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TRANSACTIONS OF THE
KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE

Volume 25 — 1964

Published by

THE KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE

TRANSACTIONS OF THE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE

EDITORIAL STAFF

Editor

RAYMOND E. HAMPTON

Associate Editors

Joun M. Carpenter, Zoology
Barpara M. Conkin, Geology

SEITH GILKERSON, Bacteriology and Medical Technology
WarD SUMPTER, CHEMISTRY

Mary E. WuHarton, Botany

Editorial Office

Department of Plant Pathology
University of Kentucky
Lexington, Kentucky

CONTENTS TO VOLUME 25

No. 1-2
A History of Psychology in Kentucky: An Overview
1914-1964
RUAN COD NUAIN, © [Ria xa cvsecsetes scat chains vacating ea ctunesgitin aratey Mas 1
Fifty Years of Plant Pathology in Kentucky
AV irs DS AE NR AU oss alee oferta eek se paste caesitucbyd: ca nSoase uence er ates 27

The Advance of Geology in Kentucky During One
Hundred and Thirty-Four Years
WVIEEARD HOUSE = |TLLSON) ts2/soccecesecasesuancescauvegneavgamneua teens 48

Physical, Chemical, and Biological Data Illustrating
A Stream Classification System
MERC lle AN TU faicevacieat eteeatoaeevas tues cose nceevsacuGn rad be cesar ste eteteeraed coche os 58

Fishes of the Green River Basin in Casey and Lincoln
Counties, Kentucky
CUENN, WV MURPHY, Gacecxs.otcssissssurier ancrime pti ou divineutineaty 65

Effect of Aqueous Extracts of Lyophilized Ascites Tumor
Cells and Supernate on the Oxygen Uptake of
Fresh Ascites Tumor (S-37)

SISTER VIRGINIA HEINES, SISTER JULIA CLARA FOon-
TAINE, SISTER Mary ADELINE O'LEARY, SISTER MARY

Ipa Cossy, J. C. Farpon, and LEO NUTINI .............cee 74
No. 3-4
Botany in Kentucky since 1914
EDWARD alice RO WINES, LHe oa consensoo8s See rastack sesearctasectesactestie meen ce eis Ue

Two Great Kentucky Omnithologists
CE ORDON 1 VVALESON cuter rt ene eed ose Boe feu atctcbaterseeatiaeecs 83
Flamma Clara Maturae Medicinae Kentuckinsis
IVY Mele RD ROUSE) cJELSONGestce5-strsos5o1s0aoe.c:ccsecdevace estee odes dae cseice 88
Four Thousand and Fifty Years of Mathematics
{PANGES 1 @ ETE TON HUAVES Aeoucmniten ites etea rater ih acres detec 102
Some Comparative Behavior Studies on Three
Genera of Salamanders
ACkiE ID NB INTSON javier catt lat mckacg sas sevtoun hema anaaenn Neves, 120
Studies on the Praire Vole, Microtus Ochrogaster, in
Central Kentucky
A CRIES ID) Sa ATSON (etait ee ueeels ie te sans Sucten, ce cceata cantencecvsts seated 129
A CAGEINY FATLATIS tice crite teen cadre pate t cess tees ins 138

MrrcextowV. Ole 25 ree ee ne ear a ete cates hues 144

ie reas *

ms!
bh)

S00) &
K3K37

Volume 25

TRANSACTIONS
of the KENTUCKY
ACADEMY of SCIENCE

Official Organ :
Kentucky ACADEMY OF SCIENCE ae

1964 Number 1-!

CONTENTS

A History of Psychology in Kentucky: An Overview
1914-1964

CRANKS KKQDMAN. | JR oS.ccesceqcecsccet-scesseccdeesssoaesseateetaecrenscnswssnconsucss

Fifty Years of Plant Pathology in Kentucky
W. D. VALLEAU

The Advance of Geology in Kentucky During One
Hundred and Thirty-Four Years

WILLARD ROUSE JILLSON

Physical, Chemical, and Biological Data Illustrating
A Stream Classification System

Eric PANITZ

Fishes of the Green River Basin in Casey and Lincoln
Counties, Kentucky

GLENN W. MurRPHY

Effect of Aqueous Extracts of Lyophilized Ascites Tumor
Cells and Supernate on the Oxygen Uptake of
Fresh Ascites Tumor (S-37)
SistER VirciniA HEINEs, SISTER JULIA CLARA Fon-
TAINE, SISTER Mary ADELINE O'LEARY, SISTER MARY
Ina Cossy, J. C. Farpon, and Leo NuTINI

The Kentucky Academy of Science
Founded May 8, 1914

OFFICERS 1963-64

President: R. A. CHAPMAN, University of Kentucky

President Elect: C. B. Hamann, Asbury College

Vice President: FRANK KoDMAN, Murray State College

Secretary: Gerrit Levey, Berea College

Treasurer: J. H. B. Garner, University of Kentucky

AAAS Council Representative: Mary Wuarron, Georgetown College

Junior Academy Counselor: E. R. Jorpon, Eastern Kentucky State College

EDITORIAL OFFICE

RayMonD E.. Hampton, Editor

Department of Plant Pathology
University of Kentucky
Lexington, Kentucky 40506

Membership in the Kentucky Academy of Science is open to interested persons upon nomi-
nation, payments of dues, and election. Application forms for membership may be cbtained
from the Secretary. The TRANSACTIONS are sent free to all members in good standing.

Subscription rates for non-members are: domestic, $3.50 per volume; foreign, $4.00 per
volume.

The TRANSACTIONS are issued semi-annually. Four numbers comprise a volume.
Correspondence concerning memberships or subscriptions should be addressed to the
Secretary. Exchanges and correspondence relating to exchanges should be addressed, The

Librarian, University of Louisville, who is the exchange agent for the Academy. Manuscripts
and other material for publication should be addressed to the Editor.

A HISTORY OF PSYCHOLOGY IN
KENTUCKY: AN OVERVIEW
1914-1964

FRANK KODMAN, JR.
Murray State College

The history of psychology in Kentucky and elsewhere is a history
of the study of man as a biological and social organism. The present
treatise will be an overview and not a chronological or definitive
history. All histories are selective and never all inclusive. This
offering will be more selective and less comprehensive than most due
to time and space limitations. The growth of psychology in Kentucky
amid a welter of “educational,” “behavioral,” “social,” “paramedical”
and even “administrative” concerns is not unlike the paradoxical
situation of contemporary psychology elsewhere on the national scene.

A basic reason for studying the history of any science is to review
what has been done in order to avoid useless repetition and to take
advantage of classic concepts that need to be recast in the light of
recent controversy or more definitive knowledge. Since the launching
of the first space satellite there has been an increased emphasis on
basic prediction, research and theory in psychology as well as in the
other sciences. Many psychologists bemoan the vast output of low-
level data and much maligned theory even in the most cherished
journals and seem to be waiting hopefully for a major discovery or
breakthrough to be mad. In medicine, for example, the scientist may
readily define his goal as the eradication of cancer, heart disease or
cerebral palsy. In a science of human behavior, the goals are not as
readily defined. Established in 1892, the American Psychological
Association defines its objectives as advancing psychology as a science,
as a profession, and as a means of promoting human welfare (1964).

Several Contemporary Issues

A general dissatisfaction with the current state of affairs in psy-
chology leads to disparate efforts and even disenchantment with the
discipline. A current controversy is clinical versus actuarial or statistical
prediction (Meehl, 1954). Advocates of statistical predictions call
them objective, reliable, scientific and sound. Advocates of clinical
predictions call them dynamic, global, sympathetic, genuine and
naturalistic. Some psychologists stress laboratory study and some stress
field study. Some stress mathematical models of behavior; others stress
neurophysiological models. The American Psychological Association

2 Frank Kodman, Jr.

itself is currently divided into twenty-four Divisions or sub-specialties.
These are general, teaching, experimental, evaluation and measure-
ment, physiological and comparative, developmental, personality and
social, society for the psychological study of social issues, esthetics,
clinical, consulting, industrial, education, school psychology, counsel-
ing, psychologists in public service, military, maturity and old age,
engineering, national council on psychological aspects of disability,
consumer psychology and philosophical psychology. Divisions may be
organized to represent major scientific and professional interests that
lie within the Association. The end is still not in sight; other Divisions
are being proposed even now. The APA publishes twelve psychological
journals which carry only a portion of its members’ publications. The
remainder of their publications appear in the journals of allied dis-
ciplines: education, sociology, medicine, acoustics, statistics, psysi-
ology, engineering, psychiatry, philosophy and many others.

One can readily generate argumentative heat by pitting the
“applied” psychologist against his “nonapplied” colleague who seeks
after the fundamental tenets of a pure science of behavior. As Marett
pointed out in 1912, “there is on the one hand the workaday world in
relation to which every community has well established “routine” be-
havior. On the other hand there is the world of extraordinary events
such as disease, death, poverty and crisis.” Still further there is the
intellectual life of academia where theory and pedagogy preside and
woe unto the professor who inclines only towards a concern for the
social issues of the times or the welfare of educational, social and
economic institutions. Auguste Comte, the famous 19th century
philosopher in his Cours de Philosophie Positive, adhered to the
utilitarian point of view and remarked, “I have a supreme aversion
to scientific labors whose utility, direct or remote, I do not see.”

Portrait and Profile

A portrait of the scientist, befitting the psychologist and other
members of the Academy, is presented by Bernice Eiduson (1962) who
describes him as, “a compulsive, hardworking, methodical person
whose work is more important to him than anything else in the
world, including his family from whom he is very often isolated
in childhood or adolescence. He is often unable to distinguish work
from play and in any case brings his methodical work habits into
his play . . . is bright and open-minded, devoting his life to the dis-
covery of new relationships and content to accept the obsolescence
of the old when the newly arrived future requires the abandonment

A History of Psychology in Kentucky 3

of the past.” According to Boring, the noted Harvard psychologist
and historian, the able scientist does accept change, for change is
his constant goal (1963).

Sanford’s profile of the modern psychologist is presented here in
abbreviated form (1958).

A psychologist is an individual who in a wide variety of settings repre-
sents and believes in the scientific approach to problems of human
behavior. In the laboratory, he spins out theories, formulates hypotheses,
tests his ideas, and publishes his results. In the clinic, he does the same
thing, employing modified methods in confronting different problems.
He believes in the solubility of problems of human behavior. He
believes that relevant evidence can be brought to bear on almost any
human problem. He is skeptical of dogma, little or big, and has learned
to live without the pseudo-comfort of falsely final answers. He is a
scientist, in the broadest sense, and subscribes to the morality of science,
the morality that puts emphasis on facts, on logic, on objectivity, on
testability, on the communicability of knowledge, and the transitoriness
of alleged truth. Withal perhaps because of his intimate exposure to
the nature of human nature, he has a sensitivity to and appreciation
for the human individual, whatever his size or shape or race or creed
or color.

In addition to Eudison’s portrait and Sanford’s profile, the psy-
chologist is first of all an individual heir to the same forces, stresses,
anxieties and iniquity of everyman. Whether he masters these when
he becomes an expert on behavior is debatable. Frequently the psy-
chologist, who wishes to probe the depths of “inner” or mental life,
finds himself relying on his own native store of intuitions, sympathies,
judgments, errors and uncommon experience as if a science of be-
havior did not exist.

The teacher, educator, parent, coach, salesman, minister, man-
ager, diplomat and administrator must also deal effectively with
human intangibles. Each in his own way is a student of behavior
turning frequently to the works of novelists, playwrights, historians
and poets rather than to textbooks of psychology or psychologists
themselves. The history of psychology is the history of a discipline
striving to establish an identity as a science of behavior translatable
into common terms.

To capture the flavor of a history of Kentucky psychology, con-
fined to a finite number of square miles and experienced on a de-
velopmental plane, the author finds himself gazing wistfully at his
topic and wondering how to synthesize the inner experiences of the
participants in the absence of circumscribed records. Psychology
conveys different impressions to all those who ask, “What is psy-
chology?” Is psychology really a discipline or is it merely a con-

4 Frank Kodman, Jr.

catenation of insightful experiences shared by all persons? An un-
folding of Kentucky psychology may shed some light on this issue.

Most psychologists would agree generally that psychology is a
science of behavior, especially of human behavior and furthermore
that it represents a profession and constitutes a body of acceptable
knowledge. It is a science insofar as it can meet the rigors of scientific
method. It has progressed insofar as it has applied the basic methods
of science to the study of human and animal behavior. Universally,
man studies man from many vantage points and makes predictions
about his behavior and with less intensity, predictions about the
behavior of lower animals. The attempt to understand, predict and in-
fluence behavior is man’s most cherished pursuit.

The science of man is a recent arrival on the stage of history
and from its paramount concern with behavior stems interlocking
ties with other disciplines. Psychology’s distinctive concern is with
individual man and his behavior alone or in a group. The social sci-
ences, on the other hand, concern themselves largely with the behavior
of groups. More than a modicum of overlap occurs. Sociology and
Anthropology study the origins, extent and meaning of customs
among different groups, and man’s relation to his cultural history
and environment. Biologists deal not only with biological processes
such as circulation, digestion and heredity but with environmental
adjustments such as the nest building behavior of birds, the mating
call of various species and so on. Although psychologists are dedi-
cated more to an understanding of learned or acquired processes they
also show an interest in unlearned or innate processes. Sensory
capacities and their physiological mechanisms are studied by biologists,
physiologists and psychologists alike. A knowledge of the relevant
aspects of Physiology continues to be an essential for understanding
behavior. In addition to biology, physiology, sociology and anthro-
pology, psychology recalls a close kinship with philosophy and edu-
cation. Relevant assertions can also be made to relationships with
physics, engineering, medicine, mathematics, statistics, genetics and
even pharmacology. A thorough treatment of interdisciplinary rela-
tionships is not considered relevant to the present paper.

Lindgren and Byrne (1961) have aptly described the uncertainty
and apprehension with which psychology is often viewed. They
point out that “it is difficult to imagine a teacher or a grocery clerk
having much trouble explaining his work to the public . . . many
other professions, psychiatry and law, as well as psychology whose
duties and responsibilities are not well known, arouse fear on the
part of the public that encounters with members of the profession

A History of Psychology in Kentucky 5

will lead to exploitation or manipulation without their being able to
do anything about it.” As our understanding of behavior improves,
these fears may not be dispelled, yet a fascination for unraveling the
complexity of behavior will undoubtedly continue.

THE NEONATAL PERIOD, 1914-1923

A charter member of the Kentucky Academy of Science, John J.
Tigert, was a most versatile academician on the faculty of the Uni-
versity of Kentucky. Dr. Tigert served as a professor of Education
before he became Head of the Department of Philosophy. In the
1914-15 University Catalog, his department offered courses in logic,
psychology, philosophy, ethics and esthetics. He seemed to be re-
sponsible for all of them. In addition, he also taught a psychology
course listed under Education. During the period in which he served
psychology courses were taught under the philosophy department;
the greater emphasis was on philosophy and not on psychology.
Nonetheless the catalog description of Elementary Psychology em-
phasized “fundamental facts and laws of normal consciousness.” The
lecture course included class demonstrations and experiments. The
course in Elementary Philosophy emphasized, “the study of human
nature, the extent and force of human understanding, the nature of
the ideas we employ and the operations we perform in our reason-
ings.” The similarity between the two catalog descriptions is striking.

In 1917, Prof. Tigert became Head of the Department of Psy-
chology. Courses were listed in Elementary, Advanced Comparative,
History, Social and Abnormal. A Psychology Seminar was open to
students from education, psychology and philosophy. A year later,
General Psychology with a laboratory, Experimental Psychology and
Mental Tests were added to the curriculum, also a course entitled
The Psychological Clinic. In 1919-20, the department expanded with
a new staff member and a new course, Psychology of Advertising.

After holding professorships in education, philosophy and _ psy-
chology, Dr. Tigert left the University in 1921 and became U.S.
Commissioner of Education and later President of the University of
Florida. He retired in 1947.

While Dr. Tigert was on leave of absence during 1918-19, Clare
B. Cornell became Acting Head of the psychology department. In
1921, another truly remarkable pioneer, Dr. James Burt Miner, as-
sumed the Headship. The Miner Era continued until his death in
1943. A monograph could easily be written on the accomplishments
of Dr. J. B. Miner whose influence continues to this day.

6 Frank Kodman, Jr.

Louisville Child Guidance Clinic

At the beginning of this period, 1918 to be exact, the Child Guid-
ance Clinic was established by the Louisville Board of Education
which even provided some services to the social agencies of Louis-
ville. In 1917, the Clinic officially became a member-organization
of the Welfare League of Louisville, a forerunner of the Community
Chest. Following WWI, the Clinic became an independent body
incorporated under the aegis of the Louisville Society for Mental
Hygiene, a voluntary group of prominent citizens.

Frank Fehring and Melitta Hogg did testing and field work in
these early days. In 1922, Dr. Frank J. O’Brien was appointed its first
Medical Director. Dr. O’Brien was also a Ph.D. in psychology. He
resigned in 1931 to become Asst. Sup’t. of Schools in New York
City in charge of handicapped children. Dr. John Patterson Currie
was also on the staff in 1922. In 1932, Dr. S. Spafford Ackerly, one
of Kentucky’s most prominent psychiatrists, was appointed Medical
Director with professional rank in the School of Medicine’s Depart-
ment of Psychiatry and Mental Heath. After WWII, the Clinic
limited its intake to children. Psychologists Ula Strater, Jeanette Bur-
ress, Dr. Joseph P. Breiner, Arthur Banton, Gertrude Rieman and
Susanne Vutsas were among the earlier staff members.

Dr. Cloyd N. McAllister, a Yale Ph.D. was the first psychologist
at Berea College. He joined the Academy in 1917. Morley A. Cald-
well from the University of Louisville joined in 1915. Miss Gladys
Marie Lowe from U. of K. and Wren James Grinstead from Ken-
tucky State Normal School, Richmond, joined in 1921. James B.
Miner came into the organization in 1922 and Karl T. Waugh of
Berea College followed a year later.

James Burt Miner

From the recollections of Prof. E. J. Asher (U. of K., 1928-1945),
comes the following personal note. “Dr. Miner had a truly outstanding
record at Kentucky as far as attracting undergraduate majors and
graduate students. He was a great advocate of “clear thinking” and
he prided himself on his ability to teach students to “think.” He
attracted many students to psychology largely because of this em-
phasis in his classes and in spite of the fact that he was not what
most students regarded as a good teacher. In spite of this emphasis
or because of it Dr. Miner was or appeared to be very naive as far
as everyday motivations and behavior were concerned. In one of his
classes in Neville Hall where the front row of seats was very close
to the lecture table, Dr. Miner invariably and with ceremony placed

A History of Psychology in Kentucky 7

his rather large pocket watch on the table. The students closest to
the table would reach over, take the watch and set it ahead 10 to 20
minutes. When the set-ahead watch showed 10 minutes to the hour,
the students would tell Dr. Miner that it was time for the bell. He
invariably picked up the watch, exclaiming “hevens-hevens,’ ’and dis-
missed the class. Hevens-hevens (his version of heaven) was as close
to swearing as he ever got. Although this occurred many times during
the semester, he seemed not to “catch” on. This immersion in what he
was doing led to many instances of “absentmindedness,” the most
common of which involved looking for his car on campus when he
had left it at home or walking home only to discover he had left it
on campus. The story goes that he met his son, Horace, on campus
one day and said “Good morning, son, how is your father today?”
One Christmas he sent a Christmas card to one of his assistants
and signed the assistant’s name on the card.

From the time Dr. Miner came to Kentucky until his death he
was dedicated to the development of psychological services in the
community and in the state and in demonstrating that psychology
and psychologists could make valuable contributions to the Univer-
sity, the local schools, city government, and state institutions. He
worked many hours and drove his own car at his own expense test-
ing or examining freshmen and seniors to show the relation of “in-
telligence” to school performance. He tested policemen and _ fire-
men and children with special problems. Any time he saw or thought
he could create an opportunity to demonstrate what psychology could
do he was on the job with one or more assistants. Members of the
staff, particularly Paul Boynton and I, were caught up in this mis-
sionary work. It wasn't long, of course, before the demands for psy-
chological services were too great for the staff to handle. The present
acceptance and status of psychology and the early passage of a licens-
ing law in Kentucky can be attributed in large measure to Dr.
Miner’s dedicated pioneering work.”

Early in this period, 1915-16, James Thomas Cotton Noe, in
Education, taught Problems of Educational Psychology while Dr.
Tigert taught Comparative Psychology under Education. A year
earlier, 1914, Dr. Tigert taught Experimental Psychology under
Philosophy.

Educational Psychology at the University of Kentucky, following
the work of Tigert and Noe was greatly enhanced later by Prof.
Clay C. Ross who wrote Measurement in Todays Schools: Prentice
Hall, 1941. Ross’ successor, Herbert Sorenson, has written three Mc-
Graw Hill books: Statistics for Students in Psychology and Educa-

8 Frank Kodman, Jr.

tion, 1936; Psychology in Education, 1940; and Psychology for Living,
1948 co-authored with a colleague. His last two books have been
widely used in the field. In 1963, Psychology in Education was trans-
lated in Hindi.

POST-WWI PERIOD, 1924-1932

Professor James Burt Miner, a student of the earlier Cattell, suc-
ceeded Dr. John J. Tigert as department head at the University of
Kentucky. He was also the 2lst President of the Southern Society
for Philosophy and Psychology. During his term of office in 1926,
the Society met at the University. Dr. Miner’s presidential address
was entitled, “The Significance of Qualitative Differences in Psy-
chology.” He also presented an invited address, “Our Twnety-fifth
Anniversary” at the 1930 meeting of the Southern Society. He started
the Kentucky Personnel Bulletin in 1932, a bulletin devoted to articles
concerned with college personnel problems. He was largely respon-
sible for a registrar’s training program leading to a master’s degree
in psychology; one of the few in the country in the early 1930’s.
During a leave of absence in Europe 1928-29, Dr. Miner translated
Pieron’s Experimental Psychology into English.

Dr. Miner’s broad interests included industrial psychology and he
participated in the early development of Interest Inventories. In addi-
tion to being head of the department, he was also Director of the
University Personnel Bureau. One of the pioneering researches done
at the University showed that students in engineering and other
areas of study could be differentiated by the pattern of responses
shown on interest items. Despite Dr. Miner’s efforts, Kentucky was
not ready for industrial psychology. Prof. Miner also exerted a positive
influence on the development of clinical psychology. He is credited
generally with instituting the first entrance examinations for in-
coming Freshmen at the University.

Prof. Eston Jackson Asher, a former student of Dr. Miner and
later a faculty member, organized the Kentucky Cooperative Testing
Service sponsored by the Kentucky Association of Colleges and
Secondary Schools. Prof. Asher became its director in 1933. He left
the University on July, 1945 to become Head, Department of Psy-
chology at Purdue University, a position he holds today. Upon Prof.
Asher’s departure, the Testing Service was transferred out of the
Psychology Department. Prof. Asher authored various versions of the
Kentucky Mathematics Test, Kentucky Classification Test, Kentucky
English Test and the Kentucky General Abilities Test which were
used in high school and college testing programs.

A History of Psychology in Kentucky 9

New K.A.S. Members

During the post WWI period, an increasing number of psy-
chologists joined the Academy. These were Miss Anna A. Schneib 1926,
Eastern Kentucky State Normal School; Wm. H. Baker, 1926, Berea
College; Karl T. Waugh, 1923, Berea College; G. C. Basset, 1927,
U. of K.; Clara C. Cooper, 1926, Richmond; John M. Guilliams, 1925,
Berea College; James L. Graham, 1927, U. of K.; and R. G. Will,
1928, Centre College, Danville. Others who joined were Noel B. Cuff,
Eastern Kentucky Teachers College; Ellis Freeman, University of
Louisville, Milton B. Jensen, Fort Knox, J. L. Leggett, Transylvania
College and W. F. O'Donnell, Richmond. The distinguished psy-
chologist and statistician, Carl S. Spearman of the University of
London was made an honorary member of the Kentucky Academy of
Science in 1931.

Staff Transitions at U.K.

Gladys Lowe Anderson, Paul L. Boynton, G. C. Basset, J. L.
Graham, Henri Beaumont and others came and then moved on.
Courses in psychology were continuously added, revised and some
dropped—much like the process going on today. In 1930, three new
faculty members, M. M. White, Graham B. Dimmick and Edward
Newbury came on the scene. Applied psychology, clinical psychology
and “free thinking” were greatly enhanced. A potent trio to say the
least. One of these men was assigned courses in experimental psy-
chology, learning, mental work and fatigue, the emotions, the ob-
servation process, and the psychology of language.

Animal Behavior Laboratory

Recollections from a dyed-in-the-wool animal psychologist, Uni-
versity of Kentucky. Along about 1930, a Carr-type maze was found
tucked away in the Physiology Department, then housed in Miller
Hall. The animal lab began in a small room at the top of the stairs
on the third floor of Neville Hall with the use of an adjoining room
for recording equipment. There were no vivarium facilities but there
was a rat colony in the Small Animal House of the Home Economics
Department.

Next, three rooms were occupied in the Physiology Department's
Animal House on the site now occupied by the Home Economics
Building. One room was large enough for a Tolman-Nyswander maze.
A swimming tank was installed gratis in one of the two remaining
rooms. These modest facilities constituted the first animal behavior
laboratory at the University. Several years later, the first animal

10 Frank Kodman, Jr.

course was taught with a laboratory. In 1939, a laboratory course
in animal psychology was reported at the Southern Society for Phil-
osophy and Psychology in Durham. Shortly thereafter, the animal
lab moved to the basement of Neville Hall and remained there
until the building was gutted by fire.

Master’s theses in animal behavior were completed by A. Dudley
Roberts, Robert A. Baker, Carson Y. Nolan, Joe Mock, James Clark,
and others. Among the students who had the lab course and some
who were assistants were Lee S. Caldwell, Lelon Peacock, Conan
Kornetsky, Jake Karraker, Jacob Silverberg and Jane Haselden to
mention a few.

Some of the topics investigated were: the basis of a goal gradient
or symbolic mediation in discrimination learning, changes in body
state during repeated work performance, body temperature and work
performance, effects of adrenalin, LSD 25, effects of audiogenic
seizures on the oestrus cycle; sodium chloride preference during and
after deprivation, water behavior and vestibular disease and wheel
activation following forced inactivity.

More History

Prior to 1933, psychology at the University of Louisville was
wedded to the Department of Philosophy in the Division of Natural
Sciences within the general framework of Arts and Sciences. This
same year, the first Ph.D. degree in psychology was given at the
University of Kentucky and R. S. Hake, Morehead Teachers College
and Fred L. Jones of Picadome High School, Lexington, joined the
Academy of Science.

In the 1930 records of the American Psychological Association,
the following Kentucky psychologists were listed: T. A. Hendricks
and C. N. McAllister, Berea; C. B. McMullen, Danville, E. J. Asher,
G. C. Basset, P. L. Boynton, J. L. Graham and J. B. Miner, Lexing-
ton; G. M. Ulvin, Louisville; R. L. Hoke, Morehead and C. C. Cooper
and N. B. Cuff at Richmond.

Dr. M. L. Billings became head of the Psychology Department at
Western Kentucky State College, Bowling Green, in 1926. He held
this position until his death in 1950. During this period, the depart-
ment was to a large measure, a service department for the teacher
training program.

POST-DEPRESSION PERIOD, 1934-1943

Early in this period, five new psychologists joined the Academy
of Science. These new members were Dr. Lawrence M. Baker, Berea

A History of Psychology in Kentucky iff

College, Berea; Dr. M. L. Billings, Western State Teacher’s College,
Bowling Green; Clio Arnold, Sue Bennett College, London; Dr. Gra-
ham B. Dimmick and Martin M. White, University of Kentucky, Lex-
ington.

Lexington Child Guidance Clinic

The Child Guidance Service, Lexington, Kentucky was estab-
lished in 1934 as a community project of the Lexington Junior League.
Dr. Betsy Worth Estes served as the first Junior League Chairman of
the project. The Clinic actually began in Neville Hall, the early
home of the Psychology Department. The staff consisted of a Di-
rector and a part-time assistant. It was the general purpose of the
founders to provide diagnostic, consultive and treatment facilities
for a wide range of mental health and adjustment problems of chil-
dren. From 1934-1940, a total of 1,269 children were treated by a
small, but dedicated staff.

Children are referred for evaluation and treatment for the fol-
lowing reasons:

1. Nervousness and emotional instability, exaggerated fears, hos-
tility, stubbonness or hyper-sensitiveness.

2. Unsatisfying personal and social relationships, excessive tim-
idity, isolation, withdrawal from contact with others, too much
day dreaming or inability to maintain attention on anything.

3. Disturbed sleep, unhealthy eating habits or bed wetting.
4. Difficulties in psychosexual development.

5. Aggressive and anti-social behavior, disobedience, lying or
stealing.

6. Mental incompetence, mental subnormality or immaturity in
emotional development.

7. Dislike of school and failure in school work or problems of
proper placement in school.

8. Identification of children with superior learning ability.

For over thirty years, the Director of this clinic, Dr. Graham B.
Dimmick, affectionately referred to as the “Dean of Clinical Psy-
chology” in Kentucky, has divided his time between the agency and
his graduate teaching at the University. Prof. Dimmick, a highly re-
spected expert in clinical psychology and the use of the Rorschach
test, has treated over 6,000 children and significantly influenced a
generation of graduate students at the University of Kentucky.

12 Frank Kodman, Jr.

Clinical Psychology, U.S.P.H.S. Hospital

The U. S. Public Health Service established a hospital in Lexing-
ton for the treatment of narcotic drug addicts in 1935. Ralph R.
Brown was the first research psychologist at the hospital from 1935-
1942. He received his Ph.D. degree from the University of Kentucky
in 1938. John E. Partington who received his M.A. degree from U. of
K. in 1938 was also a research psychologist from 1935-40. The clinical
psychology service is under the Division of Hospitals. Dr. Brown
studied the general intelligence of narcotic drug addicts, the effects
of drug addiction on personality, performance under the effects of
drugs and the effects of drug addiction on personality.

The hospital has an Addiction Research Center which is separate
from the Division of Hospitals. Psychologists are assigned to the
Center from the National Institutes of Mental Health. The staff
carry on an active research program of a multidisciplinary nature.
They have developed psychological scales to evaluate the effects of
drugs and are widely recognized for their research studies of pain.

During this period, E. J. Asher continued to publish the results
of his investigations of intelligence and academic achievement. In
1935, he reported his study of the I.Q. regression of Kentucky moun-
tain children, now regarded as a classic in the field. With the pass-
age of time, these children seemed to perform at a lower intellectual
level.

At the 25th meeting of the Academy of Science in 1938, no new
psychology members were noted. The Kentucky Psychological As-
sociation was, however, listed as one of the affiliated organizations
and Noble H. Kelley was chairman of the Division of Philosophy and
Psychology. The meeting was held at Morehead State Teacher’s
College. Edward A Newbury read a paper on “The Dynamics of
Instincts” and Noble Kelley read a paper entitled, “A Study of Pres-
byacusia.”

Eastern State Hospital, Lexington

On October 1, 1938, Dorothy Cleek came to Eastern State Hos-
pital as a Student Psychologist. She was the first to afford any
psychological services at this hospital. Miss Cleek arrived years
before the Trainee Program was initiated and stayed until September
30, 1943. In the immediate years that followed psychological services
were very few. Dr. W. E. Watson, Supervising Psychologist for the
Division of Hospitals and Mental Hygiene, Kentucky Department of
Welfare, came occasionally upon special request. By 1950 three other
students had each worked part-time a year or two. These included
Martha Ringo, David Orr, and William Nagge.

A History of Psychology in Kentucky 13

Kentucky Psychological Association

The Kentucky Psychological Association was formed in the 1930's
and became affiliated with the American Psychological Association in
1939. During its early years, the Association was headed by an elected
chairman. Later, the membership elected a president, secretary-
treasurer and two directors. Most of the past presidents are still in
the state and some have headed the organization more than once.

Kentucky State Hospitals

A survey of state hospitals in Kentucky was conducted by the
Mental Hospital Survey Committee, 50 W. 50th St., New York, in
1938. The report concluded that, “the state hospitals have no psy-
chologist, either resident or consulting. Psychological examinations at
the State Institution for the Feebleminded must be made by some
member of the teaching staff. A competent clinical psychologist can
make a considerable contribution to the understanding of mental
patients.”

A year later, a survey by the U.S. Public Health Service in Wash-
ington reported that, “Some psychological service is given at the
Eastern State Hospital by a student from the state University. This
psychologist also examines candidates for the position of attendant,
thus checking on the impressions of the medical officer and the super-
vising nurse who are responsible for making selections. The school
for mental defectives now has a very competent staff psychologist
and in time will supply him with the needed tools of his trade. There
is also a psychologist attached to the central office, whose duties are
principally in the penal and correctional institutions, but who can
give some service at the state hospital if it is needed.”

Regular but limited clinical psychological services first became
available at Central Hospital in the late 1930’s. One psychologist
was employed by the Department of Welfare (of which Central Hos-
pital was a part) to visit various institutions periodically to examine
referred cases. He visited this hospital about once a month.

APA Members from Kentucky, 1940

The APA directory shows the following members in 1940. P. L.
Hill, Anchorage; L. M. Baker, Berea; M. L. Billings and L. M. Johnson,
Bowling Green; C. B. McMullen, Danville; H. V. Bice, Frankfort;
E. J. Asher, H. eaumont, R. R. Brown, A. A. Capurso, L. W. Croft,
G. B. Dimmick, J. P. Key, C. C. Limburg, J. B. Miner, E. Newbury,
M. MaclL. Ratliff, C. C. Ross, C. E. Thompson, D. S. White, and
M. M. White, Lexington; K. A. Anderson, C. H. Crudeen, M. B. Jen-

14 Frank Kodman, Jr.

sen, N. H. Kelley, E. H. Scofield, G. M. Ulvin, L. W. Whisler, Louis-
ville; J. D. Falls, Morehead; W. D. Lewis, Murray; J. W. Curtis, Pike-
ville; and N. B. Cuff, Richmond.

In 1940, January 17, Dr. M. M. White, of the University of Ken-
tucky gave a series of lie detector tests at Neville Hall to suspects in
the murder mystery of a 78 year old woman from Franklin county.
Major Joe Burman of the State Bureau of Identification accompanied
the suspects.

Army Medical Research Lab, Fort Knox

The U.S. Army Medical Research Laboratory was established at
Fort Knox, Kentucky, 1 September 1942, as a combined effort of the
National Research Council, The Surgeon of the Armored Force and
The Surgeon General of the U.S. Army. It was designated the Arm-
ored Medical Research Laboratory with the primary mission “to
study the physical and mental stresses placed upon the soldier in
the operation of armored vehicles with the object of improving
safety and efficiency.” The present Psychology effort, as distinct from
the laboratory as a whole, was initiated in 1950. Dr. R. Y. Walker,
Dr. John F. Corso and Dr. George S. Harker, constituted the original
staff. Within a general, medical and life science laboratory, the mis-
sion of this group was essentially that of the original laboratory with
the exception that the renewed effort was in support of an Army-
wide human factors program.

The Psychology Division has had a succession of five directors.
Dr. Walker, the original director, was followed in turn by Dr. Arthur
J. Riopelle, Lt. Col. Ernest K. Montague, Dr. Fred E. Guedry, and
the present director, Dr. George S. Harker. The initial efforts of the
Psychology Division were in the fields of audition and binocular
vision. These areas of research have been supplemented by major
studies of the vestibular sense, complex motor skills, ergonomics,
and psychopharmacology. The staff presently consists of 12 profes-
sional workers, six of whom are civilian and six of whom are in uni-
form as professional Army scientists. These researchers are supported
by an equal number of military technicians. Technical support with-
in the laboratory includes machine, wood, and electronic shops as
well as primate and small animal colonies. Current research extends
from the psychophysics of human responses to sensory stimulation to
animal behavior and neurophysiological recordings.

POST-WWII PERIOD, 1944-1953

In 1946, the U.S. Public Health Service gave a grant of $4,500.00
to the University of Kentucky department of psychology for expan-

A History of Psychology in Kentucky 15

sion of its clinical psychology program. Three part-time instructors
were hired, two psychiatrists and a clinical psychologist.

In the summer of 1948, Dr. Robert L. Milisen, Speech Pathologist,
from Indiana University was hired to teach two speech therapy
courses at the University. A $400.00 grant was given by the Lex-
ington Chapter of the National Council of Jewish Women. These
courses served as the stimulus for the Speech Center and the Speech
Pathology training program.

The Department of Psychology and Social Anthropology at the
University of Louisville began offering the master’s degree in psy-
chology in 1949 and to date has graduated over a hundred students
from the program. A year earlier the department was given its present
title and shifted from the Division of Natural Sciences into the Di-
vision of Social Sciences.

VA Hospital, Lexington

The florescence of Psychology which accompanied its use by the
military in both World War I and World War II had as one of its
consequences in Kentucky the Veteran’s Administration Psychology
Training Program. To help train psychologists to fill the expanded
demand, the Veterans Administration in 1946 began a national
service-subsidization program. Dr. M. M. White, then Head of the
University of Kentucky Psychology Department and Graham B.
Dimmick, Director of the clinical training program saw to it that
the University was one of the sixteen pioneering institutions in the
country to install the cooperative program. Dr. Lawrence Baker took
the first psychology position in the Lexington VA Hospital which
had been in existence since 1931. One of his principal duties was to
supervise a dozen trainees. When Dr. Baker moved on to a teaching
position at the end of his first year, A. Dudley Roberts was brought
in as Chief of Service, a position he has occupied ever since. The
number of trainees subsequently rose to a maximum of 21 but through
the years has averaged approximately 14 to 15.

The joint program between the University of Kentucky and the
VA Hospital, Lexington, Kentucky has been one of the more reward-
ing in the nation. To the date of this writing, 62 trainees have com-
pleted Ph.D. requirements. One of its graduates, Cecil P. Peck, was
appointed Chief of all VA psychologists in the country in 1951. At
the VA Hospital, the trainee has received supervision and guidance in
diagnosis, therapy, counseling, and research as a meaningful sup-
plement to his academic courses. The growth of the staff has mir-
rored the growth of psychology in the state and in the nation. The

16 Frank Kodman, Jr.

gradual and still continuing expansion has brought a current total
of ten psychologists to work under the direction of the Chief. Some of
their energies are devoted to the training and research functions and
to an assortment of services fitting the enlarging concept of what
psychologists can do. The University of Kentucky has sent two post-
doctoral trainees to the program.

Phenomenology

Because of the presence of Erwin W. Straus, M.D. on the staff
of the Lexington Veterans Administration Hospital in 1946, Kentucky
became one of the centers of phenomenological inquiry into the
problems of psychopathology. His influence permeated the setting,
influencing the development of thought of trainees and staff. Through
the years some psychologists have become his close disciples.

In the early stages of this period, the Kentucky Psychological
Association and the Kentucky Education Association sponsored joint
programs at the annual meeting of K. E. A. Psychologists and educators
attempted to tackle some of the major issues in education. When
K. E. A. requested K. P. A. increase its membership in K. E. A. to fifty
percent or more, the cooperative venture fell by the wayside and has
not been renewed to this day. Psychologists and educators are as prone
as Other professionals to succumb to the common disease known as
“Rigor Categoris” (label coined by the author) and defined as “hard-
ening of the categories.”

Guidance Center, Catherine Spalding College

In 1944, the forerunner of the Psychological Service and Guidance
Center was established at Nazareth College, now known as Catherine
Spalding College. The Center has been under the expert supervision
of Sister Agnes Lucile Raley, one of Kentucky’s pioneer psychologists.
Courses were set up in 1942 to meet the needs of students majoring
or minoring in psychology, education students needing basic psychol-
ogy courses and student nurses needing specific psychology courses.
Clinical psychology as a course was offered for the first time in 1944.
Speech correction services were also added this year.

In 1953, the Guidance Center assumed the responsibility for the
Educational Guidance Clinic of the Catholic School Board for two
years. During this two-year span, a research study of superior chil-
dren was undertaken. Another study dealt with children’s perform-
ance on the Bender Gestalt Visual-Motor test. Also in 1953, the
Center assumed the responsibility for a remedial reading program.

A History of Psychology in Kentucky 17

Reading programs have been initiated by the Center in nearby
schools.

Louisville School Systems

The Catholic School Board (Parochial School System, Archdiocese
of Louisville )employed their first full time psychologist, Miss
Dorothy McGuire, on September 12, 1947. The essential work of the
school psychologist was testing and evaluation of children with ac-
ademic problems.

VA Hospital, Louisville

The Clinical Psychology Section of the VA Hospital was estab-
lished somewhere around 1947 at Nichols Hospital with Miss Priscilla
Alden as Acting Chief. Miss Alden resigned in 1949 at which time
Joseph Lawson became Acting Chief while still a trainee from the
University of Kentucky. Miss Alden initiated a program by which
psychiatric residents were trained to administer abbreviated Wechsler-
Bellevue tests to patients and, in conjunction with her successor,
established the VA as a field placement for masters’ degree students
from the University of Louisville. Some eleven such students were
trained—among them Raymond Bixler, currently head of the Depart-
ment of Psychology at the University of Louisville; and Clarence
Amster, on the faculty of the University of Louisville.

From 1950 to 1951, Joseph Lawson was Acting Chief. In March,
1951, Vera Kennedy became Acting Chief with Mr. Lawson on the
staff still working on his doctorate. During the period from 1947
to 1951, Drs. Arthur Benton, Graham Dimmick and Arthur Weider
were consultants to the section. In December of 1951, Joseph Law-
son became Acting Chief of the Psychology Section and Dr. Vera
Kennedy was Asst. Chief. He became Chief in 1953. Early in 1954
along with Dr. Kennedy, a Research Psychologist, Dr. Herman
Efron was added to the staff. Dr. Efron was employed specifically
to do research in Gerontology and especially on the possibility of
therapeutic effects of Histamine and Nicotinic Acid on cerebral
arteriosclerosis. Throughout this time, clinical psychology had stressed
the psycho-diagnostic role importantly, although supervising clinical
psychology Trainees from the University of Kentucky was also a part
of the function. Such students as Arnold Krugman, Louis Brown,
Robert Nichols, Jay Chambers, et al, spent some time in the Clinical
Psychology Section.

Psychology Licensing Law

The 1948, Kentucky Revised Statutes, Chapter 319 was the first
psychology licensing law passed by any legislature. This law is a

18 Frank Kodman, Jr.

restrictive form of licensing legislation. Restrictive licensing in eftect
says, “anyone doing these things is, ipso facto, practicing psychology
no matter what he calls himself and comes under the purview of the
law.” The law required the formation of a State Board of Examiners
of Psychology. The first members of the Board of Examiners were
Dr. Walter E. Watson, chairman, George A. Muench, sec’y. Leroy
Billings, Graham B. Dimmick and Frank A. Pattie.

On January 15, 1949, seventeen psychologists were certified under
Kentucky’s first psychology licensing law. They were as follows:
George A. Muench, Marion Billings, Graham B. Dimmick, Frank A.
Pattie, Walter E. Watson, C. W. Swink, Priscilla Alden, Susanna
Reynolds, Noble H. Kelley, Milton B. Jensen, Pauline Klinger,
Herbert H. Humphreys, Nancy T. Collins, Ray Bixler, Harold E.
Block, Paul H. Bowman and Jessie Irvine. Fifty-three licenses were
issued between 1949-1963.

Kentucky Department Mental Health

The Kentucky Department of Mental Health was established as
a separate and distinct department in 1952. Psychologists have played
increasingly important roles in the diagnosis and treatment of the
mentally ill in Kentucky. In 1952, there were seven psychologists in
the new department. Today there are seventeen full time and five
part-time psychologists. In 1952, a psychologists’ chief function was
diagnostic testing. Today the areas of responsibility include diagnosis,
planning, group and individual psychotherapy and research. Cur-
rently, there are three Directors of Research in the state mental
hospitals. All of these directors are psychologists and plans are under-
way to recruit Directors of Research for the other hospitals in the
department and for the two institutions for the mentally retarded.

University of Kentucky

During the period, 1947-1952, the psychology department operated
a testing program at the sub-regional office of the VA on Main Street,
downtown. Prof. Edward Newbury, with the aid of a number of
graduate assistants, carried the major responsibility for the testing
and counseling of veterans under the G.I. Bill shortly after the con-
tractual arrangement was worked out with the Advisement and
Guidance Section of the V.A. The Unit was originally headed by
R. D. Johnson with C. R. Hager as adviser.

On July 1, 1950, Jessie Irvine was transferred from the Central
Office of the old Division of Hospitals and Mental Hygiene to Eastern
State. She was the first full-time psychologist there. For approximately

A History of Psychology in Kentucky 19

two years, however, she worked more in Personnel and actually had
the title of Personnel Officer. On September 1, 1951, she was joined
by E. A. Moles and S. J. Cornett. Dr. Moles is now Consultant for
the Department of Mental Health and Dr. Cornett is with the De-
partment of Health, Education, and Welfare in Charlottesville, Vir-
ginia. Through the years several other students have worked at East-
ern State Hospital part-time. Among these were Lawrence Oberc,
Ruth Carroll, Joan Lee, Jerome Klein, William Query, Lauraine Stew-
art, and James Gay. Nicholas DePalma, Cardestral McGraw, and
Allie Hendricks have worked full-time.

More Psychology at Fort Knox

The Armor Human Research Unit authorized in November 1951,
at Fort Knox is a division of the Human Resources Research Office,
(HumRRO ), George Washington University. A contract between the
Department of the Army and the University makes the research pos-
sible. The research office is composed of five research units—Air De-
fense, Armor, Infantry, Leadership and Aviation and a Training
Methods Division. Almost all of the research scientists on the staff are
experimental psychologists. Most of their research is aimed at in-
creasing the effectiveness of men and weapons. One of their studies,
for example, has dealt with human factors which determine effective
command and control. The research unit at Fort Knox, the oldest
field research group, is considered one of the nations most important
military research organizations.

Dr. Norman Willard, an experimental psychologist, was promoted
to his present position of Director of the U:S. Army Armor Human
Research Unit on November 10, 1958. In 1961, he was elected Pres-
ident of the Kentucky Psychological Association. His immediate pre-
decessor in the Unit was Dr. Howard H. McFann who moved on to
the directorship of research at the Army Leadership Human Re-
search Unit in California. The Fort Knox Unit was opened by the
late Dr. Harry W. Braun with a staff of four researchers. Psychol-
ogists at Fort Knox and other installations as well lecture in nearby
colleges and Universities. Many participate actively in the affairs of
their community.

CONTEMPORARY PERIOD 1954-1964

Since 1954, at the VA Hospital in Louisville, there have been
numerous Clinical Psychology trainees—most of them from the Uni-
versity of Kentucky, but others from Purdue University, the Uni-
versity of Indiana, and Vanderbilt University. With the exception

20 Frank Kodman, Jr.

of the increased emphasis on psychotherapy in all of its aspects and
more active participation in the team approach, no significantly new
programs have been established. In 1960, the Vocational Counseling
program was added to the function of the Clinical Psychology Sec-
tion and this, while initially a separate Service, has now become a
coordinate responsibility of the Chief of the Clinical Psychology
Section, dynamic Mort Leventhal.

In recent years, Clinical Psychology has played an increasingly
active role in the hospital as a whole. Membership on various boards
and committees—such as the Disciplinary Board, Training Committee
and Rehabilitation Board have been assigned to the staff. More re-
cently, the Chief of the Section Dr. Leventhal has been designated
Shelter Manager for the hospital’s fallout shelter program and _ has
been trained at the Civil Defense Staff College in Battle Creek. Also,
numerous lectures and training sessions to volunteers, nurses and
attendants have been requested of the staff. Both of the staff mem-
bers hold faculty rank in the University of Louisville Medical
School and participate actively in the teaching of medical students,
psychiatric residents, and psychological interns.

During the tenure of Dr. James S. Calvin as Head of the Depart-
ment of Psychology at the University of Kentucky, 1950-1963, the
department developed its full strength academic program and in
1954 was accredited by the American Psychological Association fol-
lowing a comprehensive ‘on the spot’ evaluation of the total pro-
gram. The staff doubled in size and the full-time faculty now num-
ber 14-15 members; excluding part-time staff and joint appointees
from other departments. Since the inception of the Ph.D. program,
over two hundred candidates have been graduated. U.S.P.H.S. grad-
uate trainee stipends began after the department was accredited in
1954, and in 1956, a graduate trainee program was initiated between
the department and the State Department of Mental Health. Course-
work in speech pathology and audiology were added during this
period and the department developed a Speech Center and an Audi-
ology Clinic. The department gained considerable strength in ex-
perimental, clinical and social psychology.

From 1950 to 1956 at Western Kentucky State College, the psy-
chology department had no formal head. In 1956, Dr. C. H. Jaggers
became chairman and remained in this position until his retirement
in 1960. It was during this period that the department first offered
a minor to students who were in the Arts and Science curriculum.
Dr. Charles L. Shedd became the third head in 1960. Since 1961,
students have been permitted to take an undergraduate major in

A History of Psychology in Kentucky 21

psychology. The department now offers a total of 57 hours. There
are five full time staff members and three part-time. All full-time
members have the doctorate.

At the 1954 meeting of the Southern Society of Philosophy and
Psychology, E. E. Cureton presented . . . the report of an ad hoc
committee to consider the formation of a Southeastern Psychological
Association. Many members of the Kentucky Psychological Associa-
tion attend SEPA meetings or are members of the organization.

In 1954, two fully trained clinical psychologists were working
at Central Hospital. The first regular position for a psychologist was
established in 1950 and filled by a graduate student from the Uni-
versity of Louisville. A few students from the University of Kentucky
have received clinical experience at the Hospital. From the middle
1950’s to 1960, two to three full time positions have remained un-
filled. Recruitment seems to be a problem. At present, the Director
of Research at the hospital received his doctoral level training in
experimental and social psychology.

On April 14, 1955, there was a joint meeting of KPA and KEA
at the Warren Memorial Presbyterian Church in Louisville. A year
later KPA preesnted a panel discussion on, “A critical examination
of the use of scientific psychology in modern education.” Now these
two organizations no longer seek the mutual pursuit of educational
issues. Also in 1955, the Southeastern Psychological Association, which
attracts many Kentucky psychologists, became affiliated with the
American Psychological Association.

In 1957-59, the staff of the Guidance Center and Psychological
Service at Catherine Spalding College was expanded to assist in
training Guidance Counselors. In 1959, the Center assumed the re-
sponsibility for the Placement Bureau. That same year, the Center
developed a service known as the Parentarium—a group guidance
conference between counselors and parents. Sister Agnes Lucile Raley,
the pioneering director of the Center, holds a Ph.D. in psychology
from Fordham University. Workshops and Guidance Institutes are
sponsored regularly by the Guidance Center and its staff. The Director
has served consistently on the State Board of Psychological Examiners
and as KPA’s representative on the Kentucky Children’s Advisory
Council.

The Jefferson County School System (Board of Education) em-
ployed their first full time psychologist, Mr. O. L. Shields, in Sep-
tember, 1957. The essential task for the school psychologist in this
system is to evaluate the academic placement of children and work
with special education and accelerated classes. Thus, in the Louisville

22 Frank Kodman, Jr.

area the Louisville Public School System, the Jefferson County School
System, the Parochial School System, and Ormsby Village are agencies
that emp!cy school psychologists.

During 1959-61, Kentucky’s internationally known authority on
hypnosis, Prof. Frank A. Pattie, served as President of the American
Society of Clinical Hypnosis. At that time the Society had 2,184
members, including 1,471 physicians, 627 dentists and 86 psychologists.
The Society is a member-organization of the World Federation for
Mental Health and an affiliate society of the American Association
for the Advancement of Science. Since 1958, he has served as an
associate editor of the American Journal of Clinical Hypnosis.

Ernest Meyers Award

As a memorial to the late Ernest Meyers, beloved colleague and
instructor of students, the annual Ernest Meyers Award was estab-
lished by action of the Executive Council of the Kentucky Psycholog-
ical Association at its meeting on August 8, 1957. It voted to award
twenty-five dollars to the undergraduate student of any senior college
or university in Kentucky who presented the best paper or report
on his research. The first committee consisted of Dr. M. M. White,
Chairman, Christine Ballmann, R. M. Griffith, and Jessie Irvine.
Later Chairmen have been Louis Brown and Robert A. Baker. It is
believed by many that this represents one of the most laudable ac-
tions of the Association.

University of Kentucky Medical Center

The first member of the profession of psychology to join the staff
of the University of Kentucky Medical Center was a research psy-
chologist employed in the Department of Behavioral Sciences in 1959,
one year prior to the admission of the first class of medical students.
A director of clinical psychology for the Department of Psychiatry,
who was added to the staff in 1960, assumed the responsibility of
adding new psychologists to that Department, filling two positions
in the area of clinical psychology and one research position in the
area of neurophysiology.

The members of the clinical psychology staff have rendered serv-
ices and supervised graduate students in the areas of diagnostic
evaluation and psychotherapy. The patient population has included
persons in outpatient and inpatient psychiatric services, in pediatrics,
medicine, surgery, and rehabilitation. Contacts with other units of
the hospital have expanded as the Hospital has developed.

A History of Psychology in Kentucky 23

Each of the psychologists has been involved in research activities,
and, in some instances, in larger projects which are of immediate
practical value in the hospital setting.

The psychologists have also taught in several conjoint courses
developed for medical students and have maintained contact with
the Department of Psychology in the College of Arts and Sciences
through joint appointments. Positions for research psychologists and
clinical psychologists will become available as the size of the staff
expands.

Central Kentucky Psychological Association

In the fall of 1962, interest was revived by psychologists in and
around Lexington in forming a local organization. In response to
the idea, some 50 local psychologists met at the Holiday Inn Restau-
rant in Lexington and decided to form an organization to be called
the Central Kentucky Psychological Association. Dr. Jesse G. Harris
was elected its first President. There were 65 charter members. The
minimal qualification for members was a master’s degree in psy-
chology or near completion of the degree. Affiliates could be students
or other persons interested in psychology. Meetings have been held
every two months except in the summer.

During 1962 a half dozen psychologists were attracted to posi-
tions in the Lexington VA Hospital in order to participate in seminars
delving in depth into the seminal ideas of Dr. Straus, of Husserl and
Heidegger and other leaders of the Movement. A conference held
in 1963 on Phenomenology: Pure and Applied brought together an
international field of speakers and an audience of 500 people from 26
states. The proceedings of that Conference are to be published during
1964 by Duquesne University Press and will be followed by a second
conference on Phenomenology of Will and Action in May of this year.

The Clinical Psychology staff of Eastern State Hospital at present
consists of Miss Irvine, Director, Billie Corder and Marie Garner.
Robert DeBurger came in 1963 as Research Psychologist. Diagnosis
was the only area of work, except personnel, of the Psychologists
until the creation of the Kentucky Department of Mental Health in
1952. In 1953 Group Psychotherapy was added and later individual
Psychotherapy. Now for approximately two years staff members have
engaged in research and instruction for student nurses. Since last
autumn vocational evaluations of mentally ill patients have been
added to the activities.

In 1963 the University of Louisville began to use resources of
Central Hospital in their course in experimental psychopathology.

24 Frank Kodman, Jr.

With clinical psychologists here exercising the full range of their
skills, psychological services are represented in considerable variety.
Graduate psychology students and sometimes other students have had
summer appointments for the past few years, always with work for
or in collaboration with the clinical psychology section. For the
most part they have helped with research projects or acquired ex-
perience for psychological internship credit.

In September, 1963, a Ph.D. program was approved in clinical
psychology and in experimental psychology at the University of
Louisville. Twenty-two candidates were admitted and twelve more
are being considered for 1964.

Psychology Manpower Conference

In 1963, the Kentucky Mental Health Manpower Commission spon-
sored a Psychology Manpower Conference in Louisville stressing state
and University cooperation in the training and recruiting of psychol-
ogists for public mental health programs. Thirty-eight psychologists
attended. The two University department heads stressed their em-
phasis on scientific psychology.

Kentucky APA Representation

In 1960, there were one hundred thirty-one Kentucky psychologists
holding membership in the American Psychological Association. In
1950, there were sixty-seven members; in 1940 thirty-two members;
in 1930 twelve members, in 1920 two members and in 1914 only one
member. The two earliest members were Cloyd McAllister and Karl
T. Waugh of Berea.

Modern Research in Psychotherapy

A program of research into the processes and outcomes of psycho-
therapy was begun with the initiation of the Psychotherapy Research
Group in the Department of Psychology at the University of Ken-
tucky in 1963. The initial aspect of the research involves an intensive
study of 320 patients undergoing group psychotherapy. Also, data
from the Wisconsin program was transferred to the University of
Kentucky to continue the attempts to carry out research in indi-
vidual psychotherapy with schizophrenics.

A model training program integrating didactic and experiential
approaches to the training of counselors and psychotherapists was
developed during the 1963-1964 year as part of the program of the
Psychotherapy Research Group. A portion of this program involved

A History of Psychology in Kentucky 25

the training of lay therapists and an evaluation of their effectiveness
based not only upon process measures but upon their effectiveness
with 100 treatment and 100 control patients at Eastern State Hos-
pital. The Psychotherapy Research Group has also been involved
in initiating research supported by the Federal Government cooper-
ation with the College of Education, Division of Special Education
in the State Department of Education, the Frankfort State Hospital
and School and the Stuart Home School for the Mentally Retarded;
representing joint efforts with the Veterans Administration Hospital
in Lexington, the Kentucky Village male and female juvenile de-
linquent facility, Eastern State Hospital, and the State Hospital in
Danville. Members of the Psychotherapy Research Group were also
active in initiating plans for a proposed Mental Health Research
Institute which wolud encompass research activity in mental health
throughout the Commonwealth of Kentucky. The Psychotherapy
Research Group sponsored the training in psychotherapy of the
Department’s first NIMH Post-Doctoral Research Fellow.

Research Grants

Nowadays, it is fashionable to seek Federal or Foundation sup-
port of research endeavors; the larger the grant, the greater the pres-
tige. Dr. Steven Vandenberg, psychologist, Department of Pedi-
atrics, Louisville School of Medicine recently received a four year
grant of $280,000.00 from the National Institute of Child Health and
Human Development entitled The Louisville Twin Study. Dr. Earl
Alluisi and Dr. Samuel Fulkerson, Department of Psychology, Uni-
versity of Louisville are working on a $143,000.00 grant from the
Army Medical Research and Development Corps. The study deals
with psychological reactions to infectious diseases. Dr. Charles B.
Truax and Dr. Robert Carkhuff, Department of Psychology, Univer-
sity of Kentucky received a 1963 grant of $138,000.00 from the Na-
tional Institutes of Mental Health concerned with research into the
processes and outcomes of psychotherapy.

Closing Comment

Earlier in this paper, the objectives of the American Phychological
Association were stated. Its three-fold purpose—advancing psychology
as a science, as a profession and as a means of promoting human
welfare are clearly reflected in this brief history of Kentucky psy-
chology. The introductory section of this paper was intended mainly
for the other disciplines in the Academy. The contemporary issues

26 Frank Kodman, Jr.

facing Psychology are merely symptoms of a growing discipline and
reflect careful critciism and insightful analysis. Most psychologists
have a healthy respect for their discipline whether they are “clin-
ical” or “experimental,” “applied” or “nonapplied.” Understanding
human behavior is perhaps our most urgent scientific goal.

It now remains for somone to undertake the complete history of
Kentucky psychology. The author extends his grateful appreciation
to all those who contributed information and encouragement. Re-
grettably, certain errors and misinterpretations have undoubtedly
occurred; for these the author takes full credit. The task though brief
was enjoyable and rewarding. Everyone can be proud of the his-
tory of psychology in Kentucky. The next fifty years should be even
more fruitful.

References

Boring, E. G., History, Psychology and Science. Wiley & Sons: New York, 1963.

Eiduson, Bernice T., Scientists: their Psychological World. Basic Books: New
York, 1962.

Harris, Marjorie and Alluisi, E., The Southern Society in retrospect: an abbrevi-
ated history of the first sixty years of the Southern Society for Philosophy and
Psychology, 1904-1964. Unpublished manuscript, 1964.

Lindgren, H. C. and Byrne, D., Psychology: An Introduction to the Study of
Human Behavior. John Wiley & Sons: New York, 1961.

Marett, R. R., Anthropology. Holt: New York, 1912.

Miner, J. B., The twenty-fifth anniversary of the Southern Society for Philosophy
and Psychology. Psychol. Bull., 1931, 28, 1-14.

Meehl, P. E., Clinical versus Statistical Prediction. University of Minnesota Press:
Minneapolis, 1954.

Sanford, F. H., Psychology and the mental health movement. Amer. Psychologist,
1958, 13, 80-85.

FIFTY YEARS OF PLANT PATHOLOGY IN KENTUCKY

W. D. VALLEAU
Department of Plant Pathology, University of Kentucky, Lexington

The history of Plant Pathology in Kentucky necessarily is con-
cerned with the history of the Kentucky Agricultural Experiment Sta-
tion. In the early years plant disease problems were the concern of
the “crops” departments, Horticulture and Agronomy and the “reg-
ulatory” department, Entomology and Botany. The last was under
the leadership of Mr. Harrison Garman from 1889 to 1928.

Mr. Garman can best be described as an old fashioned natural-
ist, one interested in all kinds of life and what little was done to help
farmers with their plant disease problems until after World War I
was done largely by him. His service consisted of diagnosis of dis-
eases, identification of some of the pathogens involved, and recom-
mendation of remedies when they were known. Research on plant dis-
eases, as it developed later and as we know it today, was not part
of the early program. In 1918 the first person recognized as a plant
pathologist, Miss Mable Roe, was employed for one year as As-
sistant Plant Pathologist in the Department of Agronomy.

In the fall of 1919 W. D. Valleau, who had just received his Ph.D.
degree from the University of Minnesota, was employed as Plant
Pathologist in the Department of Agronomy and the beginning of
plant pathology in the sense of a discipline, functioning in research
and teaching, in the Kentucky Agricultural Experiment Station and
the University of Kentucky can truly be said to have occurred with
this appointment. It is interesting that with 2 exceptions, all of the
people concerned with plant pathology in Kentucky since that time,
are still on the faculty of the University of Kentucky.

In 1923 E. M. Johnson was hired and he later received the Ph.D.
degree from the University of Minnesota. In 1931 Lawrence Henson
joined the staff with a joint appointment as plant pathologist and
forage crop agronomist. He later undertook advanced study, also
at the University of Minnesota. Dr. H. H. Thornberry (Ph.D., Min-
nesota ) joined the staff in 1936, but remained for only one year. Dr.
Stephen Diachun (Ph.D., Illinois) was added to the group in 1937.
In 1950 J. L. Troutman was employed as Assistant in Plant Pathology
and remained in that position until 1953 when he left to undertake
advanced study at the University of Wisconsin. Also, in 1950 Dr.
R. A. Chapman (Ph.D., Illinois) joined the staff and in 1953 Dr.
G. W. Stokes (Ph.D., Wisconsin) was hired.

28 W. D. Valleau

The latest additions to the staff were Dr. R. E. Hampton (Ph.D.,
Wisconsin ) in 1960; Dr. R. A. Reinert (Ph.D., Wisconsin) in 1962; C.
C. Litton (Agricultural Research Service, United States Department
of Agriculture) in 1962; Dr. J. W. Oswald (Ph.D., California) in
1963. In 1961 Dr. Valleau was given special assignment.

On July 1, 1963 plant pathology was removed from the Depart-
ment of Agronomy and the Department of Plant Pathology was
formed with Dr. R. A. Chapman as Chairman.

From 1919 to 1936 Plant Pathology was located in the Experi-
ment Station Building but in 1936 it was removed to a new building
named the Tobacco Research Laboratory. Here, in addition to plant
pathology activities, curing studies on burley tobacco were conduc-
ted by Dr. R. N. Jeffrey and Prof. L. S. Obannon for a period of
10 years.

The purpose of the remainder of this paper is to report in brief
the contributions that have been made by members of the staff in
the general area of plant diseases. The plant pathologist is, and must
be, an opportunist and a generalist because diseases occur depending
on a number of contributing factors acting together. For this reason
studies have been made and reported, when opportunity arose, over
a wide field of subjects. These are reported briefly and pertinent
references to the literature given in footnotes.

Peach Defoliation and Bacterium Pruni

One of the most serious diseases of peaches in the “twenties” was
defoliation which occurred under a variety of conditions. The common
practice in western Kentucky and neighboring states was to grow
peaches under a system of clean cultivation and fertilization with
nitrate of soda. This system is one that can only result in a continual
depletion of soil and in serious erosion. Black spot of fruit and leaf
spot both caused by Bacterium pruni were present in all orchards
and most cases of defoliation were attributed to B. pruni. Through
observations, a study of the literature, and experiments carried on in
the Wood Axton orchard near LaGrange, it was clearly demonstrated
that defoliation could be prevented by practices such as manuring,
complete fertilization, and cover crops that resulted in soil improve-
ment, and that B. pruni did not cause defoliation on well nourished
trees. Further, with proper fertilization, B. pruni caused only a minor
disease of peaches.1 Another result of the Axton experiments was
that Elberta and Hale peaches, manured and allowed to grow up in

1 Trans. I11. Hort. Soc. 1928 p 474-488.

Fifty Years of Plant Pathology in Kentucky 29

sweet clover and weeds, remained firm for a week or more following
picking when mature; whereas fruit from well fertilized trees with
a rye cover crop disked in ripened and quickly became over ripe
following harvest.

A Plum Virus Disease

In the late twenties it was noticed that Japanese plum trees in
the station orchard were loosing vigor and in the course of 2 or 3
years became unfruitful, the leaves were small and curled down-
ward, and the older branches gradually died. On some of the more
normally shaped leaves ring patterns similar to those of ringspot of
tobacco could be found in late spring. Buds were transferred to
young peach seedlings with the result that some of the peach leaves
the following spring showed typical virus ring patterns. This was
apparently the first report of this now well known and widely dis-
tributed virus disease of plums and related plants.?

Infection of Seed Corn

Following World War I attention was directed by plant path-
ologists to the group of diseases known as root, stalk, and ear rots
of corn and the part that diseased and “disease free” seed corn played.
Rag doll testing of ears was recommended as a method of obtaining
clean seed. It proved of some value in selecting ears from crib corn
but was expensive and not very satisfactory. To determine the true
situation as to degree of infection of properly cured and stored seed
ears with pathgenic fungi, several hundred ears of corn were studied.*
Seeds were thoroughly surface sterilized and tested in sterilized
rag-dolls, in sterilized sand, in sterile water and after coating with
Bordeaux mixture. These studies indicated that practically 100 per-
cent of the kernels carried the fungus Fusarium moniliforme Sheldon
internally and that the majority of kernels also carried other organ-
isms as Alternaria and Helminthosporium. Microtome sections of the
seed coats showed the fungi to be between the layers of cells of the
seed coat. When the seeds were surface sterilized and planted in
sterile sand they would germinate normally but in the course of about
10 days the seed coats would become discolored, pink, red, or wine
colored or develop streaks of dark green or black. Eventually various
fungi would fruit on the discolored areas. Eventually one or an-
other of the fungi (usually F. moniliforme) would rot the seminal roots

2 Ky. Agr. Expt. Sta. Bul. 327, 1932.
3 Ky. Agr. Expt. Sta. Bul. 226, 1920.

30 W. D. Valleau

and the plant would die. Under field conditions the fungi caused but
little injury.

When seed were collected before maturity, but well enough de-
veloped to germinate, it was found that the seed coats were already
infested with the several fungi. This suggested that the fungi had
entered through the silks following pollination.

As a result of these studies it was recommended that farmers
select ears for seed purposes as soon as the husks began to die, dry
the ears, and store them in a dry location. In this way ears entirely
free from the two ear rots Diplodia zeae and Gibberella saubinetii
could be selected and high germination could be expected without
a germination test.

A study of the length of life of seedlings from different ears of
corn indicated that seed from some ears developed discolorations
early, followed by early injury to the roots; while seed from other
ears remained normal in color for a much longer time and the seed-
lings were much longer lived in the sand box. Also, inbred lines of
corn could be classified as to length of life in the sand box. The
significance of these results was not entirely clear but they seemed
to mean that in some ears the fungi were completely sealed between
seed coat layers, whereas in others the sealing was less complete
and the fungi could become active more quickly. The studies left
no doubt that certain fungi, particularly F. moniliforme, are well
adapted to live their life in or on the corn plant, enter the seed, and
be carried wherever the seed went.

Corn root rot. Further studies on rotting of corn roots by seed
borne organisms indicated that they caused little injury except to the
temporary roots; even Gibberella saubinitii the commonly recognized
cause of root rot caused only seedling blight. However when decayed
corn roots from a continuous corn plot were added to soil or sand
in which fungus free seedlings were grown, a severe root rot developed
apparently caused by a species of Pythium.4

Diseases of Red Clover and Breeding Studies

Red clover is a perennial plant but because of frequent failures
agronomists fourty years ago considered the plant to be a biennial.
In the early twenties a joint project between agronomy and plant
pathology was started to learn more about the causes of clover fail-
ure in this area. These studies in one form or another have been
continued up to the present time. In the early studies in Kentucky

4 Jour. Agr. Research 33, No. 5, 1926,

Fifty Years of Plant Pathology in Kentucky 31

it soon became evident that several diseases, insects, weather, and soil
conditions contributed to clover failure. A study of root systems of
young seedlings on through the second year indicated that root dis-
eases played a primary part in clover failures.» The causes of root
decay are still not certain. Nematodes and soil fungi are involved.
Blackening of the roots, which is very common, was demonstrated
to be caused by the fungus Sclerotium bataticola Taub.®

The fact that a low percentage of plants survived each sowing,
and produced seed, suggested that natural selection in each region
where red clovers are grown would rapidly select out material that
could survive best in that area. Based on this supposition seed of
clovers that had been grown for many years on the same Kentucky
farm were collected and tested for survival in comparison with un-
adapted seed. These tests resulted in the introduction of two varieties,
Ky 101 from central Kentucky, and Ky 215 from Western Kentucky.
Based on these results a project was started in 1931 to develop a more
disease resistant variety by inoculating seedlings with pathogenic
organisms and then saving seed from plants that survived 3 or more
years. This resulted in the variety Kenland which has proved to be
widely adapted in Central U. S.

Mosaic of Red Clover. Bean yellow mosaic has proved to be the
most common and injurious virus disease of red clover in this area.
It is aphid transmitted and can be tranmitted mechanically. The
reactions of numerous plants of red clover to the virus have been
studied, with the result that homozygous plants which react with
necrotic spots that localize the virus have been isolated. Now the
problem is to introduce this dominant factor into a variety such as
Kenland that is already adapted to local conditions. This work is
underway.”

Sclerotinia trifoliorum. As this is an important pathogen of red
clover, studies on the life history of the organism and the nature of
resistance to it have been made. Ascospores of the fungus are pro-
duced in the fall and the disease appears in the spring. Careful ob-
servation by Mr. Henson showed that minute spots developed on red
clover leaves above apothecia and isolation from these into the winter
proved they were caused by ascospore infections. This method of
carryover through the winter was a much more realistic way for the
fungus to survive than the saprophytic stage previously postulated.
The locally adapted varieties of red clover proved much more re-

5 Ky. Agr. Expt. Sta. Bul. 269, 1926.
6 Phytopath. 27: 913-918, 1937.
7 Phytopath. 49: 541, 1959; 52:729, 1962.

32 W. D. Valleau

sistant to crown rot than unadapted varieties. It was shown that
starch stored in the roots of adapted varieties was used more slowly
during the winter and spring than that in unadapted varieties.®

Black stem of alfalfa, red clover and sweet clover.—Blackening
of the stem of various legumes is common particularly during cool
damp springs. While the disease had been observed elsewhere it had
been given little attention because it was usually of minor importance.
Some seasons alfalfa in Kentucky is severely damaged and stands
greatly reduced. A study of the diseased alfalfa, red clover and
sweet clover was started in 1930 and reported on in 1933.°

The diseases of alfalfa and red clover were found to be caused
by distinct species of Phoma and that of sweet clover by Aschochyta
lethalis. Differences were found in resistance of varieties of alfalfa to
the disease, and the adapted varieties of red clover were little in-
jured whereas varieties from more northern areas were sometimes
severely injured. Any practice, such as winter grazing, which would
tend to break down the overwinter shoots of alfalfa on which inoculum
is carried would tend to reduce spring infection.

Tobacco Diseases

Because tobacco is such an important cash crop in Kentucky and
because so little had ever been done on the diseases of tobacco, a
study of tobacco diseases and methods of control was started in 1920
and has continued to the present time. These studies have included
virus diseases, root diseases, leaf spot diseases caused by fungi, bac-
teria, and deficiencies, and miscellaneous other diseases which were
studied as opportunities arose. In addition a breeding program,
designed to introduce disease resistance from various sources into
the types of tobacco commonly grown in Kentucky, has been con-
ducted up to the present time.

Virus diseases. In 1920 the only virus disease of tobacco that was
recognized was tobacco mosaic, and not enough was known about it
to even recognize the common source of infection. To gain some
information about virus diseases records were kept, following setting,
of the appearance of virus diseased plants in the plantings on the
station farm. It soon became evident that not just one but several
previously unrecognized virus diseases were involved. These _ in-
cluded tobacco mosaic, ringspot, etch, cucumber mosaic, and vein-

8 Ky. Agr. Expt. Sta. Bul. 341, 1933..
9 Ky. Agr. Expt. Sta. Bul. 339, 1933,

Fifty Years of Plant Pathology in Kentucky 33

banding, which was later determined to be caused by the potato
Y virus. Later streak was recognized as a serious virus disease in
some areas of the state. Another virus disease of great theoretical
importance is the Plantago or ribbon grass virus that occasionally
affects tobacco. These virus diseases were studied in some detail by
E. M. Johnson, and the report on them used in a thesis presented
to the University of Minnesota in partial fulfillment of the require-
ment for Ph.D. degree.!°

Etch. This virus disease was first recognized and its symptoms
described at the Kentucky Experiment Station. It has since been
studied extensively in England and has been found to be a destruc-
tive disease of tobacco in Ontario, Canada and in Venezuela, and is a
destructive disease of peppers in the southern states. In Kentucky it
was recognized as occurring in tobacco near farm garden sites and
the same has been found true in Ontario and Venezuela. The virus
is found in species of Physalis and is apparently transmitted by the
potato aphid to tobacco and then spread by the green peach aphid.
In Venezuela it appears to be spread by Aphis cracivora from pig-
weed to tobacco. While contro] measures have not been developed in
Ontario, where the disease is destructive, it is satisfactorily controlled
in Venezuela by controlling aphids in the whole irrigated area in
which tobacco is grown or by keeping the area weed free.

Veinbanding or potato Y virus. This virus disease is of little
economic importance in Kentucky although strains of it appear to
cause a serious disease of tobacco elsewhere. The virus was found
to be spread from potatoes, where it, in combination with the X
virus, is the cause of rugose mosaic. In observations covering many
years and several countries the disease in tobacco has always been
associated with potatoes growing near by. Attempts to isolate it from
perennial solanaceous weeds have always proved futile. Inoculations
from rugose mosaic potatoes to tobacco by others had produced a
disease called spot-necrosis or ringspot, which was thought to be
caused by a single virus. Our studies proved it to be caused by a
mixture of the veinbanding virus and potato X virus.1!

Cucumber mosaic. This virus disease is of little importance at
present in Kentucky but now that a strain of peach aphid which multi-
plies on tobacco is common this aphid transmitted virus could become
injurious. During the twenties cucumber mosaic was confused with
tobacco mosaic even in research studies so that its recognition as dis-

10 Ky, Agr. Expt. Sta. Bul. 306, 1930.
11 Ky. Agr. Expt. Sta. Bul. 309, 1930.

34 W. D. Valleau

tinct was a contribution. It was also determined that there were more
than ten distinct strains of the virus based on symptom expression.

Ringspot. Ringspot was first recognized as a virus disease in 1922
when it was transmitted mechanically at the Kentucky Experiment
Station. Since then it has been the subject of extensive studies both
here and elsewhere. It was recognized early as a common cause of
mosaic in cucurbits and later as the cause of yellows of egg plant
in Texas.1”

Several strains of the virus are known. One strain was found which
caused the plant, in the so-called recovered stage, to become yellow
throughout. This strain was used in seed transmission studies because,
soon after germination, the seedlings carrying the virus bleached out
to light yellow and remained yellow throughout life. Seed trans-
mission of 17 percent has been observed. In cool weather field plants
affected with a green strain, which no longer show ringspot symptoms,
develop chlorosis and slight necrosis along leaf edges. The same type
of injury occurs in seedlings carrying the virus of green ringspot.
Thus seed transmission of both green and bleaching strains of the
virus was demonstrated.'?

The fact that plants inoculated with the ringspot virus at first
develop ringspots, later oak leaf patterns, and finally, when the virus
enters the growing point, no longer develop ringspot symptoms but
appear almost normal has been interpreted by others to mean that
the plant had developed immunity; because when again inoculated
no symptoms developed. It was assumed that this immunity was of
the same nature as that resulting from vaccination against smallpox.
This view was shown to be untenable in a paper which won the
King award, Kentucky Academy of Science, 1940.14 It was pointed
out that so-called recovered plants still carried the virus, that at
20°C leaf edge symptoms developed, that seed set was poor, because
of a high degree of pollen sterility, and that plants affected by yellow
ringspot virus were yellow throughout life and could not be con-
sidered to be healthy and immune.

Plantago virus. A virus is common in species of Plantago, in Ken-
tucky and in the eastern states, which is readily transmitted to tobacco
where it causes a disease similar to tobacco mosaic in some varieties
and a severe necrotic disease in other varieties of tobacco. In 1930 a
virus was transmitted from a plantago leaf to tobacco which was
similar in symptoms to three collections from tobacco. Infected

12 Phytopath. 41: 209-212, 1951.
13 Ky. Agr. Expt. Sta. Bul. 327, 1932.
14 Phytopath. 31: 522-533, 1941.

Fifty Years of Plant Pathology in Kentucky 35

tobacco was dried and some years later the plantago virus was trans-
mitted from it to tobacco plants, proving that the virus withstands
drying the same as tobacco mosaic. In 1941 a Fayette County farmer
brought in plants with a severe necrotic disease that proved to be
caused by the plantago virus. This led to the recognition of two
genetic types of tobacco, one that developed only mottling (nn)
and the other which developed severe necrosis (N’N’) when in-
oculated with the virus. While the disease appears to be of little
economic importance the virus is of great interest theoretically as it
is probably the virus from which the numerous strains of the to-
bacco mosaic virus originated.1®

The rib grass or plantago virus protein contains two amino acids,
histidine and methionine, that are not found in several strains of
tobacco mosaic virus.'®

Streak. Streak was first mentioned in the bulletin Tobacco Dis-
eases in Kentucky but the disease there referred to and illustrated
now appears to have been caused by the plantago virus.” In 1933
the virus disease now recognized as streak was transmitted to a to-
bacco plant in the greenhouse by grafting.'®

The disease at that time was rare on the Station Farm and else-
where in the neighborhood but by 1937 reports of serious outbreaks
in northern Kentucky were received and an outbreak in a small plant-
ing on the Station Farm was observed where 16.6 percent of the
plants were affected. This and outbreaks elsewhere were traced
almost certainly to sweet clover plants growing nearby. The virus
proved difficult to transmit mechanically at that time so proof of this
relationship was not obtained. But in 1945 streak was transferred from
13 of 105 sweet clover plants, collected at random, to tobacco by
improved methods of inoculation.”

In an unsuccessful attempt to find resistance in tobacco varieties
and nicotiana species to streak methods of inoculation were de-
veloped that proved highly successful in transmitting the virus.?°

Tobacco Mosaic. In 1920 when studies on virus diseases at the
Kentucky Experiment Station were started very little was known
about tobacco mosaic other than that it could be transmitted readily
and appeared in the plant bed and field in some mysterious way.
When records were kept of the distribution of mosaic affected plants

15 Phytopath. 33: 210-219, 1943 and Phytopath. 42: 40-42, 1952.
16 Knight, C. A. J. Biol. Chem. 171: 297, 1947.

17 Ky. Agr. Expt. Sta. Bul. 328, 1932.

18 Phytopath. 30: 438-440, 1940.

19 Phytopath. 40: 516-518, 1950.

20 Phytopath. 40, 128-133, 1950.

386 W. D. Valleau

following setting it quickly became evident that infection could be
traced to certain people pulling plants, and it was found that these
people chewed barn cured tobacco carrying the virus.?! This discov-
ery led to practical control of the disease. Manufactured tobacco
including plugs, granulated smoking tobacco and cigarettes were also
found to carry the virus, but were not as great a threat as barn
cured leaf.??

A study of the effects of a relatively mild strain of mosaic on
plants inoculated at setting and topping times on burley tobacco
showed a reduction of 43% in yield and 61.7 in value of the crop
when inoculated at setting time; and a reduction in value of 25%
when inoculated at topping. Later studies elsewhere on other types
of tobacco gave similar results.”*

In some fields of burley and dark tobacco spread of mosaic re-
sulted in one or more leaves on a plant developing large necrotic
areas which we called mosaic burn. Attempts to produce burning
with mosaic selected at random resulted in failure but when virus
was transferred from mosaic burned plants to healthy plants mosaic
burn always resulted. These studies proved that there were non-
burning and burning strains of the virus.*4

Further collections of the virus from weeds and tobacco plant-
ings over the state indicated that a careful study of nearly any collec-
tion would show differences of one kind or another from other col-
lections.2° Later collections were made of the virus from tomato plants
grown in plastic greenhouses. Fourteen of these collections were
tested on Pinto and Golden cluster wax beans, on which tobacco
strains produce necrotic spots. Surprisingly none of the fourteen
strains, in common with the plantago virus, produced any necrotic
spots. This suggests that these strains may be intermediate between
the plantago virus and the tobacco strains.?6 A project is underway
to determine the amino acid makeup of plantago, the tomato strains,
and tobacco strains of the virus to see if any evolutionary trend can
be established.

It is commonly recognized that the tobacco mosaic virus is de-
stroyed by heating the virus in water for 10 minutes at 90°C but noth-
ing was known about the effect of dry heat. A test of 3 distinct strains
of virus in cured tobacco showed that the virus was destroyed at 80,

21 Ky. Agr. Expt. Sta. Bul. 280, 1927 and 876, 1937.
22 Phytopath. 17: 513-522, 1927.

23 Phytopath. 17: 528-527, 1927.

24 Ky. Agr. Expt. Sta. Bul. 361, 1935.

25 Phytopath. 26: 28, 1936.

26 P]. Dis. Rept. 46: No. 7, 1962.

Fifty Years of Plant Pathology in Kentucky 37

100, 120, 140 and 150°C in 50, 10, 1, and .4 hours respectively.?" This
information has been used in helping one of the cigarette manufac-
turers regulate temperatures in a redryer to destroy the virus in
stems (midribs) to be sold to farmers.

The fact that the virus withstands drying from one year to the
next raised the question as to how long it would remain active in dry
tobacco. The chemistry department had many samples collected over
the years and we were lucky enough to obtain samples of burley
from the 1882 crop, the same year that tobacco mosaic was first
described. These studies showed that the virus was active in samples
24 to 52 years old.?8

Mosaic control by breeding. Two sources of resistance to tobacco
mosaic have been discovered. One of these is a variety of tobacco
grown in Colombia, S. A. and the other a necrotic spotting factor
present in several wild species of Nicotiana. When Ambalema_ be-
came available in 1934 selections of the most resistant plants were
made and crossed with burley tobacco. Resistance was found to be
controlled by 2 pairs of recessive factors. Through a backcross pro-
gram with burley, varieties were developed with a high degree
of resistance and good yield and quality. The limiting factor in ac-
ceptance was that under good growing conditions two or more
leaves would wilt down and scald. So far no acceptable varieties
carrying Ambalema resistance have been developed anywhere.

When certain wild species of Nicotiana such as N. glutinosa are in-
oculated with the virus a necrotic spot develops at each point of
entrance of the virus and usually the virus is confined to these areas.
A hybrid of N. glutinosa x N. tabacum (N. digluta), Holmes Samsoun,
and a 5th backcross of Ky 16 on N. digluta became available in the
mid thirties. Using these as a source of the N or resistance factor
varieties of burley, one sucker and dark air and fire cured tobaccos
were developed that were equal in yield and quality to the standard
varieties. At present nearly all tobacco grown in the state is mosaic
resistant and mosaic is no longer a problem in Kentucky.2?

The general use of mosaic resistant burley varieties over the burley
area means that manufactured products such as cigarettes, pipe to-
bacco, and roll-your-own tobaccos no longer carry the virus and con-
sequently are no longer a source of infection of tomato plants in
glass and plastic greenhouses. This may account for the fact that
collections of mosaic from tomatoes are no longer typical tobacco

27 Phytopath. 28: 129-134, 1938.
28 Ky. Agr. Expt. Sta. Bul. 361, 1935.
29 Econ. Botany 6: 69-102, 1952.

38 W. D. Valleau

mosaics, but are probably strains of the virus carried in perennial
solanaceous weeds which could differ from the strains that proved
successful in tobacco.

Frogeye. Frogeye, caused by a species of Cercospora, is a common
and sometimes destructive disease of tobacco. Another disease com-
monly occurs on cured tobacco, from fields heavily infected with
frogeye, called greenspot. To determine whether the two spots were
caused by the same organisms, isolations were made from both spots
and proved identical. Leaves inoculated and held for about 7 days
developed greenspot but if held twice that time developed frogeye.*°

Ordinarily Cercospora does not fruit readily in culture so it was
necessary to develop a technic whereby large numbers of conidia
would be produced that could be used as inoculum. A highly suc-
cessful method was developed that would produce more than one
crop of spores.*1

If one is to develop control measures for a fungus disease he
must know something of the origin of inoculum in an outbreak.
Frogeye is rarely seen in tobacco plant beds in Kentucky but is a
common plant bed disease in Australia. Its absence in Kentucky
plant beds, but its appearance in the field later in the season, sug-
gested that wild hosts might play a part as it had been shown that
Cercospora of beets could originate from native vegetation. Isolations
of Cercospora were made from 28 species in 16 families. In culture
the isolations were all nearly identical. Inoculations from 16 host
species form 11 families produced typical frogeye on tobacco, so it
appeared that the tobacco Cercospora had a wide host range and
was probably synonymous with C. apii and many other species.®?

With this knowledge of the frogeye disease the writer visited
many tobacco plantings in Venezuela and observed that some fields
were free of frogeye while others had a prominent build-up in the
field while the plants were still small. The plant bed season is toward
the end of the rainy period and the crop is grown under irrigation
during the dry season. When plant beds were placed near the center
of large plowed areas, and away from native vegetation, the plants
remained free of frogeye. But if the beds were next to native vege-
tation many of the plants were infected at setting time and these acted
as centers of infection in the field.*8

30 Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci. 9:90-92, 1942.
31 Phytopath. 31:97-98, 1941.

32 Phytopath. 39:763-770, 1949.

33 P]. Dis. Rept. 46 No. 6 1962,

Fifty Years of Plant Pathology in Kentucky 39

Blue mold. Blue mold or downy mildew of tobacco as it occurs
in the U.S. is nearly entirely a plant bed disease. It was introduced
into the Georgia-Florida area in 1921, when it was eradicated,
and again in 1931; since then it has been a destructive disease each
year when temperatures are relatively high in January and February
in Georgia. A general outbreak occurred in Tennessee and Kentucky
in 1937 then gradually disappeared until in 1944 it was found in only
2 beds in a survey of this area. A general blow-in occurred again in
1945 and again gradually disappeared.

The evidence gathered following these two outbreaks made it
clear that the fungus could not survive in areas where spore showers
from the south did not occur. While there was carryover in some
beds used a second time following a general outbreak carryover was
not sufficient year after year to maintain the fungus.

Based on this kind of evidence the writer proposed in the mid-
forties that a general program of control be followed, based on discing
of beds following settings, and the use of new bed sites.?4 This was
particularly important in the Georgia-Florida area where volunteer
tobacco plants might appear in the fall, become infected, and be a
source of inoculum to new beds. Farther north where volunteer
plants could not survive the winter the use of new beds would suf-
fice. The proposal was based on the fact that any farmer, at very little
cost, could be certain that blue mold was not carried over on his
farm. This proposal left it to the farmer as to whether the fungus
was perpetuated on his farm or not.®®

The proposal was approved by seventeen tobacco pathologists
and opposed by two. Signed copies were sent to the Directors of
the Georgia and Florida Experiment Stations but the proposal was
turned down by the Georgia Station because of the Opposition of one
man who was sure farmers would not cooperate. If they did not, and
the program were only partially effective the responsibility would
be where it belongs, rather than on the shoulders of persons who with-
held information.%¢

Now that blue mold has become established in Cuba there is a
question as to whether destruction of old beds and the use of new
beds in Georgia will have any, but a temporary effect, in slowing
up the development of an outbreak but they are still practices that
should be recommended and followed.

34 Phytopath. 34:1012, 1944.
35 Pl. Dis. Rept. 39:231-232, 1955.
36 Phytopath. 43:616-618, 1953.

40 W. D. Valleau

Black shank. Black shank was first recognized in Kentucky in
1935 in Logan and Todd Counties. The fields were sowed to grass
and no more trouble was experienced on these farms. It is probable
that the disease was present before that time and never built-up
because of the common practice of growing only one or two crops on
a field and then moving to another field. During the second World
War more and more farmers used the same field year after year and
black shank gradually became widespread in the state. By 1950 losses
were considerable on many farms making it desirable to do something
to help farmers prevent further loss.

In 1951 a bulletin was published giving what knowledge we had
of the disease and making proposals for the control of the disease
on farms where it had already appeared.*?? The program was based
largely on planting infested fields to grass and moving to clean fields
prepared with clean tools. In 1952 a folder was prepared to be sent
to all tobacco growers. This was financed by the Burley Tobacco
Auction Warehouse Association and was distributed through the
P.M.A. offices to all tobacco growers in the state. In this way the
seriousness of the situation and what could be done about it by the
individual was brought to the attention of all tobacco growers. In
1951 and 1952 the whole Extension Service directed its efforts to-
ward reducing losses by having farmers move tobacco from infested
fields to clean fields. This program paid off and has continued to
pay off since, as hundreds of farmers have moved to clean land, fol-
lowing the first appearance of the disease, and have thus prevented
any further loss.

The question of how long the fungus remains in the soil following
an infected crop was quickly raised. Two observations were made
that have since proved correct. One was that where infested land was
flooded for a considerable period the fungus was likely to disappear,
whereas land above the over-flow area remained infested. The
other was that land that contained much limestone or that had been
limed, or that had received lime from limestone roads retained the
fungus much longer than more acid soils. In addition to these ob-
servations fields were selected that had been heavily infested and
then left out of tobacco from 1 to 6 years. The fungus was greatly
reduced after 3 years and a relation was observed between pH and
disappearance of the fungus.*8

Following the appearance of black shank in the flue cured area
and its rapid spread, attempts were made during meetings of the

37 Ky. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bul. 576, 1951.
38 Ky. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bul. 592, 1952,

Fifty Years of Plant Pathology in Kentucky Al

Tobacco Disease Council to trace the first appearance of the fungus
in the U.S. to foreign sources and then to follow its distribution in
this country. The writer took the position, on several occasions, that
the fungus could arise by hybridization from non-pathogenic (to to-
bacco) strains of Phytophthora parasitica and that there may have
been independent origins of the tobacco organism in this country
and in other areas where tobacco is grown. Some evidence supporting
this theory was obtained in a mating study of 35 collections of the
fungus from various areas. Two strains were found to be antheridial
and 33 oogonial and two groups of oogonial strains could be separated
making, in all, at least 4 strains of the organisms extant with possibly
distinct origins.*°

Black root rot. In 1920 when work was started at the Kentucky
station on tobacco diseases black root rot, caused by the fungus
Thielaviopsis basicola, appeared to be the most injurious disease of
the crop because many crops failed to grow throughout the season.
The disease was apparently the reason for the rotation of many years
in grass and only one or two years in tobacco. Enough work had
been done on the disease by the U.S.D.A. to indicate that it could
be controlled by resistant varieties although all Kentucky varieties
at that time were considered highly susceptible.

However in severely affected fields of burley tobacco there were
scattered individual plants that grow normally. Sixteen selections
had been made from a field of Judy’s Pride by the station forman
while employed by the U.S.D.A. These were tested in 1920 and 15
of them seemed to have satisfactory resistance. The best of these were
subsequently introduced. An interesting feature of this work was the
demonstration that Judy’s Pride was made up of numerous distinctly
different strains as far as plant type was concerned. Farmers who
grew the resistant selections commented on the fact that they were
uniform: and “graded themselves” at stripping time. Other resistant
selections were made from Vimont Kelley and from Station stand up
variety.*°

By 1925 it was evident that the resistant varieties were only re-
sistant when planted at a sufficiently high temperature, but showed
no resistance in infested plant beds. It was obvious that resistance
must be introduced from resistant varieties of a different type.*!

Ky 16 was introduced in 1986 and Ky 41A shortly after. These
varieties, while only moderately resistant, were sufficiently so that

39 Phytopath. 44:312-318, 1954.
40 Ky. Agr. Exp. Sta. Cire. 28:1922.
41 Ky. Agr. Exp. Sta, Bul. 262, 1925,

42 W. D. Valleau

they were successful in infested plant beds and fields in Kentucky
but were not entirely successful when grown in Ontario, Canada.
Later varieties such as Ky 26 and Ky 57 were developed that had a
still higher degree of resistance.*?

Studies made at Harrow, Ontario have demonstrated that decom-
posing organic matter develops materials that are toxic to newly set
tobacco plants and that these toxic materials breakdown resistance
to Thielaviopsis basicola. It is the writers opinion that what we have
considered to be loss of resistance of such varieties as Ky 16 and Bur.
21 during the past decade is, in all probability, the direct effect of
toxicity and of poor aeration resulting from growing tobacco year
after year on the same plot and turning under heavy cover crops with-
out sufficient time to decompose.

T. basicola is a variable organism in culture. Different isolates
are likely to differ in color, size and shape of chlamydospores, in the
proportion of chlamydospores to endoconidia with some cultures un-
able to produce endoconidia. Single spore cultures from a culture
may differ and single spore cultures from a single spore culture may
be different. Color varieties from a single spore culture are common.
The genetics of the organism have not been studied.**

Recently soil collections have been made from uncultivated soils
in the mountains and from other areas, and tobacco grown in them.
Highly susceptible tobacco has been only slightly affected although
T. basicola was found fruiting on the roots. The results of these tests
suggest that strains of the fungus with little pathogenicity to tobacco
exist on the roots of native vegetation. This phase is being studied
in greater detail.

Angular leafspot and wildfire. These two bacterial diseases of
tobacco have been the subject of constant observation and research
since 1920 when both diseases were first recognized in Kentucky.
Both had been described elsewhere shortly before that time. At that
time practically nothing was known about either disease except that
they were caused by bacteria that gave certain reactions on artificial
media.

A study of the organisms on artificial media indicated that they
were identical in appearance and could not be separated in culture.
Both were short lived on potato-dextrose-agar because the medium
rapidly became acid, but on beef broth both organisms were long
lived. A detailed study of freshly isolated cultures indicated that they
were made up of several strains that differed in colony characters,

42 Econ. Bot. 6:69-102, 1952.
43 Phytopath. 25:1011-1018, 1935.

Fifty Years of Plant Pathology in Kentucky 43

from watery to rough colonies, that maintained their individual char-
acters through at least 10 passages through tobacco leaves.

When single colony cultures of either organisms were made and
stored in distilled water changes occurred in storage in some cultures,
wildfire producing angular leafspot, and vice-versa. When single cell
cultures of both organisms were stored in beef broth the wildfire
cultures sometimes produced angular leafspot, but the angular leaf-
spot cultures remained constant. In nature there has apparently been
a shift from one organism to the other for some unknown reason.
From 1920 to about 1934 angular leafspot could be found in nearly
every bed, while wildfire was rare. Later wildfire became very com-
mon and angular leafspot was rare.

In early studies elsewhere seed contamination was considered the
source of infection in beds but we were never able to confirm it.
Studies of carryover in soil were therefore started and it was demon-
strated that both organisms survived the winter in soil provided there
were living roots present. An examination of roots under the micro-
scope revealed bacterial colonies which, when used as inoculum, pro-
duced one or the other disease. Both organisms could also be isolated
from roots in old bluegrass sods. These results gave a sound basis
for developing control measures.

Some confusion existed as to just how bacteria entered uninjured
leaves. Tests with water soaked leaves demonstrated that motile and
nonmotile bacteria, India ink particles, tobacco mosaic virus and
chemicals all entered water soaked portions of leaves immediately
on being poured over the surface. It was demonstrated that both in-
ternal water soaking and soaking by wind blown rain could play
a part in natural outbreak of the diseases.44 Watersoaking from ex-
ternal sources was clearly demonstrated to be dependent on stomatal
opening which usually occured only during the day. Xanthomonas
vesicatoria, a bacterial organism causing fruit spots on tomato and
leafspot on peppers was also found to overwinter on the roots of
wheat.**

Black-leg. This bacterial disease was recognized and described
as a previously unknown plant bed disease.‘* It is caused by a com-
mon soft rot organism Bacillus aroideae which also causes hollow
stalk of maturing tobacco. Another bacterial disease that has been
under observation for many years is bacterial black stalk, a disease
that attacks maturing tobacco and sometimes is very destructive to

44 Ky. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bul. 454, 1943.
45 Phytopath. 34:998-999, 1944.
46 Phytopath. 21:973-978, 1931,

44 W. D. Valleau

small groups of plants. Very little has been learned about this
disease.

Breeding Tobacco for Disease Control*’

The ideal method of disease prevention is through the develop-
ment of resistant varieties, provided the pathogen is not adapting it-
self to life on the new varieties as rapidly as they are produced.
Breeding for resistance to black root-rot has already been mentioned.
It has been highly successful in reducing losses to burley tobacco but
it has been difficult to develop satisfactory resistant varieties of the
dark tobaccos.

Following the introduction of satisfactory black rot resistant
burley varieties the next problem was to develop satisfactory varieties
combining resistances to fusarium wilt, mosaic, the leafspot diseases,
wildfire and angular leafspot, and black shank.

In the early fourties the mosaic resistance factor from N. glutinosa
was transferred to all of the burley breeding lines and all varieties
subsequently introduced carried mosaic resistance. Ky 35 was the first
burley variety introduced carrying resistance to three diseases, black
root rot, mosaic, and fusarium wilt.

Several wild species of Nicotiana were found to be resistant to
wildfire and presumably to the similar organism causing angular
leafspot. The resistance factor was transferred from N. longiflora to
tobacco both at the U.S.D.A. and at the Kentucky Experiment Sta-
tion. The U.S.D.A. transfer proved to be more stable and is now
being used in our breeding program. At present a considerable num-
ber of breeding lines of burley carrying high resistance to mosaic,
black root rot, fusarium wilt and wildfire are being tested for ac-
ceptability by manufacturers. One of these, Ky 12, has been intro-
duced for use particularly to control fusarium wilt.

Resistance to mosaic appears to be entirely satisfactory; and so
far there is no evidence of breakdown of resistance to the fusarium
wilt organism. Black root rot resistance, while highly satisfactory,
is variable depending to some extent on the degree of organic matter
toxicity from decaying cover crops; the greater the toxicity the lower
the resistance. Wildfire resistance is generally satisfactory both in
the plant bed and field but strains of the organism have been found
that are virulent and injure the resistant varieties as much as sus-
ceptibles. Many fields of resistant tobacco have been seen that appear
susceptible to the angular leaf spot organism.

47 Econ. Bot. 6:69-102, 1952,

Fifty Years of Plant Pathology in Kentucky 45

N. longiflora appeared in preliminary tests to be immune to the
black shank fungus, and a breeding program was commenced to
transfer this factor to tobacco. At present we have one burley variety,
L8, that appears to have a pair of longiflora chromosomes substituted
for a tabacum pair and is resistant. It is of little value except in the
production of F, hybrids with other burley varieties. These proved
immune to black shank on most fields, but on one a strain was present
that destroyed the resistant plants, raising a question as to the per-
manent value of this type of resistance. L8 is now being used in the
production of an F,; hybrid with Burley 37 (a resistant variety with
tabacum resistance). It is hoped that the combined resistances will
make a virtually immune variety that may be used in eradicating the
fungus from a farm.

Root knot resistance. Root knot nematodes are largely confined
to farm gardens and are rarely found in field grown tobacco but they
are a potential menace to the crop. Using a flue cured variety re-
sistant to the common root knot nematode of tobacco, varieties of
burley have been developed resistant to mosaic, black root rot and
root knot nematodes.

