, equilibrium of,
469.

Second supplementary list of parasitic
fungi of Wisconsin, 165.

Simons, Algie M., 66.

Sinking for Crustacea, rate of, 430.
Slichter, Charles S., 449.

Space, curvature of, 242, 247.
of four dimensions, 243.
transcendental, 239.

Sprungschicht, 295.

Statistics, vital, in Wisconsin, 102.

Strong, Edgar F., 127.

576

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

Suffrage, negro, in Wisconsin, 94.

Swarms of Crustacea, 366, 371.

Symmetry, conditions of, for double curves,
464.

for plane curves, 460.

Syncheta, 307.

Temperature affecting Crustacea, 421.
of Green lake, 185, 187.
of the interior of the earth, 475.
of Lake Mendota, bottom, 290, 299.
effects on lake life, 306, 323, 358, 417.
of lake waters, peculiar, 187 ; seasonal,
289, 323.

observing, method of, 286.
at thermocline, 295.

Tests of road making materials, 251.
Thermocline, 295.

Thermophone, 286
Transcendental space, 239.

Treasurer, reports of, 568.

Triarthra, 307.

Trusts, and the common law, 139.
federal legislation against, 140.
state legislation against, 144.
legal status of, 127.
relation to the public, 147.

University, State, medical faculty in con¬
nection with the, 236.

Van Hise, C. R., address as retiring presi¬
dent, 465.

Vertical distribution of Crustacea, 375.
affected by age, 398, 431 ; chemical condi¬
tion of water, 423; clouds, 410, 426;
food, 419 ; gravitation, 429 ; light, 409,
425 ; temperature, 421 ; wind, 427.

Vertical distribution of Crustacea, diurnal
variation, 410.
general conclusions on, 217.
methods of study, 376, 408, 417.
numbers, independent of, 384, 392-4.
seasonal variations, 191, 214, 378-382, 426.
specific peculiarities, 432.
near surface, 407.
tables, statistical, 191, 437.
at thermocline, 415.

Vital statistics in Wisconsin, importance
of, 102.

Volcanoes, 493, 501.

Vulcanism, 493.

cause of nucleal contraction of the earth,
477.

local, 501.

and regional movements, 497, 500.

Walker, Milo S., 114.

Water, analysis of, from artesian well, 112.
chemical condition of in lake Mendota,
423.

in Green lake, 179.
in Mendota lake, 375.

Wind, effects, 295-299.
on temperatures of lake water, 291, 295-
299.

on vertical distribution of Crustacea, 410,
415, 427.

Wingate, U. O. B, 102.

Winnebago, lake, 182.

Wisconsin, medical laws in, 236.
negro suffrage in, 94.
parasitic fungi of, 165.
trial to test negro suffrage in, 99.
southern, experiments with road-making
materials of, 249.

vital statistics in, 102 ; lack of compliance
with law concerning, 106.

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