Related Breeding Studies

Low nicotine Burley and flue cured tobacco. About 1932 low nic-
otine cigar tobaccos were received from Germany. As nicotine, at that
time, was considered injurious to health of some people it was de-
cided to develop low nicotine burley tobacco, and hybrids with the
cigar tobacco were made. The low nicotine cigar tobaccos were low
in nicotine but high in nornicotine. Selections were made for low total
alkaloids with the result that finally burley varieties were developed
with a total alkaloid content of about .2%.48 The John Alden To-
bacco Company was organized to manufacture low nicotine cigarettes,
cigars and pipe tobacco. The products were accepted by a small per-
centage of smokers many of whom claimed benefits to health from
the change. The project was not profitable and was abandoned.

Inherited abnormalities. Tobacco appears to be the result of a
cross between two wild species of Nicotiana after which the chromo-
some number of each set of chromosomes was doubled resulting in a
fertile hybrid. This means that tobacco carries duplicate genes for
everything necessary to carry on life. Consequently mutations can
take place in one subgenome without being apparent in the progeny
so long as the similar gene in the other subgenome is normal. When

48 Jour. Agr. Research 78:171-181, 1949.

46 W. D. Valleau

a similar mutation takes place in the other subgenome then a portion
of the seedlings will be abnormal. Three recessive mutations have
been studied that seem to fit into this pattern; they are Yellow Crit-
tenden, Virescent and Genetic Veinbanding.*®

Another recessive variegation named Silver may be in the same
category but it is not certain.°° Two dominant mutations, Variega-
tion D and Variegation I have also been described. Both are evi-
dently transmitted through chromosomes but Variegation I appears
to result from an irregularity in cell division in which one chromosome
forms a bridge.*!

Calcium deficiency. Leaf edge necrosis of sucker leaves and
necrosis of calyx lobes has occurred in burley tobacco since the in-
troduction of mosaic resistant varieties. Genetic studies demonstrated
that this condition is associated in some way with the H chromosomes
which carries the mosaic resistance factor, but it was also demon-
strated that the mosaic resistant factor was not the direct cause of
calcium deficiency symptoms, and that some mosaic resistant varieties
did not show starvation symptoms.°”

Nicotine conversion: All commercial tobaccos contain nicotine
and either a trace or an appreciable amount of nornicotine. Studies
of individual plants in a variety showed that certain ones carried
little nornicotine while others contained a relatively large amount.
Genetic studies showed that the high nornicotine plants carried a
dominant factor for conversion of nicotine to nornicotine during
curing, while in the low nornicotine plants this factor was absent.
Manufacturers reported that nornicotine gave an unpleasant aroma
to the smoke and so a method was available for quickly eliminating
nearly all nornicotine from cigarette tobaccos.**

Diseases Caused by Nematodes

Root diseases, in which many of the small feeding roots are de-
stroyed, are common to our crop plants and even to weeds. Diag-
nosis is often difficult because of the multiplicity of organisms that
may be concerned. Brown root rot has been recognized as a distinct
disease for many years but its cause was not understood. A study
of brown root rot was started in the early twenties but without re-
sults. In 1946 a study was made of root lesion nematodes in tobacco

49 Tobacco Science 1:91-92 and 175-176, 1957; 2:20-22, 1958.
50 Tobacco Science 4:172-175, 1960.

51 Tobacco Science 2:77-79, 1958 and 4:176-178.

52 Crop Science 3:265-266. 1963.

53 Science 121: 343-344, 1955.

Fifty Years of Plant Pathology in Kentucky 47

plants showing typical symptoms of brown root rot. Evidence was
obtained indicating that the disease in Kentucky, and probably also
in Conecticut, Wisconsin and Ontario was, in part at least, caused by
root lesion nematodes.** It now appears certain that a part of the
brown root rot complex is brought about by cover crop and manure
toxicity, as demonstrated by the recent studies by Patrick in Ontario.

Over a period of years alfalfa had been sown in wheat in the
spring in a rotation series on the Station Farm, but always failed.
Farmers have usually had the same result. Reseeding in August fol-
lowing a period of fallow always resulted in a good stand. A study of
the cause demonstrated that failure was caused by heavy infesta-
tion of seedling alfalfa roots by root lesion or meadow nematodes
moving from dying wheat roots to the tender alfalfa roots. A fallow
period during the summer greatly reduced the nematode population
and alfalfa seedlings survived.*®

Other studies of the effect of various nematodes on the growth
and development of roots and tops of alfalfa and red clover plants
growing in the greenhouse have been made.*®

Studies on the Physiology of Disease and Disease Resistance

Much of the work done in the past has been with relatively simple
equipment and has been directed toward practical ends; a sufficient
knowledge of the disease to arrive at sound recommendations for
control, or control through disease resistance. There is much to be
learned about the physiology of disease caused by fungi, bacteria
and other agents. For these studies modern equipment will be neces-
sary together with personnel competent to use the equipment. The
Department of Plant Pathology has recently acquired the following
equipment: Warburg constant volumn respirometer, Zeiss PMQ II
spectrophotometer, Spinco model L ultracentrifuge, Technicon auto-
matic amino acid analyzer, paper and thin layer chromatography
equipment, and paper and gel electrophoresis equipment.

54 Phytopath. 37:838-841, 1947.
55 Phytopath. 44:542-545, 1954.
56 Phytopath. 48:525-530, 1958; 49:357-359, 1959; 54:1003-1005, 1963.

THE ADVANCE OF GEOLOGY IN KENTUCKY
DURING ONE HUNDRED AND THIRTY-FOUR YEARS
(1784-1918)

WILLARD ROUSE JILLSON
Frankfort, Kentucky

A handful of scattered notes and references comprise the entire
assemblage of topographical, geological and mineralogical observa-
tions on Kentucky that found its way onto the printed page prior to
the year 1838. In 1784, John Filson’s now very rare book on The
Discovery, Settlement and Present State of Kentucke appeared first
in Wilmington and Philadelphia, later in Lexington and Louisville. In
it are to be found brief descriptions of the cliffs of the Kentucky
River, the salt springs of Drennon and Big Bone and other natural
curiosities including citations of the occurrence of iron and lead ores
and crude oil. In Gilbert Imlay’s: A Topographical Description of
the Western Territory of North America, the first edition of which
was printed and issued in London, England, in 1792, there are a
number of very clear and well written passages on some aspects of
regional topography in Kentucky, particularly a paragraph or two on
the Barrens of southwestern Kentucky and the sinks and caves that
mark this remarkable area. Similarly, in the writings of Thomas
Cooper, Dublin, 1794; James Meace, Philadelphia, 1807; William
McClure, Philadelphia, 1809; Jeremiah Van Rensselaer, New York,
1823; John J. Audubon, Edinburgh, 1831 and John Lock,! Columbus,
1838, there occur passages that range from simply a reference of one
or two lines to adequate and detailed description of some particular
geological phenomena, as for instance Audubon’s, An Earthquake in
Kentucky, which is the best in early geo-seismic literature in America.

Preliminary Survey

The year 1838 is one that is of outstanding importance in the
field of Kentucky geology as it marks the beginning of comprehen-
sive professional investigations in this State. A very gradual awaken-
ing in various parts of the Commonwealth during the mid-1830’s to
the importance of a careful and comprehensive examination of the
geology and mineral resources of Kentucky resulted in a number of
petitions signed by considerable numbers of taxpayers being pre-

1 For these and a few other early titles pertaining to Kentucky see: Geologic
Literature on North America: 1785-1918. 1167 pp. By John M. Nickles, Bull. 746,
U.S. Geol. Survey. Washington, D. C., 1923.

The Advance of Geology in Kentucky 49

sented to the General Assembly during the session of 1838. As a result
of this, a Resolution was passed directing and authorizing the Gov-
ernor to select and appoint a competent person to visit the mineral
regions of the State and make a report on the same together with
recommendations as to the establishment of geological survey of
Kentucky. Shortly thereafter Governor James Clark appointed Dr.
William Williams Mather, then the State Geologist of Ohio. He had
been (1836 and 1837) the Geologist of the first geological district of
New York. Dr. Mather came to Kentucky forthwith, traversed rep-
resentative parts of the eastern, western and central divisions of the
State, wrote and submitted to the Governor ere the year was out
an outline of his work entitled: Report on the Geological Recon-
naissance of Kentucky Made in 1838.2? Comprehensively and well done
40 pages, it was advanced to the House of Representatives as an
executive paper and published by that body in its Journal of 1839.
Without question the first and the most important record of the
geology of Kentucky up to its time, and for fifteen years thereafter,
it may properly be called the first chapter in the slowly unfolding
tome embracing the sciences of geology, mineralogy and _ paleon-
tology of Kentucky.

After the Mather survey there was a period lasting a little more
than a decade and a half, of notable and inexcusable quescence in
the field of official investigative geology in Kentucky. During this
time great names in mid-nineteenth century geology and some not
so great, dot the pages of the Kentucky book—James Hall and Tim-
othy A. Conrad from New York, Byrem Lawrence and Jules Marcow
from Massachusetts, David Dale Owen of Indiana, Joseph G. Nor-
wood of Missouri; David Christy of Ohio; Benjamin Silliman of
Connecticut and Sir Charles Lyell of England, and not a few others,
each came and went and produced a book, a pamphlet, a paper or
a map in the composite of which Kentucky appeared again and again
by way of reference, large or small, accurate or otherwise, but the
summation of all these citations and representations so far as the
advancement of the geology of the Commonwealth was concerned
was pitifully small and essentially of no major importance. Growing
impatience in the minds of many forward looking citizens with the
laissez faire attitude of a succession of governors in the organiza-
tion of investigations of the Geology and Mineral Resources of Ken-
tucky—the exact title used by this writer for a book some 80 years
later—brought on again the presentation of a number of memorials

2 Geological Research in Kentucky. 211 pp. Maps, Ilust. By Willard Rouse
Jillson. Vol. 15, Ky. Geol, Survey, Ser. VI. Frankfort, Ky. 1923. Pages 1-6,

50 Willard Rouse Jillson

of associations from various parts of the State to the Legislature of
1853, with the summary result that a bill was passed and approved
by Governor L. W. Powell providing for a thorough geological and
mineralogical survey of Kentucky. The State’s Chief Executive, under
the terms of the Act, was required to appoint a State Geologist to
organize and effectuate under the statute.

First Survey

Governor Powell selected Dr. David Dale Owen of New Har-
mony, Indiana. Owen, born in the British Isles, the son of a great
mill owner, philanthropist and social reformer in Scotland, was well
chosen for the scientific and administrative work that lay ahead of
him. He accepted and threw himself with great vigor into the or-
ganization and activation of the “First” Geological Survey of Ken-
tucky. Having already completed a geological survey of Indiana for
that state, and broad exploratory geological surveys of Iowa, Wis-
consin and Illinois for the 26th and 28th Congresses and the United
States Treasury Department as well as a number of other geological
traversements of other western and Mississippi Valley States, he was
in an excellent position to undertake the work in Kentucky. This
First Geological Survey of Kentucky began with the opening of the
field season of 1854 and was continued as weather would permit
through 1855, 1856, 1857 and 1858—until the sudden and shocking
death of Dr. Owen on November 13, 1860, at the mid-maturity age
of 53 years.

In the course of his five years at the head of the Kentucky Sur-
vey, Dr. Owen with a carefully selected corps of well trained and
competent men, produced four large volumes (7” x10”) totalling
2,012 pages, beautifully illustrated by his own artistic pen, covering
in reconnaissance every county and all of the State of Kentucky.
Though obviously and necessarily a pioneering, scientific work, it
embraced a thorough chemical investigation of the soils coupled with
a regional discourse and portrayal of the areal, stratigraphic and
structural geology of the Commonwealth. A dependable work, it is
now and will always be regarded as an impressive spread of recon-
naissance geology of the first order. The detailed stratigraphic sec-
tions Dr. Owen produced for the Coal Measures of Eastern and
Western Kentucky were so accurately measured and drafted that dur-
ing the 110 years that has elapsed since this phase of the first Sur-
vey's work was completed, no important correction or revision of these
guide-posts of late Paleozoic sedimentation has ever been made. Dr.
Owen's achievement in this as well as various other phases of his

The Advance of Geology in Kentucky 51

geological work in Kentucky thus assumes on its own record and
character, as the years pass, a heighening significane and bids fair
to be widely recognized during the present century and for all time
as a classic example of a pioneering geological survey with broadly
approved dimensions of the first order of magnitude.

Second Survey

Closely following the death of Dr. Owen and the abrupt termin-
ation of the statewide geological and mineralogical work that he
headed, the devastating effects of the Civil War, which had been
brewing for a decade or more, overspread the land. Any thought
in legislative halls or elsewhere of continuing official geological work
in Kentucky, a pivotal border state, across which armies, large and
small, of both North and South commands moved at will, died aborn-
ing. Again a fifteen year “standby” period elapsed and nothing in the
way of new work was added to the record except Professor Nelson
Sayler’s Geological Map of Kentucky. The field work upon which this
very excellent piece of cartographic geology was based, was exe-
cuted—no one will ever explain how—during the precise period of
bloody internecine strife marked by the Civil War, for the map?
was printed and issued in Cincinnati in 1865. Done at the scale of
1 inch = 16 miles and printed in colors to show with clarity the areal
spread and pattern of the exposed formations, without State aid for
the costs of the field work or the printing, it is truly a very remark-
able scientific achievement, duplication or improvement of which
was not to be attempted again by anyone in Kentucky until after the
passage of a full decade.

During the reconstruction period, the practical value and worth
of State geological surveys in developing mineral resources of various
types, came to the attention of the Legislature in 1872 and again in
1873 at which time an Act was passed and approved by Governor
P. H. Leslie, establishing a new or as it came later to be called, the
“second” Geological Survey of Kentucky. By the authority of this
Act, Governor Leslie appointed forthwith, Professor Nathaniel South-
gate Shaler, a native of Newport, Kentucky, and at that time Pro-
fessor of Paleontology in the Lawrence Scientific School of Harvard
University, Director and State Geologist. Dr. Shaler accepted and pro-

3 Described in detail in The Geological Map of Kentucky, a 12 page pamphlet
by Willard Rouse Jillson, Frankfort, 1945. Page 7. The author has a photostat
copy of the Sayler Geological Map of Kentucky of 1865 in his cartographic files.
This map is a very rare item. Oddly, an original copy of this unique map by
Professor Sayler is not known to be in Kentucky today,

52 Willard Rouse Jillson

ceeded to organize and effectuate the second State Survey. He chose
Dr. Robert Peter, a staff member of the old Owen Survey, as State
Chemist, Dr. A. R. Crandall as geological assistant, J. H. Talbot as
chemical assistant, P. N. Moore a geological aid and J. A. Monroe,
C. W. Beckham and C. Shenk as field assistants. Later he employed
John R. Proctor as office assistant, and thereby hangs a tale!

The Shaler Survey endured for seven years, until the mid-Spring
of 1880. In course, widely diversified studies were made by various
geologists, most of whom, like C. J. Norwood, W. M. Linney, W. B.
Caldwell, and J. B. Hoeing were employed with others necessary to
complete parties, for late Spring, Summer and Fall field work. As a
result of these investigations six volumes (7”x 10’) totalling 2,886
pages were issued and distributed. Under the administration of Pro-
fessor Shaler, Kentucky may be said to have enjoyed its first syste-
matic and diversified (specialized assignments) geological survey.
This type of field investigation, of course, was not possible for either
the Mather or the Owen Surveys as their work was of necessity of
a preliminary and pioneering character—since no broad spread of
basic work in the field had preceeded them. In addition to a lengthy
list of strictly professional reports and memoirs, Dr. Shaler, himself,
for he was an indefatigable worker in both the field and the office,
designed and issued in 1875 a Preliminary [Geological] Map [of Ken-
tucky ] Compiled from Various Surveys.* Done in black and white, with
varied hatching to show the areal geology, it was the first official
geological map of Kentucky and was, of course, a great improve-
ment upon the 1865 map of Professor Sayler.

Dr. Shaler as has been noted was an important member of the
professorial staff of the Lawrence Scientific School at Harvard Uni-
versity at the time of his appointment to head the second Geological
Survey of Kentucky. As such he had also the fixed obligation of
teaching duties at Cambridge during the college year and could, of
course, only be in Kentucky during the Summer vacation, that is, from
about June 15th to September 14th of each year. This was known
to Governor Leslie when he appointed him to the head of the
Geological Survey of Kentucky, it being his thought that Shaler’s
professional ability and distinction in the twin fields of geology and
paleonthology were amply compensatory for his absence during the
late Fall, Winter and early Spring when, as was well known, it was
impossible to do extended field work in Kentucky anyway. But there

4 The author has a copy of this map of 1875 in his cartographic files as of
May 1, 1964. It is a rare item, very seldom seen.

The Advance of Geology in Kentucky 53

were others who felt differently about the matter. One of these was
John R. Procter, Shaler’s office assistant. He was neither a college
graduate nor a professional geologist, but he was of the opinion,
after working with his superior a number of years and attending
one summer session of Shaler’s Summer School at Cumberland Gap,
that he could, by staying in Kentucky the year round, produce a
better Geological Survey than Dr. Shaler could and had, with his
long absences at Harvard.

John R. Procter was a capable man of no very limited abilities
in the fields of administration and persuasion. Others in Frankfort
soon came to feel about Shaler’s absence while State Geologist much
the same as Procter did. Some of the men in Frankfort who shared
Procter views were in the Legislature of 1880 and one of more ele-
vated political estate than the others occupied the Governor’s chair.
In course a bill was introduced in the Legislature requiring the State
Geologist and Director of the Kentucky Geological Survey to reside
at all times, when not actively engaged in field work in the State,
at the Capitol, Frankfort. Supported by a number of convivial spirits
in the Legislature and the sanction of the Governor the bill passed
with little or no real opposition. An utterly impossible immigration
rider was attached to the bill which made the Act seem very plausible
to those who did not understand that chamber of commerce activities
in the field of European immigration into Kentucky could not very
well be mixed with the minerals and fossils of bed rock geology.
When Dr. Shaler heard of the Act recently past requiring the State
Geologist to live in Frankfort he promptly resigned. It was the month
of April, 1880.

Governor Luke P. Blackburn immediately appointed John R.
Procter Director of the Kentucky Geological Survey and Bureau
of Immigration. Unable to do original, first class geological field work
himself and equally incapable of checking, correcting and revising
the reports of others, Mr. Procter selected a staff of assistants, the
outstanding members of which were: Dr. Robert Peter, chemist,
Dr. A. R. Crandall, Professor William M. Linney, Dr. R. H. Lough-
ridge, Professor Edward Orton, Mr. James M. Hodge and Mr. George
M. Sullivan as Assistant Geologists. Mr. Joseph B. Hoeing, who had
been in the Shaler Survey, was employed as Cartographer and En-
gineer. During his term of office—1880 to 1892—Mr. Procter re-
assembled and published from previously prepared plates of type-
pages, five volumes of the work originally done and previously pub-
lished by the Shaler Survey. He issued new and for the first time four
volumes, the work of Orton, Peter, Loughridge and Linney—a total

54 Willard Rouse Jillson

of nine volumes encompassing 3,020 pages. Each of the four new
volumes, the writer has been advised by a contemporary and com-
petent critic, then on the Survey Staff,°> were published by the Procter
Survey without professional review and revision except by their sev-
eral separate authors. This method of editing scientific MSS for pub-
lication, of course, relieved the office of the Survey and the Direc-
tor personally of much slavish labor, but visibly might not have
found unqualified approval or very general practice in other State
Geological Surveys, at that time, or at any time thereafter including
the present. This type of management and control of its publications
by the Procter Survey eventually spread to other divisions of the
work particularly its financial and employment brackets. An ad-
verse report by the State Inspector and Examiner brought a sharp
reply from the Director and a critical and decisive resolution and
enactment in the State Legislature, the last of which brought the
(Procter) Survey suddenly to the end of the road in 1893.6 Now
that “three score and ten years” have passed since the events noted
here transpired, it may in truth be said that the new work in oil
and gas by Dr. Orton, on the Jackson Purchase by Dr. Loughridge
and on the several counties by Professor Linney and Mr. Hoeing
were reasonably good and quite abreast of their time, and the old
work of the (Shaler) Survey—five volumes of about 1,600 pages, while
dependable were unquestionably tending to be obsolete when re-
printed. Their publication cost, clerical handling and transportation
expense was an obvious and flagrant waste of State money.

Individual Work

Occasionally prior to and during the Owen Survey, as in the
instances of Dr. B. F. Shumard and L. P. Yandall of Missouri, and
Joseph P. Lesley of Pennsylvania; previously as in the case of James
M. Safford of Tennessee and subsequently as witness Joseph P.
Lesley again, W. E. Logan of Montreal and James Hall of New York,?
Sidney S. Lyon and S. A. Casseday of Indiana and numerous others,
individuals touched, frequently very effectively and sometimes with
remarkable accuracy, certain phases of Kentucky geology and paleon-
tology which they chanced to observe, usually quite accidentally.
These independent papers have oftimes embraced the description of

5 Comment to the writer in the early 1920’s by Professor C. J. Norwood,
formerly State Geologist of Kentucky, and at the time of comment, Dean of
Mining Engineering at the University of Kentucky.

6 Bull. No. 109, U.S. Nat. Museum. G. P. Merrill, pp. 122-123.

7 Bibliography of Kentucky Geodogy by Willard Rouse Jillson, Chap. IV,
Vol. 15, Ser. VI, Ky. Geol. Surv., 1923. P. 120.

The Advance of Geology in Kentucky 55

a new fossil or an important metaliferous ore, the comparison of
near and distant stratigraphic sections, the citation of strike and dip
of certain beds near springs of petroleum or perhaps of an oddity
of creek or river drainage. Many of such papers and pamphlets ap-
pearing in journals or as reprints, of course, have been well done and
so possess good and permanent value. Very frequently at a later day,
sometimes 25 or 50 years, afterwards, a two page description of
a little geological or palentological trifle, noted previously by some-
one in the course of more extended field work, has very appropriately
fitted into and aided the identification of some series of beds or
clarified the interpretation of a partly covered oil and gas structure.
This sort of “free lance” geology continued on through the years
of official inactivity previous to 1873, then through the Shaler and
the Procter Surveys and on through the long decade of State dis-
interest that followed the closure of the second Geological Survey
of Kentucky in the Spring of 1893.

Third Survey

As the last years in the Nineteenth Century arrived and opened
up the prospect of increased mineral development in Kentucky, it
gradually became common knowledge as the result of inquiry that
practically all of the old reports touching on coal, oil and gas of the
earlier State Survey were exhausted in edition and gone. A year or
two after 1900, as the demand for Kentucky coal, oil and gas became
greater and the lack of competent State geological reports came to
be widely recognized as a barrier to industrial development, a num-
ber of proposals were advanced to rectify the situation. Finally a
bill was introduced in the General Assembly of 1904 “providing for
and authorizing the curator of the affairs and effects of the old, sec-
ond Geological Survey to resume the geological, topographical and
agricultural survey of the State of Kentucky “and appropriating
funds therefor. This bill passed both houses of the Legislature unani-
mously and was shortly thereafter signed and approved by Gov-
ernor J. C. W. Beckham. Under the articles of this Act, Professor
Charles J. Norwood, a teacher of mining engineering at the Uni-
versity of Kentucky, without actual appointment or additional salary,
became the State Geologist and Director of the new, the “Third”
Kentucky Geological Survey.

The Act under which he held office directed Professor Norwood
and his assistants to report upon the economic geology of the State.
Accordingly a group of capable geologists were selected and as-
signed as follows. Joseph B. Hoeing, oil and gas; A. M. Miller, lead

56 Willard Rouse Jillson

and zinc; A. M. Peter, chemical analyses; A. R. Crandall, Big Sandy
coals; James H. Gardner, Kentucky clays and J. Julius Fohs, fluorspar
and barite. All of these assignments were executed with care, pre-
cision and credit to all concerned. Manuscripts, frequently illustrated
with maps and photographs were written, printed and issued as
separate reports of the Kentucky Geological Survey, Series III. Al-
together some twenty odd reports and four Reports of Progress
were completed and placed in active circulation.

To the credit of Professor Norwood and the men who made up
his staff including very able geologists like Professor August F.
Foerste, Dr. William C. Morse and Dr. L. C. Glenn, and others not
mentioned above, the Third Survey which lasted longer than the
Mather, the Owen or the Shaler Surveys but was four years shorter
than the Procter Survey, did a very broad and excellent spread of
Economic Geology and General Geological work. Unfortunately, a
number of important manuscripts on the geology of certain eco-
nomically important districts or counties, by some directive drag
which Professor Norwood disclaimed, or financial impasse, which
is altogether more likely, were not published at the time as they
should have been. Professor Norwood openly blamed the State
Printer. The public controversy which followed injured both Pro-
fessor Norwood and the Third Geological Survey as it provided the
political material then sought by certain interests with which to
remove Professor Norwood from the Directorship and to abolish
at the same time the Kentucky Survey he had so capably headed
for eight years.

Fourth Survey

With the meeting of the General Assembly of Kentucky early
in January of the year 1912, it soon became apparent that the Nor-
wood (Third) Survey was doomed. Native Kentuckians in Eastern
Kentucky interested in the rapid development of coal, oil and gas
as well as other earth minerals such as sewer pipe and firebrick
clays, rode range at will on both houses of the Legislature, alleging
that the Kentucky Geological Survey had fallen into slothful in-
activity and accordingly demanded that it be reorganized from
cellar to garret. The leaders of this movement were supporters of old
Governor James B. McCreary, and accordingly had unlimited access
to his office and soon converted him to their way of thinking. A
bill was introduced in the House which abolished the Third Survey,
removed its office, properties and effects, with exception of the
State Museum, from Lexington to Frankfort, and provided that the
Governor appoint with the advice and consent of the Senate a com-

The Advance of Geology in Kentucky 57

petent person as State Geologist who had a thorough scientific
and practical knowledge of geology, mineralogy, hydrology, chem-
istry and allied subjects, and one who shall not be connected with
any college, and shall devote his entire time to the geological surveys.
A Board of control consisting of five members were also provided
for in the Act. It found its way easily through the House, passed the
Senate unanimously March 2nd and was readily approved with his
signature by Governor McCreary, March 7, 1912.

In accordance with the new statute, when it became eftective
July 1, Governor James B. McCreary appointed Joseph Bernard
Hoeing, a native of Lexington, Kentucky, where he was born March
27, 1855, State Geologist and placed him in charge of the Fourth
Kentucky Geological Survey and all of its activities, personnel and
properties. Mr. Hoeing, a graduate of Rensselaer Polytechnic In-
stitute of Troy, New York, in the class of 1876 with the C. E. degree
had been, it will be remembered, an employe of the Shaler, Procter
and Norwood Surveys, rising with competence from assistant to
cartographer, to engineer and finally to assistant geologist on the
Third Survey under Professor C. J. Norwood. Very able in his chosen
professional field of engineering and well experienced in the ac-
tivities of the Kentucky Geological Survey from personal contact over
a period of about 25 years, Hoeing proceeded to revise and publish
the manuscripts he inherited from the Norwood Survey, while build-
ing up a staff of very capable geologists including A. F. Crider, A. M.
Miller, A. F. Foerste, F. J. Fohs, J. M. Hodge, Charles Butts, W. C.
Phalen, Wallace Lee, E. O. Ulrich and others. During the six years
of his incumbency Mr. Hoeing issued five volumes, divided into 18
parts, of page size 7’ x10”, bound in dark red cloth. Taken as a
whole this unit of work was creditable to both authors of this survey.
Mr. Hoeing finally retired from the office of State Geologist when
the statute governing the Fourth Kentucky Geological Survey was
altered and debased by the State Legislature of 1918, which was
pledged to a general policy of retrenchment and reform. Part II of
Volume V of the fourth survey was printed and issued in 1919 after
Mr. Hoeing had vacated his office. During his active years as State
Geologist, Mr. Hoeing’s published reports of the Fourth Survey
(1912-1918) totalled 4,280 pages of very creditable reports on the
geology of Kentucky.

Finis

PHYSICAL, CHEMICAL, AND BIOLOGICAL DATA ILLUSTRATING
A STREAM CLASSIFICATION SYSTEM

ERIC PANITZ*
Department of Zoology, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky

Introduction

Kuehne (1962) found that fish in Buckhorn Creek of eastern Ken-
tucky could be used to illustrate the Horton (1945) system of stream
classification. In this classification all headwater streams are classified
as order I. The junction of two or more order I streams forms an order
II stream. The junction of two or more order II streams forms an
order III stream. A stream remains at a given order of magnitude
until it joins a stream of equal magnitude. At this point the stream
order is raised to that of the next highest magnitude. The entrance of
streams of lower order into those of higher order has no effect on the
magnitude of the higher order stream.

During the spring of 1963 a study of the Hickman Creek drainage
system in central Kentucky was made for physical, chemical, and
biological data that might be used to illustrate the Horton system
of stream classification. It was also felt that the data might show
the effects of pollution upon the normal physical, chemical, and
biological characteristics of this classification system. In this paper
the aquatic insects, free diving helminths, some crustaceans, and
selected physical and chemical data are discussed with respect to
the Horton system, sewage pollution, and possible interrelationships.

The Hickman Creek drainage basin is approximately 97.2 square
miles in area. Length from source to mouth is 37 miles. It is a fourth
order stream as determined from U.S. Geological Survey topographic
maps of 1:24,000 scale. The average gradient for each order, average
length for each order, total length and total number of streams for
each order are shown in Table 1. The drainage density (area/length
of streams) is 2.06. The stream frequency (area/number of streams )
is 2.07. These latter values are considered about normal for most
drainage systems.

Materials and Methods

Fourteen widely selected stations were sampled once each month
for four months during the spring of 1963. These were arranged so
that at least three stations were sampled each month on the same

* Present address: Department of Veterinary Medicine, Oregon State Uni-
versity, Corvallis, Oregon.

A Stream Classification System 59

Table 1. Hickman Creek Drainage System-——Physiographic Data

Number of Total Average Gradient
Order streams length length (ft./mile)
4 i 36.1 36.1 11
3 8 17.9 22) 18
2 37 40.2 1.1 25
il 155 105.6 0.5 41
Total 201 199.8
area of basin = 97.2 square miles
201
stream frequency = 0,
97.2
199.8
stream drainage density = ——— = 2.06
97.2

order stream (see Figure 1 for station locations ). Oxygen, temperature,
turbidity, chloridity, pH and square foot invertebrate bottom samples
were taken at each station. All chemical determinations were made
using American Public Health Association (1955) standard methods.
The second series of invertebrate collections will not be considered
due to lack of preservation. Many insect genera were represented in
the streams, usually in numbers too small to be treated quantitatively
(only occurring once among the stations sampled). Thus only the
presence or absence of an organism in a particular order stream for a
specific month’s collection will be considered.

The results of the collections are summarized in Table 2 for
biological data and Table 3 for physical-chemical data. The biolog-
ical data are arranged to show the presence or absence of an organ-
ism in a particular order stream for a specific month’s collection.
The physical-chemical data were computed in the following manner:
any stations not directly downstream from a sewage effluent (there
were two stations below sewage effluents), or not showing excessive
use by cattle were considered as non-polluted. The second series of
collections were considered as polluted (diluted) as they were made
right after the spring floods. The “normal” values are the averages
of all stations whether considered polluted or non-polluted. The
“sewage values were taken from two stations immediately down-
stream from the two sewage processing plants on the drainage basin.
These stations were located on second and third order streams.

Discussion

Chemical Data: The pH tended to remain at constant values
throughout each order, rising slightly in the higher orders. There

60 Eric Panitz

Table 2. Hickman Creek—Composite of Invertebrate Collections

Coll. No. I II Ill IV
Order 12 8 4 n.c. Py sh 1. 2s Moar
Taxa
Turbellaria
Dugesia vx
Phagocata x
Hirudenaa
Glossiphona x
Oligochaeta
Enchytraeus x ek Be
Lumbriculus xx K
Chaetogaster ox =x. 2% Ko OMe x Kx, Sex
Lepidoptera
Elophila x x x x
Promesia x ox
Coeleoptera
Helichus moe axe x x
Galerucella xo x
Isopoda
Lirceus x x x
Megaloptera
Corydalus See gee ane
Plecoptera
Pteronarcys x
Tsoperla x
Alloperla Kee ees
Trichoptera
Ptilostomis x
unknown genus Xx
Ephemoptera
Callibaetis ek
Heptagenia x Xe xX 2
n.c. = collections not considered

was no marked difference between the normal values and the non-
polluted stream values. In the bluegrass region, where soil and sub-
strate are carbonates, resulting in a pH for average waters of approx-
imately 8.0, there was a distinct drop of pH in waters just below
sewage effluents. This value increased with stream order as might
be expected due to the influx of non-polluted waters of higher pH.
The surface temperature values for the normal stream showed a
slight increase from first to second order streams, a great increase
from second to third orders, and a decrease in the fourth order to a
value slightly above that of the first two orders. Surface temperature
values were higher in the first two orders and lower in the last two
orders in non-polluted streams than for the normal stream system.

A Stream Classification System 61

There was no marked increase in surface temperature from second
to third order in non-polluted streams, the temperature increase
taking place gradually up to third order and decreasing in the fourth
order to a level below that of the first order. The surface tempera-
ture values for the stations below the sewage effluents were lower
than the non-polluted values in both second and third order streams.
The lower temperature values of the sewage effluent cannot be
responsible for the high surface temperature values of the third order
streams, nor can they completely account for the decrease in tem-
perature that was found in the fourth order streams. A possible ex-
planation for this decrease is offered by the model designed by Lehr
(1963). In this model the patterns followed by groundwater in flow-
ing into an effluent stream are illustrated. In following hydraulic
principles, water will always move from an area of higher hydraulic
pressure to an area of lower hydraulic pressure. Groundwater under
high hydraulic pressure will flow upwards into the streams resulting
in the cooling that was noted in the fourth order streams. This up-
welling, although taking place very slowly, will occur in response to
the increased hydraulic pressure created by the higher groundwater
levels on either side of the stream. In limestone regions, groundwater
may dissolve the strata. The pattern followed by the underground

Table 3. Summary of Physical-Chemical Data for the Hickman Creek Drainage Basin

Order I II III IV

pH np 8.14 8.20 8.33 2,93
p 8.06 7.92 8.03 8.10
s 7.380 Od.

Temp np 13.20 13.76 17.33 14.49
(C°) p 14.00 14.67 15.29 13,32
s 14.15 14.38
Turb np 31.57 22.09 19.33 22.78
(ppm ) p 32.40 38.30 37.25 30.41
s 81.25 62.00

Alk np 160.5 148.2 160.2 153.9

(ppm ) p 151.2 141.4 149.4 146.8

140.3 146.3

O. np 12.16 10.76 14.00 12.98

(ppm) D 11.68 10.36 12.66 12.50
s 8.70 11.40

Cl np 3.57 3.27 3.83 6.00
p 3.30 6.80 6.92 5.42
s 17.75 14.00

np = non-polluted
p = polluted—“normal”

sewage pollution

62 Eric Panitz

streams thus formed will be in response to hydraulic pressure. In
some cases the groundwater streams may come to the surface in the
bottom of a stream. Since the fourth order stream on the Hickman
drainage basin has cut through a large section of strata, several ground-
water streams may intersect this order resulting in the lower temper-
ature observed. From month to month the average temperature in-
crease was about 5°C. The temperature values for the third order
streams started approximately 2.2°C higher than the other stream
orders and maintained this increase value through each series of
collections.

Chloridity values for non-polluted streams decreased slightly from
first to second order, increased slightly in the third order and showed
a large increase in the fourth order. The values for a normal stream
showed a trend just opposite to this with a large increase from first
to second order, and a slight decrease from third to fourth order
streams. This apparent reversal can be explained by the high values
for the sewage effluent. Although the sewage effluent values de-
creased with increased order, they were still of significantly high
concentrations to cause the reversal of the values.

A similar description and explanation can be offered for the
turbidity values. In this situation the fourth order values were not
increased as a result of pollution in lower stream orders as was the
case with chloridity. This is probably due to a settling action on the
part of the turbidity causing particles resulting in a decrease in
turbidity. Without the countering effect of sewage pollution, the
turbidity drops rapidly from first to second orders stabilizing around
the second order value in each successive order. In both turbidity
and chloridity, the decrease in concentration with increased order
was probably due to the influx of non-polluted waters of the next
lowest order.

The alkalinity and oxygen values are very similar. The values for
each quantity almost parallel each other as do the values for pollution
and non-pollution in each individual case. A decrease in alkalinity
and oxygen values occurred from first to second order values followed
by a marked increase to third order again followed by a slight drop
in the fourth order. The sewage effluent values increased with in-
creasing order, but as they were lower than normal values and non-
polluted stream values, this could not be responsible for the third
order increase. These increases do correspond with the increase in
temperature. The oxygen in the waters of these streams is saturated
in all stream orders. The increase in the third order of oxygen and
temperature is surprising as the waters are saturated with oxygen

A Stream Classification System 63

and it would be expected that the oxygen would decrease in con-
centration. The supersaturated values for oxygen found in non-
polluted third and fourth order streams are equally difficule to ex-
plain in light of this inverse temperature-oxygen relationship. The
relationship between temperature and alkalinity is not clear, but may
also involve pH and the limestone nature of the strata in the region
causing a buffering action on the part of the carbon dioxide in the
formation of bicarbonates and carbonates which are measured in

alkalinity.

Biological data: The aquatic caterpillar, Promesia, when present,
seemed to be limited to first and second order streams. This insect
was present only in the first set of collections, thus this idea cannot
be confirmed in any way. The water beetle, Helichus, seemed to be
typical of second and third order streams. The isopod, Lirceus, was
found only in second order streams. The annelid, Enchytraeus, showed
a tendency to expand from third order streams to include second
order streams from February to May. The hellgammite, Corydalus,
moved from third and fourth order streams to include second order
streams from February to May. The flatworms, Dugesia and Phagocata,
were both limited to second order streams, being present at different
times but at the same or ecologically similar stations, Dugesia re-
placing Phagocata in the May collections. The idea is offered here
that certain animals may serve as index organisms for a given stream
order during part of the year, but not throughout the year. (Table 4).

These animals may be characteristic of, or limited to, their re-
spective orders by one or more of the physical or chemical character-
istics previously discussed. Helichus was characteristic of second and
third order streams. These orders had maximal concentrations of
chloridity and turbidity. Lirceus was characteristic of second order
streams. This order was characterized by lower oxygen and alka-
linity values. The ability to withstand low oxygen and alkalinity
may enable this animal to survive and eliminate the presence of an
important predator unable to withstand these conditions. The flat-
worms, Dugesia and Phagocata, were characteristic of second order
streams. The previously noted maximal and minimal characteristics
may enable them to survive or prevent an important predator from
surviving. Table 4 is a summary of these relationships.

Conclusions

The Horton system of stream classification can be characterized
by chemical data and some of the biological data at least through
fourth order. While no one organism, of those discussed, can be used

64 Eric Panitz

Table 4. Summary of Possible Index Organisms for Each Stream Order.

Order I II Ill IV
Promesia Promesia
Dugesia
Phagocata
Helichus Helichus
Lirceus Lirceus
Enchytraeus Enchytraeus Enchytraeus
Corydalus Corydalus Corydalus

a san index organism of a particular stream order, the presence or
absence of certain combinations of animals may. The idea is pre-
sented that an animal may serve as an index organism during some
parts of the year and not others. The pyhsical-chemical characteristics
of the Hickman Creek drainage system may be summarized as follows:

]. First order streams were characterized by low temperatures
and chloridity when compared to other stream orders.

2. Second order streams were characterized by low alkalinity
and oxygen but high chloridity and turbidity values.

3. Temperature, alkalinity, oxygen, turbidity and chloridity all
ahd high values in third order streams. The change in values was
most noticeable for temperature values.

4. Temperature, alkalinity, and oxygen values for fourth order
streams were intermediate between those for second and third order
streams. Chloridity and turbidity values were generally lowest in
fourth order streams.

The effect of sewage pollution was to increase values for some of
the physical-chemical data (turbidity and chloridity) while leaving
other factors uninfluenced. Some factors may not have been affected
by the sewage pollution but might have been masked by other
possible influences such as those discussed for temperature.

Acknowledgments

For his advice, encouragement and assistance with various aspects
of this project, the writer is greatly indebted to Dr. Robert A. Kuehne.

Literature Cited

American Publis Health Association, 1955. Standard methods for the examination
of water, sewage, and industrial wastes. A.P.H.A. 10th ed., New York, 522 pp.

Horton, R. E., 1945. Erosional development of streams and their drainage basins;
hydrophysical approach to quantitative morphology. Bull. Geol. Soc. of Amer.
56 275-370.

Kuehne, R. A., 1962. A classification of streams, illustrated by fish distribution
in an eastern Kentucky creek. Ecology 43: 608-614.

Lehr, J. H., 1963. Groundwater: Flow toward an effluent stream. Science 140
(3573): 1318-1320.

FISHES OF THE GREEN RIVER BASIN IN CASEY AND LINCOLN
COUNTIES, KENTUCKY

GLENN W. MURPHY
College of Education, University of Kentucky, Lexington

Introduction

Green River begins near Hall’s Gap in Lincoln County and extends
southwest through Casey County to Mammoth Cave and then to the
northwest to Henderson where it joins the Ohio River, a total dis-
tance of 370 miles. The total area of the basin, the largest in Ken-
tucky, is 9,222 square miles, or about one-fourth of the area of the
state.

That part of Green River included in this study, referred to as
Upper Green River, drains an area of about 450 square miles. The
major portion of this 450 square miles is found in Casey County while
the rest lies in Lincoln County. Upper Green River and its tributaries
consist of alternate quiet pools and shale or gravel rifles. Pools reach
a depth of over ten feet and the many riffles vary from a few feet in
depth to non-existence, depending upon the season. Most streams
which are large enough to be called creeks in local terms flow through
wide flat farmlands while the small headwaters are edged by steep
slopes covered by deciduous forest. Treetops left by lumbermen can
be seen as drifts as one proceeds down the river, and it was from
under these drifts that many of the centrarchids reported were caught.

Methods

Horton’s system of stream classification (Kuehne, 1962) was used
as a basis for selection of stations and for defining the nature of the
stream. United States Geological Survey topographical maps were
obtained and that part of the Green River Basin which was to be
studied in this survey was traced to its extreme headwaters. By using
Horton’s system it was determined that Green River reached order
6 below Middlesburg where Knob Lick Creek, order 5, joins the main
stream. The Horton system is based upon the branching of streams,
beginning at the extreme headwaters and proceeding to the mouth of
the main stream. Starting with a single unbranched stream in the
headwaters and continuing until it is joined by a similar stream, both
of which are called order 1 streams, an order 2 stream is found. This
order 2 stream continues until it is joined by another order 2 stream
to form an order 3 stream. It should be pointed out that only those
streams of the same order form a new order by joining; that is, if an

66 Glen W. Murphy

order 3 stream is joined by an order 2 tributary, the stream still re-
mains order 3.

Collections were made at each of 12 stations between September
15, 1962, and May 7, 1963. With the exception of one station, col-
lections were made with common sense, minnow seines, varying in
length from 4 to 15 feet. The one exception was a collection made
with a gill net. Specimens were preserved in 10% formaldehyde
and washed in water for 6 to 12 hours before being identified. The
specimens are deposited at the University of Kentucky.

Scientific names were determined by using Eddy (1957) and
Blair, et. al. (1957). The common names used were determined
through the use of Special Publication No. 2 of the American Fish-
eries Society (1960).

Results

From the twelve collections, 35 species representing 9 families of
fishes were recorded. The number of species per station ranged from
2 to 14 (Table 1). Fishes found at Stations 1, 2, and 3 were minnows
(Cyprinidae) and darters (Percidae). Semotilus atromaculatus was
the only species found at all three stations. Suckers (Catostomidae )
and sunfishes (Centrarchidae) first appeared at Station 4. The stud-
fish, Fundulus catenatus, (Cyprinodontidae ) also appeared at Station
4, In addition to the fishes already encountered, the brook silverside,
Labidesthes sicculus, (Atherinidae) and the catfishes, Ictalurus melas
and I.natalis, (Ictaluridae) appeared at Station 7. At Station 8, the
longnose Gar, Lepisosteus osseus, (Lepisosteidae ) and the grass pick-
erel, Esox americanus, (Esocidae) were found. The number of species
increased up through stations of fourth order and decreased at fifth
and sixth order stations.

Using Horton’s system of stream classification the following col-
lection stations were selected and the following results obtained:
(Figure 1) Station 1. Upper Hatter’s Creek, since it is an extreme
headwater, is an order 1 stream. Located in Southeastern Casey
County, it originates between McClure and Sand Knob at an eleva-
tion of 1,200 ft. and drops sharply to 1,022 ft. The stream flows
through deciduous forest with a ground cover of Trillium grandi-
florum, T. erectum, Phlox divaricata, Viola papilionacia, a number of
species of the family cruciferae, and other assorted herbaceous plants.
The stream contained many leaves and gravels under which could
be found crayfish, salamanders, helgramites and the darter, Etheo-
stoma caeruleum. Other fish were all of the same species, Semotilus
atromaculatus,

Fishes of the Green River Basin 67

Table 1. Fishes of Upper Green River arranged by stream orders and station numbers.
X—Presence.

Stream orders 1 2 :
Avg. No. species/order 2 4.5 10.5 13.5 12 7.66
Station numbers 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 #11 12

Lepisosteidae

Lepisosteus osseus X Xx
Esocidae

Esox americanus x xX
Catostomidae

Catostomus commersoni

Hypentelium nigricans

Minytrema melanops

Moxostoma erythrurum
Cyprinidae

Campostoma anomalum

Chrosomus erythrogaster

Notemigonus crysoleucas

Notropis ardens

Notropis boops

Notropis chrysocephalus xX

Notropis photogenis

Notropis rubellus

Notropis spilopterus

Pimephales notatus X xX

Pimephales promelas x xX
Semotilus atromaculatus X X x xX xX

Ictaluridae
Ictalurus melas
Ictalurus natalis
Cyprinodontidae
Fundulus catenatus x x x
Atherinidae
Labidesthes sicculus
Centrarchidae
Ambloplites rupestris
Lepomis cyanellus xX
Lepomis macrochirus
Lepomis megalotis
Micropterus dolomieui x
Micropterus punctulatus
Micropterus salmoides

Pomoxis annularis

Percidae
Etheostoma blennioides x
Etheostoma flabellare ~ xX xX
Etheostoma caeruleum X xX
Etheostoma zonale x
Percina maculata x

os OS
bel
~~ «MRM OS
os 6S
PS PS PS
OS 2S
wi Ps

i. i . i...
tad

PS PS OS
ta]
od Od Os OS OS
bd Dd BS DS
Ss MM
io Ba)

os
o¢

Total no. of species 2 6 3 12. «9 UE 14s TS le 5 11

Station 2. At an elevation of 1,022 feet Upper Hatter’s Creek is
joined by another order 1 stream and continues as an order 2 stream
for a very short distance with a drop of 32 feet. The flora along the
banks remains the same but there is considerable change in the stream.
In addition to the previously mentioned fauna, the following min-
nows (Cyprinidae) appeared: the stoneroller, Campostoma anomalum;
the redbelly dace, Chrosomus erythrogaster; the common shiner,

68 Glen W. Murphy

Notropis chrysocephalus; and the flathead minnow, Pimephales pro-
melas.

Station 3. Upper True Branch, a tributary of Bush Creek, is
an order 2 stream and originates at an elevation of 1,000 feet. It then
flows through a pasture, which is stocked with dairy cattle, dropping
140 ft. before increasing in magnitude. The flora consists of pasture
grasses, Salix sp., and Platanus occidentalis. Fishes found here were:
the fantail darter, Etheostoma flabellare; and the minnows, Chrosomus
erythrogaster and Semotilus atromaculatus.

Station 4. At Jumbo, in Lincoln County, Green River is an order
3 stream. Elevation is approximately 990 ft. and the gradient has
decreased to the point that intermittant shale pools and gravel riffles
are formed. The fish found on riffles were: the fantail darter, Etheo-
stoma flabellare; the hogsucker, Hypentelium nigricans; and the min-
nows, Campostoma anomalum, Pimephales notatus, and Semotilus
atromaculatus. The fishes generally found in the pools were: the
golden redhorse, Moxostoma erythrurum; the studfish, Fundulus
catenatus; and the centrarchids Lepomis cyanellus and Micropterus
dolomieui.

Station 5. True Branch is an order 3 stream which drains directly
into Brush Creek. It is a continuation of the stream which is listed in
station 8 and has the same flora. True Branch differs from the pre-
vious order 3 stream in that it has no representatives of the Centrar-
chidae or Catostomidae but has one more member of the Percidae,
Etheostoma caeruleum.

Station 6. Carpenter’s Creek is a slate bottomed stream which
drains northeastern Casey County. Collections were made at Kidd’s
Store at which point the creek is an order 4 stream. Steep banks
border the stream on the south side and are covered by Hepatica sp.,
Phlox sp., Rhus sp., and shrubby members of the Ericaceae. Salix sp.
was abundant in the edges of pools. Families of fishes best repre-
sented were Cyprinidae and Centrarchidae. The former was repre-
sented by: the stoneroller, Campostoma anomalum; Notropic ardens;
N. boops; N. chrysocephalus; and Pimephales promelas. Centrarchids
found were: the green sunfish, Lepomis cyanellus; the bluegill, L.
macrochirus; the longear sunfish, L. megalotis; and the smallmouth
bass, Micropterus dolomieui. Percidae was represented by two species,
Etheostoma blennioides and E. caeruleum. Catostomidae and Cyprin-
odontidae were each represented by only one species, Moxostoma
erythrurum and Fundulus catenatus respectively.

Station 7. Pine Lick Creek, order 4, is formed by the union of
Peltis Fork and Pine Lick Creek, order 3. This is a shallow creek with

Fishes of the Green River Basin 69

alternate slate and gravel rifles with few pools. A total of 14 species
were collected here with an addition of 2 new families, Ictaluridae
and Atherinidae. The family Ictaluridae was represented by 2 species;
the black bullhead, Ictalurus melas and the yellow bullhead, I. natalis.
Atherinidae was represented by the brook silverside, Labidesthes sic-
culus. The white sucker, Catostomus commersoni and the rosyface
shiner, Notropis rubellus appeared here but belong to families which
were already represented. This was the stream from which the maxi-
mum number of species was collected.

Station 8. South Fork is an order 5 stream which drains southern
Casey County, joining Green River near Dunnville. At the point of
collection the elevation is about 760 ft. In this stream Centrarchids
became most abundant with 5 different species represented. They
were: the rockbass, Ambloplites rupestris; the green sunfish, Lepomis
cyanellus; the bluegill, L. macrochirus; the longear sunfish, L. meg-
alotis; and the smallmouth bass, Micropterus dolomieui. Two new
families, Lepisosteidae and Esocidae, were encountered. Species col-
lected were the longnose gar, Lepisosteus osseus, and the grass
pickerel, Esox americanus. Minytrema melanops also appeared for
the first time.

Station 9. Just below the Middleburg Bridge, Green River is an
order 5 stream, characterized by alternate slate rifles and pools.
Many of the pools reach a depth of over 6 feet and the riffles were
about 1 foot deep at the time of collection. Three new species were
added to the checklist at this station. They were: Etheostoma zonale,
Micropterus punctulatus, and Notropis photogenis.

Station 10. Above the mouth of Calhoun Creek, Green River (order
6) is shaded by many willows and sycamores. The river at this point
consists of long quiet pools divided by short shallow riffles. The
elevation is about 770 ft. All of the fish collected at this station be-
longed to two families, Centrarchidae and Cyprinidae, with centrar-
chids being the most abundant. No new species were added.

Station 11. The Barger Hole (order 6), just above Liberty, is a
long deep pool which is a favorite fishing site with many of the
natives of the region. The collection here consisted entirely of rough
fish, except for the common shiner. No new species were found.

Station 12. At the base of the Walnut Hill Bluffs, backwaters of
Green River (order 6) form what the local people call “The Lagoon.”
“The Lagoon” reaches a depth of 5 feet, is crisscrossed with old stave
fences and remains muddy at all times. A dense deciduous forest
borders it on the southwest and open fields on the northeast. Rocks
extend out into the water and holes under them will accommodate

70 Glen W. Murphy

half of a man. Three new species were found at this station. Two
of them, the white crappie, Pomoxis annularis and the largemouth bass,
Micropterus salmoides belonged to the predominant family, Cen-
trarchidae. The other was the golden shiner, Notemigonus crysoleucas.

The Kentucky Department of Fish and Wildlife Resources is con-
ducting a longitudinal study dealing with that part of Green River
involved in this study (Charles, 1963). Four checklists from which
the following information was obtained have resulted from this study
(Table 2). All collections were from order 6 streams.

A. In 1960, two areas in Casey County were sampled with rotenone.
These areas were the Barger Hole, 2 miles upstream from Lib-
erty, and the Rock Hole, 2 miles downstream from Liberty. From
the two areas combined, specimens were collected representing 9
families and 36 species.

B. In 1961, the Rock Hole was again sampled with rotenone. This
one area alone yielded specimens representing 7 families and 27
species. (Fig. 1).

C. The 1962 sample was taken from the Rock Hole and an area one
tenth of a mile below the mouth of Allen Creek. Specimens col-
lected represented 10 families and 5 species.

D. The 1963 rotenone samples were taken in the same areas as 1960.
Specimens represented 8 families and 81 species.

Discussion

If, as Kuehne (1962) proposes, there is a relationship between
fish distribution and the Horton stream classification, the number and
diversity of fishes should increase with each successive increase in
stream order. According to the present study this held true up through
order 4 and then there was a general decrease in the number of
species with each of the next two orders. Order 1 had an average
of 2 species, order 2 had 4.5, order 3 had 10.5, and order 4 had 13.5;
thus giving the expected increase. Order 5 had an average of 12 species
and order 6 had an average of 9 if the gill net collection is excluded.
This type of collection will not give a clear picture of species present
because minnows and darters would not be caught in it.

Contrary to these results, the findings of the Department of Fish
and Wildlife Resources would indicate that there is a great increase
in the number of species from the order 4 stream up to the order 6
stream. Combining the findings, Kuehne’s theory can be substantiated,
since at least through order 6, as stream order increases, the number
and diversity of species of fishes increases.

Fishes of the Green River Basin al

The discrepancy between these findings and those of the Depart-
ment of Fish and Wildlife Resources can be explained in the fol-
lowing way. While rotenone, a poison, is so effective that samples of
all species are obtained, many specimens might have been missed
by seining in the deep holes of order 5 and order 6 streams. In addi-
tion to being deep, holes are long and wide, permitting fish to swim
around the seine as well as over or under it. The greatest number

Table 2. Fishes of Upper Green River: A summary of check-lists showing the findings of
the Kentucky Department of Fish and Wildlife Resources; 1960, 1961, 1962, and 1963
(Charles, 1963).

X-Presence

Stream order 6 6 6 6

Station number A B Cc Cc

Petromyzontidae
Lampetra aepyptera Xx
Lepisosteidae
Lepisosteus osseus xX xX X
Clupeidae
Dorosoma cepedianum x xX
Esocidae
Esox americanus vermiculatus X X
Cyprinidae
Campostoma anomalum
Carassius auratus

PS PS PS
*
~~ Mm FR

Cyprinus carpio

Hypopsis amblops

Hybopsis dissimilis

Hybopsis micropogon

Notropis ardens

Notropis ariommus x

Notropis atheriniodes xX

Notropis boops

Notropis cornutus x xX

Notropis leuciodus

Notropis photogenis

Notropis rubellus

Notropis spilopterus X xX

Notropis volucellus

Notropis whipplei Xx

Opsopoeodus emiliae

Pimephales notatus X x

Semotilus atromaculatus
Catostomidae

Catostomus commersoni

Hypentelium nigricans

Minytrema melanops
Moxostoma anisurum

Moxostoma breviceps
Moxostoma carinatum
Moxostoma duquesnei
Moxostoma erythrurum
Ictaluridae
Ictalurus melas
Ictalurus natalis
Ictalurus punctatus
Noturus miurus

Poturus species (Green River system)
ylodictis olivaris

PS SPS

D6 DS De Dd DS DS De Dd DS DS Od

bad os PS
PS ms PS
Ss PS OM PS OOS

PS PS OS PS PS

be PS OS
>¢ be pe ><

ba
*
tas

(Continued )

ip: Glen W. Murphy

Table 2—(Continued)

Station number A B C D

Cyprinodontidae
Fundulus catenatus >
Fundulus notatus
Centrarchidae
Ambloplites rupestris
Chaenobryttus gulosus
Lepomis cyanellus
Lepomis macrochirus
epomis megalotis
Lepomis microlophus
Lepomis sp, x sp.
Micropterus dolomieui
Micropterus punctulatus
Micropterus salmoides
Pomoxis annularis
Percidae
Etheostoma blennioides
Etheostoma caeruleum
Etheostoma camurum
Etheostoma flabellare
Etheostoma kennicotti
Etheostoma nigrum
Etheostoma stigmaeum
Etheostoma zonale
Percina caprodes x X
Percina cymatotaenia
Percina macrocephala
Percina maculata ><
Atherinidae
Labidesthes sicculus

PS RO OS
be ig a
PS PS PS PS PS PSG PS OPS PS PS

PS PS PS OS

os OS
rat

Pte PS OS ODS PG PG PS DS DG PS PG PTS OS OS OS PS OS PS

uw
a

Total number of species 36 27 31

of species collected in an order 6 stream, using seines, was 11, while
using rotenone, the State Department’s smallest collection consisted
of 27 species. This indicates that as compared to rotenone seines are
very ineffective in sampling large streams.

While making collections, certain occurrences which may suggest
botanical problems were noted. Salix sp. (Willows) seem to appear on
the banks of order 2, 3, and 4 streams progressively and are then
replaced by Platanus occidentalis (Sycamore) to some extent on the
banks of order 5 streams and then more extensively so with the
order 6 streams. Upon superficial observation, it was also noted that
there seems to be a close relationship between the distribution of
algae and stream orders.

Summary

1. Between September 15, 1962, and May 7, 1963, a study was
made to determine the distribution of fishes in Upper Green River
in Casey and Lincoln counties.

2. Combining these findings and those of the Kentucky Depart-
ment of Fish and Wildlife Resources it was found that there were 11

Fishes of the Green River Basin 73

families of fishes in Upper Green River consisting of a total of 69
species.

3. It was found that as stream order (Horton’s system) increases
the number and diversity of species of fishes increases.

4, Findings are discussed with regard to distribution of fishes by
stream orders, the inefficiency of seines, and observations which sug-
gest a need for botanical studies related to stream order.

Acknowledgments

I wish to acknowledge the assistance of Dr. Keuhne in the identi-
fication of fishes and the assistance given in collecting by my stu-
dents at Hustonsville High School. Students assisting were Pete
Foster, James Hargis, Walter Daugherty, and Gary Rousey. This
paper has been greatly enriched by the use of information obtained
from Mr. James R. Charles, Kentucky Department of Fish and Wild-
life Resources.

Literature Cited

American Fisheries Society, 1960. Special Publication, No. 2. A list of common
and scientific names of fishes from the United States and Canada. Ann Arbor,
Michigan.

Blair, W. F., et. al., 1957. Vertebrates of the United States. McGraw-Hill Book
Company, New York. pp. 819.

Charles, J. R., 1963. Unpublished check-lists of fishes found in Green River,
Casey County, Kentucky.

Eddy, Samuel, 1957. How to Know the Freshwater Fishes. Wm. C. Brown Co.,
Dubuque, Iowa.

Kuehne, R. A., 1962. A Classification of Streams, Illustrated by Fish Distribution
in an Eastern Kentucky Creek. Ecology: 608-614.

EFFECT OF AQUEOUS EXTRACTS OF LYOPHILIZED ASCITES TUMOR
CELLS AND SUPERNATE ON THE OXYGEN UPTAKE
OF FRESH ASCITES TUMOR (S-37)

SISTER VIRGINIA HEINES, SISTER JULIA CLARE FONTAINE, SISTER MARY
ADELINE O’LEARY, SISTER MARY IDA COSBY*, J. C. FARDON,**
AND LEO NUTINI.**

Catherine Spalding College, Louisville, Kentucky

For the past several years the aqueous extracts of lyophilized
ascites cells and supernatant have been used in this laboratory to de-
termine the effect of the oxygen uptake of the fresh ascites tumor
(S-37). Reports in the literature! have shown the ability of certain
fractions derived from the transplanted dbrB mammary adenocarci-
noma to induce partial resistance to the growth of the tumor in
DBA/1 mice. Since this fraction tends to accelerate the growth of the
tumor it may be related to the factor which has been characterized as
a glycoprotein? or a lipoprotein.* Menkin* has reported an acetone-
insoluble growth stimulating protein in inflammatory exudates. No
studies on the isolation of depressive stimulatory factors from the
ascites tumor have been reported in the literature.

Experimental

Transplantation of the stock tumor in a line of Rockland mice was
carried out weekly using an inoculum of 0.10 ml., 1:5 dilution intra-
peritoneally. Of the forty animals used in this work ninety-five per
cent were male mice and the age varied from 4 to 8 weeks. The ascites
tumor was collected by intraperitoneal puncture on the sixth or
seventh day after inoculation. This stock tumor was suspended
(1:2) in Tyrode’s solution and six drops of the suspension plus 3
drops of Tyrode’s placed in the flask of micro-respirometer® as a
control. The experimental flask contained, in addition to the six
drops of the suspended tumor, three drops of a water extract of
lyophilized supernatant or cells. Sterile conditions were maintained
throughout the runs. Respirometry studies were carried out in a water
bath at 87°C. + 0.01° for three or four hours, and calculations made
for oxygen uptake (QOz) in cumm/mg dry weight/hour.

The water extracts of supernate and cells were prepared as fol-
lows: as soon as the ascites tumor was removed from the sacrificed
animal, it was centrifuged for ten minutes at 2500 rpm. The super-

* Nazareth College, Nazareth, Kentucky.** Departments of Biology and Ex-
perimental Medicine, Institutum Divi Thomae, Cincinnati, Ohio.

Effect of Aqueous Extracts 75

nate was removed, lyophilized and stored at —10°C. until ready for
use. The ascites tumor cell separation was done according to the
method of Roitt,® then lyophilized and stored. The aqueous extract
of either lyophilized cells or supernate was prepared by placing
several spatulas of the dried material in a graduated centrifuge tube
and diluting to a one milliliter volume with double distilled water.
Dried weights of the stock tumor and extracts were used in the cal-
culation of the QO». Three drops of the clear extract were placed in
the experimental flasks with the 6 drops of 1:2 suspension.

For comparison, counts were made daily on each animal for total
tumor cells, leucocytes, and mitotic figures. Blood cell counts proved
insignificant. The ratio of the leucocytes to total tumor count, aver-
aged for the forty animals, was 1:6, and the mitotic figures, calcu-
lated as total tumor cells, was 10%. The results of the forty experi-
ments using 20 animals for each extract are given in Tables I and II.

The constancy and reliability of the micro-respirometer were de-
termined with a suspension of baker’s yeast in Ringer-phosphate-glu-
cose solution.

Calculation of oxygen up-take is made by the following equation:

RKF T
QO, = — ........ (if less than an hour)
W T-t

= pipette reading in cu.mm.

pipette constant
== factor for reduction to N.P.T.
W = dry weight of tissue in mg.

oA
|

T = Time in minutes

Results And Discussion

The results of the respirometry studies on forty animals are given
in Tables I and II. Average of the depression values on 20 animals
amounted to 51% and stimulation values on 20 animals amounted
to 59%.

It is significant that the unstableness of the inhibitory factor we
found is in agreement with the work of others along this line.? Once
a week for three weeks we used the same water extract (stored in the
ice box between runs) of the lyophilized supernate to determine if
its strength decreased on standing. When first used the water extract
showed 41% depression of the tumor cells. After storage in ice box
the value fell to 10%, and at the end of second week it rose to 18%.
Stability of cell extract has yet to be determined.

76 Heines, Fontaine, O'Leary, Cosby, Fardon, and Nutini

There are variations in these results which can be attributed to
individuality differentials. All dry weights were made on the stock
tumor before suspension in Tyrode’s solution. The same micropipette
was used for the dry weight determinations and for charging the
respirometer flasks. Results indicate a definite depression of activity
of tumor cells by the aqueous extract of the supernate, and a stimu-
lation of the cells by the aqueous extract of the cells. Other workers?
have found both an inhibitory and stimulatory factor in tissues, but no
reports have been made on these factors occurring in the ascites
tumor (S-37). It will be important to find out if the stimulatory
substance dominates in an actively growing tumor.

Table 1. Effect of Aqueous Extract of Lyophilized S-37 Cells on the QO. of S-37 Cells

Average
Tumor wt. Average Average Average
mg/6drops Water Extr. QO, Control QO, Expr. Stimulation
No. of Mice 1:2 mg/3 drops cumm/hr/mg cumm/hr/mg %
5 5.3 1.10 2.2, 3.7 68
5 4.7 0.68 3.5 5.3 51
5 4.0 0.67 5.5 6.4 20
5 4.1 0.49 2.8 6.0 100

Table 2. Effect of Aqueous Extract of Lyophilized S-37 Supernate on the QO, of S-37 Cells

Average
Tumor wt. Water Average Average Average
mg/6 drops Extract QO, Control QO, Expr. Depression
No. of Mice 1:2 mg/3 drops cumm/hr/mg cumm/hr/mg %
5 5.5 1.1 3.9 1.5 61
5 3.1 1.8 6.3 1.8 val
5 3.5 0.6 5.0 2.6 48
5 2.3 1.8 3.6 2.6 27

Literature Cited

Cook, E. S., K. Turumi, N. T. Perez, and Sr. R. Juhasz, Acta Union Interna-

tionale Contre Le Cancer; XV. Nos. 3-4, (1959).

Kandutsch, A. A., and A. Reinert-Wench; J. Exptl. Med., 105, 125 (1957).

3. Green, H. N., and R. Wilson: Nature, 178, 851, (1956).

4. Menkin, V., Cancer Research, 17, 963 (1957).

5. Fardon, J., S. Martin., E. S$. Cook. Acta Union Intern. Contre Cancrum. 7,
(1951); 552.

6. Roitt, I. M., Biochem J., 63, 300 (1956).

7, Szent-Gyorgyi, A., A. Hegyeli, J. A. McLaughlin, Science, 140, 1391, 1963).

—_

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Volume 25 1965 Numbers 3-4

TRANSACTIONS
of the KENTUCKY
ACADEMY of SCIENCE

Official Organ
Kenrucky ACADEMY OF SCIENCE

CONTENTS

Botany in Kentucky since 1914
ESDWVARD [es ROWINES | [Rei ic tet eee ca ese sesce cent cehiaacesnatae. un

Two Great Kentucky Ornithologists
Gorpon WILSON

Flamma Clara Maturae Medicinae Kentuckinsis
WILLARD ROUSE JILLSON

Four Thousand and Fifty Years of Mathematics
JAMEs CLIFTON EAVES

Some Comparative Behavior Studies on Three
Genera of Salamanders

Jackie D. BATSON

Studies on the Praire Vole, Microtus Ochrogaster, in
Central Kentucky

Jackie D. Batson

Academy Affairs

Index to Volume 25

The Kentucky Academy of Science
Founded May 8, 1914

OFFICERS 1963-64

President: R. A. CuHapMan, University of Kentucky
President Elect: C. B. HamMaNN, Asbury College

Vice President: FRANK KopMAN, Murray State College
Secretary: Grrrir Levey, Berea College

Treasurer: J. H. B. Garner, University of Kentucky
AAAS Council Representative: Mary WHaArRTON, Georgetown College
Junior Academy Counselor: E. R. Jornpon, Eastern Kentucky State College

. EDITORIAL OFFICE

RaymMonp E. Hampton, Editor
Department of Plant Pathology
University of Kentucky
Lexington, Kentucky 40506

Membership in the Kentucky Academy of Science is open to interested persons upon nomi-
nation, payments of dues, and election. Application forms for membership may be obtained
from the Secretary. The TRANSACTIONS are sent free to all members in good standing.

; Subscription rates for non-members are: domestic, $3.50 per volume; foreign, $4.00 per
volume.

The TRANSACTIONS are issued semi-annually. Four numbers comprise a volume.

Correspondence concerning memberships or subscriptions should be addressed to the
Secretary. Exchanges and correspondence relating to exchanges should be addressed, The
Librarian, University of Louisville, who is the exchange agent for the Academy. Manuscripts
and other material for publication should be addressed to the Editor.

BOTANY IN KENTUCKY SINCE 1914

EDWARD T. BROWNE, JR.
Department of Botany, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky

The story of botany in Kentucky since 1914 is that of the persons
who have been associated with the science through their contributions
to the literature of botany or through their inspiration of younger
people who, themselves, have contributed to the botanical literature
and are, consequently, known to those persons, like your author, who
have come along in this field in later years. In a paper of this type
obviously it is not possible to include all who might be included, but in
the words of the editor of this journal, those people are discussed
herein “who are either retired, deceased or have been gone from the
state long enough to lead one to believe that their absence is per-
manent. This means that some very fine teachers of botany will be
excluded undoubtedly since they are to be remembered only by their
students and not by their literary contributions.

One of the persons who had a great influence upon botany in Ken-
tucky particularly in the third and fourth decades of this century was
Dr. Frank T. McFarland. Dr. McFarland was born in Sunbury, Ohio,
May 12, 1886 (1). He took his B.S. A. degree at Ohio State in 1912,
the M.S. at Michigan in 1916 and his Ph.D. in Plant Pathology at
Wisconsin in 1921. Whether by choice or necessity it is not presently
known, for Dr. McFarland’s chief contributions were made, not in
lower cryptogamic botany as might be expected on the basis of his
doctoral work, but in the vascular plants, especially the flowering
plants, and these were made by his students primarily. Dr. McFarland
was successively an instructor at the University of Kentucky, 1912-13;
assistant professor, 1913-20; associate professor, 1920-22 and professor
and head of the Botany Department from 1922-42. During the course
of his graduate studies, he had served first as an assistant and then as
an instructor in the department at Michigan in the summers of 1914
and 1915, respectively.

Upon assuming the position of head of the department at Ken-
tucky, Dr. McFarland’s interest in the vascular plants became apparent
through the master’s theses written by his students: Anderson on
Kentucky Graminales (1924); Shacklette on the flora of Union County
(1937); McCoy on the ferns and fern-allies of Kentucky (1938); Ply-
male writing on the flora of Wayne Co., West Virginia (1940); Har-
vill on the Compositae of Kentucky (1941); Rogers on the flora of Mc-
Creary Co. (1942); Tosh on the flora of Raleigh Co., West Virginia

78 Edward T. Browne, Jr.

(1942), and McFarland writing on the flora of Jessamine Co. (1946).
Only the theses by McCoy, Plymale and Tosh were published. In 1942
Dr. McFarland published his “Catalogue of the Vascular Plants of
Kentucky” in which he listed all the species of vascular plants known
from the state and accessioned in the herbaria of the Botany Depart-
ment and the Agricultural Experiment Station (2). This monumental
work included 1702 species, varieties and forms—the largest number
recorded in a single publication concerned with the vascular plants of
the state. While this publication was subsequently criticized for some
of its shortcomings [Peattie, 1946 (3)], it nevertheless, stands today
among the two most complete works of its type for Kentucky.

Dr. McFarland was an excellent teacher as attested to by his many
former students. He led the first botanical renaissance in Kentucky
since the days of Rafinesque, Short and Peter, and he left an imprint
on Kentucky botany that will long be felt. His reputation, un-
doubtedly, would have been greater but for the great fire of August
1948 in which the herbarium, which he had accumulated in twenty-
five years or more of labor, was totally destroyed. Fortunately, a few
duplicates of some of the collections, notably some of Shacklette’s, had
been sent to other herbaria. Otherwise, we would have no records of
this period of productive activity.

A colleague of Dr. McFarland paid him what might be considered
the supreme compliment for a taxonomist. Dr. B. B. McInteer once
said that every plant Dr. McFarland pressed was a work of art. Those
who are in a position to know would be in complete agreement. Dr.
McFarland retired in 1956, and he now lives in Berea, Kentucky.

The mention of the name of Dr. Charles Albert Shull comes as a
surprise to many in a discussion of botany in Kentucky since 1914. Dr.
Shull was born in Miami Co., Ohio, on August 1, 1881 (4). He took
his B.S. at Chicago in 1905 and his Ph.D. there in 1915. From 1906 to
1908 he was assistant professor of biology at Transylanvia, and he was
professor of biology and geology there from 1908-1912. In the period
1918-1921, he served at the University of Kentucky as professor of plant
physiology and Chairman of the Botany Department. Had Dr. Shull
remained in Kentucky, he probably would be considered here among
our outstanding contributors to botany in the state. As it has de-
veloped, he became one of the truly outstanding plant physiologists in
the United States in the first half of the twentieth century, but most
of his contributions were made and his honors were received after he
left the state.

As we have seen above, two patterns have been followed in
floristic work in Kentucky. One has consisted of county floras, and the

Botany in Kentucky Since 1914 79

other has involved intensive studies of single families or orders. The
first county flora of the twentieth century in the state was that of
Sister Rose Agnes Greenwell, who, in 1935, published her “Flora of
Nelson County, Kentucky” (5). Sister Rose Agnes was born in
Leonardtown, Maryland, January 8, 1894 (6). She was granted her
A.B. degree at Notre Dame in 1926 and the M.S. at Marquette in 1927.
The Ph.D. was conferred on her at Catholic University in 1935. The
Nelson County flora was her doctoral dissertation, and in it she in-
cluded all the vascular species she had collected in the county in ad-
dition to keys to the families, genera and species. Economic species of
each family were listed whether actually represented in the flora or
not. The 863 species reported for Nelson Co. represent the largest
number of species given in the published literature for any county in
Kentucky.

Sister Rose Agnes went to Nazareth Junior College in 1928 as an
instructor in biology. She was made head, Department of Biology,
Nazareth College, Louisville, in 1931, and she has occupied this posi-
tion since that time. Although it has become increasingly difficult for
her to do field work, Sister Rose Agnes maintains an active interest in
taxonomy and floristics.

Thomas N. McCoy was mentioned earlier in the material dealing
with Dr. McFarland. Mr. McCoy was born on a farm near Calvert
City, Kentucky, November 11, 1905. His graduation from high school
in that city in 1926 was followed by teaching for three years in the
county schools of Marshall and Livingston Counties. In 1930 he was
appointed principal of an elementary school in Catlettsburg. Mean-
while, between 1926 and 1933, he had undertaken college work at
Murray State College, and in the latter year he was graduated with a
B.A. degree. Graduate work was pursued at the University of Ken-
tucky in the summers of 1933, 1934 and 1935, and these efforts cul-
minated in the completion of the M.S. degree in 1936. His thesis, “The
Ferns and Fern-allies of Kentucky” was published (7), and it consti-
tuted such a fine contribution that even today Mr. McCoy is regarded
as the leading authority on the ferns of Kentucky. The fact that he
was requested to lead the American Fern Society's Kentucky foray in
August 1961 attests to the high esteem with which he is regarded by
other fern specialists elsewhere in the United States. He continues to
reside in Catlettsburg where he has been superintendent of schools
for several years. In addition to his M.S. thesis, he has published three
shorter papers dealing with Kentucky ferns.

A contemporary of Thomas N. McCoy was Hansford T. Shacklette,
who was born in Henderson, Ky., on September 1, 1914. He was

80 Edward T. Browne, Jr.

graduated from Morganfield High School in June 1931, and the follow-
ing fall he entered the University of Kentucky. In June 1935 he was
graduated from the university with a degree of B.S. in Agriculture
whereupon he entered the Graduate School in Lexington and com-
pleted his M.S. degree in Lexington in 1937. Dr. Shacklette served as
instructor in botany at the university from 1937-41. Although his mas-
ter’s thesis on the flora of Union County was never pulished, Dr. Shack-
lette became one of the organizers of the Kentucky Flora Project with
botanists at several institutions of higher education elsewhere in the
state. In connection with this undertaking he complied a very note-
worthy literature survey of taxonomic botany for Kentucky which was
mimeographed and distributed in 1940, and additional references were
included in a supplement which was published (mimeo) in 1941.

Subsequently, Dr. Shacklette taught for several years at George-
town College, Kentucky. He was granted the Ph.D. degree at
Michigan in 1963, and since that time he has been associated with the
United States Geological Survey, Department of the Interior, in
phytogeochemical studies.

No review of botany in Kentucky in the period from 1914 to the
present would be complete without mention of Dr. E. Lucy Braun,
who, with the possible exception of Dr. McFarland, is probably the out-
standing authority on the taxonomy of the higher plants of the state.
This little lady trudged the trails and dry-weather roads of eastern Ken-
tucky and amassed a wealth of information on the ecology of that
area and the distribution of our plant species. Dr. Braun was born in
Cincinnati, April 19, 1889 (8). She received the A.B., A.M. and Ph.D.
(botany) degrees from the University of Cincinnati in 1910, 1912 and
1914, respectively. In 1912 she spent a while at the University of
Chicago. In the University of Cincinnati she served as an assistant in
geology, 1910-13; instructor in botany, 1914-17; assistant professor,
1923-27; associate professor, 1927-46; professor of plant ecology, 1946-
48 and emeritus professor from 1948 to the present. Many honors have
come to Dr. Braun. Among these were her selection as a Guggenheim
fellow in 1943-44, recipient of the Pope medal in 1952. election as vice-
president of the Ecological Society of America in 1935 and its presi-
dent in 1950 and recipient of a Certificate of Merit from the Botanical
Society of America in 1956. Her “Annotated Catalog of the Sper-
matophytes of Kentucky” (1943) (9) is a volume the systematic
botanist in Kentucky can scarcely afford to be without. 1636 species,
varieties, forms and hybrids are included in this work. “The Deciduous
Forests of Eastern North America” (1950) is the definitive work on
this subject. In addition, Dr. Braun has written “The Woody Plants of

Botany in Kentucky Since 1914 81

Ohio” (1961) and approximately twenty shorter contributions on the
ecology and taxonomy of Kentucky plants as well as numerous other
papers of an ecological or taxonomic nature. Dr. Braun ranks as the
outstanding botanist of this period of Kentucky botany.

An important contributor to Kentucky botany was Dr. P. A. Davies
of the University of Louisville. Dr. Davies was born in Fort Collins,
Colorado, February 10, 1896 (8). He attended Colorado Agricultural
College and was granted his A.B. degree by that institution in 1922
and the M.S. in 1923. Next he went to Harvard University where he
received the Ph.D. in general physiology in 1926. Throughout his
career as a college professor he remained at the University of Louis-
ville. He was appointed assistant professor of biology in 1926, associate
professor in 1928, professor in 1929 and chairman of the Department
of Biology in 1931, a position which he held until 1956. In addition, Dr.
Davies was chairman of the Division of Natural Sciences, University
of Louisville, from 1934 until his death on January 4, 1961.

Dr. Davies’ early research was on the physiology of seed germina-
tion, morphology and anatomy, and gradually he became interested in
plant distribution, floristics and taxonomy in which fields his later
contributions are to be found. Two of his more important papers were:
A preliminary list of the vascular plants of Meade County, Kentucky
and A preliminary list of the vascular plants of Mammoth Cave
National Park. The influence of Dr. Davies is to be found also in his
students among whom were: Charles R. Gunn, A flora of Bernheim
Forest, Bullitt Co., Kentucky, and several other shorter papers; George
Kellerman, A survey of the aquatic plants of western Kentucky; James
A. Mathews, A flora of Oldham County, Kentucky; Mrs. Harvey B.
Lovell, The vascular plants of the Kleber Songbird Sanctuary, Owen
County, Kentucky, and others. Surely, Dr. Davies’ influence on Ken-
tucky botany will be felt for many years to come.

Notable among those who have made contributions to botany in
Kentucky in recent years is Dr. Clyde F. Reed, Howard University,
Washington, D.C. Dr. Reed was born in High Point, North Carolina,
April 30, 1918 (8). He took his A.B. degree at Loyola College (Mary-
land) in 1938, the M.A. at John Hopkins in 1940 and his Ph.D. in
biology at Harvard in 1942. After completion of his doctorate, Dr.
Reed worked as a food chemist and microbiologist in Maryland from
1942 to 1947 when he became professor of Biology at Morehead State
College. He remained there until 1950, and it was during this time
that he became interested in the Kentucky flora, an interest which has
persisted until the present. In 1950, Dr. Reed went to Baltimore Junior
College, Baltimore, Maryland, where he remained until assuming his

82 Edward T. Browne, Jr.

present position at Howard University in 1961. His main contributions
have been journal papers dealing with the ferns and fern-allies of Ken-
tucky and Trillium in Kentucky. It is largely due to his efforts and
those of McCoy (7) that the ferns and fern-allies are the most com-
pletely known groups of plants in the vegetation of Kentucky.

Dr. B. B. McInteer is affectionately remembered by many of his
former students at the University of Kentucky. He was born March
25, 1887, at Sulfur Well, Kentucky (10). After Dr. McInteer took his
B.S. degree at the university in 1917, he served for two years in the
army. For three years, 1920-23, he was a county agent. In 1926 he
was granted the M.S. degree by the university, and Ohio State
awarded him the Ph.D. degree in botany in 1932. In his service to the
people of the state as a teacher, he was an instructor in botany at the
University of Kentucky, 1924-25; assistant professor, 1925-33; and as-
sociate professor from 1933 until his retirement in 1957. Dr. McInteer
was associate editor for Kentucky of Castanea, the journal of the
Southern Appalachian Botanical Club, from 1953 through 1962. He
was primarily interested in plant ecology, and most of his scientific
papers dealt with some aspect of this subject. Others were concerned
with algology, floristics and plant distribution. When the building
housing the Botany Department was destroyed by fire in August 1948,
Dr. MclInteer was to a large extent instrumental in establishing a new
herbarium. Following his retirement he moved to Louisville where he
still resides.

Literature Cited

1. Cattell, J. M., and J. Cattell, ed. 1933. American Men of Science. ed. 5.
New York, The Science Press.

2. McFarland, F. T. 1942. A catalogue of the vascular plants of Kentucky.
Castanea 7: 77-108.

3. Peattie, Donald Culross. 1946. The use—and uselessness—of local floras.
Castanea 11: 63-65.

4. *"Vho’s Who in America 25: 2253. 1948. Chicago A. N. Marquis Co.

5. Greenwell, Sister Rose Agnes. 1935. A flora of Nelson County, Kentucky.
Louisville, Nazareth College.

6. Cattell, J. ed. 1944. American Men of Science. ed. 7. Lancaster, Pa., The
Science Press.

7. McCoy, Thomas N. 1938. The ferns and fern-allies of Kentucky. Amer.
Fern Jour. 28: 41-46; 101-110.

8. Cattell, J. ed. 1960. American Men of Science. ed. 10. Tempe, Ariz., Jaques
Cattell Press.

9. Braun, E. Lucy. 1943. An annotated catalog of the spermatophytes of Ken-
tucky. Cincinnati, The author.

10. Cattell, J. ed. 1949. American Men of Science. ed. 8. Lancaster, Pa., The
Science Press.

TWO GREAT KENTUCKY ORNITHOLOGISTS

GORDGN WILSON,
Bowling Green, Kentucky

Between the time of John James Audubon and the present-day
students of ornithology in the state the two greatest names in this
science are Charles Wickliffe Beckham (1856-1888) and Leon Otley
Pindar (1870-1936). Both did their distinctive work when they were
quite young: Beckham died of tuberculosis before his thirty-second
birthday; Pindar became a physician and gave up his hobby of
ornithology almost entirely until his later years, when invalidism pre-
vented his being very active as an observer.

Beckham, an older brother of J. C. W. Beckham, governor of Ken-
tucky from 1900 to 1908, was reared in Bardstown, early became an
observer of many phases of wild life, took special work in Harvard
under Professor Nathaniel Southgate Shaler, worked in the National
Museum at Washington, and, in addition to his Kentucky studies, pub-
lished some valuable scientific articles on the birds of Pueblo County,
Colorado, and Bayou Sara, Louisiana. A posthumous article about his
studies in southwest Texas is even more highly regarded than his
studies in Kentucky, Colorado, and Louisiana. He was an avid col-
lector: hundreds of his specimens were sent to the National Museum,
and for a long time the state was represented almost wholly by his
collection there.

His most memorable publication dealing with Kentucky birds, “A
List of the Birds of Bardstown, Kentucky,” appeared in 1883 in the
Journal of the Cincinnati Society of Natural History (6:136-147, July).
It listed 167 species and represented Beckham’s observations since
about 1877. A revision of the article, listing 171 species, appeared in
the publications of the Kentucky Geological Survey in September,
1885. An excellent biographical and critical sketch of the life and
achievements of Beckham is Harvey B. Lovell’s “Charles Wickliffe
Beckham, Ornithologist,” Kentucky Warbler, 33:19-26, 1957.

Exactly at the same time of Beckham’s early publications Pindar
was collecting at Hickman, Fulton County, and at Reelfoot Lake. Be-
ginning his study of birds at fourteen, he published at seventeen his
“A List of Birds of Fulton County, Kentucky” in Ornithologist and
Oologist (12:54-55 and 84-85, 1887). In 1888 Pinder was one of the
founders of the Wilson Ornithological Club (now called Society). In
1889, when he was barely nineteen, he published a revision of his
Fulton County article in Auk (6:310-316). The original article had

84 Gordon Wilson

listed 122 species of birds; the revision listed 182. In 1889 he went
away to medical school and was prevented from making any very
extended further study of the area except for some ten weeks in the
spring of 1890 and from March 1, 1892, to November 1, 1893. After
years of service as a physician in other parts of the state and in the
United States Army, he made his home in Versailles. Broken in health
and unable to practice very much after 1922, he still kept up his in-
terest in ornithology. In April, 1923, he, Mr. Brasher C. Bacon, and
I organized the Kentucky Omithological Society, and he became the
first president of that organization.

From my first acquaintance with Dr. Pindar I began to urge him
to revise his earlier studies of Fulton County. At that time I was the
secretary of the Wilson Ornithological Club and, ex officio, a member
of the editorial board of the Wilson Bulletin, the organ of the club.
Dr. Lynds Jones, the editor of the magazine, urged me to find some
good material; Dr. Pindar agreed to write out his revision if I would
arrange it for publication. He would send sections of the revision to
me that h ehad typed as well as his hands would permit or would
sometimes write out in his difficult penmanship large parts of the
article. The revision included his later experiences, mentioned above,
and contained the names of 273 species; he, or I, or the typesetter
omitted the Osprey; hence the actual list as printed contains only 272
names. It appeared as “Birds of Fulton County, Kentucky,” in 1925 in
the Wilson Bulletin (37:67-78 and 163-169); the magazine also brought
out as a reprint the two articles that make up the revision.

Beckham’s articles about the birds near Bardstown became the
basis for the studies of Benedict J. Blincoe, also of Bardstown, who
brought out his own “Birds of Bardstown, Nelson County, Kentucky,”
in 1925 (Auk 42:404-420). This article reviews Beckham’s studies of
forty years earlier and adds Blincoe’s own observations from 1911 to
1921.

Both Beckham and Pindar had many things in their favor when
they were so active in their work. There was no limit on hunting or
collecting, or none that seems to have been enforced. Since Pindar
lived so near Reelfoot Lake, he included that area in his study and
had a standing agreement with hunters to let him examine the water-
fowl that they had killed there. The wide discrepancy between Pindar’s
273 species and Beckham’s 171 is easily explained by referring to the
territory studied. Bardstown is not near any large river and has only
small farm ponds; Hickman is on the Mississippi River and is near
Reelfoot Lake and thousands of acres of marshy land. Pindar lists 87
water species, Beckham only 26; Pindar lists 18 birds of prey, Beck-

Two Great Kentucky Ornithologists 85

ham 8. Of land birds Pindar lists all the 37 warblers commonly found
in the state, and Beckham has 34 of them, his omissions being the
Prothontary, the Swainson’s, and the Worm-eating. In general, the
two lists agree amazingly on land species.

Pindar’s list is lengthened because he has a number of species and
subspecies: Double-crested and Florida Cormorants, Canada and
Hutchin’s Greese, Horned and Prairie Horned Larks, Loggerhead and
Migrant Shrikes. He also lists the Purple and the Bronzed Grackles,
now regarded as one species. Both list the Passenger Pigeon; it must
be remembered that the species was still to be found in small numbers
for some time after the late 1880's; I saw one that my brother killed in
1892. Pindar also lists the Carolina Paroquest and the Ivory-billed
Woodpecker.

Species on Pindar’s list that could be called unusual are fairly
numerous; realizing this, in his 1925 revision of his article he took
pains to give specific dates and other necessary facts. A very large
percentage of these oddities have been recorded by Mr. A. F’. Gainer
and other recent observers at Reelfoot Lake. Here is a list of the
unusual species: White Pelican, Whistling Swan, Trumpeter Swan,
Brant, White-fronted Goose, Cinnamon Teal, Barrow’s Goldeneye,
Swallowtailed Kite, Swainson’s Hawk, Whooping Crane, Yellow Rail,
Longbilled Curlew, Eskimo Curlew, Laughing Gull, Franklin’s Gull,
Gullbilled Tern, Raven, Black-capped Chickadee, Northern Shrike,
European Tree Sparrow, Painted Bunting, Pine Grosbeak, and Com-
mon Redpoll.

To this day Pindar’s list for a single county in Kentucky and parts
of two counties in Tennessee—less than 400 square miles—remains the
largest list for such a small area, anywhere in the state, or neighboring
states, I suspect. Here are some comparisons with his list of 273
species for the general area of Fulton County, Kentucky, and parts of
Obion and Lake Counties, Tennessee: the Louisville list, representing
Jefferson and adjoining county areas, has 286 species, the combined
work of some twenty able ornithologists, headed by Burt L. Monroe,
Sr.; the list for south-central Kentucky for an area four times as
large as Pindar’s area is only 262 species. This latter list repersents
more than fifty years of observation by Ggrdon Wilson, plus decades
of study by Drs. Russell Starr and L. Y. Lancaster.

This article is in no sense a defense of Pindar; his work speaks for
itself. He remains the best ornithologist of his area and, until very
recently, the only one of note, so far as the Kentucky side of his study
area is concerned. But Pindar has been neglected and ignored by
many writers on Kentucky scientific study. In the 1894 “Preliminary

86 Gordon Wilson

List of the Vertebrate Animals of Kentucky,” the author, Harrison
Garman, did not refer to Pindar’s list and has only 227 species for the
entire state. Similarly, W.D. Funkhouser, in his Wild Life in Ken-
tucky, 1925, though he lists Pindar’s publications in his bibliography,
does not quote from him on a single species. J. D. Figgins, in Birds of
Kentucky, 1945, barely mentions Pindar a few times. Since Figgins left
no bibliography, it is not certain that he had ever seen Pindar’s 1925
revision of the 1889 article.

In Blincoe’s 1925 article he says that of 167 species he had been
unable, in ten years, to find 29 around Bardstown. Some of these 29
are doubtless still to be found in the area, such as Pied-billed Grebe,
Blue-winged Teal, Green-winged Teal, Ring-necked Duck, Common
Egret, Black-billed Cuckoo, Parula Warbler, Least Flycatcher, and
Veery, to name a few. Blincoe had already moved away to Dayton,
Ohio, before his Auk article appeared; Bardstown has had no prom-
inent ornithologist to continue the work begun so well by Beckham
and carried on by Blincoe a generation later.

The Louisville chapter of the Kentucky Ornithological Society
proudly bears the name Beckham Bird Club; for some years a local
chapter at Madisonville was called the Leon Otley Pindar Chapter,
but since the death of Mr. Brasher C. Bacon nothing further has been
heard of the club. In his will Dr. Pindar left a good-sized sum of
money to the Wilson Ornithological Society, of which, as said before,
he was one of the founders, and a smaller sum to the Kentucky Or-
nithological Society. This latter bequest formed the basis of the
Endowment Fund of the society, to which have been added the Life
Memberships as they have been paid in. I still feel that some portion
of the Kentucky Omithological Society should bear permanently the
name of Dr. L. Otley Pindar.

Bibliography

BLINCOE BEN. J. Birds of Bardstown, Nelson County, Kentucky, AUK, 42:404-
420, 1925.

FIGGINS, JESSE DADE. Birds of Kentucky. Lexington: University of Ken-
tucky Press, 1945.

FUNKHOUSER, W. D. Wild Life in Kentucky. Frankfort: Kentucky Geolo-
gical Survey, 1925.

GANIER, ALBERT F. A Distributional List of the Birds of Tennessee. Published
by the Tennessee Ornithological Society, 1933.

. Water Birds of Reelfoot Lake, Tennessee. Published by the Tennessee

Ornithological Society, 1933.

GARMAN, HARRISON. A Preliminary List of the Vertebrate Animals of Ken-
tucky, Bulletin Essex Institute, 1894.

Two Great Kentucky Ornithologists 87

LOVELL, HARVEY B. Charles Wickliffe Beckham, Ornithologist, Kentucky
Warbler, 33:19-26, 1957.

LOVELL, HARVEY B., and MABEL SLACK. Bibliography of Kentucky Or-
nithology. Published by the Kentucky Ornithological Society, 1949.

MONROE, BURT L., SR., and BURT L. MONROE, JR. Birds of the Louisville
Region, Kentucky Warbler, 37:23-42, 1961.

PINDAR, L. OTLEY. Birds of Fulton County, Kentucky, Wilson Bulletin, 37:67-
78 and 163-169, 1925.

WILSON, GORDON, L. Y. LANCASTER, and RUSSELL STARR. Birds of

South-Central Kentucky, Kentucky Warbler, 38:3-24, 1962.

FLAMMA CLARA MATURAE MEDICINAE
KENTUCKIENSIS* +
(1750 - 1850)

By WILLARD ROUSE JILLSON, ScD.
President, Kentucky Historical Society

High honor and brilliant professional achievement mark the prac-
tice of medicine and surgery in early Kentucky. Looking backward
now over more than two centuries, the several decades which closely
followed the establishment of this Commonwealth in 1792 clearly
stand apart, encircled by a bright aurora of conspicuous and widely
acknowledged medical advance; a brief but glittering period wholly
unmatched in its time, not only in America but throughout the civil-
ized world. That such outstanding progress in the art of healing the
diseased or maimed human body could and did occur in this remotely
interior country, then hardly more than a partly settled outpost of
American culture in the West, has not failed to engage time and again
the thoughtful attention of those of philosophical mind in this and
many other lands. Intensely romantic, the factual narrating of those
closely succeeding, epoch-marking episodes of medical and surgical
progress is, in its essentials, little more than the grouped life stories of
a few men of genius, whose God-given talents and specialized training
were singly addressed to the alleviation of the suffering of mankind!

Accordingly as we turn the pages of the beginning chapters of med-
icine in Kentucky, we find ourselves principally concerned with the
personal character, original preception, and professional ability of
those whose mission in life it was to step boldly in emergency into the
unknown, and by successful example chart new coures of practice for
their contemporaries and successors through all time to come. In this
brief retrospective glimpse we shall also see that it was not the first
intrepid, leather- stockinged physicians or those inadequately trained
who were to conspicuously achieve and thus while adding luster to
the profession attain the bright laurels of personal fame. It was rather
a select few of those who came afterwards, when the log-walled sta-
tion and stockade had become a village or a town and the educational
facilities had improved to approximate or exceed those of the Atlantic
seaboard, that time, circumstance, and brotherly love made the truly

* Liberally translated: Brigur FLAME OF EARLY MEDICAL PRACTICE IN KEN-
tucxy. An address delivered before the Louisville Chapter, Student American
Medical Assocition. General Hospital, Louisville, Kentucky, May 13, 1952.

+ Copyright 1953, The Filson Club, Louisville, Ky.

Flamma Clara Maturae Medicine Kentuckiensis 89

great physician. In this unchallengeable fact, those of you who now
look forward to some quick and easy and profitable solution of the
Hippocratian equation of life may well find food for thought!

Transylvania Medica! College

Kentucky was broadly traversed by American Colonials for thirty-
five years or more prior to the actual settlement of Harrodsburg in
1774. Among the early explorers was a then well known Virginia
physician and gentleman surveyor, Dr. Thomas Walker, who entered
this State through the Cumberland Gap—which he named—in 1750.
After skirting the Bluegrass region, but never seeing it, he made his
way back to the East, only to return the following year and do a brief
reconnaissance of portions of the Dicks and Kentucky river valleys.
He left no medical record touching that part of the Commonwealth
he explored. In 1775 a Dr. Hart settled at Harrodsburg and became,
as a matter of fact, Kentucky's first practicing physician, but his
medical activities were either so light or routine as to have produced
little if any impression on that early community. Other physicians and
surgeons of course, and as the years passed a good many, followed
these medical pioneers, but in most instances their names, deeds, and
places of residence have been enveloped by the growing obscurity of
the years and the reward for their services to mankind, exemplary as it
probably was, has been oblivion.

At the turn of the century, however, a new day was dawning for
the medical profession in Kentucky. A full score of years previously
—in 1780—the Commonwealth of Virginia allotted eight thousand
acres of escheated lands within the County of Kentucke to the custody
of a group of thirteen trustees “for the purposes of establishing a
public school or seminary of learning.’ Three years later twelve thou-
sand acres of additional escheated lands were given by the General As-
sembly of the mother Commonwealth to the prospective school in the
“district of Kentucky” now for the first time described as Transylvania
Seminary. In 1789 this primitive school, having already opened its
doors to students, was moved from the vicinity of Danville to Lexing-
ton where it acquired the town property now known as Gratz Park,
a fine library, and expanding scholastic stature under the leadership
of a number of serious men including the Reverend Harry Toulmin
and the Reverend James Moore.

Late in 1798 the General Assembly of Kentucky moved to unite
the separately established and competitive Kentucky Academy, a Pres-
byterian school of good standing, with the older seminary, and by Act
created the Transylvania University. Early in 1799 the board of trus-

90 Willard Rouse Jillson, Sc.D.

tees of this new educational institution met and created “The Medical
Department” or “College of Transylvania.” With the renowned Dr.
Samuel Brown installed as professor of Chemistry, Anatomy and
Surgery and Dr. Frederick Ridgely seated in the chair of Materia
Medica, Midwifery, and Practice of Physic, the Transylvania Medical
College, as it was called, was off to a very good start, the first medical
school west of the Alleghenies and the second to be established in the
United States. At this time, it may be said with some pardonable
pride, that Kentucky, the fifteenth State in the Union, was only seven
years old!

During the quarter of a century that followed, the Transylvania
Medical College steadily grew and prospered. As her fame spread,
increasing numbers of students came to her lecture halls from the
South, the West, and the North as well as from Kentucky. The faculty
from time to time changed and broadened with the appointment of
Dr. James Fishback, Theory and Practice of Medicine; Dr. James
Overton, Materia Medica and Botany; Dr. Benjamin W. Dudley,
Anatomy and Surgery; Dr. William H. Richardson, Obstetrics; and
Dr. James Blythe, Acting President, Chemistry. In 1809 Lexington
witnessed the granting by Transylvania University of its first degree
of Doctor of Medicine to one of its own young men, John Lawson
McCullough.

In 1817 a partial reorganization of the faculty brought to Transyl-
vania the erudite and talented Kentuckian, Dr. Daniel Drake, as pro-
fessor of Materia Medica and Medical Botany. Shortly after Dr.
Horace Holly became President of the University—in 1819—he brought
the versatile, many-sided Dr. Charles Caldwell from the University
of Pennsylvania to fill the chair of Medicine and Clinical Practice,
and with a medical library selected in Europe upon which some
$30,000 or more had been spent, Transylvania University fairly faced
the western world as a leader of academic, legal, and medical educa-
tion and culture. During the 1820’s and 1830's an average of some
200 or more students matriculated yearly in the Medical Department
of Transylvania University alone, while during the entire period of
its existence (1798-1855) it has been estimated that a total of nearly
6,500 students attended its classes and lectures and that about 1,850
were regularly graduated with official diplomas. During the period
1839-40 a new Medical Hall, much resermbling Morrison College, was
built and occupied. It was destroyed by fire in 1863. With many new
medical schools springing up over the country during these years, par-
ticularly in Cincinnati and Louisville, these registration and graduation
figures speak in no uncertain terms as to the professional charatcer of

Flamma Clara Maturae Medicine Kentuckiensis 91

the Transylvania Medical College and the preferential regard with
which it was held throughout the Western Country.

Surgical Triumphs

The story of early surgery in Kentucky is one made notable by
thrilling achievement and success, the ultimate effect of which, being
at base scientific, was to open and standardize certain new operative
procedures throughout the civilized world. Outstanding among not a
few well qualified surgeons of this period, one recalls immediately a
trio of that time—Dr. Walter Brashear, Dr. Ephraim McDowell, and
Dr. Benjamin W. Dudley whose record, if it has been equaled, has
certainly never been surpassed.

BrasHeEar. Dr. Brashear, a man of great talent, courage, and pene-
tration was born in Maryland in 1776. His father, Ignatius Brashear,
removed his family to Kentucky and settled in Bullitt County in the
vicinity of the Salt Works near Shepherdsville in 1784 where he shortly
became well known as a daring and successful Indian fighter. Walter,
the seventh son, early exhibited precocity, and at the conclusion of
his elementary studies was sent to Transylvania University where he
attained high rank as a Latin scholar. After completing his arts edu-
cation he read medicine and attended the lectures of Dr. Frederick
Ridgely in the Medical School for two years. Then he went east to
Philadelphia where at the University of Pennsylvania he attended the
classes of Drs. Barton, Physick, and Rush, the leading medical in-
structors of their time in America.

After a year in Pennsylvania, Brashear, still quite young and being
possessed of a restless disposition with a desire to see something of
the world, shipped to China as the surgeon of an American merchant-
man engaged in the Oriental trade. While in port there he was be-
sought to attend the wife of a dignitary of the Court. He found the
woman to be suffering from a cancerous breast. This he removed,
after which her health greatly improved. During her early conva-
lesence, however, he was held a prisoner for several days in the palace
subject to being beheaded, as he was politely informed, if she did not
promptly recover.

Returning in due course to the United States he at length began ac-
tive practice in the vicinity of his old home in Kentucky. In 1806,
while thus engaged, fame of the first order, which he seemed ever
afterward to but lightly esteem, came to him suddenly and entirely
unannounced. During August of this year he was called to Bards-
town to attend a mulatto boy, seventeen years old, a slave at St.

92 Willard Rouse Jillson, Sc.D.

Joseph’s College, who was suffering greatly from a complex fracture
of the thigh bone coupled with deep bruising and laceration of the
muscular parts of the entire leg. Without precedent, anesthetic or
trained operative assistants, but with the aid of two local physicians,
Dr. Burr Harrison and Dr. John Goodtill, he had the courage to ampu-
tate the leg of this youth at the hip joint. Moving with great dexterity
he cut the thigh at its middle third, tied all blood vessels, disariculated
the femur at its socket and closed the broad, gaping wound.

In good time the brave boy completely recovered and in fact lived
out a long and useful life. This emergency operation, one of the very
greatest and most advanced of its time not only in Kentucky and
America but the entire world—was broadly pronounced an unqualified
success. Great renown then came to Dr. Brashear, and among numer-
ous offers was one of the “Chair of Surgery” in the Academy of Science
at Paris, France. To all of these he turned a deaf ear, giving his entire
attention to his practice which grew apace. Restless again, though
active, he removed to the State of Louisiana where within a few years
a broadening appreciation of his professional talents and abilities se-
cured for him political recognition resulting in his election to the
United States Senate from that State. At the advanced age of 84
years, on October 23, 1860, he died and was interred in the state of his
adoption, widely admired there and in Kentucky where his successful
amputation of the leg at the hip-joint, when he was but thirty years
old, had made history and etched the name of Walter Brashear high
on the scroll of national surgical fame.

McDowe tt. During the first decade of the nineteenth century
surgical partcice and academic dictum adjured major openings of the
closed cavities of the body. Immediate or closely following death of
the patient was held to be the inevitable result of such action. Surgical
savants such as Dr. Rush in the Medical College of the University of
Pennsylanvia laid this rule down as basic, and persons with internal
organic growths and diseases, particularly women with ovarian tumors,
were regarded as beyond the aid of surgery and were allowed to linger
on beds of interminable and increasing pain and suffering until death,
welcome as an angel, came and gave them rest.

At this time there lived in Danville, Kentucky, a physician—Dr.
Ephraim McDowell—who was enjoying a modestly good practice
chiefly as a surgeon, though he was only a little past his middle thirties
He had been born in Virginia in 1771 and at twelve years of age had
accompanied his father, Judge Samuel McDowell, when he removed
his family to Kentucky to act as Commissioner of the Court to settle

Flamma Clara Maturae Medicine Kentuckiensis 93

land claims in the District. Young McDowell, favored by modest
affluence, received a reasonably good elementary and preparatory edu-
cation at Danville and in 1789, at the age of eighteen, was sent East
to become a medical student for two or three years under Dr. Alex-
ander Humphreys at Staunton, Virginia. Office studies of this character
under a well known preceptor in active practice was a widely acepted
method of securing the basic training in medicine at that time. When
this work was completed in 1792, McDowell journeyed overseas to
the University of Edinburgh where, while attending formal lectures,
he continued his tudent work under the preceptorship of Dr. John
Bell, a widely known and very successful surgeon. In the spring of
1795 Dr. McDowell returned to Danville, Kentucky, and at the age
of thirty married Sarah, one of the daughters of Isaac Shelby, the first
Governor of the Commonwealth.

In 1809 he performed in his residence in Danville, now a State and
a National Shrine, the first successful operation to remove an ovarian
tumor. His patient was Mrs. Jane Todd Crawford, a middle-aged
woman with children, of a good family residing in Green County. He
was called in consultation by her local physicians who were of the
opinion that she was somewhat advanced in pregnancy with twins.
After a careful examination Dr. McDowell announced to the woman
and her attending physicians that she was not pregnant, but was
possessed of a large ovarian growth which if not soon removed would
result in greatly increased suffering and death. He offered her as an
alternative an experimental operation which he advised was widely
frowned upon by the best minds in surgery but might be successful.
She quickly assented, rode horseback to Danville, where, after a short
rest, on Christmas Day in a small, low-ceilinged upstairs room of the
house on an ordinary table with the assistance of his nephew, Dr.
James McDowell, he made the dreaded abdominal incision and re-
moved a tumor-infested ovary weighing in excess of twenty pounds,
Her recovery was rapid and complete and she lived, enjoying good
health, for 32 years thereafter, dying finally at the age of seventy-eight
on March 80, 1841.

Careless of temporal or posthumous fame, Dr. Ephraim McDowell
kept few if any surgical case notes and the number of ovariotomies
that he performed will always remain in question, but the probability
is that they numbered upwards of fourteen or fifteen, perhaps more,
and of these about 75 or 80 per cent were successful, in that the patient
lived and was returned to normal health. This continuing operative
feat, at first disbelived by many leading American and European
surgeons, at length became accepted and in succeeding years was

94 Willard Rouse Jillson, Sc.D.

adopted as rigorous but standard practice for diseased ovaries. One
hundred and twenty-two years have now passed since the death of
Dr. McDowell of “a fever” on June 25, 1830. Time has long since made
it quite apparent that exceptional training and great courage fitted
this naturally adept Central Kentucky surgeon for his monumental
task, the sucessful completion of which has not only assured him a
deserved immortality but inscribed his name as one of the greatest in
the history of American surgery.

Dup.iey. Third in the group of really great surgeons during the
first half of the nineteenth century in Kentucky was Benjamin Winslow
Dudley, who was born in Spottsylvania County, Virginia, in 1785. He
was brought to Central Kentucky when about a year old and, except
for those periods early in life when he was pursuing his medical edu-
cation abroad, Lexington and its immediate vicinity was his lifetmie
home. His father, the Rev. Ambose Dudley, was a Baptist minister
of small estate but excellent standing in the community. As a result
the boy Benjamin did well to avail himself of what limited elementary
and preparatory education Lexington afforded in those times. Though
he had no knowledge of either Latin, or Greek, at the age of fifteen,
shortly after the organization of the Medical School of Transylvania
University, he became a student of Dr. Frederick Ridgely, a very out-
standing physician and teacher, with a large practice in Lexington and
Fayette County. In this manner he learned the elements of medicine
and acquired not a little bedside experience as he time and again ac-
companied his preceptor during visits to ailing clients.

In 1804 Dudley, then turning nineteen years of age, went East to
attend the medical lectures at the University of Pennsylvania where
among others he met John Esten Cooke, Daniel Drake, and William H.
Richardson, students then who were destined within a few short years
to be his colleagues in medical practice and teaching, sometimes
harmoniously, sometimes otherwise, in Lexington, Louisville, and Cin-
cinnati. During the long lecture interval of 1805—from April to
October—while at home he began his practice with Dr. Fishback, a
widely respected and active physician in Lexington. In 1806 he re-
ceived his degree of M.D. from the University of Pennsylvania and
returned to Lexington to practice. At length, feeling a deficiency in
experimental surgical work and desiring additional medical instruction
of advanced character, he went to Europe and spent four years in the
hosptials and dissecting rooms of Paris and London. Here he gained
the intimtae knowledge of anatomy, surgery, and disease that at once
stamped him, upon his return to Lexington in 1814, as thoroughly

Flamma Clara Maturae Medicine Kentuckiensis 95

competent. Changed now was his attitude toward his chosen pro-
fession. Conscious of his talents, ability, and superiority he moved
into his practice of surgery with indefatigable energy and immediate
success.

In 1817 Dr. Dudley became professor of Anatomy and Surgery at
the Medical School of Transylvania. As he taught, his practice grew,
marked by a constant stream of successes which soon set him apart as
a national figure in the field of surgery. Resisting with firm determina-
tion many offers to go elsewhere he remained at Transylvania until
1850, the greatest teacher of medicine and surgery in this famed
Medical College. He died in Lexington in his 85th year on January
20, 1870. After Dr. McDowell’s retirement in Danville in 1825, Dr.
Dudley became indisputably recognized as the leader of surgery in the
entire Mississippi Valley. Though unlike Drs. Brashear and McDowell
he left no important original contribution to his profession, he had
earned a most enviable reputation as a great teacher of medicine and
a great practicing surgeon. No small part of the fame of the Medical
School of Transylvania University rests squarely on the teaching and
operating record of Dr. Benjamin W. Dudley. His work as a prac-
titionier in the field of Lithotomy alone was of the very first order; he
had the unsurpassable record of 225 operations for stone in the bladder
and only three deaths. Truly this man stood shoulder to shoulder with
the great masters of surgery of his day!

Medicine

Drake. No one may write the history of medicine during early
Kentucky without some extended account of the life activities and
achievements of Dr. Daniel Drake who was and still remains, the
inimitable genius of his day. Physician, teacher, civic leader, phi-
losopher, and writer, he was withal one of the few to whom it is given
the opportunity to blaze broad, new trails of professional thought and
practice. Born in New Jersey in 1785 he was brought to Kentucky
when he was two and a half years old. His father, Isaac Drake, and
his mother, who before her marriage had been Elizabeth Shotwell of
the Society of Friends, chose the Ohio River flatboat route to the
Southwest, as did so many others to their sorrow before General
Anthony Wayne silenced the warlike northern Indians at the battle
of Fallen Timbers in 1794. Disembarking at old Limestone, now
Maysville, they moved inland some twelve miles, cleared land, built a
one-door, one-window log cabin and settled among a scattering of
other early pioneers of northern Kentucky now known as Mayslick.
Here on the main road of travel—usually afoot or horseback—from
the Ohio to Lexington and the central part of the State, Drake passed

96 Willard Rouse Jillson, Sc.D.

his early boyhood. Of formal elementary schooling he had little if
any, but at home he learned early and with great competence to spell,
read, and write. In arithmetic he mastered fractions and decimals,
but of grammar, history, and geography he acquired nothing ,for the
simple reason it was not available.

When he reached the age of 15 years his father, having attained
to some substance as the boy grew up, desired him to be trained as a
physician. Accordingly he was sent to Cincinnati, a sprawling settle-
ment of less than 1,000 souls built around old Fort Washington, and
apprenticed to Dr. William Goforth, Surgeon General of the First
Division of Ohio Militia. Indefatigable physically and mentally, Drake
became a real and valuable assistant to Dr. Goforth, who after five
years of preceptorship on August 1, 1805, convinced he could not
further greatly aid the youth, issued him a curious “homemade” di-
ploma of competence in medicine. With it, Dr. Drake, the ambitious,
unstymiable young man from Kentucky—by his own statement—prac-
ticed to an ever widening circle of clients in Cincinnati, some of whom
like William Henry Harrison were exceedingly influential, for eleven
years! 7

A great man and a great intellect, Drake was a leader of Western
thought and action before he was thirty and has in all seriousness been
called “the Dr. Franklin of the West.” Self-educated, a born writer
with a free, lucid, and readable style, an observer and recorder of
every kind of natural phenomena, particularly as it touched the physical
ailments of man, he produced while a very young physician two books:
Notices Concerning Cincinnati, Topography, Climate and Diseases:
1810, and Picture of Cincinnati: 1815. The eyes of all seaboard
America were on the West, and these books quickly “selling out” in
edition, made for him a national reputation. He became an intel-
lectual personality in the East as well as the West. In 1816 when he
reached the age of thirty-one, the University of Pennsylvania, where
he had spent some time at lectures in the Medical School, assured of
his talents, achievements, and standing, held a special Commeencement
and awarded him the degree of Doctor of Medicine. A year later upon
invitation from Dr. Benjamin W. Dudley, he joined the faculty of the
Medical School of Transylvania University and from this time on for
the remainder of his life was almost continuously engaged in medical
teaching in Lexington, Cincinnati, and Louisville. Though he often
saw the serpent’s head of jealousy among his colleagues and on several
occasions experienced the rough malevolence of open professional
hostility, he was in the main warmly regarded and twice upon return-
ing to Cincinnati, where he had founded in his earlier days the Medical

Flamma Clara Maturae Medicine Kentuckiensis 97

College of Ohio, and wrote that choice and now rare Western Journal
of the Medical and Physical Sciences (1827-38), he was the recipient
of tremendous popular ovations that stand alone in the history of
American medicine.

His great work, The Principal Diseases of the Interior Valley of
North America, begun in 1822, did not appear in print until two years
before his death which occurred in 1852. Issued in two large volumes
it spread a wealth of detail in support of the thesis, then new in med-
icine, that malarial and numerous other ailments are more or less
geographically controlled. A remarkable advance at that time in
medical philosophy, it might today be described as an ecology of some
human diseases. Dr. Otto Juettner of Cincinnati writing biograph-
ically of this remarkable Kentucky physician in 1909 held Dr. Drake
to be: “The most liberal of all our benefactors, the most brilliant
of her gifted sons, the one really great man she [Cincinnati] has pro-
duced... .” Dr. Garrison, in his History of Medicine, has styled Dr.
Drake “The greatest physician of the West and one of the most pic-
turesque figures in American medicine. . . . [He] was the first, after
Hipocrates and Sydenham, to do much for medical geography, and
has a unique position of his own in relation to the topography of
disease.”

In his deductions, perceptions, and philosophies involving medicine,
Dr. Daniel Drake, a natural, magnetic, and highly intellectual leader,
was far ahead of the mass thought and practice of his day and time.
His contributions to medical literature and practice were many and
important, and they possessed, for the most part, the freshness and
the originality of true genius. A restless, inquiring, advanced in-
tellect teamed and timed with unmeasured energy he was the marvel-
ous, unduplicable product of early Kentucky, the dangers, the hard-
ships, the far-flung forests and the new pulsing freedom of the West.

Louisville Medical School

During the late 1820’s and 1830's, the definitive period of greatest
growth and influence of the Department of Medicine of Transylvania
University, changing economic conditions in Kentucky began to take
effect causing Lexington, long known as the “Athens of tht West,”
to recede in regional importance, and Louisville to expand in popula-
tion, trade, and finance. The rapid development of cheap long-
distance transportation of passengers and freight on the Ohio River by
steamboat marked this era and brought about a pronounced shift of
merchandising, manufacturing, and business generally from the lime-
stone uplands of central Kentucky in and about Lexington to the Ohio

98 Willard Rouse Jillson, Sc.D.

River flood plains and adjacent lowlands of Louisville. Though Lex-
ington exerted every effort, including the building of the first railroad
of the West to Frankfort and the wharves there on the navigable Ken-
tucky River, the movement , deep-seated in the steady expansion and
growth of the Western Country, could not be stayed.

In 1835 the changing requirements of medical education in the
United States found Lexington without a hospital for student practice,
and the town’s slender and for the most part affluent population
afforded very slight and precarious, and sometimes wholly inadequate,
means for dissection, anatomical and osteological study. Adequate
classroom and laboratory facilities for students also did not exist at
Transylvania, and a continuation of the time-honored method of
“Doctor’s Office” instruction promised only to lead eventually to
lowered standards of education when campared to other, highly com-
petitive schools in this country. While these insurmountable physical
conditions were assuming serious proportions in Lexington, and being
debated by the Transylvania Medical School faculty, forward-looking
citizens in the bustling town at the Falls of the Ohio had induced the
Legislature of Kentucky in 1833 to pass an Act chartering the Medical
Institute of Louisville. In the spring of 1837 at a town meeting held
to discuss the Medical Institute and its importance, a resolution was
adopted affirming that “there ought to be a college in Louisville” with
a “Medical Department,” and that it was expedient that the Mayor
and the City Council should take steps immediately to endow this
proposed educational institution.

Little time was lost. A grant of land bounded by Eighth, Ninth,
Chestnut, and Magazine streets was made to the officers of the Med-
ical Institute, coupled with an appropriation of $50,000 of which $30,-
00 was indicated to be used to erect a new building for the Institute
and the balance to be expended for a library, an anatomical museum,
and other necessary equipment. In April the board of the Medical
Institute of Louisville met and accepted the municipal gift, and made
plans to staff and open the Medical School. During the summer six
professorships were created and filled as follows: Dr. Henry Miller,
Obstetrics; Dr. Jedediah Cobb, Anatomy; Dr. Joshua Barker Flint,
Cooke, Theory and Practice; and Dr. Lunsford P. Yandell, Chem-
istry and, later, Materia Medica. These appointments signalized that
the break had been made with Transylvania University; its supremely
long undisputed supremacy in the medical field in Kentucky now stood
at the crossroads of public opinion awaiting the verdict of Time.

That first year of 1837-38, the new Medical School at Louisville had
80 students of differing grades—certainly a fair and hopeful showing.

Flamma Clara Maturae Medicine Kentuckiensis 99

Of these, 27 received their M.D. degree in the following spring. At
the same time Transylvania University, having filled the vacancies in
its medical faculty by taking Dr. John Eberle and Dr. Jedediah Cobb
from the staff of the Ohio Medical College in Cincinnati, registered
230 students in its Medical Department, which was only about 12 less
than the preceding class. In 1832 the new Medical College building
in Louisville was built and occupied and therewith the registration
of the Institute increased to 120. During the summer of 1839 the Cin-
cinnati Medical College, unable to meet the growing competition in
Kentucky, closed, and Dr. Daniel Drake, its founder and erstwhile
president, was elected professor of Clinical Medicine and Pathological
Anatomy in the Louisville Medical Institute. The bringing of Dr.
Drake, one of the most experienced and able teachers in the Ohio
Valley, to Louisville, made it necessary to raise the tuition of the
Medical Institute above those of all competing schools, but in spite
of this, so great was the reputation and influence of Dr. Drake in the
medical field that the registration actually increased to 205 in the fall
of this, the third, year.

At the end of this session in the spring of 1840, Dr. Flint resigned
and was succeeded in the Chair of Surgery by Dr. Samuel D. Gross,
one of the famous surgeons of the western world, a very great teacher
and a well known writer of medical text. In succeeding years the reg-
istration continued to rise rather steadily until it reached 347 in 1845.
During the winter of this year, the General Assembly of Kentucky
granted a charter to the University of Louisville and by the provisions
of this Act the Medical Institute, now recognized as a very worth while
and going institution, was absorbed and constituted as its Medical De-
partment. At the mid-century mark—1850—the youthful Department
of Medicine of the University of Louisville was brilliantly staffed,
adequately housed and equipped. With a registration of 376 this
“Medical School, as it had already come to be called, had amply
justified the hopes of its most optimistic founders, and as then broadly
organized with only such changes and enlargements of faculty and
intensification of teaching and practice methods as the years have pro-
scribed, it has extended its remarkable record of high scholarship
coupled with marked professional and community service down
through the alternating troublous and peaceful epochs of the past
century to this very day.

Bibliography

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tucky. 1940.

Abell, Irvin: “The Heritage of Kentucky Medicine.” Pp. 471-480, Kentucky

100 Willard Rouse Jillson, Sc.D.

Medical Journal, Vol. XXIV, No. 10. Bowling Green, Kentucky, October,
1926; also Louisville, 1926.
: A Retrospect of Surgery in Kentucky, 45 pp. Illust. Louisville. 1926.

Ashburn, Percy M.: “Ephraim McDowell.” Pp. 27-29 in Vol. 12, Dictionary of
American Biography. New York. 1933.

Barkley, A. H.: Kentucky’s Pioneer Lithotomists. 159 pp. Illust. Cincinnati. 1913.

Bay, J. Christian: Dr. Daniel Drake; 1785-1852. 17 pp. Louisville. 1933.

Caldwell, Charles: An Address to the Committees on Education of Both Houses of
the Legislature of Kentucky, on the State of the School of Medicine of Tran-
sylvania. 23 pp. Lexington. 1820.

: A Report to the Legislature of Kentucky on the Medical Department of
Transylvania University, February 15, 1836. 34 pp. Lexington. 1836.

—______: Autobiography of Charles Caldwell, M.D. 454 + 46 pp. Illust. Phil-
adelphia. 1855.

Coleman, J. Winston, Jr.: A Bibliography of Kentucky History. 516 pp. Lexington.
1949.

Collins, Lewis: Historical Sketches of Kentucky, etc. 560 pp. Illust. Cincinnati.
1847.

Collins, Richard H.: History of Kentucky. 2 Vols. 1511 pp. Illust. Covington. 1st
Ed. 1874; 2nd Ed. 1877; 3rd Ed. 1882.

Connelley, William E., and Coulter, E. Merton: History of Kentucky. 5 Vols.
Chicago and New York. 1922.

Coomes, M. F.: “Doctor Walter Brashear.” Louisville Medical Monthly, March,
1894; also pp. 137-140 in Some of the Medical Pioneers of Kentucky. Bowling
Green. 1917.

Cottell, Henry A.: “Dr. Daniel Drake.” Pp. 63-66 in Some of the Medical Pioneers
of Kentucky. Bowling Green. 1917.

Drake, Daniel: .. . . Principal Diseases of the Interior Valley of North America.
2. Vols. Cincinnati, 1850; Philadelphia, 1854.

—_______: Pioneer Education and Life. 55 pp. Ilust. Torch Press, Cedar Rapids,

Iowa. 1939.

: An Inaugural Discourse on Medical Education, Delivered . . . November
11th, 1820. Pamph. Cincinnati, Ohio. 1820. Reprinted 31 pp. New York.
1951.

—______: Pioneer Life in Kentucky. 263 pp. Cincinnati. 1870; 1907. New York.
257 pp., Port.; Ed. and Biog. Sketch by Dr. E. F. Horine. 1948.

Flexner, James Thomas: Doctors on Horseback. 370 pp. Ilust. New York. 1937.

Garrison, Fielding Hudson: An Introduction to the History of Medicine, etc. 763
pp. Philadelphia and London. 1913; 1917; 1921; 1929.

Gross, Samuel D.: Lives of Eminent American Physicians and Surgeons of the
Nineteenth Century. 836 pp. Illust. Philadelphia. 1860; 1861.

: Memorial Oration In Honor of Ephraim McDowell. 72 pp. Port. Louis-

ville, Kentucky. 1879.

Heiman, Lee: The Story of Medicine in Kentucky. The Courier-Journal. Sect. 6.
Illust. Louisville, Kentucky. September 23, 1951.

Horine, Emmet Field: “A History of the Louisville Medical Institute, etc., 1833-
1846.” Pp. 133-47, The Filson Club History Quarterly. Louisville. July, 1933.

—______: “The Stage Setting for Ephraim McDowell, 1771-1830.” Pp. 149-160,
Bulletin of the History of Medicine, Vol. XXXIV, No. 2. March-April. 1950.

Hume, Edgar Eskine: “Early Kentucky Medical Literature.” Vol. VIII, Annuals
of Medical History. New York. 1936.

Flamma Clara Maturae Medicine Kentuckiensis 101

Jackson, John Davies: “Biographical Sketch of Dr. Ephraim McDowell.” Rich-
mond and Louisville Medical Journal. 1878; also pages 11-17 in Some of the
Medical Pioneers of Kentucky. Bowling Green. 1917.

Jillson, Willard Rouse: Early Kentucky Literature. 104 pp. Illust. Frankfort, Ken-
tucky. Ist Ed., 1931; 2nd Ed. 1982.

: Kentucky in American History. 64 pp. Louisville, Kentucky. 1933.

—_—_———: An Historical Bibliography of Lexington, Kentucky, 1774-1946. 107 pp.
Illust. Frankfort, Kentucky. 1947.

Juettner, Otto: Daniel Drake and His Followers. 496 pp. Mlust. Cincinnati, Ohio.
1909.

Mansfield, Edward D.: Memoirs of the Life and Services of Daniel Drake, etc.

408 pp. Illust. Cincinnati. 1855; 1860.

Mathews, Albert P.: “Daniel Drake.” Pp. 426-27. Vol. 5, Dictionary of American
Biography. New York. 1930.

McCormack, Joseph Nathaniel: Some of the Medical Pioneers of Kentucky. 173
+ 8 pp. Bowling Green. 1917.

McDowell, Ephraim: “Three Cases of Extirpation of Diseased Ovaries.” Eclectic
Repertory and Analytical Review. Philadelphia. 1816; also pp. 18-25 in Some
of the Medical Pioneers of Kentucky. Bowling Green. 1917.

McMurtry, Lewis S.: “Ephraim McDowell.” Pp. 46-49 in Some of the Medical
Pioneers of Kentucky. Bowling Green. 1917.

Meigs, Charles D.: A Biographical Notice of Daniel Drake, M.D. of Cincinnati. 38
pp. Philadelphia. 1853.

Mumford, James Gregory: A Narrative of Medicine in America. 508 pp. Phil-
adelphia and London. 1903.

Peter, Robert: Transylvania University, etc. 202 pp. Filson Club Publications No.
11, Louisville. 1896.

: History of the Medical Department of Transylvania University. 193
pp. Ilust. Filson Club Publications No. 20. Louisville, Kentucky. 1905.

: “The Medical Department of Transylvania University.” Pp. 50-53.
Illust. in Some of the Medical Pioneers of Kentucky. Bowling Green. 1917.

Pusey, William Allen: Giants of Medicine in Pioneer Kentucky. 64 pp. New York.
1938.

Ridenbaugh, Mary Young: The Biography of Ephraim McDowell, M.D., etc. 558

pp. Illust. New York, 1890; also Philadelphia, 1894.

Schachner, August: Ephraim McDowell, “Father of Ovariotomy” and Founder
Abdominal Surgery. 331 pp. Illust. Philadelphia and London. 1921.

Staples, Charles R.: The History of Pioneer Lexington, Kentucky. 1779-1806. 361
pp. Illust. Lexington. 1939.

Townsend, John Wilson: Kentucky In American Letters: 1784-1912. 2 Vols. Cedar
Rapids. 1918.

Van Arsdall, C. B.: Kentucky Pioneer Doctors. 18 pp. Ilust. [Harrodsburg. 1934].

Wilson, Samuel M.: History of Kentucky. Vol. Il. Ilust. Chicago-Louisville. 1928.

Yandell, David W.: Pioneer Surgery in Kentucky; A Sketch. 33 pp. Pamph. John
P. Morton & Co. Louisville, Kentucky. 1890.

Yandell, Lunsford P.: Medical Literature of Kentucky. 52 pp. Pamph. J. P. Morton
and Co. Louisville, Kentucky. 1874.

————_: “A Memoir of the Life and Writings of Dr. Benjamin W. Dudley.” Read
before Kentucky Medical Society, Bowling Green. April, 1870; printed pp.
56-63 in Some of the Medical Pioneers of Kentucky. Bowling Green. 1917.

FOUR THOUSAND AND FIFTY YEARS OF MATHEMATICS

JAMES CLIFTON EAVES
Department of Mathematics and Astronomy, University of Kentucky

Introduction

Square brackets indicate references listed.

Square brackets with date indicate University Catalogs.
Most dates are approximate.

[0] indicates information from Dr. H. H. Downing.

This paper, written by invitation, must contain only brief reference to many
interesting facts in the development of a department.

Omissions are at the discretion of the author. Miss Mary Hester Cooper,
University Archivist, and her assistants, have been most helpful in locating and
verifying particular references. For this interest and co-operation the author
expresses his appreciation.

Problem: To trisect any angle

This classic, by far the easiest to comprehend of the four famous
elementary problems left by the Greeks, [1], has been popular
among the mathematically uninitiated for two and a half millenniums.
It has commanded the attention of some famous mathematicians, too
[2]. Hippias invented the quadratrix (c 425 BC) to present what was
probably the first solution to this perplexing proposition of a curious
Greek when he found that his curve could be used to separate any
angle into any number of equal or unequal parts [3]. About this same
time Archytas was using a peculiar topological surface to solve another
of the famous four—the duplication of the cube. He was also busy
building a wooden flying duck and a baby’s rattle which drew com-
ment from Aristotle [4]. But, back to our trisection.

It would be another two hundred years before Archimedes pro-
duced his spiral to solve the problem [1 p. 89], and two thousand
years before Pascal (father of Blaise) developed the conchoid of a
circle, the limacon, as a trisectrix. Pascal was to pattern his develop-
ment after Nicomedes (c 240 BC) who invented the conchoid.

It is Nicomedes who interests us now because his developments
were brought forth at a time, which, to us, is approximately the mid-
point of mathematical history. Little or nothing is known about Nico-
medes, he being remember solely throughout mathematical literature
for the conchoid. Two thousand years pass before he is mentioned in
the first mathematics book authored by University of Kentucky mathe-
maticians [5] and this reference would occur, to us at this date, rough-
ly at the midpoint of the entire history of the University.

Four Thousand and Fifty Years of Mathematics 103

This same problem, solved so many times and in so many ways,
even perhaps as Euclid intended [6], would bring smarting reprimands
to a young University instructor, from an irate, but not insipient,
would be solver. An evaluation of a laborous struggle, made after
lengthy study and deliberation of this even more lengthy but improb-
able solution, submitted for acceptance, brought a little thank you note
which indicated that the writer had not been made vapid but that he
had been brought to believe the mathematicians insidious.

Dear Mr. Downing, [0]

I am sure that the solution which I submitted recently
is correct and nothing you have said has altered my
opinion. It so happens that I do not belong to that click
of mathematicians and no matter how correct and ingenious
my work is, it would never be recognized. I expect to see
my solution in print soon, in one of the best journals.
But, I do not expect to see it published under my
name.

With disgust and some cognizance of the strong
recognition union you mathematicians have, I am

Truly yours,
(signed )

This chiding note of antipathy, wholly lacking predilection and
written to predicate negative appreciation of a superb report came
from a tax payer following his request that his work be duly checked
and recorded. He, yet unable to slough his mathematical incipiency,
had finally solved the famous problem which had left the most able
mathematicians baffled for centuries, and he would not be derided.

The “solver” might have been informed that the solution to this
problem was no longer cloaked in secrecy but had been available for
centuries, that Nicomedes (c 240 BC) (who was classified as a minor
geometer ) had supplied the mussel-shaped curve, the conchoid, to per-
fom trisections [7] and that more than 250 years ago the trammel was
devised for the special purpose of trisecting the angle, any angle [8];
and furthermore, the process curve with full explanation could be
found in Boyd, Davis, and Rees [5]. But, this was not the reply.
Showing the becoming intolerable disgust and cruel impatience which
any informed mathematician would not allay when confronted with
such a loathsome request for one to be vested with enduring fame,
Dr. Boyd handed the proposed solution, which in fact was an excellent

104 James Clifton Eaves

approximation, to a young instructor with these words, “Here, Mr.
Downing, determine what's wrong with this and formulate a brief, and
if necessary, tactless reply which will discourage extensive, in fact,
additional correspondence.” Thus began an assignment which could
have placed a young man, a new instructor in mathematics in an em-
barrassing perplexity. But such was not the case, for, another young
man, Dr. P. P. Boyd, Professor and Head of a small department of
mathematics and astronomy meant what he had said. Also, he was to
become Dean of the College.

But, we are ahead of ourselves. This conversation began roughtly
a half century after a decade of incubation of a department of un-
certain parentage and a half century prior to a critical but affectionate
evaluation of a century of service. Be this embyronic period of the
existence of the mathematics department one of growth and develop-
ment describable as desirable, objectionable, theoretical, pragmatic,
stagnant, intrepid, vascillating, perhaps another century will be needed
before pointed classification can be set down with reasonable tran-
quility. 2

Let us dwell briefly on the status of mathematics in general that
we may better orient the incubation period of the first half century
of unrelenting efforts to establish a reputable institution.

Before Nicomedes, and Some After

The Sumerians made extensive use of copper and were proud
carftsmen in their skillful handling of gold and silver. Their number
system was positional, to the base 60 [90]. The earliest wheels and
wheeled carts are found among the fragmentary relics of this long
since enslaved but unfasted civilization. Clay tables were used on
which have been found many types of mathematical computations.
The most pretentious of these are attributed to the Babylonians [10]
who seemed to know the Pythagorean Theorem in its full generality
[11] and who supplied, at least a thousand years before the Pytha-
goreans, tables of Pythagorean triplets, all these to the base 60. The
Hindus were to develop the base 10, wrongly called the Arabic
numerals, this about 200 AD. The zero had been kicked around in
the form = by the Babylonians; would be used in the form o (the
omicron) by Ptolemy (c 130 AD), and in the form of a dot as a
separator or position marker, to emerge in India (c 876 AD) definitely
as the zero we know today, the big “goose egg” [12].

One of the Pythagoreans (c 500 BC) was sentenced to death for
divulging their discovery that \ 2 is irrational [3], Democritus (c 400
BC) had anticipated Archimedes with the infinitesimal calculus by

Four Thousand and Fifty Years of Mathematics 105

a couple of hundred years [14], Cavarlieri (c 1635) by this time ten
fold, and Newton and Leibniz (who first published in 1682) by a
few more years. The Pascal triangle was known to the Chinese (by
c 1300) [15] by some other name, Taylor’s special series would con-
tinue to be attrbiuted to Maclaurin [16], Cramer (c 1750) was des-
tined to popularize a rule, which originated with the Chinese (c 1100
BC), was given by Leibniz (1693) [2 p. 326] and was to grow into
the determinant as known today through the efforts of Jacobi [17]
just a few short years (1850) before the founding of a Department of
Mathematics and Astronomy of the University of Kentucky. At 55,
Gauss was to complete some of his best work for which he is fully
credited [18] despite the simultaneous developments by Bolyai and
Lobachevski [19]. All three were probably familiar with the work of
Saccheri [20] before their development of a disputed theory, non-
Euclidean Geometry, which Gauss, because of his standing, was
hesitant to announce. The findings of these mathematicians were to
be the first real challenge to Euclid. Their denunciation of that much
disliked postulate 5 would be long in print (some twenty years) before
the University of Kentucky was established and would furnish a grow-
ing department with part of its first upper division-graduate work.
The 1637 work of Descartes [21], published in French and Latin, was
to be accepted as basic to the calculus and would furnish the incentive
for the Department’s first text, previously mentioned [5].

1865, Before and After

Cardan had stolen the solution of the cubic from Tartaglia [22]
300 years past, but the characteristics of z+ were still a mystery and
would remain so until the second decade of the University’s history
when in 1882 F. Lindeman would show that z is transcendental [23].
Pi had suffered long tolerance and had appeared as three “about” in

4
the Old Testament [24] and in the Rhind papyrus as (—)*= 3.1604.
3

Archimedes bounded it by 223/71 and 22/7, and the Chinese (c 480)
gave it as 355/113=3.1415929. About 1660, z appeared in the inter-
esting but unexciting forms

Qe eOerAc eAuG iGo. 8) Grek (nas ose
ey ae: ey aay ee ee

=14v/ 949 Joye Jaq

a [a wl 4

106 James Clifton Eaves

7 I aes
—=—)]-—-—+—-—+:::
4 ) Suey

Just prior to the opening of the University of Kentucky, 7 had been
computed to 400 decimal places in the hope of discovering a repetitive
pattern among the digits but this was not to be. A decade later, Shanks
(1873) would present « to 707 places only to have an error in the
528th position [ 1 p.95] and in the fourth decade of the school’s
existence Buffon’s (1760) famous needles problem would be used by
Lazzerini (1901) for 3408 tosses to obtain 7 = 3.1415929, “an error
(? ?) of only .0000003” [25]. Renewed interest in the statistical be-
havior of the digits of would cause computation undreamed of during
the early days of the University of Kentucky. Pi would be computed
to 10,000 places [27] in 1 hour and 40 minutes, this almost at the end
of our first century of UK life (1959) and certainly far removed from
1865; however, by the end of the first century the department which
commands our attention is to have an electronic computer capable of
carrying out such astounding computational feats, once instructed to
do so, in language it can understand, and with someone to push the
start button. Let us return to our date of interest.

1865 - 1875

That war was still as fresh in the minds of the students and faculty
as it remains so with some today. Lincoln had given his watch [27-28],
a cheap Wm. Ellery key wind Waltham movement, to Dennis Shanks.
The streets of Lexington were for horses and an occasional leg power-
ed highwheeler. Henry H. White was Professor of Mathematics and
Astronomy as well as Librarian to the University, a school which
would mother both Transylvania and the University of Kentucky. In
1868 he would become one of its presiding officers, equivalent to a
dean. In the same year, James Garrand White, who was to serve the
future State University in many capacities, joined his father as Instruc-
tor of Mathematics and, from available information, H.H. White prob-
ably devoted his energies more to administration, apparently teaching
no mathematics in UK’s forerunner, the Agriculture and Mechanical
College, after it was formed.

The next year James Garrand White became Adjunct Professor,
and was to become (1875-1913) Professor and Head of the Depart-
ment of Mathematics and Astronomy, then Dean, Acting President
(1910-11), Business Agent and Vice-President from 1909 to 1913 at
which time he would hang up his lantern.

Four Thousand and Fifty Years of Mathematics 107

The [1865] mathematics offering was excellent though there is
little indication of the participants who indulged in a study of Towne’s
Algebra and Davies’ Legendre’s Geometry as freshmen, more plane
geometry plus trigonometry and mensuration as sophomores, Loomis’
Calculus and Snell’s Olmsted’s Mechanics as juniors, and, if they
survived, Davies’ Spherical Trigonometry and Snell’s Olmsted’s As-
tronomy in their senior year.

It is evident that the Mathematics Department, from the beginning,
was (and still is) a service department. But in the formative years
there seems to be no resentment, and attempts to discard the shackles
of slavery were either abated or never belched sufficient clamor to
be discernible. The Department consisted of one professor and not
until 1900 is there an indication of faculty expansion. This is nothing
to excite one’s prejudices pertinent to teaching overload since the
mathematics and in fact, all teaching loads must have negligible
during the first two years. Records show [29] zero staff and zero en-
rollment in 1865 (the year in which we think we began) and 11 staff
and zero enrollment for 1866. One instructor must have felt insecure
(a description often applicable but suffering from overabuse). The
enrollment for 1867 is tagged at 190 serviced by 10 staff. By 1875 these
figures stood at 98 and 8 respectively, and by 1900 had skyrocketed to
309 and 43, with 34 receiving the various degrees, this 34 times the size
of the first graduating class in 1869.

Tuition was set at thirty dollars per nine months for a mathematics
student as well as for Agriculture and Mechanics and Commerce stu-
dents whom the Department enrolled. Law students were gouged a
little harder and Bible students studied free. This latter group was
dealt a special courtesy, “to encourage preachers . . . poor and pious .
... They could obtain board for $1.50 per week, washing at $10.00
per year, fuel and lights for $8.00 per semester and must pay $5.00 to
the janitors’ fund. If a mathematics student associated himself with
“The School of Practical Mechanics”, the University Catalog [1870]
records “ . . . the object we have in view is to make it a school of
practical instruction . . . and at the same time a means of support to
the student and a source of revenue to the University.” The following
is an exhibit of educational services, research contracts of a bygone
era, rendered by this department:

REPAIRS
DEES ODN ee oe 2 Horse wagons
(677 EAA RE TS ORR enone 2 Horse plows

Ae MOIR REEVE NAYES 1 Horse plow

108 James Clifton Eaves

CO 22.c tee cultivators

1 machine for making brooms
5 Hay Rakes
5 Patent Improved Clothes-horses

Purposely, we do not list the details of reparis to carts, buggies,
drays, and doubletrees. The entry “1 Bank Counter” could be the
beginning of the University’s Computing Center except that to the
student of carpentry, it was but a sturdy, skirted table on stilts. Some
mathematics students worked for the Horticulture Department which
maintained its fruit and vegetable stall in the city market place where
it sold “student cultivated produce, produce of an uncompensated
labor system.” It would be a quarter century [1899-1900] before this
labor rate would be six cents to ten cents per hour. The students were
to use the money as “they see proper,” but received the staunch warn-
ing that, “No student should come to college expecting to maintain
himself exclusively. At least $75 per year should be at (his) com-
mand.”

In 1873 Hermite, better known for his contributions to matrix
theory [30], proved that the number e is transcendental [31], and
this same year Professor H. H. White, Mathematics and Astronomy,
requested “permission of attending board meetings by faculty.” Park-
ing was a problem too, even though it must be another four years
(1877) before the auto is invented [32]. (The U. S. has since pro-
duced more than 2200 different makes of automobiles. In name, every
letter of the alphabet is represented, save x, the mathematicians’
choice. )

From one note it appears that Dr. Patterson had withheld from his
salary or had caused to be witheld from another's salary $14 for
pasturage. If this seems ridiculous, then how must our juvenile bicker-
ing and petty political activities impress those self centered promoters
of that modern generation a century hence, when, young and in-
experienced, ignorant but careless, selfish and conceited though they
be, they look back upon us with sympathy, love, and a prejudiced
misunderstanding that for our lack of diligence they would be devel-
oped to an even greater degree of genital perfection.

1875 - 1900

This year (1875) as if the Greeks influenced a theorematic race,
Aristides won the first Kentucky Derby. The Department, now 11
years old, was without electric lights and telephone service. 1876-77

Four Thousand and Fifty Years of Mathematics 109

brought a development of the telephone but only to the Boston vicinity
and Edison made his first successful light bulb in 1879 [33]. The
mathematics curriculum was changed but not drastically. “Plain”
trigonometry was offered [1881] but seems to have disappeared from
the catalog in 1882. Requirements were removed from the senior year
offering [1886] and a full year of Practical Chemistry may be substi-
tuted for calculus for the A. B. in mathematics.

The Department also boasted “abundant facilities for field practice,
with a full set of surveyor’s instruments, are furnished to all who desire
to learn the practice as well as the theory of surveying.

For a while Professor White (J. G., since there are three) shoulder-
ed the responsibility for physics but he dropped this obligation to
Newbrough in 1889, the same year that saw Hollerith [34] push the
father of our present day computers to manhood by maturing the
babies of Babbage, the difference engine of 1822 and the “Analytical
Engine” of 1833.

A university calender [1897] listing only five events, including
Christmas and Thanksgiving may not enlighten one as to the impor-
tant occasions in the lives of faculty and students but the 1896-97
entrance test in mathematics would, in the opinion of one who has
witnessed many, many tests, reduce our present enrollment by big
numbers if taken seriously today. Selections from this test indicate
that the freshman of that year must have been possessed of not only
ability and prehension but unlimited perserverance and _ patience.
This conclusion is supported adequately by problem 2 below.

1. Find g.c. d. and 1. c. m. of 899 and 961.
2. Simplify
10 3/4 — 411/12 35/11
21/4 x ————. —
63/16 «x 72/3 12/5 + 91/11
3. A and B can do a piece of work in 214 days, A and C in 34
days, B and C in 414 days. Required the time in which all these
working together can do the work, and in which each can do
the work alone.

4. Reduce 9 square chains, 11.25 square rods, to the decimal of
an acre.

Other questions involve iron bars weighing 93 pounds for
314’X3”X 234” to compare with one of dimension 314’<4” X24",
grain production, and plastering.

The department is still a one man department but Professor Pence
who, with his daughter Dr. Sallie E. Pence (to become Professor of

110 James Clifton Eaves

Mathematics and Astronomy ), would serve the University for a record
100 years, had now been in charge of physics several semesters and
thereby Professor White was accomodated.

Curriculum changes during this period (1875-1900) are insig-
nificant. The [1899] catalog lists a staff, about ten of which have
had halls named in their honor, White among these. Joseph Morton
Davis, A.B., B.S., to be coauthor of Boyd, Davis, and Rees [5]
became second assistant in the Academy. Entrance requirements for
the freshman class were given as

“A thorough knowledge of Arithmetic, of Algebra through
Quadratic equations as presented in Wentworth’s Higher Al-
gebra, and of Plane Geometry as presented in books first and
second of Beman and Smith’s Geometry, is required for ad-
mission... .”

Astronomy is mentioned:

“In this class the aim is to give to the students a knowledge, as
accurate and as extensive as the time will allow, of the pheno-
mena of the heavenly bodies and of their probable condition
and history. No effort will be spared to make the study of this
branch of science interesting and instructive.”

Calculus was now to be begun second term of the sophomore year,
one year behind our present schedule. Travel pay was of concern to
the student since, if he were a county appointee he was given travel
pay, tuition, matriculation and room rent free but was “charged $2.50
for use of the furniture . . . expected to provide at his own expense:
. . . pillow-slips, . . . looking-glass, blacking-brush, hair brush, and
clothes-broom.” He must also travel to and from the University by the
most expeditious route and present receipts for his expenditures,
whereupon, at the end of the year he would be reimbursed, given
money to return home, and be discharged.

A world shuffles across a century marker and a University is 35
years worn. Cantor had presented two of the most unexpected mathe-
matical discoveries [35; 2 p. 275], a by-product of his unscrupulous
search for the properties of the infinities, bringing forth ideas which,
a half century later, would awaken the mathematical world from its
pedagogical sypnosis and furnish crod for the insatiable appetite of
the mathematically inept. Full of incompleteness yet complete with
critics who had not believed it sound, neverthless, “sets” would be,
incorrectly, that “new mathematics” at the turn of the University’s
first century.

Four Thousand and Fifty Years of Mathematics 111

1900 - 1914

The Department begins the new century with its first full time
assistant, James R. Johnson, B.M.E. Formerly an assistant in shop-
work and drawing, he now shared assignments with John A. Sharon
who had begun as an assistant in English and Mathematics the pre-
vious year.

This year (1900-1901) finds William Snyder Webb an avid student
in his ardent pursuit of the facts of physics, and later archaeology
completing his work in mathematics, Captain of A Company Cadet
Battalion, and a graduating senior, physics major. His mathematics
was to earn for him, the severest of reprimands from an irritated com-
manding officer when, during World War I [0], Webb corrected
errors in the gunnery tables by preering therefrom those unproductive
entries.

Johnson, in 1901, becomes the Department's first assistant professor,
while Sharon, now with the B. Ped., becomes a Fellow Assistant in
English and Mathematics, and W.S. Webb, B.S., begins as a Fellow
in Physics.

Theodore Tolman Jones, an affable scholar of Latin and Greek,
and a mathematics major, began training for a lifetime of devoted
loyalty to the University. As Fellow Assistant in Classics and Mathe-
matics he was to rise to be Professor of Ancient Languages, Head of
Department, Dean of Men, and, at the beginning of World War II,
“too old to war”, as he said, would answer his dean’s plea for help in
handling the hundreds of young men who were to be trained in
mathematics under the ASTP program.

The year following Jones’ appointment as Fellow finds Downing
pleading for admission to the Academy. With youth, controlled vigor,
an abundance of appreciated dry wit, an inherent belief in man and
himself, and a logically compounded argument he was admitted—
conditionally. Sometimes one has the feeling that he did well, but on
other references it appears that he may have been forever on the
dodge. He is carried under what is probably as many erroneously
assigned names an any to enter our school. In

1905 he is H. H. Downing, State College of Kentucky, Corporal
Co. D., Cadet Battalion.

1906 he is Harry Hardesty Downing, Civil Engineer, Lexington,
Kentucky. Captain, Company A.

1907 Harold was used, Major 2nd Battalion.
1908 now Howard Hardesty Downing, B.C. E., Fellow assist-

112 James Clifton Eaves

ant in Civil Engineering, Mathematics and Physical Educa-
tion.

Back to Harold in 1910, he has answered to H. H. and, affec-
tionately, to H square, since, for good reason. We shall return to Dr.
Downing’s accomplishments later.

Our interest now lies in closing out the first half century of the
University’s Department of Mathematics and Astronomy, a half century
of no distinguished mathematical research, no books, no scholarly
publications in scholarly journals, but fifty whole years of devotion
to the implementation of a superior learning environment, loyalty to
one’s self, one’s students and fellow colleagues, a spirit of co-operation
and a seeming lack of distrust and anxious condemning adjudgication.
A desire for less solicitous boredom prevailed. Even during times of
a wildly oscillating economy the spirit was unmistakably exculpation
rather than execration.

Freshman Downing knew Miss Martha Ripperdan White, daughter
of James G. White, granddaughter of H. H. White. She became as-
sistant in mathematics in 1904 and disappeared from the catalog in
1908, the year Downing became a civil engineer. Granville, a name
in mathematical circles sufficient to identify positively one of the most
successful calculus books ever written from the standpoint of its reign
as a text, was published in 1904 and adopted for use at UK in 1906
when Joseph Morton Davis, A. B., B.S., left his academy duties to be-
come J. Morton Davis, Assistant Professor of Mathematics. There
was little change in the mathematics curriculum. The college catalog
leaves little doubt that vociferous appeals for scholarship, increased
funds, and particularly, a more grandiose school name were the
objectives of those concerned for the school’s future. And then it
happened. The General Assembly of Kentucky authorized “State
University” in 1908 and the catalog [1908 p8] used space to comment
on state expansion and growth during the past period.

Certainly changes in the curriculum had happened during four
decades, but indicated improvements were, if it can be said with-
out admonition, to an extent scarcely obvious. Emphasis was on teach-
ing, good teaching, and this, if executed, produces in the recipient,
changes which accompany him throughout the short time of a life
span. The quality of embedded ideas resulting from the creation of a
learning environment is more reliably evaluated after the enactment
of long and arduous application. After death, unhampered by preten-
tious make belief, only then is it possible to measure the effect of that
which one has learned and whether or not he has continued to learn

Four Thousand and Fifty Years of Mathematics 113

from the mistakes of others, from his own mistakes, enhanced by in-
born curiosity.

For some reason Kentucky and Education seemed to be com-
peting with Germany and Education, supposedly since German mathe-
maticians had made recondite findings, its scientist were erudite as
well as creative, and its manufacturing techniques merited emulation.
But, except for the adoption of a few German mathematics texts at the
graduate level and the teaching of a lot of mathematics uncovered
and invented by the Germans, other indication of influence is not im-
mediately revealed.

The information on summer school [1906] almost irritates one’s in-
nate curiosity concerning the number of letters the deans must have
received. Today one would never find, in a university catalog.

“Many a dull or lazy student who has failed . . .” or a straight
forward condemnation of

”>

“,.. American life and amid the insane pursuit of money .. .

During this period the summer offering, under the tutelage of J.
Morton Davis and T. T. Jones, consisted of mathematics, astronomy,
English, Greek, Latin, French, German, Spanish, history, and Anglo
Saxon. This team assures one that

‘Last summer instruction was given in all these subjects and
more than 4/5 of our students passed... .

Fee for each subject, in advance, $7.50”

Elijah Latham Reese, B. C. E., who was to serve the University
long and well and to retire to Florida while still young, became a
Fellow assistant in mathematics and civil engineering, and T. J. Orr,
a student assistant, this Downing’s senior year (1908). State College,
having become the State University, experienced the usual reorganiza-
tion. It now had three schools, and pertinent to us, an expanded pro-
gram in mathematics. Feeble by present calipers, so much so that
perhaps one is inclined to measure the growth increment in lignes
rather than by use of the pedagogical yardstick; nevertheless, the re-
quirement of calculus for all engineers shackled many an engineer to
his room at night, and in some cases, to the campus for an extra year.
Thirty-five years later an engineering student was heard to remark,
following his learning of the removal of sophomore English from the
engineering requirements, “Good! I wish they'd remove this blamed
calculus and maybe I'd have a chance to get out of this dadburned
place.”

Theory of Equations, Determinants, Differential Equations, and

114 James Clifton Eaves

History of Mathematics were also available in 1908, “. . . if desired by
sufficient number of persons qualified to pursue them.”

A major required 64 credit hours (1 credit then being equivalent
to two in 1956) for the A.B., exclusive of military science and “physical
training’. The A. B. degree with any major required 5 years of Latin,
without exception. As usual there is no outline of course of study for
math students and no mention of majors.

By 1910 Fines’s College Algebra was used for Theory of Deter-
minants. Vector Analysis and Advanced Calculus were listed as
available by demand. The catalog often carried assurances of a desire
to serve, for example, “Other and more advanced courses in mathe-
matics will be given varying from year to year to meet the needs of
special students in mathematics, whether undergraduate or graduate”
[1910].

Number Theory, Modern Analytical Geometry, Differential Geo-
metry, and Higher Plane Curves were soon added to the student's
choice and Sallie E. Pence became a freshman [1910 p. 222].

Mathematics is now (1912) among the 9 majors available to the
student. Mathematics Ia, or Chemistry I, or Physics III and V are re-
quired for all A.B. students and prospective B.S. major must select
his major by the beginning of the sophomore year. The teacher’
course, offered by Professor Davis is “A Critical Review of the Mathe-
matics of the High School, 2 hours per week, throughout the year”.
Professor White has just completed a year as Acting President, has
obtained the services of Paul Prentice Boyd (a young Ph.D. from
Cornell), returned to the vice presidency and assumed the additional
duties as Dean of Men both of which he would retain until his death
in 1913. Through his persistent efforts he saw his department( mathe-
matics) and in fact the entire University become an organization
possessed of the highest standards, revered for its leaders, hailed for
its loyal and effective teachers, and supported for its maintenance of
a scholarly atmosphere, and recognized for influence upon the fine
young intellects of the Commonwealth. Before his reward for a life-
time of service to mankind he saw a college catalog which he had
helped to say,

“, .. must make up necessary undergraduate work. No bachelor
of arts from any institution, however exalted, can become a
candidate for the degree A. M. unless he has studied collegiate
Latin in a satisfactory manner.”

Added to this, one finds:

“(One may) not become a candidate for the Ph.D. degree un-

Four Thousand and Fifty Years of Mathematics 115

less he has already a good reading knowledge of French, Ger-
man and other languages. The degree is not for faithful work
merely but for original and worthy investigations and the thesis
must prove satisfactory to

(a) the major professor

(b) graduate school committee

(c) 2 or more independent specialists in 2 or more independent
institutions of repute.”

The first fifty years were stocked abundantly with plans, and
changes, and tradition. This was 5 decades of growth, growing of an
inexperienced faculty, growth of a curriculum, growth in housing
facilities, all this culminating in a mammoth school when aligned with
that zero enrollment in 1865.

The last of the first fifty found some with grief, grief for a lost
servant. But man, despite his deeds, must move on, and Dr. White
hung up his lantern, a short wick turned low. Death comes to a man;
the institution remains alive. A new head, Dr. P. P. Boyd, a new
course, Boyd’s Geometric Transformations, five assistants and in-
structors in addition to Davis, Rees, and Downing, and the school bell
continued to ring.

A carbon copy of old news was reread which reminded the weary
that the long furtive shadow of the soldier would soon trod on the
campus again. Fluctuations on the American market were now being
felt as far away as Switzerland, where our economic barometer regis-
tered in a most painful way throughout the whole of the Swiss watch
making industry [36]. Radio, although known since 1888 when Hertz
developed Hertzian waves [37] (the same H. R. Hertz who wrote
“Die Prinzipien der Merchanik (1894) ) was blaring neither from the
dormitory window nor from the student’s shirt pocket. It would be
another half dozen years and one world war before, in 1920, man was
to listen to the first regular broadcast and declare that there must be
a hidden gramophone somewhere. Hilbert, three years older than
the University had published the Grudlagen der Geometric [2 p. 334],
a work which was to advance the interest in geometry on our campus.
Peano had given us, a few years earlier [38], the first axiomatic defini-
tion of number to lay the foundation for several courses which were
to find their way into the graduate offering and finally into our lower
division course of study, three decades later.

A new kind of pen, a ball point, had been invented about 1880
in South America but two world wars and a dozen small encounters
would pass before students could write underwater. Two world wars

116 James Clifton Eaves

from now students would sit (and sleep) in their classrooms un-
disturbed by a sonic boom which could shatter window panes about
them while at the turn of our first half century many of the students
had yet to see a plane and all run to the window when one flys over.
(Teddy Roosevelt was almost dislodged from the precarious perch of
an early plane on his introductory flight near the end of our first half
century and the first flight from New York to California consumed 84
days.) Classical theory of numbers was no fraud, but abstract algebra
was unborn [39]. The unpatentable claims based on the Huggeford
jewel [40] were fraudulent but proofs of the impossibility of trisecting
any angle under Euclidean regulations [41] were as correct and logical
as mathematics.

Thus, while the crowd sang songs like “The Auto Rag”, “Gasoline
Gus and His Jitney Bus”, the noiseless vacuum toothpick became
popular, Mezger’s automatic windshield replaced the goggles, the quip,
“A guy who owns a second hand fliver is always trying to start some-
thing” got a big laugh, the 1914 Rauch and Lang Electric Auto was the
town car of distinction [42], those trisections came in and the depart-
ment members tried to analyze them honestly, answer promptly, and
get ready for their first master’s student. They had already graduated
their first A. B.

But mathematics and mathematics students were not to receive
the faculty’s full energies, albeit near so. There must be letters from
some with “D-” academic records in mathematics, divulging their ar-
rogant bias while proclaiming their scornful contempt of the twosome,
the mathematics and mathematics professors whom capable students
must tolerate. Just as certain as Shakespeare had used two to’s and
questionable equality to produce a collection of words familiar even
to the Shakespearean illiterate, there must exist that supercilious sub-
set, uncultured, and mathematically unkempt. A mathematics professor
has expressed the idea that, “. . . to survive in a college atmosphere
among the insouciant one must be alert but unattentative; else mathe-
matics, standing in ill repute with those for whom it was never meant
but in whose chosen fields of study it is an absolute necessity, un-
known to those who advise, will be but a lost art.”

It is less ulcerous to weigh spansmodic attacks against mathematics
on a cant hook of pious ignorance or conventional budgetary heresy.
No one, a learned scholar in one field can be hopelessly ignorant in
all others and before being hypercritical of what is to us illogical
reactions by others it is good to remember that competent mathe-
maticians are uncertain or in error even in their own field most of
the time.

Four Thousand and Fifty Years of Mathematics 117

Perhaps Dr. Neville had known that it was Hooke [43] who in-
vented the hair spring, and later the anchor escapement to give us the
short swing pendulum. Being a scholar of Greek and Latin he knew
of the early struggles with machinery and evidently had appraised
John Harrison’s contributions to man even though Newton believed
Harrison’s feat impossible. For these or some similar and justifiable
reasons, Dr. Neville writes, toward the end of our first half century:

“While no wise man will seek to disparage or unduly to exalt
any branch of knowledge, it is not invideous to say that though
the vast expansion of science during the wonderful nineteenth
century has contributed enormoulsy to the comfort and glory
of man, yet an immense majority in the civilized nations will
continue to feel more interest in man and his doings than in
mathematics and its properties, more in literature than in
science, and more in the applications of science than in its
principles and processes.” [1907-08 p. 90]

The mathematicians of the day stood on the high side of the hill.
When dealing with the mathematically inept they sat with their backs
to a strong wall and learned where the windows were, less the multi-
tude of small fires make intolerable smoke. It was FooChu who said,
“Difference between brave man and coward is, brave man anticipates
future with deep but unchasmal ponderability, coward runs, always.”

From the early days of mathematics it was evident that the best
mathematicians are seldom tyrannous. The accomplished need not be
guilty of despotic abuse of authority, if in fact they have any. And
only the unlearned carry small brief cases in order to appear large of
stature. The University’s mathematicians become aware of another
fact during a short, effective 50 years. Mathematics is not a sport for
spectators. A mathematician cannot be a coward but must indulge in
mathematics and sometimes, its defense, even against the unscrupulous,
the professed ignorant, the mathematically unclean. It was_ this
philosophy which was to guide the Department to one of national
recognition and international familiarity during the next half century.

Bibliography

1. Eves, Howard, AN INTRODUCTION TO THE HISTORY OF MATHE-
MATICS, New York, Rinehart and Co., 1959, p. 84.

2. Bell, E. T., THE DEVELOPMENT OF MATHEMATICS; 2d ed. New York,
McGraw-Hill Book Co., 1945, p. 77.

8. Sanford, Vera, A SHORT STORY OF MATHEMATICS, Boston, Houghton
Mifflin Co., 1930, p. 259.

118

4,
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James Clifton Eaves

Newman, James R. THE WORLD OF MATHEMATICS, New York, Simon
and Schuster, 1956, vol. 1, p. 93.

Boyd, Paul P., J. Morton Davis, and Elijah L. Rees, A COURSE IN ANA-
LYTIC GEOMETRY, New York, D. Van Nostrand Co., 1922, p. 74, p. 108.
Heath, Thomas L., THE THIRTEEN BOOKS OF EUCLID’S ELEMENTS
TRANSLATED FROM THE TEXT OF HEIBERG; 2nd ed. revised with
additions. New ork, Dover Publications, 1956, v. 1, p. 124.

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Publications, 1958, v. 1, p. 118.
AV OOO:

. Smith, Emma Peters, David Saville Muzzey, and Minnie Lloyd, WORLD

HISTORY, THE STRUGGLE FOR CIVILIZATION; rev. ed. Boston, Ginn
and Co., 1955, p. 29.

. Ore, Oystein, NUMBER THEORY AND ITS HISTORY, New York, Mc-

Graw-Hill Book Co., 1948, p. 176.

. Struik, Dirk J.. A CONCISE HISTORY OF MATHEMATICS, New York,

Dover Publications, 1948, v. 1, p. 28.

. Cajori, Florian, A HISTORY OF ELEMENTARY MATHEMATICS WITH

HINTS ON METHODS OF TEACHING; rev. and enl. ed., New York, Mac-
millan Co., 1950, p. 12.

—_____, A HISTORY OF MATHMATICS; 2nd ed. rev. and enl., New
York, Macmillan Co., 1950, p. 57.

. Heath, Thomas L., THE THIRTEEN BOOKS OF EUCLID’S ELEMENTS

TRANSLATED FRIM THE TEXT OF HEIBERG; 2nd ed. rev. and enl.,
Ney York, Macmillan Co., 1950, p. 57.

. Jones, Burton W., ELEMENTARY CONCEPTS OF MATHEMATICS, New

York, Macmillan Company, 1963, p. 169.

. Struik, Dirk J., A CONCISE HISTORY OF MATHEMATICS, New York,

Dover Publications, 1948, v. 2, p. 187.

. Bell, E. T.,. MEN OF MATHEMATICS, New York, Simon and Schuster, 1937,

p. 338.

. Bonola, Roberto, NON-EUCLIDEAN GEOMETRY; 2nd rev. ed. LaSalle, Il.,

Open Court Publishing Co., 1938, p. 66.

. Lobachevski, Nicholas, GEOMETRICAL RESEARCHES ON THE THEORY

OF PARALLELS, Translated from the Original by George Bruce Halsted;
new ed. Chicago, Open Court Publishing Co., 1942.

. Saccheri, Girolamo, EUCLIDES VINDICATUS; ed. and tr. by George Bruce

Halsted, Chicago, Open Court Publishing Co., 1920.

. Descartes, Rene, THE GEOMETRY OF RENE DESCARTES; tr. from the

French and Latin by David Eugene Smith and Marcia L. Latham, New York,
Dover Publications, 1954.

. Dickson, Leonard Eugene, ELEMENTARY THEORY OF EQUATIONS,

New York, John Wiley and Sons, 1914.

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Holt and Co., 1936, p. 186.

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NATION, New York, Simon and Schuster, 1940, p. 247.

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House and Yale University, 1961, p. 71.

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Four Thousand and Fifty Years of Mathematics 119

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NATIONAL ASSOCIATION OF WATCH AND CLOCK COLLECTORS,
INC. 11 (1946), p. 112.

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Press, 1945, pp. 60-63.

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AND DEVELOPMENT. Lexington, University of Kentucky, 1956, p. 6.

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TERMINANTS AND MATRICES, Chapel Hill, University of North Carolina
Press, 1958.

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and augmented, New York, Macmillan Co., 1949, p. 118.

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1877-1925, New York, McGraw-Hill Book Co., 1950.

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Britannica, 1926, v. 9, p. 188.

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CALCULATORS, London, Butterworths Scientifice Publications, 1956, p. 8.

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Francisco, W. H. Freemand and Co., 1963.

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SWISS WATCH FROM ITS BEGINNINGS TO THE PRESENTDAY, Phila-
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by H. W. Tyler and R. P. Bigelow. New York, Macmillan Company, 1952,
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State College Press, 1948, p. 59.

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1902, p. 46.

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Random House and Yale University, 1961, p. 75.

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p. 14.

SOME COMPARATIVE BEHAVIOR STUDIES ON
THREE GENERA OF SALAMANDERS

JACKIE D. BATSON
Department of Zoology, University of Kentucky, Lexington

A survey of the literature reveals little information pertaining to
the behavior of the salamander genera Eurycea, Desmognathus, and
Pseudotriton in reference to responses to gradients of light, pH, and
soil moisture. This research was undertaken to increase our knowledge
of these responses on a comparative basis in the above named genera.

The relative activity of related animals may be studied by com-
parative behavior responses. The animals chosen for this work,
Eurycea bislineata bislineata, Desmognathus fuscus fuscus, and Pseu-
dotriton montanus diastictus were selected because their habitats over-
lapped and there should be some factors of the environment common
to all three. Eurycea b. bislineata is distributed over part of southern
Canada, most of New England and south to Tennessee. Desmognathus
f. fuscus has a similar distribution in that it is found over most of
New England and extends into southern Alabama and Georgia. Pseu-
dotriton montanus diastictus has a more restricted range, being found
from southern Ohio into western Virginia, middle and eastern Ken-
tucky and eastern Tennessee (Conant, 1958).

Eurycea b. bislineata is usually found beneath rocks and stones on
wet soil. However, it may be found away from water or wet soil in
drier situations. Desmognathus f. fuscus frequents the margins of
streams and springs, leaf-filled trickles, and brooks, where it is con-
stantly moist. Frequently, this salamander enters water, but it is
essentially a terrestrial form. Pseudotriton montanus diastictus is per-
haps a little less aquatic than Pseudotriton m. montanus, however, it is
found in moist situations in or near small streams (Bishop, 1962).

Materials And Methods

Light Gradients: The comparative responses of Eurycea b. bis-
lineata, Desmognathus f. fuscus, and Pseudotriton montanus diastictus
to white lights of different strengths and to various monochromatic
lights were studied by means of a cardboard box divided into two
compartments by a partition. Three holes were cut in the bottom of
the partition to permit the animals to pass freely from one side to the
other. The floor of the entire box was covered uniformly with a layer
of dry soil. Each compartment was covered with a piece of cardboard
and the light source was placed just under the cover.

Studies on Three Genera of Salamanders 121

Table 1. Reactions of Salamanders to Light Gradient in Experimental Trough
(30 Minute Tests)

No. of
Feet From .
Light Eurycea Desmognathus Pseudotriton

ONO WIRPWNWrH
SCOOCOONWArFS
COOCOrFWUNW ©
COORRFANE

The two types of light gradients established were: (1) mono-
chromatic light-darkness and (2) monochromatic light-white light.
In the former gradient, monochromatic light was considered side “A”
and darkness side “B”. In the latter gradient, monochromatic light was
side “A” and white light side “B”. All of the light experiments were
conducted in a darkened room where the temperature varied from
21.1 to 23.8 degrees Centigrade.

Both colored (red, blue, and green) and white bulbs were used.
The colored bulbs were 7.5 watt Westinghouse bulbs. Each light was
analyzed by means of a model 14 Cary Recording Spectrometer. The
red wave length was from 6000-7000 angstroms, the blue wave length
was from 4100-4700 angstroms and the green bulb emitted light in the
estimated range of 3600-5400 angstroms. In the latter case, the bulb
was a white one painted green and could not be accurately measured.
The white Westinghouse bulbs were of two sizes: 7.5 watts (3 £6;
and 25 watts (25 f.c.).

Eight light gradients were studied; for each gradient, thirty tests
were conducted, one specimen of each of the three genera being the
test animal in ten individual tests. Each test lasted for fifteen minutes.
A total of 240 tests in the eight gradients comprised 60 hours of
observation time. The salamanders had a choice between a light on
one side of the box and darkness on the other side in the first five
gradients. These gradients were as follows: Gradient 1, 25 f.c.-dark-
ness; Gradient 2, 3 f.c.-darkness; Gradient 3, red-darkness; Gradient
4, blue-darkness; and Gradient 5, green-darkness. The other gradients
were Gradient 6, 3 f.c. white light-red light; Gradient 7, 3 f.c. white
light-blue light; and Gradient 8, 3 f.c. white light-green light. In the
first five gradients, the salamanders were placed in the lighted side of
the box and in the last three gradients half of the time in side “A” and
half of the time in side “B”. In this way the salamanders were initially
exposed to both lights.

19, Jackie D. Batson

When a light-darkness gradient was used the time that elapsed
from the beginning of a test until the animal crossed into darkness
was called the “reaction time”. The total time an animal stayed in
side “A” and side “B” was carefully recorded. Whenever the animal
passed from one side to another, this was referred to as a crossover
and was noted and totaled at the end of a a test. At the end of a
test, the animal was removed and placed in a terrarium. Animals to be
tested were kept from all light until they were to be used. They were
always handled with care so as to have them in a calm state. After
an animal had been tested, it was not used again for at least one hour.

A second method of testing for reactions to light gradients was
used for comparison purposes. A light gradient trough was con-
structed which was 8 feet in length, 4 and 14 inches in width and 4
inches in depth. The interior of the trough was lined with moist
paper towels and observations were readily made by removing the
top. A gooseneck lamp with a 25 watt bulb was used for the light
source. A glass plate was used as a heat jacket between the light
source and the experimental animal. The entire apparatus was located
in a room of 22.2 degrees (average) Centigrade and total darkness.
An individual salamander was placed in the trough for each test.
Each test lasted for 30 minutes. Thirty six individual tests were run in
this gradient; 12 for each genus studied.

Soil Moisture: The reactions of Eurycea b. bislineata, Desmo-
gnathus f. fuscus and Pseudotriton montanus diastictus to different
soil moistures were studied. A glass terrarium 24 inches x 24 inches x
10 inches was divided into four compartments with a cardboard plat-
form five inches square in the center. Each compartment was filled

Table 2. Reactions of Salamanders to the Moisture Concentration of the Soil
(Twenty 20 Minute Tests Per Genus)

Eurycea Desmognathus Pseudotriton

Animals in Soil
Moisture Content
Of20'9 9% and) 33:99 cssteeee 0 0 0

Animals in Soil
Moisture Content
Ole DoO Toman debi louse 20 20 20

with a soil of pH 6.7 and varying amounts of moisture were added.
The animals were placed on the cardboard platform and a cardboard
lid was placed over the terrarium. At the end of 30 minutes the top
was removed and the distribution of the animals noted.

The per cent of soil moisture was determined empirically by the
addition of water which was added to each compartment of the

Studies on Three Genera of Salamanders 123

terrarium and actual water content was calculated after the experiment
from the soil taken from each compartment. Such samples were
weighed, then dried for 24 hours, and reweighed, moisture content
being computed as per cent of water lost to the weight of dry soil
(Rosenthal, 1935).

Soil pH: The study of the reaction of Eurycea b. bislineata, Des-
mognathus f. fuscus, and Pseudotriton montanus diastictus to soil pH
was observed by allowing the animals to choose between two soils of
different pH. A glass terrarium was used in which a small cardboard
partition one inch high separated the floor of the container into two
sections, each containing a soil of different pH. Six holes were cut in
the cardboard partition to allow the animals to pass from one side to
another. The soil in one section had a pH of 6.3 and the other a soil
which was pH 7.1.

Table 3. Reactions of Salamanders to Hydrogen-lron Concentration of the Soil
(Twenty 10 Minute Tests Per Genus)

Eurycea Desmognathus Pseudotriton
Per Cent of
Time in pH of
(CYS ea nd Sea eee 56% 56% 25%
Per Cent of
Time in pH of
FAIRY Secs Thee een ede Deca untiaaseeeas si 44% 44% 75%
Number of
(TOSSOVELSi ssc sscercceeeecvscerteseers 44 86 10

To determine the pH of the soils a Model 20 Coleman Electro-
meter pH meter was used. The procedure for finding the pH of a
soil sample was essentially that of Reed and Cummings (1945) except
that a ratio of 1:2.5 was used for soil-water ratio.

Twenty ten minute tests were performed on each species. For half
of the tests the animals were placed in one section of the gradient and
for half of the tests in the opposite section. No animals were used.
more than once during an hour. The number of crossovers, as well as
the total time a salamander was in each of the parts of the gradient,
were recorded.

Results And Discussion

Light: Research on salamander reactions to light have shown that
most species tested were negatively photo-tactic (Reese, 1906; Pearse,
1910; Cole, 1922; Bishop, 1927; Vernberg, 1955; and Hutchinson, 1958 ).
Results show that Eurycea b. bislineata, Desmognathus f. fuscus, and
Pseudotriton montanus diastictus are negatively photo-tactic tor some

124 Jackie D. Batson

gradients and positively photo-tactic for others. In the first five
gradients studied, where animals had to choose between light and
darkness, the species varied in these reactions; Eurycea b. bislineata
being negatively photo-tactic in response to red-darkness, blue-dark-
ness, green darkness and a borderline case for being positively or
negatively phototactic in 25 f.c.-darkness and 3 f.c.-darkness. It is in-
teresting to note from Table 4 that the per cent of time Eurycea b.
bislineata remained in the light was similar in all gradients. Desmo-

Table 4. Reactions to Various Light Gradients
(Ten 15 Minute Tests Per Genus Per Gradient)

Gradient Eurycea Desmognathus Pseudotriton

Per Cent Time in Light

25 FC—

Darknesswee teeter eee 48 53 69
Cri

DAT eSS ieee eee eee eee ee 48 52 34
Red—

ID EWA ESS. cocccaceaecerccedetontoncbnoceocooncne 32 4l 63
Blue—

Warknessuerssere eet rere 40 52 65
Green—

ID Bid e023) Gponccocconssasoceeosenneccoonaccnsce 39 64 91

gnathus f. fuscus was negatively photo-tactic in red-darkness only;
slightly positively photo-tactic in blue-darkness and definitely positi-
vely photo-tactic in the gradients of 25 f.c.-darkness, 3 f.c.-darkness and
green-darkness.

The reaction time of the three genera varied in the different
gradients. However, Eurycea b. bislineata reacted fastest in all gra-
dients shown in Table 5 except the 3 f.c.-darkness gradient, and green-
darkness where Pseudotriton montanus diastictus was the fastest.

Desmognathus f. fuscus is intermediate to the other two genera in
all of the gradients in Table 5 except 3 f.c.-darkness and green-dark-
ness, where it was the slowest.

In response to a white light of 3 f.c., the reaction time of Pseudo-
triton montanus diastictus was about ten times as fast as it was in 25 f.c.
Eurycea b. bislineata showed no difference to the two intensities and
Desmognathus f. fuscus showed a slight variability.

When these animals were subjected to a gradient involving two
types of light most of them stayed in white light more than in mono-
chromatic light, the lone exception being Eurycea b. bislineata in 3
f.c.-blue gradient (See Table 6). This again indicates a tendency for

Studies on Three Genera of Salamanders 125

Table 5. Reactions to Various Light Gradients
(Ten 15 Minute Tests Per Genus Per Gradient)

Gradient Eurycea Desmognathus Pseudotriton
Seconds

25 FC—

) DF el ov 1c ap ee ea 19 29 38

3 FC—

ADATIMESS2 .sicceke cescaeenes cc ete 17 21 8

Red—

|B Ed cc 2). paneer fe a eR ene oO Om 80 49

Blue—

Darkness winteee eee ee ae ke OR} 34 34

Green—

PD AVKMESS tse eice eek ee 29 48 2
ee ee Ae IS

Table 6. Reactions to Various Light Gradients
(Ten 15 Minute Tests Per Genus Per Gradient)

Gradient Eurycea Desmognathus Pseudotriton
Per Cent Time in Three Foot Candles

3 FC—

1 YE‘ G USE ani eRe ewe re aE UE 64 64 53

3 FC—

Ble eit ence ere ee 44 50 58

3 FC—

Greene tosis sesieveihaielee auntieiik 81 60 100

these three genera to be positively phototactic. The majority of work-
ers have found salamanders to be negatively photo-tactic in this type
of gradient. However, Vernberg (1955) did find Plethodon cinereus
to be strongly positively photo-tactic in a 1 f.c.-green gradient.

It was noted that in five of the gradients Eurycea b. bislineata had
the greatest number of crossovers (See Table 7). Desmognathus f.
fuscus had the greatest number of crossovers in three of the gradients,
the being the green-darkness, blue-darkness and the 3 f.c.-green
gradients. Pseudotriton montanus diastictus was the least active genus
in the study. It seems that Eurycea b. bislineata is more active than
Desmognathus f. fuscus and Pseudotriton montanus diastictsu in most
of the gradients studied.

A second type of light gradient was employed (See Materials and
Methods for a description). Thirty-six tests were made with this
gradient. Each test lasted for 30 minutes. A single salamander was
tested each time, not several simultaneously (Hutchinson, 1958). The
results of this second method of light response seemed to substantiate
those results recived in the other gradients. Table 1 shows the results
obtained with the light trough gradient. Eurycea has a tendency to be
negatively photo-tactic, whereas, Desmognathus f. fuscus and Pseudo-

126 Jackie D. Batson

Table 7. Reactions to Various Light Gradients
(Ten 15 Minute Tests Per Genus Per Gradient)

Gradient Eurycea Desmognathus Pseudotriton
Number of Crossovers

25 FC—

Darknessee eee 47 43 20

38 FC—

Wanrkness esse ceseecttecteccseeiee eee 44 34 16

Red—

Darknessinesete eee 86 26 10

Blue—

[Darkemesstescersecseterteestrtereeeeee 81 82 Ait

Green—

Darknessote scoters 33 87 1

8 FC—

| 2 Vs\G [Coe St eine OR Ben arr eee 33 23 14

3 FC—

Ble seea toe er ee aa ee eee eee 29 22. 4

8 FC—

(GrEGIitese reer e eer eee ETes 25 88 0

triton montanus diastictus have a preference for the light end of the
gradient. These results are analogous to those shown in Table 4.

Soil Moisture: Many workers have made observations on sala-
manders in relation to moisture. Both Bishop (1927) and Shelford
(1913) have made field observations on the influence of moisture on
various species of salamanders. Rosenthal (1935) has reported on the
importance of soil moisture to Aneides lugubris. Vernberg (1953) has
reported on the role of soil moisture in relation to Plethodon cinereus.

Table 2 gives the responses of the salamanders to a soil moisture
gradient. All of the animals proved to indicate a greater preference
for the moist end of the gradient.

Soil pH: The reactions of salamanders to soil pH has been scantily
reported in the literature. When tested in the laboratory, Eurycea b.
bislineata and Desmognathus f. fuscus showed a slight preference for
an acid soil pH (6.3), spending 56% of the time there, while 44% of
the time was spent in the soil of pH 7.1. Pseudotriton montanus dias-
tictus showed a preference for the alkaline soil, spending 75% of the
time there as opposed to 25% in an acid soil (See Table 3).

Of the thirty times animals were introduced into the more acid
soil, only six failed to cross over to the alkaline side, but for the thirty
times the animals were introduced into the alkaline side, sixteen
animals did not cross over. Eurycea b. bislineata was more active
than Desmognathus f. fuscus with 44 crossovers for Eurycea b. bi-

Studies on Three Genera of Salamanders 127

slineata and 36 for Desmognathus f. fuscus. Pseudotriton montanus
diastictus was the least active of the three with only 10 crossovers.

Summary

A comparative behavior study of the genera Eurycea, Desmo-
gnathus, and Pseudotriton was made in regard to responses to gradients
of light, pH, and soil moisture.

In general, Desmognathus f. fuscus and Pseudotriton montanus
diastictus showed a preference for being positively photo-tactic; while
Eurycea b. bislineata showed a tendency to be negatively photo-tactic
for all light-darkness gradients except 25 f.c.-darkness and 3 f.c.-dark-
ness gradients which were borderline cases. Desmognathus f. fuscus
was negatively photo-tactic for red-darkness only; being positively
photo-tactic for all other light-darkness gradients.

Eurycea b. bislineata showed a faster “reaction time” than did
Desmognathus f. fuscus or Pseudotriton montanus diastictus in a
majority of the light-darkness gradients.

Eurycea b. bislineata was considered to be more active based on
the number of crossovers.

A light gradient trough was used for comparison purposes and the
results were similar to those of the box gradient in that Eurycea b.
bislineata was negatively photo-tactic and Desmognathus f. fuscus
and Pseudotriton montanus diastictus were positively photo-tactic.

In the soil moisture experiments, all three genera had a preference
for the moist end of the gradient (55 to 57.1% moisture ) as opposed to
the drier end of the gradient (20.9 to 33.9% moisture ).

In reactions to soil pH, Eurycea b. bislineata and Desmognathus
f. fuscus indicate a tendency to prefer the acid soil, whereas, Pseudo-
triton montanus diastictus showed a preference for the alkaline soil.

Acknowledgments

The author expresses his gratitude to Dr. Roger W. Barbour for the
construction of a light gradient trough and for critically reading this
manuscript; to Drs. John M. Carpenter and Thomas C. Barr, Jr. for
reading the manuscript; to Dr. Robert Kuehne for the loan of two
glass terraria and for assistance in the determination of soil pH; to
Dr. R. F. Hanau and Mr. Tony Powell for help in calculating the wave
length and foot candle power of light bulbs; to Dr. H. A. Romanowitz
for the loan of a foot candle meter and to Mr. Melvin Denner for
assistance in weighing and drying the soil samples. All of the above
named personnel are associated with the University of Kentucky.

128 Jackie D. Batson

Literature Cited

Bishop, S.C. 1927. The amphibians and reptiles of Allegheny State Park. New
York State Museum Publication.

. 1962 Handbook of salamanders. Hafner Publishing Company. New
York.

Cole, L.J. 1922. The effect of temeperature on the phototropic response of
Necturus. Journal of General Physiology. 4:569-572.

Conant, R. 1958. A field guide to reptiles and amphibians of eastern North
America. Houghton Mifflin Company. Boston.

Hutchinson, V. H. 1958. The distribution and ecology of the cave salamander,
Eurycea lucifuga. Ecological Monographs. 28: 1-20.

Pearse, A. S. 1910. The reactions of amphibians to light. Proceedings of the
American Academy of Arts and Sciences. 42:161-208.

Reed, J. F. and R. W. Cummings. 1945. Soil reaction and glass electrode and
colorimetric methods for determining pH value of soil. Soil Science. 59:97-
104.

Reese, A. M. 1906. Observations on the reactions of Cryptobranchus and
Necturus to light and heat. Biological Bulletin. 11:93-99.

Rosenthal, G. M., Jr. 1935. Behavior of the plethodontid salamander, Aneides
lugubris, in a soil temperature—moisture gradient and its relation to the
geographic distribution of the species. Anatomical Record. 117:560-561.

Shelford, W. E. 1913. The reactions of certain animals to gradients of evaporating
power of air. A study in experimental ecology. Biological Bulletin, 25:79-120.

Vernberg, F. J. 1953. Hibernation studies of two species of salamanders, Plethodon
cinereus and Eurycea bislineata bislineata. Ecology. 34:55-62.

. 1955. Correlation of physiological and behavior indexes of activity in
the study of Plethodon glutinosus (Green). American Midland Naturalist.
54:382-393.

STUDIES ON THE PRAIRIE VOLE, MICROTUS OCHROGASTER,
IN CENTRAL KENTUCKY

JACKIE BATSON
Department of Zoology, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky

This research is a study of the ectoparasites, relative body pro-
portions, pelage, hematology, food preferences, and speed trials of
Microtus ochrogaster in central Kentucky.

The species Microtus ochrogaster ranges from West Virginia to
Wyoming and from southern Oklahoma to Manitoba and Alberta,
Canada (Hall and Kelson, 1959).

Several early naturalists in this country have commented on the
fluctuations in numbers of individuals and on the breeding and feed-
ing habits of voles, Kennicott (1857) reported on the breeding, food
storing and behavior of some captive voles. Quick and Butler (1885)
described the habits of two species of Microtus: ochrogaster and
pennsylvanicus in Indiana. Criddle (1926) reported on the mating
and feeding habits of Microtus orchrogaster in Manitoba. Fisher
(1945) gave an account of food and reproduction of the prairie vole in
Missouri. Jameson (1947) has contributed a very comprehensive study
of the prairie vole in Douglas County, Kansas. He concluded that
this species uses twenty-five kinds of plants as food. Stores of food
are laid underground; a maximum quantity found in a single cache was
two gallons. Several ectoparasites are common to the prairie vole:
two fleas, Ctenopthalmus pseudagyrtes Baker and Ochropaeus leu-
copus (Baker); one species of louse, Hoplopleura acanthopus (Bur-
meister) and two species of mites, Laelaps kochi Oudemans and
Atricholaelaps glasgowi (Ewing).

Fifty-eight gravid females, according to Jameson, had an average
of 3.4 embryos. Litters at the height of the breeding season are larger
than at the end of the breeding season.

Barbour and Barbour (1950) reported some measurements of
Microtus ochrogaster from Hart County, Kentucky. They recognized
three size groups based on twelve specimens. The largest specimens
are grizzled in appearance and have the following measurements:
total length, 145 (142-149); tail, 32 (28-35); hind foot, 19.7 (19-20).
A smaller group, represented by seven specimens, averages: total
length, 120.4 (112-126); tail, 24.8 (22-28); hind foot, 18.2 (18-19).
Of this group, five are nearly uniform dorsally; the remaining two were
beginning to exhibit the grizzled appearance of the adult. The third

130 Jackie D. Batson

size group is represented by a single specimen and measures: total
length, 98; tail, 17; hind foot, 15.

Materials and Methods

The information in this account was obtained by examining trapped
animals and by observing live-trapped animals. Sixty-three prairie
voles were snap-trapped during 370 trap nights. All specimens were
collected on the University of Kentucky Experimental Farm except
for three which were live-trapped in a rural area near Lexington,
Kentucky. Twenty-five live traps were built from quart tin cans from
which the ends had been removed. A piece of hardware cloth was
attached over one end and a mouse trap was attached to the other
end which had a piece of hardware cloth fastened to the guillotine to
close the can when triggered. A piece of cotton was placed inside the
can for the protection of the voles from low temperatures.

Two hundred and four slides were made of ectoparasites which
were taken from the vole hosts. Each vole, when removed from a trap,
was placed in a paper bag which was rolled up and a rubber band
placed around it to prevent the escape of ectoparasites. When a vole
was removed for ectoparasite examination, it was immediately placed
on a large piece of paper and brushed in order to remove some of the
ectoparasites. After this a careful examination of the pelage was made
by observing the animal under a double ocular microscope. When a
parasite was found, it was removed from the host and mounted on a
microscope slide. For ectoparasite removal, an instrument was made
by inserting a small insect pin into a wooden applicator stick. The ecto-
parasites were mounted in Hoyer’s medium (See Strandtmann and
Wharton, 1958, for ingredients).

Ectoparasites, which contained a lot of blood, were placed for
about an hour in a 2-3 per cent potassium hydroxide solution. Next,
they were carefully punctured with an insect pin to release the blood
meal, then washed and mounted.

Standard measurements were made and recorded in millimeters.
The weight was recorded in grams.

The pelage of the juveniles and adults was described. The names
of the colors were taken from the Dictionary of Color by Maerz and
Paul (1950).

Red blood cell counts were made with a hematocytometer; red
blood cell diameters were measured using a micromter ocular and
hemoglobin determinations were made using a Bausch and Lomb
Spectrophotometer, Model 340.

In order to obtain blood for this work, the voles were given

Studies on the Prairie Vole 131

abdominal injections of nembutal and after the animal had succumbed,
an incision was made in the thoracic region. The blood sample was
removed from the heart with a small syringe.

One adult male and one adult female were placed together in a
terrarium; glass petri dishes were filled with equal amounts of
different grains. The grain dishes were checked at intervals of five
days, the data recorded and the dishes refilled with other types of
grain.

Time trials were conducted by measuring off an area 25 feet long
on a tile covered floor. The width of the runway was six inches. A
wall of the building served as one side of the runway and cardboard
boxes were used for the other side. The specimens were timed by
releasing them at the starting point and recording the time when they
crossed the line. If the animal hesitated or did not immediately run to
the end of the runway, the trial was discarded. Each vole was used
only once during the trial runs. Shouting and clapping of the hands
served as a stimulus for the start of each trial run. A Thalco 1/10
antimagnetic stopwatch was used for the timing of the speed trials.

Results

In the grassland habitat the pine mouse, Pitymys pinetorum and the
large short-tailed shrew, Blarina brevicauda, were commonly found
in the traps in the runways of the prairie vole. Less frequently trapped
were the white-footed mouse, Peromyscus leucopus and the house
mouse, Mus musculus.

Ectoparasites
The pelage of the prairie vole and other small mammals is a suit-
able habitat for many types of ectoparasites.

Fleas (Siphonaptera)

One species of flea was taken from the host.

Ctenopthalmus pseudagyrtes (Baker )

Typholpsylla assimilis Baker, 1895, Can. Ent., 27:190.
(not T. assimilis Taschenberg )

This genus is represented in the east by a single species which is
exceedingly common on various small mammals. Fox (1944); Mathe-
son (1950); Fritz and Pratt (1954).

This flea was recorded by Jameson (1947) from Microtus ochro-
gaster in Kansas and by Judd (1950) from a related species, Microtus
p. pennsylvanicus, in Ontario.

132 Jackie D. Batson

Lice (Anoplura )
Hoplopleura acanthopus (Burmeister )

Pediculus acanthopus Burmeister 1839, Genera Insectorum,
Rhynchota, Number 5; Plate 1, figure 2.

Lice collected from the prairie vole were all of one species,
Hoplopleura acanthopus (Burmeister). This louse was found in
abundance on the prairie vole by the writer.

The same species has been recorded from Microtus orchrogaster by
Jameson (1947). This louse has been recorded from a total of seven
species of Microtus in Europe and the United States (Fox, 1951).

Mites

Eulaelaps stabularis (Koch) (Strandtmann and Wharton, 1958 )
Laelaps stabularis Koch 1839

This mite was found on the prairie vole by the writer but not in
any abundance. This species was recorded from Kansas and it is listed
as commonly occurring on Microtus ochrogaster. This mite has also
been recorded on Apodemus sylvaticus and Clethrionomys glareolus in
England. (Jameson, 1947)

Haemolaelaps glasgowi (Ewing )

Laelaps (Haemolaelaps) marsupialis Berlese 1910
(Strandtmann and Wharton, 1958 )

This species of mite was found to be common on the prairie vole in
this study.

Haemolaelaps glasgowie has also been recorded from Microtus
ochrogaster in Kansas. It has been reported from several species:
Pitymys pinetorum at Point Albino, Welland County, Ontario; on
Microtus pennsylvanicus at Calaveras Dam, Almeda County, Cali-
fornia. (Jameson, 1947)

Undetermined Mites

Representatives of three families of mites were collected in this
study which could not be determined to species. They are as follows:
Listrophoridae, two species; Laelaptidae, one or two specis and Trom-
biculidae, one species.

Family Listrophoridae Canestrini 1892
The family Listrophoridae belongs to the superfamily Sarcoptoidea

which is parasitic on mammals mainly (Matheson, 1950).
Jameson (1947) recorded Microtus ochrogaster as being host to

Studies on the Prairie Vole 133

two genera of mites from the Family Listrophoridae: Myocoptes and
Listrophorus.

Family Laelaptidae Berlese 1892

In addition to the two species of Laelaptid mites, Eulaelaps stabu-
laris (Koch) and Haemolaelaps glasgowi (Ewing), one or possibly
two other species of the Family Laelaptidae were collected.

Jameson (1947) recorded four species of the family from Microtus
ochrogaster in Douglas County, Kansas.

Family Trombiculidae Ewing 1944

The trombiculid mites are commonly known by their larvae which
are called chiggers or harvest mites. One unidentified species of chig-
ger was taken in this study.

Jameson (1947) recorded one species, Ascoschongastia brevipes
(Ewing) from Microtus ochrogaster and suggests that others may be
involved.

Ticks

I recorded no ticks from the prairie vole in this study. Apparently,
ticks are a rarity on this host as Jameson (1947) reported finding only
two species of ticks: one adult, Ixodes sculptes and one nymph of
Dermacentor variabilis (Say).

It is to be noted that of the ectoparasites I recorded in this study,
none are new records for the species host, Microtus ochrogaster. How-
ever, it is to be noted that this work proves that several species of
ectoparasites recorded by Jameson in the extreme western part of the
range are to be found also in the eastern part of the range. This would
serve as a basis for future investigators who might attempt a study of
geographic variation of the ectoparasites found on Microtus ochro-
gaster throughout its range.

In recording the body measurements, the average is given first
followed by the extremes in parentheses.

The variation in total length is extensive. The males had a measure-
ment of 134.65 (113-153); and in the females 131.08 (110-160).

In the male series the tail length measurement proved to be 28.47
(15-40); and in the female series 26.88 (19-38). The tail length
varied proportionately with the total length, the latter averaging 4.9
times the former.

The hind foot measurement of the males was 17.68 (15-20); and
the females, 16.80 (13-19). The hind foot varied independently of the
tail length and the total length.

134 Jackie D. Batson

The male series had the following ear measurements 12.02 (8-16);
the females, 12.04 (10-14). The ear varied independently of the hind
foot and the total length.

The body weight of males was 27.65 (17-38) grams; the females
being, 27.56 (19-39) grams. These weights indicate that the two
sexes are similar in body size.

The variation in these measurements between the sexes is so slight
it can be considered insignificant. For the relative body proportions,
all measurements were considered together without regard of the sex
of the animals.

Pelage data is based on an examination of twenty adult (ten male
and female) specimens and ten juveniles. All of the specimens were
trapped during the autumn months. The capitalized terms are after
Maerz and Paul’s Dictionary of Color.

Juveniles: The dorsal surface is dark on the mid-dorsal surface and
becomes lighter on the flanks. An examination of the individual
hairs reveals that more gray hairs show through on the mid-dorsal
surface than on the flanks which exhibit, in general, a tri-color pat-
tern. The hairs on the flanks have a Dove Grey base, a light yellow,
Golden Corn middle portion and a Chocolate colored tip.

The ventral surface is darker than in adults; smaller hairs have a
white base and an Iron Grey terminal tip with randomly scattered
dark hairs. These dark hairs are apparently absent from the ventral
surface of the adult pelage.

The feet have naked soles and a grayish pelage dorsally. The hair
on the dorsal surface of the feet is not as dense as that of the adult
animal.

The tail is bicolored and closely resembles the coloration of the
adult tail being dark Chocolate on the dorsal surface and Buff on the
ventral surface.

Adults: The gross appeaarnce of the ventral surface is gray
sprinkled with buff. Most of the hair on the ventral surface is of the
bicolored nature, having an Iron Grey base and white terminal tips.
The pelage is, in general, darker in the throat and axillary regions
where the hairs have a monocoloration of Iron Gray. Some hairs in the
throat region retain the tricolored condition as exhibited on the dorsal
surface.

The dorsal surface consists of hairs which are mostly tricolored:
Light Dove Grey base; a light color in the center, being either Cin-
namon or Bran and a dark terminal tip which approaches a Chocolate
color. Some of the hairs are bicolored with a dark gray base and a

Studies on the Prairie Vole 135

yellowish tip. Long guard hairs have a gray base and a Chocolate
point on the end.

The tail is distinctly bicolored and, in general, resembles the same
pattern as the dorasal and ventral surface being a dark Chocolate
brown on the dorsal surafec and a Buff color on the ventral surface.

The feet have a dorasal pelage that is white with a sprinkling of
dark hairs, particularly on the lateral surface.

The information derived from the blood of four voles is shown in
Table 1. Standard blood laboratory procedures were followed in the
hematology work.

Table 1. Hematology Data for Microtus ochrogaster

Animal RBC Hemoglobin Average RBC Body Weight
Number Count Grams % Diameter ( Microns ) (Grams )

1 9,600,000 8.7 ee 31

2, 9,450,000 8.6 Dall 33

3 9,550,000 8.7 5.4 D5

4 8,600,000 8.5 4.9 PAL

One adult male and one adult female vole were placed in the
same terrarium; four glass petri dishes were filled with the following
foods: sunflower seeds, barley, oats, and wheat. During the first week
a decided preference was shown for the sunflower seeds and oats over
barley and wheat. During the second week only oats and barley were
eaten. Sunflower seeds and wheat were provided during the third
week and a preference was shown for the sunflower seeds over the
wheat. During the fourth week the sunflower seeds and pumpkin
seeds were made available; the sunflower seeds being preferred to
pumpkin seeds. During the fifth week the preference for the foods
offered was sunflower, oats, wheat and pumpkin seeds.

The speed of a mammal is difficult to determine with any degree
of accuracy. The speed trials were run using a different vole each
time. Three of the trials were ruled invalid because the animal paused
along the test route. Of the seven good trials, the data is presented in
Table 2.

The average time of the seven trials was 5.4 feet/second with
extremes of 4.6-11.6 feet/second. In a similar experiment, Microtus
p. pennsylvanicus was recorded as having a mean of 8.0 feet/second
with extremes of 7.2-9.6 feet/second for three trials (Layne and
Benton, 1954).

136 Jackie D. Batson

Table 2. The Speed of Microtus ochrogaster

Animal Speed in Feet/Second
Number

1 8.0

D) 11.4

3 7A

4 11.5

5 11.4

6 11.6

7 4.6

Summary

During the autumn of 1963 in the vicinity of Lexington, Kentucky,
63 snap-trapped specimens of the prairie vole (Microtus ochrogaster )
were collected; and 18 live-trapped specimens were utilized in an
experimental manner. Four other species of small mammals occur in
the same habitat with the prairie vole, and frequently use its run-
ways. One species of flea, Ctenopthalmus pseudagyrtes (Baker); one
louse, Hoplopleura acanthopus (Burmeister); five species of mites,
Eulaelaps stabularis (Koch), Atricholaelaps glasgowi (Ewing) and
three species which were identified to the families: Listrophoridae,
Laelaptidae and Trombiculidae, respectively were recorded. Data on
relative body proportions were recorded. A description of the pelage
coloration is presented. Hematological studies derived some informa-
tion on red blood cell counts, red blood cell diameters and hemoglobin
counts. Several feeding experiments were tried and the voles showed
a preference for sunflower seeds, oats, wheat, barley, and pumpkin
seeds, in that order. Speed trials gave an average speed of 9.4 feet/
second with extremes of 4.6 and 11.6 feet/second.

Acknowledgments

The author wishes to express his gratitude to Dr. Jesse S. White
for the identification of the ectoparasites used in this study.

Literature Cited

Barbour, R. W. and B. L. Barbour. 1950. Some mammals from Hart County,
Kentucky. Journal of Mammalogy. 31:359-360.

Criddle, S. 1926. Habits of Microtus minor in Manitoba. Journal of Mammalogy.
7:193-200.

Elton, C. S., et al. 1931. The health and parasites of a wild mouse population.
Proceedings of the Zoological Society of London. 101:657-721.

Ferris, G. F. 1951. The suckling lice. Memoirs of the Pacific Coast Entomological
Society. San Francisco, California. 320 Pp.

Studies on the Prairie Vole 187

Fisher, H. J. 1945. Notes on voles in central Missouri. Journal of Mammalogy.
26:435-437.

Fox, I. 1940. Fleas of eastern united states. First Edition. The Iowa State Col-
lege Press. Ames, Iowa. 191 Pp.

Fritz, R. F. and H. D. Pratt. 1954. Pictorial key to fleas found on domestic rats
in southern united states. Department of Health, Education and Welfare.
U.S. Public Health Service, Atlanta, Georgia.

Hall, E. R. and K. R. Kelson. 1959. The mammals of North America. First
Edition. Ronald Press Company. New York. 2 Vols. 1083 Pp.

Jameson, E. W., Jr. 1947. Natural history of the prairie vole (Mammalian Genus
Microtus). University of Kansas Publications, Museum of Natural History.
1:125-151.

Judd, W. W. 1950. Mammal host records of acarina and insecta from the vicinity
of Hamilton, Ontario. Journal of Mammalogy. 31:357-358.

Kennicott, R. 1857. The quadrupeds of Illinois. Part 1. Rep. Commission Patents:
Agriculture. 52-110.

Layne, J. N. and A. H. Benton. 1954. Some speeds of small mammals. Journal
of Mammalogy. 35:103-104.

Maerz, A. and M. R. Paul. 1950. A dictionary of colors. Second Edition. Mc-
Graw-Hill Book Company, Inc. N. Y., N. Y. 208 Pp.

Matheson, R. 1950. Medical entomology. Second Edition. Comstock Publishing
Company. Ithaca, New York. 612 Pp.

Quick, E. W. and A. W. Butler. 1885. The habits of the arvicolinae. American
Naturalist. 19:113-118.

Strandtmann, R. W. and G. W. Wharton. 1958. Manual of mesostigmatid mites.
Contribution No. 4, Institute of Acarology, University of Maryland, Depart-
ment of Zoology, College Park, Maryland.

ACADEMY AFFAIRS

Minutes of the Fall of 1964 Annual Business Meeting

The Annual business meeting of the Kentucky Academy of Science was
called to order by Richard Chapman on Saturday morning, October 24, 1964
at 8:15 A.M. in room 101 Lappin Hall on the campus of Morehead State College.

The minutes of the 1963 meeting were read and approved.

The treasurer’s report was given by J. H. B. Garner. It was moved that the
report, previously audited by J. Carpenter, P. Sears, and R. Wiseman, be accepted.
The motion carried.

Ray Jordan reported a membership of 1073 high school students in 37
Junior Academy clubs in the state. He pointed out that a report on the history
of the Junior Academy has been published in Vol. 3-4 of the 1963 Transactions
and also in the December, 1963 report of A.A.A.S. The 1963 fall meeting was
held at Model High School on November 23 with a science fairs theme and with
an attendance greater than 20. The science fair was held at the University of
Kentucky on April 23-24 with an attendance greater than 300. Two students
were sent to the National Science Fair in Baltimore in May. Mr. Jordan indicated
that the Office of Education of the Health Education and Welfare Department is
holding money for the promotion of science in Kentucky. The committee of
Science Youth Activities originally set up by F. Dickey and the Junior Academy of
Science are applying for this money through the state education department.
Support is being requested for regional science fairs. The state fair is annually
organized by the Junior Academy of Science. R. Jordan’s report was approved.

R. Barbour reported on the status of the Transactions. One issue, the fiftieth
anniversary issue, is to be published in 1964. He reported a general lack of
response to his requests for special studies for the issue. The issue is to be made
up of three parts: 1. The history of the Academy. 2. Early explorations and
explorers in Kentucky up to 1914. 3. Explorations and explorers in Kentucky from
1914 to the present. R. Barbour’s report was approved.

M. Wharton reported that she had been unable to attend the A.A.A.S. meet-
ing last December but that she had received a detailed report from the previous
years meeting in which Natural Areas as Research Facilities was the major
topic. She invited members of the Academy to borrow the report from her.

R. Jordan reported that he had attended the A.A.A.S. meeting and brought
the following suggestions.

1. Annual report of Academy activities be submitted to A.A.A.S.

2. Announcements, financial reports etc. be sent to Dr. Clinton Baker at
Memphis.

A history of the Academy be sent to A.A.A.S. for the Academy Archives.

A representative to A.A.A.S. be appointed for a three year term and that
he be a member of the Academy executive committee.

He GO

The executive committee reported on its action on the matter of expenses for
attendance at A.A.A.S. meetings which had been referred to it at the last annual
meeting. The committee recommended that the Academy regularly contribute
$50.0 toward the expenses of each of two representatives. C. Haman moved that
this be made retroactive to include R. Jordan since the expenses matter had been
referred to the executive committee prior to his attendance at the last A.A.A.S.
meeting. R. Wiley moved that the motion be amended to include M. Wharton for
the meeting the prior year. Both motions carried. A list of new members was
read for approval by the Academy. The list included:

Academy Affairs

O. J. Abbott

Dr. Earl A. Alluisi
Raymond C. Bard
Edward A. Barnhardt
J. T. Bryan, Sr.
Edward E. Burkman
Edward K. Burton
Lois J. Campbell
John A. Cheek
Clarence Chesnutt
Howard R. Clark
Donald Allen Courtney
Sister Casimir Czurles
George O. Dawson
Robert E. Dawson
Thomas P. Field
Frank A. Gilbert
Arthur C. Glasser
Annette W. Gordon
Marshall Gordon
Eugene G. Haas
Lawrence C. Hartlage
Mrs. Carl M. Hill

William R. Hourigan
John Randall Keith
William Edgar King
Victor G. Latrich
Curtis A. Logsdon
Mrs. Alvin McGlasson
Maurice K. Marshall
Dr. David L. Medley
Hubert C. Mohr

Dr. Charles W. Moore
George C. Moore
Margaret Morton
John W. Oswald
Willis Parkhurst
Charles A. Plank
Grace Quinto

David H. Rembert, Jr.
Marvin W. Russell
Darnell Salyer

Alice Van Krevelen
Harold D. Webster
John C. Williams
Joseph W. Wilson

139

Carl M. Hill

The new members were approved.

R. Chapman reported for the Visiting Scientist committee (L. Alexander,
J. Black, J. Conkin, E. Hammaker, L. Lancaster, D. Lindsay, H. Nollau, W. Read,
C. Whittle, and R. Chapman). He indicated that 462 high schools had been sent
the visitor roster list of 105 scientists. Twenty-one requests have been received to
date and a total of about 75 are anticipated to be possible with the $8005.00
grant. Dr. E. Fergus is acting as director of the program. Another proposal will
be sent to the N.S.F. before January 1.

Prior to the business meeting the executive committee met with the Visiting
Scientists Advisory committee to consider two requests that do not fall in line with
the proposed activities for the N.S.F. program. The committee recommended that
the Academy send three representatives, as has been requested, to the Elementary
Science Teacher’s Congress to be held in Campbellsville in November and that
the Academy send five representatives to the Junior Academy fall meeting to be
held at Central City. It was suggested that funds be used from that portion of the
N.S.F. grant designated as overhead and which the executive committee feels
should be used for purposes such as these. It was moved and seconded that the
above procedure be followed. The motion carried.

The research committee, C. B. Hamann, M. Wharton, and H. Nollau, re-
ported that no research proposals had been submitted. C. Hamann suggested that
the funds be held over if necessary until next year and that in the meantime high
school teachers be advised of the possibility of applying for these funds.

E. Browne reported on the status of the Kentucky Flora project initiated four
years ago as suggested at the K.A.S. meeting in Louisville. The study had been
sanctioned by the Academy so that in the event the N.S.F. supported such projects
money might have become available more readily for the study. The N.S.F.
indicated that they did not support such projects but E. Browne indicated the
study had gone ahead without such support.

It was moved and seconded that the constitutional amendment regarding
meeting time of the Academy be accepted. The amendment to Article IX Section

140 Academy Affairs

I reads “The regular meeting time of the Kentucky Academy of Science shall be
held in the spring at such time and place as executive committee shall select”. R.
Chapman pointed out that several other constitutional amendments would become
necessary as a result of the above. It was moved and seconded that the preceding
motion be tabled. The motion carried.

J. Chaplin, chairman of the geology section, moved that the name of that
section be changed to Geology and Geography and that emphasis should be placed
on physical geography. The motion was seconded and carried.

R. Chapman read a letter from President John Oswald inviting the Academy
to meet at the University of Kentucky for the 1965 fall meeting. He suggested
the possibility of meeting concurrently with the Biological Adaptation Conference
on November 11 and 12 which will be held at the University as one of the
centennial events. W. Owsley mentioned that he had come prepared to invite
the Academy to meet at Kentucky Wesleyan but in view of the circumstances
he would postpone his invitation to a later date. It was moved and seconded that
the executive Committee accept the invitation from the University of Kentucky.
The motion carried.

The nominating committee, R. Barbour, L. Lancaster, and G. Wilson, pre-
sented the following slate of nominees:

President elect: J. Carpenter
Vice President: R. Boyer
Secretary: D. Lindsay
Treasurer: J. H. B. Garner
Representative to

A.A.A.S. Council: M. Wharton
Representative to

Academy Conference: R. Jordan
Board of Directors: W. Owsley

A. M. Wolfson

It was moved that the slate be elected unanimously. The motion was seconded
and carried.

The meeting adjourned at 10:00 A.M.
Gerrit Levy, Secretary

The officers who were elected at the sectional meetings are as follows:

Microbiology

Lucia Anderson, Chairman
J. N. Baldwin, Secretary

Botany

J. H. B. Garner, Chairman
Gordon E. Hunter, Secretary

Geology & Geography
Zelek L. Lipchinsky
David K. Hylbert, Secretary

Chemistry

Darnell Salyer, Chairman
N. Thornton Lipscomb, Secretary

i

Academy Affairs 141

Psychology
Earl Alluisi, Chairman
Mary Ellen Curtin, Secretary

Physics
Julian Pike, Chairman
Fletcher Gabbard, Secretary

Zoology

Herbert E. Shadowen, Chairman
William W. Norris, Jr., Secretary

Sectional Meetings

MICROBIOLOGY SECTION

Lappin Hall, Room 312
Emil Kotcher, Chairman
Lucia Anderson, Secretary

Vaccination against Western equine encephalitis virus. L. N. Bare and I.
Ruchman, Department of Microbiology, University of Kentucky.

Control of penicillinase production in Staphylococcus aureus. S. Hastowo and
J. N. Baldwin, Department of Microbiology, University of Kentucky.

. Possible genetic relationship between penicillinase and methionine markers.

W. Tien and J. N. Baldwin, Department of Microbiology, University of
Kentucky.

A bioactive substance in the cecal content of germfree animals. R. F. Wiseman
and H. A. Gordon, Departments of Microbiology and Pharmacology, University
of Kentucky.

BOTANY SECTION

Lappin Hall, Room 210
Edward T. Browne, Jr., Chairman
Robert Larance, Secretary

. Edward T. Browne. Floristic studies in Pike County, Kentucky. Botany De-

partment, University of Kentucky.

Hari Suseno and R. E. Hampton. The Effect of Three Strains of Tobacco
Mosaic Virus on Phenoloxidase and Perodxidase in Tobacco. Plant Pathology
Department, University of Kentucky.

H. P. Riley. The Golden Jubilee of the National Botanical Gardens of South
Africa. Botany Department, University of Kentucky.

S. K. Majumdar. Male sterility in Hevea brasiliensis. (Gradute student)
Botany Department University of Kentucky.

T. G. Nye, H. P. Riley, and J. C. Warden. An Ecological Study of Draba
ramosissima Desv. with notes on the Intraspecific Taxonomy and Leaf Mor-
phology of this Species. Botany Department, University of Kentucky.

David H. Rembert, Jr., and J. M. Herr, Jr. The Taxonomic Significance of
Megasporogenesis in Wisteria sinensis Sweet. (Dr. Herr is associate professor
at the University of South Carolina) Rembert is a graduate student, Botany
Department, University of Kentucky.

142 Academy Affairs

James A. Salyer, Jr. Plant Communities at White Oak Creek. (Graduate Stu-
dent) Botany Department, University of Kentucky.

A Preliminary Survey of the Fungi Found on the Healthy Bark of the Trembling
Aspen (populus tremuloides Michx) by J. H. B. Garner, Botany Dept., Univ.
of Kentucky.

GEOLOGY SECTION

Lappin Hall, Room 409
Ellis Brown, Chairman
Darnell Salyer, Secretary

“Design Calculations for a Small Peltier Refrigerator,’ E. B. Penrod, Uni-
versity of Kentucky.

“Binding of Azo Compounds to Liver Proteins,” Joseph Hendon and Ellis
V. Brown, University of Kentucky.

“Derivatives of 2- and 4- methyl- 1,8-naphthyridines,” Ellis V. Brown, Uni-
versity of Kentucky.

“The Structure of Cyclooctane,” Donald Sands and Victor W. Day, University
of Kentucky.

“The Application of Simple Huckel M. O. Calculations to Substituted Ben-
zenediaonium Compounds,” Charles Girard, Office Products Division, 1.B.M.,
Lexington.

“Quantum Yield Determinations of Substituted Benzenediazonium Compounds,”
Francis Clarke, Office Products Division, I.B.M., Lexington.

“Kinetics of the Polymerization and Styrene Copolymerization of Meta and
Para Divinylbenzene,” Richard H. Wiley and Giovanni DeVenuto, University
of Louisville.

“The N.M.R. Characteristics of some Substituted Styrenes,” Thomas H. Craw-
ford, University of Louisville.

“The Question of Bonding in Metallic Hydrides,” William B. Bos, University of
Louisville.

“Kinetics of the Polymerization and Styrene Copolymerization of Meta and
Para Divinylbenzene,” Richard H. Wiley and Giovanni DeVenuto, University
of Louisville.

“The N.M.R. Characteristics of some Substituted Styrenes,’ Thomas H.
Crawford, University of Louisville.

PSYCHOLOGY SECTION

Lappin Hall, Room 206
Alice Van Krevelen, Chairman
Mary Ellen Curtin, Secretary

INTERDISCIPLINARY CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE PSYCHOLOGICAL
STUDY OF HUMAN BEHAVIOR

Dr. James Gregor, Philosophy Department, University of Kentucky. Repre-

senting Social Philosophy.

Dr. Shepharo Walker, University of Louisville Medical School. Representing

Neuro-physiology.

Dr. John Donahoe, Psychology Department, Veer of Kentucky. Repre-

senting Psychology.

Academy Affairs 143

Dr. Lewis Cochran, Psychology Department, University of Kentucky. Repre-
senting Physics.

Dr. Earl A. Alluisi, Psychology Department, University of Louisville,
Moderator.

You are urged to be present and to bring with you as guests any students
you feel might profit from the program.

Other interested individuals are also welcome.
Open discussion will follow the papers.

ZOOLOGY SECTION

Lappin Hall, Room 118
John C. Williams, Chairman

1. A Study of a Clifty Creek Rock Shelter 10 min. Dr. L. Y. Lancaster, Biology
Department, Western Kentucky State College.

2. Specificity of Action of some Enzymes in Meat Tenderizers (Histological
Evaluation).
Dr. William W. Norris, Jr., Biology Department, Western Kentucky State
College.

3. Use of the Predatory Mite, Macrocheles muscaedomesticae for the Control of
Fannia canicularis in Poultry Houses.
Pritam Singh and J. G. Rodriguez, Department of Entomology and Botany,
University of Kentucky.

4. A Comparative Study of the Weberian Apparatus of Nine Species in the
Genera Dionda and Notropis (Pisces: Cyprinidae).
Dr. Morgan E. Sisk, Biology Department, Murray State College.

5. A Severe Case of Trichimoniasis in a Pigeon. J. M. Edney, Zoology Depart-
ment, University of Kentucky.

6. Physico-Chemical Variability on Headwater Streams near Lexington, Ken-

tucky.
Robert Kuehne, Zoology Department, University of Kentucky.

PHYSICS SECTION

Lappin Hall, Room 105
Bernard D. Kern, Chairman
Otis K. Wolfe, Secretary

10:00 A.M.
(Program being organized at time of this printing)

INDEX TO VOLUME 25

Academy Affairs, 138

Animal Behavior Laboratory, 9

Army Medical Research Lab.,
Fort Knox, 14

Ascites Tumor Cells, 74

Batson, J. D., 120, 129

Behavior, Comparative, of
Salamanders, 120

Biological data, Hickman Creek
drainage system, 63

Botany in Kentucky Since 1914, 77

Browne, E. T., Jr., 77

Central Kentucky Psychological
Association, 23

Chemical Data, Hickman Creek
drainage system, 59

Cosby, Sister Mary Ida, 74

Eastern State Hospital, 12
Ernest Meyers Award, 22
Eaves, James Clifton, 102
Eurycea spp, 120 ff

Fardon, J. C., 74
Fontaine, Sister Julia Clare, 74

Geology, History of in Kentucky, 48

Green River, Fishes of, 65

Guidance Center, Catherine Spalding
College, 16

Heines, Sister Virginia, 74
Hickman Creek Drainage System, 58
History of Botany in Kentucky, 77
History of Geology in Kentucky, 48
History of Mathematics in
Kentucky, 102
History of Medicine in Kentucky, 88
History of Plant Pathology in
Kentucky, 27
History of Psycology in Kentucky, 1

Jillson, W. R., 88

Jillson, Willard R., 48

Kentucky Department of
Mental Health, 18

Kentucky Psycological Association, 13
Kentucky State Hospitals, 13
Kodman, Frank, Jr., 1

Lexington Child Guidance Clinic, 11
Louisville Child Guidance Clinic, 6

Louisville Medical School, 97

Louisville School Systems, 17

Medicine, Early History in
Kentucky, 88

Microtus ochrogaster, 129
Miner, James B., 5
Murphy, Glen W., 65

Nematodes, Diseases caused by, 46
Nutini, Leo, 74

O’Leary, Sister Mary Adeline, 74
Ornithologists, Kentucky, 83

Panitz, Eric, 58

Peach Defoliation, 28

Phenomenology, 16

Plant Pathology, Fifty years of, in
Kentucky, 27

Prairie vole, in Central Kentucky, 129

Psycology, History of, in Kentucky

Psycology Licensing Law, 17

Red Clover, Diseases of, 30

Salamanders, Compaartive

behavior, 120
Seed Corn, Infection of, 29
Stream Classification System, 58
Survey, preliminary (Geological), 48
Survey, First (Geological), 50
Survey, Second (Geological), 51
Survey, Third (Geological), 55
Survey, Fourth (Geological), 56

Tigert, John J., 5

Tobacco, Breeding for Disease
Resistance, 44

Tobacco Diseases, 32

Transylvania Medical College, 89

Tumor, Ascites, 74

University of Kentucky Medical
Center, 22

U. S. P. H. S. Hospital, Clinical
Psycology, 12

VA Hospital, 15

VA Hospital, 17
Valleau, W. D., 27
Virus Disease, Plum, 29

Wilson, Gordon, 83

TRANSACTIONS OF THE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE
Volume 26 — 1965

EDITORIAL STAFF

Editor

RayMonp E. HAMPTON

Associate Editors

Joun M. Carpenter, Zoology
Barpara M. ConkLin, Geology
SEITH GILKERSON, Bacteriology and Medical Technology
Warp SumPTER, Chemistry

Mary E. Wuarton, Botany

Editorial Office

Department of Plant Pathology
University of Kentucky
Lexington, Kentucky

Published by

THe Kentucky ACADEMY OF SCIENCE

CONTENTS TO VOLUME 26

No. 1-2

A Revised Checklist of Kentucky Mosses
TDD AVED BB GRD oedccsetec scdieteccsceccusceecedsceccteorenses nce ee 1

Fang Length Comparison of Amerigan Agkistrodon

CARE: He URNST i.éisccssescaccsecncetscsusencedsscadastectectieeateceeereee tee eee 12
The Baculum in Myotis Sodalis and Myotis Austroriparius
Austroriparius
CHanners L., RIppYy wen diced cieckla niin ce ah eee ee 19
Sketches from Kentucky's Beekeeping History
Wiietiam G. EATON eccsccdecscchessvacectessudoseis tate ee 22

Cold Wave Patterns of Lexington, Kentucky and
Orlando, Florida
J RaoSCHIWENDEMAN, oiicisccissiisscstececeusericeratasdansetuesteetieeneeueee aaa 38

First Record for the Green Algae, Chaetomorpha Nodosa.
Kutzing in United States Waters
PETER’ Al ISAACSON i0hccssscsacsss-ascisadereresceve st cnteda intone cena eae 47

No. 3-4

A Study of Hydrogen Bonding in Alcohol-Dioxane
Systems By Infrared Spectroscopy. Part H—
Primary Normal Alcohols.
Joun H. Waxxvup, Larry Davis, and Gary MArRQuapRDT .... 49

A Study of A Clifty Creek Rock Shelter
Tay YY, TuANCASTERE oo: sssiesiccndde.aeh sae Saceevasathe-slepeceue/ eee meeeeeae eee 54

Radiolysis of 1, 5, 9-Cyclododecatriene
Ricuarp H. Witey, N. T. Liescoms, and W. H. Rivera.... 60

Detecting Animals Tagged With Co® Through Air,
Soil, Water, Wood, and Stone.

MICHAEL |]. HARVEY (5. csicSendecssseiescsesessancels- cule areneae eee 63
A Case of Dichocephaly in Lampropeltis Doliata
Triangulum
CARL. Hy; TORNST 4 tosh caleohiceecieascaeetosceneascote ahve sere eee 67
Design Calculations for A Small Peltier Refrigerator
BBs PENROD eee ls a le i dS ae ee 69
Academy :Astairs, isi. iecclori cial e tien Rakes tee aes sa eee can 92

Index’ to’ Volume '26 3.062 ee ee ea eR eae 101

SOC.) 5
Volume 26 Kk 2 K. 6 a ~ 1965 Numbers 1-2

TRANSACTIONS
of the KENTUCKY
ACADEMY of SCIENCE

Official Organ
Kentucky ACADEMY OF SCIENCE

CONTENTS

A Revised Checklist of Kentucky Mosses
Davi B CKEL

Fang Length Comparison of Amerigan Agkistrodon
Cart H. Ernst

The Baculum in Myotis Sodalis and Myotis Austroriparius
Austroriparius

Cuarwes L. Rrepy

Sketches from Kentucky’s Beekeeping History
WiLtiaM G. Eaton

_ Cold Wave Patterns of Lexington, Kentucky and
Orlando, Florida

Hey Re SCHWENDEMAN) seh es Mu a 38

First Record for the Green Algae, Chaetomorpha Nodosa
Kutzing in United States Waters

Peter A. IsAacson

The Kentucky Academy of Science
Founded May 8, 1914

OFFICERS 1964-65

President: C. B. HamMaNnn, Asbury College

President Elect: Joun M. CARPENTER, University of Kentucky
Vice President: RopertT M. Boyer, University of Kentucky
Secretary: Dwicut M. Linpsay, Georgetown College
Treasurer: J. H. B. Garner, University of Kentucky

AAAS Council Representative: Mary WuHarton, Georgetown College

EDITORIAL OFFICE

Raymonp E. Hampton, Editor
Department of Plant Pathology
University of Kentucky
Lexington, Kentucky 40506

Membership in the Kentucky Academy of Science is open to interested persons upon nomi-
nation, payments of dues, and election. Application forms for membership may be obtained
from the Secretary. The TRANSACTIONS are sent free to ali members in good standing.

Subscription rates for non-members are: domestic, $3.50 per volume; foreign, $4.00 per
volume.

The TRANSACTIONS are issued semi-annually. Four numbers comprise a volume.
Correspondence concerning memberships or subscriptions should be addressed to the
Secretary. Exchanges and correspondence relating to exchanges should be addressed, The

Librarian, University of Louisville, who is the exchange agent for the Academy. Manuscripts
and other material for publication should be addressed to the Editor.

A REVISED CHECKLIST OF KENTUCKY MOSSES

DAVID BICKEL!
Department of Biology, University of Louisville, Louisville, Kentucky

The mosses of Kentucky have received little attention and published
records show that many areas of the state have been completely
neglected. This paucity of information tends to complicate bryogeo-
graphic studies in that it is often difficult to determine if irregularities
in distribution result from insufficient collecting or represent actual
ranges of mosses (Anderson, 1943).

It is worth noting that only 57 of Kentucky's 120 counties (Figure
1) are mentioned in published lists, and in most cases these records
are from one or a few collections. Large areas in central and western
Kentucky remain unexplored. The few detailed studies include the
work of H. T. Shacklette in some western areas, the collections of E.
Lucy Braun, and floral studies in Kenton, Whitley, and McCreary
counties. Findings from these were published by Fulford and
Shacklette (1942). Felix (1958) compiled a moss flora for Harlan
County. Reports from similar concentrated efforts or from casual col-
lecting in other parts of the state would be worthy contributions to
bryology.

Fig. 1.— Outline map of Kentucky. Darkened areas are counties that have some
published moss records.

Previous lists of the state flora were composed by Short (1837),
Smith (1927), and Fulford and Shacklette (1942). Smith (1927) re-
ported 25 moss species but unfortunately the locality for the entire
collection was given as “Natural Bridge, Kentucky River region, Berea,

1 Present address: Ohio State Museum, Columbus, Ohio.

2 David Bickel

Rockcastle County, and other mountain districts”. Fulford and
Shacklette recorded 167 species and 14 varieties based on 800 col-
lections from 47 counties, and this catalog remains the most extensive
study carried out in Kentucky. Species were added by Crum (1954 and
1956) and Felix (1958), and single additions were disclosed by
Anderson (1943) and Welch (1960). Crum (1956), after examining
material originally reported by Fulford and Shacklette, deleted two
species, Thuidium scitum and Funaria americana, from the 1942 list.

Included in the following revision are five additions to the flora
(indicated by asterisk ) and various county records that were collected
by the author from spring, 1963 through spring, 1965. The list con-
tains 209 species and varieties. Specimens of the new additions are
deposited in the Herbarium of the University of Louisville.

Sphagnaceae

Sphagnum compactum DC. McCreary and Powell counties.
Sphagnum fuscum (Schimp.) Klinggr. Powell County.
Sphagnum magellanicum Brid. Powell and Whitley counties.
Sphagnum palustre L. McCreary County.

Sphagnum robustum (Russow ) Roll. Powell County.
Sphagnum strictum Sull. Fleming County.

Sphagnum subsecundum Nees. Harlan and Wolfe counties.
Sphagnum tenerum Sull. & Lesq. Powell County.

Andreaeaceae
Andreaea rothii W. & M. Harlan County.

Tetraphidaceae

Tetraphis pellucida Hedw. Caldwell, Carter, Elliott, Lewis, Powell,
Whitley, and Wolfe counties.

Polytrichaceae

Atrichum angustatum (Brid.) Bry. Eur. Harlan County.

Atrichum crispum (James) Sull. Montogomery County, also re-
ported by Smith (1927).

Atrichum macmillani (Holz.) Frye. Bath, Henderson, Letcher,
McCreary, Marshall, Meade, Muhlenberg, Perry, Pike, and Union
counties.

Atrichum undulatum (Hedw.) Beauv. Boone, Edmonson, Elliott,
McCreary, Marshall, Meade, Perry, Pike, Powell, Roman, Whitley,
and Wolfe counties.

A Revised Checklist of Kentucky Mosses 3

Pogonatum brachyphyllum ( Rich.) Beauv. Harlan County.

Pogonatum pensilvanicum (Hedw.) Paris. Bath, Harlan, Lewis, Mc-
Creary, Marshall, Pike, Powell, and Wolfe counties.

Polytrichum commune Hedw. Harlan, Laurel, Letcher, Pike, and
Powell counties.

Polytrichum juniperinum Hedw. Carter, Letcher, Pike, Powell,
Union, and Wolfe counties.

Polytrichum ohioense R. & C. Bath, Boone, Carter, Elliott, Fleming,
Harlan, Lewis, McCreary, Muhlenberg, Perry, Pike, Powell, Rowan,
Russell, Whitley, and Wolfe counties.

Polytrichum piliferum Hedw. Powell County.

Fissidentaceae

Bryoxiphium norvegicum (Brid.) Mitt. Caldwell, Carter, Elliott,
Menifee, Powell, and Wolfe counties.

Fissidens adiantoides Hedw. Carter County.

Fissidens bryoides Hedw. Elliott County.

Fissidens bushii Card. & Ther. Bullitt, Jefferson, and Oldham
counties.

Fissidens cristatus Wils. Jessamine, Letcher, Powell, Union, and
Whitley counties.

Fissidens debilis Schw. Bullitt, Jefferson, Meade, Oldham, and
Union counties.

*Fissidens grandifrons Brid. Hart County.

Fissidens hyalinus Hook. and Wils. Kenton County.

Fissidens obtusifolius Wils. Jefferson and Whitley counties.

Fissidens osmundioides Hedw. Boone, Carter, McCreary, Powell,
and Whitley counties.

Fissidens subbasilaris Hedw. Pike County.

Fissidens taxifolius Hedw. Boone, Carter, Henderson, Meade, and
Powell counties.

Fissidens viridulus var. incurvus (Starke) Monkem. Carter, Mc-
Creary, and Whitley counties.

Ditrichaceae

Ceratodon purpureus (Hedw.) Brid. Carter, Fleming, Letcher,
Menifee, Pike, and Union counties.

Ditrichum pallidum (Hedw.) Hampe. Bath, Boone, Caldwell,
Carter, Henderson, Kenton, Letcher, Lyon, McCreary, Marshall, Perry,
Pike, Powell, Whitley, and Wolfe counties.

Ditrichum pusillum (Hedw.) E.G. B. Carter and Wolfe counties.

Pleuridium acuminatum Lindb. Jefferson County.

4 David Bickel

Dicranaceae

Dicranella heteromalla (Hedw.) Schimp. Harlan, McCreary,
Powell, Union, and Wolfe counties.

Dicranella heteromalla var. orthocarpa (Hedw.) Paris. Carter and
Rowan counties.

Dicranella refescens (Smith) Schimp. Carter and Wolfe counties.

Dicranella varia (Hedw.) Schimp. Boone County.

Dicranodontium denudatum (Brid.) E.G.B. Harlan County.

Dicranum condensatum Hedw. Perry, Powell, and Whitley counties.

Dicranum flagellare Hedw. Elliott, Lewis, Powell, Pulaski, Whitley,
and Wolfe counties.

Dicranum fulvum Hook. Harlan, Powell, and Whitley counties.

Dicranum fuscescens Turn. Letcher County.

Dicranum rugosum (Hoffm.) Brid. Bath, Estill, and Rockcastle
counties.

Dicranum scoparium Hedw. Bath, Boone, Carter, Estill, Fleming,
Lewis, Lyon, McCreary, Perry, Pike, Powell, Rowan, Union, Whitley,
and Wolfe counties.

Dicranum spurium Hedw. Powell and Wolfe counties.

Dicranum viride (S.&L.) Lindb. Elliott County.

Leucobryaceae

Leucobryum albidum (Brid.) Lindb. Harlan, Perry, and Wolfe
counties.

Leucobryum glaucum (Hedw.) Schimp. Bath, Boone, Carter,
Clark, Elliott, Fleming, Laurel, Letcher, Lewis, Lyon, McCreary,
Perry, Pike, Powell, Rowan, Russell, Whitley, and Wolfe counties.

Pottiaceae

Barbula convoluta Hedw. Powell County.

Barbula unguiculata Hedw. Kenton County.

Didymodon recurvirostris (Hedw.) Jenn. Powell County.

Eucladium verticillatum (Brid.) Bry. Eur. Crittenden County.

Gymnostomum calcareum N. & H. Elliott, Menifee, Powell, and
Whitley counties.

Tortella humilis (Hedw.) Jenn. Harlan County.

Tortella caespitosa (Schw.) Limpr. Boone, Carter, McCreary,
Meade, Powell, Whitley, and Wolfe counties.

Trichostomum tenuirostre (Hook. & Tayl.) Lindb. Powell County.

Weisia controversa Hedw. Harlan, Union, and Whitley counties.

Pottia truncata (Hedw.) Fuern. Henderson County.

A Revised Checklist of Kentucky Mosses 5

Tortula pagorum (Milde) DeNot. Barren, Boyle, Fayette, and
Pulaski counties.

Calymperaceae

Syrrhopodon texanus Sull. McCreary, Powell, and Whitley counties.

Grimmiaceae

Grimmia alpicola var. rivularis (Brid.) Broth. Pike County.

Grimmia apocarpa Hedw. Boone, Carter, Fleming, Franklin,
Rowan, and Woodford counties.

Grimmia apocarpa var. gracilis (Schleich.) W.& M. Harlan County.

Grimmia apocarpa var. nigrescens Mol. Bullitt County.

Grimmia laevigata (Brid.) Brid. Letcher County.

Grimmia olneyi Sull. Powell and Wolfe counties.

Grimmia pilifera Beauv. Harlan and Whitley counties.

Hedwigia ciliata Hedw. Boone, Breathitt, Carter, Fleming, Harlan,
Laurel, Lawrence, Letcher, Lewis, McCreary, Perry, Pike, Powell,
Rowan, Union, Whitley, and Wolfe counties.

Ptychomitrium incurvum (Muhl.) Sull. Laurel, McCreary, Union,
and Whitley counties.

Rhacomitrium heterostichum var. ramulosum (Lindb.) Jones. Me-
Creary County.

Ephemeraceae

Nanomitrium synoicum (James) Lindb. Jefferson County.
Buxbaumiaceae

Diphyscium foliosum (Hedw.) Mohr. Harlan, Letcher, Lewis,
Perry, Powell, and Whitley counties.
Funariaceae

Aphanorhegma serratum (H. & W.) Sull. Kenton and Union
counties.

Funaria flavicans Mx. Fleming, Powell, and Union counties.

Funaria hygrometrica Hedw. Boone, Grant, Pike, Powell, Whitley,
and Wolfe counties.

Funaria hygrometrica var. calvescens (Schw.) Bry. Eur. Menifee
County.

Physcomitrium turbinatum (Mx.) Brid. Boone, Campbell, Carter,
F leming, Fulton, Henderson, Perry, and Whitley counties.

Orthotrichaceae

Drummondia prorepens (Hedw.) Jenn. Boone, Caldwell, Fleming,
Harlan, Harrison, Meade, Powell, Union, Whitley, and Wolfe counties.

6 David Bickel

Orthotrichum anomalum Hedw. McCreary and Whitley counties.

Orthotrichum ohioense S.&L. Boone, Harlan, Henderson, Mc-
Creary, and Menifee counties.

Orthotrichum pusillum Mitt. Bullitt, Carroll, and Hardin counties.

Orthotrichum sordidum Sull. Fleming County.

Orthotrichum stellatum Brid. Boone County.

Orthotrichum strangulatum Schw. Clark County.

Ulota americana (Beauy.) Limpr. Harlan and Whitley counties.

Ulota crispa (Hedw.) Brid. Pike, Whitley, and Wolfe counties.

Timmiaceae

Timmia megapolitana Hedw. Boone County.

Aulacomniaceae

Aulacomnium heterostichum (Hedw.) Bry. Eur. Caldwell, Carter,
Clark, Elliott, Harlan, Letcher, Lewis, McCreary, Marshall, Meade,
Perry, Powell, Pulaski, Russell, and Whitley counties.

Aulacomnium palustre (W. & M.) Schw. Clark, Fleming, Harlan,
Letcher, Pike, and Whitley counties.

Bartramiaceae

Bartramia pomiformis Hedw. Carter, Elliott, Harlan, McCreary,
Marshall, Meade, Menifee, Pike, Powell, Pulaski, Rowan, Russell,
Union, Whitley, and Wolfe counties.

Philonotis capillaris Lindb. Powell County.

Philonotis fontana (Hedw.) Brid. Lewis and Whitley counties.

Bryaceae

Bryum argenteum Hedw. Campbell, Madison, and Wolfe counties.

Byrum argenteum var. lanatum (Beauv. ) Bry. Eur. Letcher County.

Bryum caespiticium Hedw. Elliott and Union counties.

Bryum pseudotriquetrum (Hedw.) Schw. Harlan, Powell, and
Russell counties.

Pohlia nutans (Hedw.) Lindb. Lyon, Powell, Union, and Whitley
counties.

Pohlia wahlenbergii (W. & M.) Andr. Boone, Perry, Powell, and
Union counties.

Rhodobryum roseum (Hedw.) Limpr. Carter, Fayette, Franklin,
Jessamine, Letcher, Lewis, McCreary, Menifee, Pike, Powell, and
Wolfe counties.

Mniaceae

Mnium affine Bland. Harlan, Jessamine, Letcher, McCreary, Mar-
chal], Powell, Union, Whitley, and Woodford counties.

A Revised Checklist of Kentucky Mosses rf

Mnium. affine var. ciliare (Grev.) C. M. Elliot, Kenton, McCreary,
Pike, and Powell counties.

Mnium cuspidatum Hedw. Boone, Carter, Clark, Elliott, Fleming,
Franklin, Harlan, Henderson, Letcher, Lyon, Powell, and Union
counties.

Mnium hornum Hedw. Elliott, Morgan, Pike, Powell, Whitley, and
Wolfe counties.

Mnium medium Bry. Eur. McCreary County.

Mnium orthorhynchum Brid. Elliott, Letcher, and Menifee
counties.

Mnium punctatum Hedw. Elliott, Letcher, Lewis, McCreary,
Powell, Union, Whitley, and Wolfe counties.

Mnium punctatum var. elatum Schimp. Letcher and Pike counties.

Mnium spinulosum Bry. Eur. Carter and Whitley counties.

Mnium stellare Hedw. Carter and Powell counties.

Hypnaceae

Amblystegiella confervoides (Brid.) Loeske. Bullitt and Oldham
counties.

Amblystegium compactum (C.M.) Aust. Boone County.

Amblystegium juratzkanum Schimp. Fulton County.

Amblystegium serpens (Hedw.) Bry. Eur. Boone, Franklin, Green-
up, Powell, and Whitley counties.

Amblystegium varium (Hedw.) Lindb. Boone, Meade, Powell,
Union, Whitley, and Woodford counties.

Brachythecium oxycladon (Brid.) J. & S. Boone, Franklin, and
Jessamine counties.

Brachythecium rivulare Bry. Eur. Meade County.

Brachythecium rutabulum (Hedw.) Bry. Eur. Boone County.

Brachythecium rutabulum var. flavescens (Brid.) Bry. Eur. Boone,
Carter, Jessamine, and Lewis counties.

Brachythecium salebrosum (W. & M.) Bry. Eur. Boone, Harlan,
McCreary, and Whitley counties.

Brachythecium velutinum (Hedw.) Bry. Eur. Boone County.

Brotherella recurvans (Mx.) Fleisch. Carter, Clark, Elliott, Harlan,
Pike, and Powell counties.

Brotherella tenuirostris (Schimp.) Broth. Whitley County.

Bryhnia graminicolor (Brid.) Grout. Boone and Carter counties.

Bryhnia novae-angliae (S. & L.) Grout. Powell County.

*Calliergonella cuspidata (Brid.) Loeske. Hart County.

Calliergonella schreberi (Brid.) Grout. Montgomery County.

Campylium chrysophyllum (Brid.) Bryhn. Boone, Carter, Edmon-
son, McCreary, Rowan, Whitley, and Woodford counties,

8 David Bickel

Campylium hispidulum (Brid.) Mitt. Boone, Powell, Rowan, and
Whitley counties.

Climacium americanum Brid. Bath, Caldwell, Carter, Edmonson,
Franklin, Harlan, Letcher, Lewis, McCreary, Meade, Pike, Union,
Wayne, Whitley, and Woodford counties.

Climacium kindbergii (R. & C.) Grout. Lewis County.

Entodon cladorrhizans (Hedw.) C. M. Boone, Franklin, and Wolfe
counties.

Entodon seductrix (Hedw.) C.M. Bath, Boone, Caldwell, Carter,
Franklin, Fulton, Harlan, Henderson, Meade, Powell, and Union
counties.

Eurhynchium hians (Hedw.) J. & S. Boone, Fleming, and Perry
counties.

Eurhynchium pulchellum (Hedw.) Jenn. Boone and Letcher
counties.

Eurhynchium pulchellum var. robustum Roell. Bullitt and Estill
counties.

Eurhynchium riparioides (Hedw.) Jenn. Jessamine, Letcher,
Powell, and Wolfe counties.

Eurhynchium serrulatum (Hedw.) Kindb. Boone, Campbell, El-
liott, Fleming, Harlan, Henderson, McCreary, Powell, Whitley, and
Wolfe counties.

Homalotheciella subcapillata’ (Hedw.) Card. Carter, Elliott,
Fleming, and Lewis counties.

Homomallium adnatum (Hedw.) Broth. Bath, Boone, and Harlan
counties.

Hygroamblystegium fluviatile (Sw.) Loeske. Boone, Franklin, Mc-
Creary, and Whitley counties.

Hyg sroamblystegium irriguum (Wils.) Loeske. Boone, Bullitt,
Carter, Jefferson, Letcher, Meade, and Powell counties.

*Hygroamblystegium irriguum var. spinifolium (Schimp.) Grout.
Hart County.

Hyg sroamblystegium orthocladon ( Beauv.) Grout. Harlan County.

*Hygrohypnum ochraceum (Turn.) Loeske. Jefferson County.

Hylocomium brevirostre (Beauv.) Bry. Eur. Elliott and Wolfe
counties.

Hypnum crista-castrensis Hedw. Wolfe County.

Hypnum curvifolium Hedw. Bath, Boone, Caldwell, Carter, Casey,
Edmonson, Elliott, Fleming, Franklin, Harlan, Jessamine, Laurel,
Letcher, Lewis, McCreary, Marshall, Meade, Perry, Powell, Rowan,
Russell, Union, Whitley, and Wolfe counties.

Hypnum fertile Sendt, McCreary County.

A Revised Checklist of Kentucky Mosses 2)

Hypnum imponens Hedw. Bell, Carter, Clark, Elliott, Fleming,
Harlan, Lewis, Perry, Pike, Powell, and Wolfe counties.

Hypnum molluscum Hedw. Elliott, Fleming, McCreary, Rowan,
and Wolfe counties.

Hypnum patientiae Lindb. Boone, Powell, and Union counties.

Leptodictyum riparium (Hedw.) Warnst. Boone, Edmonson,
Elliott, Hart, Jefferson, Union, Whitley, and Woodford counties.

Plagiothecium denticulatum var. propagulifera Ruthe. Boone
County.

Plagiothecium deplanatum (Sull.) Grout. Boone, Elliott, Jessa-
mine, Menifee, Whitley, and Woodford counties.

Plagiothecium elegans (Hook.) Sull. Fleming and Powell counties.

Plagiothecium geophilum (Aust.) Grout. Boone and Meade
counties.

Plagiothecium micans var. fulvum (Hook. & Wils.) Paris. McCreary
County.

Plagiothecium sylvaticum (Brid.) Bry. Eur. Powell County.

Platygyrium repens (Brid.) Bry. Eur. Bath, Boone, Elliott, Lewis,
McCreary, and Whitley counties.

Porotrichum alleghaniense (C.M.) Grout. Carter, Jessamine, Mc-
Creary, Powell, Trimble, and Wolfe counties.

Pylaisia intricata (Hedw.) Bry. Eur. Bath County.

Pylaisia selwynii Kindb. Clark County.

Rhytidium rugosum (Hedw.) Kindb. Carter County.

Sciaromium lescurii (Sull.) Broth. Bullitt, Jefferson, McCreary,
Powell, and Whitley counties.

*Scorpidium scorpioides (Hedw.) Limpr. Jefferson County.

Sematophyllum adnatum ( Mx.) E.G.B. McCreary County.

Sematophyllum carolinianum (C.M) E.G.B. Elliott, McCreary,
Perry, and Whitley counties.

Sematophyllum marylandicum (C.M.) E.G.B. Whitley County.

Leskeaceae

Anomodon attenuatus (Hedw.) Hueben. Boone, Carter, Elliott,
Fleming, Franklin, Greenup, Jessamine, Letcher, Lewis, McCreary,
Marshall, Meade, Rowan, Union, Whitley, and Wolfe counties.

Anomodon minor (Beauy.) Lindb. Boone, Carter, Franklin, and
Letcher counties.

Anomodon rostratus (Hedw.) Schimp. Boone, Carter, Elliott,
Fleming, Franklin, Greenup, Laurel, Letcher, Lewis, McCreary, Meade,
Powell, Rowan, Union, Whitley, and Wolfe counties.

Haplohymenium triste (Cesati) Kindb. Boone, Carter, Elliott,
Franklin, McCreary, and Whitley counties.

10 David Bickel

Helodium paludosum (Sull.) Aust. Edmonson and Whitley
counties.

Leskea gracilescens Hedw. Boone County.

Leskea obscura Hedw. Boone, Fulton, Gallatin, Henderson, Mar-
shall, Union, and Whitley counties.

Leskea polycarpa Hedw. Boone County.

Myurella careyana Sull. Carter and Powell counties.

Thelia asprella Sull. Boone, Lewis, and Whitley counties.

Thelia hirtella (Hedw.) Sull. Bath, Boone, Carter, Elliott, Fleming,
Jessamine, Lewis, McCreary, Powell, Rowan, and Whitley counties.

Thelia lescurii Sull. Jefferson County.

Thuidium abietinum (Brid.) Bry. Eur. Collected by Smith (1927).

Thuidium delicatulum (Hedw.) Mitt. Bath, Boone, Carter, Clark,
Elliott, Fleming, Franklin, Harlan, Letcher, Lewis, McCreary, Pike,
Powell, Rowan, Union, Whitley, and Woodford counties.

Thuidium pygmaeum Bry. Eur. Woodford County.

Thuidium recognitum (Hedw.) Lindb. Jessamine and Union
counties.

Thuidium virginianum (Brid.) Lindb. Fleming, Fulton, and Mar-
shall counties.

Hookeriaceae

Hookeria acutifolia Hook. Caldwell, Laurel, Powell, and Wolfe
counties.

Neckeraceae

Neckera pennata Hedw. Harlan County.

Leucodontaceae

Leptodon ohioensis Sull. Boone, Elliott, Laurel, Whitley, and
Wolfe counties.

Leptodon trichomitrion (Hedw.) Mohr. Carter, Franklin, Mc-
Creary, Rowan, and Wolfe counties.

Leptodon trichomitrion var. immersus (Sull. & Lesq.) Lesq. &
James. Whitley County.

Leucodon brachypus Brid. Boone, Fayette, Pike, and Whitley
counties.

Leucodon julaceus (Hedw.) Sull. Boone, Edmonson, Franklin,
Harlan, Harrison, Lewis, Marshall, Powell, Rowan, and Whitley
counties.

Leucodon sciuroides (Hedw.) Schw. Fleming County.

A Revised Checklist of Kentucky Mosses ll

Fabroniaceae

Clasmatodon parvulus (Hampe ) Sull. Fulton and Whitley counties.

Fabronia ravenelii Sull. Bath County.

Schwetschkeopsis denticulata (Sull.) Broth. Boone and Whitley
counties.

Fontinalaceae

Fontinalis biformis Sull. Bullitt County.

Fontinalis disticha Hook. & Wils. Union County.

Fontinalis filiformis Sull. & Lesq. Union County.

Fontinalis flaccida Ren. & Card. Collected by Lesquereux, no other
locality data available.

Fontinalis novae-angliae Sull. Caldwell, Harlan, Letcher, Madison,
McCreary, and Wolfe counties.

Fontinalis novae-angliae var. cymbifolia (Aust.) Welch. Whitley
County.

Literature Cited

Anderson, L. E. 1943. The distribution of Tortula pagorum (Milde) DeNot. in
North America. Bryologist 46:47-66.

Crum, H. A. 1954. Additions to the moss flora of Kentucky. Trans. Ky. Acad.
Sci. 15:24-26.

———————— 1956. Additions to the moss flora of Kentucky. I]. Trans. Ky. Acad.

Sci. 17:181-184.

Felix, C. J. 1958. Mosses of Harlan County, Kentucky. Bryologist 61:242-246.

Fulford, M. and H. T. Shacklette. 1942. A list of Kentucky mosses. Bryologist
45:125-134.

Short, C. W. 1837. Third supplementary catalogue of the plants of Kentucky.
Transylvania J. Med. 10:435-440.

Smith, C. D. 1927. The mosses of Kentucky. Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci. 2:56-57.

Welch, W. H. 1960. A monograph of the Fontinalaceae. Martinus Nijhoff, The
Hague. 357p.

FANG LENGTH COMPARISONS OF AMERICAN AGKISTRODON

CARL H. ERNST
Department of Zoology, University of Kentucky, Lexington

Klauber (1939) initiated the study of American pit viper fangs with
a complex, satistical study of Crotalus and Sistrurus dentition. Fitch
(1960) examined a small number of copperhead fangs, but very little
study of Agkistrodon fangs had been done until the author undertook
a study te the fang lengths of nearctic Agkistrodon (Ernst, 1963).
This article is a portion of that study. Few papers dealing with the
comparative sizes of snake’s fangs are available. Besides Klauber’s
report on rattlesnakes (1939), there is Bogert’s report on cobras and
other elapids (1943), both of which have been used for comparison in
this study.

Klauber (1939) points out that the length and character of the
fangs of poisonous species present a study of some practical interest,
since they involve several of the variables which affect the results of
snakebite, such as the depth of penetration of the venom, the rapidity
of injection, the amount of venom which may be lost externally in
clothing, and the chance of fang breakage in contact.

In this study, the following comparisons have been made between
the species and subspecies considered: mean fang lengths, the relation-
ship of mean fang length to total body length, and the relationship of
mean fang length to head length. The total body length is used as
a datum for comparison with fang length since it was also used in the
above studies. Klauber also used head length as a comparative
measurement as I have.

Materials and Methods

This study is based principally on data derived from 342. speci-
mens of the genus Agkistrodon. Specimens examined are from the
United States National Museum, the American Museum of Natural
History, the Carnegie Museum, the Academy of Natural Sciences of
Philadelphia, Millersville State College, and the author's personal
collection. The numbers of snakes measured were: A. bilineatus 21, A.
contortrix contortrix 69, A. c. laticinctus 32, A. c. mokeson 100, A. c.
pictigaster 4, A. piscivorus leucostoma 52, and A. p. piscivorus 64.

In measuring the total body length, the snake was stretched out as
straight as possible beside a tape measure and the length measurement
was read directly from the tape measure. When the snake could not
be stretched, a string placed along the length of its backbone was

Fang Length Comparisons of American Agkistrodon 13

measured. Vernier calipers were employed to measure the total head
length from the tip of the snout to the point where the cervical
vertebrae begin. This point is quite noticeable in Agkistrodon and in
the rattlesnakes, but not in elapids, as Bogert (1943) points out.

The straight-line distance from the lower end of the entrance
lumen to the tip of the fang as a basis of length has been adapted
here. Measurements of fangs were made under a dissecting micro-
scope with Vernier calipers. Both edges of the calipers were ground to
accommodate the head portion of a straight pin fastened to each point
of the calipers. One of the these pins was inserted into the entrance
lumen and the other brought up until it touched the lower tip of the
fang. This gave an accurate measurement of the straight line between
these two points. In order to measure a fang, the membranous vagina
dentis had to be pushed out of the way. Usually it was impossible to
slide this covering from over the fang, in which case the vagina dentis
was dissected away. Both fangs, and where possible the completed
first reserve fang, were measured.

Results and Discussion

Klauber (1939) has shown that the head length, rather than that
of the body, constitutes the better basis for comparison during the
adult stage. In vertebrates, generally, the size of the head is propor-
tionally larger in juveniles and smaller in adults in relation to body
length. Klauber (1938) confirmed the relationship on rattlesnakes and
the findings on Agkistrodon species are in accord with this general
rule. The fangs are also larger in relation to head and body length in
juveniles. This situation becomes reversed as the snake grows in head
and body length, since the fangs do not grow at a steady rate in
comparison to body or head growth.

Included in table 3 are mean head lengths and mean head/mean
fang ratios. A. bilineatus was found to have the largest fang range in
comparison to mean head length and the lowest mean head/mean fang
ratio, indicating that on an average it has the largest fangs of the
American Agkistrodon. The four subspecies of A. contortrix show a
variation of only 0.2 in this ratio indicating a very close resemblance as
to fang size. The two subspecies of A. piscivorus show a variation of
only 0.1 in the mean head/mean fang ratio. The small variations re-
ported here tend to substantiate the subspecific relationships found in
A. contrortrix and A. piscivorus.

Comparing the Agkistrodon ratios to those given by Klauber (1939)
for rattlesnakes, it is found that only A. bilineatus has fangs that com-
pare in length to most rattlesnakes. Rattlesnakes of the genus Crotalus

14 Carl H. Ernst

have proportionally longer fangs than Agkistrodon. Klauber measured
five C. adamanteus and found them to have a head length of 59.1 mm.
and a mean head/mean fang ratio of 4.13. Only C. tigris, C. lepidus
klauberi, C. t. triseriatus, and C. t. pricei had ratios above six and
could be compared with Agkistrodon. Even the smaller Sistrurus had
lower ratios than Agkistrodon. Table 1 shows the increase in mean
fang lengths between Agkistrodon on a basis of head length.

Table 1. A comparison of Mean Fang Lengths Between Species On a Basis of Head Length.

Fang Length in mm.

Head Length © bili- c. con- c. lati- c. picti- p. leuco- p. pisci-
in mm. neatus tortrix cinctus c. mokeson — gaster stoma — vorus

10 2.3 Ikea 1.8
15 3.7 2.2, 2.0 2.1 2.3
20 4.8 3.6 3.4 3.4 3.4 3.8 3.7
25 3.8 4.1 4.5 4.7 4.3 4.7 4.2
30 7.0 5.1 4.6 4.5 4.4 5.1 5.0
3 7.3 5.2, 3.2 5.5 6.1 6.1
40 8.4 o:0 D2, 6.5 6.6 6.4
45 9.3 leo 7.4
50 9:9 9.4
5D 10.1 10.3
60 10.5 10.4

A skull of a Naja naja was examined for comparison. The skull was
36.2 mm. in length and the fangs were 4.5 mm. long. This gave a mean
head/mean fang ratio of 8.04.

There has always been interest in calculating the ratios of total
body length divided by fang length in venomous snakes. In examining
such a ratio, it is found that specimens having longer fangs have lower
ratios. (See table 3). A. bilineatus shows a mean body/mean fang
ratio of 90 for the lowest ratio. A. c. contortrix is shown to have the
highest ratio with 145. A. p. leucostoma and A. p. piscivorus are
extremely alike in their fang measurements and ratios. Table 2 shows
the increase in mean fang lengths between Agkistrodon on a basis of
body length.

By examining figures given by Bogert (1943) for elapids and
Klauber (1939) for rattlesnakes, it is found that the American
Agkistrodon fall between these two groups in relation to mean body/
mean fang ratios. The elapids have higher ratios and therefore shorter
fangs in relation to body length. The range in Bogert’s elapids was
from 232 for Naja naja (northern India) to 591 for Toxicocalamus
stanleyanus. Ophiophagus hannah had a ratio of 381. The rattlesnakes
had generally lower ratios than Agkistrodon. The range in Crotalus
was from 80 for C, stejinegeri to 165 for C, tigris, and in Sistrurus from

Fang Length Comparisons of American Agkistrodon 15

108 for S. ravus to 131 for S. c. catenatus. The nearctic Agkistrodon did
have lower ratios than C. tigris (165), C. m. pieonole: (15h), Cu. 0:
klauberi (162) and C. t. pricei (155).

Table 2. A Comparison of Mean Fang Lengths Between Species On a Basis of Body Length.

Body Length _ bili- c. con- c. lati- c. picti- p. leuco- p. pisci-
in mm. neatus tortrix cinctus c.mokeson — gaster stoma — vorus
100 ea 1.6
200 3.5 2.1 2.0 Dik 2.4
300 4.2 3.2 3.4 2.6 3.4 3.i
400 3.8 3.8 3. 3.7 3.4 4.6 4,2
500 3.6 4.5 4.2 4.4 BHD: 4.8
600 eo 4.1 4.6 4.6 5.5 6.1 6.0
700 7.0 4.6 5.4 5.0 5.9 6.2
800 8.5 5.3 5.0 5.6 6.0 2
900 9.4 6.3 Dall 8.0
1000 10.4 DD ao 9.4
1100 7.0 10.2
1200 10.5 9.9
1300 10.4 11.0

A comparison of mean fang length again indicates the Agkistrodon
fall between the elapids and rattlesnakes. A. bilineatus Sih a mean
fang length of 7.5 mm. has the longest fangs of the nearctic Agkistro-
don. A. c. laticinctus had the smallest mean fang length of 42 2 mm.
The mean fang length of 4.4 mm. for A. c. pictigaster is not a true
indication of the fang length in this subspecies because of the small
number of specimens examined (see table 3).

Table 3. Fang Proportions in the Genus Agkistrodon

Number ofBody LengthFang Length Mean Mean Mean Mean Mean
Species Specimens Range Range Body Head Fang B/F H/F

. bilineatus 21 213-1016 ~—-3.4-12.0 678 = 86.1 7.5 90 4.8
c. laticinctus 32 170- 800 L.l- 5.6 528 98.3 4.2 126°. 6.7
c. contortrix 69 229-1100 Mss AN) 567 26.0 3.9 145 6.7
c. mokeson LOO 178-1000 L1- °7.0 524 25.9 3.8 135 6.8
Cc
p

. pictigaster 4 400- 673 3.4- 5.5 595° «=o 29.2 44 126 66
p. leucostoma 52 = =200-1350 — 1.7-10.5 509 29.8 45 113 66
p. piscivorus 64 305-1300 — 3.0-11.0 663° 38:6. - 5.9, WT12 - 765

ee ae eee ae eee

Bogert (1943) shows that some of the longer elapids, such as
Dendroaspis and Ophiophagus hannah, have larger mean fang ratios
than do Agkistrodon, but size is a factor here. In the size range cor-
responding to that of Agkistrodon, these snakes have shorter fangs.
Naja naja, N. haje, N. melanoleuca, Pseudohaje nigra, and Hemachatus
haemachatus have mean fang lengths that fall within the range of
American Agkistrodon, however, most elapids have smaller fangs.

16 Carl H. Ernst

Micruroides euryxanthus has a mean fang length of only 0.8 mm. and
Micrurus fulvius 2.3 mm. These two elapids, which occur in the United
States, have smaller fangs than do the pit vipers studied. Fairley
(1929 states that the fangs of Acanthophis antarcticus average 6 mm.,
Denisonia superba 3 mm. and those of Notechis scutatus 3 to 5 mm.
in length. Ophiophagus hannah has the largest fangs of elapids.
Bogert reports a specimen 3055 mm. long having fangs $8.0 mm. in
length. Klauber (1939) believes that an 18 foot (5490 mm.) king
cobra would have fangs about 15 mm. long. The mean fang length
range of Bogert’s elapids was from 0.7 mm. for Ultrocalamus preusii to
8.0 mm. for O. hannah.

Most of Klauber’s rattlesnakes (1939) had longer mean fang
lengths than did the Agkistrodon measured. Their mean fang lengths
ranged from 3.4 mm. for C. lepidus klauberi to 14.4 mm. for C.
adamanteus. The longest rattlesnake fang measured was 15.8 mm. in
C. adamanteus. The longest Agkistrodon fang was 12.0 mm. in A.
bilineatus.

Barton (1950) found the functional fang length in two newborn
C. h. horridus to be 3.2 mm. and 3.3mm. These snakes were 289 mm.
and 268 mm. in total length. Fitch (1960) points out that the young of
the copperhead are also slightly longer than 200 mm. at birth. Most
juvenile Agkistrodon between 200 and 300 mm. in body length had
shorter fangs than Barton’s specimens, although A. bilineatus did reach
this size (see table 2). Barton reported replacement fangs in his
rattlesnakes ranging from 3.1 mm. for first reserve fangs to 2.0 mm.
for third reserve fangs. Several near term copperhead embryos con-
tained replacement fangs, but these were shorter than C. h. horridus.
An A. ce. laticinctus 170 mm. in length had functional and first reserve
fangs of 1.1 mm. and embryos of A. c. mokeson 178 mm. and 150 mm.
long had functional fangs of 2.0 mm. and 1.1 mm. and first reserve
fangs of 1.9 mm. and 1.1 mm. respectively.

Using the total length as a guide for comparison, there is little
doubt that vipers of the genus Bitis exceed all other living snakes in
fang length. Bogert (1943) reports a series of ten B. arientans, ranging
in size from 743 mm. to 995 mm., had fangs 9.7 mm. to 14.3 mm. in
length, with body/fang ratios of 60 to 83. In fang size B. gabonica
exceeds all other snakes. Stanley (1929) reports a specimen as having
fangs 30 mm. in length and Bogert (1943) another 1300 mm. long as
having fangs 29 mm. in length. Bogert states that snakes of the
genus Causus have, in proportion to total length, the smallest fangs of
any viper he examined. Twenty-one Angolan specimens of C. rhom-
beatus, which ranged in size from 190 to 590 mm., had fangs which

Fang Length Comparisons of American Agkistrodon 17

ranged in length from 1.1 to 2.66 mm. The body/fang ratios of these
snakes ranged from 158 in juveniles to 245 in adults.

Summary and Conclusions

Examination of the 349 Agkistrodon used in this study has revealed
certain conclusions as to their comparative fang lengths. Data on
fang proportions of American Agkistrodon indicates that A. bilineatus
has the longest mean fang length and also the lowest ratios of head/
fang and body/fang. A. p. leucostoma and A. p. piscivorus were found
to be almost identical in their head/fang and body /fang ratios. In
the head/fang ratio there was only 0.1 difference between these snakes
and in the body/fang ratio the difference was only 1.0. The four
subspecies of A. contortrix show a variation of only 0.2 in the head/
fang ratio. Fang characters and other dentitional differences are often
correlated and provide useful information in connection with
taxonomic and phylogenetic interpretations. The small variations
reported in head/fang and body/fang ratios tend to substantiate the
subspecific relationships found in A. contortrix as well as A. piscivorus.
The information presented appears to show that the nearer such ratios
approach each other the more closely related the members of the
genus.

The fang proportions of Agkistrodon were found to be located
between the rattlesnakes measured by Klauber (1939) and the elapids
measured by Bogert (1943). Only A. bilineatus could compare favor-
ably in fang proportions with the larger-fanged rattlesnakes. The
elapids Dendroaspis and Ophiophagus hannah have larger mean fang
lengths than American Agkistrodon, but these snakes attain a longer
body length. In the size range of American Agkistrodon these snakes
have shorter mean fang lengths. Micrurus fulvius and Micruroides
euryxanthus, which occur over much of the range of Agkistrodon, have
much shorter fangs. It should also be noted that the vipers of the
genus Bitis exceed all other living snakes in fang length, and B.
gabonica has the largest fangs of any living snake reaching a length
of 30 mm.

It was found that replacement fangs are fully developed in near
term copperhead embryos, although these and the functional fangs
were shorter than those reported by Barton (1950) for newborn
Crotalus h. horridus.

Literature Cited

Barton, A. J. 1950. Replacement fangs in newborn timber rattlesnakes. Copeia
1950: 235-236.

Bogert, C. M. 1943. Dentitional phenomena in cobras and other elapids with

18 Carl H. Ernst

notes on adaptive modifications of fangs. Bull. Am. Mus. Nat. Hist. 81:
285-360, 73 figs., 4 plates, 3 tables, 4 maps.

Emst, C. H. 1963. The Comparative fang lengths of nearctic snakes of the
genus Agkistrodon. Master’s Dissertation, West Chester State College, West
Chester, Penna.

Fairley, N. H. 1929. The present position of snake bite and the snake bitten in
Australia. Bull. Antivenin Inst. Am. 3: 65-77.

Fitch, H. S. 1960. Autecology of the copperhead. U. of Kan. Publ. Mus. Nat.
Hist. 13: 85-288.

Klauber, L. M. 1938. A statistical study of the rattlesnakes, V, head dimensions.
Occ. Pap. San Diego Soc. Nat. Hist. 4: 1-53.

——-————— 1939. A statistical study of the rattlesnakes, VI, fangs. Occ. Pap.
San Diego Soc. Nat. Hist. 5: 1-61.

Staley, F. H. 1929. A case report of gaboon viper poisoning with recovery. Bull.

>

Antivenin Inst. Am. 3: 31-39.

THE BACULUM IN MYOTIS SODALIS AND
MYOTIS AUSTRORIPARIUS AUSTRORIPARIUS

CHARLES L. RIPPY
Department of Zoology, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky.

Hamilton (1949:97) summarized the earlier literature on the study
of the os penis in the Chiroptera and described the bacula of 14 species
in the Family Vespertilionidae. Krutzsch and Vaughan (1955:96)
described an additional 11 bacula in North American vespertilionids,
plus the baculum in the molossid Tadariada brasiliensis mexicana.
The baculum has been figured for $ species of North American Myotis,
excluding Myotis sodalis and Myotis austroriparius. Therefore, the
purpose of this paper is to make such description for these two species
of Myotis.

The individuals used in this study were adults, as determined by
the closed ephiphyses of the metacapal and phalangeal joints. The
following descriptions are based upon the examination of 12 specimens
of Myotis sodalis and 11 specimens of Myotis austroriparius austrori-
parius. The line drawings in Figure 1 depict individual as well as
possible age variation.

Myotis sodalis—The baculum is saddle-like; the bone appears to be
flexed and has a slight dorsal knob at the distal end. The proximal
portion rises abruptly from the saddle, and a basal as well as a ventral
groove is present. When viewed ventrally, the bone appears arrow-
like.

Myotis austroroiparius austroriparius—The baculum is slipper-like;
the bone is nearly straight in profile. The proximal portion is peaked;
the distal and is blunt and rounded. A very slight basal groove is
present, and the bone is grooved ventrally. When viewed ventrally,
the bone appears broad and blunt.

The bacula of these two species were compared with those of
Myotis lucifugus lucifugus, Myotis keenii septentrionalis, Myotis grise-
scens, Myotis velifer velifer, and Myotis velifer incautus. The baculum
of each species is distinct; however, certain similarities were noted in
the structure of the bacula of Myotis velifer-Myotis grisescens vs.
Myotis austroriparius. It would, however, be presumptive to make
evolutionary inferences at the species level on the basis of the
baculum alone.

Acknowledgements

I am indebted to James N. Layne, Cornell University, and W. Gene
Frum for lending me specimens of Myotis austroriparius. Also, I wish

20 Charles L. Rippy

Fig. 1.—a,c,d lateral views of Myotis sodalis, b ventral view Myotis sodalis. e,g,h lateral
views of Myotis austroriparius, f ventral yiew Myotis austroriparius.

The Baculum in Myotis Sodalis and M yotis Austroriparius A

to thank Donald F. Hoffmeister, University of Illinois, and J. Knox
Jones, Jr., University of Kansas, for lending me specimens of Myotis
velifer.

Literature Cited

Burt, W. H. 1960. Bacula of North American mammals. Univ. Michigan Mus.
Zool. Misc. Publ. No. 113, 76pp + xxv plates.

Hamilton, W. J., Jr. 1949. The bacula of some North American vespertilionid
bats. Jour. Mamm., 30 (20): 97-102.

Krutzsch, P. H. and T. A. Vaughan. 1955. Additional data on the bacula of North
American bats. Jour. Mamm., 36(1): 96-100.

White, J. A. 1951. A practical method for mounting the bacula of small mammals.
Jour. Mamm., 32(1): 125.

SKETCHES FROM KENTUCKY’S BEEKEEPING HISTORY

WILLIAM G. EATON

Division of Markets
Kentucky Department of Agriculture, Frankfort, Kentucky

Introduction

Honey bees are not native to this continent but were introduced in
the seventeenth century by Dutch settlers arriving at Nieuw Amster-
dam. Soon after their arrival, absconding swarms established them-
selves in the forests. Honey bees, which are mankind’s most beneficial
insect, were termed the heralds of American civilization, since they
were always in advance of the inland and westward movement of the
first white settlers.

The history of beekeeping events in Kentucky can very definitely
be divided into four distinct periods, or eras, which as as follows:
Events occurring between 1780 and 1871 mark the “beginning” period
or Era I. A brief description of these early days is given by George W.
Demaree in his “History of Agriculture in Kentucky.” It is as follows:
“Kentucky in her early history was famous on account of her wonder-
ful forests. In those days many persons kept bees in tall log gums and
boxes, and the bees succeeded in propagating the species and bearing
up under the disadvantages imposed upon them by their ignorant
keepers in a manner which would put the best of the races to blush
under like treatment at the present day. The reasons for this I have
already given, an abundance of poplar and linden, etc. were at their
service.”

Dr. N. P. Allen of Smith’s Grove, Warren County, ushered in Era
II (1872-1913) when he introduced the Italian race of bees into Ken-
tucky in 1872. Dr. Allen gives a very good description of this period
in an article titled “Cultivation of the Honey Bee.” He says: “Tf I
could go back to the palmy days of bee culture in Kentucky, in ’74 to
82, °83 and °84 when we had hundreds and thousands of colonies of
bees over this Southern Kentucky and bee forage was plentiful, rich
and inexhaustible, when white clover covered the road-sides, the waste
vlaces and often the pasture fields like a carnet of snow in the winter
time; as I said, if I could go with you back to such times as to bring
them uv to the present and fill the forests with rich forage in the
poplars. maples and other forest trees that have fallen by the woods-
man’s ax: yes, and could fill the air with sweet fragrances from nectar
cups in the clover blooms in our fields and pastures, if I could do that
I could awake some interest and enthusiasm in rational beekeevine.”
Those days were known as the “new way” and Pellett calls it the

Sketches from Kentucky's Beekeeping History 23

“golden age in beekeeping,” since there was keener interest in under-
taking to master the fundamentals of beekeping during this priod than
at any other time.

Era II (1914-1959) may be summarized as being an “uncertain”
period, during which time beekeepers were hard-pressed to keep bee-
keeping alive in a changing age of farming practices and economic
developments; however, several important advances were initiated.
The highlight of this period may well be the diligent fight which the
State Association carried on for full-time disease control. With the
realization of this goal in 1960, Era ITV was ushered in, which may
come to be known as the true “development and unifying” period in
Kentucky's beekeeping history.

In order that the following chronological sketches from Kentucky's
colorful beekeeping history can be more easily understood, as well as
introducing several of our outstanding beekeepers, it is necessary that
we should establish four revolutionary dates as a background for our
comparative thinking. These dates represent developments which were
of major importance to beekeepers throughout the world, in fact, it
was through these discoveries that a whole new industry was born.
They are briefly discussed as follows:

1. The miraculous discovery of the bee-space and the resulting
development of the movable-comb, top-opening hive by Rev.
perk Be Langstroth, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, in 1851. This
discovery marked a definite turning point in the history of
beekeeping the world over.

bo

The invention of comb foundation must be credited to a Ger-
man, Johannes Mehring, who first succeeded in producing a
crude product in 1857.

3. Major Franz von Hruschka, Vienna, Austria, is credited with

the development of the centrifugal extractor in 1865.

4. The other discovery of major importance came in 1875 when
Moses Quinby, New York, invented the first practical bellows-
type smoker.

Summary of Events
Era I (1780-1871)

1780 Bees were introduced into the area which is now the state of
Kentucky by Col. James Harrod. Col. Harrod brought one
colony of bees from Pennsylvania to the Falls of the Ohio, the
present-day location of the City of Louisville,

2

a

4

William G. Eaton

1869 1. General D. L. Adair (1824-1904), Hawesville, Hancock

County, received a patent for his section bee hive, which had a
surplus chamber made by fitting a series of sections together,
nine in a clamp. Each section was 5x6x114 inches. This patent
seems to have met with favor, and for a time Adair sold rights
for use to individual beekeepers with one sample section for
$3.00. He also developed an extractor which was one of the
first to be offered for sale commercially. (See Fig. 1). In ad-
dition to these items, Adair developed a queen and drone trap,
a triangular queen cage, and a division-board type feeder. He
also reared and sold queen bees, shipped bees by the pound on
established combs in a nucleus hive, and published books and

Fig. 1.— General D. L. Adair’s extractor, which was called the “Meliput,” was one of
the first to be offered for sale commercially throughout the states.

Sketches from Kentucky's Beekeeping History 25

pamphlets on a variety of beekeeping subjects, the most impor-
tant being several volumes entitled “Annuals in Bee Culture.”
2. Charles Tinius, Cloverport, Breckinridge County, an early
manufacturer of supplies for beekeepers, who probably made
the section hive and other items for Gen. Adair, advertised a
variety of beekeepers’ supplies for sale.

Era II (1872-1913)

1872

1874

1879

1. Introduction of Italians into Kentucky by Dr. N. P. Allen
(1830-1909), a dentist from Smith’s Grove, Warren County.
Dr. Allen headed a committee of seven fellow beekeepers whose
interests were to provide a better race of bees for the bee-
keepers of the state. Th committee was composed of the
following men: Dr. Dillard, Lexington; Rev. McGee, Anchorage;
Capt. S. T. Drane, Shelby County; John Conley, Gallatin
County; A. C. Tucker, Gen. Adair and Dr. Allen. The price of
queen bees was around $15.00 each.

2. Dr. William M. Rogers, Shelbyville, Shelby County, pur-
chased several imported Cyprian queens. His friend, George W.
Demaree of nearby Christiansburg, assisted him in rearing
seven queens from these imported mothers. Mr. Demaree said:
“I have reason to believe that they were the first ever to be
reared in Kentucky.”

Organized beekeeping was begun in Kentucky at the regional
level with the organization of the Southern Association by Dr.
N. P. Allen, who was elected as the Association’s first president.

(Fig. 2)

1. J. P. Moore, of Morgan, Pendleton County, began queen
rearing activities which brought considerable recognition to the
Kentucky queen breeder in 1900. Mr. Moore was awarded the
$25.00 prize, which was offered by the A. I. Root Company,
Medina, Ohio, for having developed the longest tongued strain
of bees. The record tongue reach of Moore’s three-banded,
leather-colored Italians was 23/100 inches. As a result, “Moore’s
Strain of Italians” became widely known for their superior
honey-gathering characteristics, as well as having outstanding
hardiness and gentleness qualities. Mr. Moore operated the
Cedar Lake Apiaries at Morgan.

2. E. E. Barton, Falmouth, also in Pendleton County, made
history during the latter part of this Era by introducing what
was generally called an “obnoxious weed” into the area, in one

26 William G. Eaton

Fig. 2.— Upper left, Dr. P. N. Allen; upper right, Prof. Harrison Garman; lower left,
George W. Demaree; lower right, E.E. Barton.

of the first efforts at crop rotation. The “weed” was sweet
clover, which later provided farmers throughout several north-
ern Kentucky counties with a land literally “flowing with milk
and honey.” The dairymen and beekeepers of the area had
acquired a new lease on life through the benefits derived from
their greatly improved soils,

1880

1881

Sketches from Kentucky's Beekeeping History 27

1, The Kentucky State Beekeepers’ Association was organized
at Louisville with Dr. N. P. Allen as its first president. During
the same year he was elected president of at least two national
beekeeping organizations. Organizational dates of other state
associations by comparison were: Iowa—1875 and North
Carolina — 1890 (possibly 1887).

2. During the early 1880s J. S. Reese of Winchester, Clark
County, developed the industry’s first bee escape, through his
application of the principle involved in the simple, old-fashioned
fly trap. This practical, though somewhat cumbersome device,
was sold to an unidentified man for $25.00, after some additional
refinements by Reese. This man was probably John A. Larabee,
who, after further development, sold the escape then known as
the LaReese to E. C. Porter of Lewistown, Illinois. The bee
escape in its present form bears the Porter name. The Reeses,
father and son, Wallace, obtained high colony averages (200
pounds ) during these years by using migratory practices. They
operated as many as 425 colonies for several years until foul-
brood hit the area, wiping out the life’s earnings of several bee-
keepers almost overnight.

3. C. E. Bowman, Commissioner, Kentucky Bureau of Agri-
culture, Horticulture and Statistics, placed an evaluation of
$12,000,000 on the contributions which the beekeeping industry
made annually to the state’s over-all economy. This evaluation,
which was presented by the Commissioner in his Biennial Re-
port to the Governor of the Commonwealth, was based upon the
following calculated statistics: “If Kentucky were to be laid off
in 5-acre plots, there would be largely over 4,000,000 plots.
With an estimated one bee-stand to each plot, furnishing one
swarm worth two dollars each season, and producing one cap
weighing 20 pounds of surplus honey, at 20c a pound, would
give a value of six dollars per hive.” This gives the outstanding
figure of $24,000,000 as an evaluation of the comparatively
small industry. In further discussion an allowance was made
for crop failure during alternate years, resulting in the annual
evaluation figure of $12,000,000. Thus, honey bees were highly
regarded as an important link in the agricultural prosperity of
the state during the early development years of the industry.

Mr. William Williamson, secretary, offered the following resolu-
tion at the second annual meeting of the Kentucky State Bee-
keepers’ Association, which was held at the Exposition Building

1884

1886

William G. Eaton

in Louisville. “Resolved, by the Kentucky State Beekeepers’
Association, that in order to educate the youth of our state and
the country at large in the noble science of bee culture, that we
recommend to the President and Board of Directors of the
State Agricultural and Mechanical College a department in
apiculture, and that an apiary be established at the college
grounds in Lexington; that lecture be given to the students,
and practical Tesvone in apiculture be given to the students; that
a committee is hereby appointed to Route with the President
and Directors of our State College.” The resolution was adopted
and the following committee was appointed: William William-
son, G. W. Demaree e, and Dr. L. E. Brown.

George W. Demaree (1832-1915), Christiansburg, Shelby
County, wrote a pamphlet titled: “The History of Apiculture in
Kentucky.” This informative work was written from reports
received from the state’s leading beekeepers, through cor-
respondence and visitation. A portion of the Introduction to
this work says: “If this little work shall help only a few persons
in and out of our state in their search for good locations for the
culture of the honey bee and the sHakne torn of honey, and shall
prove the initial step to more extensive knowledge in this behalf,
the committee will feel that they have not labored in vain.”
The better locations were considered to be in those counties
bordering on the larger water courses. Mr. Demaree was as-
sisted by three other members of the Association in this en-
deavor; they were: Dr. N. P. Allen, Smith’s Grove; W. C. Pel-
ham, Maysville, Mason County; and J. T. Connley of Napoleon,
Gallatin County.

1. “SECTIONS AND BERRY BASKETS. We, the original in-
ventors of the one-piece sections are now prepared to furnish
sections and berry baskets in any quantity. Please write for
terms. M. & H. F. Coffin, Milton, Trimble County, Kentucky.”
This ad appeared in the April 14, 1886, issue of the AMERICAN
BEE JOURNAL.

2. Beekeepers and horticultural groups often combined their
efforts during the early days, as the following information bears
out. “To the premium lists of the Horticultural Exposition of
1886, at the Louisville Exposition Center, including also various
kinds of honey bees and their products, I contributed $168.00
on the part of the state,” reported Agriculture Commissioner
John F, Davis in the biennial report published during the year.

1887

1889

Sketches from Kentucky's Beekeeping History 29

He further reported that “the event was well managed, and
passed off to the entire satisfaction of all concerned.”

In an article titled, “Bee Culture, Its Progress, etc.,” which was
used in the Commissioner's Report to the Governor for this
year, George W. Demaree says: “Kentucky is behind some of
the other states in the repoduction of honey, because of the
tardiness of our people to embark in new enterprises—especially
enterprises which seem small—‘little’—to them. I think this is
a mistaken notion. What we need most is less “big” failures and
more “small” successes; and this we must have by utilizing a
great variety of occupations. No state in the Union can produce
honey of finer quality, density, color and flavor—than the honey
of Kentucky . . . and no place on this continent is better adapted
to the rearing of finely-developed honey bees than is Ken-
tucky. The same favorable conditions which contribute to the
rearing of fine stock in Kentucky, has its influence in the
development of bee life and bee activity under proper laws of

breeding.”

1. Professor Harrison Garman began his official duties as ento-
mologist and botanist at the Kentucky Agricultural Experiment
Station, which extended over a period of forty (40) years. (See
Fig. 2.). During this time he made many contributions to the
field of economic entomology, worked with the State As-
sociation, and contributed several articles of practical value for
beekeepers of the state. He is described by close associates as
being an “old-fashioned naturalist.” He also taught a class in
beekeeping which had small enrollment at the time. His bee-
keeping books are now housed in several Lexington libraries.

2. The newly-devised equipment of two Kentucky beekeepers
was exhibited at the World’s Exposition which was held at
Paris, France, in 1889. George W. Demaree, Christiansburg,
contributed a solar wax extractor and a modernized Langstroth-
type hive, which used an improved slotted top-bar frame, to the
U.S. portion of the exhibit. J. S. Reese, Winchester, contributed
a queen and drone trap and the original bee escape to the world-
wide show. This equipment was donated to the U.S. govern-
ment following the Exposition to be placed in an agricultural
museum in Washington, D.C. (Author’s note: To date, no
trace of these valuable antique pieces of equipment has been
found.) Prof. Nelson W. McLain, apicultural agent for the
USDA, was in charge of the Exhibition.

30

1892

1893

William G. Eaton

George W. Demaree announced his now-famous swarm conrtol
plan, which he revised two years later. (See Fig. 2). He served
as secretary and as president of the State Association, several
years in each capacity. It is through his efforts that we are
privileged to have an account of the early days of Kentucky's
beekeeping. He also developed the solar wax extractor in its
improved form. For a detailed account of his fruitful and in-
teresting life as apiarist, lawyer and essayist, read my article
titled: “Beemaster—Not Just a Beekeeper,” in the December,
1956, issue of the AMERICAN BEE JOURNAL, pages 472-477,
illustrated.

1. This was a period of little interest and activity. It was
partially due to the fact that the price of honey had dropped
to 3c per commercial pound. Also, interest in travel and the
“new way had waned, and the leveling off period brought little
interest in the conventions or activities with other beekeepers,
as had been true earlier. Two Pendleton countians, however,
made history at the turn of the century for their contributions
to the state’s beekeeping industry. They were: J. P. Moore, a
queen breeder, who developed the strain of long-tongued bees,
and E. E. Barton, a lawyer-beekeeper, who pioneered the intro-
duction of sweet clover into the area. (See 1879 for further
details. )

2, An Act “to provide for county inspectors of apiaries and de-
fining their duties and providing for their compensation for the
purpose of curing and avoiding foulbrood and other diseases
among bees and their hives” was approved by the General
Assembly March 23, 1910. An annual tax of 5c per colony was
to be levied to carry on the inspection service at the county
level, with the fee being collected by the sheriff of each county.
This law was later declared unconstitutional and another bill
was passed, however, it was also declared unconstitutional due
to improper titling . (Author’s note: We now operate under the
1922, or the original law, with amendments being made in 1948

8
and again in 1960. )

Era III (1914-1959)
1914 Although organized beekeeping has existed in Kentucky since

1874, it was not until January 9, 1914, that the State Bee-
keepers’ Association adopted a constitution; the by-laws were
re-written in 1949. The purpose of the organization was given

1915

1916

1917

1919

1922

Sketches from Kentucky's Beekeeping History 31

by its leaders as follows: “Its objects shall be in forming of a
bond of union among Kentucky beekeepers and the improve-
ment of its members in both scientific and practical apiculture
by an exchange of experiences and the discussion of beekeeping
methods.” Thus this reorganization date bridges the gap be-
tween the “new way” and the Era III.

EK. E. Barton, of Falmouth, declared that Kentucky had ad-
vanced to third or fourth position in the value of its apiary
products with a honey crop estimated at 5,000,000 pounds.
Pendleton County alone produced 500,000 pounds, this being
essentially from sweet clover, which Barton had introduced
into the area in an effort to combat the soil erosion problem
that had existed since Civil War days. (See Fig. 2.)

The name “John A. Sheehan” was synonymous with the pro-
duction and sale of choice honey from Pendleton County for
many years. In his article titled, “Honey Production,” which
was printed in the Biennial Report for 1916-1917, Mr. Sheehan
listed the following facts concerning his beekeeping operations.
They were: (1) He carried a full line of Falconer’s beekeepers
supplies; (2) Honey was shipped all over the U.S. in cases and
sanitary cans, 90% of which was produced from sweet clover;
(3) He sold both white and yellow sweet clover seed; (4)
Pendleton County was known as the “home of sweet clover,”
and beekeepers there produced more choice honey than any
other county in the world, with the amount being more than
500,000 Ibs. annually. This brought county beekeepers approxi-
mately $50,000 each year. The exceptionally high yielding
seasons along with higher prices yielded around a reported
$75,000; (5) In addition, several thousand dollars worth of
queen bees were sold by Pendleton County breeders, who were
recognized as being among the main breeders of the industry.

Circular 17, “Foulbrood of Bees; Its Recognition and Treat-
ment,” by H. Garman published by the Kentucky Agricultural
Experiment Station.

Extension Circular 69, “Elements of Beekeeping,” by H. R.
Niswonger published by the Agricultural Extension Service,
College of Agriculture, University of Kentucky.

Kentucky's initial Apiary Inspection Law was enacted during
the regular session of the General Assembly. The purpose of
the Act was “to provide for the suppression of contagious

1930

1934

William G. Eaton

diseases among bees; to create the office of State Inspector of
Apiaries; and to appropriate money therefor,” These duties
were assigned to the State Entomologist, Kentucky Agricultural
Experiment Station, Lexington.

Circular 35, “Beekeeping for Beginners,” by H. Garman pub-
lished by the Kentucky Agricultural Experiment Station.

Professor W. A. Price came to the University of Kentucky as
Head of the Department of Entomology and Botany and served
in this capacity until his retirement in 1957. Beginning in 1930,
he was instrumental in reviving the State Association and in
having an annual meeting at the University in connection with
the Farm and Home Week proceedings. He served as secretary
of the Association until this office was moved to Louisville in
1944. Professor Price held beekeepers’ meetings throughout
the state, and taught a one-semester course in beekeeping until
1937, wen Dr. Lee H. Townsend was assigned this teaching job.
Enrollment in these classes was always good and interest in the
classes and meetings was high. During these years an apiary of
sixteen to twenty colonies was kept on the campus, and. the
state’s only inspection service was carried on by Professor
Price. This service was limited to the inspection of queen rear-
ing yards and to the shipment and movement of bees into and
out of the state. Since the work which Professor Price advocated
and accomplished was for the advancement of the state’s
people, it is regrettable that his requests for funds for an ex-
tension worker in beekeeping were always met with sympathetic
ears but no action.

Reoganization of the State Association under the leadership of
Prof. W. A. Price, of the College of Agriculture, with annual
meetings being held in connection with the Farm and Home
Week proceedings until 1944, at which time the Association was
moved to Louisville for all its activities.

The Walter T. Kelley Company, manufacturers of quality bee-
keepers’ supplies at highly competitive prices, was moved from
Louisiana to Paducah. Mr. Kelley is the author of two well-
written, practical books for beekeepers. They are: “How to
Grow Queens” and “How to Keep Bees and Sell Honey.” Also,
he edited and published the popular magazine, “Modern Bee-
keeping,” for several years. This firm has supplied bee-
keepers on five continents with quality supplies for nearly

1936

1937

1944

1945

1948

1949

Sketches from Kentucky's Beekeeping History 33

three decades, and has truly made the phrases: “Made in Ken-
tucky, U.S.A.” and “Eat Honey, Feel Better, Live Longer”
famous.

Dr. Lee H. Townsend came to the University of Kentucky as
instructor in the Department of Entomology and Botany. Begin-
ning in 1937, he taught the one-semester course in bee-keeping
and assisted in maintaining the college apiary.

Dr. Townsend served the Association as Judge of Apiary Pro-
ducts at the State Fair for several years, and assumed duties as
Head of the Department in 1957 when Professor W. A. Price
assumed change-of-work status.

Circular 288, “Beekeeping in Kentucky,” by Professor W. A.
Price was published. This work was revised in 1949.

The meeting place for the State Association body was changed
from the University to Louisville, with meetings being held on a
monthly basis rather than annually, as had been the custom.
This movement was initiated by several of the charter members
from Louisville, dating from the 1914 reorganizational date.
Interest in beekeeping during these years varied immensely as
the various references to “revivals” will indicate.

Walter T. Kelley purchased the popular beekeeping magazine
known as THE BEEKEEPER’S ITEM from E. G. LeSturgeon
San Antonio, Texas, around 1945. Kelley continued publication
of the magazine, using the name of MODERN BEEEKEEPING,
until May, 1956.

Passage of the state’s Bee Law creating the office of State
Apiarist with “legislation designed to promote and encourage
the bee industry through registration of all bee colonies and
having as its main objective the elimination and control of bee
diseases.” The Commissioner of Agriculture was given the duty
of enforcing this newly-created Bee Law.

The year 1949 was a profitable one for beekeeping in Kentucky,
since several important acts were initiated. These events were:
(1) Commissioner of Agriculture, Judge Harry F. Walters, ap-
pointed five inspectors to initiate an apiary inspection service
for the control of bee diseases; (2) Fred O. Miller of Louisville,
who was often referred to as the “Louisville Bee Master,” toured
the state with an educational trailer, provided by Staie As-
sociation funds, giving promotional Cemonstrations at the

34

1950

1952

William G. Eaton

various county fairs. He was successful in promoting the As-
sociation and the industry as a whole for several years; (3) The
Honey Show was reinstated at the State Fair and_ special
emphasis was devoted by members of the Association to bee-
keeping projects of the FFA boys of the state; (4) The State
Association began the publication of an official news letter
which was appropriately named “The Bee Line.” The object
of this news letter was to “aid in the unification of the beekeep-
ing industry in Kentucky” according to James E. Dierken of
Louisville, who was its only editor; (5) The by-laws of the
State Association’s constitution were rewritten; (6) The State
Beekeepers’ Association adopted an official seal in April, which
was designed by Mrs. Cora Burlingame, L. G. Pile, Fred O.
Miller and James E. Dierken, all of the Louisville area. The
seal was drawn by Charles Arnett, an artist of the Courier-
Journal’s Promotion Department. The colors were Emerald
Green and Canary Yellow. This move was necessary for the
body to become incorporated; however, the Association did not
fully achieve this recognition until April 29, 1960.

The Kentucky Department of Agriculture, in cooperation with
the legislative committee of the Kentucky State Beekeepers’ As-
sociation was successful in obtaining $300 from the Governor's
Emergency Fund to initiate an apiary inspection service. This
fund was allotted to train and organize men on a basis of 20
days at $15 per day. Chester Shepherd and Claude Rose,
deputies on loan from the Indiana Apiary Inspection Service,
were obtained to train the selected Kentucky men. The Ken-
tucky Beekeepers’ Association selected E. M. Miller, Eastwood,
as State Apiarist; and Fred O. Miller, Louisville Assistant State
Apiarist, with the following men to serve as deputy inspectors.
They were: Morris Black, Defoe; J. D. Lane, Erlanger; L. G.
Pile, Louisville; Otis kK. Wolfe, Harlan; Elmo Wilson and James
E. Dierken, Louisville. Upon the recommendation of the State
Association these men were appointed by Commissioner of
Agriculture, Judge Harry F. Walters, to initiate Kentucky's
first apiary inspection inspection program, beginning in August,
1950. These beekeepers served the industry at great personal
sacrifice, since no funds were available for salaries; they were
paid $1.00 per year and 2c per mile for their services.

1. Legislation provided $2,000 for yearly expenses incurred in
promoting the Bee Law. However, no salary was paid for this

1954

1955

1956

Sketches from Kentucky's Beekeeping History 30

part-time, on-request service to State Apiarist E. M. Miller ot
Eastwood, who served for eight years, beginning in 1949, to
promote beekeepers’ meetings, arrange educational exhibits and
do inspection work throughout the state.

2. The Walter T. Kelley Company plant was moved from
Paducah to Clarkson, the present location.

i Inspection service continued, however, it became necessary
to reduce expenditures as an economy measure, with the ap-
propriated funds being used for travel expenses only. The bee
program was provided with $600-$700 additional funds for the
promotion of the industry through the Division of Markets in
a joint State-Federal Honey Marketing program.

2. Also, an amendment to the Bee Law provided for the raising
of the registration fee as a means of providing income to apply
toward the expenses incurred in the enforcement of the Law.
Due to the lack of personnel necessary for the enforcement of
this amendment, it has not proven to be an effective measure.

1. Publication of “Kentucky 1955 Honey Production and Market-
ing Survey” by James M. Koepper and Mancil J. Vinson. This
was a cooperative report of the USDA and the Kentucky
Department of Agriculture.

2. Publication date of “How to Keep Bees and Sell Honey” by
Walter T. Kelley of Clarkson. This practical beekeepers’ book
was revised in 1958.

3. The Kentucky Department of Agriculture, with E. M. Miller,
Eastwood, Jefferson County, serving as State Apiarist, provided
an educational display for beekeepers at the Farm and Home
Week proceedings at the University. This was the first reference
to beekeeping at these meetings that had ben made since the
Association was moved to Louisville in 1944.

1. Publication date of “Honey Plants Manual” by Dr. Harvey
Lovell, University of Louisville, Department of Biology. Dr.
Lovell also writes the popular monthly article “Let's Talk About
Honey Plants” for GLEANINGS IN BEE CULTURE.

2. The Kentucky Department of Agriculture, the University of
Kentucky and the State Beekeepers’ Association combined efforts
to again “revive” the beekeepers’ meeting during Farm and
Home Week, with thirty-three beekeepers and farm leaders at-
tending.

36 William G. Eaton

1958 Tommy Hines, Morgantown, Butler County, was employed by
the Kentucky Department of Agriculture as State Apiarist. This
service Was on a part-time, on-request basis, however.

1960 The State Assocition was successful in its fight which began
in 1914 for full-time disease control. According to the Kentucky
Department of Finance, “The Appropriation Act of the 1960
General Assembly includes funds for a full-time apiarist, a part-
time apiarist, and necessary travel to provide inspection and
educational services. The appropriation is $8,775 for each of
the 1960-62 biennium, a total of $17,550." This program of
service to Kentucky's beekeepers was placed under the super-
vision of Coburn Gayle, Entomologist for the Seate Department
of Agriculture, with Tommy Hines of Morgantown serving as
State Apiarist and William G. Eaton of Winchester as Assistant
Apiarist. Thus begins the present-day era in Kentucky's bee-
keeping history.

Conclusion

It is evident from the preceeding chronological summary of events
that several Kentucky beekeepers have carved an enduring name for
themselves in the Beekeepers’ Hall of Fame, simply because their in-
ventive genius and quest for knowledge and progress enabled them to
keep in step with the demands which the “new way” had suddenly
placed upon them. In fact, these men of high stature and character in
life, through a sense of complete devotion to duty, very often led the
way as an entirely new industry was being developed.

May the fires which were kindled in the creative and productive
minds of Kentucky's beekeepers never be snuffed out; may we resolve
to kindle them afresh and anew every opportunity we have; and lastly,
may the past serve us as a guide post for future events, rather than a

hitching post.

Acknowledgements

In a study of this kind it is necessary to draw much from the
writings of other persons and to solicit assistance from numerous
organizations and individuals.

The writer expresses apprecition to Dr. Lee H. Townsend, Head,
Department of Entomology and Botany, University of Kentucky, for
general assistance in various ways and especially for help in arranging
and editing the material.

Credit is due several agencies and individuals for assistance during
the progress of the work and these are recognized as follows:

Sketches from Kentucky's Beekeeping History 37

Professor W. A. Price, Retired Head, Department of Entomology
and Botany, University of Kentucky, Lexington.

Robert W. Vance, Vance Honey Farms, Highway 421, Pleasureville,
Kentucky.

Morris Black, Hillside Honey Farms, Defoe, Kentucky.

Kentucky Department of Agriculture, Frankfort, Kentucky.

Library, State Historical Society, Frankfort, Kentucky.

“The History of American Beekeeping,” Frank C. Pellett, Collegiate
Press, Inc., Ames, Iowa, 1935.

Friends and relatives of early Kentucky beekeepers.

Early beekeeping literature, Association records, personal effects,
publications and correspondence.

AUTHOR’S NOTE—Addntional material has been received recently from the
present Editor of The American Bee Journal, Vern Sisson, which reveals that a
Kentucky Beekeepers’ Association was organized in Lexington, Kentucky, on No-
vember 20, 1867.

A few facts contained in the interesting write-up of the event are as follows:

“Pursuant to notice previously given through the papers, quite a large. num-
ber of beekeepers from various parts of the state met at the courthouse in this
city, and on motion, R. T. Dillard, D.D., was called to the Chair, and J. W. Rey-
nolds was appointed Secretary.

“Mr. D. Burbank, in a few pertinent remarks, stated the object of the meet-
ing to be for the purpose of organizing an association of all interested in bee cul-
ture, and consulting as to the best means of encouraging and advancing this im-
portant interest.”

According to the report, several members of the new group had kept honey
bees for fifty years. Numerous discussions were given on the topics and develop-
ments occurring on that day.

The appointment of a committee to arrange business topics for consideration
by the convention was made.

A four-member committee was appointed to draft a constitution; a committee
was appointed to procure a speaker for the next meeting (second Tuesday of
December, 11 a.m.); and various observations on management and production
were made.

Whether this organization proved to be successful or not is not known at the
present time, due to the lack of additional facts. It is believed, however, that the
group continued to meet on an area basis, rather than as a state-wide association,
and that they merged with other groups, which were organized later, to form the
Kentucky State Beekeepers’ Association in 1880, at a special called meeting in
Louisville. The highlights of this event are described elsewhere in this paper.

COLD WAVE PATTERNS OF LEXINGTON, KENTUCKY
AND ORLANDO, FLORIDA

J. R. SCHWENDEMAN
Department of Geography, University of Kentucky, Lexington

The unprecedented severity of the cold waves of the winter of
1962-63 has prompted this study of the cold wave patterns of Lexing-
ton, Kentucky and Orlando, Florida. During the 1962-1963 winter wave
after wave of frigid polar air swept southward over the Eastern Cold
Wave Track of North America bringing new minimum records to many
stations, (Figs. 1, 5, 6). Newspapers headlined the damaging effects
of these cold waves on such important and cold sensitive economies
as the orange and vegetable industries of Florida.

This study of cold waves through the minimum temperature re-
cords of Lexington and Orlando has been undertaken as a pilot pro-
ject in the appraisal of cold waves and accompanying minimum
temperatures as weather and climate phenomena with unusual
geographic effects. The major objective is an attempt to reveal
distribution and frequency patterns of minimum temperatures as are
associated with cold waves since in the United States all unusual
minimum temperatures are associated with cold waves, (Figs. 1, 5, 6).
A study of figures one and six suggests the definition of a cold wave
as an invasion of cold air of 10 degrees F and lower or 20 degrees F
below the mean minimum temperature. The 10 degrees F may moder-
ate as the cold air moves southward but the 20 degrees below the
normal mean minimum holds even in Florida.

In addition to this major objective, however, this study reveals that
certain inferences are warranted relative to cold waves and that these
inferences can be the topics for additional study. For instance banner
newspaper reporting while true for the moment may exaggerate the
damaging effects of the cold wave. In the Florida orange industry
what was headlined as an almost total loss for the 1962-1963 crop due
to the Dec. 11-14 cold wave turned out to be a relatively low per-
centage loss with an overall beneficial rather than detrimental effect
on the orange industry. An AP press release from Lakeland, Florida
of Dec. 14, 1962 reported that the cold Arctic air caused ice to form
in from 75 to 100 per cent of the fruit regardless of smudge pots and
windmills. The report explained that the damage was greater than in
the 1957-58 cold wave when 30 million boxes of fruit were lost and
30,000 fruit trees killed. Harvest hands were reported to have
abandoned the totally devastated vegetable farms and to have turned
to save the iced oranges for juice. These reports were correct but the

Cold Wave Patterns of Lexington, Ky. and Orlando, Fla. 39

30,000,00 boxes would not be a great percentage of the 163,000,000
box crop which Florida expected and the 30,000 trees would be a
very minor percentage of the 600,000 acres of fruit orchards in Florida.
Of course the vegetable crop was regrown in six weeks and the prices
for citrus fruit had sharply increased. While in Florida, recovery and
the resumption of a flourishing landscape obscures the damage of the
cold wave and protective devices are the only evidence, elsewhere, the
devastating aspect may prevail. In Kentucky the peach crop for the
entire state for 1963 was a total loss and many orchards and trees en-
tirely destroyed. North of Laredo Texas the entire citrus industry was
destroyed in the cold wave of 1949 and is only now beginning to show
recovery.

Geographically such a study as this may be useful in providing
protection against widespread damage caused by the cold wave,
especially south of the Ohio River where cold waves more frequently
fall into the category of “Unusual Weather” and therefore inadequate
provisions are made for them. A study of the Lexington cold wave
pattern in Figure | shows that the cold wave of January 23-24, 1963
brought cold air 47 degree F colder than the normal minimum
temperature of 26F. Failure to provide for this departure from normal
weather resulted in the total destruction of the peach crop to mention
only one item. Also a study of figure one reveals that the temperature
fell to 20F below zero in 1899. A Study of Figure 6 shows that
Kentucky is always exposed to the cold air masses of Canada where
temperatures as low as 70 F below zero occur.

It is difficult to surmise what forethought would have saved Ken-
tucky’s peach crop. But afterthought reveals that the margin of pro-
tection may not be too wide. Figure 2, plates A, B,C, show that the
tree kill of peach orchards was closely related to elevation and slope
and that the crest orchards have survived. Estimates are that these
crest orchards will produce close to a normal crop in Kentucky in
1964.

In Orlando, Florida care is taken to protect the valuable orchards
against cold waves. Smudge pots elevate the radiating surface and
heating devices and windmills are about as numerous as the fruit
trees. With such protection this district has weathered the cold waves
of the past, and a study of the minimum temperature patterns (Figs.
3, 4) of Orlando provides strong evidence that the future of this
district is secure with the provisions now at hand. Table One and the
graphs of Figs. 3 and 4 show that the Florida industry has weathered
a tremendous amount of freezing weather since 1892. At no time, how-
ever, has the temperature fallen below 18 F in the Orlando district.

“‘Dpioj4 ‘Opubjig pup ‘Ayonjuay

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Fig. 2.— Peach orchard damage in the Blue Grass caused by the cold wave of Jan. 23-24,
1963. The upper photograph was taken in an orchard which occupied a dip or trough.
The middle photograph was taken in an orchard which occupied a slope from crest to
trough. It is significant that the trees on the crest survived. The lower photograph is
of a peach orchard which survived the cold wave. It did not bear in 1963—the summer
following the cold wave, but it did bear in the summer of 1964.

42

Table 1. Cold Days at Orlando, Florida.

J. R. Schwendeman

Temperatures in Degrees Fahrenheit.
from January 1 to January 1, 1892 to 1962.

Year

OF 18F

Year

25F 20F 18F

Year

1892
1893
1894
1895
1896
1897
1898
1899
1900
1901
1902
1903
1904
1905
1906
1907
1908
1909
1910
1911
1912
1913
1914
1915

SOs.

to

Ye

GO) Rat CO DOR Se

L- &

STW NWR Oo

= 3

=~
i)

0
O
1
O
0
0)
@)
0)
O
0
0)
0)
0)
@)
0)
0)
()
0)
@)
0)
0)
0)
O
0)

1916
1917
1918
1919
1920
1921
1922
1923
1924
1925
1926
1927
1928
1929
1930
1931
1932
1933
1934
1935
1936
1937
1938
1939

CoNNNNRWKHK OF

BB bo Oo CO lL

0)
0)
0)
0)
0)
@)
0
0
0)
0
0)
0
0
0)
O
O
O
0)
O
0
0)
0)
O
0)

0)
0
0)

1940
194]
1942
1943
1944
1945
1946
1947
1948
1949
1950
1951
1952
1953
1954
1955
1956
1957
1958
1959
1960
1961
1962

‘United States normal mid-winter minim
“(From the United States Weather Bureau Daily Ma

i a

um temperatures

Fig. 5. — United States normal mid-winter minimum temperatures.

30F 25F 20F 18F

oown oes © OF Our Cc

ao

WONWN ARF Fb

p-December

Cold Wave Patterns of Lexington, Ky. and Orlando, Fla. 43

While the United States Weather Bureau keeps careful records of
Track bending and pushing the normal minimal isotherms sharply
southward along its main axis. The overall temperature gradient was
reduced from the normal of 70 degrees F to 34 degrees F in minimum
normal isothermal gradient and ie actual recorded temperatures were
sharply reduced along the entire track of the cold wave. For example
Fargo, North Dakota showed a reduction from its normal minimum of
zero degrees F to 14 degrees F below zero, Chicago, Ill from 18

Seek oe

--yslemperature

ee
eae fy

‘@] O¥ isethern

oan 140 Nas A OTF seothery

aiece
x Qicers
' Gulf of Mexico “36}"- Vo

eae ah one : “pees S

Sea \

COLD WAVE OF DECEMBER
llth to lyth,1962
minnimim temperatures

r 0
* Caribbe

° 200 400 600

120 ud 100 90 80

Fig. 6.— Cold wave of December 11 to 14, 1962. Minimum temperatures.

44 J. R. Schwendeman

such “Unusual Weather” as the cold wave, much can be done to
signalize these data into meaningful maps and charts and to instruct
the public as to their significance. For example the United States
Weather Bureau map of normal mid-winter minimum temperatures
(Fig. 5) shows the roughly parallel isotherms crossing the United
States beginning with —10 degrees F in the north central United
States and terminating at the tip of Florida with a plus 60 degrees F
showing a relatively steep gradient in minimum winter temperatures
of 70 degrees F for a distance of about 1,800 miles and about 4 degrees
F per hundred miles.

Against this background of normal mid-winter minimum temper-
atures a composite map from three daily weather maps of the
December 11-14 cold wave was arranged and is quite revealing of the
elements and operation of a cold wave, (Fig. 6). A Continental Arctic
(cA) air mass appears in Canada conditioned to —17 degrees F with
a density of 1048 millibars. Within three days this cA air mass has
poured southward along the Eastern North American Cold Wave
Track bending and pushing the normal minimal isothers sharply
southward along its main axis. The overall temperature gradient was
reduced from the normal of 70 degrees F to 34 degrees F in minimum
normal isothermal gradient and the actual recorded temperatures were
sharply reduced along the entire track of the cold wave. For example
Fargo, North Dakota showed a reduction from its normal minimum of
zero degrees F to 14 degrees F below zero, Chicago, Ill. from 18
degrees F to minus (—7) degrees F, Nashville, Tennessee from 40
degrees F to —4 degrees F, Atlanta, Georgia from 45 degrees F to 1
degree F, and central Florida from 50 degrees F to 20 degrees F.
The destructive capacity of the cold wave is due to (1) its abrupt-
ness, at any one place a matter of a few hours and for the entire
United States two to three days, (2) its wide departure from normal,
especially in the South in this instance as much as 44 degrees F, (3)
its areal coverage with devastation more widespread than for any
other natural calamity (4) the fact that it strikes the most highly
cultured area in the world in economic development. It is fortunate
that the cold wave is of such short duration with its most severe
temperatures often passing in a single night. This promotes unusual
protective devices. Also the economy of an area will have adjusted to
a usual degree of tolerance in the departure of cold temperatures from
the average.

For instance the daily minimum temperatures at Lexington for the
winter of 1962-63 discloses the above principles when plotted in a
line chart, (Fig. 1). The daily normal minimum temperature for the

Cold Wave Patterns of Lexington, Ky. and Orlando, Fla. 45

winter months is 26 degrees F. The departure from this normal is not
great usually above zero F and the average lowest annual temperature
is —1 degree F. . On nine occasions in seventy years the temperature
fell to —10 degrees F and in two of these instances 1899 and January
of 1963 the extremes of twenty below zero were reached. Great
damage was inflicted in this last cold wave at Lexington due to the
progress in the economy and the absence of preparation for it.
Plumbing, even in new homes, burst from freezing, plant nursuries
suffered severe winter kill in their field stock and the entire peach
crop was dstroyed. There is no room for detailed analysis in this
article but the statement appears warranted that forethought and
simple devices would have prevented most if not all of the ‘damage
from the last cold wave.

But at Orlando, Florida, where the sensitive orchards are vulner-
able to temperatures from 32 degrees F downward, simple provisions
have not sufficed and elaborate and expensive protective devices had
to be installed. Also the need for such equipment is evident when the
record for the past 70 years at Orlando shows that only 14 of these
70 years were frost free (Fig. 4). During the “Cold Spell of 1934-
1944 not a single winter was frost free. The coldest winter of 1939-
1940 had 11 nights with frost or below 32 degrees F. On the coldest
night of 1940 the temperature fell to 20 degrees F and the protective
devices had to overcome at least 72 degree hours of freezing weather.
That such elaborate cold protecting devices and conserving equipment
had been installed in the Florida orchards proves what astonishing
adjustments thoughtful men can and will make when and where
necessary and desirable.

The periodicity shown by the graphs of minimum temepratures
for Orlando (Figs. 3, 4) raise many questions beyond the scope of
this paper but two features deserve remarks. First, figure 3, the
floating minimum temperature average, shows fluctation in the
freezing temperature totals but no definite trend either toward warmer
or colder weather can be positively stated. At present there appears a
warming trend since 1944 but to argue that this trend will continue
would be to predict startling changes in the not distant future. It ap-
pears much safer to assert that a cooling trend will set in but with no
more serious effects than in the past. Second, in figure 4, there is
evidence that “cold spells” and “warm spells do alternate and follow
each other. Since there appears no regularity in this fluctuation any
prediction would be questionable excepting to say that judging from
the past the Florida fruit districts are prepared for the worst in cold
waves.

46 J. R. Schwendeman

Notes and References:
The author composed and prepared all illustrations used. Data was

obtained from the United States Weather Bureau and from the United
States Department of Agriculture.

REFERENCES

Climatic Summary of the United States, Florida, United States Weather Bureau,
Jacksonville, Florida.

Climatic Summary of the United States, Kentucky, United States Weather Bureau,
Louisville, Kentucky.

Daily Weather Maps — December 11-14, 1962, United States Weather Bureau,
National Meteorological Center, Washington, D. C.

Local Climatological Data With Comparative Data, 1963, Lexington, Kentucky,
U.S. Department of Commerce, Weather Bureau, Supt. of Documents
Washington, D. C. (Most climatological data can be obtained from the U. S.
Weather Bureau, Ashville, North Carolina) —Also available for Orlando,
Florida.

Statistical Abstract of the United States, 1963, U. S. D. C, Washington, D. C. or
Supt. of Documents, Wash. D. C. (Current data can be obtained from the
Department of Agriculture, Statistical Reporting Service, Crop Production
and Crop Values.

FIRST RECORD FOR THE GREEN ALGAE, CHAETOMORPHA NODOSA
KUTZING IN UNITED STATES WATERS

PETER A. ISAACSON*
Marine Resources Operation, California Department of Fish and Game

In July of 1962 a single specimen of Chaetomorpha nodosa was
collected by a field party headed by Dr. Harold J. Humm of the Duke
University's Botany Department, near the Radio Island Breakwater at
Beaufort, North Carolina.

Measurements taken from the specimen after preservation in a
five percent solution of formalin sea water showed the cells to vary in
diameter from 75 to 100 Mu. The basal cell is clearly attached and
the proximal cells are some what elongated (Fig. 1). These measure-
ments compare favorably with those found in the species description
in Marine Algae of the Eastern Tropical and Subtropical Coasts of
America (aylor 1960 ).

Previous records of C. nodosa have been from French Guiania as
reported by Taylor (loc. cit.). This new record represents an extention
of the known range by approximately 2,600 miles and is therefore of
particular interest with regards to its distribution in the Western North
Atlantic.

Literature Cited

Taylor, W. R. 1960. Marine Algae of the Eastern Tropical and Subtropical Coasts
of the Americas. Univ. Mich. Press, Ann Arbor. 870 p.

* Present Address: State University of New York, Stony Brook, New York.

48

Peter A. Isaacson

Fig. 1.— Photomicrograph of Chaetomorpha Nodosa specimen.

Volume 26 1965 Numbers 3-4

TRANSACTIONS
of the KENTUCKY
ACADEMY of SCIENCE

Official Organ

Kentucky ACADEMY OF SCIENCE

CONTENTS

A Study of Hydrogen Bonding in Alcohol-Dioxane
Systems By Infrared Spectroscopy. Part II—
Primary Normal Alcohols.

Joun H. Watxkup, Larry Davis, and Gary MARQUARDT ....

A Study of A Clifty Creek Rock Shelter
L. Y. LANCASTER

Radiolysis of 1, 5, 9-Cyclododecatriene
RicHarp H. Wizey, N. T. Lrescoms, and W. H. Rivera...

Detecting Animals Tagged With Co® Through Air,
Soil, Water, Wood, and Stone.

MicHaEL J. HARVEY

A Case of Dichocephaly in Lampropeltis Doliata

Design Calculations for A Small Peltier Refrigerator
E. B. PENRop

Academy Affairs
Index to Volume 26

The Kentucky Academy of Science
Founded May 8, 1914

OFFICERS 1963-64

President: C. B. HaMaNN, Asbury College

President Elect: Joun M. CarnrPenTeR, University of Kentucky
Vice President: Ropert M. Boyer, University of Kentucky
Secretary: Dwicut M. Linpsay, Georgetown College
Treasurer: J. H. B. Garner, University of Kentucky

AAAS Council Representative: Many WHARTON, Georgetown College

~ EDITORIAL OFFICE

Raymonp E. Hampton, Editor
Department of Plant Pathology
University of Kentucky
Lexington, Kentucky 40506

Membership in the Kentucky Academy of Science is open to interested persons upon nomi-
nation, payments of dues, and election. Application forms for membership may be obtained
from the Secretary. The TRANSACTIONS are sent free to all members in good standing.

: Subscription rates for non-members are: domestic, $3.50 per volume; foreign, $4.00 per
volume.

The TRANSACTIONS are issued semi-annually. Four numbers comprise a volume.

Correspondence concerning memberships or subscriptions should be addressed to the
Secretary. Exchanges and correspondence relating to exchanges should be addressed to the
Secretary. Exchanges and correspondence relating to exchanges should be addressed, The
Librarian, University of Louisville, who is the exchange agent for the Academy. Manuscripts
and other material for publication should be addressed to the Editor.

A STUDY OF HYDROGEN BONDING IN ALCOHOL-DIOXANE SYSTEMS
BY INFRARED SPECTROSCOPY

PART II—PRIMARY NORMAL ALCOHOLS

JOHN H. WALKUP, LARRY DAVIS, and GARY MARQUARDT*
Centre College of Kentucky

In a previous paper (Walkup, Lyford, Marquardt, and Robinson,
1964) the effects of the structure of several substituted aliphatic
alcohols on the frequency shift in alcohol-dioxane systems were re-
ported. The absorption frequency of the monomer or free OH stretch
of the alcohol which occurs in the 3610-3640 cm! region was shifted
to the 3500 cm—' region on formation of a hydrogen-bond complex
with p-dioxane. When the concentrations of the alcohol and p-dioxane
were kept low, an equilibrium existed between the OH monomer form
and the O...H...: X hydrogen-bonded form of the alcohol (Becker,
1961) where :X is the electron donor, p-dioxane. The extent of the
frequency shift (Ay;) was found to be dependent on the structure
of the alcohol and on several other factors (Pimentel and McClellan,
1960).

In this paper, the results of a study of the hydrogen bonding be-
tween the primary normal alcohols (C,; — Cy¢) and p-dioxane in carbon
terachloride are reported. It is hoped that some conclusions about the
effect of the structure of the alcohol on the frequency shift (Ay:) can
be drawn.

The primary normal alcohols which were studied in dilute solutions
of p-dioxane in carbon tetrachloride were: methanol through n-dode-
canol, n-tetradecanol, and n-hexadecanol. The alcohols were grouped
so as to study the effect of lengthening the carbon chain.

Experimental

Spectra were obtained on a double-beam Perkin-Elmer model 337
grating infrared spectrometer equipped with an ordinate scale read-
out and used with a Sargent model’ SRL recorder. Using the expanded
ordinate and abscissa scales the frequency accuracy was estimated
at + 2 cm over the 4000 cm! to 3000 cm! region where the spectra
were taken. Reproducibility was found to be excellent.

The spectrometer used was linear in wave number, and the poly-
styrene absorption peaks at 4082.6 cm—! and 3002.8 cm! (Nakaniski,

* Present Address—Gary Marquardt, Medical School, University of Kentucky.

50 John H. Walkup, Larry Davis, and Gary Marquardt

1962) and at 2850.7 cm, 1601.4 cm, 1583.1 cm! and 1494.0 cm!
(Perkin-Elmer, 1964) were used to calibrate the recorder chart paper.
The absorption frequency of the free OH and hydrogen-bonded peaks
of the alcohol-dioxane system were obtained by using the 3002.8 cm—1
absorption peak of polystyrene film as a standard with each spectra.

The room was air-conditioned and held fairly constant at 22°
+ 1°C. The slit width was held constant at normal program. The
sample cells had Irtran 2 windows and were matched to a cell thick-
ness of 1.0 mm in all cases.

The alcohols used were obtained from the Polyscience Corpora-
tion in kits. The purity of the alcohols was at least 97%. The p-dioxane
and carbon tetrachloride were reagent grade meeting A.C.S. purity
specifications. The concentration of the alcohol in each case was
approximately 0.020 M to 0.30 M, and the concentration of the p-
dioxane was approximately 0.50 M. Several spectra for each alcohol-
dioxane system were taken, and an average of the absorption fre-
quencies was obtained. All alcohol-dioxane systems were run at least
two different times, and in some cases, new solutions were made up to
check reproducibility.

Discussion of Results

The absorption frequencies for the monomer OH stretch and the
hydrogen-bonded complex and the shift (Ay, ) between them are listed
in Table 1. Literature values for the monomer OH stretching fre-
quencies of some of the alcohols are also given (Barrow, 1955; Kuhn,
1952).

Table 1
Alcohol H-bond
with Free OH Complex Shift Free OH
p-dioxane in cm—! incm—! AY, in cm—1 References
Methyl 3643 3517 126 3642 Kuhn
Ethyl 3634 3511 128 3634 Barrow
nsPropyl 3636 3511 hls a PP Vb mig Mis) a
n-Butyl 3637 3510 127, 3636 Barrow
n-Amyl 3639 85138 D263 Oe Sa S AE TU aes pe arene
n-Hexyl 3637 3511 1 Lp 6 ee MR Sane BE Goran
n-Heptyl 3636 3510 ZB fe Sh ee ea Rennes
n-Octyl 3636 3510 DB oie lhe races yn, tale ela aoe ee
n-Nonyl 3636 3510 DB ai yer iia CsA NG TTL a cae
n-Decyl 3636 3510 TOG ee Care | ela aieeen
n-Undecy] 3636 3510 NGA 6 Heme ear mae ernie gt Ctr Sea
n-Dodecy]l 3636 3510 V265 GF ih eS | pees
n-Tetradecyl 3636 3510 TDG whit qeidegters sos ates!) nae Steamer

n-Hexadecyl 3636 3510 BOG: cio ee i Ue ee marae

A Study of Hydrogen Bonding 51

As shown by Fig. 1, the shift (Ayi) is seen to decrease when a
methyl group is added to the carbinol carbon and then increase when
the carbon chain is lengthened up to n-Butanol:

Shift, A7,.

0 a 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
Carbon Mumber

Fig. 1.— Primary normal alcohols vs. frequency shift (AyY,).

The shift (Ay,) is then decreased slightly and remains the same for the
higher normal alcohols (C;—Ci¢). The decrease in shift that occurs
when a methyl group is substituted on the carbinol carbon of the
alcohol is substantiated by Becker (1961) and by previous studies
(Walkup, Lyford, Marquardt and Robinson, 1964). As the carbon
chain is lengthened, the electron-pushing effect of the methyl group is
reduced and an increase in shift (Ay) is observed for n-Propyl and
n-Butyl alcohol. As the carbon chain is lengthened beyond n-Butyl
alcohol the electron-pushing effect of the methyl group is further
reduced. However, the steric hindrence of the lengthened carbon
chain brings about a slight reduction in shift (Ay) beyond n-Butyl
alcohol. Since the steric hindrence is approximately the same for all
the higher normal alcohols and the electron-pushing effect of the
methyl group is negligible there is no change in the frequency shift
(Ay1) past n-Amyl alcohol.

A comparison of Fig. 2 with Fig. 1 shows an interesting relation-
ship between the absorption frequency of the free OH stretch and
the frequency shift (Ay,) for the alcohol-dioxane systems studied.

oy John H. Walkup, Larry Davis, and Gary Marquardt

3650
3646
3682
3638

3634

Absorption frequency of free OH in cm—!.

fe) 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 164

Carbon Number

Fig. 2.— Primary normal alcohols vs. absorption frequency of free OH.

In general, the shift (Ay; ) increases as the frequency of the monomer
OH stretch increases. This relationship cannot be explained from the
limited data available, but it is probably due to the characteristics
of the solvents carbon tetrachloride and p-dioxane. Although some
work has already been done in this field (Allerhand and Schleyer,
1963) more work is needed concerning the effects of solvents on the
frequency shift in alcohol-base systems.

Summary

The absorption frequency of the monomer OH stretch and the
hydrogen-bonded complex are given for fourteen primary normal
alcohols in dilute solution with p-dioxane, a strong proton acceptor.
An attempt is made to relate the extent of the frequency shift (Ay)
between the free or monomer OH and the hydrogen-bonded complex
to th length of the carbon chain.

Acknowledgments

This work was made possible by a grant from the Petroleum Re-
search Fund of the American Chemical Society. The infrared spec-
trometer used in this study was obtained by a matching grant from
the National Science Foundation. The authors wish to express their
appreciation to the PRF and the NSF for the grants and to Dr. Harold
N. Hanson for his helpful suggestions.

A Study of Hydrogen Bonding 53

Literature Cited

Allerhand, A., and Schleyer, P.R. 1963. “Solvent Effects in Infrared Studies of
Hydrogen Bonding”, J. Am. Chem. Soc., 85: 371-380.

Barrow, G.M. 1955. “The Intensities of Infrared Hydroxyl Bands’, J. Phys. Chem.,

59: 1129-32.

Becker, 4.D. 1961. “Infrared Studies of Hydrogen Bonding in Alcohol-Base Sys-

tems’, Spectrochim. Acta., 17: 436-47.

Kuhn, L.P. 1952. “The Hydrogen Bond I. Intra- and Intermolecular Hydrogen
Bonds in Alcohols”, J. Am. Chem. Soc., 74: 2492-99.

Nakanishi, K. 1962. Infrared Absorption Spectroscopy. San Francisco: Holden-
Day, Inc.

Perkin-Elmer Instruction Manual, 1964. “Polystyrene Calibration Spectrum” p. 22.

Pimentel, G.C. and McClellan, A.L. 1960. The Hydrogen Bond. San Francisco:
W. H. Freeman and Company.
Walkup, J. H., Lyford IV, J., Marquardt, G., and Robinson, G. W., 1964. “A

Study of Hydrogen Bonding in Alcohol-Dioxane Systems by Infrared Spec-
troscopy”, Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci., 24: 101-105.

A STUDY OF A CLIFTY CREEK ROCK SHELTER

L. Y. LANCASTER

Western Kentucky State College
Bowling Green, Kentucky

Introduction

This site is in the Hadley Community, which is located in the north-
western part of Warren County. It is in the Big Clifty sandstone forma-
tion, about one half mile down Clifty Creek from the point where
U.S. Highway 231 crosses the stream. The county road that begins
at Rolling Springs Church and connects with Highway 231 runs under
the outer part of this shelter, and no doubt much material pertinent
to this study was lost when it was built.

In all probability the earliest settlers of this region observed that
this formation had been occupied by primitive man, and it is known
that for many years this has been a favorite spot for the activities of
amateur collectors of Indian relics. I became interested in this project
when Dr. Arch Cole, Dr. Edmund K. Hall, and I made a preliminary
collection of materials, and decided it was worth further study. Un-
fortunately, both of these fine gentlemen passed away before much
had been done on the investigation.

The nature of the shelter is such that the materials that were left
in it were well preserved. It is quite dry, and it appears that it has
been that way for a long time. The floor is covered about six inches
deep with a loose layer of sandy dust, that is upon a hard layer of
clay-like material. The layer of dusty material extended back into an
area where the ceiling was so low that the previous collectors avoided
this part of the shelter, and it was left undisturbed. There is evidence
that the activities of packrats contributed greatly to the preservation
of the bone material in this collection, because most of it was found
in the region where the ceiling was only a few inches above the floor
or in contact with it. The bones are broken in short pieces, but they
are otherwise in fine condition, except for some damage that was
done by gnawing animals.

Collecting Method

The artifacts were collected by shoveling the loose top layer of
the floor through a large sieve, made of a wood frame that held
5/16 mesh hardware cloth. The hard base layer was not disturbed ex-
cept for a few sampling operations, because no artifacts were found
in this stratum. A shovel with a flat bottom and a long handle, was

A Study of A Clifty Creek Rock Shelter

rahbtu uated

Fig. 1.— Map of the Rock House area.

used, and this tool made it possible to collect the materials in the
low part of the shelter.

Bones

The bone material was the most spectacular part of the collection.
Approximately a bushel of bones was collected, and most of them
were broken into lengths varying from two to three inches to eight
or ten inches. A large percentage of the pieces were about six inches
long. Bones that weer naturally not longer than six to eight inches
were not broken. Apparently, if the meat were cooked, it was done
by boiling it in kettles, because there is no evidence of scorching or
browning of the bones, which would be expected if the meat had

hs)

56 L. Y. Lancaster

been roasted or broiled. The bones were broken into lengths suitable
for cooking in medium sized pots, and since there were potsherds
present, it appears that the meat was stewed. There was a complete
deer metatarsal (cannon bone) that had been made into a tool, pre-
sumably to dress hides, during the tanning process. Human bones
were almost completely absent from the collection. Only a molar and
a few small bones were found.

Families and Species of Animals

There are twelve families and thirteen species of animals repre-
sented in this collection, as listed below:
Emydidae

Terrapene carolina—Box Turtle (6)*
Meleagridae

Meleagris gallopavo—Turkey (6)
Didelphidae

Didelphis marsupialis—Opossum (10)
Leporidae

Sylvilagus sp.—Rabbit (6)
Sciuridae

Sciuris sp.—Squirrel (1)

Marmota monax—Woodchuck (1)

Cricetidae

Neotoma floridana—Wood Rat (1)
Canidae

Urocyon cinereoargenteus—Gray Fox (1)
Ursidae

Ursus americanus—Black Bear (45)
Procyonidae

Procyon lotor—Raccoon (1)
Mustelidae

Mephitis mephitis—Striped Skunk (2)
Felidae

Mephitis mephitis—Striped Skunk (2)
Felidae

Felis concolor—Mountain Lion (2)

Cervidae
Odocoileus virginianus—White-tailed Deer (190)
Cervus canadensis—Elk (2)

* Number of specimens.

A Study of A Clifty Creek Rock Shelter 57

About half of the species represented in the bone collection are
now fairly common in the area of the rock shelter, and it is impossible
to determine which of these bones are from the kitchen refuse of
primitive man, or which are from a later inclusion. However, since
they were intermingled with the others, it seems logical to assume
that many of them were from animals eaten by primitive man.

Stone Artifacts

The amount of this material collected was small, which was not
surprising, since artifacts of this type were the objectives of the
numerous collectors, who had previously searched this location. There
are a few rough stone scrapers and seven complete, or almost com-
plete projectile points. There are two small and three larger triangular
points which are associated with the Woodland or Mississippian cul-
tures. Two of them are lanceolate with a neck and are not classified.
They probably belong to the Archaic Period.

Potsherds

About twenty pieces of broken pottery were found, representing
four known types:

O’Neal Plain (1) * Bell Plain (3)
Mulberry Creek Plain (6) Neeley’s Ferry Plain (9)

There is also a limestone and shell tempered piece which was not
classified.

Comments and Conclusions

It is evident that the Whitetail deer was a staple food animal of
primitive man at this rock shelter, for more than half of the identifiable
bones were of that species. The next most common animal represented
in this collection was the Black Bear. The bones of this animal con-
stitute about one fourth of the total collection. Less than one fourth
are from the other eleven species. However, this may be misleading,
for it seems reasonable to assume that the bones from the smaller
animals would be more likely to be destroyed, which would account
for the absence of the bones of other desirable food forms, such as
the muskrat. The author does not state emphatically that all of the
species that are listed were used for food, but that they probably
were so used. It is not difficult to imagine conditions when any species
that is listed would not be avidly eaten.

* Number of potsherds.

ie
imine

Fig. 2.— Tracings of the types of flint artifacts found in the Rock House.

The proportion of deer bones in this shelter is similar to the results
of investigations at the rock shelter at Modoc, in southern Illinois. (1)
The bones of Black Bear were also common at this place and at Rus-
sell Cave in northern Alabama. (1)

The absence of Bison bones at this site and also at the rock shelters
in Illinois and Alabama, seems at first to be quite odd, but according
to Dr. John E. Guilday of Carnegie Museum, these animals were
absent from southeast U.S. until early Colonial times, at which time

A Study of A Clifty Creek Rock Shelter 59

they crossed the Mississippi River from the west, and spread into this
area. The bones of Mastodon and Mammoth weer absent. They prob-
ably had become extince long before the beginning of the Woodland
and Mississippian cultural periods.

The types of pottery and flint artifacts found at this site both
indicate that it was occupied by primitive man during the Woodland
and Mississippian cultural periods. The presence of archaic men at
this place is inconclusive.

Acknowledgments

I owe a deep debt of gratitude to Dr. John E. Guilday, Associate
Curator, Section of Mammals, Carnegie Museum, for identifying the
bones, and also for other assistance. I thank the members of the
Department of Anthropology, University of Kentucky, for their as-
sistance in classifying the pottery.

Literature Cited

1. Brennan, Louis A. 1959 No Stone Unturned, Random House, Inc.

2. Schwartz, Douglas W. 1961 The Driskill Site. Transactions of the Kentucky
Academy of Science. Volume 23, Number 1-2.

3. Schwartz, Douglas W. 1961. A Key to Prehistoric Kentucky Pottery. Trans-
actions of the Kentucky Academy of Science. Volume 22.

4. Rolingson, M. A. 1961 The Kirtley Site. Transactions of the Kentucky Academy
of Science, Colume 22, Numbers 3-4.

5. Funkhouser, W. D. and Webb, W. S. 1928 Ancient Life in Kentucky. Ken-
tucky Geological Survey.

RADIOLYSIS OF 1,5,9-CYCLODODECATRIENE

RICHARD H. WILEY, N. T. LIPSCOMB, and W. H. RIVERA

Department of Chemistry, College of Arts and Sciences, University of Louisville
Louisville, Kentucky

The present study of the Co-60 gamma ray radiolysis of cyclo-
dodecatriene was undertaken to compare its radiation stability with
that of other cyclic hydrocarbons which differ in ring size and de-
gree and arrangement of unsaturation.

Experimental

The irradiations were carried out at an intensity of approximately
2.0x 10° rad/hr. A total of twenty-six samples were irradiated with
total doses ranging from 4.75 to 157.5 x 10° rad. The ferrous sulphate
dosimeter was used to calculate intensities. The radiation source was
similar to that described previously (Burton, et al., 1955). The cis-
trans-trans isomer of 1,5,9-cyclododecatriene used in this study was
obtained from the Cities Service Company. Samples were pipetted into
clean, Pyrex, break-seal tubes, degassed on a high vacuum system by
alternate freeze-thaw cycles, and sealed under vacuum. Irradiations
were carried out at approximately 18°C.

Analysis of the irradiated products was carried out as soon as pos-
sible after irradiation. Gases were collected and measured with a
Toepler pump. Separations were made of gases which were non-
condensable at —198°C. (liquid nitrogen), —120°C. (ethyl bromide
mush) and —78°C. (acetone-dry ice). These were considered to be
hydrogen, ethylene, acetylene, and a Cs fraction identified by gas
chromatography as a mixture of propene and propane. The Toepler
pump was so designed that after measurement of the gas volume, the
gas could be directly injected into the carrier gas stream of the vapor
phase chromatograph. The total measured volume of gaseous products
was injected into the carrier gas stream at one time. Analyses of
products were made by standard gas chromatography with a four
foot column of silica gel at 27°C. Nitrogen was used as a carrier gas
in the hydrogen determinations and helium was used for all others.
The products were identified by retention times based on compari-
sons with similar mixtures of known compounds. Similar results were
obtained with a dimethylsulfolane on diaomaceous earth column
packing (Perkin Elmer Vapor Fractometer). The results are given in
Table I as the average values for 14 different samples irradiated
for total doses of 4.75 to 157.5x 10® rad. Over this dose range there
is no dose dependence for the G values. The non-gaseous products were

Radiolysis of 1,5,9-Cyclododecatriene 61

not analyzed. Analysis with a column consisting of three inches of
activated charcoal followed by three feet nine inches of silica gel with
helium gas a carrier was used in an unsuccessful attempt to detect
methane in the product gases.

Table |
Average G-Values of the Products of the Radiolysis of Cyclododecatriene

Retention Time

Product G-Value Observed® Reported»
Acetylene 0.006 + 0.0005 2.48 2.43
Ethylene 0.005 + 0.0007 0.30 0.32
Propane‘ 0.0004 + 0.0008 0.70 0.65
Propene 1.18 1.14
Hydrogen 0.437 + 0.010

a Dimethylsulfolane on diatomaceous earth, helium, 32 cc./min., 38°, time in min.
from air peak.

b (Scholly and Brenner, 1961).

e Includes less than 5% propene.

Results and Discussion

The data on the G-values for the gaseous radiolysis products from
cyclododecatriene establish that the principal product is hydrogen
(G —0.437) and that gaseous ring cleavage products are formed in
smaller amounts (G — 0.015). The G(H:) value is intermediate be-
tween values of 5.37 for cyclohexane and 1.2 for cyclohexene (Free-
man, 1960) and values of 0.04 for benzene (Gordon and Burton, 1952)
and 0.02 for cycloéctatetraene (Shida, et al., 1958). The G (cleavage
products) of 0.015 is of the same order as values for benzene (0.020)
and cycloéctatetraene (0.018), and cyclohexene (0.015).

There are two factors usually considered in accounting for the
increased radiation stabilities of aromatic and alicyclic unsaturated
hydrocarbons. These are resonance stabilization of aromatic com-
pounds such as benzene and cage effects operative with the alicyclich
types such as cycloéctatetraene (Franck and Rabinowitch, 1934). The
absence of a planer structure in cyclododecatriene precludes reson-
ance stabilization. It is, therefore, concluded that the low G( H») value
for this compound, as with other unsaturated alicyclic types, is to be
attributed to cage effects. The presence of allylic hydrogen atoms ac-
counts for the somewhat larger G(H») as compared to that of cyclo-
6ctatetraene which has no such allylic hydrogen atoms.

The ring fragmentation products are somewhat unusual. The ab-
sence of butadiene, which was carefully checked, is noteworthy be-
cause cyclododecatriene can be considered to be a trimer thereof.
The products formed require decomposition and fragmentation pat-

62 Richard H. Wiley, N. T. Lipscomb, and W. H. Rivera

terns which are not yet completely understood. As with other cyclic
hydrocarbons irradiated in the liquid state, only a limited variety of
cleavage products are formed. All of the products identified have
been observed as radiolysis products of other acyclic hydrocarbons.
Acknowledgment: This research was supported in part under Con-
tract AT-(40-1)-2055 between the Atomic Energy Commission and
the University of Louisville. The authors are grateful for this assistance.

Summary

Cobalt-60 gamma irradiation induced decomposition of liquid cis-
trans-trans 1,5,9-cyclododecatriene at 2 x 10° rad/hr. and total doses of
4.75 to 157.5 x 10° rad gives hydrogen (G = 0.487), acetylene (G =
0.006), ethylene (G—0.005), and propane/propene (G — 0.0004).
These G(H.) values are intermediate between those for cyclohexene
(G=1.2), benzene (G=—0.04), and cycloéctatetraene (G = 0.02)
and the yield of cleavage products is of the same magnitude as for
benzene and cycloéctatetraene. These low values indicate a stability

attributable to cage effects.

Literature Cited

Burton, M., Ghormley, J. A., and Hochandel, C. J., 1957. Design of an Inexpensive
High-Intensity Gamma Source. Nucleonics. 13: 10: 74-77.

Franck, J., and Rabinowitch, E. 1934. Some remarks about Free Radicals and
the Photochemistry of Solutions. Trans. Faraday Soc. 30: 120-131.

Freeman, G. R. 1960. The Radiolysis of Cyclohexane. Can. J. Chem. 38: 1043-1052.

Gordon, S., and Burton, M. 1952. Radiation Chemistry of Pure Organic Com-
pounds: Benzene and Benzene-d,. Disc. Far. Soc. 12: 88-98.

Scholly, P. R., and Brenner, N. 1961. Comparative Retention Values of Representa-
tive Sample Types on Standard Gas Chromatography Columns. Gas Chro-
matography. Ed. Noebels, H. J., Wall, R. F., and Brenner, N., Academic
Press, New York.

Shida, S., Yamazaki, and Oroi, S. 1958. Radiation Stability of Liquid Cyclo-
octatetraene. J. Chem. Phys. 29: 245, 246.

DETECTING ANIMALS TAGGED WITH Co*® THROUGH
AIR, SOIL, WATER, WOOD, AND STONE

MICHAEL J. HARVEY
Department of Zoology, University of Kentucky, Lexington

Since radioactive tagging of animals to trace position and move-
ments is being so widely used in ecological work with various verte-
brate animals (Griffin, 1952; Godfrey, 1953, 1954a, 1954b, 1955;
Jenkins, 1954; Pendleton, 1956; Karlstrom, 1957; Punt and van Nieu-
wenhoven, 1957; Miller, 1957; Kaye, 1960, 1961; Gifford and Griffin,
1960; Johanningsmeier and Goodnight, 1962; Barbour, 1963; Harvey
and Barbour, 1965), it is desirable to obtain data on the effectiveness
of the radioactive source for locating tagged animals. The purpose
of this study was to measure the range at which a tag of approxi-
mately 45 microcuries of Co® could be detected with a portable radia-
tion detector through air or when the tag was located at various
depths beneath soil, water, wood, or stone.

Tags used were 45 microcuries of Co® alloy wire 0.7mm in diam-
eter and 2.5 mm long, which have been found adequate for marking
voles, Microtus ochrogaster, (Barbour, 1963; Harvey and Barbour,
1965) and moles, Scalopus aquaticus, (Harvey and Barbour, in m.s.).

Detection apparatus consisted of a Victoreen model 489 Thyac II
transistorized portable survey meter equipped with scintillation probe,
earphones, and shoulder strap.

To determine range of detection through air, the probe was placed
successively at 0.5 ft. intervals from a tag, and readings in counts per
minute were taken at each distance. This procedure was repeated
until a distance was reached that gave a reading of less than twice
the normal background radiation (background was usually 600-1000
counts per minute, depending on the particular survey meter used).
Two times background was considered the minimum count neces-
sary to detect a tag.

Range of detection through soil, water, wood, and stone was meas-
ured by placing a tag beneath 0.5 ft. of the material and then taking
readings at 0.5, 1, 2, 3 ft., etc., from the surface of the material until
a reading of less than two times background was obtained. The tag
was then placed successively under 1, 1.5, 2 ft., ete., of the material
and the procedure repeated.

Results are given in Tables 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5.

Because of variations in the amount of normal background radia-
tion and differences in the sensitivity of survey meters used, the results

64 Michael J. Harvey

presented in Tables 1-5 are not precise. Readings through other types
of stone, soil, etc. would no doubt give somewhat different results.
However, it is believed that this study gives a useful estimate of the
range of detection through these substances which will aid in de-
termining tag strengths needed for future studies.

Table 1.— Range of detection through air of a 45-microcurie Co®? tag. All readings are
expressed as approximate times normal background radiation.

Distance Through Approximate Times
Air (ft.) Background
0.5 53.3+
1.0 34.7
1.5 25.0
2.0 20.3
2.5 17.4
3.0 11.9
3.5 9.5
4.0 6.9
4.5 5.9
5.0 4.6
Dib 4.0
6.0 3.2
6.5 Pet
7.0 2.3
ao 2.0
8.0 <2

Table 2.— Range of detection through soil of a 45-microcurie Co® tag. All readings are
expressed as approximate times normal background radiation.

Distance Through Air (ft. )

31°53 16.6 10.0 4.3

11.3 8.7 3.5 2.6 Zils <2 <2
2.7 2.2 <2 <2 <2
2.2 <2

<2

Distance Through Soil (ft.)

Detecting Animals 65

Table 3.— Range of detection through water of a 45-microcurie Co® tag. All readings are
expressed as approximate times normal background radiation.

Distance Through Air (ft. )

0.5 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0

0.5 0 4.0 3.0 2.0 <2
1.0 § 15.3 Tod 4.0 229 2.6 2.2 <2
1.5 7.8 5.0 3.4 2.5 Bae <2

.0 <2

Distance Through Water (ft. )

Table 4.— Range of detection through wood of a 45-microcurie Co® tag. All readings are
expressed as approximate times normal background radiation.

Distance Through Air (ft. )

0.5 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0

1/2 oak)

Distance Through Wood (ft. )

(1/2 pine,

66 Michael J. Harvey

Table 5.— Range of detection through stone of a 45-microcurie Co®? tag. All readings are
expressed as approximate times normal background radiation.

Distance Through Air (ft. )

0.5 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0

Distance Through Stone (ft. )
(Solid Limestone)

Literature Cited
Barbour, R. W. 1963. Microtus: A simple method of recording time spent in the
nest. Science, 141: 41.
Gifford, E. E. and D. R. Griffin. 1960. Notes on homing and migratory behavior
of bats. Ecology, 41: 378-381.
Godfrey, G. K. 1953. A technique for finding Microtus nests. Journal of Mam-
malogy, 34: 503-505.
. 1954a. Tracing field voles (Microtus agrestis) with a Geiger-Muller
counter. Ecology, 35: 5-10.
. 1954b. Use of radioactive isotopes in small mammal ecology. Nature
(London), 174: 951-952.
. 1955. A field study of the activity of the mole (Talpa europaea).
Ecology, 36: 678-685.
Griffin, D. R. 1952. Radioactive tagging of animals under natural conditions.
Ecology, 33: 329-335.
Harvey, M. J. and R. W. Barbour. 1965. Home range of Microtus ochrogaster as
determined by a modified minimum area method. Journal of Mammalogy,
46: 398-402.
Jenkins, D. W. 1954. Advances in medical entomology using radioisotopes. Ex-
perimental Parasitology, 3: 474-490.
Johanningsmeier, A. G. and C. J. Goodnight. 1962. Use of Iodine-131 to measure
movements of small animals. Science, 138:147-148.
Karlstrom, E. L. 1957. The use of Co®® as a tag for recovering amphibians in the
field. Ecology, 38: 187-195.
Kaye, S. V. 1960. Gold-198 wires used to study movements of small mammals.
Science, 131: 824.
. 1961. Movements of harvest mice tagged with Gold-198. Journal of
Mammalogy, 42: 232-337.
Miller, L. S. 1957. Tracing vole movements by radioactive excretory products.
Ecology, 38: 132-136.
Pendleton, R. C. 1956. Uses of marking animals in ecological studies: Labeling
animals with radioisotopes. Ecology, 37: 686-689.

Punt, A. and P. J. van Nieuwenhoven. 1957. The use of radioactive bands in
tracing hibernating bats. Experientia, 13: 51-54.

A CASE OF DICHOCEPHALY IN LAMPROPELTIS
DOLIATA TRIANGULUM

CARL H. ERNST
Department of Zoology, University of Kentucky, Lexington

As a result of an article on dichocephaly in Natrix s. sipedon (Ernst,
1960, Bull. Phila. Herp. Soc. 8(5):17), I learned that there was a
snake with the same anomaly in the collection of Columbia High
School, Columbia, Pennsylvania. Upon investigating, I found the snake
to be a juvenile female Lampropeltis d. triangulum.

I could find no information on the capture of the snake with the
exception that it had been at the high school since before 1945. The
snake is preserved in formaldehyde, despite this, the pattern is still
very clear, even though the colors are somewhat faded. The ground
color is a grayish-brown with darker brown blotches outlined in dark
brown along the dorsal length of the body. The ventral side has a
series of dark brown, squarish blotches along the length of the body.
The normal head pattern for this subspecies is very pronounced.
The scales are smooth and the vent is not divided. A summary of the
snake’s measurements follows: length of right head 11.8 mm; length
of left head 11.6 mm; width of right head 5 mm; width of left head
4.8 mm; length, junction of heads to tail tip 195 mm; length, junction
of heads to vent 148 mm; tail length 47 mm.

The heads diverge in the region of the cervical vertebrae. Fusion
occurs in the gular region with a membrane of skin loosely connecting
the heads ventrally which gives the area between the heads a webbed
appearance. Scalation for the right head is as follows: supralabials
7/7, infralabials 8/8, oculars 1-2, temporals 2-2; for the left head:
supralabials 7/7 ,infralabials 6/7, oculars 1-2, temporals 2-3. Each
head has a loreal, two nasals, and a nostril lateral. The ventrals number
209 and the subcaudals 48.

There are numerous references on this subject, one of the most
common reptile anomalies; however, like most anomalies it is rare
in occurence. Belloumini (1949, Mem. Inst. Butantan 28:85-89) lists
only six cases in 700,000 snakes in the Institute Butantan records. He
also refers to this form of dichocephaly as derodymous, after the
classification of the various types of duplication in reptiles proposed
by Nakamura (1938, Mem. Coll. Sci. Kyoto Univ., series B, 14:
171-181). Belluomini describes derodymous as double-headed with
the vertebral column bifurcate in the cervical region. He also includes
in his paper a bibliography of some Latin American publications on

68 Carl H. Ernst

this condition. Cunningham (1937, Axial Bifuriation in Snakes,
Duke Univ. Press, 117 pp.) has made a major study of anomalies of
this sort in snakes. Meyer (1958, Herpetologica 14(2):128) notes
this occuring in Heterodon platyrhinos, and Triplehorn (1955,
Copeia (3): 248-9) reports a Storeria dekayi with one head and two
bodies. Steward (1961, Brit. Jour. Herp. 3(1):18) and Curry-Lindahl
(1963, Brit. Jour. Herp. 3(4): 81) note dichocephaly in the Euro-
pean viper, Vipera b. berus. Klauber (1956, Rattlesnakes, Univ. of Cal.
Press, Berkely and Los Angeles, 2 vol.) and Neill (1960, Bull. Phila.
Herp. Soc. 8(6): 7) list other species of snakes with this disorder.

I would like to thank Louis Sweger and Robert Koppehele for
permission to examine the specimen, and Norman Rathman for the
loan of references.

DESIGN CALCULATIONS FOR A SMALL PELTIER REFRIGERATOR

E. B. PENROD

Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Kentucky, Lexington

Introduction

In general, Peltier refrigerators will not be competitive with con-
ventional units until semiconductors are available that have a figure
of merit considerably in excess of 3 & 10—* °C—!. However, where
inital cost and efficiency are of secondary importance, Peltier devices,
refrigerators, and air conditioners will be used in special application
(1, 2, 3, 4). Peltier refrigerators require less space than vapor com-
pression and absorption systems and are free from vibration since
they have no moving parts unless fans are used.

Recently the Carrier Corporation installed 28 thermoelectric air
conditioners for heating and cooling the office building of S. C. John-
son & Son at Racine, Wisconsin. Each unit has a heating and cooling
capacity of 6000 and 4000 B hr—', respectively, at design conditions.
The late Frank Lloyd Wright designed the building, and its struc-
ture was such that the thermoelectric air conditioners could be
installed at a cost less than that for conventional equipment and,
furthermore, without marring the beauty of the edifice.

The Research Division of the American-Standard Corporation
designed, built, and delivered a thermoelectric air conditioner (Fig. 1)
to the Engineer Research and Development Laboratory of the Army
Corps of Engineers. The unit has a cooling capacity of 6000 B hr—!
at design conditions. It consists of four modules each having 100
thermocouples, and the assembly weighs approximately 85 pounds.
The above thermoelectric air conditioners are applications of the
Peltier heat pump principle where initial cost and efficiency are of
secondary importance.

In building Peltier refrigerators and/or electric generators it is
necessary to insert metallic connectors (Fig. 2, Fig. 3, and Fig. 4) in
the electric circuits (5, 6). According to the law of intermediate
metals, “the insertion of an additional metal into any circuit does not
alter the whole electromotive force in the circuit, provided the addi-
tional metal is entirely at the temperature of the point of the circuit
at which it is inserted.” The data listed below apply to iron-copper,
antimony-bismuth, and bismuth telluride p-n thermocouples when
their hot and cold junctions are at 40°C and —5°C, respectively. The
low values of the Seebeck coefficient S*”* and the figure of merit Z,,

70 E. B. Penrod

Thermoelements Esp ¥ Sane: uv° ol Zee en

Fe - Cu 497 ey 0.005 x 1073
Sb - Bi 5039 109. 4 0.363 x 1073
Big Te, (p-n) 19230 423 2.687) = 0m

for iron-copper and antimony-bismuth thermocouples indicate clearly
why over 125 years have elapsed since Lenz froze a droplet of water
using an antimony-bismuth thermocouple, until a Peltier ice making
system (Fig. 5) was manufactured (3, 7).

HEAT TRANSFER FINS

COLD SIDE GRILL
INSULATION COVER

aa FIN COVER

FANS
TURNING VANES

PLENUM

HOT SIDE GRILL FIN COVER
MOUNTING
WALL
PARTITION

THERMOELECTRIC AIR CONDITIONER
CUTAWAY VIEW (COLD SIDE)

Fig. 1.— “Schematic shows the general configuration and conditioned air cireula-
tion for a pre-engineering model air to air thermoelectric air conditioner. This air
conditioner was developed for the purpose of evaluating the use of thermoelectric
cooling and heating for U.S. Army military vans and_ shelters. Commander
USAERDL, Fort Belvoir, Virginia.” Photograph used by permission.

Design Calculations for A Small Peltier Refrigerator 71

=

COED

Fig. 2.— A module consisting of three thermocouples connected in electrical series
in which heat fluxes are in parallel flow. Additional conducting material is inserted
to connect the thermocouple arms.

Derivation of Principal Equations

In Fig. 3 assume that the switch is connected to the battery and
that steady state conditions prevail. The system is then a Peltier
refrigerator consisting of a single thermocouple that transfers heat

power Q from a medium at one temperature to another at a higher
temperature.* Furthermore assume that the (a) material properties
are non-temperature dependent, (b) Thomson heat power and heat
power transferred through the lateral surfaces of the thermocouple
arms are negligibly small, and (c) the arms are of constant cross-
section and equal in length. The Peltier emf’s at the hot and cold
JUNCHONS ares raph ——= Uy Sapn ANG rape =— Lo! Sane;

and the corresponding heat power terms are Qa, == I aan, and

Orie == Varite (Fig. 4). The total emf of the thermocouple is E,, =
Sap (th — te) since Saon = Sane = Sap for the case under consideration

(618) 9).

The heat power entering the section of a thermocouple arm ( Fig. 1)
2
digt

dt : dQ :
isQ,==—kA za and that leaving is @ |, 4. oe ee se el kA ee oe

* See list of principal symbols used.

12 E. B. Penrod
: : dQ . dt
a PAE Oi ae Ro Oey ae, oe
neglecting second and higher order terms in the Taylor expansion. The

Joule heat power developed within the section is d Q; =p idx) Av
By the first law of thermodynamics the heat power balance is

; ee ; 2 2
Ox — Ox4ax + d Qs = 0. Substituting equals yields > i a5 280)

x
3
+
a
7

(
! BATTERY
fee
WIL LLL LMI NTE ST)

CLL LLL LIMITS TLD
XX RANA NINAXR SSS

NNN SINS Henan
' ; | INSULATION

HOT
JUNCTION

Fig. 3.— Diagram of a Peltier refrigerator and/or thermoelectric generator. The
temperatures of the hot and cold junctions are t, and t,, respectively. When the
switch is connected to the battery the thermocouple is a refrigerator, and when
connected to the load it is a generator. As 8, the ratio of the Joule heat power to
the Fourier heat power, increases from 2 to infinity, maximum of temperature in the
thermocouple arms shifts from x = 0 to x = L/2.

Design Calculations for A Small Peltier Refrigerator 13

t x
Introducing the dimensionless ratios 6 = Re and 7” a ,

Eq. 1 becomes

p 2
ACh.
—— , where At=t, -t
due 1A Se
L
2 D
: Smee eee At Qy Te te a
LetQ =L— I*, Q spe ON eg op eI Ge pec ee
J A F L Qr k Ao At /
d2¢
Then eG ts B = 0, for either arm. (2)
d

a

The general solution of Eq. 1 is ¢= Gy tic lie 5 B n2

1 x2
Ue ees
2

Onate= At eo + cy ie? (3)

co
L

Applying the boundary conditions t = t, for x ='o'and t = te

for x = Lto Eq. 3 gives a particular solution of Eq. 1, namely

a (8 vecaen x |
tot rat{ - 4 -Le%, : (4)
72. OL Fe. x2
or t= a Nee A 20S eee gg (gee Saree
ee eee (= oo

The temperature profile for either arm may be obtained by substi-
tuting appropriate data in Eq. 4 when the thermocouple functions as
a refrigerator or thermoelectric generator.

The temperature gradient in the thermocouple arms is

Gis a At x hy 2,

dx a ney an i

or dt at | ew Ci pe)
a ga ne maa

For $& = 0, let x = x and t = tue Then
nN
pts

or x -(
m

(6)

©

ra *C

74 E. B. Penrod

HOT JUNCTION COLD JUNCTION

/\ RM "bp"

Pp

Fig. 4.— Schematic showing a Peltier refrigerator consisting of a single thermo-
couple with additional metal inserted in the electric circuit. Thermal insulation
is not shown. (A) If the hot junction is considered as a thermodynamic system

it is evident that ow — Q, _ 3Q, _—, — 0. (b) Similarly, for the cold junction
Q.+ SOle. _ Ow = 0. (c) Again, if the entire thermocouple is taken as a

4

thermodynamic system P + Q. _ Q, =)
AMBIENT (32°)

COOLING SURFACE
ee TOI one
PROTECTION

CL hk COLD JUNCTIONS
EEE | DE | PE
PERL PEPE PETE ey renee
REE | Eee | ee J
KSERREENE NGAGE NG NG ATE NENG NGC ENGNG NEES INTERFACE
KEAIFISIIICIINIMINIIOY
UH I im!
j j ) |
j j

} j | i HEATING SURFACE

3 EE. GS GSR SR
= ee ee ee
—
Se eee

ama =
TEGAN

ee en
Sa

SINK

THERMOELECTRIC HEAT TRANSFER BAW 29533
SYSTEM FOR ICE FREEZING

Fig. 5.— Cross-sectional view of one of several modules in a Peltier ice making
system. D. C. current enters the p-arms and leaves from the n-arms thereby pump-
ing heat downward through the p-n thermoelements in parallel heat flow, which
is transferred to a transport fluid by fins. Courtesy of the York Corporation, York, Pa.

Design Calculations for A Small Peltier Refrigerator 75

where x, is the distance from the hot uae to the point of maxi-
mum temperature. When the parameter B = 2, the maximum temper-
ature is at the hot junction (Fig. 3 and Fig. 6), and no Joule heat
power is conducted through the thermocouple arm to that junction
(10).

Multiplying Eq. 5 by —k A yields

rc

c : 1
Oe eee

At the hot and cold junctions x equals 0 and L, respectively. Substi-
tuting 0 for x in Eq. 7 gives

Ce eG -5)@, ie ae a3)

Smilarly, substituting L for x in Eq. 7 yields

2
; : . 1 OC = ae)
Ge Ri QA WA S1N2) Ona)

Ioffe, Jaumot, and others report erroneously that half of the Joule
heat power goes to each junction. Eqs. 8 and 9, and Fig 7 show clearly
how the Joule heat power splits and the amount of heat power that is
conducted to each junction (3, 11, 12). In terms of properties and
prescribed conditions Eq. 7 can be written as

Nee depen, Pile x
= =. Se 55 10
ou Isa oe ee Lana (10)
From Eq. 10 it can be seen that the heat power conducted to the hot
and cold junctions, respectively, is given by the equations

2

3 At =LPl (11)
Oe ae Is 2A

: nf At LPI (12)
and Oe ee aa:

for each thermocouple arm. For the entire thermocouple Eqs. 11
and 12 can be written as

: A i NG
Vee eee oh
At) Sp 1 2
and oe an y is ES | yall Diels (14)

76 E. B. Penrod

L i
where /kA=k, A +k, A, and /, P/A =f, PN

In Fig. 4 take the hot junction as a thermodynamic system. Ac-
cording to the first law of thermodynamics

= . . . ° a .
“@, . Ob -) Oyo yous Qi, - Qabh eye oe i
ee bm]
ye a eee _ bt
Therefore, Q,, = I TT + 5 | yaa eee 2 L » k A. (15)

Similarly, if the cold junction is taken as a thermodynamic system

TEMPERATURE PROFILE

30

rhe

J 2 3
DISTANCE

be FROM HOT JUNCTION, c

Fig. 6.— Variation of temperature along the thermocouple arms “a” and “b”.
Curves A and B show the variation of temperature in a design for maximum
CER,,, and curves C and D show the variation of temperature in a design for

maximum cooling capacity Q,,,- Curve E is the locus of maximum temperature
for 2 << 8 < «. The Joule heat power splits at points of maximum temperature

for 2 <8 < «. For 8 = 2 none of the Joule heat power is conducted to the hot
junction.

Design Calculations for A Small Peltier Refrigerator ail

+
wl
e|
eis

+2 Qr Qe +3Q;
_5At +3 Q, 2Q, +F Q,
clea cz oP RE -P e
0 Bar _at QyF0 é Que
(At#0) ual [ S Qr f | Qr
: nee | =e
(at=0) igi aed) | gone 1a a (9

a eS

Fig. 7.— Variation of maximum temperature, temperature gradient, Joule heat
power transferred to the hot and cold junctions of a Peltier refrigerator consisting
of a single thermocouple versus the coupling parameter . x,, is the distance of
the point of maximum temperature t,, in the thermocouple arms from the hot
junction. @ is the ratio of the irreversible Joule heat power to the irreversible
Fourier heat power.

Z Ne
Quaoiet -2 LP) p/a-4t) ka. (16)

If the entire thermocouple is taken as a thermodynamic system, then

P+Q.—Q,=0, and P= Q,—Q..

vw
y) :
= J(u Sin
Therefore, P = I ( ane anes: Bi tay Aaa) Be (17)
Let Q = Ook: and I = ‘me (the optimum current for maximum
cooling capacity) for :
3 Q.
a = 0 Then
TT
ie abe é (18)
: Ly) p/ A
Ete 1 PN At )
re Ccrmio teas Fle) fA a oe A (19)
By definition CER: 2c. (20)
P

78 E. B. Penrod

2 A i

Therefore, CER = 5 (21)
Te See) ee ene eS
See ae oie
Let CER = 2 P (22)
fil+b i
where a=T7 ae P/A c2 t)KA cli WN
abc’ L z 16; ei = "abh ~ “abe
z - S(CER)
Let CER = Cais, and I = Tae for SI = 0.
+Vv2 b Z
ee 1 = 2 be 9 be (2 af +f? + 2 be) (23)
ma b (2a + f)
1 2
el IE = bl =3C
and CE Re = = 2 Oo
HS afl te re (24)

The critical temperature difference between the hot and cold
junctions is

m2 :
Se a sO EE Eq. 30, ref. 8
2), kA. , p/A
The figure of merit and Carnot CER are
S 2
b
Zien = (Bq. 63. rete

Gare ae)

Ab:
and Carnot CER = pods ROSE

+ respectively. Eq. 95, ref. 13
Te alee

Calculations For A Single Stage Refrigerator
Design conditions:
Capacity, 300 watts (1024 B hia)

Ambient or room air temperature, 35°C (95°F)
Cold chamber temperature, —5°C (23°F)

Design Calculations for A Small Peltier Refrigerator 79

Prescribed conditions:
Bismuth-telluride (Bi, Tes) thermoelements
Sap == Opn = 424 av “GC (eter to reference 6)
fe — 2 Ol em
Db — DD, — Oem
tn = 40°C (104°F)
t. == —10°C (14°F)
At = 50°C

Properties:
kik, = 0.0130 watt cm! °C
Kk 0.0155 watthcm.. C=.
px — pp = 0:00125 ohm cm
pv = pn = 0.00110 ohm cm
Density: p-type Bi, Te; = 7.4 gm cm—*
n-type Bi, Te; = 7.8 gm cm

Values applicable in designs for max. CER,, and max. Qem

a te 973 > 40 313K

ieee tte 7 — = 263k

A 0.7854 D2 — 0.7854 & 0./- = 0.38848 cm"
V=LA=05 x 0.8848 — 0.1924 cm?

k, A, = 0.0130 x 0.38848 — 0.0050 watt cm °C—}

k, Ap = 0.0155 x 0.3848 — 0.006 watt cm °C!

+k A —0.005 + 0.006 — 0.011 watt cm °C

pa/ Ag — 0.00125 — 0.3848 = 0.003248 ehm cm!
pv/ Ay = 0.0011 ~ 0.3848 = 0.002858 ohm cm!
Sp/A = 0.003248 + .0002858 — 0.006106 ohm cm!

ee i) p/A = 0.5 x 0.006106 = 0.003053 ohm
Jk, ?, =/0.015 x 0.00125 = 4.0311 x 1073

Vib Py =V¥ 000155) x ONO0Il = 4) 1292) tne

Lane
See (424 x 1078)
Wp) ab Pe CGU NA bi) Sarena Gait etait el Sen ein ee
160. ea SOMITE ee i z
CE ae A, ) (4.0311 1078 2 4292 dOe eye
212 Oil
1: 263 Zaiox lO c
Carnot © R= ee = 5 260
ayes 313 21263

80 E. B. Penrod
ae 7
abhi Un Sapn ols 424 107° =/psrgo7 vol

The = De Sabc = 263 x 424 x 1ono== 0.1115 volt

; (0. 1115)"
TT Ms (e)
Ne ey BDC Be re ea One

er C
2\ KA. y, PLA 2 x 0.011 x 0. 006106

— k A= x0.005 = 0.5 watt

Qp yp At ky Ay = 2% x 0.006 = 0. 6 watt

ys ie 5
Ve. ake SN _ 50 :
aR eS fee eC Oe Ue

Design calculations for max CER A

2Qbe + ¥ 2be (2af + f2 + 2bc) (23)
as b (2a + f)
a=Tope ~ 9. lito, b= L) P/A = 0.5 x 0.006106 = 0. 003053,
At 50
e = —SkA=—X 0.011=1.10, f = mann — mane = 0.1827 — 0.1115
L 0.5

= 0.0212 and f? = 0.00044944. Substituting in Eq. 23 gives I, =
20.9974 amperes for max. CERn.

2. Joule heat power for entire thermocouple
= Qs = LIn? 5 p/A = 0.5 & (20.9974)? x 0.006106 = 1.3460 wts

3. Value of parameter £,, for the thermocouple

Naess
LQ; 1. 3460

By = =? = 1, 2236
Noi 0

4, ‘Heat power transferred from hot junction to environment

: 1 At
Qn =I apn + —LIn? 3 p/A——SKkA (15)
2 ie

=_

; 1
Qn = 20.9974 « 0.1327 + — x 0.5 « (20.9974)? x 0.006106 —
2

a

50
— X 0.011 = 2.3593 watts
0.5

10.

lt

12.

Design Calculations for A Small Peltier Refrigerator 81

Peltier heat power developed at the hot junction
Oavn = Im Tavn = 20.9974 X 0.1327 = 2.7863 watts

Peltier heat power developed at the cold junction
Qabe = Im mabe = 20.9974 X 0.1115 = 2.3452 watts

Heat power transferred from cold chamber to cold junction

: 1 At
QO. = Im tare —- — L In? Sp/A-——ZkA (16)
2 i

1 50

Q. = 20.9974 x 0.1115 —— x 0.5 x (20.9974)? x 0.006106 — —
2 0.5

x 0.011

Q. = 0.5722 watt

Power supplied for max. CER

P= 1h) (maps — Tave) + Ldn? & p/A (17)
P — 20.9974 (0.1827 —0.1115) + 0.5 (20.9974)? 0.006106 =
1.7911 watts

Maximum cooling energy ratio

Q-
Chk ———
P
0.5722
CER. — — (0.3195 versus Carnot CER — 5.26
1.7911

Thermocouples required for max. CERy,
300 watts — 0.5722 watts couple! = 524 thermocouples
TJse 6 modules each containing 100 thermocouples

Mass of p-type Bi, Te; thermoelements
V=AL— 0.3848 cm? 0.5 cm = 0.1924 cm?
M, = 7.4 X 0.1924 = 1.4238 grams/thermocouple
Total mass — 1.4238 « 600 = 854.28 grams

Mass of n-type Bi, Tes thermoelements
M, = 7.8 < 0.1924 — 1.4997 grams/thermocouple
Total mass = 1.4997 « 600 = 899.82 grams

Design calculations for max. Qem:

48 Es

Tabe

ee
0.1115

1, = ———————_
0.5 x 0.006106

— 36.5215 amperes and I,” = 1333.82

82

bo

E. B. Penrod

Joule heat power for entire thermocouple
Dy Q; = LI,? 3 p/A=0.5 X 1838.82 x. 0.006106 = 4.0722 watts
Value of parameter 2,» for the entire thermocouple

ner 4.0722

Si ree = 31020
yer 1.10

Heat power transferred from hot junction to environment

: 1 At
Qi = Io mann + — LIL? Sp/A-——3kA (15)
2 L

“ l 50

Qn = 36.5215 x 0.13827 + — x 0.5 x 1333.82 x 0.006106 - —
2 0.5

x 0.011

O, = 5.7825 watts

Peltier heat power developed at the hot junction

Onn = I, wapn = 36.5215 & 0.1327 = 4.8464 watts

Peltier heat power developed at the cold junction

Qave = Io mane = 36.5215 X 0.1115 = 4.0721 watts

Heat power transferred from cold chamber to cold junction

: ul At
Qem = Io mabe — — Lp? & p/A-—SkA (16)
2 L

1

Oem = 36.5215 & 0.1115 — — x 05 x 1833.82 0.006106 =
2

(0.9360 watt

Power supplied for max. OF
| ifn 1 (raph —Tabe) += L se > p/A (GE)
P = 36.5215 0.0212 + 0.5 x 1333.82 « 0.006106 — 4.8465 wts.

Cooling energy ratio

cm

Q
CERI= 2 (20)

0.9360
CER = 0.1931 versus Carnot CER = 5.26
4.8465

Design Calculations for A Small Peltier Refrigerator 83

10. Thermocouples required for max. Ox,
300watts — 0.9360 watts couple—! = 320.51 thermocouples
Use 4 modules each containing 100 thermocouples

1l. Mass of p-type Bi, Tes thermoelements
M, = 7.4 < 0.1924 = 1.4238 grams/thermocouple
400 1.4238 = 569.52 grams

12. Mass of n-type Bi, Te; thermoelements
M, — 7.8 < 0.1924 — 1.4997 grams/thermocouple
Total mass = 400 x 1.4997 — 599.88 grams

Temperature profile for max. CER, or Im == 20.9974 amperes

W Me x mek _ 90 =
For arm oa Qp) a= L Ka Ag 70,5 % 0: 005 = 0. 500 watt

p
Qs )ar Li 2 © = 0,5 (20, 9974)" x 0. 003248 = 0. 716 watt

m A,
Q, 0.716
B= i | = 1/4320
a QF a 0.500
tee ils *
on -(4 7 eae L (6)
ees 1 ) Bis 1
2 aN G Sire a O35 0.0992 cm (there is no real max. temp. )
: 1 1s
Q.=0 (== 5/7 Qy (8)
° Bt 1 | \
Qe Git Tasos. oe x 0.716 = + 0.142 watt.

Joule heat power (0.716) is conducted away from the hot junction,
i.e., in the positive y — direction. To check, use

: p
Quine 1 2 2. (ar |=.- (201 9974)- © 01003248 (-0..0992) = + 0. 142 watt.
x=O AVAL era
eels a (9)
QyeL Fe Mey ies

u
ay
) x 0.716 = + 0. 858 watt.

. - 1
Qantas 8
Thus 0.142 + 0.716, or 0.858 watt is conducted through arm “a” to

the cold junction.
2

B N
The temperature profile is t, = t, + At { (3 pay = iA | (4)

84 E. B. Penrod

‘ (rag 2 : x ese x2)
Lie 00 er ee 0.25?”

(ong

ie)
t= 40 - 28. 4x - 143, ox", C. (See Curve A, Fig. 3).

In like manner the following results were obtained for arm “b”:
Or = 0.600 watt, Q; — (),630 watt

By = 1.050, xm = — 0.2262 cm, Qy—. = 0.285 watt, Q,—1 = 0.915 watt,
and t, = 40 — 47.5x — 105.0 x?, °C. (See Curve B, Fig. 6)

Temperature profile for max. On and I, = 36.5215 amperes:

Calculations, similar to those for CER,, were made for On and
the results are listed below.

Item Arm “a” Arm “b”
Op, watts 0.500 0,600
Q;, watts 2.1661 1.9060
B 4.3322 3.1767
Xm, cm 0.1346 0.0926
eae watts —O. == 1(\}i

0.5830 0.3530
Qx—1, watts 1.5830 1.5530

t, = 40 + 116.61 , —433.22 x”, °C (See Curve C, Fig. 6)
tp = 40 + 58.835 x —317.67 x”, °C (See Curve D, Fig. 6)

Discussion

The operating current is 20.9974 amperes in the design for maxi-
mum cooling energy ratio. The cooling energy ratio and cooling
capacity are 0.3195 and 0.5722 watt, respectively. There is no heat
power conducted through either thermocouple arm to the hot junction,
that is, there is no splitting of the Joule heat power, and 1 < B < 2
(Fig. 6 and Fig. 8). In the design for maximum cooling capacity the
operating current is 36.5215 amperes. The cooling energy ratio and
cooling capacity are 0.1931 and 0.9360 watt, respectively. The Joule
heat power splits in arms “a” and “b”, respectively, at 0.1346 and
0.0926 cm from the hot junction and 2 < B < « for either arm. In
arm “a” 26.92% of the Joule heat power is conducted to the hot junc-
tion and 73.08% is conducted to the cold junction; in arm “b” 18.52%

Design Calculations for A Small Peltier Refrigerator 85

of the Joule heat power is conducted to the hot junction and 81.48%
is conducted to the cold junction. The temperature profile is given for
several values of 8 in Fig. 6. The amount of bismuthtelluride in the
design for maximum cooling energy ratio and maximum cooling
capacity is 1754.10 and 1169.40 grams, respectively.

The performance of the single thermocouple, operating as a highly
idealized Peltier refrigerator is presented graphically in Fig. 8 to
Fig. 12, inclusive. The variation in cooling capacity and cooling energy
ratio with current is presented in Fig. 8. Operating with an electric
current greater than I, produces cooling with a waste in power input.
The cooling capacity is zero for currents of 11.7606 and 61.2823
amperes. Fig. 9 shows that the Fourier heat power is independent
of the strength of the supply current, and that total heat power for the
entire thermocouple is conducted to the hot junction for 27 < I =
61.2823 amperes and away from it for 11.7606 < I < 27 amperes.

19

I, AMPERES

Fig. 8.— Variation of the cooling capacity (in watts) and cooling energy ratio
with electric current. Results obtained in the design for maximum cooling are:

Qom = 0.9360 watt, I, = 36.5215 amperes, P = 4.8465 watts, and CER, = 0.1931.

Results obtained indesign for maximum cooling energy ratio are: Q. = 0.5722 watt,
In — 20.9974 amperes, P = 1.7911 watts, and CER,, = 0.3195.

86 E. B. Penrod

Fig. 9. —Variation of sO and 8,, with I. sO = 0 and I = 26.844 amperes for

x=0

Bap = 2. 30, = 1.1 watts for all values of I. For B,, < 2, SOum > 0 and

SOp, <0 for 2 Bil-o,

Joule heat power, heat power conducted to the cold junction increases
rapidly with increase in supply current. As At increases from zero
to the critical At (Fig. 10), the current for maximum cooling energy
ratio approaches the current for maximum cooling and for At. =
92.5412 °C, I, = I. Also, as At increases, the cooling energy ratios
decrease very rapidly. In Fig. 11 the solid lines are constant At curves
which show the variation of the cooling energy ratio with current, and
the dashed-curve is the locus of maximum CER.

Fig. 12 presents curves of constant current and constant cooling

energy ratio on a At — Q. plane. As an application of Fig. 12 consider,

Design Calculations for A Small Peltier Refrigerator 87

for example, a design for maximum cooling energy ratio in which the
design and prescribed conditions remain constant. The calculated
values of the supply current, cooling capacity, and maximum cooling
energy ratio were found to be 20.9974 amperes, 0.5722 watt, and
0.3195, respectively. If, however, the supply current is reduced to 15
amperes, the cooling capacity and cooling energy ratio are reduced to
about 0.23 watt and 0.23, respectively. If on the other hand, the
supply current is kept at the design value of 20.9974 amperes and the
ambient temperature is increased to such a value that At is changed
from 50 to 60°C, then the cooling capacity and cooling energy ratio

O 10 20 30 40 #=50 60 70
[ener cela senanaes ie ae te alin

Fig. 10.— Variation of CER,, and CER, with At, where At = t, + 10, °C. For the

prescribed conditions At = 50°C, CER,, = 0.3195 and One = 0.9360 watt. Oper-
ating at At > 50°, CER,, and CER, are less than their design values; operating
at At < 50°, CER,, and CER, are greater than their design values.

88 E. B. Penrod

will be reduced from 0.5722 to 0.34 watt, and 0.3195 to 0.18, respec-
tively.

Conclusions

A highly idealized Peltier refrigerator was analyzed in which the
Thomson effect and heat power leakage through the lateral surfaces
of the thermoelements were neglected. Six modules, each having 100
p-n type bismuth telleride thermocouples will produce a cooling
capacity of 300 watts at a CER,, = 0.3195. In the design for maximum
cooling capacity four modules, each having 100 thermocouples will
produce a cooling capacity of 300 watts at a CER = 0.1931. Varia-
tions from either of the two designs that were considered are pre-
sented graphically by use of performance curves.

1, AMPERE

Fig. 11.— Constant At curves for At =t, + 10, °C. The design and prescribed
conditions are for the Peltier refrigerator operating at At = 50°C.

Design Calculations for A Small Feltier Refrigerator 89

SINGLE STAGE
CURRENT, AMPERES —

7. =0.0027 C"

ps 1 1 mea

T= 0.1115 VOLT
= 424x10° VOLT C"

Fig. 12.— Curves of constant electric current and constant cooling energy ratio on a
Q.—At plane. For CER,, = 0.3195: I,, = 20.9974 amperes, Q. = 0.5722 watt,

At = 50°C. For Q,,, = 0.9360 watt: I, = 36.5215 amperes, CER, = 0.1931,
At = 50°C.

Principal Symbols Used
A — area
CER — cooling energy ratio
CER,, — maximum cooling energy ratio
CER, — cooling energy ratio for maximum cooling capacity
D — diameter
E,» — total emf of the thermocouple
I, — electric current for maximum CER

I, — electric current for maximum Q.

90 E. B. Penrod

L — length

P — electric power

Q — heat

. dQ

Q — —, heat power
dr

Oxie — Peltier heat power developed at the cold junction
Og: — Peltier heat power developed at the hot junction

°

Q. — heat power from cold chamber to cold junction
QO, — heat power from hot junction to room air (ambient)
Or — Fourier heat power

Q; — Joule heat power

San — Seebeck coefficient

Sane — Seebeck coefficient at the cold junction

Sapn — Seebeck coefficient at the hot junction

T..— absolute temperature at the cold junction, °K
T, — absolute temperature at the hot junction, °K
V — volume

Zm — figure of merit

a — Tabe

b—L&p/A
At

c——SkA
ie

f— Tabh — Tabe

k — thermal conductivity

t. — cold junction temperature, °C

t, — hot junction temperature, °C

x — distance from hot junction along thermocouple

X — distance from hot junction to point of max. temp.

Ba Qs a Or for thermocouple arm “a”
Bo Ope Or for thermocouple arm “b”

Bab — Qs = Or for entire thermocouple
Fe Ss eK ©
At. — critical At

t
¢ — dimensionless ratio —

At

Design Calculations for A Small Feltier Refrigerator 91

Xx

7 — dimensionless ratio —

Tabe — Peltier emf at the cold junction
Tabn — Peltier emf at the hot junction
p — resistivity

“Vv — micro volt

7 — time

10.

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Bleymaier, J. S. Refrigeration Requirements for Future Air Force Weapons.
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Loffe, A. F. Semiconductor Thermoelements and Thermoelectric Cooling
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Penrod, E. B. Performance Characteristics of a Peltier Refrigerator. World
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Penrod, E. B. Performance of a Thermoelectric Refrigerator as a Function of
Characteristic Parameters. Paper III-17, Proceedings of the Eleventh Inter-
national Congress of Refrigeration, Aug. 27-Sept. 4, 1963, Munich.

. Jaumot, Jr., Frank E. Thermoelectric Effects. Proceedings of the IRE, Vol.

46, No. 3, March 1958, pp. 538-554.

Cadoff, Irving B. and Miller, Edward. Thermoelectric Materials and Devices
(1960). Reinhold Publishing Corporation, New York.

Penrod, E. B. and Ho Cho Yen. Theorie Mathematique D’un Refrigerateur A
Effet Peltier Et D’un Generateur Thermo-Electrique. Journal de Physique et
Radium, Tome 21, Supplement Au No. 7, Juillet 1960, Page 97A; Mathe-
matical Theory of a Peltier Refrigerator and a Thermoelectric Generator.
University of Kentucky Engineering Experiment Station Bulletin, Vol. 15,
No. 58, December 1960, pp. 1-38.

ACADEMY AFFAIRS

Minutes of the Fall 1965 Annual Business Meeting

The Annual Business Meeting of the Kentucky Academy of Science
was called to order by President Hamann on Saturday Morning, No-
vember 13, 1965 in Room N-10 of the Agricultural Science Center of
the University of Kentucky.

The minutes of the 1964 meeting were read and approved.

A list of new members was read for approval by the academy.
The list included:

Arthur L. Applegate
I. T. Baldwin
Donald Batch
William G. Bos
David Brumagen, Jr.
Betty M. Burchett
Bruce D. Burton
Rolene B. Cain
Sister Martha Ann Cargill, O.S.U.
Thomas H. Crawford
Mrs. J. M. Edney
Harold Eversmeyer
Ellis Fernald

Irving S. Fisher

Sara H. Frye

James Hall, Jr.

Judy Hamilton
Bessie Hendrixsen
James W. Hendrix
Bernice Hinshaw

Chester C. Irvin
Charles Isbell

Merton W. Jones
Dorothy K. Lauder
Zelek L. Lipchinsky
William C. MacQuoun, Jr.
John L. Mersenheimer
John G. Nickum

D. Hugh Puckett
Orville Richardson, Jr.
Donald B. Sands
Howard L. Setser
George C. Simmons
William G. Simpson
Wynema Sims

June Sisk

Dorothy Tapp

Gordon W. Weir
William B. Wilder

W. A. Withington

The new members were approved.

The treasurer’s report was given by J. Garner. It was moved and
seconded that the report be accepted. The motion carried.

E. N. Fergus reported for the Visiting Scientists Program. He
indicated that the number of visits requested by high school teachers
last year were not as great as anticipated. Requests this year are
running ahead of last year since to date there are 69 compared with
21 at this time one year ago. This year’s publicity was sent directly
to the high school science teachers. The roster of available visiting
scientists includes approximately 150 names. The present director of
the program is resigning. An application to the National Science
Foundation has been made to continue the program for another year.

President Hamann expressed the appreciation of the academy for
the work of Dr. Fergus, as director of the Visiting Scientists Pro-
gram for the past two years.

Academy Affairs 93

President Hamann noted that R. Jordan has resigned as Director
of the Junior Academy, but is present to give his report of last year’s
activities. His report, as accepted by the academy is attached to the
minutes.

W. Owsley invited the academy to Kentucky Wesleyan College
for next year’s annual meeting. J. Carpenter noted that the Centennial
Celebration for T. H. Morgan is scheduled for Lexington next year.
It was moved and seconded that the place for next year’s meeting
be left in the hands of the executive committee. Motion carried.

M. Wharton reported on the annual meeting of the American
Association for the Advancement of Science meeting at Montreal,
Canada. She noted that the state academies of several nearby states
are considerably larger and stronger than our academy. Perhaps one
of our greater needs is that of a permanent officer, such as an execu-
tive secretary or archives. She commented on the role of the state
academy and teacher certification. Many states have fewer require-
ments concerning “education courses” and thus students are able to
take more work in “content” material. Dr. Wharton reported that she
will be unable to attend the next Annual AAAS Meeting, and sug-
gested that our President-elect, J. Carpenter, be our official repre-
sentative. Motion was seconded and carried.

President Hamann reported on the difficulties previously encount-
ered in the receipt of a $5,000 grant from the Department of Edu-
cation, to our academy, for the Junior Academy and Science Youth
Work. He noted the establishment of a Science Youth Activity Com-
mittee by F. Dickey. The only present representative of the original
committee is D. Tapp.

President Hamann noted the lack of support of our academy by
industry; probably only 3 industries are currently active. The possi-
bility of academy support from the State Government level was
raised.

It was moved and seconded that the Executive Committee of the
Kentucky Academy of Science be given authority to work on the
above problems, and report at the next annual meeting. Motion carried.

H. LaFuze, chairman of the Resolutions Committee, read the fol-
lowing resolutions:

I. Whereas, the life of Dr. Alfred Brauer was taken on January 26,
1965,

Whereas, Dr. Brauer gave 50 years of his life to successful teach-
ing and to inspiring his many students toward high goals,

94

Il.

Academy Affairs

Whereas, Dr. Brauer was nationally recognized for his research
in biology as evidenced by his publication,

Whereas, Dr. Brauer was a member of the Kentucky Academy of
Science for 38 years and served in various offices of the Academy
for thirteen years,

Whereas, Dr. Brauer contributed freely of his time and efforts to
the promotion of science and the Academy in all of the years of
his association with it,

be it hereby resolved

1. that those present in this meeting of the Kentucky Academy
of Science stand for a moment of silent tribute in memory
of this great teacher and scientist who has passed from us,

bo

that these resolutions be included in the minutes of this
meeting and a copy be sent to his surviving wife.

Whereas, the University of Kentucky is celebrating its Centennial
Year, and

Whereas, the University of Kentucky has made outstanding con-
tributions in scientific thought and leadership.

be it hereby resolved

1. that we, the Kentucky Academy of Science, congratulate the
University for its one hundred years of service as an out-
standing institution of higher education in Kentucky and
our nation and for the promotion of science through teach-
ing research,

i)

that we, the Kentucky Academy of Science, commend the
faculty and the administration who have made this progress
possible,

3. that these resolutions be included in the minutes of this
meeting and a copy be sent to the office of the president of
the university.

It was moved and seconded that the academy accept these resolu-
tions. Motion carried.

The nominating committee, W. Blackburn, F. Gailey, and H.

Nollau, presented the following slate of nominees:

President-elect—R. Boyer
Vice-president—W. Read
Secretary—D. Lindsay

Academy Affairs 95

Treasurer—C. Hamann
Representative to AAAS Council—M. Wharton
Board of Directors—M. Heaslip, L. Alexander

It was moved and seconded that the secretary cast a unanimous
ballot for all nominees. Motion carried.

E. Browne reported on the status of the Kentucky Flora Project.
He noted that work is in progress in various regions of the state and
that G. Hunter has been added to the original committee. The report
was accepted by the academy, with thanks.

The academy gave a vote of approval to the work of the past
officers.

The meeting was adjourned at 12:15 P.M.

Dwight M. Lindsay, Secretary

The officers who were elected at the sectional meetings are as
follows:

Microbiology David K. Hylbert, Secretary

Jack N. Baldwin, Chairman

Grace Quinto, Secretary Eeyenoloey

; Mary Ellen Curtis, Chairman

Botany Richard M. Griffith, Secretary

Harold Eversmeyer, Chairman Zaoloey

HOSS ee a US aoc Lloyd Alexander, Chairman
Geology and Geography Liza Spann, Secretary

Zelek L. Lipchinsky, Chairman

Treasurer's Report for 1964-65

Balance in checking account, Second National Bank $ 608.39
Lexington, Kentucky, October 1, 1964

Income October 1, 1964 to October 1, 1965

ReculareMem bership CUCS \cycccceeess-2ec fete ee eset sak essdeteceeegses $ 871.50
Mndustriallemenn bership: GUS = cescec ere sceseiecssscce-eeseutesa tase seee 500.00
Sustainin os memPershiipNaUesiicccctescscctccea sae, edeeaso; caescesscaesss 250.00
Subseriptions ‘to. Pransactions of KsA.S. 5....:-csccscs-c0+.--+- ype tail)
SalemObMre PEIMES Nese cst Were ise ares reve mse heehee acta dais 71.50
Overhead from Visiting Scientists Program ..............0.0 483.29
Refund from U.S. Government on Income Tax ............ 44.71
SROGALMITM COME eet ee cent ae eta wen acu tae enenen Mens sashie ed nih $2,493.50 $3,101.89
Expenditures October 1, 1964 to October 1, 1965
SeCretaryiSeXPeUSES iar eestacclececstigeteewetaeesecestcesséee feces $ 156.69

MELE ASUIT ELIS TEXPENSES! cascciete riot cess eee eee eee ees aiclee ee ate ee 15.00

96 Academy Affairs

Kentucky Junior Academy of Science .............c00cceeceees 729.33

Kentucky Science Talent Search ..........c.c.cccssssescseeseeseees 56.85

VASIEMO NS ClentistserOSramiuncesescsssetsscssccseessssseeesteeete ane eee 170.94

Corporation Fees, Kentucky Department of State ........ 2.00

Banquet Speaker, Fall Banquet ..............::ccccccsssscsscesssrees 52

Academy Gomnférencé “Dues: iis....cccsscsesectvssesstscessseseseesssees 7.00

A.A.A.S. Organization Assessment ............ccccceeeeseseereeeees 10.00

A.A.A.S. Meeting—Delegates expenses ...........:ccccceeeceees 150.00

otal xpenSeSweasct ere eerie tee ee tee 1,355.02

Balance in checking account on October 1, 1965 ..........000... $1,746.87
Balance in savings account, Lexington Federal

Savings and Loan Association October 1, 1964 ............ $ 709.25

Interest October 1, 1964 to October 1, 1965 2.0.0.0... 28.66

Balance in savings account October 1, 1965 .............000.. $ 737.91
Balance in Thomas Hunt Morgan Fund in First Federal

Savings and Loan Association October 1, 19665 ............ ny SOM

Interest October 1, 1964 to October 1, 1965 ............000... 3.02

Balance in Thomas Hunt Morgan Fund ...............000000 $ 78.23

Sectional Meetings

BOTANY SECTION

Agricultural Science Center—Room N-208

J. H. B. Garner, Chairman
Gordon E. Hunter, Secretary

Jane S. Sisk. Department of Biological Sciences, Murray State College. A
partial list of edible spermatophytes of Calloway County, Kentucky.

H. E. Eversmeyer. Department of Biological Sciences, Murray State College.
Anatomy of Paeonia albiflora roots.

S. K. Majumdar and H. P. Riley. Department of Botany, University of Ken-
tucky. Polyploidy and the evolution of its role in Haworthia.

G. E. Hunter. Department of Biological Sciences, Murray State College.
Chromatographic documentation of interspecific hybridization in Vernonia:
Compositae.

G. E. Hunter and D. F. Austin. Department of Biological Sciences, Murray
State College. Evidence from trichome morphology of interspecific hybridiza-
tion in Vernonia: Compositae.

E. T. Browne, Jr. Department of Botany, University of Kentuckyl. The
vascular flora of Pike County, Kentucky.

R. E. Hampton. Departments of Botany and Plant Pathology, University of
Kentucky. Intracellular distribution of polyphenol oxidase in Nicotiana
tabacum and Zea maize.

10.

Academy Affairs 97

CHEMISTRY SECTION

Agricultural Science Center—Room N-320

Darnell Salyer, Chairman
N. Thornton Lipscomb, Secretary

“Thermal Rearrangement Products of Cycloalkano (a) pyrroles,” John M.
Patterson and Soekani Soedigdo, University of Kentucky.

“Some Approaches to the Synthesis of Nitro Amines,” John M. Patterson,
Richard Johnson, and Michael W. Barnes, University of Kentucky.

“Solvent Dependence of Geminal Proton-Proton Coupling Constants,” Richard
H. Cox and Stanford L. Smith, University of Kentucky.

“Nuclear Magnetic Resouance Spectroscopy. A Study in Magnetic Non-
equivalence,” Richard H. Wiley, Thomas H. Crawford, J. M. McIntire, and
H. L. Puckett, University of Louisville.

“Thermal Decomposition of Some Copolymers,” Richard H. Wiley, Giovanni
DeVenuto, and Frank E. Martin, University of Louisville.

“Characterization of Solvent-Modified Cation Exchange Resins,” Richard
H. Wiley and J. Thomas Badgett, University of Louisville.

“Azo Coupling in the Quinoline Series,” James J. Duffy and Ellis V. Brown,
University of Kentucky.

“Determination of Trace Amounts of Antimony by Neutron Activation,” J. T.
Tanner and W. D. Ehmann, University of Kentucky.

. “Bromine in Natural Materials by Activation Analysis,’ K. W. Lieberman

and W. D. Ehmann.
“A Ternary Vapor-Liquid Equilibrium System Methanol-Benzene-Toluene,”
D. E. Burke and G. C. Williams, University of Louisville.

GEOLOGY AND GEOGRAPHY SECTION

Agricultural Science Center—Room N-11

Zelek L. Lipchinsky, Chairman
David K. Hylbert, Secretary

Gordon W. Weir,* J. L. Gualtieri, and S. O. Schlanger, “Borden Formation
(Mississippian) in South- and Southeast-Central Kentucky.” Time about
20 minutes ‘using 2X2 and 314” slides.

George C. Simmons,* “Pre-Middle Devonian and _ post-Middle Devonian
faulting and the Silurian-Devonian unconformity near Richmond, Kentucky.”
Time about 10 minutes using 314” slides.

. James E. Conkin and Barbara M. Conkin, “Foraminiferal Zonation of the

Permian System of Tasmania.”

Willard R. Jillson,* a list of four short papers follows:

a. “A Rare Iron Conglomerate, Occurring in Northeastern Hardin County,
Kentucky.”

b. “Lin gula nedularata, Sp. Nov., Occurring in Central Powell County,
Kentucky.”

c. “A Limestone Conglomerate Occurring in the Eden Formation of Clark
County, Kentucky.”

d. “Fish Coprolites in the Onondaga Limestone of Eastern Central Ken-
tucky.”
Times for above papers about 20 to 30 minutes.

98 Academy Affairs

5. Larry Ratcliff,*Thomas Sanders, J. R. Chaplin, and Allen Lake, “The Progress
Report on the Study of Stigmarian Root System in Elliott County, Ken-
tucky.” Time about 20 minutes using 35 mm slides.

MICROBIOLOGY SECTION
Agricultural Science Center—Room N-8
Lucia Anderson, Chairman
J. N. Browning, Secretary

1. Protection of mice against Vesicular Stomatitis with homologous brain tissue
vaccines. Mary B. Althauser and Isaac Ruchman, Department of Micro-
biology, University of Kentucky, Lexington.

2. The Nature of some beta-hemolysin mutants of Staphylococcus aureus. W. E.
Allen and J. N. Baldwin, Department of Microbiology, University of Ken-
tucky, Lexington.

3. Help! From the 7040—a statistical study of bacteriological data. M. Hotch-
kiss, O. F. Edwards and T. Redmon, Department of Microbiology, Univer-
sity of Kentucky, Lexington.

4. Biosynthetic control of isomaltase in Saccharomyces cerevesiae. J. W. Gor-
man, Department of Cell Biology, University of Kentucky, Lexington.

5. Transient “conventionalization” of gnotobiotic animals. R. F. Wiseman and
H. A. Gordon, Departments of Microbiology and Pharmacology, University
of Kentucky, Lexington.

6. Studies on the effectiveness of formalin inactivated West Nile virus vaccines.
Diane Manker and Isaac Ruchman, Department of Microbiology, University
of Kentucky, Lexington.

7. Inhibition of phospholipid synthesis in Escherichia coli by antibiotics. B. J.
Bloomfield, Department of Agronomy, University of Kentucky, Lexington.

PHYSICS SECTION
Chemistry-Physics Building—Room 155
J. M. Pike, Chairman
Fletcher Gabbard, Secretary
10:00 A.M.
Invited Papers:

1. The Interdependence of Astronomy and Physics. W. S. Krogdahl, University
of Kentucky. (30 minutes).

2

yar

An Interdisciplinary Approach to Physics-Chemistry Teaching at the High-
School Level. Harold Hanson, Centre College (20 minutes).

Intermission (15 minutes)
(Tea & Crumpets in Room 179)

Contribtued Papers:

Al

Comments on the New Secondary School Curriculum. F. D. Boercker,
Georgetown College.

* Speaker.

Academy Affairs 99

Half-Lives and Yields of X-Rays from Thermal Fission of U285 and Pu229,
L. Bridwell, Murray State College.

The Field Effect of Tellurium Films. Adil Shampoo and Manuel Schwartz,
University of Louisville.

The Structure of Hard Anodic Films of Aluminum. Nicholas Mostovych,
University of Louisville.

Beta Decay of S87, Sudiman Wirjoamidjojo and Bernard D. Kern, University
of Kentucky.

PSYCHOLOGY SECTION

10:00 to 11:00 a.m., Friday, November 12, Student Union Building, Room 234.

Conversation Hour with Dr. B. F. Skinner.

9:00 a.m., Saturday. Sectional Meeting.

10.

Agricultural Science Center—Room N-12

Earl A. Alluisi, Chairman
Mary Ellen Curtin, Secretary

“Verbal mediation in reverse association: the role of temporal factors,”
Richard A. Kulp, Humrro, Ft. Knox, Kentucky.

“The effect of stimulus range on the amount of information transmitted in
absolute judgements of circular size,’ Patricia G. McGinty and Earl A.
Alluisi, Psychology Department, University of Louisville.

“Transfer of inter-item associations from serial to paired—associate learn-
ing,’ Wayne L. Martin, Psychology Department, University of Kentucky.
“The effect of irrelevant information on absolute judgement at different levels
of discrimination difficulty.” Ben B. Morgan, Jr., Psychology Department,
University of Louisville.

“Anonymous nuisance telephone calls to females,” Frank Murray, Psychology
Department, University of Kentucky.

“A comparison of learning curves in verbal and motor paired-associate tasks,”
Haywood S. Osborne, Jr., Psychology Department, University of Louisville.
“Fatigue as a subjective variable, or a scheme for relating three ‘classical’
measures of fatigue,” Thomas J. Rebbin, Psychology Department, University
of Louisville.

“Numerosity and the power function,” Thomas J. Rebbin and Curtis L. Bar-
rett, Psychology Department, University of Louisville.

“Gravity preference: discrimination between low levels of gravity by rats,”
W. Kirk Richardson and R. Chris Martin, Wenner Gren Laboratory, Uni-
versity of Kentucky.

“Interference effects and the retention of verbal material in process and
reactive schizophrenia,’ Stanley Zupnick, Psychology Department, Uni-
versity of Louisville.

ZOOLOGY SECTION

Agricultural Science Center—Room N-10

H. E. Shadowen, Chairman

The Bats of Kentucky. Wayne H. Davis and Roger W. Barbour, Depart-
ment of Zoology, University of Kentucky.

100

10.

Academy Affairs

The Effects of Low Temperatures upon Chick Embryos Treamted in ova.
Mary McGlasson, Department of Biology, Eastern Kentucky State College.

The Establishment of Animal-Vegetal Polarity in the Oocytes of the Gastro-
pod, Ilyanassa obsoleta. Arthur L. Applegate, Department of Biology, West-
ern Kentucky State College.

Notes on the Spawning Behavior of Semotilus atromaculatus (Mitchell).
Morgan E. Sisk, Department of Biology, Murray State College.

The Fishes of West Kentucky. Part I. Survey of the Fishes in Clark’s
River. Morgan E. Sisk.

The Occurrence of the Brown Recluse Spider, Loxosceles reclusa Gertsch and
Mulaik, in western Kentucky. Morgan E. Sisk.

The Effect of Colored Lights on Ingestion by the Immature Two-spotted
Mite, Tetranychus urticae. T. N. Seay and J. G. Rodriguez, Department
of Entomology and Botany, University of Kentucky.

Reaction of Various Species of Macrochelid Mites to Temperature and
Humidity. Pritam Singh and J. G. Rodriguez, Department of Entomology and
Botany, University of Kentucky.

Some Experimental Infections of Paragonimus westermani in Cats. J. M.
Edney, Department of Zoology, University of Kentucky.

Multiple Genetic Perspectives of a Specific Locus in Drosophila melan-
ogaster. Sara Frye.

INDEX TO VOLUME 26

Academy Affairs, 92

Agkistrodon, American, Fang Length
Comparison, 12

Alcohol-dioxane Systems, Hydrogen
Bonding in, 49

Andreaeaceae, 2

Animals, Detecting with Co®, 68

Annual Business Meeting, 1965,
Minutes of, 92

Aulacomniaceae, 6

Bartramiaceae, 6
Beekeeping, History of in Kentucky,
22

Bickel, David, 1
Bryaceae, 6
Buxbaumiaceae, 5

Calymperaceae, 5

Chaetomorpha Nodosa, 47

Clifty Creek Rock Shelter, 54

Co® Detecting Animals with, 63

Cold Wave Patterns, 38

1,5,9-Cyclododecatriene, Radiolysis
of, 60

Davis, Larry, 49

Dichocephaly in Lampropeltis sp, 67
Dicranaceae, 4

Ditrichaceae, 8

Eaton, William G., 22
Ephemeraceae, 5
Ernst, C. H., 67
Ernst, Carl H., 12

Fabroniaceae, 11
Fissidentaceae, 3
Fontinalaceae, 11
Funariaceae, 5

Grimmiaceae, 5

Harvey, M. J., 63
Hookeriaceae, 10

Hydrogen Bonding in Alcohol-
Dioxane Systems, 49
Hypnaceae, 7

Infrared Spectroscopy, Alcohol-
Dioxane Systems, 49
Isaacson, Peter A., 47

Lampropeltis sp., Dichocephaly in, 67
Lancaster, L. Y., 54

Leskeaceae, 9

Levcobryaceae, 4

Leucodontaceae, 10

Lipscomb, N. T., 60

Marquardt, Gary, 49

Mniaceae, 6

Mosses, Checklist of Kentucky, 1
Myotis sp, 19

Neckeraceae, 10
Orthotrichaceae, 5

Peltier Refrigerator, Design
Calculations, 69

Penrod, E. B., 69

Polytrichaceae, 2

Pottiaceae, 4

Radiolysis of 1,5,9-Cyclododecatriene,
60

Refrigerator, Peltier, Design
Calculations for, 69

Rippy, Charles L., 19

Rivera, W. H., 60

Schwendeman, J. R., 38
Sphagnaceae, 2

Tetraphidaceae, 2
Timmiaceae, 6

Walkup, John H., 49
Wiley, R. H., 60

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TRANSACTIONS OF THE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE
Volume 27 — 1966

EDITORIAL STAFF

Editor

RAYMOND E. HAMPTON

Associate Editors

Joun M. Carpenter, Zoology
BarpBara M. Conkuin, Geology

SerrH GiLKEeRSON, Bacteriology and Medical Technology
Warp Sumpter, Chemistry

Mary E. Wuarton, Botany

Editorial Office

Department of Plant Pathology
University of Kentucky
Lexington, Kentucky

Published by

Tue Kentucky ACADEMY OF SCIENCE

CONTENTS TO VOLUME 27
1 and 2

The Occurrence of the Brown Recluse Spider (Loxosceles
reculsa Gertsch and Mulaik) in Western Kentucky.
MORGAN! Th. (SISK <a.ce.csscsscsosegsasasiesetincsdnesaetesseueeteheyh eateestae eee ee 1

Unusual Spawning Behavior of the Northern Creek Chub,
Semotilus atromaculatus (Mitchill).
MORGAN Fc SISK, caisceissens ho cecscnen cescccassvinecosec sens este ee ee 3

Edible Wild Spermatophytes of Calloway County, Kentucky.
JANE: S.. Sisk and MORGAN Fl.° SISK ....22...5.:.0002-0008-sessnseary eee 5

Pollen Longevity Studies in Hevea brasiliensis.
SD. Kic MAQUMDAR ..ssecsc0ecconssssotdsoctdecosscsectens¥ <c<suqhace aeeeeneeee eens 16

Some Sources of Ceramic Materials in Kentucky.
IBRESTON) MIiGGRATNG coccrecesceect ce teecces ceetes eect ee 19

Some Effects of Stirring Rate on Diffusion Cell Calibration.
Gis Ais UPLAINK - socaesseo8ssavees veel scataedas todaiesscktededscetoeaes ie eee 24

A Ternary Vapour-Liquid Equilibrium System Methanol-
Benzene-Toluene.
D: BE. Burk-and G.-C. WaitaMs s..22-.0.¢.0sevds tee 29

Preparation of Phenyl-N-Sulfinylhydrazines Using
Dimethylformamide-Sulfur Dioxide Reagent.

WALTER T. SmirH, JR. and. WEN-YEAN CHEN 40.....:0c00 2s Or
The Synthesis of Pyridine-2-!4C-l-Oxide-4-Azo-p-
Dimethylaniline.
RAYMOND L. LAGOMARSINO and ELLIS V. BROWN ...........0seecc0000 40
3 and 4

Megasporogenesis in Laburnum Anagyroides Medic.—
A Case of Bisporic Development in Leguminosae.
Davip FH. REMBERT; [Re i ccc: taceedbaiecd sles eee AT

Reduction in Number of Mucous Cells in the Olfactory
Organs of Notropus Lutrensis ( Baird and Girard )
and Natropus Camurus (Jordan and Meek) Fol-
lowing Treatment with Nicotine Alkyloid.
C. A. BEASLEY and BRANLEY. A. “BRANSON ....):.....0eeee 51

Preparation of Some Amino Derivatives of
Halogenated Phenols.
JeRREY E. BERGER, KENNETH H. SHAVER and
Je ReMEADOW \oicebicce heist ne te 55

(Continued on Next Page)

Help! From the IBM 7040—A Statistical Study ot
Bacterological Data.

M. Horcukiss, O. F. Epwarps, and T. REDMAN .......5......

A Rare Iron Conglomerate Occurring in Northeastern
Hardin County, Kentucky.

NV VinIIGARD) NQUSES JMUSON: a 1.ac socencsssetess<, aececiansseoraetcuesscatesss

Lingula Nodluarata, Sp. Nov., Occurring in Powell
County, Kentucky.

NN irre AED) FOOSE) [MALS ON <dee2 2 acquen tas erte aye tee ieee ee ia ceepanvenee tear

A Limestone Conglomerate Occurring in the Eden of
Clark County, Kentucky.

VVIGIGIIA BD AINOUSE, )ELESON# Geis yshescrtes teeta to ok clsuneeaeas tat nape cy

Fish Coprolites in the Onondaga Limestone of East
Central Kentucky.

NA EIMRSATRIO! LOU SEs TLILSON dcevere cho veaseen oc cesoescusdlseasewausyastarautiedes

A Preliminary List of the Mammals of Robinson Forest,

Breathitt County, Kentucky.

Rocer W. Barsour and SJARIEF HARDJASASMITA ...........-

DUe. fry Qs
Roh} /
Volume 27 1966 Numbers 1-2

TRANSACTIONS
of the KENTUCKY
ACADEMY of SCIENCE

Official Organ
Kentucky ACADEMY OF SCIENCE

CONTENTS

The Occurrence of the Brown Recluse Spider (Loxosceles
reculsa Gertsch and Mulaik) in Western Kentucky.
Morcan E. SIsk

Unusual Spawning Behavior of the Northern Creek Chub,
Semotilus atromaculatus (Mitchill).
Morcan E. Sisk

Edible Wild Spermatophytes of Calloway County, Kentucky.
Jane S. Sisk and Morcan E. Sisk

Pollen Longevity Studies in Hevea brasiliensis.
S. K. MayuMDAR

Some Sources of Ceramic Materials in Kentucky.
Preston McGraIn

Some Effects of Stirring Rate on Diffusion Cell Calibration.

A Ternary Vapour-Liquid Equilibrium System Methanol-
Benzene-Toluene.
D. E. Burk and G. C. WiiiaMs

Preparation of Phenyl-N-Sulfinylhydrazines Using
Dimethylformamide-Sulfur Dioxide Reagent.
Wa ter T. Situ, JR. and WEN-YEAN CHEN

The Synthesis of Pyridine-2-!4C-]-Oxide-4-Azo-p-
Dimethylaniline.
Raymonp L. Lacomarsino and Exiis V. Brown

The Kentucky Academy of Science
Founded May 8, 1914

OFFICERS 1965-66

President: Joun. M. Carpenter, University of Kentucky
President Elect: Ropert M. Boyer, University of Kentucky
Vice President: W. C. Reap, Mary State University
Secretary: Dwicutr Linpsay, Georgetown College

Treasurer: C. B. Hamann, Asbury College

EDITORIAL OFFICE

Raymonp E. Hampton, Editor
Department of Plant Pathology
University of Kentucky
Lexington, Kentucky 40506

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THE OCCURENCE OF THE BROWN RECLUSE SPIDER
(Loxosceles reclusa Gertsch and Mulaik) IN WESTERN KENTUCKY.

MORGAN E. SISK

Department of Biological Science
Murray State College, Murray, Kentucky

During the spring and summer of 1965 a number of bites, attributed
to the Brown recluse spider (Loxosceles reclusa Gertsch and Mulaik),
were treated by physicians in Murray, Kentucky. To my knowledge
the presence of this species in Kentucky has previously not been re-
ported in the zoological literature although it has been recorded from
Missouri, Arkansas and Tennessee, all bordering parts of Kentucky.

The following extant specimens are therefore listed as records of
the species in Kentucky. Specimens are from the collection of inverte-
brates at Murray State College, Murray, Kentucky.

Museum number

606—Ballard County, from a private dwelling in Wickliffe. 11:VI:1965.

607—Calloway County, from a farm out-building near Murray. 15:

VII:1965.

608—Calloway County, from a farm house 1 mi. W. of Murray. 10:
VIII:1965.

609—Calloway County, from Science Building, Murray State College.
13:VI:1965.

610—Calloway County, from private dwelling in Murray. 6:VIII:1965.
611—Calloway County, from private dwelling in Murray. 11:TX:1965.

612—Calloway County, from farm house 2.5 mi. E. Murray. 18:1X:1965.
613—Calloway County, from farm well-house 3 mi. S. Murray. 9:X:1965.
. Murray. 9:X:1965.
. Murray. 9:X:1965.
. Murray. 9:X:1965.

S
614—Calloway County, from farm well-house 3 mi. S
Ss
S

617—Calloway County, from farm well-house 3 mi. S. Murray. 9:X:1965.
S
S
S

615—Calloway County, from farm well-house 3 mi.
616—Calloway County, from farm well-house 3 mi.
618—Calloway County, from farm well-house 3 mi. S. Murray. 9:X:1965.
. Murray. 9:X:1965.
. Murray. 9:X:1965.
623—Fulton County, from service station in Fulton. 7:VII:1965.

621—Graves County, 3 mi. E. Mayfield on hwy. 121, from old barn.
19: VII:1965.

622—Graves County, from upholstery shop in Farmington. 21:VIII:1965.
624—Marshall County, from farm dwelling E. of Benton. 14:VII:1965.

619—Calloway County, from farm well-house 3 mi.

620—Calloway County, from farm well-house 3 mi.

bo

Morgan E. Sisk

625—McCracken County, 3 mi. W. Paducah on hwy. 62, basement of
private dwelling. 10:VI:1965.

626—McCracken County, 3 mi. W. Paducah on hwy. 62, old smoke-
house. 10: VI:1965.

627—McCracken County, 3 mi. W. Paducah on hwy. 62, farm out-
building. 10:VI:1965.

Although these records are scattered and few in number, there is
little doubt that intensive collecting will confirm the presence of the
species in the remaining two counties west of the Tennessee River as
well as other areas of the state.

UNUSUAL SPAWNING BEHAVIOUR OF THE NORTHERN C°EEK
CHUB, Semotilus atromaculatus (Mitchill).

MORGAN E. SISK

Department of Biological Science,
Murray State College, Murray, Kentucky

While collecting fish near the headwaters of Clark’s River, Calloway
County, Kentucky, in the summer of 1965, an observation was made
on unusual spawning behaviour of the Northern creek chub, Semo-
tilus astromaculatus ( Mitchill).

Spawning was observed on 11 June in a portion of the stream that
consisted of small riffle-connected pools, many of which were less than
two meters wide, 10 meters long and 20 centimeters deep. The water
was clear, cool (63°F.) and flowed over coarse gravel barren of
vegetation.

The initial observation was made on a group of fishes that seemed
to have aggregated as a breeding colony below a moderately flowing
riffle. The individuals congregated near the lower end of a smail pool,
then, en masse, swam rapidly to the head of the pool. Near the lower
end of the riffle the fishes quickly turned as one body, sides flashing,
and dispersed. Individuals and small groups returned to the lower end
of the pool where they regathered and repeated the process. This
methodical behaviour occured several times, the fishes seemingly
oblivious of three observers who witnessed the activity from the head
of the riffle. It became apparent that eggs were being shed near the
lower end of the riffle, possibly when the fishes turned. Numerous
darters (later identified as Etheostoma rufilineatum and E. gracile)
had collected in this area and appeared to be searching for spawn.
Some of the demersal eggs were recovered from the coarse gravel
bottom below the riffle. There were no nests of any kind, an unusual
character of this species’ spawning habits.

The small size of the pool permitted coliecting the entire breeding
ageregation in one seine haul. The group consisted of 29 mature
females, 16 mature males and nine immature (probably year-old)
males. An interesting feature of the 16 breeding males was the lack
of prominant nupital tubercles.

The spawning behaviour herein described is atypical of S. atro-
maculatus. It was not an isolated case however, for two similar aggre-
gations were observed in the same area on the following day.

* Research supported by grants from the Murray State College Foundation
and the Society of the Sigma Xi.

4 Morgan E. Sisk

Previous accounts of the species breeding activity refer to gravelly
nest ridges (Hankinson, 1931), nest-pits ( Miller, 1962) or similar bot-
tom depressions into which eggs are deposited (Lagler et. al., 1962;
Harlan and Speaker, 1956). Wth such documented evidence for nest
building, the question arises, why were the fishes behaving so ab-
normally in spawning?

The answer may involve several factors. Photoperiodicity, temper-
ature, current, turbidity and depth of water all play important roles
in the cyclic reproductive process in fishes (Miller, 1962). At least
three of these extrinsic factors may have produced the massed spawn-
ing observed in S. atromaculatus.

Creek chubs inhabit the gravel bottomed, riffled portions of high
gradient streams in early spring where they normally build nests and
spawn (Harlan and Speaker, 1956; Trautman, 1957). West Kentucky
experienced an unusually cool and rainy spring in 1965 that extended
into June. Creeks and headwaters of small rivers in the area that
usually provided suitable nesting habitat for creek chubs were
periodically flooded and remained turbid and cool through May. These
adverse environmental conditions may have delayed breeding so far
beyond the normal period that when favorable conditions did prevail
the intrinsic urge to spawn overwhelmed the nest building ritual. This
is pure speculation but the the best explanation that can be provided
at present. Future plans concerning a detailed life history study of
this species in Clark’s River have been formulated and will entail
careful observation of its breeding activity. This study may provide
information that will account for the lack of nest building and mass
spawning as described herein.

Literature Cited

Hankinson, Thomas L. 1931. Observations on the breeding behaviour and
hebitats of fishes in southern Michigan. Pap. Mich. Acad. Sci., Arts & Letters,
XV:411-25.

Harlan, J. R. and E. B. Speaker. 1956. Iowa fish and fishing. Des Moines, Iowa
Conserv. Comm. 377 pp.

Lagler, Karl F., J. E. Bardach and R. R. Miller. 1962. Ichthyology. John Wiley &

Sons, Inc., N. Y. 545 pp.

Miller, Rudolph J. 1962. Reproductive behaviour of the Stoneroller minnow,

Campostoma anomalum pullum. Copeia 2:407-417.

Trautman, Milton B. 1957. The fishes of Ohio. Ohio St. Univ. Press. 638 pp.

EDIBLE WILD SPERMATOPHYTES OF CALLOWAY COUNTY,
KENTUCKY

JANE S. SISK and MORGAN E. SISK

Department of Biological Science
Murray State College, Murray, Kentucky

Introduction

The following list of edible spermatophytes of Calloway County
was compiled from three sources: the Murray State College Her-
barium, literature records (Braun, 1943), and field observations. The
writer(s) is aware that sight records are not valid for taxonomic con-
sideration. However, as little collecting has been done in the county
it was considered worthwhile to include them in order to make the list
more complete. Sight records are included only for those plants which
are easily identified and for which there was no doubt. Often plants
are recognizable even though they are not in the proper stage for
collection and use for herbarium specimens. The list includes all
plants growing wild, though some may be escapes from cultivation.

The nomenclature and arrangement of species is that of Gray’s
manual (Fernald, 1950). The brief habitat descriptions are for the
most part those of the same author. The scientific names and common
names of the plants are given along with the edible parts. For ad-
ditional information and methods of preparing for use as food, the
reader is referred to Saunders (1920), Medsger (1939), Jaques (1943),
Kephart (1945), and Gibbons (1962).

Annotated List of Species:

PINACEAE
Pinus strobus L. White Pine. Woods. Pitch.

TYPHACEAE
Typha latifolia L. Common Cattail. Marshes or shallow water.
Rootstocks, stem, young fruiting spikes, pollen.
Typha angustifolia L. Cattail. Basic or alkaline water. Rootstocks,
stem, young fruiting spikes, pollen.
Sagittaria latifolia Willd. Arrowhead; Duck Potatoes; Wapatoo.
In water or wet places. Tubers.

ALISMATACEAE

Sagittaria latifolia Willd. Arrowhead; Duck Potatoes; Wapatoo. In
water or wet places. Tubers.

6 Jane S. Sisk and Morgan E. Sisk

GRAMINAE
Arundinaria gigantea ( Walt.) Chapm. Giant Cane. River banks
and swamps. Seeds, young shoots.
Oryzopsis hymenoides (R. and S.) Ricker. Indian Millet. Sandy
prairies and rocky slopes. Seeds.

CYPERACEAE

Scirpus validus Vahl. Great Bulrush. Brackish or fresh shallow
water and marshes. Roots, base of stem.

ARACEAE
Arisaema triphyllum (L.) Schott. Jack-in-the-Pulpit; Indian Turnip.
Rich wet woods, swamps and peat bogs. Corm or bulb.

COMMELINACEAE

Commelina communis L. Common Dayflower. Meadows and dis-
turbed soils. Used as potherb.

LILACEAE

Uvularia perfoliata L. Papillose Bellwort. Thin woods, thickets and
clearings in acid soils. Young shoots, roots.

Allium cernuum Roth. Nodding Wild Onion. Ledges, gravels,
rocky or wooded slopes. Bulb, leaves .

Allium canadense L. Wild Garlic. Low woods, thickets, and
meadows. Top bulbs, underground bulbs.

Allium vineale L. Field Garlic. Grasslands and fallow fields. Bulbs,
young tops.

Allium tricoccum Ait. Wild Leek; Ramp. Rich woods and bottoms.
Bulbs, leaves.

Hemerocallis fulua L. Orange Day-Lily. Roadsides, borders of
fields and thickets. Fresh blooms and buds, withered blossoms, tubers,
sprouting stalks.

Lilium superbum L. Turk’s Cap Lily. Peaty meadows, swales, wet
sands and swampy woods. Bulbs.

Erythronium americanum Ker. Yellow Adder’s Tongue. Rich woods,
bottom lands and meadows. Bulb, leaves.

Ornithogalum umbellatum 1. Star-of-Bethlehem. Roadsides, grass-
lands and thickets. Bulbs.

Yucca filamentosa L. Silkgrass. Dry sands, beaches, pine lands and
old fields. Seed pods.

Asparagus officinalis L. Garden Asparagus. Sandy fields and road-
sides. Young sprouts, seeds.

Smilacina racemose (L.) Desf. False Solomon’s-seal. Woods,
clearings, bluffs and uplands. Berries.

Edible Wild Spermatophytes 7

Polygonatum biflorum (Walt.) Ell. True Solomon’s-seal. Dry to
moist, sandy, loamy or rocky woods and thickets. Young plant, roots.

Smilax herbacea L. Carrion-flower. Rich or alluvial thickets,
meadows and low woods. Berries.

Smilax bona-nox L. China Brier. Dry to moist dunes, clearings,
fields and thickets. Tuberous roots.

JUGLANDACEAE

Juglans cineria L. Butternut. Rich woods and river terraces. Nut,
sap.

Juglans nigra L. Black Walnut. Rich woods, Nut.

Carya illinoensis (Wang.) K. Koch. Pecan. Bottomlands. Nut.

Carya cordiformis (Wang.) K. Koch. Bitternut Hickory. Wet to
dry woods, stream banks and swamps. Nut.

Carya ovata (Mill.) K. Koch. Shellbark Hickory. Rich woods,
bottom and slopes. Nuts.

Carya tomemtosa Nutt. Mockernut . Dry to moist woodlands. Nuts.

Carya glabra ( Mill.) Sweet. Pignut Hickory. Dry woods and slopes.
Nuts.

CORYLACEAE

Corylus americana Walt. Hazelnut. Thickets. Nut.

Betula lenta L. Sweet Birch: Black Birch. Rich woods and uplands.
Young twigs, bark, sap.

Betula lutea Michx. f. Yellow Birch. Rich woods. Bark.

FAGAGEAE
Fagus grandifolia Ehrh. Beech. Rich Uplands. Nut.
Castanea pumila (L.) Mill. Chinquapin. Dry woods and thickets.
Nuts.
Quercus alba LL. White Oak. Dry woods. Acorn.
Quercus bicolor Willd. Swamp White Oak. Bottomlands, stream
borders and swamps. Acorns.
Quercus muhlenbergii Engelm. Chestnut Oak. Dry calcareous
slopes and ridges or rich bottoms. Acorns.
Quercus prinus L. Chestnut Oak. Dry or rocky woods, bluffs and
crests. Acorns.
ULMACEAE
Ulmus rubra Muhl. Red Elm; Slippery Elm. Rich soil. Inner bark.
Celtis occidentalis L. Hackberry. Dry to moist rich woods, river
banks, rocky barrens and sand. Pulp of the fruit, berries.

MORACEAE
Morus rubra L. Red Mulberry. Rich woods. Berries.

8 Jane S. Sisk and Morgan E. Sisk

Morus alba L. White Mulberry. An escape in various habitats.
Berries.

URTICACEAE

Urtica dioica L. Stinging Nettle. Waste places, roadsides and old
fields. Young shoots.

ARISTOLOCHIACEAE

Asarum canadense L. Wild Ginger. Rich woods and shaded cal-
careous ledges. Rootstock.

POLYGONACEAE

Rumex crispus L. Curley Dock. Cultivated and waste soils, old
fields and roadsides. Leaves.

Rumex acetosella L. Sheep Sorrel. Worn-out fields and sour soils.
Leaves, young shoots.

Polygonum persicaria L. Lady’s Thumb; English Smartweed. Damp
clearings, cultivated ground, roadsides, shores, etc. Use as a salad
plant.

Polygonum cuspidatum Sieb. and Zucc. Japanese Knotweed. Waste
places, neglected gardens and old fields. Young shoots, large young
stalks.

CHENOPODIACEAE

Chenopodium album L. Lamb’s Quarters; Goosefoot. Cultivated
and waste ground. Young plants, seeds.

AMARANTHACEAE

Amaranthus hybridus L. Green Amaranth. Waste places, cultivated
fields, etc. Seeds and leaves.

Amaranthus retroflexus L. Green Amaranth; Pigweed. Waste or cul-
tivated grounds. Seeds and leaves.

Amaranthus graecizans L. Prostrate Amaranth. Disturbed or waste
ground. Seeds.

PHYTOLACCACEAE

Phytolacca americana L. Pokeweed; Poke Salad. Rich low ground,
recent clearings and roadsides. Young shoots, leaves.

PORTULACEAE

Portulaca oleracea LL. Common Purslane. Cultivated and waste
ground. Young stems, fleshy stems, leaves, flower buds, seeds.

Claytonia virginica L. Spring Beauty; Fairy spuds. Rich woeds,
thickets and clearing. Tuber.

Edible Wild Spermatophytes 9

CARYOPHYLLACEAE
Stellaria media (L.) Cyrill. Common Chickweed. Lawns, roadsides,
etc. Potherb plant.
NYMPHAEACEAE
Nelumbo lutea ( Willd.) Pers. Yellow Nelumbo; Chinquapin. Ponds,
quiet streams and estuaries. Seed, tuber, entire plant.

BERBERIDACEAE

Podophyllum peltatum L. Mayapple. Rich woods, thickets and pas-
tures. Fruit, root for medicinal purposes.

ANONACEAE

Asimina triloba (L.) Dunal. Pawpaw. Rich woods and alluvium.
Fruit.
LAURACEAE

Sassafras albidum (Nutt.) Nees. Sassafras. Woods and thickets.
Leaves, bark, roots, stems, winter buds.

Lindera benzoin (1.) Blume. Spicebush. Damp woods and brook-
sides. Bark, leaves, twigs.

CRUCIFERAE

Lepidium virginicum L. Peppergrass. Dry open soil, roadsides and
waste places. Pods, leaves.

Capsella bursa-pastoris (L.) Medic. Shepherd’s Purse. Roadsides,
cultivated grounds and waste places. Potherb plant.

Brassica nigra (L.) Koch. Black Mustard. Waste places and culti-
vated fields. Young leaves, seeds, bloom buds, seeds.

Sisybrium officinale (L.) Scop. Hedge Mustard. Waste places.
Seeds, leaves.

Rorippa islandica (Oeder) Borbas. Yellow Cress. Wet shores and
damp openings. Roots, young leaves.

Barbarea vulgaris R. Br. Yellow Rocket; Bitter Cress. Meadows,
brooksides and damp woods. Young leaves, bloom buds.

Barbarea verna (Mill.) Aschers, Early Wintercress. Fields and
meadows. Young leaves, bloom buds.

Dentaria diphylla Michx. Two-leaved Toothwort. Damp, rich
woods. Rootstocks.

Dentaria laciniata Muhl. Rich woods, bottoms and calcareous rocky
banks. Rootstock.

Cardamine bulbosa (Schreb.) BSP. Spring-Cress. Springs, bottom-
land woods or meadows. Leaves.

Cardamine rotundifolia Michx. Mountain Water-Cress. Springy
places and brooksides. Leaves.

10 Jane S. Sisk and Morgan E. Sisk

HAMAMELIDACEAE
Liquidambar styraciflua L. Sweet Gum. Swampy woods. Sap.

ROSACEAE

Pyrus angustifolia Ait. Wild Crab Apple. Woods, bottoms and
thickets. Fruits.

Pyrus coronaria L. Wild Crab Apple. Bottoms, wooded slopes,
thickets and clearings. Fruits.

Amelanchier canadensis (L.) Medic. Service Berry; June Berry;
Shad Bush. Swamps, low grounds and thickets. Berries.

Crataegus mollis (T. and G.) Scheele. Hawthorne. Open woods,
usually in alluvial or fertile soil. Fruits.

Fragaria virginiana Duchesne. Strawberry. Fields, open slopes and
borders or woods. Berries.

Rubus occidentalis L. Black Raspberry. Rich thickets, ravines and
borders of woods. Fruit.

Rubus trivialis Michx. Dewberry. Low to dry grounds of Coastal
Plain. Fruit.

Rubus allegheniensis Porter. Allegheny Blackberry. Dry clearings
and thickets. Fruit.

Rubus frondosus Bigel. Common Blackberry. Thickets and borders
of woods. Fruit.

Prunus americana Marsh. Wild Plum. Thickets, borders of woods,
stream banks and fence rows. Fruit.

Prunus serotina Ehrh. Wild Black Cherry. Dry woods and fence
rows. Fruit.

LEGUMINOSAE

Gymnocladus dioica (L.) K. Koch. Kentucky Coffee-tree. Rich
woods. Seeds.

Gleditsia triacanthes 1. Honey Locust. Rich woods. Pulp of seed
pods.

Baptisia tinctoria (L.) R. Br. Yellow Wild Indigo. Dry open woods
and clearings. Young shoots.

Trifolium pratense L. Red Clover. Roadsides, clearings and turf.
Young leaves and stems.

Medicago lupulina 1. Black Medic. Roadsides and waste places.
Seeds.

Robinia pseudo-acacia L. Black Locust. Woods and_ thickets.
Flowers, seeds, pods.

Wisteria macrostachya Nutt. Kentucky Wisteria. Swamps and
rich woods. Flower clusters.

Vicia villosa Roth. Hairy Vetch. Roadsides and ditches. Seeds.

Edible Wild Spermatophytes 11

Apios americana Medic. Groundnut; Potato-bean; Indian Potato.
Rich thickets. Tubers.

Phaseolus polystachios (L.) BSP. Wild Bean. Dry pine or oak
woods and sandy thickets. Seeds

OXALIDACEAE

Oxalis violacea L. Violet Wood-sorrel. Woods, shaded slopes,
gravelly banks and prairies. Leaves.
Oxalis stricta L. True Wood-sorrel. Dry open soil. Leaves.

ANACARDIACEAE

Rhus typhina L. Staghorn Sumac. Dry, rocky or gravelly soil.
Berries.

Rhus glabra LL. Smooth Sumac. Dry soil. Berries.

Rhus copallina L. Dwarf Sumac. Dry woods and openings. Berries.

AQUIFOLIACEAE

Ilex vomitoria Ait. Cassina; Yaupon. Sandy woods and clearings
Leaves.

Ilex verticillata (L.) Gray. Winterberry. Swamps, pond margins,
and damp thickets. Leaves.

ACERACEAE

Acer saccharum Marsh. Sugar Maple. Rich, mostly hilly woods.
Sap.

Acer nigrum Michx. f. Black Maple. Rich calcareous or alluvial
woods. Sap.

Acer rubrum L. Red Maple. Swamps or uplands. Sap.

Acer saccharinum L. Silver Maple. Riverbanks and bottomlands.
Sap.

Acer negundo 1. Boxelder; Ash-leaf Maple. River banks, streams,
lake shores and lowlands. Sap.

BALSAMINACEAE

Impatients capensis Meerb. Spotted Touch-me-not. Wet, acid to
subacid swamps. Young stems.

RHAMNACEAE
Ceanothus americanus L. New Jersey Tea. Dry open woods and
gravelly banks. Leaves.
VITACEAE

Vitis labrusca L. Fox Grape. Wet or dry thickets, border of woods
to uplands. Fruit.

2 Jane S. Sisk and Morgan E. Sisk

Vitis aestivalis Michx. Summer Grape. Dry woods and thickets.
Fruit.

Vitis cinerea Engelm. Sweet Winter Grape. Rich, low thickets, bot-
toms and banks of streams. Fruit.

Vitis vulpina L. Frost Grape. Riverbanks, bottom lands and rich
thickets. Fruit.

Vitis rotundifolia Michx. Musadine. Woods, thickets, sandhills and
shores. Fruit.

VIOLACEAE

Viola palmata L. Early Blue Violet; Johnny-Jump-Up. Rich de-
ciduous woods and shady calcareous ledges. Leaves and stems.

PASSIFLORACEAE
Passiflora lutea LL. Yellow Passion-flower. Thickets and borders
of woods. Fruit.
Passiflora incarnata L. Passion-flower; Maypop. Sandy thickets
and open soils. Fruit.

CACTACEAE

Opuntia humifusa Raf. Prickly Pear. Dry sands and rocks. Fruit
pulp, stems.
NYSSACEAE
Nyssa aquatica L.. Cotton Gum; Tupelo. Inundated swamps and
wet woods. Fruit.
Nyssa sylvatica Marsh. Black Gum; Sourgum; Tupelo. Low acid
woods, swamps and shores. Fruits.

MELASTOMACEAE
Rhexia Virginica L. Meadowbeauty. Peats, wet sands and gravels.
Leaves.
ONAGRACEAE
Oenothera biennis L. Evening Primrose. Dry open soils. Roots,
young shoots.

UMBELLIFERAE

Osmorhiza longistylis (Torr.) DC. Sweet Anise. Rich, often
alluvial woods and thickets. Root.

ERICACEAE

Gaylussacia frondosa (L.) T. and G. Dangleberry. Dry woods
and clearings. Fruit.

Galyussacia baccata (Wang.) K. Koch. Huckleberry. Dry or moit
woods, thickets and clearings. Fruit.

Edible Wild Spermatophytes 13

Vaccinium stamineum L. Deerberry; Squaw Huckleberry. Dry
woods, thickets and clearings. Fruit.

Vaccinium vacillans Torr. Early Sweet Blueberry; Sugar Huckle-
berry. Dry open woods, thickets and clearings. Fruit.

Vaccinium angustifolium Ait. Low Sweet Blueberry. Dry open
barrens, bogs and rocks. Fruit.

Vaccinium corymbosum L. Highbush-Blueberry. Swamps, low
woods or dry uplands. Fruit.

EBENACEAE

Diospyros virginiana L. Persimmon. Dry woods, old fields and
clearings. Fruit.

ASCLEPIADACEAE

Asclepias tuberosa L. Butterfly-weed; Orange Milkweed. Dry, open
soil. Pods and stems.

Asclepias syriaca L. Common Milkweed. Thickets, roadsides, dry
fields, etc. Early sprouts, tops, flowers, young pods.

CONVOLVULACEAE

Ipomoea pandurata (L.) G. F. W. Mey. Wild Potato-Vine. Dry
open or partly shaded soil. Roots.

LABIATAE

Marrubium vulgare L. Horehound. Waste places. Leaves.

Glechoma hederacea L. Ground-Ivy. Roadsides, yards and damp
shady places. Leaves.

Monarda didyma L. Oswego Tea. Rich woods, thickets and bottom
lands. Leaves.

Monarda fistulosa L. Wild Bergamot. Dry thickets, clearings and
borders of woods. Leaves.

Mentha longifolia (L.) Huds. Horse Mint. Thickets, roadsides
and damp shores. Leaves.

Mentha spicata L. Spearmint. Wet places near settlements. Sprigs.

Mentha piperita L. Peppermint. Brooksides, wet meadows, etc.
Leaves.

Mentha arvensis L. Field Mint. Damp open soils and _ shores.
Leaves.

SOLANACEAE

Physalis pubescens i. Ground-Cherry; Strawberry Tomato. Damp
to dry open woods, clearings, sand dunes and disturbed soils. Fruits.
Physalis missouriensis Mackenz. and Bush. Strawberry Tomato.
Rocky open woods and barrens to cultivated and waste places. Fruit.

14 Jane S. Sisk and Morgan E. Sisk

Physalis angulata L. Ground-Cherry. Borders or woods and
thickets or waste grounds. Fruit.

Physalis subglabrata Mackenz. and Bush. Ground-Cherry. Shores,
meadows, fields, roadsides and waste places. Fruit.

Physalis heterophylla Nees. Ground-Cherry. Dry open woods and
clearings. Fruit.

SCROPHULARIACEAE

Verbascum thapsus L. Common Mullein. Fields, rocky or gravelly
banks, etc. Leaves.

Veronica americana ( Rat.) Schwein. American Brooklime. Shallow
water, spring heads, rills and swamps. Leaves, stems .

PLANTAGINACEAE

Plantago major L. Common Plantain. River gravels, damp ledges,
etc. Leaves.

RUBIACEAE

Mitchella repens L. Partridge Berry. Dry or moist knolls in woods.
Berries.
CAPRIFOLIACEAE
Viburnum cassinoides L. Withe-Rod. Thickets, clearings, swamps
and borders of woods. Fruits, leaves.
Viburnum prunifolium L. Black-haw. Thickets, borders of woods,
shores, etc. Fruit.
Sambucus canadensis L. Elderberry. Wet, damp or rich soils.
Fruit, fresh flowers.
VALERIANCEAE
Valerianella chenopodifolia (Pursh) DC. Corn Salad. Meadows,
bottoms and fields. Young leaves.
Valerianella intermedia Dyal. Corn Salad. Banks of streams,
meadows and damp fields. Leaves. .

COMPOSITAE

Silphium laciniatum L. Compass-plant. Prairies and meadows.
Upper parts of stem.

Helianthus annuus L. Common Sunflower. Plains, bottoms, waste
places, etc. Seeds.

Helianthus laetiflorus Showy Sunflower. Open woods and thickets.
Tubers.

Helianthus tuberosus L. Jerusalem Artichoke. Rich or damp
thickets. Tubers.

Arctium lappa L. Great Burdock. Waste places, roadsides, chiefly
in calcareous soils. Leafstalks, young flower-stalks, root.

Edible Wild Spermatophytes 15

Arctium minus (Hill) Bernh. Common Burdock. Waste land. Leaf-
stalks, roots, young flower stalks.

Cichorium intybus L. Chicory; Blue Sailors. Fields and roadsides.
Young leaves, roots.

Taraxacum officinale Weber. Common Dandelion. Lawns, road-
sides, grasslands and open grounds. Leaves, roots.

Lactuca scariola L. Prickly Lettuce. Roadsides and waste grounds.
Young plant, young leaves.

Lactuca canadensis L. Wild Lettuce; Horseweed. Thickets, borders
of woods and clearings. Leaves and stems.

Summary:

The preceding list includes 166 species. These are distributed in
106 genera, belonging to 55 families.

Since there are no adequate lists either of plants of Calloway
County or of all edible plants, it follows that the present list is an
incomplete one. There are no doubt other plants occurring in the
county which are edible and are not found on this list. This is due to
two reasons: (1) the plant was not observed or found in the literature,
(2) the plant could not be found on the lists of edible plants available
to the writer. Future work may add other species to the present list.

Literature cited:

Braun, E. L. 1943. An annotated catalog of spermatophytes of Ken-
tucky. John S. Swift Co., Inc., Cincinnati.

Fernald, M. L. 1950. Gray’s manual of botany. American Book
Company, New York.

Gibbons, E. 1962. Stalking the wild asparagus. David McKay Com-
pany, Inc., New York.

Jaques, H. E. 1943. Plants we eat and wear. Pub. by author, Mt.
Pleasant, Iowa.

Kephart, H. 1945. Camping and woodcraft. MacMillan Company,
New York.

Medsger, O. P. 1939. Edible wild plants. MacMillan Company, New
York.

Saunders, C. F. 1920. Useful wild plants of the United States and
Canada. Robert M. McBride and Company, New York.

POLLEN LONGEVITY STUDIES IN Hevea brasiliensis*

S. K. MAJUMDAR

Department of Botany, University of Kentucky
Lexington, Kentucky

Successful pollen storage is important in Hevea plant breeding to
facilitate the crossing of clones on an unfavorable day, especially on
a rainy or cloudy day when dehiscence of anthers is doubtful and per-
centage of pollen germination is poor (Majumdar 1966). A consider-
able time can be saved by storing pollen in a ‘pollen bank’ to use as
needed. The maintenance of the viability of pollen is also valuable
especially if pollen grains are to be obtained from another locality. For
these reasons this investigation was undertaken.

A series of temperatures from 0°C to 50°C were used for the
experiment and relative humidities were recorded for each tempera-
ture. Fresh flowers with anthers were kept in suitable containers and
stored at different temperatures. Germination tests were made in 15%
sucrose plus .01% boric acid solution, using the hanging drop method
(Majumdar 1964). Viability was determined daily. For each sample
4 slides were cultured. Germination counts were made at random in
10 low power microscope fields, each containing from 15 to 20 pollen
grains. The results of table I are the average percentage of pollen
germination after 6 hours of sowing at 25°C.

The interesting result is that all the clones have shown the greatest
longevity at temperatures of 0°, 5° and 10° centigrade and at a
humidity of 75-81%. It is seen from the table that Hevea brasiliensis
pollen retains its viability up to 17 days but that the percentage of
viable pollen is very negligible after 10 days of storage. If it is pre-
sumed that pollen with a viability of 10% or higher may result in the
production of fruits, then, Hevea brasiliensis pollen can be used for
pollination up to 10 days after storing at the temperatures of 0 to
10°C and at a relative humidity of 75-81%.

Flowers stored at a temperature of 24°-25°C with a relative
humidity of 72% yielded 52.3% pollen germination on the first day,
34% on the second day, 21% on the third day, 8.3% on the fourth
day, 3% on the fifth day and none or only 1.8% germination on the
sixth day.

In other experiments flowers were placed inside an oven and sub-
jected to a series of temperatures from 30° to 40°C. Pollen germina-

* This work had been carried out at the Rubber Research Institute of
Malaya, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.

17

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18 S. K. Majumdar

tion occurred up to four days at 30°C, but at 35°C the pollen grains
do not survive more than two days. Few pollen grains germinated
after 24 hours of storage of flowers at 40°C. Flowers when exposed
to direct sunlight for 3-4 hours at temperatures of 32-37° and humidity
of 48-50% suffered in viability and showed more bursting of pollen
tubes.

A priliminary trial of artificial self-pollinations with pollen stored
for 7-9 days at 0-10°C was successfully made for the clone RRIM 501.
However, to confirm this result, further pollination experiments with
stored pollen are needed.

Literature Cited
Majumdar, S$. K. 1964. Studies on the germination of pollen in vivo and on
artificial media. of Hevea brasiliensis J. Rubb. Res. Inst. Malaya. 18: 185-193.

. 1966 Studies on the drop of flowers and fruits in Hevea brasiliensis.
Unpublished manuscript.

SOME SOURCES OF CERAMIC MATERIALS IN KENTUCKY

PRESTON McGRAIN
Kentucky Geological Survey
University of Kentucky
Lexington, Kentucky

Introduction

Geological investigations made since 1951 by the Kentucky Geo-
logical Survey have disclosed iarge reserves of materials which have
many potential uses in the ceramic industry.

According to Webster's New International Dictionary, Second

Edition, 1954, ceramic is defined as “.. . . relating to the art of making
earthware, or, more broadly, the manufacture of any or all products
made from earth by the agency of fire... .” This would include pot-

tery, chinaware, brick, tile, heat-resisting refractory materials, cements,
enamtls, glass, and many others. Some of the natural materials which
are used in the manufacture of these ceramic producis are clay, shale,
feldspar, limestone, dolomite, and silica sand. The present discussion
will deal primarily with the clay and shale resources of Kentucky.
While such materials are prosaic to many geologists, they do, neverthe-
less, play important roles in one’s daily affairs.

Clay and Shale Resources

Kentucky is a state rich in a variety of clay and shale deposits; they
include the super heat duty refractory clays of the Olive Hill region of
eastern Kentucky, the ball (chinaware) clays of Graves and adjacent
counties in the Jackson Purchase region, absorbent (fuller’s earth)
clay near the outer edge of the Mississippi Embayment, underclays as-
sociated with coal seams of both eastern and western Kentucky, shale
formations in the Paleozoic rocks, ranging in age from Silurian to
Pennsylvanian, alluvial clays of the Ohio River Valley and other
streams of the state including the high-level deposits along the ancient
routes of the Kentucky and Licking Rivers, eolian deposits of the
Ohio and Mississippi Valleys, residual clays of various limestone
formations, and the little-known endellite or halloysite clays occurring
in isolated deposits at major unconformities in Paleozoic rocks. The
1959 production of more than 984,000 tons of all types of clays and
shales established a record high for Kentucky; the raw clays and shales
were valued at $3,595,000 (U.S. Bureau of Mines, Minerals Yearbook).

20 Preston McGrain

In 1962 there were sixteen structural clay products plants, thirteen
potteries, and seven refractory plants.

The high-grade chinaware and pottery clays of the Mississippi
Embayment region of Kentucky are well known and constitute a
valuable mineral resource. Various grades of ceramic and fire clays
are mined there; these include ball, sagger, wad, fire, enamel and
filler clays. Kentucky ranks second in the nation in ball clay pro-
duction. Ball clay mining is centered around Hickory, Mayfield, and
Pryorsburg in Graves County where lenticular clay deposits of high
quality occur in unconsolidated sediments of Eocene age. Kentucky-
Tennessee Clay Company’s mine near Pryorsburg is the largest in the
area. Pits producing clays for local potteries are more wide spread in
the Jackson Purchase and may be found in several counties. Field and
laboratory investigations have also disclosed some undeveloped de-
posits which have potential use in the structural clay products industry
as decorative brick and tile.

Another clay of Kentucky’s Mississippi Embayment region having
potential commercial use is the Porters Creek Clay, a fuller’s earth-
type clay. The Porters Creek in Kentucky is exposed in an arcuate
belt to the west and south of Kentucky Lake and the Tennessee River,
extending from southeast of Murray northwestward to Paducah and
then westward to Ballard County. Its high absorptive power makes
it potentially commercial for filtering and decoloring oils, fats, and
greases; for floor sweep and miscellaneous absorbent uses; rotary
drilling mud; and the manufacture of insecticides. Tests of samples of
Porters Creek Clay taken at widely separated points along the out-
crop in Calloway, Marshall, Graves, and McCracken Counties in-
dicate a large reserve of fuller’s earth-type clay with oil absorbent
properties better than the chemical oil standard (Oil Chemists
Society ).

Many shales and clays (including underclays) of Pennsylvanian
age, in both the Eastern Interior Basin and Appalachian Plateau areas
of Kentucky, are suitable for brick, tile, sewer pipe, flue linings, stone-
ware, and refractories. The Olive Hill flint clay bed, which occurs in
the lower part of the Lee Formation, is the principal source of the raw
material in the fire brick industry of northeastern Kentucky. Flint clay
for the fire brick industry is recovered by strip mining methods in
Carter, Greenup, and Rowan Counties. Many of these mines are
small and scattered, operating intermittently depending on the demand.
Exploration for reserves of flint clay, a refractory clay which can with-
stand extremely high temperatures, has extended southward into north-
western Morgan County. The Olive Hill district of northeastern Ken-

Sources of Ceramic Materials 21

tucky has been one of the major producers of refractory brick in the
United States; the finished brick is shipped to steel producing centers
for lining furnaces. Scattered plants in other parts of the two Ken-
tucky coal fields produce quality brick, tile, sewer pipe and flue
linings. Investigations by the Kentucky Geological Survey have
pointed out undeveloped deposits which could be used in the
manufacture of decorative brick, stoneware, and allied products.

One of the significant developments in the clay industry in Ken-
tucky in recent years is the opening of several pits recovering clays
and shales of Tradewater age (Pennsylvanian) in and adjacent to
abandoned coal stripping operations near Lewisport, Hancock County,
for use in structural clay products such as brick, tile, and sewer pipe.
As many as seven plants in northwestern Kentucky and adjacent
portions of Indiana have obtained part or all of their raw materials
from this source; at the present time five plants representing four
companies have active mining operations there. The discovery of
these deposits was the leading factor in the construction of the new
Murray Tile Company (now American Olean Tile Company) plant
at Lewisport.

A number of Mississippian shales are suitable for brick, tile, and
other heavy clay products. Some of these deposits are extensive, but
since the presence of deleterious materials such as gypsum, dolomite,
and limestone may occur from place to place, each deposit must be
appraised individually. The Lower Mississippian New Providence and
Rosewood shales are being used in Kentucky for the manufacture of
brick and drain tile. Shale associated with the Hardinsburg Forma-
tion (Chesterian) was used for many years in the Cloverport area for
the manufacture of floor and roof tile. There are undeveloped deposits
of Mississippian shales in eastern, central, and western Kentucky which
would be suitable for the manufacture of structural clay products if
adequate markets could be established.

Silurian shales (Estill Formation) along the eastern rim of the
Outer Bluegrass region show little possibility for structural clay pro-
ducts; further sampling and testing may be required. The presence of
calcium carbonate causes abrupt overfiring and bloating at relatively
low temperatures; in addition, the firing ranges are short.

Alluvial clays also have been used for the manufacture of pottery
and structural clay products; they are currently being used in the
manufacture of Portland cement, brick, drain tile, and pottery. Eolian
deposits (loess) have been used for brick manufacture but are not
known to be used currently in our state.

Residual clays (clays resulting from the decomposition of other

22, Preston McGrain

sedimentary materials) have been used in Kentucky for the manu-
facture of brick. Plants near Hopkinsville, Lexington, and Louisville
used such materials for a number of years.

Firing tests conducted cooperatively by the Kentucky Geological
Survey and the U. S. Bureau of Mines indicate that some of the
shales of Mississippian and Pennsylvanian ages which might be used
in the manufacture of brick, tile, sewer pipe, and other structural clay
products possess bloating characteristics which meet specification for
production of expanded shale aggregate—an important ingredient in
lightweight concrete production. These are common shales with
fusibility ranging from 1850°F to about 2400°F, which expand satis-
factorily on heating. In this testing program, 28 of 52 samples from
37 Kentucky counties fired lighter than 62.5 pounds per cubic foot
at 2200°F. Advantages of this type of aggregate include good thermal
insulating properties, high sound absorption, easier handling because
of light weight, less dead load on structures, less reinforcing and
structural steel required, and its presence in areas where conventional
heavy aggregates are lacking. The lightweight aggregate industry is
one of the most rapidly growing industries in the nonmetallic
mineral field in the United States.

Kenlite Division of Ohio River Sand Company, Louisville, was the
first (and only to date) plant to produce expanded shale aggregate in
Kentucky. Production began in 1953 using a single rotary kiln; since
that time two additional rotary kilns have been added to meet the in-
creased demand. The plant, located in northern Bullitt County, uses
New Providence Shale which is mined by conventional open-pit
techniques. The finished product is a bloated or expanded shale,
reddish-brown in color, which has been used for lightweight blocks,
floor-fill concrete, tilt-up panels, and other purposes.

Of academic, if not economic interest, are the comparatively little
known clays referred to variously as endellite, halloysite, metahalloy-
site, and allophane. In Kentucky these clays are found at or near the
erosional unconformity between basal Pennsylvanian conglomeratic
sandstones and underlying carbonate rocks of Mississippian age and
near the erosional unconformity beneath the New Albany (Chat-
tanooga) Shale and carbonate rocks of Silurian age. In addition to
their possible use as catalysts in oil cracking, the high deformation
temperatures of these clays suggest their possible use for super-duty
refractories. Beneficiation and treatment of the clays before marketing
are probably requisite; air or water separation methods would remove
iron oxide and other impurities, and calcining would be desirable to
reduce the shrinkage of the raw material.

Sources of Ceramic Materials 23

Conclusions

The work of the Kentucky Geological Survey in the ceramic re-
sources field may be summarized briefly by pointing out that the
investigations to date indicate adequate clay and shale reserves for
the existing ceramic industries in Kentucky and suggest undeveloped
deposits of such quantity and quality as to support their expansion as
well as additional clay-products industries.

Selected Bibliography

Floyd, R. J., and Kendall, T. A., 1955, Miscellaneous clay and shale analyses for
1952-1954: Kentucky Geol. Survey, ser. 9, Rept. Inv. 9.

Johnson, J. H., Stapleton, J. M., and McGrain, Preston, 1962, Mineral resources
and mineral industries of Kentucky: Kentucky Dept. of Commerce and Ken-
tucky Geol. Survey, scale 1:500,000.

McGrain, Preston, and Kendall, T. A., 1957, Miscellaneous clay and_ shale
analyses for 1955-1956: Kentucky Geol. Survey, ser. 9, Rept. Inv. 13.

McGrain, Preston, 1957, Sources of shale in Kentucky for lightweight aggregate
production: Kentucky Geol. Survey, ser. 9, Rept. Inv. 12.

McGrain, Preston, 1958, Sources of shale in Kentucky for lightweight aggregate
production No. 2: Kentucky Geol. Survey, ser. 9, Rept. Inv. 15.

McGrain, Preston, Kendall, T. A., and Teater, T. C., 1960, Miscellaneous clay and
shale analyses for 1957-1959: Kentucky Geol. Survey, ser. 10, Rept. Inv. 3.
McGrain, Preston, 1960, A high-refractory clay in Hart County, Kentucky: Ken-

tucky Geol. Survey, ser. 10, Inf. Circ. 5.

Patterson, S. H., and Hosterman, J. W., 1960, Geology of the clay deposits in
the Olive Hill district, Kentucky: Kentucky Geol. Survey, ser. 10, Reprint 5.

U. S. Bureau of Mines, 1945-1962, Minerals Yearbooks.

Walker, F. H., 1952, Miscellaneous clay and shale analyses for 1951-1952: Ken-
tucky Geol. Survey, ser. 9, Rept. Inv. 6.

SOME EFFECTS OF
STIRRING RATE ON DIFFUSION CELL CALIBRATION

C. A. PLANK

University of Louisville
Louisville, Kentucky

Introduction

The technique of measuring diffusion coefficients in liquids by
means of diaphragm cells has been discussed in a classic paper by
Gordon (3). This technique is one which gives relative values of
the diffusion coefficient and it is therefore necessary to calibrate the
units. Basically these cells consist of two compartments separated by
porous diaphragms. The diffusion equations used are based upon the
assumption that a quasi-steady state exists and result in

AC¢

In

AG,
where AC¢ concentration difference between the 2 compart-
ments at time ¢.
AC, =concentration difference between the 2 compart-
ments at time zero.

D = diffusion coefficient.
? — cme:
8 = diffusion cell constant (related to compartment
volumes, area of diaphragm pores and the pore
lengths).

Derivation of this equation and discussion of the terms are given by
Gordon (3) and Jost (4) among others. All of the terms involved in
8 cannot be measured directly and hence this term is usually arrived at
by calibration with a solution of known diffusion coefficient such as
KCl. Inherent in the use of equation (1) is the assumption of uni-
form but different concentrations in the two compartments which are
separated by the diaphragm. Uniformity is usually attempted by
means of mechanical stirring or agitation. It is this particular problem
which is the concern of this paper. Other phenomena which may
affect calibration results are discussed by Doshi (2), Spence (9), and
Williams (11).

Originally these cells were used with the diaphragm in the
horizontal position and stirring or agitation resulted from density dif-

Effects of Stirring Rate on Diffusion Cell Calibration 25

ferences, which left the possibility of non-reproducible stagnant layers
adjacent to the interface. Mechanical agitation did indeed indicate
different values of 8 for a given cell. Techniques involved were such
as to cause mechanical erosion of the diaphragm surface. For more
details on these experiments the reader is again referred to (3).

The stirring technique generally used with vertical-diaphragm cells
was introduced by Pin Chang (1). Mechanically the stirrers can be
placed anywhere such that no erosion of the diaphragm is necessary.
The magnetic stirring principle was used by placing 2 iron bars, en-
capsulated in suitable material, one in each compartment and rotating
them by magnets. The influence of stirring depends on the size and
type of the diffusion celi and stirring mechanism. Strokes (10) used
a stirring rate of 50 rpm (a rate of 20 rpm was necessary before
stagant layers were removed). Lewis (5) found a critical rate of 80
rpm while Smith & Storrow (8) reported a critical value of 2 rpm.
Implied in these results is that above a certain critical rpm the cell
constant 8 should be of constant value and be representative of the
molecular diffusion process through the diaphragm. That the problem
is not this simple can be shown by data from the programs described
in (2), (6), (9), (11) and subsequent data (7).

Qualitatively it appears that there should be some low critical
stirring rate below which stagnant layers adjacent to the diaphragm
have an influence which results in a value of B that is too low. How-
ever at high stirring rates “pumping” of the liquid or bulk trans-
port through the diaphragm may occur and if this excess transport is
ascribed to diffusion the resulting 6 will be too large. Presumably then
there may be a region of constant 8 which lies above the lower value
of stirring rate and whose upper limit must also be located. Some
previous investigators have not concerned themselves with this upper
limit and this may be a cause of some inaccuracy in their data.

Results

Work reported in references (2) and (9) employed stirring from
flattened bottoms of the horizontal compartments (diaphragm ver-
tical). At constant stirring rate Spence (9) showed a significant
effect of stirrer position as measured from the diaphragm. A minimum
value of 8 was found which occurred approximately at the central
position of the compartment. Several cells with diaphragms of same
specification and thickness (Corning F, 4-5.5 microns) showed con-
siderable deviation from each other, however a minimum value for B
occurred with the stirrer in the central position in each case. The fact
that diaphragms of similar specification give vastly different diffusion

26 C. A. Plank

results has been noticed and commented upon by many investigators.
Variation in stirrer position was made in only one compartment.
Williams (11) using end stirring (ie., stirrers placed on the end of
the compartments facing the diaphragm) purposely set the bars oft
center in opposite directions and noticed an increase of approximately
10% in £, thus indicating “mismatching” of fluid and_ pressure
gradients influence the constant 8. The deviations noticed by Spence
may have been caused by similar effects.

Lu (6) found using the end stirring technique that the length of
the stirring bar had the pronounced effect on £ at constant rpm
(100) as indicated in Table 1.

TABLE 1
Effect of Stirrer Bar Length on Cell Constant
Stirrer Bar Length Cell Constant
Ure 0.0890
Ye 0.0915
1 0.0990
1” 0.0987
Te 0.1940
bya 0.1810

One of the most comprehensive studies of the effects of stirring
was made by Williams (11) using end stirring. At a temperature of
25°C the stirring rate in each compartment was varied simultaneously.
Rates investigated were from 0 to 250 rpm and also intermittently at
100 rpm. The results are indicated in Fig. 1 for a particular cell.

As previously postulated a “plateau” region was found approxi-
mately at 60 < rpm < 110. The value of @ in this region was approxi-
mately 0.072 while intermittent stirring of 2 minutes duration every
30 minutes gave a value of approximately 0.071. The effect of
temperature at constant stirring rate was also investigated. It was
shown that as temperature was reduced in the range of 25°C to 4°C at
a constant stirring rate of 100, 8 increased. Besides the obvious
change in the diffusion coefficient of KCI this decrease in temperature
caused a significant variation in the viscosity of the solutions with but
a minor change in density. The use of intermittent stirring almost
completely eliminated the effect of temperature (viscosity?). It was
concluded from this work that bulk transport through the diaphragm
is the principal reason for calibration variations. (See reference 11
for further discussion of this point. ).

Doshi (2) using bottom stirring reports variations somewhat
similar to Figure 1. Using the same cell and conditions but with end

Effects of Stirring Rate on Diffusion Cell Calibration 27

0.14

0.12

a

=

2 0. 10

<

te

(7)

2

©

ry)

5 9.08

“5 INTERMITTENT

aa STIRRING

U

0.06
fe) 50 100 Xs) 200 250

STIRRER RPM
Fig. 1.

stirring (11) the following comparison of Table 2 is made. The value
of rpm has no particular meaning in the comparison only the relative
values of 6 and their variation.

In comparisons made between references (2, 6, 7, 9, 11) all condi-
tions were the same except for bottom and end stirring.

TABLE 2
Effect of Stirring Position on Cell Constant
Stirrer Speed rpm Cell Constant Cell Constant
Bottom Stirring (3) End Stirring (11)
50 0.0257
80 0.0223
100 0.0265
120 0.0253
200 0.0293 0.0262
Conclusions

It has been shown that the effect of mechanical stirring on the
calibration of diaphragm cells is very important. Contrary to previous
postulates that the cell constant approaches a constant value with in-
creased stirring rate it was found that there exists a limited region of

28 C. A. Plank

stirring rate for each cell. A minimum rate exists below which
stagnant surface layers seriously affect the calibration and a miximum
rate exists above which other problems (presumably bulk transport)
become serious. Comparable values of the cell constant can be ob-
tained by two different stirrer geometries and the use of intermittent
stirring has been shown to be advantageous.

Acknowledgments

The author wishes to acknowledge the various students, cited be-
low, who have worked both directly and indirectly with him on this
subject. He also expresses appreciation to Dr. F. P. Pike for his co-
operation and invaluable discussions.

Literature Cited

1. Chang, Pin, Ph.D. Thesis, Univ. of Cal., Berkley (1954).

2. Doshi, S. B., MSChE Thesis, N. C. State College, (1960).

3. Gordon, A. R., Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci., 46, 285-308 (1945).

4. Jost, W., “Diffusion in Solids, Liquids and Gases”, Acad. Press New York
(1952),

5 lewis: |. 5...).. Appl. Chem on 228 (1955).

6. Lu, S. C., MChE Thesis, Univ. of Louisville (1959).

7. Plank, C. A., Unpublished Data, Univ. of Louisville (1964).

8. Smith, I. W., and J. A. Storrow, J. Appl. Chem., 2, 225, (1952).

9. Spence, W. D., MSChE Thesis, N. C. State College, (1960).

10. Stokes, R. H., J. Am. Chem. Soc., 72, 763, (1950).

11. Williams, W. C., MChE Thesis, University of Louisville, (1964).

A TERNARY VAPOR-LIQUID EQUILIBRIUM SYSTEM
METHANOL-BENZENE-TOLUENE

D. E. BURKE and G. C. WILLIAMS

University of Louisville, Louisville, Ky.

Abstract

Experimental vapor-liquid equilibrium data are presented for the
methanol-benezene-toluene system, and show a trough in the vaporus
curve between the methanol-toluene and methanol-benzene azeo-
tropes. Typical isothermal-isobaric diagrams are presented for the
system, and a mechanism is described for facilitating the experi-
mental investigations of ternary systems.

Introduction

The successful application of distillation techniques for separating
mutually soluble liquids depends upon the availability of accurate
vapor-liquid equilibrium data. These data are readily available for
many binary systems, or may be satisfactorily approximted by standard
methods which are both reasonably quick and accurate. On the other
hand, ternary solutions, adding another degree of freedom to the
system, create a considerably different picture (4). The available data
are few, and the approximation methods are both difficult and fre-
quently inaccurate. Likewise, because of the nature of the physical
systems, experimental isobaric determinations at preselected values of
equilibrium temperature, or concentrations in either liquid or vapor
states are almost impossible. This situation presents the usual pro-
blem of three dimensional interpolation for correlations after data are
obtained.

This paper presents (a) experimental data for hte vapor-liquid
isobaric equilibrium on the methanol-benezene-toluene system (pre-
viously unpublished), (b) an easy, accurate, and dependable method
of correlating the normal random data for a ternary system and (c)
a system and classroom teaching aid for the elucidation of ternary
equilibria in the area of a two binary azeotrope, ternary solution.

Experimental Procedure

The methanol, benezene, and toluene used in this investigation were
of analytical reagent grade, and the proper boiling points were
obtained for each component when checked in a boiling point ap-
paratus of the Cottrell type.

30 D. E. Burk and G. C. Williams

The ternary vapor-liquid equilibrium samples and temperatures
were obtained in a Altsheler still (1), with the temperature being
measured by a No. 28 B and S guage copper-constantan theromcouple
located approximately one inch above the Cottrell pump (2). The emf
of the thermocouple was obtained with a Leeds and Northrup
potentiometer to the accuracy of = .03 mv., or approximately + 0.5°C.
The pressure was maintained at 760 mm of Hg (+ 1 mm) by a No. 6
Cartesian manostat.

The still was initially charged with 300 cc of a ternary mixture and
operated for at least four hours to insure the attainment of equilibrium,
as judged by a constant boiling temperature. Upon completion of a
run, samples of the liquid and vapor phases were obtained and
quickly cooled to reduce vaporization losses.

Vapor-phase chromatographic techniques were employed for
analyzing the equilibrium samples, using a Podbielniak Chromacon
Series 9475A No. 274. The weight composition of each sample was
obtained by an integration of the peaks from the recorder output.
At least two analyses were made of each sample to minimize the
analytical error.

Results

A summary of the vapor-liquid equilibrium data for the system
methanol-benezene-toluene is presented in Table I. These data are
best represented, however, by a three-dimensional, isobaric model
(Figure 1). When the data are presented in this manner, temperature
is the axis perpendicular to the basal equilateral triangular composi-
tion plane. A convenient base temperature and scale are selected for
the temperature axis. For this particular system a base of 40°C and
a scale of 1 cm equals 2°C were selected. At the apexes of the vapor
and liquid composition triangles, rods of length commensurate with
the boiling points of the pure components are inserted. Attached to
these rods and directly above the sides of the triangles are the cor-
responding binary curves shaped according to data from the literature.
This construction is shown in Figure 2.

Upon obtaining an experimental point, a rod whose length is
proportional to the measured boiling point, is inserted in the base
at the appropriate liquid or vapor composition. This procedure is
then repeated for each experimental point. Figure 2 demonstrates this
technique.

The top of each rod represents a particular point on the liquidus or
vaporus surface, depending on the data considered. After a sufficient
number of experimental points is obtained, the upper ends of the
rods approximately define the liquidus and vaporous surfaces. It is

A Ternary Vapour-Liquid Equilibrium System 31

TABLE I.—RESULTS OF METHANOL-BENZENE-TOLUENE EQUILIBRIUM
DISTILLATIONS

Run Temp. Mole Fraction in Liquid Mole Fraction in Vapor
No. Ge) Methanol Benzene Toluene Methanol Benzene Toluene
1 104.0 0.000 0.144 0.856 0.000 0.287 0.713
2 72.0 0.020 0.980 0.000 0.234 0.766 0.000
3 85.0 0.028 0.141 0.831 0.414 0.180 0.406
4 59.5 0.27 0.475 0.246 0.621 0.328 0.056
5 96.0 0.006 0.165 0.829 0.134 0.286 0.5380
6 74.5 0.031 0.518 0.451 0.414 0.442 0.144
ue 96.0 0.006 0.166 0.828 0.130 0.288 0.582
8 84.0 0.033 0.069 0.898 0.518 0.075 0.407
9 82.5 0.007 0.706 0.287 0.075 0.820 0.105
10 87.5 0.006 0.423 0.571 0.131 0.569 0.300
11 65.0 0.185 0.066 0.749 0.779 0.048 0.173
12 62.5 0.537 0.063 0.400 0.795 0.067 0.138
13 63.0 0.320 0.155 0.525 0.753 0.112 0.135
14 86.5 0.005 0.611 0.384 0.061 0.754 0.185
15 62.0 0.353 0.229 0.418 0.742 0.156 0.099
16 60.0 0.212 0.725 0.063 0.571 0.416 0.013
17 61.0 0.322 0.332 0.346 0.683 0.240 0.077
18 72.0 0.061 0.225 0.714 0.657 0.163 0.180
19 61.0 0.914 0.068 0.018 0.821 0.156 0.023
20 69.5 0.051 0.478 0.471 0.536 0.351 0.113
21 69.0 0.071 0.306 0.623 0.648 0.211 0.141
22 62.5 0.865 0.047 0.088 0.825 0.091 0.084
23 63.0 0.136 0.339 0.525 0.694 0.209 0.097
24 63.0 0.949 0.016 0.035 0.908 0.046 0.046
25 61.0 0.836 0.107 0.057 0.753 0.201 0.046
26 60.0 0.233 0.601 0.166 0.611 0.359 0.030
27 75.5 0.009 0.958 0.033 0.123 0.871 0.006
28 107.0 0.000 0.006 0.994 0.034 0.017 0.949
29 64.5 0.335 0.041 0.624 0.808 0.034 0.158
30 76.0 0.020 0.706 0.274 0.306 0.608 0.086
81 80.5 0.019 0.436 0.545 0.341 0.451 0.208
32 78.5 0.032 0.269 0.699 0.489 0.263 0.248
83 75.0 0.023 0.580 0.397 0.356 0.523 0.121
34 eS 0.071 0.054 0.875 0.740 0.043 0.217
35 78.0 0.047 0.083 0.870 0.640 0.074 0.286
36 72.0 0.022 0.796 0.182 0.320 0.631 0.049
87 86.0 0.013 0.367 0.619 0.240 0.465 0.295
38 67.0 0.041 0.941 0.018 0.365 0.632 0.003
39 89.0 0.017 0.157 0.826 0.342 0.223 0.435
40 87.5 0.011 0.081 0.908 0.225 0.1383 0.642
41 97.0 0.019 0.081 0.900 0.248 0.1388 0.614

Fig. 1.— Three dimensional isobaric models of methanol-benzene-toulen
vapor-liquid equilibria

32 D. E. Burk and G. C. Williams

Fig. 2.— Construction details for three dimensional vapor-liquid equilibrium models

then a matter of forming the surfaces by filling in around the rods with
a pliable material such as clay while using the ends of the rods as
guides. These surfaces are shown in Figure 1. The vaporus surface
is on the left and the liquidus on the right.

Horizontal traces on the developed surfaces produce isothermal-
isobaric lines and are shown in white on Figure 1. These lines are
represented in planar coordinates for the liquidus and vaporus surfaces
in Figure 3 and Figure 4, respectively. Figures 5 and 6 show typical
liquidus and vaporus lines with their corresponding tie lines at
temperatures of 61°C and 65°C, respectively.

The location of the minimum boiling azeotropes for the binary
systems methanol-benzene and methanol-toluene are indicated by the
small circles on Figure 3 through Figure 6.

Discussion

The data obtained from the equilibrium distillations of the
methanol-benzene-toluene system were used to construct the isobaric
space models in the manner previously described. Since neither a
maximum or minimum boiling point value exists on either the vaporus
or the liquidus surface, the system does not contain a ternary
azeotrope. The liquidus surface has the following characteristics:

1. The surface at the benzene-toluene edge drops off very sharply
as methanol is added even by a small amount.

A Ternary Vapour-Liquid Equilibrium System

& TOLUENE

Lx,
PES

Fig. 3.— Isothermal traces on the liquids surface of the menthanol-benzene-toule

A TOLUENE

aN
SOL
FSS We

SS

Fig. 4 — Isothermal traces on the vaporous surface of the methanol-benzene-

toluene model (°C)

\ ae

he

SS,
=S awa ss

33

34 D. E. Burk and G. C. Williams

TOLUENE

BENZENE
0° 20 tom 60 80 100 MOLE %
FIGURE S$. LIQUIDUS AND VAPORUS CURVES FOR METHANOL-BENZENE=-TOWENE
AT 61°C

Fig. 5.— Liquids and vyaporous curves for methanol-benzene-toluene at 61°C

TOLUENE

BENZENE
30 7) 760, Ole ol ape moun se

Fig. 6.— Liquids and vaporous curves for methanol-benzene-toluene at 65°C

A Ternary Vapour-Liquid Equilibrium System 30

2. The surface at the methanol-toluene edge drops off very
sharply at extremely high concentrations of toluene but changes
to a slight slope as the toluene concentration decreases.

3. The surface at the methanol-benzene edge gradually rises with
a small slope until the concentrations of benzene and toluene
become appreciable.

The vaporus surface has the following characteristics:

1. The surface at the methanol-toluene edge between the binary
azeotrope of the system and pure toluene slopes evenly toward the
benzene rich edges of the prism. Between pure methanol and the
binary azeotrope the surface slopes slightly downward toward the
“minimum trough” that exists between the two binary azeotropes in
the ternary system.

2. The surface at the methanol-benzene edge rises gradually be-
tween the binary azeotrope and pure benzene. Between pure
methanol and the binary azeotrope, the surface slopes downward
toward the “minimum trough”.

3. The surface at the benzene-toluene edge slopes slightly down-
ward toward the center of the triangular prism.

The isothermal-isobaric lines on the liquidus surface for this ternary
system form distorted, concentric partial ellipses around the lowest
boiling point, which is the methanol-benzene minimum boiling azeo-
trope. The literature indicates that this effect would be anticipated in
a system that did not contain a ternary azeotrope (3, 5, 6). However,
on the vaporous surface the isothermal-isobaric lines first form a
similar patter nof partial ellipses but as the toluene concentration in-
creases the lines become straight. This effect was not anticipated but
it is felt that if any curvature is present it is below the accuracy with
which the models can be constructed.

Examination of Figures 5 and 6 shows that in the lower tempera-
ture (59° to 64°C) isobaric-isothermal lines, there is a gradual
directional change in the tie lines. These tie lines may be estimated
from tie line data obtained in the vapor-liquid analysis of the system.
Although exact coincidence of boiling points and desired isothermal
charts would be only fortuitous, the mass of tie line data obtained in
the investigation gives excellent direction and estimation reference.

Bibliography
Altsheler, W. B., Unger, E. D., and Kolachov, P., Ind. Eng. Chem., 43: 2559-
64 (1951).
Cottrell, F. G., J. Am. Chem. Soc., 41: 721-729 (1919).
Ewell, R. H. and Welch, L. M., Ind. Eng. Chem., 37: 1224-31 (1945).

—

oo bo

36 D. E. Burk and G. C. Williams

4. Findlay, A., “The Phase Rule and Its Applications’, Eighth Edition, New
York, Dover Publications, (1945).

5. Gordon, K. F. and Davies, J. A., Petroleum Engr., 31: c 46-61, June, 1959.

6. Ricci, J. E., “The Phase Rule and Heterogeneous Equilibria”, New York, D.
Van Nostrand Company, Inc. (1951)

PREPARATION OF PHENYL-N-SULFINYLHYDRAZINES
USING DIMETHYLFORMAMIDE-SULFUR DIOXIDE REAGENT

WALTER T. SMITH, JR. and WEN-YEAN CHEN
Department of Chemistry, University of Kentucky, Lexington

Phenyl-N-sulfinylhydrazines have been prepared by the reaction
of phenylhydrazines with thionyl chloride (Michaelis, 1889), with sul-
fur dioxide in benzene (Michaelis, 1890), and with N-sulfinylaniline
(Michaelis, 1892). We have found that a solution of sulfur dioxide
in dimethylformamide provides a convenient reagent for the pre-
paration of these compounds. The method is simple and direct and
has been used to prepare phenyl-, 4-carboxyphenyl-, 2- and 4-nitro-
phenyl-, and 4-bromophenyl-N-sulfinylhydrazines in yields of 16-55%.

Experimental

Phenylhydrazine (2.2 g., 0.02 mole) and 60 ml. of a saturated
solution of sulfur dioxide in dimethylformamide were placed in a
flask fiitted with stirrer, condenser and calcium chloride tube. The
solution was heated at 75-80° for 5 hours, cooled, diluted with 30 ml.
of benzene and sufficient water to give two layers. The benzene was
separated and the aqueous layer was extracted with two additional
30 ml. portions of benzene. The combined benzene extracts were
washed with water and evaporated to dryness to give 1.7 g. (55%) of
product, m.p. 104-6°.

The above procedure was used to prepare 4-bromophenyl-N-
sulfinylhydrazine, m.p. 170-2° (34%); 4-nitrophenyl-N-sulfinylhydra-
zine, m.p. 213-14° (18%); 2-nitrophenyl-N-sulfinylhydrazine, m.p.
127-8° (recrystallized from 95% ethanol) (16%); and 4-carboxy-
phenyl-N-sulfinylhydrazine, m. p. 276-8° (54%). Since the literature
(Klieesen, 1894) reports a melting point of 258° for this last com-
pound, an analytical sample was prepared.

Anal. Caled. for C;HgN2O3S: N, 14.14; S, 16.16.

Found: N, 14.35; S, 16.32.

4-Nitrophenyl-N-sulfinylhydrazine has not been previously re-
ported.

Anal. Calcd. for CsH;N303S: N, 21.10; S, 16.10.

Found: N, 20.60; S, 15.85.

When a solution of 25 g. of phenylhydrazine and 100 ml. of a

saturated solution of sulfur dioxide in dimethylformamide was re-

38 Walter T. Smith, Jr. and Wen-Yean Chen

fluxed for 6 hours, a 38% yield of phenyl-N-sulfinylhydrazine was
obtained.

Acknowledgement

This research was supported by the Directorate of Chemical
Sciences, Air Force Office of Scientific Research.

Literature Cited

Michaelis, A., Ber., 22, 2228 (1889).

Michaelis, A., and Ruhl, J., Ber., 23, 474 (1890).
Michaelis, A., and Ruhl, J., Ann., 270, 114 (1892).
Klieesen, J., Ber., 27, 2549 (1894).

heen AN) lee

THE SYNTHESIS OF PYRIDINE-
2-14C-1-OXIDE-4-AZO-P-DIMETHYLANLINE

RAYMOND L. LAGOMARSINO and ELLIS V. BROWN

Chemistry Departments of the University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky, and
Seton Hall University, South Orange, New Jersey

In a study of a series of pyridine analogs of p-dimethylaminoazo-
benzene (Butter Yellow) as producers of hepatomas in rats, we found
(Brown 1954) that pyridine-l-oxide-4-azo-p-dimethylaniline was the
most active compound tested. Since this enhanced activity was at-
tributed to the pyridine portion of the molecule, it was felt that the
synthesis of pyridine-l-oxide-2-'C-4-azo-p-dimethylaniline would en-
able us to investigate the mechanism of carcinogenic activity by radio-
tracer techniques. Hence a method of introducing the carbon-14
radionuclide into the alpha position of the pyridine molecule was
sought.

The total synthesis of pyridine-2-!*C-1-oxide-4-azo-p-dimethyl-
aniline was accomplished in the following manner. Treatment of 1, 4-
dibromobutane (1) with sodium phenoxide yielded 5-phenoxy-1-
bromobutane (II). This was converted to the Grignard reagent which
on reaction with carbon-14 dioxide gas gave a 75 percent yield of 5-
phenoxypentanoic-1-“C acid (III). Reaction of this acid with thionyl
chloride and then gaseous ammonia gave an almost quantitative yield
of 5-phenoxypentanamide-1-“C(IV).

Br(CH2)4Br + CgHs50Na ———> CgH50(CHp) ,Br a ach i

| l
1) $OCI

C4H<O(CH,) 4C*
gHsO(CH))CtOOH

CgH,O(CH,) 4C*ONH,,

i) IV

It was originally intended to convert IV to the corresponding
amine by dehydration to the nitrile with phosphorus pentoxide, fol-
lowed by reduction to the amine. However, this method proved im-
practical because of comparatively low yields. One-step reduction of
IV was accomplished with lithium aluminum hydride in anhydrous
ether to give an almost quantitative yield of 5-phenoxypentylamine-1-
144C, (V) The phenoxy ether portion of V was cleaved with 48 per-
cent hydrobromic acid and the resultant 5-bromo-l-aminopentane-1-

40 Raymond L. Lagomarsino and Elliv V. Brown

4C (VI) was cyclized to piperidine-2-'*C (VII) with dilute sodium
hydroxide.

IV LiAl H4
Anhyd, Ether

HBr
CgH5O (CH) 4C*HyNH2 Ns Br(CHg)4C*H NH" HBr

V
VI dilute NaOH S, Pd
VII Vill

Several methods were available for the oxidation of VII to pyridine-
2-44C (VIII); however, the apparatus and procedure of Finkelstein and
Elderfield (Finkelstein 1939) for the dehydrogenation of alkyl pipe-
ridines was chosen because of high yields and simplicity of equipment.
Yields of pyridine, by this method, in non-isotopic runs were about
90 percent. However, a lower yield was obtained in the isotopic run
due to malfunction of the vaporizer tube heating element.

The dye intermediates and the final product were synthesized by
the method of Faessinger and Brown (Faessinger 1951). Oxidation of
VIII with peracetic acid afforded a 72 percent yield of pyridine-1-
oxide-2-4C hydrochloride (IX). The oxide was nitrated with a fuming
nitric-sulfuric acid mixture to 4-nitropyridine-l-oxide 12-44C (X). Low
pressure hydrogenation of the nitrated product with palladium catalyst
and hydrogen yielded 4-aminopyridine-1l-oxide-2-"%C, which was not
isolated. Diazotization of the amine and coupling of the resulting
diazonium salt with dimethylaniline afforded a small yield of pyridine-
1-oxide-2-'*C-azo-p-dimethylaniline (XI).

NO»
VIL Peracetic acid fuming HNO
—————__
brea? +
~
O
ix xX
1) H. Pd
SS ar en ce O~ek N=N - -N(CH
2) HNO», CgHeN(CHa)o wy (CH5)9

Synthesis of Pyridine-2-1'C-l-Oxide-4-Azo-p-Dimethylaniline 41

The yield of XI was comparatively low due to insufficient cooling
during diazotization. However, non-isotopic runs afforded a 50 per-
cent yield of final product.

Experimental
Radiometric Assay

The counting equipment was a Nuclear-Chicago Model 46-A, Q-
Gas counter, windowless type, designed specifically for the measure-
ment of soft beta radiation.

The counter was calibrated with a National Bureau of Standards
sodium !C carbonate standard. The counting efficiency for the 0.138
MEV carbon-14 beta particle was ascertained to be 11.1 +3.01%.
1-Phenoxy-4-bromobutane (Marvel 1941) (II)

In a three-neck, two-liter round bottom flask, fitted with a long
reflux condenser, ground giass stirrer and dropping funnel were placed
500 ml. of water, 250 g. (1.15 mole) of 1,4-dibromobutane (1) and
92.5 g. (0.98 mole) of phenol. The mixture was heated to boiling, and
37.5 g. (0.99 mole) of sodium hydroxide in 125 m1. of water was added
over a period of about one hour. The mixture was then refluxed for
five to six hours longer to complete the reaction. Upon completion
of refluxing, the mixture was cooled to room temperature and the
upper aqueous fraction was separated and discarded.

The lower layer was transferred to a 250 ml. Claisen flask and
distilled under reduced pressure. The first fraction, collected up to
136° at 20 mm., consisted of water and recovered 1, 4-dibromobutane.
The next fraction, collected at 153-56° at 16 mm., gave 141 g. (76%)
of pure 1-phenoxy-4-bromobutane which, on cooling, crystallized to a
whwhite solid, m.p. 41°, lit. (Marvel 1922) m.p. 41°, b.p. 153-56°
at 1S mm.

5-Phenoxypentanoic-1-4*C Acid (IIT)

The carbonation apparatus (Calvin 1949) consisted of a gas
generating flask containing 1.46 g. of barium carbonate (0.2296 g., 16
Mc Ba"*COs and 1.1304 g. of carrier BaCO;), a drying train containing
“Drierite”, and a carbonation flask containing the Grignard reagent.
The Grignard reagent had been previously prepared from 4.0 g.
(0.01 mole) of 1-phenoxy-4-bromobutane and 0.4 g. (0.017 g. atom)
of magnesium turnings in 100 ml. of anhydrous ether. A magnetic
stirrer was provided for the carbonation flask. When the system had
been thoroughly flushed with nitrogen, all stopcocks were closed and
the carbonation flask was cooled with liquid air. Once the Grignard
reagent had solidified, the system was partially evacuated, with con-

42 Raymond L. Lagomarsino and Elliv V. Brown

tinued cooling, sulfuric acid was added slowly (to avoid foaming)
through the dropping funnel and the evolved carbon dioxide gas was
allowed to completely pass into the carbonation flask, where it solidi-
fied. Then the liquid air was replaced by a cooling mixture of dry ice
and acetone and the system was allowed to slowly rise to room
temperature, with stirring, in about one hour.

After the mixture was hydrolyzed by the slow addition of 75 ml.
of 25% sulfuric acid, it was transferred to a 250 ml. separatory funnel.
The ether layer was separated and the aqueous phase was extracted
with two 50 ml. portions of ether. The ether extracts were combined
in another 250 ml. separatory funnel where the organic phase was
washed with three 30 ml. portions of 25% sodium hydroxide. The
alkaline washings were combined in a distilling flask where they were
evaporated to approximately 10% of the original volume in order to
remove any residual ether and other volatile impurities. The solution
was cooled, acidified with cold hydrochloric acid and the resultant
precipitated acid was filtered, washed with cold water and air dried.
Recrystallization from petroleum either afforded 1.12 g. (78%) of
5-phenoxypentanoic-1-'4C acid, m.p. 64-5°, lit. (Gabriel 1892) m.p.
65-66°

5-Phenoxypentanamide-1-“4C (IV)

5-Phenoxypentanoic-l-!4C acid was diluted to a total weight of
6.8 g. (0.035 mole) with carrier 5-phenoxypentanoic acid and placed
in a 250 ml. suction flask whose sidearm was fitted with a calcium
chloride drying tube. After the addition of 100 ml. of anhydrous ether,
40 ml. (0.55 mole) of thionyl chloride and 0.25 ml. of pyridine were
added. The flask was stoppered, swirled, allowed to stand for ten
minutes and gently heated on a steam bath for fifteen minutes; then
the ether and excess thionyl chloride were evaporated under reduced
pressure. Removal of the final traces of thionyl chloride was aided by
the addition of 15 ml. of benzene.

To the acid chloride residue was added 100 ml. of anhydrous ether.
The flask was cooled in an ice-salt bath and anhydrous ammonia
bubbled through the solution until no more ammonia was absorbed.
The resulting precipitate was filtered, air dried and recrystallized from
toluene to give 6.3 g. (94.0%) of phenoxypentanamide-1-''C melting
at 104°. Anal. caled. for C:;Hi;NOs: C, 68.89%; H, 7.88%. Found:
C, 68.34%; H, 7.69%.

5-Phenoxy-1-pentylamine-4C (V)

In a thimble of a Soxhlet extractor was placed 6.3 g. (0.033 mole )
of 5-phenoxypentanamide-1-'*C and in the boiler of the extractor was

Synthesis of Pyridine-2-1'C-l-Oxide-4-Azo-p-Dimethylaniline 43

placed 3.8 g. (0.01 mole) of lithium aluminum hydride in 300 ml. of
anhydrous ether. The ether was refluxed for approximately twenty-six
hours after which the flask was cooled in an ice-salt bath and the
reaction mixture hydrolyzed. Hydrolysis was affected by the slow
addition, with stirring, of 4 ml. of water, 4 ml. of 15% NaOH
and 15 ml. of water, respectively. After vigorous stirring for
twenty minutes, the mixture was filtered with suction and the granular
precipitate was washed thoroughly with ether. The filtrate and wash-
ings were combined and dried over anhydrous potassium carbonate.
Filtration of the drying agent followed by removal of the ether by
distillation at reduced pressure gave 5.1 g. (94.0%) of 5-phenoxy-1-
pentylamine-1-"C, b.p. 274-76°, lit. (Gabritl 1892), b.p. 274-76°.

Piperidine-2-4C (VII)

In a 250 ml. round-bottom flask, fiitted with a reflux condenser was
placed 5.1 g. (0.028 mole) of 5-phenoxy-1-pentylamine-1-'*C and 100
mal. of 48% hydrobromic acid solution. The solution was refluxed for
four hours, cooled and added dropwise, with vigorous mechanical
stirring, into two liters of 20% sodium hydroxide solution. An ad-
ditional 30 g. of sodium hydroxide pellets were added and the flask
was allowed to stand for one hour, with occasional, swirling. The
solution was steam distilled until all the piperidine had been removed.
The distillate was rendered strongly alkaline with sodium hydroxide
and then extracted with ether. After the ether extract was separated
and dried over sodium hydroxide pellets, the drying agent was re-
moved by filtration. Removal of the solvent by distillation gave 2.2 g.
(85.0%) of piperidine-2-14C, b.p. 104°, lit. (Ruzicka 1920) b.p. 104°

Pyridine-2-4C (VIII)

The apparatus utilized for the preparation of pyridine was similar
to the one outlined by Finkelstein and Elderfield (Finkelstein 1939).
The catalyst was prepared by shaking acid washed, alkali washed,
ignited asbestos fiber in 130 ml. of 0.46% palladium chloride solution
under hydrogen at 3 atmospheres pressure. The palladized asbestos
was filtered, washed until neutral and dried in an oven at 100°

In the vaporizer tube was placed 2.2 g. (0.026 mole) of piperidine-
2-4C. The catalyst tube was heated to 290° by means of a furnace.
A slow stream of nitrogen was admitted through a three-way stopcock
until all the air in the system had been displaced. A slow stream of
hydrogen was then substituted for the nitrogen, and the vaporizer tube
was heated to 90° (no higher) with a heating mantle. The passage of
gas was continued for seven hours, when all the piperidine in the trap

44 Raymond L. Lagomarsino and Elliv V. Brown

had been carried over. One gram (48.8% of theoretical) of pyridine-2-
144C was obtained, b.p. 115°

Pyridine-1-Oxide-2-“C Hydrochloride (IX)

A mixture of 1g. (0.0126 mole) of pyridine-2-“C and 2g. of ice
were placed in a 50 ml. Erlenmeyer flask and 2.5 ml. of 40% peracetic
acid was added with stirring. The reaction mixture was allowed to
stand for six hours at a temperature no greater than 80°. Finally, the
reaction mixture was heated for two hours on a steam bath.

On cooling, 1.5 ml. of concentrated hydrochloric acid was added.
The mixture was transferred to a 125 ml. distillation flask fitted with
a capillary tube and the flask was heated on a steam bath under re-
duced pressure until the solution had evaporated to dryness. After the
residue was taken up in a minimum amount of hot ethanol, the solution
was filtered and allowed to cool slowly. On cooling, crystalline
columns of pyridine-l-oxide-2-'4C hydrochloride were formed. When
the solution had cooled to room temperature, absolute ether was
added to precipitate the remaining product, which afforded 1.2 g.
(72.2% ) of pyridine-1-oxide-2-'4C hydrochloride, m.p. 180-1°, counts/
minute 1.21 x 108, ( Disintegrations/minute 1.09 x 10°).

4-Nitropyridine-1-Oxide-2-4C (X)

The hydrochloride salt IX, 1 g. (0.009 mole) was placed in a 50
ml. breaker and 2.4 ml. of concentrated sulfuric acid was added at
such a rate that the hydrogen chloride gas which was evolved did not
cause excessive frothing. The acid solution was stirred for a few
minutes to liberate all the hydrogen chloride gas present. The solution
was then poured slowly into a nitrating mixture consisting of 4 ml. of
fuming nitric acid and 2.4 ml. of concentrated sulfuric acid. Finally,
the mixture was heated at 90° for four hours.

On completion of nitration, the solution was cooled in an ice bath
and neutralization was affected by addition (in small portions) of
sodium carbonate with continued stirring and external cooling. Upon
completion of neutralization, the resulting fine, yellow powder was
spread out to air dry for two hours.

The powder was extracted with five 100 ml. portions of hot benzene
and the solvent was filtered. Distillation of the solvent under reduced
pressure yielded 0.6 g. (52.6%) of 4-nitropyridine-l-oxide-2-"C, m.p.
155-60°, counts/minute 6.60 x 107 (Disintegrations/minute 5.95 x 108).

Pyridine-1-Oxide-2-\*C-4-azo-p-Dimethylaniline (XI)
In a Parr bottle was placed a mixture of 0.6 g. (0.0043 mole) of 4-
nitropyridine-1-oxide-2-4C, 25 ml. of water and 1 microspatula of 5%

Synthesis of Pyridine-2-1'C-l-Oxide-4-Azo-p-Dimethylaniline 45

palladium on charcoal catalyst. Hydrogenation was carried out in a
Parr Low Pressure Hydrogenation unit at a pressure of 45 psi and
continued until no more hydrogen was absorbed (about 1-14 psi). On
completion of reduction, 0.5 ml. of concentrated hydrochloric acid was
added and the solution was filtered. The filtered catalyst was washed
with 25 ml. of water and the wash was combined with the filtrate. The
combined filtrate and wash was transferred to a 125 ml. three-necked
flask and the flask was cooled (ice-salt mixture), with stirring, to ap-
proximately 0 to —5°. One ml. of concentrated hydrochloric acid was
added and the solution was diazotized with 0.31 g. (0.0043 mole) of
sodium nitrite over a period of twenty minutes, at 0 to —5°. Stirring
was continued for ten minutes, after which a coupling solution con-
taining 0.52 g. (0.0043 moles) of dimethylaniline, 8 ml. of 70% ethanol
and 1 g. of sodium acetate, was added at 0 to —5° over a twenty-minute
period. After continued stirring for another one-half hour, the solution
was neutralized with ammonium hydroxide. The resultant precipitated
dye was filtered, washed with water and dried. Recrystallization from
95% ethanol gave 20 mg. (0.18%) of pyridine-1-oxide-2-!4C-4-azo-p-
dimethylaniline, m.p. 218-19°, lit. (Faessinger 1951), m.p. 218-19°,
counts/minute 1.00 x 10°, (Disintegrations/minute 9.01 x 10°).

Acknowledgement

This work was performed under Atomic Energy Commission Con-

tract AT (30-1) 1707.

Literature Cited

1. E. V. Brown, R. Faessinger, P. Malloy, J. Travers, P. McCarthy and L.
Cerecedo, Cancer Research, 14, 22 (1954).

2. M. Calvin and J. Yankovitch, Isotopic Carbon, J. Wiley and Sons, New York,
1949, Pg. 81.

R. W. Faessinger and E. V. Brown, J. Am. Chem. Soc., 73, 4606 (1951).

. J. Finkelstein and R. Elderfield, J. Org. Chem., 4, 365 (1939).

S. Gabriel, Ber., 25, 415 (1892).

C. S. Marvel and A. L. Tanenbaum, J. Am. Chem. Soc., 44, 2645 (1922).
C. S. Marvel and A. L. Tanenbaum, Org. Syn., Coll. Vol. 1, Pg. 435 (1941).
L. Ruzicka and V. Fornasir, Helv. Chim. Acta, 3, 806 (1920).

DAD WP w

pore:
URE?

Volume 27 1966 Numbers 3-4

TRANSACTIONS
of the KENTUCKY

!

ACADEMY ep oC LENCE

Official Organ
Kentucky ACADEMY OF SCIENCE

CONTENTS

Megasporogenesis in Laburnum Anagyroides Medic.—
A Case of Bisporic Development in Leguminosae.
SDAVID PET INENEBERT, Re csctcecsteesrictecs tos sceseatsieaieesveltcesecesacchecuenatose 47
Reduction in Number of Mucous Cells in the Olfactory
Organs of Notropus Lutrensis (Baird and Girard )
and Natropus Camurus (Jordan and Meek) Fol-
lowing Treatment with Nicotine Alkyloid.
C. A. BEASLEY and BRANLEY A. BRANSON .......seccscsseescereeeeees 51
Preparation of Some Amino Derivatives of
Halogenated Phenols.
JeRREY E. Bercer, KeNNeTH H. SHANER and
ee EC NEAT OW, Seen ieee VAL cS ts cnosssdoasopennayseacent 55
Help! From the IBM 7040—A Statistical Study of
Bacterological Data.
M. Horcuxiss, O. F. Epwarps, and T. REDMON ..............00 63
A Rare Iron Conglomerate Occurring in Northeastern
Hardin County, Kentucky.
NVEETARD ROUSE |JULESON) 3. .:-c:eecsdescecce-corcosenescescees sesesaosseczcnneetene 69
Lingula Nodluarata, Sp. Nov., Occurring in Powell
County, Kentucky.
AV Ve ADA OUSH | UMESON, 252<- cesses ceececsce-vec-ctuceseesssseaneesnesececeenerasere 74
A Limestone Conglomerate Occurring in the Eden of
Clark County, Kentucky.

WV ETEAE DD TAOUSE) PULLESON (oie sceecercetcssesctacsecscsuecsonnenec-cunenee-sttcecn 78
Fish Coprolites in the Onondaga Limestone of Bash
Central Kentucky. SUNG 3 ,
WV IEGARD ROWSE: JURUSONG 26s: stecseccsestecccteaehfeneseuceoseentececzetassonenene 82’
A Preliminary List of the Mammals of iaiheca Forest, § 10%

Breathitt County, Kentucky.
Rocer W. Barzour and eae HannyasasMar4 j. BA ARTE ae 1

The Kentucky Academy of Science
Founded May 8, 1914

OFFICERS 1965-66

President: Joun M. CarrENteER, University of Kentucky
President Elect: Rosert M. Boyer, University of Kentucky
Vice President: W. C. Reap, Murray’ State University
Secretary: Dwicut Linpsay, Georgetown College

Treasurer: C. B. HAMANN, Asbury College

EDITORIAL OFFICE

RayMonp E. Hampton, Editor

Department of Plant Pathology
University of Kentucky
Lexington, Kentucky 40506

(ee ee
aa

Membership in the Kentucky Academy of Science is open to interested persons upon nomi-
nation, payments of dues, and election. Application forms for membership may be obtained
from the Secretary. The TRANSACTIONS are sent tree to all members in good standing.

; Subscription rates for non-members are: domestic, $3.50 per volume; foreign, $4.00 per
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The TRANSACTIONS aré issued semi-annually. Four numbers comprise a volume.

: Correspondence concerning memberships or subscriptions should be addressed to the
Secretary. Exchanges and correspondence relating to exchanges should be addressed to the
Secretary. Exchanges and correspondence relating to exchanges should be addressed, The
Librarian, University of Louisville, who is the exchange agent for the Academy. Manuscripts
and other material for publication should be addressed to the Editor.

MEGASPOROGENESIS IN LABURNUM ANAGYROIDES MEDIC.—
A CASE OF BISPORIC DEVELOPMENT IN LEGUMINOSAE

DAVID H. REMBERT, JR.*
Botany Department, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky, U.S.A.

Introduction

Laburnum anagyroides Medic. is a papilionaceous member of the
plant family Leguminosae. According to Bailey (1949), this cultivated
species occurs naturally from Central to Southern Europe. Floral buds
of L. anagyroides were collected on the campus of the University of
Kentucky in the spring of 1965 and 1966 and fixed in FPA;» (formalin-
propionic acid-50% ethyl alcohol) for at least 24 hours. Ovaries were
excised, dehydrated, embedded, and sectioned at 8-10 microns. Draw-
ings, made with the aid of a camera lucida, are reproduced at magni-
fications indicated on the plates.

Observations

In Laburnum anagyroides Medic. six to nine ovules begin develop-
ment in the monocarpellate ovary. A hypodermal aschesporial cell,
which forms in the young nucellar mass, divides periclinally to produce
a parietal cell and a primary sporogenous cell (Fig. 1). Periclinal divi-
sion of the parietal cell (Fig. 2) contributes to the nucellar mass. The
primary sporogenous cell enlarges to form the megasporocyte (Fig 3).
Continued divisions of the parietal cell derivations give evidence for
crassinucellate development of the nucellus. The megasporocyte
undergoes the first meiotic division to form a dyad (Fig. 4). The
micropylar member of the dyad undergoes the second meiotic division
and the two megaspores formed begin to degenerate (Fig. 5). A
second meiotic division in the chalazal member of the dyad is delayed
and is not followed by cytokinesis (Fig. 6). Two megaspore nuclei
incorporated within this cell both contribute to the development of
the megagametophyte. This is evidence for a bisporic development
for L. anagyroides.

In addition to the above pattern of megasporogenesis, another has
been observed for L. anagyroides. A multicellular archesporium, com-
posed of as many as three archesporial cells, may develop. Each
archesporial cell may divide pericinally to produce a parietal cell and
a primary sporogenous cell. Three such primary sporogenous cells

* Present Address—Department of Biology University of South Carolina
Columbia, South Carolina 29208

48 David H. Rembert, Jr.

are represented in figure 7. Figure 8 demonstrates two primary
sporogenous cells each with parietal cell derivatives. The primary
sporogenous cells continue to enlarge to form megasporocytes while
continued divisions of parietal cell derivatives contribute to the crassi-
nucellate nucellus (Fig. 9). Both megasporocytes may proceed with
the first meiotic division to form dyads (Fig. 10). At least one of these
dyads may continue development with the micropylar member under-
going meiosis II (Fig. 11). Regardless of how megasporogenesis pro-
gresses, i.e., with a single hypodermal archesporial cell or with multi-
cellular archesporium, only one megagametophyte develops.

Figure 1-11

Discussion

According to Maheshwari (1950), Strasburger was the first to
describe bisporic development in 1879. Strasburger’s description was
made on Allium fistulosum and hence this is referred to by Maheshwari
as Allium type of development. B. M. Johri (1963) recognizes a second
type of bisporic development which he calls Endymion type. Labur-
num anagyroides, as described here, follows the Allium type of

Megasporogenesis in Laburnum Anagyroides Medic. 49

Maheshwari (1950). S. C. Maheshwari (1955) made a critical review
of all reports of bisporic development in angiosperms and concluded
that bisporic development has been established in only 30 angiosperm
families. Several disputed cases of bisporic development are also re-
viewed by Maheshwari (1955). Of these, two are from Leguminosae;
Lupinus luteus and L. polyphyllus described by Guignard (1551) and
according to Maheshwari, Lathyrus odoratus described by Jonsson
(1879/1880). Maheshwari considers both of the above reports doubtful
and in need of reinvestigation. In any case, the present work concern-
ing Laburnum anagyroides is the only reported observation of bisporic
development in Leguminosae since 1881. This author has also ob-
served bisporic development in Wisteria sinensis (Sims) Sweet but
as yet this work is unpublished.

Bisporic development should be considered a derived condition in
the embryological development of the angiosperms as it represents the
loss of a cell wall, ie., failure of cytokinesis following meiosis II in
the chalazal member of the dyad. It is significant that all reported
cases of bisporic development in Leguminosae have come from the
subfamily Papilionoideae, morphologically the most advanced.

Acknowledgement

The author is indebted to Dr. E. T. Browne, Jr., of the Botany
Department, University of Kentucky, for his critical review of the
manuscript.

Literature Cited

Bailey, L. H. 1949. Manual of cultivated plants. The MacMillan Company, New
York.

Guignard, I. 1881. Recherches d’embryogénie végétale comparée Legumineuses.
Ann. Sc. Nat. Bot. ser. 6. 12:5-166.

Johri, B. M. 1963. Female gametophyte, p. 69-103. In P. Maheshwari, (ed.),
Recent advances in the embryology of angiosperms. Catholic Press, Ranchi,
India.

Maheshwari, P. 1950. An introduction to the embryology of angiosperms. Mc-
Graw-Hill, New York.

Maheshwari, S. C. 1955. The occurence of bisporic embryo sacs in angiosperms—
a critical review. Phytomorphology 5:67-99.

Figure Descriptions

Figure 1-11 Megasporogenesis in Laburnum anagyroides Medic.
Figure 1—Primary sporogenous cell and parietal cell.
Figure 2—Primary sporogenous cell with parietal cell in metaphase.
Figure 3—Megasporocyte
Figure 4—Dyad
Figure 5—Two degenerating megaspores with chalazal member of dyad.

50

Figure

5

Figure

Figure

David H. Rembert, Jr.

6—Two degenerating megaspores with chalazal member of dyad.

7—Three primary sporogenous cells.

8—Two primary sporogenous cells

9—Two megasporocytes

10—Two dyads

11—One dyad on top af the chalazal member of a second dyad with iwo
degenerating megaspores.

REDUCTION IN NUMBER OF MUCOUS CELLS IN THE OLFACTORY
ORGANS OF NOTROPIS LUTRENSIS (BAIRD AND GIRARD) AND
NOTROPIS CAMURUS (JORDAN AND MEEK) FOLLOWING
TREATMENT WITH NICOTINE ALKALOID*

C. W. BEASLEY AND BRANLEY A. BRANSON

Department of Zoology, University of Oklahoma and
Department of Biology, Eastern Kentucky State College

Because of its remarkable morphological constancy, (Allison, 1953)
and ease of manipulation, the piscine olfactory organ should be of
special interest to histologists and physiologists. In fishes, the olfactory
region constitutes about one-sixth of the brain, and is probably the
least understood of their sense organs.

The external olfactory opening of Notropis, as in most bony fishes,
is divided by a nasal flap into anterior, and posterior nostrils. This nasal
flap extends outward from the pore for approximately one-half milli-
meter. Environmental water is circulated through the olfactory cham-
ber by means of internal ciliation and by swimming motions because
of nasal flap configuration (Branson, 1963).

Internally, the olfactory lamellae are arranged in a rosette pattern.
In our experimental fishes, this rosette consists of a central lamella and
a total of 18 radial lamellae, nine above and nine below the central
one. This figure may not be constant, since observations in other
species of fishes have demonstrated variation in the number of radial
lamellae (Branson, 1963). In general, the number of lamellae increases
with the increase in size. It was not here determined whether the
observed constancy in lamellar numbers was of a specific nature, since
all specimens utilized were in the same size range.

The epithelial lining of the lamellae is continuous with the external
epidermis and is pseudostratified. There are three main types of cells
in the olfactory epithelium: receptor cells, supporting cells, and basal
cells. The receptor cells are supplied with sensory hairs which function
in olfaction, whereas, the supoprting cells are ciliated. Mucous, or
goblet, cells are present in varying numbers per 100 microns of tissue,
the average figure being approximately one (0-7).

Nicotine, an alkaloid, is one of the most violent poisons known. As
far as fishes and other aquatic life are concerned, the toxicity appar-

* Supported by a stipend grant from the Kansas Heart Association, Inc., and
National Institutes of Health Grant NB-05190-01.

52 C. W. Beasley and Branley A. Branson

ently increases with the nervous complexity of the organism (Anon,
1952), and the substance has a greater toxicity in alkaline solutions
than in acid (Rudolfs, 1952). Most experimental work done with nico-
tine, in relation to olfaction, has been physiological. Apparently, very
little has been accomplished as regards discerning the drug’s histo-
logical eects. Consequently, the authors decided to test its effects,
utilizing the number and size of mucous cells for the purpose of assay.

The fishes used in our experiments, all approximately equal in size
(15.0 to 17.0 mm in standard length) were collected from Cow Creek
and Spring River in southeastern Kansas, and placed in a laboratory
holding tank until required. During experimentation, specimens were
kept in battery jars containing three liters of water. Tap water, used
in all experiments, was aerated 24 hours before utilization, aeration
being continued until termination of each experiment. Nicotine was
added to the water and mixed thoroughly before the fish were trans-
ferred. Each experiment was started at one part per million and
gradually increased to 2.5 ppm. The test animals were changed to
fresh solutions every third day and were fed commercial minnow food
prior to this change.

Following nicotine treatment, specimens were killed and fixed in
P.F.A.3, a modified Bouin’s solution (Jones et al., 1950), decapitated,
embedded in paraffin (58°F. melting point), and sectioned at ten
microns in frontal, cross, and sagittal planes. The sections were stained
with Mallory’s triple connective tissue stain (Guyer and Bean, 1953).
‘ll measurements were made by means of a filar micrometer.

Observations and Discussion

In all concentrations, experimental fishes rose to the sutace within
three to five minutes after being placed in the nicotine solution. They
remained at the surface from five to fifteen minutes, probably because
nicotine affects proper functioning of the gills, since the operculum
became extended more than normal and the rate of branchial irrigation
increased. Paintal (1957) found that pulmonary deflation receptors
are stimulated and sensitized by nicotine. Some similar mechanism
may be operative here.

In one experiment, the concentration of nicotine was increased by
0.5 parts per million (ppm) every four days. The specimens died at
2.5 ppm after being in the solution for one hour. Fishes kept in two
parts per million began dying at eight days and were all dead by
twelve days. However, fishes put directly into 2.5 parts per million
lived for 16 days, at which time the experiment was terminated. The

Reduction in Number of Mucous Cells 53

difference here noted may be a question of a differential rate of ab-
sorption of the drug, but this will have to be ascertained by additional
research.

Six days after the fishes were put into the 2.5 ppm solution, mucous
was noted extending from the olfactory pores and was continually
secreted into the water throughout the remainder of the experiment.
From this observation we concluded that either the number or the
size of the goblet cells had increased. Following sectioning, the num-
ber of goblet cells per 100 microns of linearly measured epithelium
was ascertained and evaluated by means of the Student T-Test, indi-
cating statistically fewer goblet cells in the experimental fishes. In
the controls, of the 2.5 ppm experiment, the average number of
goblet cells per 100 microns was 1.1 (0 to 7), whereas in the experi-
mental fishes the average was 0.76 (0 to 4). No significant difference
in size of the goblet cells were noted. This reduction in number was
possibly the result of heightened activity and subsequent degeneration
of the goblet cells. Working with white rats, parallel results were
obtained by Vinnikov (1956), who showed that vertebrate olfactory
tissue not only has negligible regenerative ability, but that it has a
great tendency to degenerate when damaged. In his organisms, such
damage-induced degeneration of olfactory cells, nerve fibers, and ele-
ments of the vomeronasal organ, spread to the opposite side of the
body, and at the end of a six-month period no visible regeneration was
detected.

No other obvious histological results were observed. However,
longer exposure to nicotine might produce results of a grosser nature.
In physiological experiments, adenosine triphosphate has been found
to intensify the action of nicotine in plants (Howard Stein, Pers.
Comm.). Combinations similar to this might also prove productive
from a histological standpoint in animals. Whatever the case, the ten-
dency toward goblet-cell degeneration should be studied in more detail
over a longer period of time, and fishes are admirably suited for such
research.

Literature Cited

Allison, A. C. 1953. The Morphology of the Olfactory System in the Vertebrates.
Biol. Rev., 28: 195-244.

Anonomous, Water Pollution Control Board. 1952. Water Quality Criteria. State
Water Pollution Control Board Pub. No. 3, Sacramento.

Branson, Branley A. 1963. The Olfactory Apparatus of Hybopsis gelida (Girard)
and Hybopsis aestivalis (Girard) (Pisces: Cyprinidae). Jour. Morph., 113
(2): 215-229.

Guyer, M. F., and E. A. Bean. 1953. Animal Micrology. Univ. Chicago Press.,
327 p.

54 C. W. Beasley and Branley A. Branson

Jones, R. M., et al. 1950. McClung’s Handbook of Microscopial Technique. Paul
B. Hoeber, Inc., New York, 790 p.

Paintal, A. S. 1957. The Location and Excitation of Pulmonary Deflation Receptors
by Chemical Substances. Quart. Jour. Exptl. Physiol. 42: 56-71.

Rudolfs, W., et al. 1952. A Critical Review of the Literature of 1951 on Sewage.
Waste Treatment and Water Pollution. Sewage and Ind. Wastes 24: 541.
Vinnikov, Ya. A. 1956. Degenerative and Restorative Process in the Mammilian

Olfactory Organ. Bull. Eksp. Biol. i Med. 42: 63-65.

PREPARATION OF SOME AMINO DERIVATIVES
OF HALOGENATED PHENOLS

JERRY E. BERGER, KENNETH H. SHANER and J. R. MEADOW
Department of Chemistry, University of Kentucky, Lexington.

As a result of some earlier work in this laboratory by Meadow and
co-workers! on the preparation of compounds having possible thera-
peutic value, a patent was issued to Geschickter and Meadow? covering
the products of some phenol derivatives with formaldehyde and amines
which showed antihistaminic properties. Amino groups were intro-
duced into poly-substituted phenols by means of the Mannich reaction
using a method described previously by Meadow and Reid.’ It was
observed that some of these amino derivatives, particularly the com-
pounds of some halogenated phenols, were unique in possessing the
property of being both antihistaminic as well as bronchial dialators.
An example of such a derivative is 2-piperidinomethyl-6-chlorothymol
(1). Fortunately this compound, as well as the morpholinomethyl de-
rivative of 6-chlorothymol, has a reasonably low toxicity value as
indicated in Table I. The toxicity values of some of these physio-
logically active free bases which we previously synthesized (1) are
listed in Table I. Included here also are melting point data for some
salt derivatives of these compounds.

In view of the favorable results obtained from physiological tests
with modified halogenated phenols, our work has been extended to
include some new Mannich condensation products of such halogen-
containing phenols with several primary and secondary amines. The
use of a primary amine in Mannich reactions with phenols is not com-
mon. Pror to 1942 Blicket recognized the fact that the literature con-
tains no reports of successful Mannich condensations involving phenols
and primary amines. Few instances have been observed since then.*
Accordingly, we have attempted to combine several primary amines
with some halogenated phenols with the aid of formaldehyde, and
these compounds are reported as free bases in Tables II and III. The
compounds obtained in this work with primary amines consisted en-
tirely of the single condensation product of one mole of phenol with
one mole of amine, thus producing products which contained a sec-
ondary amine functional group (II). Such compounds might be
expected to undergo further reaction with a phenol to form a tertiary
amine. However, attempts in this direction led to failure.

In addition to the compounds from primary amines shown in Tables
II and III, eight new Mannich derivatives were prepared from halo-

56 Jerry E. Berger, Kenneth H. Shaner, and J. R. Meadow

genated phenols using three cyclic secondary amines which were not
previously reported. These amines were 2,6-dimethylmorpholine,
hexamethyleneimine, and N-hydroxyethylpiperazine. These derivatives
are listed in Tables IV and V. These compounds are being further in-
vestigated for their physiological properties.

CH, se OH =
\
CH CH>N >) Cl CH,-NH-C,H,N 9
CH, CH,
Cl Cl

(1) (IT)

Experimental

In general, commercial grades (practical or reagent grades) of
reactants were used with no further purification. All reactions utilized
an aqueous solution of formaldehyde (approximately 37°% by weight).
N-(2-aminoethyl)morpholine and N-(3-aminopropyl)morpholine were
purchased in practical grade from vendors. The technique employed
in the syntheses of these Mannich compounds was similar to that of
Meadow and Reid*; modifications were utilized chiefly in the isolation
of the product from the reaction mxture. In most cases, a molar ratio
of phenol to amine to formaldehyde of 1:3:3 was used. The reactants
were mixed cold, and later refluxed at the temperature of boiling
ethanol for periods varying from three to twelve hours. In most cases,
a crysatlline product was obtained by chilling the reaction mixture for
periods of a few hours or longer. Products were recrystallized from
either methanol or 95°% ethanol; generally, two such recrystallizations
were carried out after which the purified compound was dried for
several hours at 50-60°C in a vacuum oven. All melting points were
determined with a Fisher-Johns type of block which had been checked
with compounds having known melting points.

Preparation of Mono-Mannich Derivatives: 4-Chloro-6-(N-hydroxy-
ethylpiperazinomethyl)-2-isopropyl-5-methylphenol is representative of
some of the mono-Mannich derivatives prepared. A mixture of 5.55 g.
(0.03 mole) of 6-chlorothymol, 6.5 g. (0.05 mole) of N-hydroxyethyl-
piperazine, and 15 ml. of absolute ethanol was cooled in an ice bath
to below 5°C., and 4.7 g. (0.05 mole) of 35-40% aqueous formaldehyde
was added slowly over a 15-minute period with shaking and cooling.
After standing about one hour at room temperature, a condenser was
attached to the flask and the mixture was then refluxed for about 4
hours. The resulting thick syrupy solution was diluted with 400 ml.
of tap water and contents stirred. Small white oily lumps usually

57

Preparation of Some New Amino Derivatives

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Jerry E. Berger, Kenneth H. Shaner, and J. R. Meadow

58

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Jerry E. Berger, Kenneth H. Shaner, and J. R. Meadow

60

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Preparation of Some New Amino Derivatives 61

Table V. Analytical Data for Mannich Derivatives of Cyclic Secondary Amines
with Halogenated Phenols

Equivalent Weight Per Cent Nitrogen

Compound
Number? Cale’d. Found Caled Found
1 213.7 217.4 6.55 6.42
2 311.9 312.6 4.49 4.56
3 163.4 164.1 8.56 8.86
4 295.7 296.8 4.74 4.90
5 4.94 4.67
6 290.8 303.5 4.83 5.00
7 4.83 5.03
8 324.6 324.0 48.09; 4.97» 48.32; 5.13»

tNumbers refer to compounds described in previous Table (IV).
»These values refer to analytical results for carbon and hydrogen respectively.

solidified after some 10 to 20 minutes. Fresh water was added after
decantation and the mixture allowed to stand overnight. Recrystal-
lization of the crude solid was accomplished from a 70° methanol-
water solution. The melting point range of the purified free base was
102.5-103.5°C. and was very sharp. 7.3 g. of the compound represented
a theoretical yield of 71°% (see Table III for analytical data).

Preparation of a Di-Mannich Derivative: Only one di-Mannich
derivative in this group of compounds was prepared, i.e. 4-bromo-2,6-
di(2,6-dimethylmorpholinomethy] ) phenol. Most mono-Mannich com-
pounds from 4-bromophenol are difficult to isolate as free bases in the
solid state (1). We succeeded in preparing a di-Mannich derivative of
this phenol, using 2,6-dimethylmorpholine as the secondary amine. A
mixture of 17.3 g. (0.1 mole) of 4-bromophenol, 25.7 g (0.22 mole) of
2,6-dimethylmorpholine, ond 75 ml. of 95° ethanol was cooled in an
ice bath in the usual manner. 19.8 g. (0.22 mole) of aqueous formalde-
hyde (35-40% ) was slowly added over a 15-minute period, and the
mixture was allowed to stand at room temperature for at least one
hour. A condenser was then attached to the flask and contents allowed
to reflux for at least 10 hours. The volume of the mixture was reduced
to one-half the original volume by use of an aspirator, and the re-
sidual liquid diluted with a moderate amount of pure emthanol until
the solution was clear. Water was then slowly added to the slightly
warmed mixture until turbidity appeared, and contents were placed
in a freezer to induce crystallization. After solid appeared it was
recrystallized from 70 to 80°% methanol-water as in the previous ex-
ample above. The product had a satisfactory melting point at 128.5-
130°C. and weighed 10.3 g. This represented a theoretical yield of
some 25%. (Analytical data are listed in Table III).

Analytical Procedures: Equivalent weight determinations were

62 Jerry E. Berger, Kenneth H. Shaner, and J. R. Meadow

made by employing a method siimlar to that outlined by Seaman and
Allen.® This volumetric procedure utilizing glacial acetic acid as a
nonaqueous solvent utilizes 0.1 N perchloric acid with crystal violet
as the indicator. The endpoint was verified potentiometrically and
observed to be accurate.

Nitrogen determinations were made by a modification of the
Kjeldahl procedure of McKenzie and Wallace.‘ The amount of re-
agent used was altered to allow use of samples weighing 80 to 200
mg.; a solution of mercuric oxide in dilute sulfuric served as an effec-
tive promoter. The liberated ammonia was titrated with 0.07 N
sulfamic acid to the methyl orange endpoint. Prior to running nitrogen
determinations on new compounds, the modified technique was verified
by using known compounds. Results are shown in Table I.

All carbon and hydrogen determinations, as well as some Dumas
nitrogen results given in Table III, were furnished by Weiler and
Strauss Microanalytical Laboratory, Oxford, England.

Summary
The preparation of halogenated phenols containing tertiary amino-
methyl groups led to the observation that some possess physiological
activity as bronchial dialators with antihistamine properties. Addi-
tional compounds having similar structures are reported here. Included
also are halogenated phenols contaning secondary aminomethyl groups
which were obtained by the use of primary amines.

Acknowledgements

The authors wish to thank the Geshickter Fund for Medical Re-
search, Washington, D. C., for help in carrying out much of this
research program. They wish to also acknowledge with thanks free
samples of hexamethyleneimine from the DuPont Co. and hydroxy-
ethylpiperazine from Union Carbide Chemicals Co. The assistance of
Mr. Ralph W. Schert with some of the synthetic work is very much
appreciated.

References

l. Berger, J. E., Byrd, D. S. and Meadow, J. R. 1958. Trans. Kentucky Acad. Sci.,
19 (8-4); 77-82.

2. Geschickter, C. F. and Meadow, J. R. 1961. U. S. Patent No. 3,001,999, issued
Sept. 26.

3. Meadow, J. R. and Reid, E. E. 1954. J. Am. Chem. Soc., 76, 3479.

4. Blicke, F. F. 1942. Organic Reactions, Vol. I, 303.

5. Weatherbee, C:, Boomer, W., Berrey, C. O. and Lau, H. K. S. 1957. Trans.
Illinois State Acad. Sci., 50, 110-117.

6. Seaman, W. and Allen, E. 1951. Anal. Chem., 23, 592-4.

7. McKenzie, H. A. and Wallace, H. S. 1954 Australian Jour. Chem., 7, 55.

HELP! FROM THE IBM 7040 — A STATISTICAL STUDY OF
BACTERIOLOGICAL DATA

M. HOTCHKISS, O. F. EDWARDS, AND T. REDMON

Department of Microbiology,
University of Kentucky, Lexington

Introduction

In order to study the physiology of the aerobic actinomycetes,
Redmon (1964), secured values on the oxygen uptake of suspensions of
resting cells. This oxygen uptake was measured in a Warburg mano-
meter using the technique described by Umbreit (1957). In 1965, a
statistical analysis of the oxygen uptake values was made, using the
IBM 7040 electronic computer.

Materials and Methods

Redmon used fifteen cultures obtained from laboratories in Mexico,
Alabama, Kentucky, North Carolina, and Tennessee. Some had been
isolated from living patients, some at autopsy. The origin of a few
strains is unknown. Cell suspensions were prepared from each culture
of actinomycete, grown in a medium (pH 6.8) consisting of 2%
casitone, 1% glucose, 0.2% KH2PO,., and 0.01% MgSO,4. When a
pellicle had formed on the surface of the broth, the liquid was
aspirated and the growth was transferred aseptically to 22x 175 mm
sterile test tubes and centrifuged. The sedimented cells were washed
with 15 ml of sterile phosphate buffer (pH 6.8). This was repeated
three times, and the final sediment was suspended in 15 ml of the
buffer. To determine the oxygen uptake for each culture fifteen War-
burg flasks were used. Three flasks for the endogenous respiration,
each with 2.0 ml of phosphate buffer, three with 1.5 ml of phosphate
buffer in the flask and 0.5 ml of 0.15 M glucose in the side arm. The
remaining sets of three flasks had 1.5 ml of phosphate buffer and the
side arms of the first set had 0.5 ml of 0.15 M maltose, the second set
similar amounts of lactose, and the third set sucrose. The center well
of the Warburg flask contained 0.2 ml of 10% KOH to absorb COs.
One ml of cell suspension was added to each flask. The flask was at-
tached to the manometer and placed in a constant temperature water
bath at 30 C. After five minutes of shaking, the flask was adjusted and
tightened, the system was checked for leaks. The stockcock was
opened and the substrate tipped in, the reference point of the closed
arm of the manometer was set at 250 mm. The stopcock was closed
immediately and readings were taken at 15, 30, 45, and 60 minutes

64 M. Hotchkiss, O. F. Edwards, and T. Redmon

by adjusting the fluid level in the closed arm to 250 mm. To convert
the mm value of the difference in the readings of the open arm of the
manometer to microliters of oxygen uptake at standard temperature
and pressure, the mm value was multiplied by the flask constant for
oxygen. After the 60 minute reading of the oxygen uptake, the dry
weight of the cells in each flask was determined and the values for
each culture for each observation period recorded as microliters of
oxygen uptake per mg dry cells. Aseptic technique was used through-
out so that no rapidly growing contaminant could interfere with the
experiment.
The data were analyzed with the IBM 7040.

Results and Discussion

The values for the endogenous oxygen uptake of the resting cell
suspensions were unexpectedly high, and ranged from 4.9 to 28 micro-
liters per hour. The addition of glucose resulted in a marked increase
in the oxygen uptake, the addition of maltose, lactose or sucrose did
not. There were wide variations in the oxygen uptake in some of the
triplicate Warburg tests.

Are these variations in values for oxygen uptake great enough to
cast serious doubt on the statement “addition of glucose resulted in
a marked increase in the oxygen uptake?” If the statement is true,
the values for the endogenous Qo, must represent a group, and the
values for glucose Qo, a different group. If the statement is false, the
values for the endogenous Qo, and the values for glucose Qoz represent
a single group.

Statistically, this is the evaluation of two arithmetic means.

The arithmetic mean is commonly used as a measure of a group
of related values. Obviously the greater the difference between in-
dividual values, the less likelihood exists that the mean can be used in
place of the complete list of values. Were one to depend on the arith-
metic mean solely, it would be possible to decide, erroneously, that
the data collected by sampling a single group with widely separated
individual values had really come from two different groups.

The standard deviation (1) has been used to avoid this error, but
here it is possible to decide, erroneously, that data collected by
sampling two groups of individual values had really come from a
single group.

(1) SD= V (3(X—X)?) / (N—1)

where SD is the sample standard deviation, X is the group
mean, X is the individual value, and N is the number of
individual values.

Help! From the IBM 7040 65

Is there a method for testing data and at the same time avoiding
these two errors? With our particular problem, can we determine
whether or not the difference between the arithmetic means of en-
dogenous respiration and of glucose respiration is large enough to
justify the belief that the samples from each came from two different
groups?

There is such a procedure and fortunately it is included in a
standard library program at the University of Kentucky Computing
Center (Zerof et al. 1965). This has been prepared so that for “. . . un-
correlated comparisons a test to determine the homogeneity of the
variances of the variables is made. . . .”

The term ‘variance’ means the square of the standard deviation,
but what shall be chosen for ‘variable’? There are fifteen strains of
microorganisms, there are four different observation times, and there
are five conditions to which the resting cells were subjected; (1) no
added sugar, (2) glucose added, (3), (4), (5) maltose, lactose, and
sucrose respectively. To the biologists these five conditions, under
which the resting cells were studied, represent the most important
factors in the experiment. To our advisors in the computing center the
fifteen different cultures or the four observation periods seemed just
as important. In order to use the computer facilities, the experimenter
must decide which is the proper ‘variable’ and the experimenter must
learn enough of the computer vocabulary to communicate his selection
to a machine. In this selection the personnel at the center were most
helpful.

The values for the 60 minute time period were selected for pro-
cessing because the Qo, is defined as microliters of oxygen uptake per
milligran dry weight per hour. Data cards were prepared by punching
the Qo, values for endogenous, glucose, maltose, lactose, and sucrose.
Three cards were required for the triplicate experiment for one
actinomycete culture. Forty-five cards represented the data for fifteen
cultures.

The library program that was recommended to us is entitled “T
TEST. Our data cards were processed by the computer with this
ready made program. The machine talked to itself for .02 hour and
then printed for each ‘variable’, the sum of the values, the arithmetic
mean, the sum of the standard deviations squared, the variance, the
standard deviation, the standard error, the coefficient of variation, and
the number of observations. These are all calculated from and apply
to observations on members of a single group, and although they do
not help us to answer the basic questions, certain of these values are
used in the computation of the “T RATIO’ and the “IT PROBABILITY’
which do help us.

66 M. Hotchkiss, O. F. Edwards, and T. Redmon

It is our hypothesis that the values which we are attempting to
assess, follow a normal distribution. In the early days of statistical
analysis, it was thought necessary to collect an almost infinite number
of values for the construction of a reliable ‘curve’. In 1908, William
Seely Gossett (1876-1947), a statistician for the Guiness brewery,
secured permission to publish a mathematical article. (On the probable
error of a correlation coefficient. Biometrica, VI, 302). He signed the
article ‘Student’, and because the ‘t’ distribution which he computed
allows the evaluation-of small samples, his formula has been of great
use to statisticians.

This ‘t distribution has been so useful that tables have long been
available to find the ‘t’ probability for a given value for (N —1) and,
by substituting T RATIO for ‘*? and ((N;-+N;) —2) for (N—1), to
find the T PROBABILITY. However it is futile for a human being to
use these tables when the machine performs the calculations so much
more rapidly.

(2) T RATIO=(X% —X,) / Sep

where X is the sample mean, ‘i’ is one group ‘jj’ is another group
(e.g. endogenous, glucose), and Spp is the standard error of
difference (3).

(3) Sup = V (Var; / Ni) + (Var; / Nj)

where Var is the variance (4) and N the number of samples
in the group.

(4) Var = (Ni =X? — (= X;)?) / Ni (Ni—1)

where X is an individual value and N the number of indi-
viduals in the sample.

It is important to note that ‘t’ and ‘t probability refer to the ques-
tion, “Does this individual belong to this one group?” T RATIO and
T PROBABILITY refer to the question, “Do these two means belong
to the same group?” The higher value of either ‘t probability or T
PROBABILITY, the greater the certainty that a single group is in-
volved; conversely the lower the value, the greater the certainty that
more than one group is involved.

Table 1 shows the values computed by the machine for all com-
binations of the five conditions; endogenous, glucose, maltose, lactose,
and sucrose.

The values listed in this table (Table 1) show that there is no
possibility that the endogenous respiration represents a group that
has any relation to a group exposed to glucose as substrate. Further-
more, glucose treated cells and maltose treated cells constitute different
groups, as do the glucose and lactose treated cells, and likewise the

Help! From the IBM 7040 67

glucose treated and sucrose treated cells. We must make this conclu-
sion because the T PROBABILITY for each of the above combinations
1s.00002..

It can be noted that endogenous and maltose groups, as well as
maltose versus lactose treated groups have a T PROBABILITY of 0.027
and 0.026 respectively. For a two tailed hypothesis this would be
(0.054 and 0.052. These are low values and indicate that the respective
groups are different, because in about 5% of the samples from a single
group a value as large as —1.95 or 1.97 (T RATIO) would be obtained.
On the other hand, the endogenous and lactose treated groups show
a T PROBABILITY of 0.338 (for two tailed 0.676) and this high value
indicates that the two means are from a single group because in 67%
of the samples from a single group a value equal to or larger than
—0.42 (T RATIO) would be obtained.

Table 1. Report of the iBM 7040

Condition T RATIO DF TPROBABILITY*
Endogenous vs. Glucose —6.04 62 0.000
Endogenous vs. Maltose —1.95 88 0.027
Endogenous vs. Lactose —0.42 69 0.338
Endogenous vs. Sucrose —0.86 87 0.197
Glucose vs. Maltose 4.88 61 0.000
Glucose vs. Lactose 6.23 49 0.000
Glucose vs. Sucrose D6 Dif 0.000
Maltose vs. Lactose 1.97 71 0.026
Maltose vs. Sucrose 3k 87 0.114
Lactose vs. Sucrose —0.62 73 0.268

* For two tailed hypothesis multiply the T PROBABILITY by two.
DF is degree of freedom.

Summary

The speed with which calculations on raw data can be made,
provided that the correct program has been fitted to the computer,
afford the experimenter an opportunity to formulate different hypo-
theses and to test their validity very quickly. It is thus, par excellence,
a tool for the training of a student in analytical thinking whatever may

be his field of endeavor.

Literature Cited

Gossett, William Sealy, 1908. On the probable error of a correlation coefficient.
Biometrica VI 302.

68 M. Hotchkiss, O. F. Edwards, and T. Redmon

Redmon, Thressa. 1964. Studies on carbohydrate utilization by fifteen cultures of
aerobic actinomycetes.
Unpublished Master’s Thesis. University of Kentucky, 90 pp. Typewritten.

Umbreit, W. W., Burris, R. H., and Stouffer, J. F. 1957. Manometric Techniques,
Burgess Publishing Company.

Zerot, Selwyn A., Caveny, Regina, Day, Sam B., Mimlitch, Donald, Adams, GiSbert.
1963. Statistical Program Library for the 7040. Preliminary Edition. Univer-
sity Computing Center, University of Kentucky, Lexington.

A RARE IRON CONGLOMERATE OCCURRING IN NORTHEASTERN
HARDIN COUNTY, KENTUCKY

WILLARD ROUSE JILLSON
Frankfort, Kentucky

While engaged in an oil and gas reconnaissance of the geology
of a portion of the valley of the Rolling Fork of Salt River lying from
1 to 3 miles southwest of the village of Boston in western Nelson and
eastern Hardin County, Kentucky, on December 9, 1958, the writer
inadvertently discovered a rare type of iron cemented pebble-stone! in
the channel of a steep intermittent hillside branch. Representative
samples were collected and subsequently given to the Kentucky His-
torical Society to be added to the rapidly growing rock collection of
this organization seated in the old State House in Frankfort. Intrigued
time and again during the flight of the succeeding years by recollec-
tions of this unique, heavy brown iron conglomerate, a return to the
locality of its discovery in eastern Hardin was made on October 1,
1965. The significant results of this examination follow.

The iron conglomerate, of 1958 record, was quickly found to be
entirely disconnected stratigraphically with any part of the New
Providence (Lower Mississippian) formation which outcrops there at
the base of the first Muldraugh Hill in a thickness of about 50 feet.
The pebble-stone occurs as a very limited fluvial deposit in a sharply
etched, roughly circular erosional basin about 3.5 feet in diameter,
some 15 to 18 feet below an intermittent falls of upper hillside branch
water. The course of this small stream leaves a normal shallow drain
in brush and cull timber and debouches over the south face of a deep
wood cut in the New Providence Shale into which it has eroded a
shallow channel of very steep angle to the aforesaid circular basin,
below which the stream at a greatly lowered angle finds its way to the
south ditch of Highway No. 62, thence on to the broad flat bottoms of
the Salt River.

The pebbles found in this iron conglomerate, with one exception,
are all slightly stream washed from nearby residual rock waste occur-
ring at levels 80 to 125 feet higher in the New Providence and the
formerly overlying Keokuk (Lower Mississippian) formation. Cherts
of various types, brown and light tan to chalky white, both solid and
porous, angular and subangular, predominate. But fine to medium
sand pebbles, some oval flat, others rounded, also occur in this fluvial

1. Author’s field Note Book “AA”, p. 25, No. 38. Dec. 9, 1958; also Book “HH”,
pp. 3-4. No. 10. Oct. 1, 1965.

70 Willard Rouse Jillson

Figure 1—lron Conglomerate from Hardin County, Kentucky. The length of the larger
specimen is 14 inches, the smaller one 9.5 inches. The pebbles comprising these
conglomerate fragments are here, accordingly, greatly reduced in size.

conglomerate. Occasionally a solid white or tan quartz Pottsville
(Lower Pennsylvanian ) pebble is noted, derived from remnant patches
of hilltop fluviatile gravels deposited during the late Miocene or early
Pliocene epochs of the Tertiary in the shallow, meandering, long aban-
doned channels or on the lower parts of the flood plain of the ancient
high level Rolling Fork River. The pebbles, thus variously sourced,
and of widely differing lithology, range in size, when elongate from 1
to 2.5 inches and when rounded or oval from .5 to 1.5 inches.

Of fossils, large or small, there is a very great scarcity, in fact,
none have been noted except a very few short three or four plate
crinoid or blastoid stem sections exhibiting diameters ranging from 1.5

A Rare Iron Conglomerate 71

to 2 tenths of an inch. The genera, much less the species of these
wandering organic fragments, are of course entirely indeterminate.
One or two Pottsville quartz pebbles, of medium to small size have
been noted in each specimen of this conglomerate, generally rather
deeply imbedded in the dark brown to black central iron stone matrix,
which is very solid and frequently quite brittle. Its thickness ranges
from .5 to 1.25 inches usually, but one or two specimens have been
seen where the central iron layer exhibited a thickness of from 1.50 to
a full 2 inches. This greater thickness, however, is quite exceptional.

The pebbles, occurring in this conglomerate, accordingly are in
many instances exposed, of course, only partially, usually to an extent
of about 14 to 5% of their thickness or their entire mass, either at the
top or the bottom of this extraordinary agglomerated rock. Chemical
analyses of the iron ore matrix of this particular conglomerate, de-
sirable as they might be as an accessory description, have not been
made as this facility has not been immediately available to the writer,
but based upon experience is here quantitatively estimated to be
about 40 to 55°% FeO with the balance of insolubles showing as SiO:
and A1.Os.

An interesting angle of speculative thought involving the time
element of formation of the rock, attaches to this particular Hardin
County conglomerate and so logically appears in this paper, it may be,
for the first time in the geological literature of the Ohio Valley, and
perhaps, though this is of course less likely, in that of the entire coun-
try! All hard rocks require time, some a great deal of time, others much
less for their induration. Volcanic lavas cool and harden very rapidly,
especially if a thin flow on a steeply inclined mountain side is involved.
All geological experience inclines to the view that the induration of
the sedimentary beds is a slow, a very slow process involving not only
vast stretches of time but also superimposed beds of great weight to
bring about compaction. Old and long accepted trends of thought on
the induration of sedimentaries must now, it appears, be laid aside
with respect to this unique iron conglomerate, found at the base of the
first of the Muldraugh Hills west of Salt River in Hardin County, Ken-
tucky, as the following facts clearly indicate.

Thoroughly dependable records show that the grading and ditch-
ing of the deep cut in the first low hill on State Highway No. 62, west
of the Salt River in eastern Hardin County, was completed and ap-
proved, following inspection, on June 24, 1925.° Erosion of the shallow,
high angle channel of the “waterfall branch” across the upper part of

2. Letter to the author from D. M. Burgess, Director of Planning of the Ken-
tucky State Dept. of Highways, Frankfort, Ky. Oct. 6, 1965.

12 Willard Rouse Jillson

the exposure of the New Providence Shale in this particular cut on the
south side of Highway No. 62, some 2400 to 2500 feet southwest of the
Salt River in Hardin County, began then or very shortly after this date
in the mid-year of 1925. The small basin, in which the iron conglom-
erate was formed and is now found, was obviously formed during the
first 5 or 10 years after 1925, before the ledge of rock producing the
falls had receded some 15 or 20 feet to the position it now occupies.
At the present time and probably for a good many years branch
water here has not fallen directly into the circular basin, but after
leaving the “Falls Ledge” has cascaded down a steep shallow channel
in the New Providence and passed on and over the old “Falls Basin”
in a deepening, rock-cut channel to the south ditch of Highway No. 62.
Close inspection of the lower part of the “Falls Branch” channel, indi-
cates that the “Falls Basin” is now probably not nearly as deep as it
once was, before the recession of the “Falls Ledge” and that for a
good many years it has been simply a deep place in the otherwise
shallow, highly tilted channel of the wet-weather “Falls Branch”.

The mass of variegated, insoluble chert and sandstone pebbles
which the Falls Branch gathered in the hills above and used as tools
to cut the circular basin in the lightly resisting New Providence shale,
remained in the bowl-like depression after the Falls had receded,
perhaps rather abruptly following the fall of some ledge blocks, as
frequently happens to all water falls. The small and more or less
intermittent flow of iron-bearing waters leached from hilltop and upper
channel beds, obviously sustained considerable evaporation at the
Falls. As the upper water found its way, in dry periods, downwardly
over innumerable ledges in the steep channel it was somewhat in-
creased by subsurface waters issuing from beds of disseminated iron
ore, sizeable kidneys and lenticles that plainly show here in the exposed
stratigraphic section. These combined branch waters, tending with
constant and rapidly increasing evaporation to greater and greater
concentration of iron in solution, were collected and held in the fairly
deep pebble-filled basin. In periods of extreme and extended dryness,
as their volume shrank, and ceased its flow, as was the case at each
period of examination, the iron content of these dwindling branch
waters was precipitated in amongst and around the insoluble pebbles
in the abandoned stream bed basin below the several iron ore horizons
of the New Providence Shale.

The erosive action of intermittent streams of small flow has long
been established as very slow. All physical factors and changing the cir-
cumstances of drainage apparently did not combine to increase concen-
tration and bring about precipitation of the iron in the branch water

A Rare Iron Conglomerate 73

as a matrix solidifying all or most all of the gravels in the branch basin
for probably at least 15 years—or until about 1949. The growth of the
iron conglomerate found in this “Falls Branch” basin may therefore be
said, with some degree of dependability, to have been accomplished
within the last 25 years. This timing, it is thought, may be used with
some assurance of accuracy in arriving at the time element required for
the filling of veins and crevices in the bedded rocks of mineralized
areas by downward percolating iron-bearing aqueous solutions.

LINGULA NODULARATA, SP. NOV., OCCURRING
IN POWELL COUNTY, KENTUCKY

WILLARD ROUSE JILLSON
Frankfort, Kentucky

While engaged in executing a field study of oil and gas structure in
the vicinity of Stanton! in central Powell County, Kentucky, on July
31, 1963,° the writer’s attention was caught by the occurrence of a well
defined, locally-continuing strata of small, brownish, clay-stone nodules
in a ten-foot, slightly weathered exposure of the Cuyahoga (New
Providence ) shale outcropping on the west side of the Cat Creek road,
about 1500 feet south of State Highway No. 15 and lying adjacent to
the land of Grace Knox. Stopping briefly, two of these nodules, each
quite noticeably spherical in figure, were collected from their original
place of outcrop, sacked, labeled and dated. Returning to Farnkfort
toward the end of the day, these two nodules were numbered for pros-
pective study. No. 1 nodule upon being split open by the blow of a
hammer, exhibited a measured diameter of .7 of an inch; No. 2, when
similarly opened, showed a diameter of .8 of an inch.

Upon close examination with a hand lens, each of the nodules
revealed a single, very small, glossy, dark brown to black, well pre-
served bi-valve. Unable to recall from memory the exact species of
this minute fossil, about which as a central bit of organic life the
nodule in each case had very evidently grown, the writer sent them
to Dr. G. Arthur Cooper, a widely recognized invertebrate paleontolo-
gist and a long time friend, in the Smithsonian Institution at Washing-
ton, D. C., requesting, if possible, identification of both genera and
species. Shortly thereafter a letter was received by the writer from
Dr. Cooper, stating that the specimens were without doubt LIN-
GULAS, but of a species unmatchable in the collections of the Smith-
sonian Institution.* Return of the fossil specimens—No. 1 and No. 2—
closely followed the letter.

1. Geology of the Area about Stanton, Powell County, Kentucky, 33 pp. Illust.
Map. Pamph. by Willard Rouse Jillson, Roberts Printing Co., Frankfort, Ky.
December 2, 1963.

Author's Field Note Book “FF.” Lingula discovery and later field work. Pp.
115, 125 and 131, July 81, Aug. 13 and 20, 1963.

Official correspondence. A letter from Dr. G. A. Cooper, Head Curator, Dept.
of Geology, U. S. National Museum, Washington, D. C. to the author, dated
Sept. 9, 1963.

to

we)

Lingula Nodluarata, Sp. Nov. 15

Upon receipt of this advice, the writer immediately returned to the
type Lingula locality on Cat Creek in Powell County and by close and
careful work increased his collection to about 35 unbroken nodules
of siimlar size and appearance, and all from the same horizon and
outcrop as the two original specimens. At this time, A. T. elevations
of 700 feet at the bottom and 710 feet at the top were placed by
barometer on the roadside exposure of the New Providence Shale that
exhibited the Lingula nodular horizon, which was found by checked
barometer to be 50 feet above the top of the black New Albany (Upper
Devonian) Shale. Subsequent collections in this area, made with in-
creasing difficulty have enlarged the entire collection of nodules
derived from this horizon on Cat Creek to about 50. All the nodules
in the collection have been carefully split open and examined. Out
of the entire collection of nodules upwards of a dozen specimens of the
same little, black, shiny brachiopods were recovered. The fossilized
nodules were therefore about | in 4 or 5 in the entire nodular as-
semblage.

Figure 1.—Clay-stone nodules containing Lingula nodularata sp. nov. fossils.

The specimen Lingulas, measured in their separate nodules, exhibit
a range in length of from 1.5 to 3.5 tenths of an inch, and in width from
1. to 2.5 tenths of an inch. These Cat Creek nodular Lingulas have
been compared by the writer with the published figures of several
other Lingulas occurring in the Lower Mississippian beds, chiefly in
Ohio, and while similar, of course in many respects, particularly to L.
Melia found in the Chagrin Shale of that state, these recently discov-
ered Powell County forms have been clearly recognized to have much

76 Willard Rouse Jillson

Figure 2.—Lingula nodularata sp. noy. width of specimen is 0.2 inch.

Lingula Nodluarata, Sp. Nov. Tel

finer and more even growth lines than any now described in the

pertinent paleontological literature* as found in the collections of the

U. S. National Museum in Washington, D. C. Accordingly, the writer

recognizes these tiny Cat Creek brachiopods as a new and hitherto

undescribed species of Lingula and to them he here gives the name

Lingula nodularata.

In closing this briefly descriptive announcement touching upon
Lingula nodularata, sp. nov., the writer desires to extend sincere thanks
and no little admiration to a long admired friend, Dr. Roger W. Bar-
bour of the Department of Zoology of the University of Kentucky‘ to
whom he and all those who take interest in the advent of this new
member of the rather extensive family of darkfaced Lingulas for the
production of the marvelous photo-magnifications he made of the type
specimens of L. nodularata to accompany this paper introducing this
tiny but important species nov. And finally the writer's entire col-
lection of Lingula nodularata, together with the residual suit of broken
nodules has been given to the Smithsonian Institution to insure their
proper preservation and for the use of future workers in this late
Paleozoic invertebrate field whenever in the years to come they appear
and whoever they may be.

4. The following publications have been examined in the course of preparing for
the writing of this paper. I. G. H. Girty, P.P. No. 193-C, pp. 47-67. U. S.
Geol. Survey, Washington, D. C. 1939. II. C. L. Herrick, Vol. IV, P. I & II,
Bull. Dennison Univ., 1898. III. Shiver and Shrock. Index Foss‘ls of N. Am.
827 pp. N. Y. C. 1944. IV. A. Foerste, The Bedford Fauna at Indian Fields
and Irvine, Ky. Pp. 515-23. The Ohio Naturalist, Vol. IX. No. 7, May, 1999.

V. James Hall, New Species of Brachiopods. Pal. of N. Y. Vol. VIII. Parts 1
and 2. Albany, N. Y. 1892-1894.

A LIMESTONE CONGLOMERATE OCCURRING IN THE EDEN
OF CLARK COUNTY, KENTUCKY

WILLARD ROUSE JILLSON
Frankfort, Kentucky

During the latter part of the morning of September 13, 1963, while
checking outcrops of Cynthiana and Eden limestones recently trenched
by low rock cuts along the new super-highway I-64, northeast of
the Winchester Disturbance,’ in northeastern central Clark County,
Kentucky, the writer made discovery of a thin but prominent limestone
conglomerate. Of unusual lithological character, unknown extent and
unrecorded, it is believed, in the pertinent geological literature of Ken-
tucky. Its occurrence coupled with its rather high position on the
eastern flank of the Cincinnati Arch, bespeaks for it some passing
notice, if only, as it must be at this time, of a preliminary nature. Brief
additional studies of this exposure, including rock and fossil collections
on both sides of the expressway and stratigraphic sections were made
on September 21, 1963 and an overall review of the entire exposure
including additional rock and fossil collections, preliminary to the
writing of this paper was made on October 9, 1965."

The exposure in which this unique conglomeratic limestone occurs
is to be seen at a point about 8000 feet northeast of the U. S. Highway
overpass at a crushed rock “crossover” on the north side of the north
(west-bound ) lane of expressway I-64. Topographically this outcrop
is on the upper northern slope of a ridge forming the southern head-
waters divide of Cabin Creek, a northeasterly flowing tributary of
Stoner Creek. The conglomeratic lime occurs at an altitude of 1017
feet A. T., Bar. For further surface detail, if desired, the reader is
referred to the recent Austerlitz quadrangle.*

The conglomerate limestone of central note in this paper ranges
from 2.5 to 6 inches in thickness. It exhibits a very hard and thoroughly
indurated gray crystalline (CaCO; ) matrix into which are imbedded
a great many subangular to angular calcareous pebbles, rock and fossil
fragments ranging in length from .6 to 2.2 inches; in width from .3 to
1 inch and in thickness (as exposed) from .3 to .65 of an inch. Fossils
found in or attached to the calcareous matrix of this conglomerate

1. Geology of the Winchester Disturbance. 24 pp. 8 photos. Map. Pamph. by
Willard Rouse Jillson. Roberts Printing Co. Frankfort, Ky. November 6, 1963.
Author’s field Note Book “FF”, pp. 132, 140, 141 and 143. Sept. 13, and 21,
1963; and Note Book “HH”, pp. 6, October 9, 1965.

3. Austerlitz Quadrangle. Anonymous. Colors. Scale: 1-24,000. Ten foot contours.
U. S. Geol. Surv., Washington, D. C. 1959 See S E. quadrant.

to

Figure 1.—Limestone

A Limestone Conglomerate

Pe

conglomerate from the Eden of Clark

3

County, Kentucky.

19

80 Willard Rouse Jillson

were: Dalmanella emacerata, Dalmanella multisecta, Dekayella ulrichi,
Hallopora onealli, Ectenocrinus grandis, Aspidopora eccentrica and
Plectambonites rugosus, a dependable Eden assemblage, but certainly
not an abundant one!

This group of well known forms suggests middle Eden, but as this
seems quite unlikely, further field work here is indicated as important.
Unfortunately, however, there appears to be no immediately observ-
able continuance of this distinctive pebble-stone due to the local
vagaries of erosion and topography. Although they appear, so far as
examined, to contain no fossils, the pebbles and rock fragments of this
conglomerate are assumed to have been derived from Upper Cynthiana
beds (Upper Middle Ordovician ) at no very great distance. Cynthiana
(Rogers Gap) limes dipping 2°-3° to the southwest underlie this Eden
conglomerate which cuts diagonally across them in its 1°-2° dip N.
80° E. The entire exposure here is about 250 feet long and not more
than 10 feet high from the expressway ditch to grasslands and fence
line above.

The gray limestones and limey shales immediately underlying the
thin Eden conglomerate of principal interest in this paper, were care-
fully examined and from them on both sides of I-64, at the crushed
rock “crossover”, the following Rogers Gap and Greendale (Cynthiana-
upper Trenton) fossils were collected and identified by the writer on
September 21, 1963. Those marked by asterisks are regarded as
reliably characteristic forms.

List

I CYNTHIANA

Rogers Gap
Strophomena halli*
2. Clitambonites rogersensis*
3. Bellerophon rogersensis®
4
3)

>

Eridorthis rogersensis®
Eridorthis nicklesi*

Greendale

1. Cyclonema varicosum*
Triarthus becki
Rafinesquina alternata
Rafinesquina winchesterensis®
Lophospira bowdeni
Orthoceras duseri
Herbertella occidentalis®

BOG Goto

A Limestone Conglomerate

Herbertella subjugata*
Echarspora maculata*
Constellaria fischeri*
Eridotrypa briareus*
Homotrypa norwoodi*
Prospora falesi
Zygospira modesta

81

FISH COPROLITES IN THE ONONDAGA LIMESTONE
OF EASTERN CENTRAL KENTUCKY

By WILLARD ROUSE JiLLSON

Having read with much interest during the early 1920's Professor
William M. Linney’s late Nineteenth Century brief but important nota-
tion of the occurrence of a broad scattering of piscene osteological
remains in the basal layer of the Onondaga (Middle Devonian) lime-
stone in northwestern Powell County, Kentucky,! the writer found
much pleasure in making similar discoveries in the bottom bed (Kidd-
ville) of the same formation on the upepr waters of Arbuckle Creek in
southern Marion County on April 17, 1952.°- These recent mid-Ken-
tucky piscene findings, heretofore unrecorded in the literature, were
set out in some useful detail in pamphlet form later in the same year.*

Continuing these piscene investigations on September 14, 1952,
a fine, bright autumnal day, the writer guided by a friend of many
years standing, the late much lamented, Col. Lucien Beckner of
Louisville, a native and many years a resident of Winchester, Kentucky,
executed with great care a field reconnaissance of the identical area
in northwestern Powell County in which Linney had found much fish
bone material nearly 70 years previously. The exact location on the
head of Hensley Branch of Lulbegrud where the Machaeracanthus
spine, now in the Louisville Museum, was found by John William
McIntosh (B. 1874-D. 1953) in the Summer of 1932, was visited, as
was the locality on Copperas Creek near the site of Eastin’s old mill,
where old Professor Linney, some 80 years ago found in the lower
part of the New Albany black shale “two large dorsomedian plates.”
These he, in 1884,° and Professor John Strong Newberry in 1889°
referred to probably an undescribed species of the terrible upper
Devonian shark (?) Dinichthys, a mid-Paleozoic marine Placoderm of
gigantic proportions, probably 20 to 25 feet in length and 15 to 18 feet
in belly girth.

1. Report on the Geology of Clark County, 43 pp. Geol. Surv. of Ky. (Proctor )
(Frankfort, Ky.) Pages 29-30. 1884.

2. Author’s field Note Book “P”. Pp. 55, 56, 57, 59, 61, 62 and 63. 1952.

3. The Bone Bed Sandstone. 244 pp. Illust. Pamph. By Willard Rouse Jillson.
Roberts Printing Co., Frankfort, Ky. Sept. 25, 1952.

4. Author’s field Note Book “P”’, Pp. 119, 121, 126 & 127. 1952.

5. Report on the Geology of Clark County. Linney. Page 34.

6. The Paleozoic Fishes of North America. J. S. Newberry. Vol. XVI, U. S. Geol.
Surv., Washington, D. C. Page 59.

Fish Coprolites in the Onondaga Limestone 83

Figure 1.—Fish coprolites from the Onondaga limestone of Eastern Central Kentucky.
Length 13 inches.

Following these examinations which turned up (on Hensley Branch)
only one coprolitic sandy limestone slap worthy of collection, the writer
returned to the area of Fall exposure of the Onondaga (Corniferous or
Boyle) limestone which borders Highway No. 15 on the northeast side
at a point 1000 feet south of the vehicular bridge over Lulbegrud Creek
and a little beyond the intersection of the old, original and
now abandoned road to West Bend and Clay City in northwestern

84 Willard Rouse Jillson

Powell County. At this locality two large and excellent coprolitic slabs
of the sandy lime, 8 inch Kiddville layer, fallen from the lower part
of the Corniferous were found and collected’ for further study.

These two specimens coupled with the one found previously on
Hensley’s Branch constitute the three coprolitic slabs featured and
illustrated in this paper. These three flat Kiddville rocks exhibit the
following dimensions. A. 6.5x 12x 2.4 inches; B. 9.7x 13x 2.8 inches
and C. 9x5.5x2.4 inches. Their approximate bulk follows. A. 450
cubic inches; B. 350 cubic inches and C. 125 cubic inches. Bone plate
coprolites on these three Kiddville slabs averaged, length 1.63 inches;
width 1.05 inches; and thickness .375 inches. Indeterminate coprolitic
boney fragments averaged, length 1.76 inches; width 1.03 inches and
thickness .60 inches. The measurements of these two groups combined
are: Length 1.69 inches; width 1.04 inches and thickness .462 inches.
The average Middle Devonian (Kiddville layer) rounded or subangu-
lar lump of piscene boney excretia found in the vicinity of the vehicular
bridge on Highway No. 15 in Powell and Clark Counties is thus seen
to be about the size of my lady’s rouge box “in purse.”

The approximate contents of each of these three Kiddville slabs
follows. A. 450 cubic inches; B. 350 cubic inches and C. 125 cubic
inches. These three slabs exhibit at the surface a total of 75 large and
small bony coprolites and it is probable that as many as 25 more are
entirely encased within the three rocks. If this rate of coprolitic accu-
mulation on and in the Kiddville sandy-lime during early Onondaga-
Coorniferous (Middle Devonian) time held constant for any consider-
able area, the number of coprolitic fragments deposited during mid-
Paleozoic time in the vicinity of the vehicular bridge in northwestern
Powell and southeastern Clark Counties would have been in excess
of 11,000,000 boney units of piscene excretia to the square mile. Surely
this is not an inconsiderable addition to normal marine sedimentary
accumulation anywhere. In finale, it may not be improper to state
that this paper is thought to be the first piece of writing devoted
entirely, as its title indicates, to Paleozoic coprolites, to appear in either
the geological or the paleontological literature of Kentucky.

7. Author’s field Note Book “P’, page 127. Sept. 23, 1952.

A PRELIMINARY LIST OF THE MAMMALS OF ROBINSON FOREST,
BREATHITT COUNTY, KENTUCKY

ROGER W. BARBOUR
Department of Zoology, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky 40506, and

SJARIEF HARDJASASMITA
Institut Teknologi di Bandung, Bandung, Djawa, Indonesia

Robinson Forest is a tract of approximately 13,000 acres of mixed
mesophytic woodland situated in the drainage of Buckhorn Creek, in
the vicinity of Noble, Breathitt County, Kentucky. Almost the whole
of Cole’s and Clemon’s Forks, tributary to Buckhorn, are within the
forest. Robinson Forest is owned by the University of Kentucky, and
is administered by the Department of Forestry of the College of
Agriculture.

In the 1930's a set of well constructed rustic log buildings were
started along the lower reaches of Clemon’s Fork, under the auspices
of the National Youth Administration. Apparently floors, walls, and
roofs only were erected at that time, and the buildings remained un-
finished until the early 1950's. At that time the University completed
the buildings and furnished them with adequate camp furniture. Since
completion, Camp Robinson has been used for a variety of educational
purposes. The utilization of the camp has greatly increased human
traffic in the area, to the detriment of certain mammals.

Over the past 12 years or so, the vertebrate fauna of Robinson
Forest and the immediately surrounding areas has been studied by the
senior author, his colleagues, and their students. Lists of fishes
(Kuehne, 1962), amphibians and reptiles (Bush, 1959), and birds (Bar-
bour, 1956) have been published.

Hamilton (1930) listed 30 species of mammals from Breathitt
County, largely from the vicinity of Quicksand. Barbour (1957) listed
Corynorhinus rafinesquii from Camp Robinson. This report has been
prepared to make our findings to date available.

In 1960 and 1961 the authors spent approximately 10 weeks in
Robinson Forest, mostly in summer, and devoted a large portion of
that time to a survey of the mammals of the area. In previous and
subsequent years the senior author has observed and collected mam-
mals in the area as other duties permitted. All specimens are deposited
in the collection of the Zoology Department of the University of
Kentucky.

86 Roger W. Barbour

We would like to express our gratitude to all who have assisted in
this study; particular thanks are due William Byrd Barkley for his
assistance in the summer of 1960.

Annotated List of Species

1. Didelphis v. virginianus. Opossum. Opossums have been rare
in Robinson forest at least since the beginning of this study in 1955.
Our only record is a portion of a recent skeleton from alongside a trail
in 1960.

2. Parascalops breweri. Hairy-tailed Mole. Tunnels apparently
made by this species are commonly encountered in the forest, alongside
roads and trails, and in more or less open fields. We have but one
specimen, an adult female taken June 23, 1955.

3. Sorex fumeus fumeus. Smoky Shrew. We took a single speci-
men of this species from dense woods at an elevation of 900 feet on
April 28, 1961. The animal, a mature female, was lactating from six
mammae. This species is currently known from but three other local-
ities in Kentucky: Bailey (1933) took a small series from Mammoth
Cave; Welter and Sollberger (1939) took a single specimen from
Morehead, Rowan County; and Barbour (1951) recorded 12 specimens
from Big Black Mountain in Harlan County.

4. Blarina brevicauda kirtlandi. Short-tailed Shrew. This is one
of the commonest mammals of the forest, and occurs in habitats rang-
ing from dense woodlands through brushy areas to grassy fields.

5. Pipistrellus subflavus subflavus. Eastern Pipistrelle. This is
probably the commonest bat of Robinson Forest. Two pregnant fe-
males, each with two nearly full term embryos were taken on June 23,
1960. Numerous individuals were observed about that time, and many
were obviously pregnant. They could readily be distinguished by their
slow, heavy, labored flight. As nearly as we could determine, several
individuals spent the days among the foliage of some large sycamores
at Camp Robinson. We could never find them at rest, but we normally
saw them first in the evening flying about the fairly isolated trees.

6. Eptesicus fuscus fuscus. Big Brown Bat. Apparently there are
neither maternity colonies nor hibernacula of this species within the
forest, so the population is limited to migrating individuals or sum-
mering males. Our only specimen is a mature male shot at Camp
Robinson on April 27, 1961.

7. Lasiurus borealis borealis. Red Bat. This species occurs com-
monly throughout the forest, and individuals can be seen flying almost
any warm evening.

A Preliminary List of Mammals S7

8. Plecotus refinesquii rafinesquii. Big-eared Bat. In the early
1950’s a maternity colony of approximately 100 individuals of this
species occupied the attics of the unfinished buildings at Camp Rob-
inson. In the mid-50’s and later, efforts were made to exclude the bats
from certain areas, with varying success. Since about 1955 there has
been a steady decline in the size of the colony. In 1966 there were
probably not over a half dozen adults in the colony. There is some
rather half-hearted interest in preserving the colony on the part of the
people using the buildings, but we fear that the colony is doomed.

9. Sylvilagus floridanus mearnsi. Mearns Cottontail. Cottontails
may be frequently encountered in open fields along the major streams,
but are rarely encountered in the forest.

10. Tamias striatus striatus. Southern Chipmunk. This species is
abundant throughout the area, at all elevations. Our series of seven
specimens averages much darker, with less red, than a series of T. s.
ohionensis from Fayette and adjacent counties.

11. Sciurus carolinensis carolinensis. Gray Squirrel. Gray squirrels
occur throughout the forest, and are by far the most popular small
game animal.

12. Glaucomys volans volans. Eastern Flying Squirrel. Flying
squirrels are common in Robinson Forest, but are rarely seen. Our four
specimens came from Camp Robinson; however the arboreal nests and
characteristic cuttings can be found throughout the forest.

13. Peromyscus leucopus noveboracensis. White-footed Mouse.
This is undoubtedly the most abundant rodent in Robinson Forest. It
may be found at all elevations, and in essentially all habitats. It com-
monly enters the camp buildings, where on occasion it is responsible
for considerable damage. We took a female which gave birth to four
young on May 5, 1961. By June 2, the young had essentially reached
adult size, and were perfectly capable of an independent existence.

14. Ochrotomys nuttalli nuttalli. Golden Mouse. This species is
rare in Robinson Forest, due no doubt to the scarcity of brushy areas
which the golden mouse prefers. Our only specimen is an adult from
a brush-covered hillside on Buckhorn Creek.

15. Neotoma magister. Wood Rat. The relative scarcity of rock
outcroppings in Robinson Forest is undoubtedly a limiting factor for
this species. We have observed signs of this species about the exposed
rocks along the ridge that separates Cole’s and Clemon’s Fork, but
they seem nowhere common. Our only specimen is from a rocky out-

88 Roger W. Barbour

crop in dense woods near Camp Robinson, at an elevation of about
900 feet.

16. Synaptomys cooperi stonei. Bog Lemming. This is a common
mammal in grassy clearings in the forest, and in the grassy fields along
the lower reaches of Buckhorn Creek. A substantial colony inhabits
a grassy area on the grounds of Camp Robinson. We collected a series
of 21 individuals, two of which were pregnant females. One of these,
with 3 embryos, was taken July 14, 1966; the other, with 5 embryos,
was taken October 22, 1960.

17. Pitymys pinetorum auricularis. Bluegrass Pine Vole. Pine
mice occur sparingly throughout the forest, even in deep woods, but
are more abundant in the overgrown fields along Buckhorn Creek. A
female with two 23 mm. embryos was taken on October 22, 1960.

18. Ondatra zibethica zibethica. Muskrat. We took no specimens,
but occasionally saw a muskrat along the lower reaches of Buckhorn
Creek. In the fall of 1966 fresh tracks and cuttings were observed in
Clemon’s Fork just across the road from Camp Robinson.

19. Mus musculus brevirostris. House Mouse. House mice are

rare in are area. Our only specimens (3) came from the lower reaches
of Buckhorn Creek.

20. Mephitis mephitis nigra. Eastern Skunk. Skunks are rarely
encountered. One specimen was collected along Clemon’s Fork below
Camp Robinson. Another individual was observed foraging about a
garbage can at the camp on October 22, 1960.

21. Urocyon cinereoargenteus cinereoargenteus. Gray Fox. The
gray fox occurs throughout the forest, but they are rarely observed.
Their tracks may be frequently encountered along the logging roads.
We have no specimens.

22. Procyon lotor lotor. Raccoon. This species is apparently scarce
in the forest. Their tracks are only rarely encountered along the water-
courses. We have no specimens.

23. Lynx rufus rufus. Bobcat. Our only record of this species is
the sighting of a near-perfect set of footprints left as a large individual
crossed a muddy spot in a logging trail in the summer of 1960.

24. Odocoileus virginianus virginianus. Virginia Deer. This species
was largely, if in fact not completely exterminated in the area by the
early 1900's. Restocking and protection were sufficient to build up
an excellent herd, both in quality and quantity, by the middle 1950's.
Since that time, several seasons of intense hunting pressure, coupled

A Preliminary List of Mammals 89

with poaching, have seriously depleted the herd. In 1966, few signs
were evident, but some deer were present in the forest. With care,

the herd can be built back to essentially the carrying capacity of the
area.

Literature Cited

Bailey, Vernon. 1933. Cave life in Kentucky. Am. Midl. Nat., 5(14): 385-635.

Barbour, Roger W. 1951. The mammals of Big Black Mountain, Harlan County,
Kentucky. Jour. Mamm., 32(1): 100-110.

1956. A preliminary list of the summer birds of Clemon’s Fork, Breathitt County,
Kentucky. The Ky. Warbler 32(1):8-11.

1957. Some additional mammal records from Kentucky. Jour. Mamm., 37(1):
110-111.

Bush, Francis M. 1959. The herpetofauna of Clemon’s Fork, Breathitt County,
Kentucky. Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci. 20(1-2): 11-18.

Hamilton, William J. Jr. 1930. Notes on the mammals of Breathitt County, Ken-
tucky. Jour Mamm. 11(3): 306-311.

Kuehne, Robert A. 1962. Annotated checklist of fishes from Clemon’s Fork,
Breathitt County, Kentucky. Trans. Ky. Acad. Sci., 23(1-2): 22-24.

a

Welter, W. A. and D. Sollberger. 1939. Notes on the mammals of Rowan and
adjacent counties in eastern Kentucky. Jour. Mamm., 20(1): 77-81.

INDEX TO VOLUME 27

Amino derivatives of halogenated
phenols, preparation of, 55

Bacteriological data, statistical study
of, 63

Barbour, R. W., 85

Beasley, C. W., 51

Berger, J. E., 55

Branson, B. A., 51

Brown, E. V., 40

Brown recluse spider, occurrence in
Kentucky, |

Burk, D. E., 29

Ceramic materials in Kentucky, 19
Chen, W., 37

Diffusion cell calibration, effect of
stirring rate, 24

Edwards, O. F., 63
Fish coprolites, from Kentucky, 82

Halogenated phenols, preparation of
Amino derivatives, 55

Hardjasasmita, S., 85

Hevea brasiliensis, pollen longevity, 16

Hotchkiss, M., 63

Iron Conglomerate, from Kentucky, 69
Jillson, W. R., 69, 74, 78, 82
Laburnum anagyroides, megasporo-

genesis in, 47
Lagomarsino, R. L., 40

Limestone conglomerate, from
Kentucky, 78
Lingula modularata sp. Nov., 74

Meadow, J. R., 55

Megasporogenesis in Laburnum
anagyroids, 47

Mammals of Robinson Forest,
Kentucky, 85

Majumdar, S. k., 16

McGrain, P., 19

Nicotine, effect on Notropis lutrensis,
yl

Notropis lutrensis, effect of Nicotine
on, 51

Phenyl-N-Sulfinylhydrazines,
preparation, 37

Plank, C. A., 24

Pyridine-2-14C-1-Oxide-4-Axo-p-
Dimethylaniline, Synthesis of, 40

Redmon, T., 63
Rembert, David H., Jr., 47

Semotilus astromaculatus, spawning
behavior, 3

Shaner, K. H., 55

Sisk, J., 5

Sisk, M., 1, 3, 5

Smith, W. T., Jr., 37

Spermatophytes, wild, edible, in
Kentucky, 5

Vapour-Liquid Equilibrium, 29

Williams, G. C., 29

TRANSACTIONS OF THE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE
S00. 7.4 Volume 28—1967

EDITORIAL STAFF

Editor

RayMonp E. HAMPTON

Associate Editors
Joun M. Carpenter, Zoology
BarBara M. Conktiin, Geology
SeirH GitKeRsoNn, Bacteriology and Medical Technology
Warp SuMPTER, Chemistry

Mary E. Wuarton, Botany

Editorial Office

Department of Plant Pathology
University of Kentucky
Lexington, Kentucky

Published by

Tue Kentucky ACADEMY OF SCIENCE

CONTENTS TO VOLUME 28
No. 1-4

Dipole Moments and Apparent Molal Volumes
of N-Cyclohexylsulfamic Acid and
Nitrobenzene in N, N-Dimethylacetamide
and N-Methyl-2-Pyrrolidone
TERRELL W. HOLT AND PAUL G. SEARS ........cccceeeeeeeeees 1

Activation Energies of Viscous Flow and Other
Physico-Chemical Data for the
Dimethylsulfoxide-Water System
PAUL G. SEARS, GEORGE R. JURCH, JR.,
PAINE) ONUAIGI Hy SAINI S + 2.2: eanevaseteschstine saawaredacecsseeieseeseste: 10

New Mannick Deravatives of Phenolic Compounds
as Possible Carcinostatic Agents
JAMES A. ELLARD, D. L. HUGHES, KENNETH
By SHANER AND: J. Re MEADOW 2iscsicsinsiseseses creaneeceeeee 20

Synthesis of Some Amine Substituted Bisphenols
Related to the Stilbenediols
JAMES A. ELLARD AND J. R. MEADOW ue eeeeeeees 33

Halogenated Amino Bisphenols as Possible
Carcinostatic Agents
KENNETH H. SHANER AND J. R. MEADOW ........ cece 44

A Brief Description of A “Fertilization Inhibitor
from Lytechinus variegatus (Lamarck)”
BOWER: SEs TAIN UIST: oo sees stapes vanes cach teens eetsabenvasvecedsseazsacemeecauens 52

Rapid Means of Preparing Blood Agar Plates
eater HD BE NOID ar vances acttnedwerau meu lee tat ar catctatncasns tenis: tacteeccsencass 58

Cenozoic Goliad Formation of South Texas
JAMES E. CONKIN AND BARBARA M. CONKIN .............00. 60

Notes on the Biology of the White Croaker,
Genyonemus Lineatus (Ayres)
PETER A. ISSACSON ........... Sevan dewtanct cousunteRun sh aeoc craw deer oaioorty erase 73
Valley Centipedes (Chilopoda; Symphyla) From
Northern Kentucky
BRANLEY A. BRANSON AND DONALD L. BUTCH ............ ia

Inrclexmton VOlMime La Site ricer sete ce ee ie oe MUN, Sa cone eles sna 91

oO 2 & @ Ve i}
(3 KY
Volume 28 / 1967 Numbers 1-4

TRANSACTIONS
of the KENTUCKY
ACADEMY of SCIENCE

Offcial Organ
Kentucky ACADEMY OF SCIENCE

CONTENTS

Dipole Moments and Apparent Molal Volumes MiRY 2 6 { 69
of N-Cyclohexylsulfamic Acid and Pte
Nitrobenzene in N, N-Dimethylacetamide LigRAR' S
and N-Methyl-2-Pyrrolidone ——

TERRELL W. HOLT AND PAUL G. SEARS ..........s:cseeceseceeees

Activation Energies of Viscous Flow and Other
Physico-Chemical Data for the
Dimethylsulfoxide-Water System
PAUL G. SEARS, GEORGE R. JURCH, JR.,
ANID ED @ NIAIGID: Hh SANDS) Siiice. oes cisrcstssscessscostecesecesesectesanee 10
New Mannick Deravatives of Phenolic Compounds
as Possible Carcinostatic Agents
JAMES A. ELLARD, D. L. HUGHES, KENNETH
B. SHANER AND J. R. MEADOW ............csssscsssssessossseseoeees 20
Synthesis of Some Amine Substituted Bisphenols
Related to the Stilbenediols
JAMES A. ELLARD AND J. R. MEADOW .........:s0scrsssssersrseees 33
Halogenated Amino Bisphenols as Possible
Carcinostatic Agents
KENNETH H. SHANER AND J. R. MEADOW. ............s0000000000s 44
A Brief Description of A “Fertilization Inhibitor
from Lytechinus variegatus (Lamarck)”

ROBE RG WE DAN DE Lor crccoossccdovecgencetac ce acneaaksieox esac sosesctatees 52
Rapid Means of Preparing Blood Agar Plates

| 2 el OG 10 Bae a eM Ro ORR eae SIU 58
Cenozoic Goliad Formation of South Texas

JAMES E. CONKIN AND BARBARA M. CONKIN ......s0:0000000 60

Notes on the Biology of the White Croaker,
Genyonemus Lineatus (Ayres)
Pa ERIVAVOISSAGSON | oi ieccrsscccccececsesecossnsestaccsoccsscedsesccuannccusstechs 73
Valley Centipedes (Chilopoda; Symphyla) From
Northern Kentuc
BRANLEY A. BRANSON AND DONALD L. BUTCH ............. ie
AMGOK COM VOLUME LO aacescevetessecvccctescenscscccstcceesarecvecscsvacededousataccvosrenséocees 91

The Kentucky Academy of Science
Founded May 8, 1914

OFFICERS 1966-1967

President: Robert M. Boyer, University of Kentucky
President-Elect: Paul G. Sears, University of Kentucky

Vice President: Orville Richardson, Kentucky Wesleyan College
Secretary: Robert S. Larance, Eastern Kentucky University

Treasurer: C. B. Hamann, Asbury College

EDITORIAL OFFICE

Raymond E. Hampton, Editor
Department of Plant Pathology
University of Kentucky
Lexington, Kentucky 40506

Membership in the Kentucky Academy of Science is open to interested persons upon nomi-
nation, payments of dues, and election. Application forms for membership may be obtained
from the Secretary. The TRANSACTIONS are sent free to all members in good standing.

; Subscription rates for non-members are: domestic, $3.50 per volume; foreign, $4.00 per
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The TRANSACTIONS are issued semi-annually. Four numbers comprise a volume.

Correspondence concerning memberships or subscriptions should be addressed to the
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Librarian, University of Louisville, who is the exchange agent for the Academy. Manuscripts
and other material for publication should be addressed to the Editor.

DIPOLE MOMENTS AND APPARENT MOLAL VOLUMES
OF N-CYCLOHEXYLSULFAMIC ACID AND NITROBENZENE IN
N,N-DIMETHYLACETAMIDE AND N-METHYL-2-PYRROLIDONE*

TERRELL W. HOLT AND PAUL G. SEARS

Department of Chemistry, University of Kentucky
Lexington, Kentucky 40506

Sulfamic acid (H;N-SOs) is similar to glycine in that it exists in
a dipolar ionic or zwitter-ionic form in the solid state (Kanda and
King, 1951). In water it ionizes upon dissolution to yield an acidic
medium with strength comparable to that of nitric or hydrochloric
acid. Sulfamic acid is essentially insoluble or reacts chemically with
most organic solvents. In N,N-dimethylacetamide (DMA), N-methyl-
2-pyrrolidone (NM2PY), and dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO), however,
it is soluble to the extent of several weight per cent and yields solutions
which are practically non-conducting. The dielectric increments, high
values for the dipole moment, and very low conductivity of sulfamic
acid in these solvents indicate that it retains its dipolar ionic form
upon dissolution (Sears, Fortune and Blumenshine, 1966).

N-Cyclohexylsulfamic acid (hereafter abbreviated CHSA) is a

non-hygroscopic solid having the formula, (CoHy1)HsN-SO3. Also
referred to as Hexamic Acid and Cyclamic Acid, it is non-caloric food
and beverage additive which uniquely exhibits a sweet-tart taste
along with strong acidulant properties (Technical Bulletin No. 355,
1964). Being a derivative of sulfamic acid it is not surprising that
the acidic properties of CHSA is aqueous solution closely parallel
those of its parent. Exploratory measurements in this Laboratory re-
vealed that CHSA behaves like sulfamic acid in DMA and NM2PY
but slowly reacts and becomes more conducting in DMSO.

The principal objectives of the research associated with this paper
were to obtain quantitative physico-chemical information for solu-
tions of CHSA in DMA and NM2PY and to make comparisons with
corresponding systems containing sulfamic acid. In addition to using
dipolar ionic CHSA, nitrobenzene as a typical polar covalent species
was used as a solute in the same solvents for parallel measurements
and calculations.

Experimental

Solvents. Commercial grade DMA and NM2PY were purified by
fractional distillation over calcium oxide at a reduced pressure of

* Taken from a thesis submitted by Terrell W. Holt in partial fulfillment of the
requirements for the degree of Master of Science.

) Terrell W. Holt and Paul G. Sears

approximately 1 cm. through a 36-inch vacuum-jacketed column
which was packed with glass helices. The reagent grade calcium
oxide previously was rendered anhydrous by drying in a furnace
for six hours at approximately 900°C. For each distillation the middle
50% of the product was retained. Values for several physical prop-
erties of each solvent were determined and are included with the
data in Table 1.

Solutes. CHSA was obtained from Abbott Laboratories. Follow-
ing drying to constant weight, it was used without further purification
after titration with standard base reflected 99.7 + 0.1% purity. Nitro-
benzene (NB) was purified by subjecting it to several fractional
freezings until a constant, maximum freezing point of 5.74°C was
obtained. Its purity was further confirmed by determination of its
dielectric constant, density and refractive index. The results were in
excellent agreement with corresponding data in the literature (Tim-
mermans, 1950).

Equipment and Procedures. The impedance bridge assembly,
capacitance cells, temperature control, and principal aspects of the
procedures for calibrating the cells and calculating the dielectric
constants have been discussed previously in detail (Leader, 1951;
Sears, Fortune and Blumenshine, 1966). All capacitance measurements
were made at a frequency of 10 megacycles since some of the solutions
were sufficiently conducting to prevent making measurements at 1
megacycle. The procedures for determining densities and refractive
indices of liquids and solutions were routine. The method involving
the use of toluene as an inert displacement solvent in determining
the density of solid CHSA also has been described previously ( Hover-
male, Plucknett and Sears, 1957).

All measurements were made in duplicate at 25°C. Corresponding
values were found to agree consistently within 0.3% for dielectric
constants and within 0.02% for densities and refractive indices. Mean
values of the experimental dielectric constant, density, and refractive
index data are summarized in Table 1. The symbols which are used
in Table 1 and throughout the remainder of the article are defined
in the ensuing section on nomenclature.

Nomenclature

Symbols
€ = dielectric constant at 10 megacycles
€g = dielectric constant at infinite frequency; taken as being

equal to 1.1 n3
d = density in g. cm.?

Dipole Moments and Apparent Molal Volumes 3

Table 1. Summary of Experimental Data at 25°C.
€
100 X C 12 d n

CHSA in DMA

0. 000 0. 0000 Shek ff 0. 9364 1.4361
2. 963 0. 3149 41.7 0.9551 1.4401
Biaite bis) On6 1a 44.4 0. 9723 1.444]
Sa 20? 0. 8553 46.7 0. 9865 1.4471
10. 289 1. 0633 48.5 0. 9984 1. 4500
12. 754 1 3058 50.6 A OMZS: 1.4528
CHSA in NM2PY
0. 000 0. 0000 SYA (2 1. 0280 1.4680
Zab 33 0.2604 34.3 13 03:97 1.4702
5. 799 0.5895 36.8 1.0546 1.4728
9.276 029317 39.7 1. 0698 1.4753
12. 068 1.1999 41.6 1.0813 1.4775
62.033 Ve 29 44.7 1.0983 1.4801
NB in DMA
4.505 0. 4821 38.4 0. 9496 1.4419
9.105 0. 9693 38% 3 0. 9627 1.4477
1S eo 1. 4553 Bye nal| 0.9758 1.4535
18. 185 1.9179 Shite © 0.9879 1.4590
22. 768 Zooo 3 Sie 1.0010 1. 4646
NB in NM2PY
4. 781 0.4945 32.4 PNOSite 1.4726
8. 863 0. 9148 326 1. 0447 1.4768
13. 042 1. 3430 32am 1.0524 1.4805
lgehs AL ES} 1. 8586 33.0 1. 0613 1.4850
21. 482 2.2003 Boel 1.0677 1.4880
n = refractive index (D line of sodium)
5 = limiting molar dielectric increment; constant in
Equation 1
g = constant in Equation 1
a = constant in Equation 2
b = constant in Equation 3
® = apparent molal volume, cm.’ mole “!
R — molar refraction, cm.? mole!

4 Terrell W. Holt and Paul G. Sears

C = moles of solute per liter of solution
X = mole fraction
M = gram formula weight
k = Boltzmann constant
N = Avogadro constant
ah = temperature in °K.
uo == dipole moment in vacuo or in gas phase expressed in
Debye units
Vv = molar volume, cm.? mole7!
Subscripts
1 = designation of property of solvent
2 = designation of property of solute
12 = designation of property of solution

Results and Discussion

The data for each system were fitted by the method of least equares
to Equations 1, 2 and 3:

yy Sea as ey OO es
(2) Storie: tdi ce enc
(3) Myo = FY DEG

Other properties of the solute in each system were calculated as follows:

ao = M, — 1000 a
i
2
SC Rares ail
(5) as oe ESPs Vy (y= 1 or 12)
n + 2
M, M) + (,—~— My) Xy
(6) Nai = 9 V2 = q
dq) 12
R R
2 ik
CPS ER ioe Ritelget %
6 Sr Pa AR
Ce ee g
R

Dipole Moments and Apparent Molal Volumes 5

Values of the constants determined for. Equations 1 through 3
and of the properties of the solutes calculated using Equations 4
through 8 are summarized in Table 2.

The density of CHSA as a solid was determined experimentally
to be 1.355 + 0.002 g. cm.? The density of NB as a liquid was found
to be 1.1985 g. cm. From these data and the gram formula weights,
the theoretical gram formula volumes were calculated to be 132.3
and 102.7 cm.* mole! for CHSA and NB, respectively. The apparent
molal volume for the solute in each system is listed in Table 2. The
results reveal that some contraction or electrostriction occurs upon
dissolution of CHSA in DMA and NM2PY but the amount of electro-
striction is less than half of that observed for sulfamic acid in the
same solvents (Sears, Fortune and Blumenshine, 1966). The value
of 6, for NB closely approaches the theoretical or ideal volume in
each system indicating very little, if any, electrostrictive effect.

Table 2. Calculated Values for Constants in Equations 1 Through 3
and for Properties of Solutes

Constant
or CHSA CHSA NB NB

Property in DMA in NM2PY in DMA in NM2PY
S 9555 7.98 — 0.39 0.43
g —0. 42 0 0 0)

a x 10 583 447 270 180

4

b x 10 129 77 120 92
$, 129.2 131.0 102.6 102.2
R, 40.5 40.7 3310) Biel
No 1.54 153 1.56 1.56

Several equations have been proposed in the literature for calcu-
lating the dipole moment of a solute from data from solutions of the
solute in a polar solvent having a high dielectric constant. The
equations used in this study, and for which the results are compared,
are the Onsager and the Wyman equations.

The Onsager equation for a binary system may be written as
follows (Onsager, 1936; Sears, Fortune and Blumenshine, 1966):

6 Terrell W. Holt and Paul G. Sears
2T1N
9 =) genes
ve Sle 9kT ee “ 2° 4
1

2.2 2NZ
oh; len, ste )) M o> a (Eco, + 2M, | «|

For a linear plot of ie V. :
P 1212 versus x, :

(10) NY _ 9IkT ( slope + intercept )
oy) 27 N (Cao, + 2)

The value of £o% was appromimated in each case to be equal to 1.1
nz (Lin and Dannhauser, 1963).

The Wyman equation (Wyman, 1936; Greenstein and Winitz,
1961) may be expressed in the form of Equation 11 if the term,
(foo, + 2)°/2, is substituted for the empirical constant, 8.5, in the
denominator. This alteration has been discussed by Onsager who
pointed out that the substitution leads to an approximate equivalence
between the Wyman and the Onsager treatments of the relationship
between the dielectric constant and dipole moment.

9kT fe + €,(€, |

2
(11) Mf ee
eZ 27 N (peut 24

Values of the dipole moments of CHSA and NB which have been
calculated using Equations 10 and 11 are summarized in Table 3.
It may be observed that Equations 10 and 11 yield values for poz
which are in excellent agreement as predicted by Onsager.

Comparison data for the dielectric increments and dipole moments
of CHSA and sulfamic acid are presented in Table 4. Although the
dielectric increment of CHSA is only about 60% of that for sulfamic
acid in the same solvent, the dipole moments show close agreement.
It is well to keep in mind, however, that ».2 is related principally to
e2V12 rather than simply to ey». The similarity of »,2 values for CHSA
and sulfamic acid in each solvent reflects that these species have
comparable polar characteristics. The magnitude of the dipole
moment and the very low conductance provide supporting evidence
for a dipolar ionic structure.

The values of 2 which were obtained for nitrobenzene in this

Dipole Moments and Apparent Molal Volumes T

Table 3. Calculated Values for the Dipole Moments of €HSA and NB

M, of CHSA or NB
2

Equation 10 Equation 11
System (Onsager) (Wyman)
CHSA in DMA 8: 03 8.16
CHSA in NM2PY 7.49 ifs ey?
NB in DMA 4.03 4.06
NB in NM2ZPY 4.06 4.16

Table 4. Comparison Data for Dielectric Increments and Dipole
Moments of CHSA and Sulfamic Acid*

At |

82

Onsager Equation Wyman Equation

Solvent SA CHSA SA CHSA SA CHSA
DMA 15.8 ve th 7. 94 8.03 12°95 8.16
NM2PY Vie i 8.0 7. 66 7.44 7.65 (eae

*

Sulfamic Acid abbreviated SA in table.

study are in good agreement with corresponding data for the gas
phase and solutions in non-polar solvents (McClellan, 1963) as well
as with some recent data obtained from solutions using an_iso-
dielectric polar solvent (Myers and Sun, 1966).

Summary

1. Dielectric constants, densities, and refractive indices of solutions
of CHSA and NB in DMA and NM2PY have been determined at
25°C for solute concentrations ranging from 5 to 25 weight per
cent. These data have been fitted by the method of least squares
to appropriate equations.

2. The density of solid CHSA has been determined using toluene as
an inert displacement solvent.

8 Terrell W. Holt and Paul G. Sears

3. The apparent molal volumes of CHSA and NB in each non-aqueous
solvent have been calculated. The observed values for CHSA are
less than the gram formula volume for the solid indicating some
contraction or electrostriction; however, the amounts of electro-
striction are less than those for sulfamic acid in the same solvents.
The apparent molal volume for NB in each solvent was found to
be ideally equal to the gram formula volume of liquid NB.

4, The dielectric increment of CHSA was found to be about only
60% as large as that for sulfamic acid in each solvent.

5. The dipole moment of the solute in each system has been calculated
using the Onsager and Wyman equations. The value calculated
for CHSA is in excellent agreement with that for sulfamic acid in
the same solvent providing evidence that CHSA has a dipolar
structure like that of its parent. The dipole moment for NB in
each solvent, calculated using the same procedures, compares very
favorably with gas phase and solution values reported in the
literature.

Literature Cited

Greenstein, J. P., and Winitz, M. 1961. Chemistry of the Amino Acids.
John Wiley and Sons, New York, Vol. 1, p. 463.

Hovermale, R. A., Plucknett, W. K., and Sears, P. G. 1957. “Dipolar
Ions in Non-Aqueous Solvents. II. The Apparent Molal Volume
of Sulfamic Acid in N,N-Dimethylacetamide, N,N-Dimethylpro-
pionamide, N,N-Dimethylbutyramide, Dimethyl Sulfoxide and
Water at 25°C,” Trans. Kentucky Acad. Sci., 18:45-54.

Kanda, F. A., and King, A. J. 1951. “The Crystal Structure of Sulfamic
Acid,” J. Am. Chem. Soc., 73:2315-19.

Leader, G. R. 1951. “The Dielectric Constant of Formamide,” J. Am.
Chem. Soc., 73:856-7.

Lin, R., and Dannhauser, W. 1963. “Dielectric Constant of Hydrogen-
Bonded Liquids. II. N-Monosubstituted Acetamides,” J. Phys.
Chem., 67:1805-10.

McClellan, A. L. 1963. Tables of Experimental Dipole Moments.
W. H. Freeman and Company, San Francisco, California. pp.
181-4.

Myers, R. T., and Sun, V. M. L. 1966. “A New Isodielectric Method
for Measurement of Dipole Moment in Solution,” J. Phys. Chem.,
70:3217-22.

Onsager, L. 1936. “Electric Moments of Molecules in Liquids,” J.
Am. Chem. Soc., 58:1486-93.

Sears, P. G., Fortune, W. H. and Blumenshine, R. L. 1966. “Dipole

Dipole Moments and Apparent Molal Volumes 9

Moment of Sulfamic Acid and Viscosities of its Solutions in
Selected Nonaqueous Solvents,” J. Chem. Eng. Data, 11:406-9.
Technical Bulletin No. 355. 1964. Hexamic Acid. Abbott Laboratories,

Chicago, Illinois.

Timmermans, J. 1950. Physico-Chemical Constants of Pure Organic
Compounds. Elsevier Publishing Co., New York, pp. 591-3.
Wyman, J., Jr. 1936. “The Dielectric Constant of Solutions of Dipolar

Ions,” Chem. Revs., 19:213-39.

ACTIVATION ENERGIES OF VISCOUS FLOW
AND OTHER PHYSICO-CHEMICAL DATA FOR THE
DIMETHYLSULFOXIDE—WATER SYSTEM

PAUL G. SEARS, GEORGE R. JURCH, JR.,* AND DONALD E. SANDS

Department of Chemistry, University of Kentucky
Lexington, Kentucky 40506

The physical and thermodynamic properties of the dimethyl sul-
foxide—water system have received much attention within the last
decade. Further investigation which is described herein has yielded
extensive information at several temperatures for 18 compositions
ranging from pure dimethyl sulfoxide to pure water. The principal
objectives of this paper are to present corroborative results, new data
associated with different experimental conditions and, perhaps most
importantly, the first values of activation energies of viscous flow
for this binary system.

Experimental

Purification of Solvents and Preparation of Mixtures. Dimethyl
sulfoxide (DMSO) was purified by subjecting it to several fractional
freezings under an atmosphere of nitrogen. Modified six-liter separa-
tory flasks were used for the fractional freezing flasks. The ambient
temperature was controlled by use of a Precision Scientific Model 805
Incubator. During each freezing cycle the remaining 5 to 10% of
unfrozen material was removed by suction provided by a vacuum
pump. The final product froze transparently and had a freezing
point of 18.52°C. Distilled water from a departmental supply was
further purified by passing it through an Illco-Way research model
ion-exchange column.

Sixteen mixtures, designed to cover the entire composition range
in 5 to 10 mole % increments, were prepared in glass-stoppered flasks
on a weight basis. Since the mixing of DMSO and water was suf-
ficiently exothermic to raise the temperature of some of the mixtures
20° to 30°C, precautions were taken to allow the mixtures to cool to
room temperature before final weights were taken. As for the de-
termination of densities, calibrated weights were used and appropriate
buoyancy corrections were applied. A sufficient quantity of each
solution was prepared to enable duplicate or triplicate measurements
to be made for each property.

* Present address: Department of Chemistry, University of South Florida, Tampa,
Florida.

Activation Energies of Viscous Flow 11

Equipment and Measuring Procedures. Densities of the DMSO—
water mixtures were determined using 25-ml. Reischauer pycnometers.
The volume of each pycnometer at each of several graduation marks
was ascertained experimentally at 25°C using water as the calibrating
medium. Corresponding volumes at the other temperatures were
calculated taking into account the cubical coefficient of expansion of
Pyrex glass.

Efflux times of the liquid mixtures were determined with sizes 25
and 50 Cannon-Fenske viscometers which were calibrated by the
Cannon Instrument Company on the basis that water has an absolute
viscosity of 1.0019 and 0.8902 centipoise at 20° and 25°C, respectively
(Coe and Godfrey, 1944; Swindells, Coe and Godfrey, 1952). Recom-
mendations concerning filling, alignment, and other procedural aspects
in the use of the viscometers (Cannon and Fenske, 1938) were fol-
lowed. Stopwatches for timing were calibrated against Station WWV
time signals.

Refractive indices were measured with a Spencer Model 1470
Abbe refractometer. This instrument had sodium D-line compensating
prisms equipped with jackets through which water from a thermo-
stat could be circulated rapidly.

Dielectric constants were determined within 0.1 unit at a frequency
of 10 megacycles. The Twin-T impedance bridge assembly, capaci-
tance cells, and the principal aspects of the procedures for calibrating
the cells, measuring capacitance changes, and calculating dielectric
constants have been described in detail previously (Leader, 1951).
The standard media which were used in the calibration of the
capacitance cells were air and water which have dielectric constants
of unity and 78.30 (Malmberg and Maryott, 1956), respectively, at
25°C. Measurements also at 1 megacycle indicated that the values
of the dielectric constant of the DMSO—water mixtures were inde-
pendent of frequency in the range of 1 to 10 megacycles.

Viscosities and densities were determined at 25°, 35°, 45° and
50°C whereas dielectric constants and refractive indices were
measured at 25°C only. For all measurements the temperature was
maintained within 0.02°C using a Sargent S-84805 water bath as-
sembly. A Sargent S-71598 pump was used for rapidly circulating
water through the jackets of the dielectric constant cells and _ re-
fractometer.

All measurements were made in duplicate or triplicate. The
precision and accuracy are believed to be comparable in the follow-
ing cases: densities and refractive indices, + 0.02%; dielectric con-
stants, + 0.2%. The precision of efflux time measurements was
+ 0.2% or less; however, the error associated with some of the

12 Paul G. Sears, George R. Jurch, Jr., and Donald E. Sands

viscosity data may be slightly greater since surface tension corrections
were not taken into consideration.

The fitting of data to various polynomial equations by the method
of least squares and the calculation of values of the activation energy
of viscous flow (E,i,) were accomplished using a digital computer.

Results and Discussion

Mean values of our experimental density, viscosity, dielectric
constant and refractive index data are summarized in Tables 1, 2
and 3.

Several articles relative to the physical properties of the DMSO—
water system have appeared previously in the literature (Lebel and
Goring, 1962; Cowie and Toporowski, 1961; Lindberg and Kenttimaa,
1960). Excellent agreement exists between our results for the vis-
cosities, densities and refractive indices at 25°C and those reported
by Lebel and Goring. Good correlation also has been obtained with
the viscosity and density data of Cowie and Toporowski at 25° and
45°C with the exception of their viscosity data for water and one
or two of the most water-rich mixtures. A maximum difference of
about 1% occurs; their data obviously are slightly high with respect
to the currently accepted viscosity of 0.890 centipoise for water at
25°C. Taking into account that the 2.47 megacycle data of Lindberg
and Kenttimaa are relative to the dielectric constant of water at 25°C
being 78.54 (Wyman, 1930) rather than 78.30 (Malmberg and Maryott,
1956), our dielectric constant data corroborates excellently with theirs.
All of our results for the DMSO—water system at 35° and 55° appear
to be the first reported at these temperatures.

When viscosity is plotted versus composition, each isotherm ex-
hibits a maximum at about 65 mole % water and the maximum be-
comes more pronounced as the temperature decreases. This is evi-
dence of relatively strong attractive forces between DMSO and
water molecules but should not be considered indicative of the forma-
tion of a compound such as DMSO.2H:O. The freezing point curve
shows an eutectic occurring at approximately 65 mole % water
rather than evidence of a stable compound.

For each composition the plot of log » versus 1/T is slightly non-
linear, and hence the value for E,;, is dependent on temperature.
This also reflects that the viscosity-temperature and E,;.-temperature
relationships can be handled best by the following two equations
(Girifaleo, 1955; Misra and Varshni, 1961; Moore, Burkhardt and
McEwan, 1956; Blumenshine and Sears, 1966):

Activation Energies of Viscous Flow 13

(1) log yy) = of

ay rT

Equation 1 is known as the Girifalco equation. Differentiation of it
with respect to 1/T makes possible the calculation of E,;, as a function
of temperature. The symbols in these equations and in other places

d(lo ) 2X
2 2 x
(2) coe 4.576 aay = 4.576 ( B + —)

Table 1. Experimental Density Data for DMSO—Water Mixtures

-l
Densities (G. Ml. )

Wt. % Mole %

Water Water 25° 35° 45° 55°
0. 00 0. 00 1.0955 1.0855 1.0757 1. 0657
1. 84 7.51 1. 0960 1.0861 1.0765 1. 0664
4. 56 17. 18 1.0970 1. 0873 1.0777 1. 0677
8. 04 27.47 1.0981 1. 0882 1.0791 1.0693

11.58 36. 23 1. 0986 1.0892 1. 0801 1. 0703
15.53 44. 36 1. 0988 1.0895 1. 0804 1.0708
17.79 48. 73 1.0985 1.0895 1. 0807 1. 0708
2220 55. 71 1.0974 1.0885 1.0797 1. 0703
26. 69 61.20 1.0950 1. 0862 1.0775 1. 0689
31.54 66. 65 1.0913 1. 0827 1.0747 1. 0655
34. 46 69. 49 1.0879 1.0798 1.0719 1. 0630
37004 72. 44 1. 0842 1.0759 1. 0680 1. 0594
44. 61 ee 1. 0760 1. 0691 1. 0609 1. 0525
51.85 82. 36 1. 0664 1.0594 1.0525 1. 0447
64. 85 88. 89 1. 0463 1.0403 1. 0347 1.0279
78. 03 93. 90 1.0265 1.0217 10171 1.0113
89. 78 97. 44 1.0099 1. 0062 1.0021 0. 9973

100. 00 100. 00 0.9971 0.9941 0. 9903 0: 9857

14 Paul G. Sears, George R. Jurch, Jr., and Donald E. Sands

Table 2. Experimental Viscosity Data for DMSO—Water Mixtures

Viscosities (Centipoises)
Mole %

Water 25° 350° 45° 55°
0.00 1.996 1. 654 1.396 1.195
7.51 2.087 1.725 1.449 1.237

i7, is 2.266 1. 848 1.540 1. 303

27.47 2.516 2.032 1.676 1.406

36.23 2. 786 2200 1. 806 1.500

44, 36 3.103 2.436 1.951 1.599

48. 73 3. 286 2. 560 2.038 1.655

55.71 3.567 27132 2.142 L724

61.20 3.718 2.808 2.182 1737

66. 65 3. 753 2. 820 2.175 1.725

69.49 3.691 2. 766 2.133 1. 684

72.44 3. 540 2. 648 2.040 1.617

Tie WA 3.219 2.415 1. 867 1. 483

82. 36 2743 2.081 1. 623 1. 300

88.89 2.001 1.549 P23) 1.003

93.90 1.461 1.150 0. 930 0. 768

97.44 1.125 0.897 0. 735 0.616

100. 00 0.890 0. 717 0.594 0.505

throughout this article are defined subsequently in a section on
nomenclature.

The results of fitting the viscosity data by the method of least
squares to Equation 1 and calculating E,;, at 25°C with Equation 2
are summarized in Table 4. The difference between the observed
and calculated values for viscosity in every case is less than 0.1%.

Activation Energies of Viscous Flow 15

The standard deviations associated with the values for E,;, are in-
corporated also in Table 4. The maximum value for E,;, occurs at
72 mole % of water differing about 5 mole % with respect to the
composition for which the viscosity maximum is observed for each
isotherm.

Table 3. Experimental Dielectric Constant and Refraction Index Data and Calculated
Molar Refraction and Molar Polarization Values for DMSO—Water Mixtures

Dielectric Refractive Molar Molar
Mole % Constant Index Refraction Polarization

Water at 25° ate25° (M1. /Mole) (M1. /Mole)

0.00 46. 40 1.4768 20:15 66. 90

7.51 48.75 1.4747 18. 90 63.20
17.18 ay ate 1.4718 17.30 58. 37
27.47 552.59 1.4672 15.58 5319
36.23 58. 64 1.4635 14.14 48.76
44. 36 61. 73 1.4584 12.79 44, 63
48.73 632.32 1.4551 Teas 42.85
55, 11 65. 96 1.4499 10. 93 38. 89
61.20 68.10 1.4432 10.14 36. 60
66. 65 70.05 1.4369 9.14 33. 43
69.49 (AE OS 1.4319 8.74 32, 38
72.44 72.29 1.4260 8.17 30. 61
CUS UG 13155 1.4163 7. 38 28. 45
82. 36 74. 78 1. 4050 6. 58 25.79
88.89 76.19 1. 3840 5. 52 22-00
93°90 77.09 1. 3639 4.71 2032
97.44 77. 76 1. 3468 4.15 18. 64

100. 00 78. 30 1. 3329 SYR (he) iG 39,

Paul G. Sears, George R. Jurch, Jr., and Donald E. Sands

Table 4. Results for Viscosity Data in Table 2 Fitted to Equations 1 and 2

16
Mole %
Water

0. 00 0.99884

These 1.10290
Vite US 0.85377
Da AW 0.:953.92
36.23 0. 74421
44, 36 1.09893
48.73 1.43689
DDe tl 0293705
61.20 0.89110
66. 65 0. 90932
69. 49 1.16430
72.44 0.56745
(Ue UE 0.61283
82. 36 OR2399
88. 89 0.66758
93-90 0.69288
97. 44 0.23092
100.00 -0.41079

SeIOR Gaeoa

—14. 163

—75.201

104. 829

58. 526

2205228

38.118

—154.195

201. 540

270. 973

2834321

138.670

522.697,

506. 516

436. 525

470. 213

465. 050

WO2. VOW

1172. 665

a

111,254
104, 034
138,031
13, 83
171, 380
152, 788
127, 697
192, 505
ZO pela
216,385
195,267
255,104
250, 641
233,479
226,331
214, 889
252, 304

308, 627

i De
vis
at 25°

(Cal. /Mole)

3480
3537
3778
3964
4253
4515
4625
4986
5220
5345
BSI,
5438
5315
5169
4795
4468
4257

4107

Std. Dev.

Ine a.
vis

(Cal. /Mole)

15

14

27

11

8

40

6

41

6

Sit

tz

20

13

Plots of dielectric constant, density, or refractive index versus

mole % composition are non-linear. Deviations from linearity are
least for the dielectric constant plots.

Molar refraction and molar polarization data which are included

in Table 3 have been calculated using the following equations:

Activation Energies of Viscous Flow ley

2
nyo - 1 78.13 -— 60.11 X>
3 R 2 ae ier a ar eae eo a ae
(e) 12 n> ee di2
€i2 - 1 78.13 - 60.11 X,
(4) 1D 82S ea een ma Sy CSE
12 € +2 diz

Both Ry and Py. vary linearly with mole % or mole fraction
composition. This suggests that these quantities can be mathematically
related to composition by Equations 5 and 6. The results obtained

(5) R = R + (R, =

12 1 R,) X,

P
12 1 Pi) X

from fitting the molar refraction and molar polarization data in Table
3 by the method of least squares to Equations 5 and 6 are sum-
marized in Table 5. The use of these equations does not imply that
the DMSO—water mixtures are ideal, non-interacting mixtures. As
a matter of fact, it is quite surprising that P,» varies linearly with X»
since the DMSO—water system is characterized by extensive associa-
tion in the liquid state. A similar pattern of behavior has been re-
ported recently for two binary systems involving acetonitrile with
hydrogen bonding liquids (Cunningham, Vidulich and Kay, 1967).

Table 5. Results for Fitting Molar Refraction and Molar Polarization
Data to Equations 5 and 6

Intercept (P1)

Equation Obs. Calc.
S) 20255 20/10

6 66.90 66.78

Slope (P2 - P1)

Obs. Calc.
16.42 16.35
49.51 49.57

(Pio)obs - (Py2)cale

Mean Max.
0.03 0.05
0.18 0.32

18

Paul G. Sears, George R. Jurch, Jr., and Donald E. Sands

Summary

Viscosities and densities have been determined at 25°, 35°, 45°
and 55°C for 18 compositions in the dimethyl sulfoxide—water
system.

2. Dielectric constants and refractive indices have been measured
for the same compositions at 25°C,

3. Excellent corroboration usually exists for those cases in which
the results of this study can be compared with those of other
investigators.

4, The viscosity-temperature relationship for any composition in the
dimethyl sulfoxide—water system can be excellently described by
the Girifalco equation.

5. Activation energies of viscous flow have been calculated. E,;, for
each composition exhibits a slight decrease with increasing tem-
perature. At a given temperature such as 25°C, the values of
E,;, exhibit a pronounced maximum for the composition cor-
responding to about 72 mole % water.

6. Both the molar refraction and the molar polarization vary linearly
with mole fraction composition. It is surprising that this applies
for the molar polarization since the dimethyl sulfoxide—water
system is characterized by extensive association.

Nomenclature

Symbols
” = viscosity in centipoises
d = density in g. cm® or g. ml.
€ = dielectric constant
n = refractive index (relative to sodium D-line)

E,is == activation energy of viscous flow in cal. mole

R = = molar refraction in cm.? mole

P = molar polarization in cm.? mole

T —= temperature in °K.

log = _ logarithm to base 10

X = mole fraction

a,8,y = constants in Equations 1 and 2

Subscripts

1 = designation of property of dimethyl sulfoxide
2 = designation of property of water

12

designation of property of dimethyl sulfoxide—water
mixture

Activation Energies of Viscous Flow 19

Acknowledgment

The authors express their appreciation to the University of Ken-
tucky Computing Center for the use of its facilities.

Literature Cited

Blumenshine, R. L., and Sears, P. G. 1966. “Several Properties of the
2-Pyrrolidone—Wated System as Functions of Composition and
Temperature,” J. Chem. Eng. Data, 11:141-3.

Cannon, M. R., and Fenske, M. R. 1938. “Viscosity Measurement,”
Ind. Eng. Chem., Anal. Ed., 10:297-301.

Coe, J. R., and Godfrey, T. B. 1944. “Relative Viscosity of Water at
20°, 25°, 30° and 40°C,” J. Appl. Phys., 15:625-6.

Cowie, J. M. G., and Toporowski, P. M. 1961. “Association in the
Binary Liquid System Dimethyl Sulphoxide—Water,” Can. J.
Chem. 39:2240-3.

Cunningham, G. P., Vidulich, G. A., and Kay, R. L. 1967. “Several
Properties of Acetonitrile—Water, Acetonitrile—Methanol, and
Ethylene Carbonate—Water Systems,” J. Chem. Eng. Data,
12:336-7.

Girifalco, L. A. 1955. “Temperature Dependence of Viscosity and
its Relation to Vapor Pressure for Associated Liquids,” J. Chem.
Phys., 23:2446-7.

Leader, G. R. 1951. “The Dielectric Constant of Formamide,” J. Am.
Chem. Soc., 73:856-7.

LeBel, R. G., and Goring, D. A. I. 1962. “Density, Viscosity, Refractive
Index and Hygroscopicity of Mixtures of Water and Dimethyl
Sulfoxide,” J. Chem. Eng. Data, 7:100-1.

Lindberg, J. J., and Kenttamaa, J. 1960. “Some Considerations of the
Structures of Dimethyl Sulphoxide—Water Mixtures in the light
of Thermodynamic and Dielectric Behavior,” Suomen Kemistilehti,
B33: 104-7.

Malmberg, C. G., and Maryott, A. A. 1956. “Dielectric Constant of
Water from 0° to 100°C,” J. Res. Natl. Bur. Std., 56:1-8.

Misra, B. N., and Varshni, Y. P. 1961. “Viscosity-Temperature Relation
for Solutions,” J. Chem. Eng. Data, 6:194-6.

Moore, D. W., Burkhardt, L. A., and McEwan, W. S. 1956. “Viscosity
and Density of the Liquid System TNT-Picric Acid and Four
Related Pure Materials,” J. Chem. Phy., 25:1235-41)

Swindells, J. F., Coe, J. R., and Godfrey, T. B. 1952. “Absolute Vis-
cosity of Water at 20°C,” J. Res. Natl. Bur. Std., 48:1-31.

Wyman, J. 1930. “Measurement of the Dielectric Constants of Con-
ducting Media,” Phys. Rev., 35:623-34.

NEW MANNICH DERIVATIVES OF PHENOLIC COMPOUNDS
AS POSSIBLE CARCINOSTATIC AGENTS

JAMES A. ELLARD, D. L. HUGHES, KENNETH B. SHANER AND J. R. MEADOW

Department of Chemistry, University of Kentucky
Lexington, Kentucky 40506

Previous work from our laboratory on the preparation and use of
various amine derivatives of phenolic compounds has indicated that
some of these compounds may have some carcinostatic activity in
cancer investigations (1, 2, 3). In addition to the halogenated bisphenol
types reported by Shaner and Meadow (2), some bisphenolic Mannich
derivatives containing acetamido groups in the 2 and 2’-positions
were described in a publication by Meadow and Reid (4), and later
by O’Brien and Meadow (5). The dimethylaminomethyl derivative
of 4,4-sulfonylbis-(2-acetamidophenol) (I) is an example of such a
derivative that has received some attention clinically as a carcinostatic
agent. In addition to showing a noticeable carcinolytic effect in
reticulum cell, sarcoma, lymphosarcoma, melanoma and carcinoma of
the lung(1), these Mannich sulfone derivatives have the added ad-
vantage of being low in toxicity, having a high degree of solubility,
and most of them can be made neutral at a pH of 7.

NHCOCH3 NHCOCHs
HO. S02 OH
CH2N(CHs )e2 CH2N(CHs )a
(I)

In 1961, Korpics, Smith and Meadow continued work on the
preparation of acetamido derivatives as possible antimetabolites and
reported six additional new Mannich derivatives which were similar
in structure to (I) above (6). However, none of these compounds
seemed to be quite as effective as the original dimethylaminomethyl
compound (I) and its homologues in the treatment of malignant
growths (1).

The present paper describes the preparation of some additional
acetamido derivatives from 4,4-dihydroxystilbene (II) and 4,4-
dihydroxyhydrobenzoin (III), as well as some other Mannich deriva-
tives from miscellaneous phenols which have been included in our
preparative and testing program. The latter group includes some

New Mannick Derivatives of Phenolic Compounds 21

NHCOCH3 NHCOCHs

HO CH = CH OH
CHa (NC5H) 9) CHa (NC. H) 9)

= piperidino

(II) where -NCCH,

dihydroxybibenzyl (IV) and dihydroxybenzil (V) compounds, and
also a group of unique Mannich derivatives from piperazine (VI).

COCHs NHCOCHs

HO CH-CH OH

OH OH
He (NC.H, 0) CH (NC,H, |)
(III) where - NCsH,, = piperidino

The piperazine Mannich compounds recorded in Table III, may be

represented by the derivative (VI) obtained from two moles of

p-chlorophenol and one mole of piperazine hydrate using two moles
of formaldehyde as the condensing agent.

OCHs
CHs =°CHe >
He NRe

where - CH2NRe = Mannich group

(Iv)

OR! OR?

e 8
HO C-C YA ~ OH
CH2NR CH2NRe

2
(V) where - CH2NRe = Mannich gro

and R' = CHs or CoHs

22 ~=s«<J. A. Ellard, D. L. Hughes, K. B. Shaner and J. R. Meadow

OH
CHe = CHa
ree 2 CH
CHa - CHe
(VI) Cl

Experimental

Melting point determinations were made with a Fisher-Johns ap-
paratus using a calibrated thermometer. Neutralization equivalents
were obtained by the method of Seaman and Allen (7). The method
of McKenzie and Wallace (8) was used to determine percentage of
nitrogen in some of the compounds. Carbon, hydrogen and Dumas
nitrogen determinations were furnished by Weiler and Strauss, Oxford,
England.

Mannich compounds relative to dihydroxystilbene, dihydroxy-
hydrobenzoin, the dialkoxydihydroxybenzils, and dihydroxydime-
thoxybibenzil are placed in Table II, and those prepared from piper-
azine hydrate with miscellaneous phenols are found in Table III.

The Mannich derivatives of 3,3’--diacetamido-4,4-dihydroxystilbene
(II) and 3,3’-diacetamido-4,4-dihydroxyhydrobenzoin (III) in Table
II were somewhat difficult to obtain and several synthetic steps in
their preparation were required. The same was true in obtaining
the dihydroxy benzils (IV) and the dihydroxybibenzyl compound as
intermediates for the other Mannich derivatives reported in Table II.
The five intermediate bisphenols for these Mannich derivatives are
listed in Table 1 and details for their preparation follows.

Bisphenol Intermediates for Mannich Derivatives in Table II

1. 3,3-diacetamido-4,4-dihydroxyhydrobenzoin. This bisphenol was
synthesized in three steps starting with 4,4-dihydroxyhydrobenzoin.
Preparation of the latter was described in an earlier publication (3).

(a) Preparation of 4,4-dihydroxy-3,3’-dinitrohydrobenzoin. Twenty
four and six tenths grams (0.10 mole) of 4,4-dihydroxyhydrobenzoin
(3) was slurried in 150 ml. of glacial HC2H3Oz2 and stirred well at
20°C. while a solution of 12.7 ml. (0.203 mole) of HNO; in 150 ml.
glacial HC2H303 was slowly added (1 ml/min.). After addition was
complete, the clear solution was stirred for 30 minutes and poured
over 3 1. of cracked ice. The precipitate was filtered off and dried
to give 17.06 g. (52.9%) of bright yellow powder, m.p. 185-190°.
Recrystallization from dioxane-water gave 10.0 g of yellow solvated
hexagonal plates melting at 190-195°. Further recrystallization from

New Mannick Derivatives of Phenolic Compounds 23

dioxane-water or xylene-acetic acid gave pure 4,4dihydroxy-3,3-
dinitrohydrobenzoin, m.p. 210-213° dec. (213-4° instantaneous m.p.).

Anal. Cale’d for Cy4Hi2N2eO0g : C, 50.01; H, 3.60; N, 8.33
Found : C, 49.82; H, 3.76; N, 8.05

(b) 3,3’-Diamino-4,4-dihydroxyhydrobenzoin. A slurry of 2.0 g. of
purified 4,4-dihydroxy-3,3-dinitrohydrobenzoin in 100 ml. of 50%
aqueous ethanol was treated with 10 ml. of hydrazine whereupon the
phenol dissolved to give a deep red solution. One-half gram of Raney
nickel catalyst was added, and the mixture allowed to react on a steam
bath until the red nitrophenolate color had disappeared (about 1
hour). The hot reaction mixture was filtered and washed with cold
water to prevent drying of the precipitate. The latter was put in a
mixture of 25 ml. of acetic acid and 100 ml. of cold dilute (1:10) HCl.
Upon neutralization to pH 5.0 with conc. ammonium hydroxide, the
solution deposited 1.36 g. (83%) of a pale tan powder, the 3,3-
diamino—4,4-dihydroxyhydrobenzoin. The crude product contained
9.66% nitrogen (theoretical value = 10.14) but it was too insoluble
to be crystallized and purified at this stage. The product decomposed
to a black crystalline powder at about 250-255°.

(c) 3,3-Diacetamido-4,4-dihydroxyhydrobenzion. The crude di-
amino compound above (1.36 g., 0.005 mole) was treated with 1.0 ml.
(0.0106 mole) of acetic anhydride in 50 ml. of glacial acetic acid and
mixed well. The slurry was allowed to stand at room temperature
over-night and was then filtered. The dried precipitate weighed 1.60
g. (89%) and melted at 234° dec. By extracting the product with
boiling dioxane-water and again with boiling dioxane, a fairly pure
product melting at 238-241° dec. (or 263-4° instantaneous m.p.) was
obtained.

Anal. Cale’d for CjgHoapN2Og : N, 7.77.
Found : N, 7.59.

2. 3,3-Diacetamido-4,4-dihydroxystilbene. The starting material for
this bisphenol was 4,4’-dihydroxy-3,3-dinitrohydrobenzoin (prepared
in (a) above).

(a) Preparation of 4,4-dihydroxy-3,3’-dinitrostilbene.

Five grams (0.015mole) of 4,4-dihydroxy-3,3-dinitrohydrobenzoin
was powdered and heated rapidly to boiling with 20 ml. of 47%
hydriodic acid containing 1.5% of hypophosphorous acid. Heating was
contained for only 3 minutes with the appearance of a bright orange
powder. The mixture was then diluted with water and filtered hot

94 J.A. Ellard, D. L. Hughes, K. B. Shaner and J. R. Meadow

to give 3.88 g. of an orange solid. Impurities were extracted with
boiling ethanol, leaving 3.18 g. (70.8%) of a residue of bright orange
needles, melting at 274-280° dec. Further purification by recrystalliza-
tion from xylene-acetic acid solvent gave a product melting at 282-4°
dec.

Anal. Cale’d for CisHipNoOg : C, 55.63; H, 3.33; N, 9.27.
Found : C, 55.84; H, 316; N, 9.20.

(b) 3,3’-Diamino-4,4-dihydroxystilbene. Three grams (0.01 mole )
of 4,4-dihydroxy-3,3-dinitrostilbene (above) was dissolved in 50 ml.
of 50% ethanol and reduced on a steam bath with 10 ml. of 95%
hydrazine containing 0.5 g. of Raney nickel catalyst similar to the
procedure described for 1 (b) above. The reaction product was
washed through the filter into 50 ml. of acetic acid with 125 ml. of
1 N HCl. After neutralizing the acid solution to a pH of 5 with
NH,OH, 1.97 g. (84.9%) of a white precipitate formed which on
heating gradually decomposed to a black crystalline solid between
230° and 300°. Like the diamino product in 1 (b), this amino com-
pound was insoluble and in all neutral solvents tested could be “re-
crystallized” only by dissolving in boiling 50% aqueous acetic acid
and reprecipitating with NH,OH,; this, however, resulted in no change
in form or properties.

Anal. Cale’d for C,4Hi4,NoO. : N, 11.56
Found : N, 11.40.

(c) 3,3’-Diacetamido-4,4-dihydroxystilbene. Acetylation of 0.93 g.
(0.0038 mole) of 3,3-diamino-4,4’-dihydroxystilbene with 15 ml. (0.015
mole) of acetic anhydride in glacial acetic acid for 48 hours at room
temperature produced 1.19 g. (95%) of the diacetamido product, a
light tan powder melting at 274-7°. Purification for analysis was ac-
complished by washing first with cold dilute NaOH, then with an
excess of dilute HCl. This was repeated three times to give 0.66 g.
of a white powder, m.p. 280-3° dec.

Anal. Calce’d for CisHigN2O. ; N, 8.58.
Found : N, 8.62.

3. Preparation of 4,4-Dihydroxy-3,3-dimethoxybenzil. The method
used here was essentially that of Pearl (9) in which 61.6 g. (0.20 mole)
of 4,4’-dihydroxy-3,3-dimethoxydrobenzion (3) was oxidized to the ben-
zil compound using 78 g. (0.40 mole) of cupric hydroxide in 1 1. of
glacial acetic acid. Recrystallization of 38 g. of the crude yellow

New Mannick Derivatives of Phenolic Compounds 25

product from acetic acid gave a 58% yield of pale yellow needles,
m.p. 234.5-235.5° (Pearl reported 233-4°).

4, Preparation of 3,3-Diethoxy-4,4-dihydroxybenzil. The starting
material for this benzil compound was ethyl vanillin which was con-
verted electrolytically to 3,3’-diethoxy-4,4-dihydroxyhydrobenzoin (3).
11.13 g. (0.033 mole) of the latter was then converted into 6.33 g. of
crude yellow 3,3’-diethoxy-4,4-dihydroxybenzil by refluxing 1.5 hours
with 13.0 g. (0.067 mole) of cupric hydroxide in 50 ml. of glacial
acetic acid, as in Pearl’s procedure (9) in compound No. 3 above.
After two recrystallizations from hot glacial acetic acid, 5.15 g.
(46.8%) of yellow prisms, m.p. 144.5-148.5°, was obtained. An ana-
lytical sample, melting sharply at 147-8.5°, was finally obtained by
further recrystallization, first from 35% aqueous ethanol and then
acetic acid.

Anal. Cale’d for C;3H;30g, : OCsH;, 27.28
Found : OC3H,;, DA bey

5. Preparation of 4,4-Dihydroxy-3,3-dimethoxybibenzyl. Several at-
tempts were made to prepare this compound by the method of Pearl
(10) without success. Our method involved the hydrogenation of 3.3 g.
(0.012 mole) of 4,4-dihydroxy-3,3’-dimethoxystilbene (3) with a mix-
ture of 0.1 g. of platinum dioxide and 100 ml. of absolute ethanol in a
Burgess-Parr appartus for 16 hours under initial pressure of 3 atm. of
hydrogen. The vessel was heated occasionally with an infra-red lamp
to hold the stilbene in solution. After removal of the catalyst, the
product crystallized from the mixture as clear white needles, m.p.
158-160°, weighing 2.66 g. (80%). Pearl’s bibenzyl compound was
reported to melt at 163-7°; however, Richtzenhain and von Hofe (11)
reported its melting point at 158° which is in closer agreement with
our product.

Preparation of Mannich Derivatives

Details for the preparation of the following four compounds are
fairly representative for many of the twenty-five Mannich derivatives
which are included in Tables II and III.

3,3 -Diacetamido-4,4 -dihydroxy-5,5 -bis(piperidinomethyl)-stilbene

One gram (0.0118 mole) of piperidine, 1.63 g. (0.005 mole) of
3,3-diacetamido-4,4-dihydroxystilbene (Table I), and 0.90 g. (0.011
mole) of 37% aqueous HCHO were slowly combined cold in the
usual manner (4), using 25 ml of ethanol as solvent. The phenol was

26 ~=—«J. A. Ellard, D. L. Hughes, K. B. Shaner and J. R. Meadow

difficultly soluble and some remained undissolved even after refluxing
for eight hours. The reaction was filtered hot, and the insoluble matter
extracted with ethanol to give 0.58 g. of pale gray powder, m.p. 280-3°
(unreacted starting material). The reaction mixture in the filtrate was
chilled to give 1.10 g. (36.6% yield based on unrecovered starting
material) of salmon pink needles, m.p. 155-7° i. (or 180-150° dec.
when heated slowly on melting block); further recrystallization failed
to change the instantaneous melting point. The analytical sample was
recrystallized from methanol-methyl acetate and dried in a vacuum
desiccator which produced pale tan prisms which became bright
lavender on drying. Cause of the color change is not known. Ana-
lytical data for this compound are summarized in Table IT (compound
No. 2).

3,3'-Diethoxy-4,4 -dihydroxy-5,5 -bis (morpholinomethyl)-benzil

A mixture of 3.3 g (0.01 mole) of 3,3-diethoxy-4,4-dihydroxybenzil
(See Table 1) and 3.0 g. (0.035 mole) of morpholine in 50 ml. of
ethanol was cooled and 2.0 g. (0.025 mole) of 37% HCHO was added
slowly. After one hour at room temperature, the mixture was refluxed
four hours and then filtered hot. The filtrate was concentrated to a
volume of 25 ml. and chilled overnight to give 3.52 g. granular yellow
solid, m.p. 171-6°. Recrystallization from benzene-ethanol gave 3.06 g.
(51.8%) of solvated bright yellow waxy needles, m.p. 175-8°. Another
recrystallization from pure ethanol, followed by prolonged drying at
60° under reduced pressure to liberate traces of solvent raised the
melting point to 180-2° and reduced the neut. equivalent from 303.7
to 271.6. These and other data are recorded in Table II (compound
No. 5). The piperidine Mannich derivative (compound No. 6) of this
phenol was also solvated. Properties of the derivatives of 4,4-
dihydroxy-3,3’-dimethoxybenzil, which were similar to the above but
much less stable, are also recorded in Table II.

4,4’-Dihydroxy-3,3 -dimethoxy-5,5 -bis-(morpholinomethyl)-bibenzyl.
One gram (0.0123 mole) of 37% aqueous HCHO was added in
the usual manner (4) to a slurry of 1.37 g. (0.005 mole) of 4,4-
dihydroxy-3,3’-dimethoxybibenzy!] and 1.25 g. (0.0145 mole) of mor-
pholine in 25 ml. of methanol. After refluxing four hours, the mixture
was treated with 20 ml. of benzene and concentrated to about 5 ml.
on the steam bath; the solid mass of crystals was then washed with
methanol, filtered, and dried to give 1.30 g. of crude product, m.p.
150-160°. One recrystallization from methanol produced 0.81 g.
(34.3%) of white needles, m.p. 166-171°; a second recrystallization
from methanol-benzene mixture gave a product melting at 175-8°.

New Mannick Derivatives of Phenolic Compounds 27

Analytical data for this compound (No. 7) are listed in Table II. No
other Mannich derivatives of this bisphenol were attempted because
of difficulties encountered in its preparation (see description).

2,2’-Piperazinomethyl-bis-(4-chlorophenol). This Mannich derivative
from piperazine (see formula VI), like others listed in Table III, was
made by using a ratio of slightly more than two moles of phenol to
one of piperazine. 6.4 g. (0.05 mole) of p-chlorophenol was dissolved
in 15 ml. of absolute ethanol, chilled, and 4.1 g. (0.021 mole) of
piperazine hydrate was added. To the cold mixture was added slowly
3.6 g. (.04 mole) of aqueous 37% formaldehyde, and contents of
flask allowed to stand one hour at room temperature before refluxing.
After refluxing 20 minutes small crystals began to appear; boiling was
continued for two hours, then cooled, and white crystals were filtered
off by suction. 6.1 g. of crude product, melting at 228-232°, repre-
sented a yield of 79%. Recrystallization from benzene gave a purer
product, m.p. 242-4°, which readily sublimed at about 200°. The
resulting compound, like many other Mannich derivatives from piper-
azine, was insoluble in dilute HCl. The analytical data for this and
other piperazine Mannich compounds are listed in Table III. Only
one of these (compound No. 15) contained one mole of piperazine
to one mole of phenol; it was quite soluble in dilute acids.

Summary

Seven new Mannich compounds have been prepared from stil-
bestrol-like intermediates which contained either alkoxy or acetamido
groups in the 3 and 3’ positions. Three of the intermediates used
have not been previously reported. In addition, eighteen new deriva-
tives were made from piperazine via the Mannich reaction with
numerous phonols for tests on physiological activity. However, one
of the principal difficulties encountered with the piperazine deriva-
tives, from a practical stand point, was their lack of solubility in
dilute acids as well as organic solvents. Though some of the prepara-
tions reported here showed mild carcinostatic activity, none has
appeared to be as effective as those in the series of Mannich deriva-
ties of 4,4’-sulfonylbis-(2-acetamidophenol), (Formula I), which was
first reported in 1954 by Meadow and Reid (4) and later by O’Brien
and Meadow (5).

Acknowledgments

Financial help by the National Science Foundation and the
Geschickter Fund for Medical Research, Washington, D.C., is grate-

28

J. A. Ellard, D. L. Hughes, K. B. Shaner and J. R. Meadow

fully acknowledged. Also the authors wish to thank the Kentucky
Research Foundation for funds used in their summer fellowship
program for synthettic work on this project. Suggestions from Dr.
I. A. Pearl, Institute of Paper Chemistry, Appleton, Wisconsin, were
very much appreciated.

References

Private communication, Geschickter Fund for Medical Research,
Washington, D.C.

Shaner, K. H. and Meadow, J. R. 1968. Trans. Kentucky Acad.
Sci. 28:44-51.

Ellard, J. A. and Meadow, J. R. 1968. Trans. Kentucky Acad.
Sci. 28:33-43.

Meadow, J. R. and Reid, E. E. 1954. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 76:3479.

O’Brien, G. and Meadow, J. R. 1958. Trans. Kentucky Acad.
Sci. 19:1-5.

Korpics, C. J., Smith, W. T. and Meadow, J. R. 1961. Trans. Ken-
tucky Acad. Sci. 22:60-68.

Seaman, W. and Allen, E. 1951. Anal. Chem. 23:592-4.

McKenzie, H. A. and Wallace, H. S. 1954. Australian J. Chem.
(Fes,

Pearl, I. A. 1952. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 74:4261.

Pearl, I. A. 1952. J. Am. Chem. Soc., 74:4593.

1) Richtzenhain, H. and von Hofe, C. 1939. Ber. 72:1892.

29

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SYNTHESIS OF SOME AMINE SUBSTITUTED
BISPHENOLS RELATED TO THE STILBENEDIOLS

JAMES A. ELLARD AND J. R. MEADOW

Department of Chemistry, University of Kentucky
Lexington, Kentucky 40506

Our investigation of the use of amine substituted phenols as
possible carcinostatic agents has led to the preparation of some new
Mannich derivatives of certain bisphenols which are related structur-
ally to 4,4- aa (I) and its glycol analogue, 4,4-
dihydroxyhydrobenzoin (

(II)

eee eed and Scholler (1) reported that certain phe-
nols, when converted to amine derivatives by means of the Mannich re-
action, were able to inhibit the growth of the Rous chicken sarcoma.
Two of these compounds, 4,4-dihydroxy-3,3,, 5,5-tetrakis (dimethy-
laminomethy])-diphenylketone (III) and 4,4-dihydroxy-3,3’,5,5-tetrikis
(Dimethylaminomethyl)-diphenylether (IV) were noticeably active
in this connection. Meadow and Reid (2) and other workers in this
laboratory (3) have prepared similar compounds for further study.
Among those which showed some antimetabolite activity were amine
derivatives of 3,3’-dichloro-4,4-dihydroxy-diphenylether, such as the
morpholinomethy] derivatives in V, and others.

(CH3)2N-CHe CH2-N(CHs)2
(CHa) 2N-CHe CH2-N(CHs)2
O
III, X = - - =

@) ty cho (cuHaNo)

34 James A. Ellard and J. R. Meadow

The basic similarity of the carbon skeletons of these bisphenols to
that of diethylstilbestrol (DES), a widely used carcinostatic com-
pound, is worthy of note. No studies have been reported on tumor
therapy with stilbenediols other than DES itself, but 4-aminostilbenes
have been extensively studied. (4, 5, 6) With this in mind, a large
number of amino derivatives of some stilbenediols (1) and similar
hydrobenzoins (II) have been synthesized in order to observe their
physiological properties. To date, a few of the amine substituted
compounds of the latter type have shown mild estrogenic activity
(7) and further study along this line is indicated. The amine deriva-
tives studied were prepared from nine bisphenol intermediates none
of which were commercially available, with the excption of diethy]stil-
bestrol (8). Accordingly, it was necessary either to devise new
methods or revise existing ones for satisfactory preparation of these
compounds in sufficient quantity and purity for conversion to Mannich
derivatives in later stages. Eight of these bisphenols are listed in Table
I which includes some information about synthesis methods employed.
Three of these compounds have not been previously reported.

The Mannich derivatives listed in Tables II and III were prepared
by the method of Meadow and Reid (2) with slight modifications
principally in the methods used to isolate and purify the free base
products. A representative preparation is described in detail.

Experimental

Melting point determinations were made with a Fisher-Johns
apparatus using a calibrated thermometer. Some of the compounds
decomposed slowly before melting and the observed melting tempera-
ture would often depend on the rate of heating. This behavior was
characteristic of many of the hydrobenzoins studied. For such com-
pounds the instantaneous melting point (a tedious procedure denoted
by “i” in the tables) is defined as the temperature at which a small
crystal melts instantly (5 to 10 seconds) when dropped on a clean
cover slip on the heating block. Neutralization equivalents were
obtained by the method of Seaman and Allen (9). Chlorine analyses
were made by the conventional Parr bomb method. For nitrogen
determinations, the method of McKenzie and Wallace (10) was
modified to permit use of larger samples by increasing amount of
reagents. Carbon, hydrogen, and alkoxyl determinations were fur-
nished by Weiler and Strauss, Oxford, England. The results are
summarized in Tables I to III. With slight modification, the
hydrobenzoins were prepared in an electrolysis cell, similar to that

Synthesis of Some Amine Substituted Bisphenols 30

described by Pearl (11) using lead electrodes which were previously
etched with dilute HNO; before each use.

3,3-Dichloro-4,4-dihydroxyhydrobenzoin. Starting with p-hydroxyben-
zaldehyde, a 65% yield of 3-chloro-4-hydroxybenzaldehyde, colorless
needles, m.p. 136-7° (Lit. 139°), was obtained by treatment with
sulfuryl chloride in acetic acid at room temperature. Twenty grams
(0.128 mole) of 3-chloro-4-hydroxybenzaldehyde was dissolved in 200
ml. of 2 N NaOH in a 400 ml. beaker, fitted with lead electrodes,
porous cup and the anolyte. A current of 2 amperes was passed
through the cell for five hours, using a 6 volt Tungar battery charger
as a source of current. The catholyte was then filtered and neutral-
ized with a slow stream of sulfur dioxide. The precipitate was re-
moved by filtration, washed with water and dried to give 184 g.
(91.5%) of fine, cleary crystals, m.p. 246-8° i. Recrystallization from
ethanol produced bright prisms, m.p. 254-6° i.

Anal. caled. for C;4H;2C1.0, : C-, 22.50. Found, 22.39.

3,3'-Dichloro-4,4 -dihydroxystilbene. A mixture of 75 ml. of 47%
hydriodic acid and 5 ml. of 50% hypophosphorous acid was added to
15.8 g. (0.05 mole) of 3,3-dichloro-4,4-dihydroxyhyrobenzoin in a
300 ml. Erlenmeyer flask and immediately placed on a preheated
electric hot plate. The mixture was swirled vigorously and brought to
a boil in about two minutes, at which time the initially brown slurry
had become white again. At this point 100 ml. of boiling distilled
water was added and filtered hot. The light tan solid was washed
rapidly with boiling water and dried to give 12.8 g. (91%) of crude
product, m.p. 180-90°. Recrystallization from 50% aqueous ethanol
gave 9.95 g. of pale tan needles, m.p. 194-6°.

Anal. Caled. for CisHipCl,O. : C, 59.81; H, 3.59; Cl, 25.22.
Found : C, 59.72; H, 3.70; Cl, 25.52.

4,4-Dihydroxy-3,3-dimethoxystilbene. Attempts to prepare this stil-
bene from desoxyvanilloin using Pearl’s method (12) were unsuccess-
ful. A procedure was devised, however, in which a fair yield of the
stilbene was obtained after reducing 4,4’-dihydroxy-3,3-dimethoxy-
hydrobenzoin with zinc dust and mercuric chloride in ethanol. The
hydrobenzoin was prepared from vanillin by an adaptation of Pearl's
procedure (11). One hundred grams of vanillin was electrolyzed for
5 hours at 6 amperes with lead electrodes (3 Ib./1 sq. ft. and 8 sq.
decimeters in area) in a large cell of 3 liters capacity. The product
was precipitated with SO2, washed with water and dried to give

36 James A. Ellard and J. R. Meadow

71.3 g. (70.9% ) of bright prisms, m.p. 234-6° i (222-4° dec. by ordinary
melting block procedure). After recrystallization from dioxane-water,
the product melted at 241-3° i (235-8° dec.). Ten grams (0.033 mole )
of this 4,4-dihydroxy-3,3-dimethoxyhydrobenzoin was then added to
a boiling suspension of 20 g. of zinc dust and 2.0 g. of mercuric chloride
in 100 ml. of 95% ethanol. Six ml. of conc. HC1 was added, followed
by alternate additions of 5 g. zinc dust and 3 ml. of HC1 (two addi-
tions of each at one minute intervals). Boiling was allowed to con-
tinue 5 minutes after the last addition and filtered. Zinc was ex-
tracted once with hot: ethanol which was combined with the filtrate
and chilled to give 3.9 g. (43.6%) of white needles, m.p. 185-208°.
Two recrystallizations from ethanol produced 2.29 g. of product
melting at 216-7°, which did not depress the m.p. of authentic trans-
4,4-dihydroxy-3,3-dimethoxystilbene (13). Conversion to the diacetate
was accomplished with boiling acetic acid in pyridine and recrystalliz-
ing some from ethanol-acetic acid mixture to produce fine white
needles, m.p. 227-8° (Lit. 226-7°) (12).

3,3-Diethoxy-4,4 -dihydroxystilbene. One hundred grams (0.602 mole )
of ethyl vanillin was dissolved in 1.5 1. of 2 N NaOH and electrolyzed
for 10 hours at 6 amperes in a large electrolytic cell with lead electrodes.
The product was precipitated with sulfur dioxide, filtered, washed
well with water and dried to give 94.8 g. (94.2%) of 3,3’-diethoxy-4,4-
dihydroxyhydrobenzoin, a white powder, m.p. 224-5° i (205-10° dec).
Recrystallization from dioxane-water gave clear prisms, m.p. 225-7°
(also 225-7° i). The 3,3-diethoxy-4,4-dihydroxystilbene was subse-
quently prepared from the hydrobenzoin as follows. Ten grams of
zinc dust (best grade), 1.0 g. of mercuric chloride, and 100 ml. of 95%
ethanol were combined in a 500 ml. Erlenmeyer flask and heated to
boining. Ten grams (0.03 mole) of 3,3-diethoxy-4,4-dihydroxyhydro-
benzoin was added, and additions of 3 ml. cc conc. HC1 were alnter-
nated with additions of 5 g. of zinc dust at one minute intervals for
3 additions of each; the mixture was allowed to boil 15 minutes more
and filtered. The zinc was washed with hot ethanol, and the filtrate
and washings were combined and chilled to give 4.48 g. of light pink
powder, m.p. 145-163°. Recrystallization from ethanol gave 3.81 g.
(41.9% of fiberlike needles, m.p. 163-8°. This product from xylene
produced dark red solvated needles which lost solvent at about 100°
and then melted sharply at 166-8°. Sublimation produced a product
melting at 166.5-8.5°.

Anal. Caled. for CisH2O04 a Cc 71.98; H, 6:71; OC32H;, 30.01.
Found : C, 71.85; H, 6.62; OC>H;, 31.78.

Synthesis of Some Amine Substituted Bisphenols of

4,4-Dihydroxy-3,3-dimethoxy-5,5 -bis(pyrrolidinomethyl)-
hydrobenzoin.

The procedure for preparing these Mannich compounds was es-
sentially that of Meadow and Reid (2). A slurry of 12.24 g. (0.04 mole )
of 4,4’-dihydroxy-3,3’-dimethoxyhydrobenzoin and 10.0 g. (0.106 mole
of pyrrolidine in 200 ml. of methanol was cooled in an ice bath and
ten grams (0.123 mole) of 37% aqueous HCHO was added dropwise
over a ten minute period, while the flask was swirled vigorously and
held near 0-5°C. After addition was complete the mixture was allowed
to stand one hour at room temperature and then refluxed gently for
four hours. The reaction mixture was filtered hot, evaporated to
about 75 ml. and cooled. The dense mass of crystals was filtered off
and washed with small portions of cold methanol to remove a green
color. Recrystallization of crude product (14.3 g.) from 75% ethyl
acetate-25%, methanol gave 8.9 g. (47%) of fine white needles, m.p.
175-8°. The product decomposed slowly on standing and rapidly on
drying at 60°, a property that it shared with all pyrrolidine Mannich
derivatives prepared in this study. The analytical sample was freshly
recrystallized from ethyl acetate-methanol and dried in a vacuum
desiccator at room temperature for 48 hours before analysis.

The melting points, yields and analytical data of all Mannich
derivatives are reported in Tables II and III.

Summary

The study of new amine substituted derivatives of diethylstilbestrol
and related bisphenols of the stilbene and hydrobenzoin series as
possible carcinostatic agents has led to the synthesis of some thirty-
two such compounds, some of which are reported to have interesting
estrogenic action. Three new intermediate bisphenols are described,
as well as new procedures for several other bisphenols used.

Acknowledgments
The authors wish to thank the National Science Foundation and
the Geschickter Fund for Medical Research, Washington, D.C., for
finincial help in carrying out this research program. Suggestions from
Dr. I. A. Pearl, Institute of Paper Chemistry, Appleton, Wisconsin,
were very much appreciated.

References

(1) C. F. Geschickter, M. M. Copeland and J. Scholler. 1951. Bulletin
of the Georgetown University Medical Center 5:67.
(2) J. R. Meadow and E. E. Reid. 1954. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 76:3479.

38 James A. Ellard and J. R. Meadow

(3) G. O’Brien and J. R. Meadow. 1958. Trans. Kentucky Acad. Sci.
19:1-2, 1-5.
(4) A. Haddow, R. J. C. Harris, and G. A. R. Kon. 1945. Biochem. J.
39: ii.
(5) A. Haddow, R. J. C. Harris, G. A. R. Kon, and E. M. F. Roe. 1949.
Phil. Trans. Royal Soc. A241, 147.
(6) E. Boyland. 1946. Biochem. J. 40:55.
(7) Private communication, Geschickter Fund for Medical Research.
(8) Sample of diethylstilbestrol generously supplied by K. and K.
Laboratories, Long Island City, New York.
(9) W. Seaman and E. Allen. 1951. Anal. Chem. 23:592. ;
(10) H. A. McKenzie and H. S. Wallace. 1954. Australian J. Chem.
7:50.
(11) I. A. Pearl. 1952. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 74:4260.
(12) I. A. Pearl. 1952. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 74:4593.
(13) Kindly supplied by Dr. I. A. Pearl, Institute of Paper Chemistry,
Appleton, Wisconsin.
4) M. J. Allen, J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1950. 72:3797.
5) J. Biedermann. 1886. Ber. 19:2373.
6) H. Hertzfeld. 1877. Ber. 10:1267.
7) J. A. Wood, J. A. Bacon, A. W. Melbohm, W. H. Throckmorton
and G. P. Turner. 1941. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 63:1334.

39

Synthesis of Some Amine Substituted Bisphenols

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HALOGENATED AMINO BISPHENOLS AS POSSIBLE
CARCINOSTATIC AGENTS

KENNETH H. SHANER AND J. R. MEADOW

Department of Chemistry, University of Kentucky
Lexington, Kentucky 40506

For several years numerous projects* have been carried out here
on the preparation of new types of amino phenols and bisphenols with
the view that such compounds might possess some important physio-
logical activity. One of the principal aims of this program has been
the hope of finding one or more compounds which might show some
carcinolytic activity, however, slight, in retarding the growth of
cancerous tissues and tumors in animals. Geschickter, Copeland and
Scholler (1) reported that certain phenols, when converted to amine
derivatives by use of the Mannich reaction (2), were able to inhibit
the growth of the Rous chicken sarcoma. Meadow and Reid (3) and
a number of their associates have prepared a large number of similar
compounds for further study. Many of the amino bisphenols thus
prepared have contained halogen atoms, either attached directly to
the ring or in a side chain, as indicated in (1) and (II) below.

Gh

Cl=G-C}
CI C! |

Hod \-0-{ on Hox OH
H
; CHa CHa cH,
O CH, ~E° CH, CH >On cH

3

(I) (II)

Among those compounds tested to date, 3,3-dichloro-4,4-dihydroxy-
5,5 -bis(morpholinomethyl)-diphenylether (I above) and 4,4-dihy-
droxy-3,3'-bis (2,6-dimethyl-morpholinomethyl)-dipheny]-2,2,2-trichlor-

* This work has been supported in part by contributions from the Geschickter
Fund for Medical Research in Washington, D.C. and all physiological tests and
evaluations have been conducted by the Fund.

Halogenated Amino Bisphenols 45

oethane (II above), are examples of two halogen-containing amino
bisphenols which have shown some encouragement in this connection
(4). The synthesis of the first compound (I) mentioned above has
been reported in an earlier publication (3). Since then, many other
bisphenols containing both chlorine and Mannich (amino) groups,
exemplified by compound II above, have been prepared in our
laboratory. These new Mannich derivatives are listed in tables which
follow.

Experimental
Bisphenol Intermediates

Six bisphenols were used as intermediates in obtaining these amino
compounds. Three of these phenols were available commercially:
(1) 4,4-isopropylidine-bis-(2-chlorophenol); (2) 2,2’-methylene-bis-(4-
chlorophenol); and (3) 2,2’-thio-bis-(4-chlorophenol). The other three
were prepared in our laboratory, i.e. (4) 4,4-dihydroxydiphenyl-2,2,2-
trichloroethane; (5) 4,4-dihydroxy-3,3’-dimethoxydiphenyl-2,2,2-tri-
chloroethane; and (6) 2,2’-thio-bis-(4-chloro-3,5-dimethylphenol).

Each of the commercial phenols was carefully purified by recrystal-
lization from suitable solvents to obtain reproducible melting points
and these data are shown in Table I.

Phenol number 4 (Table I) was first prepared by E. ter Meer (5),
and again somewhat later independely by K. Elbs (6) and H. Pauly
and H. Schanz (7), by condensing phenol with chloral in the presence
of concentrated sulfuric acid. We used a modification of Pauly and
Schanz’s method by condensing two moles of phenol with one mole
of chloral hydrate in glacial acetic acid solvent, and slowly adding
approximately three moles of 95% sulfuric acid at 0°C. over a two-
hour period; stirring was continued at room temperature for several
hours, the product washed thoroughly with water, and recrstallized
from an acetone-benzene mixture. A white powder, melting at 201-2°C.
was obtained, representing about 45% of the theoretical yield.

4,4’-Dihydroxy-3,3’-dimethoxydipheny]-2,2,2-trichloroethane (phenol
No. 5, Table 1) was prepared from guaiacol and chloral hydrate using
conditions similar to those for the preceding bisphenol. This com-
pound was reported in 1923 by Pauly and Schanz (7).

Phenol No. 6 (Table 1) was first prepared by Meadow and Reid
(3), using sulfur dichloride and 4-chloro-3,5-dimethylphenol in CCl,
at 0-5°C. We modified their procedure by using sulfur monochloride,
SeCls, instead of SCl. which is somewhat unstable and more difficult
to prepare. Otherwise, the two procedures were similar and a white
crystalline product was obtained in about 30% yield, m.p. 216.5-17°C.

46 Kenneth H. Shaner and J. R. Meadow

Mannich Derivatives

Twenty-nine new Mannich derivatives were prepared from the
six bisphenols described in Table I. In general, most of these amino
dirivatives were prepared according to procedures outlined by
Meadow and Reid (3) and again later by O’Brien and Meadow (8),
in which the bisphenol in absolute ethanol was condensed with the
appropriate secondary amine in the presence of aqueous formaldehyde
solution. A few of the Mannich derivatives were difficul to purify by
recrystallization from standard organic solvents because of their un-
usual solubility characteristics; it was necessary to wash such com-
pounds thoroughly with water and then reprecipitate the product
again in water from a methanol solution. Fortunately in such cases
most of the impurities could be washed out with distilled water.
Further details about these compounds, including analytical data,
will be found in Tables II, III, and IV.

All melting points were taken with a Fisher-Johns apparatus and
are uncorrected. The analytical results on Dumas nitrogen were
furnished by the Weiler and Strauss Microanalytical Laboratory,
Oxford, England. Neutralization equivalents were determined in
glacial acetic acid according to a method reported by Seeman and
Allen (9).

Summary

Twenty-nine new amino compounds have been synthesized from
six different halogenated bisphenols as intermediates. The Mannich
reaction was employed to introduce various secondary amiino groups.
Some of these compounds are reported to have interesting physio-
logical properties as possible carcinostatic agents (4).

Acknowledgments

Financial assistance by the Geschickter Fund for Medical Research,
Washington, D.C., to carry out the synthetic chemical work on this
project is very gratefully acknowledged. Some of the bisphenols used
as intermediates in this work were generously supplied by the Dow
Chemical Co., Midland, Michigan, and also by the Sindar Corpora-
tion, New York, New York. Samples of secondary amines, mentioned
specifically in Table II, were given by the Abbott Laboratories, North
Chicago, Ilinois, Union Carbide Chemicals Co., New York, New York,
E. I. du Pont deNemours and Co., Wilmington, Delaware, and East-
man Chemical Products, Inc., Kingsport, Tennessee. These were
very much appreciated.

Halogenated Amino Bisphenols 47

Literature Cited

(1) Geschickter, C, F., Copeland, M. M., and Scholler, J. 1951. Bulle-
tin of the Georgetown University Medical Center 2:67.

(2) Blicke, F. F. 1942. Organic Reactions, Vol. I, 303. John Wiley
and Sons, Inc., New York, New York.

(3) Meadow, J. R. and Reid, E. E. 1954. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 76:3479.

(4) Private communications, Geschickter Fund for Medical Research,
Washington, D.C.

(5) ter Meer, Edm. 1874. Berichter der Deutschen Chem. Gesell.,
7:1201.

(6) Elbs, K. 1893. J. Prakt. Chem., 47:44.

(7) Pauly, H. and Schanz, H. 1923. Berichte der Deutschen Chem.
Gesell. 56B:979-985.

(8) O’Brien, G. and Meadow, J. R. 1958. Trans. Kentucky Acad. Sci.
19:1-5.

(9) Seaman, W. and Allen, E. 1951. Anal. Chem. 23:5992-4.

Kenneth H. Shaner and J. R. Meadow

48

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50

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A BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF A “FERTILIZATION INHIBITOR”
FROM LYTECHINUS VARIEGATUS (LAMARCK)

ROBERT E. DANIEL*

Institute of Molecular Biophysics and Department of Biological Sciences,
Florida State University, Tallahassee

It has been known for some time that in many species of
Echinodermata forced shedding of gametes can be induced by sub-
jecting the animal to stress with electrical shock, or by injecting
0.55 M KCl into the perivisceral cavity (Palmer, 1937; Harvey,
1939b; Tyler, 1949). Harvey (1939a) reported that the KC1 method
when used with Arbacia punctualata (Lamarck) often resulted in
shedding of eggs which were not fertilizable, “even after repeated
washings with sea water.” Thus, the former of these methods is to
be preferred with this organism. Forced shedding cannot be induced
in Lytechinus variegatus by the electrical method, consequently the
latter method is employed with this organism, without the ill effects
mentioned above.

Since 1914, when Lillie reported a material “in the blood” capable
of inhibiting the fertilization of mature eggs of Arbacia punctulata,
there has been considerable interest in these “dermal secretions”
(DS). Studies indicate that A. punctulata specimens liberate DS
into the Surroundings when subjected to immersion in distilled water,
KCl injection, and other conditions of stress (Oshima, 1921; Metz,
1959). There have been many studies to determine the specificity of
Arbacia DS (ADS) on the eggs of other echinoderms, all of which
demonstrate that the fertilization-inhibiting powers are not species
specific (Metz, 1960; Scheul and Metz, 1960).

It is the purpose of this paper to present a brief description of a
“dermal secretion” from Lytechinus variegatus (LDS), which has not
previously been reported in the literature, and to compare it with
the ADS of Arbacia punctulata.

Experimental

Arbacia punctulata and Lytechinus variegatus specimens were
taken from populations near the mouth of Alligator Harbor, Florida,
and were used within seven days. All eggs were washed twice in
sea water to remove the jelly layer and were carefully examined for

* Present address: Department of Biological Sciences, Murray State University,
Murray, Kentucky.

A Brief Description of A Fertilization Inhibitor 53

maturity. Any egg samples which gave control levels of less than
98% fertilization and division were discarded.

All Arbacia were subjected to electrical stimulation for gamete
collection, and to KC1 injection for ADS collection. Lytechinus speci-
mens were treated with KCI injection for the obtaining of both
gametes and LDS, gamete shedding usually being completed several
minutes prior to DS appearance.

Results and Discussion

The properties of both dermal secretions appear to be similar.
As shed from the organism, they possess a yellow-green color which
undergoes auto-oxidation to a deep reddish-brown upon standing,
even in a nitrogen atmosphere. Such oxidation does not appear to
be enzyme mediated as neither heating at 80°C., nor acid hydrolysis
altered the reaction. The oxidation was not reversible with hydro-
sulfite. The pigments were both precipitated with trichloroacetic
acid and ammonium sulfate. It is worthy of note that the oxidation
state of the pigment did not significantly alter the fertilization in-
hibiting properties of the material (Fig. 1). Figure 2 demonstrates
that the absorption of light (as determined by the “Spectronic 20”)
by the two dermal secretions is quite similar, both before and after
oxidation.

Dialysis for 96 hours at 4°C. showed the LDS pigment did pass
the membrane. Prior to dialysis the LDS samples allowed no fertiliza-
tion, while afterwards an average of 61.5% (three samples) fertiliza-
tion was noted. ADS pigment proved to be non-dialyzable and,
there was no loss in fertilization-inhibiting power.

A certain degree of thermolability was noted for both dermal
secretions following 96 hours of heating at 85°C. Those ADS samples
chosen for study study allowed no fertilization before heating but
showed an increase to 17% following this treatment. LDS samples
were changed from total inhibition before to an average of 23% post-
heating fertilization. Both inhibitors proved to be stable at sub-
freezing temperatures and did not appear to lose their effectiveness
after standing at room temperature for periods in excess of 100 hours.

Quantitative protein determination by the Folin-Ciocalteu and
Biuret colorimetric methods gave inconsistent results, but did indicate
the presence of protein in both dermal secretions. Fractionation of
LDS on G-50 “Sephadex” showed that small traces of protein were
present in all fractions collected, but quantities were variable. In
view of this information, muramidase (Worshington ), a basic protein,
was tested for a possible fertilization-inhibiting capacity. Even at

54 Robert E. Daniel

100 4
: °-- FRESH LDS (vil
©— OXIDIZED LDS (il

50!

°f FERTILIZATION

0.20406 08 l2 1.4
DS CONCENTRATION
(ML/2ML. TOTAL VOLUME)

Figure 1. The effect of LDS auto-oxidation on fertilization inhibition in L. variegatus eggs.

concentrations of 0.09 mg. per ml. muramidase showed no ability
to diminish the percentage of fertilization of either Arbacia or
Lytechinus eggs.

In contrast to ADS, LDS did not display metachromasia with
toluidine blue. Rather crude qualitative observations indicated that
sperm of both species were stimulated by both dermal secretions,
Metz (1959) attributing this property of ADS to direct action against
fertilizin. In general, it was noted that both dermal secretions re-
tarded the formation of a fertilization membrane, the elevation being
both depressed and quite irregular about the egg surface. Direct
microscopic examination of egg cell surfaces showed no partial

A Brief Description of A Fertilization Inhibitor 55

discharge of cortical granules in DS treated eggs, which (it wa felt)
might result in fertilization membrane depression..

The reversibility of LDS was tested by placing Lytechinus eggs in
contact with the material for a 30 minute period, washing the eggs
in sea water, then attempting fertilization. The results showed that
the fertilization-inhibiting maerial could be partially washed from the
egg surface. Following one washing there was an increase in fertiliza-
tion of 20 to 60 per cent, subsequent washings removing no additional
inhibitor. These data are in agreement with those obtained by Harvey
(1939a) where the reversibility appeared to be a property of the
particular lot of eggs being used. Metz (1960) noted that more
sperm are required to induce the same percentage of fertilization in
ADS-treated eggs and attributed this to a reduction in the quantity
of “successful egg-sperm contacts.” Figure 3 shows the effect of both
ADS and LDS on A. punctulata eggs. The dependence is of an
exponential type and lends support to the concept that the inhibiting

Cao O7|D er ANS BRE Sh
aE Dovey SE Vs(PRe on

% ABSORPTION

400 450 500 550 600 650
WAVELENGTH (ML)

Figure 2. Light absorption by fresh and oxidized forms of ADS and LDS.

56 Robert E. Daniel

% FERTILIZATION

02 ©4008) Io 120
DS CONCEN ERATION
(ML./2ML. TOTAL VOLUME)

Figure 3. The effect of DS concentration on fertilization of A. punctulata eggs.

agent(s) of dermal secretions act competitively with sperm for specific
sites on the egg surface.

Summary

A previously unreported “dermal secretion” from Lytechinus
variegatus is described and compared with the “dermal secretion”
of Abacia punctulata.

Literature Cited

Harvey, Ethyl B. 1939. a. Arbacia. The Collecting Net 14:180-181.
————, ————— . 1939. b. A method of determining the sex of Abacia,

A Brief Description of A Fertilization Inhibitor 57

and a new method of producing twins, triplets, and quadruplets.
ibid., 14:211.

Metz, C. C. 1959. Inhibition of fertilizin agglutination of sperm by
the dermal secretion from Arbacia. Biol. Bull. 116:472-483.
———, ——— 1960. Investigation of the fertilization inhibiting action

of Arbacia dermal secretion. ibid., 118:439-450.

Oshima, H. 1921. Inhibitory effect of dermal secretion of the sea
urchin upon the fertilizability of the egg. Science 54:578-580.
Palmer, L. 1937. The shedding reaction in Arbacia punctulata.

Physiol. Zool., 10:352-367.

Scheul, H. and C. B. Metz. 1960. Inhibition of fertilization of Asterias,
Spisula, and Chaetopterus eggs by Arbacia dermal secretion.
Biol. Bull. 119:297-298.

Tyler, A. 1949. A simple non-injurious method for inducing repeated
spawning of sea urchins and sand dollars. The Collecting Net,

19:19-20.

RAPID MEANS OF PREPARING BLOOD AGAR PLATES

L. P. ELLIOTT

Department of Biology, Western Kentucky University
Bowling Green, Kentucky

Blood agar plates are useful tools in microbiological research
because they serve as an enriched and differential medium. An
enormous number of blood agar plates have been used in our labora-
tory to identify bacteria causing human urinary tract infections and
the identification of bacteria that cause mastitis in the University
dairy herd.

Blood agar plates are particularly useful in differentiating
staphylococci on the basis of the type hemolysin that is produced.
Rabbit and sheep erythrocytes detect alpha hemolysin, sheep cells
detect beta, and delta acts on sheep, rabbit, human and horse cells.
(Cowan, 1962).

Blood agar plates were made by sterilizing blood agar base (Difco),
cooling to 47-50°C and aseptically adding 5% of the blood needed
per liter of media. Foaming often occurred which resulted in bubbles
in the poured plates. This difficulty could be avoided by brief flaming
to break the bubbles. However, such flaming was time consuming
and increased the chances of contaminating the plates. It was found
that if one drop of Dow Corning Antifoam A (silicone defoamer )
was added to | liter of the blood agar base, the foaming was eliminated.
However, Miyasaki and Takarabe (1961) found that alpha toxin
production was decreased by the addition of a loopful of antifoaming
agent to a shaking culture. A check on the effect of Antifoam A
showed that the growth and lysis by Staphylococcus aureus on blood
agar was not inhibited.

The research of Hague (1967) demonstrated that the procedure
used for the identification of staphylococcal hemolysins based upon
their lysis pattern on various species of blood agar plates was not
satisfactory. Therefore, the main value of this paper is the presenta-
tion of a rapid method in which smooth, blood agar plates can be
prepared to use for isolation, recognition and enumeration of par-
ticularly fastidious bacteria.

Literature Cited

Cowan, S. T. 1962. An introduction to chaos, or the classification of
micrococci and staphylococci. J. Appl. Bacteriol. 25:324-340.
Hague, Riaz-Ul. 1967. Identification of staphylococcal hemolysins by

Rapid Means of Preparing Blood Agar Plates 59

an electrophoretic localization technique. J. Bacteriol. 93:525-530.

Miyasaki, S., and M. Takarabe. 1961. On the production of staphy-
lococcal alpha-toxin by shaking culture method. Jap. J. Exp. Med.
31:425-434.,

CENOZOIC GOLIAD FORMATION OF SOUTH TEXAS

JAMES E. CONKIN

Department of Geology, University of Louisville
Louisville, Kentucky

and

BARBARA M. CONKIN

Jefferson Community College, University of Kentucky
Louisville, Kentucky

Introduction

Information presented here is based on intermittent study of the
Goliad Formation from 1953 to 1956, primarily in Bee and Live Oak
counties, South Texas (Text-figure 1), and concerns the following
aspects of the Goliad Formation: (1) the secondarily formed
nodular and/or pisolitic (“algal”) limestone within the Goliad caliche
and its enclosed fossil land snails, (2) siliceous siltstone, a type of
sedimentary quartzite, (3) seeds of the Hackberry tree, Celtis sp., in
the upper part of the Goliad, (4) fossil freshwater mollusks and
grassy plants in the Lagarto Creek Member of the Goliad, and
(5) the introduction of Recent snails into the caliche of the Goliad.

Review of Stratigraphic Relationships
of the Members of the Goliad Formation

Advance in statigraphic understanding of the Quaternary surface
sequences of the Gulf Coast is impeded by a lack of measured sections
and by a scarcity of fossils; thus, the stratigraphic placement and
age of part of the Goliad Formation, and indeed the relationships of
its members, are in doubt. For the purpose of this paper, we use
the classification of the Goliad as accepted by Sellards, Adkins, and
Plummer (1932) in which the Goliad was divided into three members
in ascending order: Lapara Member (conglormerate, sandstone, and
red and green clay), Lagarto Creek Member (clay), and the La Bahia
Member (consisting of a lower sandstone and conglomerate, a middle
marl unit, and an upper sandstone unit).

List of Localities

1. Section measured in the excavation for the basement of the Tele-
phone Company building on Corpus Christi Street, Beeville, Bee
County, Texas. Calichified sandstone and congomerate within
the upper part of the Goliad.

Cenozoic Goliad Formation of South Texas 61

0 10 20 30 40 50
ee |

MILES
LOCATION
OF
STUDIED
AREA

GOLIAD

| COUNTY

SAN
» PATRICIO

MEXICO

Text—Figure 1. Location of measured sections and collecting sites in south Texas.

2. Section measured in a quarry on the east side of U.S. Highway 181
(Beeville-Corpus Christi road), 6.5 miles south of Beeville, Bee
County, Texas. Caliche and nodular-pisolitic limestone boulders
in the upper part of the Goliad.

3. Section measured in the quarry on the Segar Ranch, U.S. Highway
181, 7 miles south of Beeville, Bee County, Texas. Calichified

62

James E. Conkin and Barbara M. Conkin

sandstone with fossil snails and hackberry seeds in the upper part
of the Goliad.

4. Section measured on the crest of a hill, one mile west of Lapara
Creek, on Texas Highway 202 (Beeville-George West road), Bee
County, Texas. Fossil grassy plants and mollusks in the middle
shaly Lagarto Creek Member of the Goliad Formation.

5. Outcrops in road cuts on Texas Highway 673, near Mineral, Texas
(Beeville-Mineral road), Bee County. Silicified siltstone (sedi-
mentary quartzite) in the caliche.

6. Outcrops in road cuts on Texas Highway 202 (Beeville-George
West road) at the Bee-Live Oak County line. Siliceous siltstone
(sedimentary quartzite) in the caliche.

7. Outcrops mostly of hard, conglomeratic, pebble to boulder-sized
chert at Lagarto, Live Oak County, Texas.

Measured Sections
Locality 1
Pliocene Thickness
Bed Feet Inches
10. Sandstone and siltstone, some clay, tan-brown
Ui. COlOTy Pa ct.2.. eee aaa eee eae ee 1 6
9. Sandstone, with some siltstone and clay; rare, small
aggregates of sandstone cemented by caliche .......... 3 0

8. Sandstone, in irregular contact with rare white to

cream, soft caliche below; ground water deposits

(stains of manganese and iron); casts and molds of

small plant rootlets; lower inch or two with

PATER CACHE: c.agsiioatenitentonsa Rs ceemtaence aera senate 1 0
7. Caliche, white, with irregular contact above; small

pockets of dense limstone; some

SANGStOME StTINGENS $0.59 ss ce seestaceiss Gearapeeteeeeeee ee 4 0
6. Sandstone, tan and brown, with alice Eh, OaeRte 0 8
5. Sandstone, medium to coarse-grained; dense

limestone masses, small to large (up to 4” x 6”) ...... i 0
4, Sandstone, some lightly cemented, with limestone

lenses; small, infrequent caliche nodules .................. 2 0
3. Sandstone and conglomerate with stringers of

dense’ limestone ui ihnacuetiscveree eee ee i 0

2. Limestone lenses, with partly conglomeratic
Sanadstome: Clay ‘strinSers’ hl,.i...0,.cceceeeere se teceree ee 3 0

Cenozoic Goliad Formation of South Texas 63
1. Base of section at top of a dominantly gray-tan
clay and sandstone, with dense limestone lenses;

SOMME CALICNE GELECAKS seceescasishcsssvitescnteoots¢descosscdeoonseateets not measured

Total thickness 17 )

Locality 2
Pliocene Thickness
Bed Feet Inches

8. Limstone, pisolitic, and “algal” (“algal heads” up

to 26 inches in diameter); land snails,

PBUATUUIUS ASTIN, Geacabececeyeccseeictoeap asteacietes ee ceeresescoraweaceencets 0 6
7. Caliche, some pisolitic and “algal” ...........cceeee 0 2
6. Limestone, nodular, with caliche; irregular,

weathered, upper surface with relief of a couple

@iinc hes wsiailS: MOOG sees cer cgrtct ects ever eesereae ee 1 0
5. Limestone, like bed 4; with small orange-red clay

pockets due to solution of caliche around plant

TOOLS MMO GST alls MOLEC caer re nsecstssstsisscsutecesssacuseeareatecs 2 0
4, Limestone and caliche; molds of Recent plant

POWES 10) SATS MOCO ao iceccsceay saves exesatievesy=caretscerseataeeoe 1 0
3. Caliche, as in bed 2, with some limestone stringers;

OMS AULS gi OLC Gl Pre, icc tercieae reer sas ee ees ersascreseineertscar estas tc 1 0
2. Caliche, as in bed 1; with some orange-red clay

pockets a few inches in diameter; no snails noted... 1 0
1. Caliche, with small stringers of gray shale and

litmestome: MO SmailS: OCR aye crest ots sactsdersacesssssnsse eet 2 0

Total Thickness 8 8

Locality 3
Recent
Bed
5. Soil, silty, dark-brown, with some weathered
nodular, limestone masses; introduced Recent
snails: Bulimulus sp., Helicina orbiculata tropica,
ANG POlYZyTa ECXASIONA .....0...c..scveseresssensrerereesseorscosesoses 1 6
4. Soil, light tan to tan, with some nodular limestone .. 0 4

Pliocene
3. Limestone, weathered, rubbly, and crumbled, with

64 James E. Conkin and Barbara M. Conkin

solution pockets; calichified plant roots; no

Gmneiils: <AOtOG: \ scasiesaenecaceaaetecceeatneee tere recenectopees eee eee 3 0
. Govered interval tase etrerecerseettecee eee eee 1 6
1. Limestone, pebble to boulder-sized and hard; tan

to brown calichified sandstone and siltstone at

level of quarry floor; abundant fragmentary fossil

snails in sandstone and siltstone: Bulimulus sp.,

Polygyra sp., and indetermined pupillids; calcined

seeds of a Hackberry, Celtis sp., and some molds

Ol Plane: TOOUIGES, .21je.gsntsensceeesseceereezeeenrgteea-csfeoeeeeameee 1 6

Total thickness 7 10

Locality 4

Pliocene Thickness
Bed Feet Inches
Jy (Caliche sand <q Wart7ysaldstOne sce ater. eee 4 4

1. Quartz sandstone and caliche limestone; paludal
deposits consisting of lenses of green-gray, clayey
shale in the middle part of the sandstone, with
freshwater clams, snails, and grassy plants ............ Sy il

Total Thickness 9 11

Caliche, Nodular Limestone, and Calichified Siltstone

Caliche, which occurs in west, southwest, and south Texas and
northern Mexico, may be defined as a rock in which salts (mostly
calcium carbonate) act as secondary cement forming quartz sand-
stone and siltstone (sometimes conglomeratic). In instances, the
calcareous cement forms a goodly percentage of the rock; further,
lenticular masses of dense limestone may be formed within the
caliche. In some cases, the limestone is made up of hard pebble to
boulder-sized, nodular (and in places, pisolitic masses of calcium
carbonate (Plate 2, figures 2, 4, 5a, 5b). The term nodular limestone
is used here for this dense, hard, nodular and/or pisolitic kind of
lithology as contrasted with the ordinarily occurring, powdery (in
instances also pisolitic, but soft) caliche. The terms “cap rock” and
“mortar beds” are not used in this paper in describing this nodular
limestone although these terms are used in the literature in describing
the Ogallala Formation’s hard, dense, nodular and/or pisolitic lime-
stone of the High Plains of Texas, New Mexico, Oklahoma, Kansas,

Cenozoic Goliad Formation of South Texas 65

Plate 1

Iowa, and Nebraska. The term “algal limestone” also would be mis-
leading as a term to describe this nodular limestone of the Goliad
Formation for certainly little or none of it was formed in lakes; there is
a general absence of freshwater fauna and flora in these nodular
limestones; in addition, the limestone masses are not in bedded form.

66 James E. Conkin and Barbara M. Conkin

In instances, the hard, nodular limestone masses seem to have
been formed in small solution channels or in sink holes (formed
during the Pleistocene and/or Recent) and the nodular limestone
masses are surrounded by reddish-orange (indicating oxidation of
iron compounds) calichified siltstone and sandstone; this reddish-

Plate 2

Cenozoic Goliad Formation of South Texas 67

orange calichified siltstone occurs within the general body of ordinary
whitish to buff-colored calichified siltstone and sandstone.

The Goliad deposits generally are believed to have been laid
down during Pliocene time; nevertheless, much of the calcareous
material impregnating and cementing the siltstone, sandstone, and
conglomerates (Plate 2, figure 3a, 3b) of the Goliad must have been
formed during the Pleistocene. Some calichification is still going on
today in south, southwest, and west Texas, as well as in northern
Mexico.

Siliceous Material in the Caliche

Siliceous material, silicified siltstone and sandstone (a kind of
sedimentary quartzite) (Plate 2, figure 1), was found rarely and in
scattered lenses within the caliche of the Goliad. This siliceous
siltstone of the Goliad is like that which occurs in the Pliocene (per-
haps in part Pleistocene in regards to caliche formation) Ogallala
beds of the Llano Estacado of Texas, and the siliceous siltstones of
both formations are composed of quartz siltstone, sandstone, and
chert fragments with chalcedony and opal cement; molds and casts
of plant roots and rootlets are present in the siliceous material and
these root structures are surrounded by layers of clear white or buff-
colored chalcedony (Plate 2, figure 1). Indeed, the Goliad Forma-
tion is lithologically quite similar to the Ogallala Formation of the
High Plains of Texas, and the caliche and siliceous material of the
Ogallala and Goliad are undoubtedly the result of similar formative
processes; further, we suspect the two formations are of the same
age.

Paleontology of the Goliad Formation

Fossil Land Snails

The Goliad contains various reworked fossils; specimens of re-
worked Miocene palm wood were found in Bee County as well as
cherts derived from the Lower Cretaceous Edwards Limestone con-
taining the tell-tale miliolid foraminiferan, Nummoloculina heimi
Bonet, 1956 (Conkin and Conkin, 1956, 1958). Plate 2, figure 6 shows
a phtomicrograph of N. heimi in a small piece of brown chert derived
from the Edwards Limestone, but reworked into the caliche of the
Goliad.

Reports of fossils indigenous to the Goliad Formation have been
restricted mostly to records of scattered occurrences of vertebrates
(Sellards, 1940); however, Marshall (1929) described three new
genera of naiad clams and one new species of land snail, Polygyra

68 James E. Conkin and Barbara M. Conkin

myseri, from DeWitt County, Texas, along the Guadalupe River,
about 50 miles northeast of the present localities. The materials
which Marshall examined also contained some fossil horse and
rhinoceras teeth which he considered indicative of a Pliocene age.
Although the stratigraphic and geographic information given by
Marshall (1929) is rather vague, it is probable that the fossils are
from the Goliad Formation. Polygyra myseri is generically identifiable,
but too poorly preserved to warrant the erection of a new species, or
even to allow specific identification. We verify the occurrence of
the genus Polygyra in the Goliad Formation by noting its occurrence
in the quarry (Locality 3, bed 1) on the Segar Ranch in southern
Bee County. Several calcined seeds of a Hackberry (Celtis sp.) as-
sociated with the land snails (Bulimulus sp. and fragmentary pupillids
of indeterminate genera) were found embedded in the calichified
siltstone of the upper Goliad there in the same bed. These materials
were found below the surficial few feet of the Goliad caliche-limestone,
in the more indurated calichified quartz siltstone and sandstone, and
thus definitely are not the result of Recent introduction of land snails
into the Goliad Formation, but were originally present during the
time of deposition of the Goliad quartz siltstone and sandstone.

Introduced Recent Land Snails

Although there are fossil invertebrates and vertebrates indigenous
to the Goliad, many of the organic remains found in the formation,
particularly near the surface of the outcrops, are those of animals
which were trapped in the Goliad in more recent times.

We have found the following land snails which were introduced
into the surface exposures of the caliche of the Goliad during the
Recent: Bulimulus sp., Helicina orbiculata tropica, Praticolella ber-
landieriana, and Succinea avara. All of these species have been re-
ported from the Pleistocene (Wisconsinan) of the general region
(Conkin and Conkin, 1961 and 1962; Conkin, Conkin, and Mason,
1962). Various stages of emplacement of Recent land snails into the
caliche can be seen ranging from obvious fresh shells only slightly
embedded, to slaked lime (naturally calcined) shells firmly embedded
and surrounded by caliche. As a positive proot of the introduction of
land snails into the caliche within historic times, we offer the dis-
covery of fragmentary specimens of Rumina decollata embedded in
the surficial calichified quartz siltstone and sandstone of the La Bahia
Member of the Goliad Formation in the quarry behind the La Bahia
Mission at Goliad, Goliad County, Texas. R. decollata is a Mediter-
ranean land snail which was introduced into the United States by

Cenozoic Goliad Formation of South Texas 69

man within historic times. R. decollata attains a much larger size in
the Recent of North Africa than it does in North America.

We have also observed Bulimulus sp. (Plate 1, figures la-c, 2, 3a,
3b, 5, and Plate 2, figures 4, 5a, 5b) and Helicina orbiculata tropica
in the uppermost part of the Goliad Formation in Bee, Live Oak, and
Goliad counties, embedded in the nodular limestone. It is difficult
to ascertain in many instances whether these snails in the limestone
boulders are contemporaneous with the deposition of the Goliad sedi-
ments or whether the snails were actually introduced during the
Pleistocene. We believe, much along the lines of Trowbridge (1923),
that the caliche of the Goliad was in places dissolved by sub-soil
weathering and then redeposited; in instances, small solution channels
were formed and the land snails were trapped in redeposited caliche-
limestone which assumed a pisolitic texture so characteristic of struc-
tures formed under conditions of weathering and redeposition.

Dating by radio-carbon might be of some value in attempting to
ascertain the time (if within the last part of the Wisconsinan, or the
Recent) of introduction of snails into the surficial layers of the Goliad
calichified siltstone and sandstone; there is, however, the problem of
contamination by post-depositional radio-carbon due to ground water.

Freshwater Mollusks and Plants

Iron-stained molds and casts of fossil grassy plants (Plate 1,
figures 4a-c) from the Lagarto Creek Member of the Goliad Forma-
tion occur along with casts of indeterminate naiad clams (Plate 1,
figures 8a-c) and one indeterminate freshwater snail (Plate 1, figure
7) in slightly-arenaceous shale to quartzose sandstone at Locality 4.
The details of the outlines of the clams and snail are imperfect and
ornamentation is not visible, and thus, a generic determination was
not possible; however, there is no doubt that the clams and the snail
are freshwater forms. Hard, dense, white to cream-colored nodules
of chemically precipitated calcium carbonate (calcilutitic) occur in
pockets in the calichified sandstone and in shale lenses (Plate 1,
figures 6a-b). No microfossils or carbonaceous materials were ob-
served in samples of the shale which were washed through a 150-
mesh sieve.

The grassy plants associated with the freshwater clams, the snail,
and the clayey shale (Plate 1, figures 6a-b), surrounded by sandstone
and siltstone, indicate that the clayey deposit was formed in a very
shallow body of water; the absence of carbonaceous material strongly
suggests rather well oxygenated water. An ephemeral paludal en-
vironment of very limited extent, with grassy flora and a poor mol-

70 James E. Conkin and Barbara M. Conkin

luscan fauna, is indicated rather than a lake environment. The
climate was no doubt semiarid (as today in this region of Texas) or
arid; the extensive caliche of the Goliad gives eloquent testimony to
this aridity, as does the presence of abundantly occurring semiarid
to arid land snails. The occurrence of a number of vertebrate re-
mains, particularly the teeth of small asses, indicates that the area
may have been a prairie of semiarid climatic regime.

Summary

Four measured sections within the Cenozoic Goliad Formation
of Bee and Live Oak counties, Texas, are presented.

Silicified siltstone, a kind of sedimentary quartzite like that which
occurs in the Ogallala Formation of the High Plains, is herein reported
in the Goliad.

Calichified sandstone and siltstone in the upper part of the Goliad
yielded fossil land snails, Bulimulus sp., Polygyra sp., and indetermin-
ate pupillids, and several fossil Hackberry seeds (Celtis sp.). Fossil
freshwater clams, a snail, and grassy plants were found in a clay
lens in the Lagarto Creek Member of the Goliad.

Recent land snails have been, and are being, introduced into
the upper surface of the caliche of the Goliad; in one instance,
Rumina decollata, a form introduced into North America during
historic times, was found embedded in the surficial crust of the
calichified siltstone.

Hard, dense, nodular, and/or pisolitic boulders of secondarily
formed limestone were developed in the Goliad caliche and contain
in places rather large numbers of fragmentary to whole specimens
of Bulimulus sp.; the time of formation of these nodular limestone
masses (and thus the age of the enclosed snails) is not precisely
known, but is most likely Pleistocene.

Acknowledgments

Field work was done while the senior author was District Paleonto-
logist for Union Producing Company, United Gas Corporation, in
southwest Texas. We wish to express our gratitude to M. A. Peterson,
District Geologist of the Beeville, Texas, office of Union Producing
Company for allowing time and for making facilities available for
field collecting. Assistance in the field was given by several in-
dividuals: Max Wooten, senior geologist, and Juan Sanches and
Paulo Mendoza, laboratory technicians, of Union Producing Company,
and Gentry Steele of Beeville.

Cenozoic Goliad Formation of South Texas al

Literature Cited

Conkin, J. E. and B. M. Conkin. 1956. Nummoloculina in Lower
Cretaceous of Texas and Louisiana. Bull. American Assoc. Petrol.
Geol. 40:890-896.

—————— and —~————. 1958. Revision of the genus Nummoloculina
and emendation of Nummoloculina heimi Bonet. Micropaleonto-
logy 4:149-158.

See and ——————. 1961. Fossil land snails from the loess at
Vicksburg, Mississippi. Trans. Kentucky Acad. Sci. 22:11-15.
ee and —————~—. 1962. Pleistocene Berclair terrace of Medio

Creek, Bee County, Texas. Bull. American Assoc. Petrol. Geol.
46:344-353.

—— , and W. Mason. 1962. Pleistocene snails from
San Earice County, Texas. Trans. Kentucky Acad. Sci. 23:25-50.

Marshall, W. B. 1929. New Fossil land and fresh-water mollusks from ©
the Reynosa formation of Texas. Proc. U.S. National Mus. 76:1-6.

Sellards, E. H. 1940. Pleistocene artifacts and associated fossils from
Bee County, Texas. Bull. Geol. Soc. America 51:1627-1657.

Sellards, E. H., Adkins, W. S., and Plummer, F. B. 1932. The Geology
of Texas. Univ. Texas Bull. 3232:1-1007.

Trowbridge, A. C. 1923. A geologic reconnaissance in the Gulf
Coastal Plain of Texas near the Rio Grande. U.S.G.S. Prof. Paper
131-D:85-107.

Explanation of Plate |

Figs. la-c—Bulimulus sp.; X3; three views of immature specimen extracted from
hard, nodular limestone; Locality 2.

Fig. 2—Bulimulus sp.; X2; fragment of mature specimen showing apertural view;
Locality 2.

Figs. 3a-b—Bulimulus sp.; X2; apertural and side views of mature specimen;

Locality 2.

Figs. 4a-c—Grassy plant fragments in clay; X1.1, X1.3, X1.7 respectively; three
views; Locality 4.

Fig. 5—Bulimulus sp.; X2; small specimen in hard, nodular limestone; Locality 2

Figs. 6a-b—Two specimens made up of a mixture of clay and quartz sandstone
with chert grains; X-9; Locality 4.

Fig. 7—Clay with internal mold of an indeterminate freshwater snail; X.1;
Locality 4.

Figs. Sa-c—Three views of an indeterminate genus and species of freshwater
clam in clay; X1; 8a, partial side and hinge-line views of cast of right valve;
8b, side view of same specimen; 8c, internal mold of a fragment of the
anterior portion of the right valve of another specimen; Locality 4.

fe James E. Conkin and Barbara M. Conkin

Explanation of Plate 2

Fig. 1—Siliceous siltstone, showing plant root cavities (one near the center filled
with sand and the one in the lower left quadrant partially empty, but rimmed
by chalcedony ); X.6; Locality 6.

Fig. 2—-Sawed section of hard, nodular limestone; X.5; Locality 2.

Figs. 3a-b—Hard, nodular, and conglomeratic limestone, with pebbles of chert
derived from the Lower Cretaceous Edwards Limestone to the north of the
Balcones Fault Zone; 3a, natural view of specimen; 3b, polished view of
specimen showing angularity of the chert and chalcedony pebbles; X.6;
Locality 7.

Fig. 4—Hard, nodular limestone with Lower Cretaceous chert pebbles and a
specimen of Bulimulus sp.; X.6; Locality 7.

Figs. 5a-b—Hard, nodular limestone; 5a, cross-sectional view of the limestone with
Bulimulus sp.; 5b, external and weathered view of hard, nodular limestone
showing concentric “algal” nodules, with some snail fragments; X.6; Locality

Q
vo.

Fig. 6—Brown chert from the hard, nodular conglomeratic limestone, showing
cross-sect:onal views of three specimens of the foraminiferan, Nummoloculina
heimi Bonet, 1956; chert derived from erosion of the Lower Cretaceous
Edwards Limestone, north of the Balcones Fault Zone and redeposited in the
Goliad Formation; X4; Locality 7.

NOTES ON THE BIOLOGY OF THE WHITE CROAKER,
GENYONEMUS LINEATUS (Ayres)

PETER A. ISSACSON
1125 Waterview Place, Far Rockaway, N. Y.

The white croaker (Genyonemus lineatus) is the most common
sciaenid along the west coast of the United States. It has been re-
corded from San Juanico Bay, Baja California to Vancouver Island,
British Columbia (Roedel, 1952), with the commercial catch records
indicating the center of abundance in the Los Angeles region.

Skogsberg (1939) states that the peak seasonal abundance occurs
in the months of November through March. Starks (1919) and catch
records for 1953-1962 show the peak abundance to be April through
June. This difference may be due to a shift in fishing effort in the
years examined. Skogsberg suggests that since this species is avail-
able during all the months of the year throughout its range, fluctua-
tions in catch (which appear independent of a shift in market demand )
may be due to slight migrations between the shallow near shore
waters and somewhat deeper waters farther from the coast. This
contention is supported by recent commercial catch records.

Age Determinations

Otoliths have been used in this study instead of scales for age
determinations because the scales were not dependable. Fewer
rings were found on the scales than on the otoliths and the number
of rings for an individual varied from scale to scale. Kohler and Clark
(1958) found with haddock scale-otolith comparisons that the per-
centage of disagreeing readings increased with age and in these
cases of disagreement scale ages were consistently lower than otolith
for practically all ages in certain areas of their study.

Otoliths were dissected from 446 fish, wiped clean, then stored in
glycerin in 6 x 50 mm culture tubes numbered serially. The otoliths
were prepared for examination by placing them distal surface upward
in a watch glass and covering them completely with fresh glycerin.
Summer zones were counted on the left portion of the otolith under
a low power (10x to 50x) “zoom” dissecting scope with reflected
illumination. Otoliths were collected in July and August of 1963
from Long Beach Harbor (Table 1).

In an attempt to validate age determinations, age groups obtained
by otoliths and those obtained from a Petersen (1892) length frequency
distribution were compared (Table 1). Age groups 0—IV and VII—XII

74 Peter A. Issacson

Table 1. Average Standard Length and Range of The White Croaker by Otolith Age
from Long Beach Harbor, July and August 1964 Compared to Class Interval Peaks of a
Petersen Length Frequency Plot

Age Average Size Range Petersen Class
Group Number Length (mm) (mm) Interval Peaks
0 26 45 32-57 43-47
I 98 UEP 45-95 68-72
II 10 120 LSS 23 118-122
III 40 145 131-159 143-147
IV 64 163 141-175 163-167
V 70 184 160-208 183-187
VI 42 19S T78=21 1 193-197
VII 40 208 185-228 208-212
VIII 22 27: 202-232 213-217
IX U2 225 210-232 223-227
X 8 234 223-238 233-237
XI 6 250 246-256 248-252
XII 6 263 259-267 263-262
XIII 2 271 Ze 27

compared exceptionally well. Age groups V and VI are slightly out of
phase and since there are only two specimens in age group XIII its
placement is tenuous at best. A growth curve formed from this data
indicates rapid growth from the zero to age group V tapering off to a
steady but somewhat slower rate of growth in the rest of the years.
Age groups XI-XIII show a jump in growth rate which probably
reflects the small sample size and the fact that older fish present
considerable difficulty in aging.

Size at Maturity

Fish were sexed and measured when material was available.
Standard lengths were measured to the nearest millimeter. From
June 1963 to April 1964, 2005 measurements were made.

Notes on the Biology of the White Croaker 75

Fish were designated as immature, mature, or spent. Females
were classified as immature if no eggs were visible in the ovary, males
when the testes were small. Spent fish were those with flaccid blood-
shot gonads. Maturing females had visible eggs and maturing males
had whitish testes.

The white croaker matures between 147 and 164 mm standard
length at an age of 3 to 4 years. Spawning occurs between November
and May with peak activity in January through March.

The commercial fishery consists of fish ranging from 139 to 273 mm
standard length with the bulk of the catch falling between 164 and
223 mm. Practically the entire catch consists of adult fish or fish
approaching their first spawning season.

Distribution in Time and Space

Commercial catch records for 1953 to 1962 reveal that peak catches
of white croaker occur in different months for the various statistical
catch areas used by the California Department of Fish and Game to
tabulate the commercial catch along the California coast (Table 2).

Table 2. Per Cent of Commercial Croaker Catch by Month for the Ten Year
Average of 1952 to 1962

San Santa Los San Fort

Month Francisco Monterey Barbara Angeles Diego Bragg
January ee: 1.9 cal 17.2 4.6
February DEE Bed Seal 5.8 2D
March ed O22 13.4 SZ 3.3
April 3.6 1221 L7a5 Lives 1.0
May pe) gEZ 13.4 17.8 2.4
June LOG 12:20 La oad 4.9

July TSiaZ 9.8 56 Soe! 65 100.0
August 2 7, WA} (ye) 4.5 26.4
September Doel: 2 a2 8.4 3.6 26.9
October g53 11.3 VOR 2.4 BO.Z
November Sied 5.4 ues 621 ow

December Sreiz. DQyae aS) 8.6 4.1

76 Peter A. Issacson

Beginning in March, peak commercial catches are recorded in
Santa Barbara, April in Los Angeles and Monterey, June in San
Francisco, July in Fort Bragg, and August in San Diego. It is
postulated that there is a slight offshore migration as suggested by
Skogsberg during thé non-peak months and that this migration
coincides somewhat with the spawning time. However, ripe in-
dividuals are found in all locations throughout the spawning season.

Testing of blood samples of white croaker with Hyland Labora-
tories blood grouping serum Anti-B by the slide method indicates
population heterogenity between groups of fish from different areas.
Two of 100 fish tested from the entrance of Long Beach Harbor
reacted positively and 40 of 50 fish tested near Treasure Island in
San Francisco Bay also showed a positive reaction.

Literature Cited

Kohler, A. C. and J. R. Clark. 1958. Haddock scale-otolith compari-
sons. J. Fish. Res. Bd. Canada 15(6).

Petersen, C. G. J. 1892. Fiskensbiologiske forhold i Holboek Fjord,
1890-91. Beretning fra de Danske Biologiske Station, 1.

Roedel, P. M. 1952. Common ocean fishes of the California coast.
Fish. Bull. No. 91, Calif. Fish and Game, Sacramento, Calif. p. 100.

Skogsberg, Tage. 1939. The fishes of the family sciaendae (croaker)
of California. Fish. Bull. No. 54, Calif. Fish and Game, Sacra-
mento, Calif. p. 62.

Starks, E. C. 1919. The fishes of the croaker family (Sciaenidae) of
California. Calif. Fish and Game 5(1)1-8.

VALLEY CENTIPEDES (CHILOPODA; SYMPHYLA)
FROM NORTHERN KENTUCKY

BRANLEY A. BRANSON AND DONALD L. BATCH

Department of Biology, Eastern Kentucky University
Richmond, Kentucky*

The Cumberland Mountains of Kentucky represent, in part, some
of the oldest undisturbed habitat in North America. This is especially
evident in the myriadal complex of small valleys that mark the
system. However, as coal maning, deforestation and damming practices
continue many of these relict areas are going by the board, or are
being so badly disturbed that in a few years only traces of them will
remain.

In this connection, the authors have begun a long-term ecological
and systematic study of the Red River Drainage of northern Kentucky
in order to secure at least a degree of information concerning the flora
and fauna of relict-versus-disturbed areas within the total region.
Particularly instructive have been some tributary canyon systems of
the North Fork of the Red, lying in Wolfe and Powell counties. We
have carried out several studies in this area, one of which concerns
ground-dwelling invertebrates, special emphasis being given to the
Chilopoda, Diplopoda, Arachnida and Mollusca. The remainder of
this paper will treat the centipedes. The 172 specimens collected
represent two classes, four orders, 10 families, 16 genera and 22
species. One centipede order, four families, four genera and six
species are added to the known fauna of Kentucky.

Study Area

The canyon systems under consideration head approximately four-
fifths of a mile northwest of Pine Ridge, Wolfe County, Kentucky,
(Map 1.). They are associated with Tight Hollow Creek, Mill Creek
and the Middle Fork of Red River, the latter lying in Powell County.
The Tight Hollow System encompasses 0.558 of a square mile; Mill
Creek drains 2.343 square miles. The Tight Hollow System is three-
pronged, roughly y-shaped, the south arm of the Y also having a
short, deep bifurcation.

The south arm heads at 1,040 feet mean sea level (MSL), and
extends 2.4 miles to its confluence with the northern arm. The cliffs

* Supported by Eastern Kentucky University Faculty Grant 5-3-372-6.

78 Branley A. Branson and Donald L. Butch

at the head are of sandstone and are slightly more than 200 feet high,
vertical and concave. Below this the cliffs are of varying altitude,
but all steep, the valley between narrow and rocky.

The northern arm heads at 1,240 feet MSL and makes contact
with the southern arm at 1,030 feet, approximately two miles below
its origin. The topography is similar to that of the southern arm.
Below the confluence, the lower arm extends 2,225 feet to make con-
tact with the Mill Creek Canyon at 900 feet MSL. From this point,
the Canyon meanders between steep walls for 12,000 feet to make
contact with the wide canyon of the Middle Fork of the Red River,
at approximately 800 feet MSL, in Powell County, picking up the
small canyons of Doe Branch, Black John Creek, and Double Cave
Branch, all of the latter being similar to Tight Hollow.

Generally speaking, the whole region is of a mixed mesophytic
nature. The dominant trees in the area are Betula lenta Linnaeus,
Tsuga canadensis Carr, Liriodendron tulipifera Linnaeua, Acer rubrum
Linnaeua, Cornus florida Linnaeus and. Magnolia fraseri Walt. On
the southern ridges Ilex opaca Ait., from station 6 upgrade, is abundant.
At the upper ends of the canyons, for stations 1 through 5, Rhododen-
dron maximum Linnaeus is exceedingly dense, up to 2117 main stalks
per acre being encountered. Below station 5 this plant is progressively
replaced by mountain laurel. This same relationship is also expressed
in hemlock versus white and Virginia pines, hemlock being displaced
by the latter. This is a reflection of logging. Station 1 through 5
represents relict areas; all of the stations below 5 have been variously
disturbed by farming, deforestation and some rather insignificant silver
mining.

Collecting Stations

Fourteen localities were visited, and these are shown on map 1
and described below. The limits of each station are demarked by
arrows. For the purpose of securing invertebrates a swath-transect,
set at right angles near the center of each station, was followed from
hill crest to hill crest.

Station 1. 26 February 1966. Valley narrow with vertical cliffs, old
talus slides, sandstone, numerous fallen trees; dense vegetation,
moss, ferns, liverworts; much seepage.

Station 2. 5 March 1966. Sides of valley steep, v-shaped in transect,
wider at head; many flat sand stones; considerable topsoil (washed
in from above); vegetation as in station 1.

Station 3. 12 March 1966. Valley slope gentler, u-shaped; much organic
debris; vegetation as in station 1.

Valley Centipedes (Chilopoda; Symphyla) 79

Station 4. 19 March 1966. Valley floor flat (about” 100 feet wide);
gravel and sand, large and small sand rocks, deep litter.

Station 5. 26 March 1966. Like station 4.

Station 6. 2 April 1966. Valley much wider, walls less abrupt; numer-
ous springs; Tsuga partially replaced by white pine and Rhodo-
dendron by Kalmia (because of old deforestation).

Station 7. 9 April 1966. Similar to station 6, but valley resumes its
v-shape, steep sides; much ironwood, maple; practically no
Rhododendron; large boulders, rubble, dead logs.

Station 8. 23 April 1966. Mill Creek Valley; wide, moderate slope;
fairly flat floor; much evidence of forestry and agriculture; floor
with grass, Lobelia, willows, sumac, weeds, dogwood; some
boulders and stones, rubble and organic debris.

Station 9. 14 May 1966. Similar to station 8, but walls less steep;
flood plain grassy with much sand siltation; some old mine
diggings.

Station 10. 22 May 1966. Similar to station 9, but valley wider.

Station 11. 25 June 1966. Valley partially filled by Mill Lake im-
poundment; many dead trees, standing and fallen.

Station 12. 11 June 1966. Middle Fork of Red River Valley. Valley
wider, flood plain flat, under agriculture, old field (tobacco and
corn); willow, sycamore, tulip tree, hawthorn, few evergreens.

Station 13. 12 July 1966. Valley wide, flood plain about 80 feet wide;
weeds, dead leaves, flat sandstones; vegetation as in station 12.

Station 14. 9 July 1966. Similar to station 13, but bank of stream with
much kudzu.

Annotated List

In the list which follows the specimens collected are referred to
the collection stations by number. The figures in parentheses which
follow the station designation represent the number of specimens
collected.

Because so little is known concerning Kentucky centipedes, brief
descriptions of those collected are given in order to facilitate addi-
tional study by other workers. All measurements are in mm.

Order Geophilomorpha

Centipedes with simple eyes or eyes entirely absent, lateral
tracheal pores, more than 23 pairs of short legs (slightly longer than
width of body) and antennae shorter than length of body. Three
families now known from Kentucky.

80

Branley A. Branson and Donald L. Butch

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a
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eo ‘
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WATURAL
BRIDGE

Figure 1. Showing the location of collecting stations in Wolfe and Powell counties,
Kentucky. See text for details.

Valley Centipedes (Chilopoda; Symphyla) 81

Family Geophilidae

Members of this family possess poison claws which bear small or
large denticles basally and either lack pores in the sternites or have
them arranged in fields in the center of each sternite. Four genera
and seven species reported from Kentucky. Our collection disclosed
two genera and four species.

Geophilus ampyx Carbill

Station Records: 13 (1); 14 (1).

Bright red in color, slender, with more than 67 pairs of legs, a
narrow terminal plate and the last legs bear claws. Secured from
decaying logs. Our failure to secure this species in the narrow head-
water valleys, in light of what few records there are for this species
in Kentucky, seems to indicate a preference for low altitudes with
considerable moisture. Classed as uncommon.

Geophilus varians McNeill

Station Records: 1 (1); 2 (2); 3 (2); 5. (2); 6 (2); 8 (1).

Body yellow, head reddish-brown, last 2-3 segments brown, caudal
filaments dark; 57-66 pairs of legs, measurements; total length, 35.8
(31.0-43.0); greatest width, 1.4 (1.0-1.6); length antennae (14 seg-
ments), 3.2 (3.0-.5); length caudal filaments, 2.5 (2.5-2.5); width caudal
filaments, 0.25; number of body segments, 73 (59-87). No apparent
altitudinal preference. Found under rocks, forest litter and decaying
logs, with a preference for the latter. Classed as moderately common.

Geophilus vittatus (Rafinesque)

Station Records: 9 (1).

Yellowish-brown in color, head darker than body; posterior edge
of segments bears diamond-shaped marks; legs lighter than body;
body moderately depressed; 52 segments behind head, the last one
smoothly rounded behind; caudal filaments short, their segments in-
flated. Total length 34.5; width, 2.0; length caudal filaments, 2.0.
Found beneath a large stone. Classed as uncommon.

Arctogeophilus umbraticus (McNeill)
Station Records: 4 (3);5 (1); 7 (1); 9 (2); 10 (2); 12 (1); 18 (2);
14 (2).
Body yellow, moderately depressed, head dark, antennae segments
barrel-shaped, tapering distally; poison claw long, not inflated. Mea-
surements and counts: total lengths, 38.5; width, 1.5; length of an-

82 Branley A. Brunson and Donald L. Butch

tennae, 3.0; antennae segments, 15; body segments behind head, 45.
Another species of the middle and lower stretches of valley systems,
usually under decaying vegetation, logs and rocks. Common.

Family Dignathodontidae

Centipedes with filiform or moderately clavate antennae, mandibles
bearing a single pectinate lamella, a deeply cleft labial sternum, small
anal pleurae, and 55 to 155 pairs of legs. One genus and five species
known from Kentucky. Our collections included specimens of three
species.

Strigamia bidens (Wood)

Station Records: 1 (2); 4 (1); 7 (1); 8 (1).

Body blood red to purplish red, long and slender; legs short, lighter
than body; antennae slender, beaded; caudal filaments slender. Counts
and measurements: length, 42.9 (35.2-50.5); width, 2.0; length an-
tennae, 2.7 (2.3-3.0); length caudal filaments, 1.5; width caudal fila-
ments, less than 0.5; 67 (63-71) body segments. Decided preference
for decaying wood. Probably common.

Strigamia branneri (Bollman)

Station Records: 1 (1); 2 (1); 3 (2).

Very similar to last species. Body lighter in color, a tendency
toward pinkness; head red, legs yellow. Length, 23.5; width, 1.0;
antennal length 1.5. Found under decaying logs.

Strigamia bothripa (Wood)

Station Records: 7 (1); 14 (2).
Found with S. Branneri.

Family Schendylidae

Centipedes with filiform antennae, mandibles with one pectinate
and one to three dentate lamellae; labial sternum uncleft or convex,
often with a process; 39 to 72 pairs of legs. Heretofore unknown
from Kentucky. We report one species.

Escaryus urbicus (Meinert)

Station Records: 1 (1).
Body, antennae and legs yellowish-white; head reddish-brown; last

Valley Centipedes (Chilopoda; Symphyla) 83

sternites narrow; poison claw smooth; antennae extends back about
six and one-half body segments; body length 21.0; width 1.0; 41 pairs
of legs. Found under a pile of decaying twigs.

Order Scolopendromorpha

Centipedes with only pigmented eyespots, a few ocelli, or eyes
lacking, and 21 to 23 pairs of short legs. Two families, Scolopendridae
and Cryptopidae, known from Kentucky. All of our specimens belong
to the latter taxon.

Family Cryptopidae

Members of this family lack ocelli, although pigmented eyespots
are sometimes present. Three genera and four species known from
Kentucky, all are represented in our collections, plus one addition
to the known fauna.

Cryptops hyalina (Say)

Station records: 6 (2); 10 (1); 11 (1); 12 (1).

Body pale yellow, head and antennae slightly darker, legs lighter;
17 antennal segments bead-like, the last one larger than those preceed-
ing it; caudal filaments, about 17.0 X 0.5, quite heavy, bearing a double
row of stout, reddish bristles on the median surface, the ventral
bristles even heavier; final body segment smoothly arcuate; 22 body
segments. Measurements: length 9.5 (8.5-10.5); width, 1.0; length
antennae, 1.8 (1.5-2.0). Invariably under deeply placed rocks. Our
records indicate this to be a form of the wider systems, lower in the
valley, probably because of prevailing moisture considerata.

Theatops postica (Say)
Station Records: 5 (1): 7 (2); 8 (5); 9 (1); 10 (1); 11 (2); 12 (2);
TS Clea),

Body bright yellow to lengths of 30.0 mm, beyond that becoming
progressively darker, to light horn; no eyes or pigmented spots; poison
clay strong; 21 pairs of legs and 21 segments behind the head; last
segment of body abruptly enlarged, truncate fore and aft; antennae
relatively long, tapered, with 17 segments beyond the pedicel; caudal
filaments, short, depressed, very broad, crossed at the tips, with five
segments, excluding the claw. Found under decaying logs. See chart
below for measurements.

84 Branley A. Branson and Donald L. Butch

Length Width
Length Caudal Caudal
Length Width Antennae Filaments Filaments
13720 1.6 325 20 0.5
20.0 2.0 Tae 2.8 19
22.0 2:50 Did 3120 Li
30.5 3.0 6.0 Sins) Lis5
33.0 255 6.5 3D PRs)
33.0 2D) 6.5 Bol) 15
38.0 Sa? 7.4 3:30 1.6
38.5 2.0 ee? 2.8 Mae)
43.0 3.0 des SJ8) 135
Averages

30.1 2.4 6.0 2.9 LES

Scolopocryptops sexspinosa (Say)
Station Records: 1-(2):'4 (1); 5 (3); 6 (1); 7 (1); 8 (4); 10°C):
ED El BS 2)

Body metallic-brown in immatures, yellowish-horn, red-mahogany
or reddish-brown in adults; 23 segments and 23 pairs of legs; terminal
segment with a broad, tongue-like postero-median projection between
caudal filaments; caudal filaments long, moderately stout, five seg-
ments, the basal one bearing a sharp spur on its median edge near
the center; antennae tapered, 18 segments. Common under rotting
logs.

Length Width
Length Caudal Caudal
Length Width Antennae Filaments Filaments

34.5 350 13.5 -- --
39.0 7) 6.2 6.0 --

40.0 3.0 8.0 9.5 1.10
53...) 4.5 9.0 10.0 0.8

Averages

41.8 3.6 9.2 855 0.9

Valley Centipedes (Chilopoda; Symphyla) 85

Scolopocryptops nigridia (McNeill)
Station Records: 1 (1); 4 (5); 5 (14); 6 (6); 7 (3); 8 (3); 9 (3);
10.(5-); 11 (1); 12 (2);-13 (3); 14 (3).

Body, depressed, coloration ranges from white (at 12.5 mm)
through yellow and yellowish-brown to reddish-brown; head yellowish-
red; legs light yellow; 23 segments, the last one bearing a slender
spine on either side and a narrow, tongue-like elongation of the
scutum, or the latter lacking; antennae tapered, their 17 segments
bead-like; caudal filaments long, moderately heavy, 5 segments; poison
claws heavy, inflated basally, folded beneath head. The most common
species encountered; under decaying logs and leaves.

Length Width
Length Caudal Caudal
Length Width Antennae Filaments Filaments
10.3 130 S574 3772 PBs)
eS) eS) 4.5
V2: 1.4 0.25
13.0
20.5 2.0 4.0
21.0 225 223
21.0 222 Died,
21.5 (xe) 4.5 6.25 O5
PAS\ ES) 255 4.0 5.6 0.5
27.0 2.0
28.0 3.0 35 Eye)
33.0 330 325
Averages

19.6 Zeal 3.8 DL 0.37

Scolopocryptops gracilis peregrinator (Crabill)

Station Records: 7 (2).

Yellowish-horn to horn in coloration; length 21.5; width 2.5; very
slender antennae, 3.5 in length; caudal filaments 6.5 in length, 0.5 in
width. Found beneath decaying leaves. A new record for Kentucky.

86 Branley A. Branson and Donald L. Butch

Order Scutigeromorpha

Centipedes with long, angular legs, large compound eyes, and
antennae nearly as long as the body. Heretofore unreported from
Kentucky. One family, genus and species.

Family Scutigeridae

With the characters of the order.

Scutigera coleoptrata (Linnaeus)

Station Records: 11 (1).

Smokey-gray in coloration; body (18.5 X 3.0) tapers posteriorly,
but widest at next to last segment; legs very long (24.0), their femora
bearing two long, stout spines disto-dorsally, and one subterminally
on the ventral surface; patellae long, bearing three spines; oral palps
bear seven long, stout spines; antennae long (19.5), whip-like, each
segment being elongated and annulated; eyes large, black at angles
of head; with eight scutes, notched posteriorly. Secured from an
outdoor bath house. This species (sight records) is widespread in
various buildings.

Order Lithobiomorpha

Centipedes with simple eyes composed of a few ocelli, or these
lacking; short antennae and 15 pairs of short legs. Until now only
two families have been recorded from Kentucky, Lithobiidae and
Ethopolidae (Crabill, 1955). Two additional families are herewith
recorded, Gosibiidae and Henicopidae.

Family Ethopolidae

Centipedes lacking spines on the cephalodistal ends of the tibiae
and possessing wart-like gonopods in the male and bifurcated, claw-
like ones in the female. Two genera and species known from Ken-
tucky; one represented in our collections.

Bothropolys multidentata (Newport)
Station records: 1 (2); 2 (1); 4 (2); 5 (1); 6 (2); 8 (1); 14 (1).
Body coloration variable, dark reddish-brown, metallic-bronze to
nearly black; venter yellowish to uniformly yellowish-gray in female,
darker in the male; poison claws yellow to dark brown, their spine
dark brown; 15 to 17 body segments; antennae with 20 to 21 segments,
tapering; caudal filaments relatively heavy, ending in posteriorly

Valley Centipedes (Chilopoda; Symphyla) 87

directed, triangular spines; legs short, hardly as long as width of
body, spiny, dark; last segment truncate, without spines. Common
under rocks and decaying leaves.

Length
Length Caudal
Length Width Antennae Filaments
19.0 10.0 950
20.0 3.0 LORS 9.0
20.0 2.5 8.5
21.0 3.0 9.5 10.0
229 3.0 11.0
26.0 3.0 tO 10.0
Averages
21.4 Pane) LOL ae,

Family Henicopidae

Centipedes possessing a sharp spine on the cephalodistal ends of
the tibiae, except on the first three pairs of legs. One species reported
here for the first time.

Zygethobius pontis (Chamberlin)

Station Records: 91); 11 (1); 13 (2).

A small, grayish-white centipede with 15 segments behind the
head, the terminal one being much narrower than those in front of it
and bluntly truncate; one pair of large, prominent ocelli present;
length 5.5, width 1.0, antennae 4.0 in length, 25 segments. Found in
the moister, lower stretches of the valleys.

Family Gosibiidae

Centipedes with simple (smooth) gonopods, or gonopods lacking,
and 20 segments in the antennae. Characteristics otherwise as in the
order. One species reported here for the first time.

Arenobius manegitus (Chamberlin)
Station Records: 1 (2); 7 (3).

Metallic-grayish-blue or brownish; segments margined by gray,
laterally blue-gray, venter lighter; antennae equal to seven or eight

88 Branley A. Branson and Donald L. Butch

body segments in length, 20 segments; body length 15.0. Found
beneath decaying leaves.

Family Lithobiidae

Centipedes in which the male gonopods are small, wart-like. Nine
genera and 14 species heretofore reported from Kentucky (Crabill,
1955). An additional two species, Garibius pagoketes Chamberlin and
Paitobius zinus (Chamberlin), are here recorded.

Garibius pagoketes (Chamberlin)
Station Records: 9 (1); 12 (1).

Brownish-yellow centipedes with 20 antennal segments. Found
under decaying logs and leaves.

Nadabius pullus (Bollman)

Station Records: 2 (1); 5 (3); 13 (1).

Light tan to purplish-brown; three rows of small ocelli; 16 to 17
segments behind the head; antennae tapered, with 20 segments, 3.0
to 5.0 long; legs longer than width of body, the last three coxae
bearing lateral spines; caudal filaments slightly flattened; total length,
8.0 to 12.0; width, 1.0 to 2.0; antennal length, 3.0 to 5.0 Found under
rocks, decaying logs and leaves.

Sozibius tuobukus (Chamberlin)
Station Records: 1 (4); 7 (3); 10 (2); 13 (1).
Whitish-yellow to light brown dorsally, nearly white to light tan

below; tergites not produced; about 15.0 in length; antennae about
one-third length of body, 25 segments. Found under decaying logs.

Sozibius species
Station Records: 6 (1).

Either an undescribed species or an aberrant example of S.
tuobukus. Yellow, depressed; 16 segments behind the head; antennae
long, slowly tapering, the 25 segments bead-like; terminal body seg-
ment about as wide as long, truncate, bearing a strong, curved spine
on each lateral surface; caudal filaments 3.3 in length; body 9.5;
width, 1.5 Found beneath a decaying log.

Paitobius zinus (Chemberlin)

Station Records: 12 (1); 13 (1).
In general appearance like Nadabius pullus, but in this species

Valley Centipedes (Chilopoda; Symphyla) 89

tergites are strongly produced on at least the last four segments.
Under decaying vegetation and logs.

Class Symphyla

Small, white myriapods with long slender antennae, usually 15
body segments, genital openings near the anterior end, and a well-
developed head. One species here reported from Kentucky for the
first time.

Scutigerella immaculata (Newport)

Station Records: 1 (4).

Whitish-yellow, about 9.0 mm in length; antennae one-third length
of body, constantly moving. Although specimens were collected only
at station one, sight records were made at all others. Found under
moist humus, decaying vegetation and broken rubble.

Acknowledgment

We are indebted to Dr. Andrew A. Weaver, Wooster College and
Harvard University, for identifying all specimens, for helpful com-
ments, and for his uncommon interest.

Literature Cited

Crabill, R. E. 1955. A checklist of the Chilopoda known to occur in
Kentucky. Entom. News 66:257-260.

ib ashy
Kt

INDEX TO VOLUME 28

Activation Energies, 10
Amine substituted bisphenols, 33

Batch, D. L., 77
Blood Agar Plates, 58
Branson, B. A., 77

Carcinostatic Agents, 20

Cenozoic Goliad Formation of
South Texas, 60

Centipedes, 77

Chilopoda, 77

Conkin, B. M., 60

Conkin, J. E., 60

N-Cyclohexylsulfanic Acid, 1

Daniel, R. E., 52
N, N-dimethylacetamide,
Dimethylsufoxide-water system, 10

Ellard, J. A., 20, 33
Elliot, L. P., 58

Fertilization inhibitor, from
Lytechnius variegatus, 52

Genyonemus Lineatus, 73

EHolt, I. W., 1
Hughes, D. L., 20

Issacson, P. A., 73
Jurch, G. R., Jr., 10
Lytechinus variegatus, 52

Mannich Deravatives of phenolic
compounds, 20

Meadow, J. R., 20, 33

N-Methyl-2-pyrrolidone, 1

Nitrobenzene, 1

Phenolic compounds, Mannick de-
ravities of, 20

Sands, D. E., 10

Sears, P. G., 1, 10

Shaner, K. B., 20

Stillbenediols, bisphenols related to,
33

Symphyla, 77

Viscous Flow, Activation Energies,
10

White Croaker, 73

Ee. NO
2) TRANSACTIONS OF THE KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE
Volume 29, 1968

EDITORIAL STAFF

Editor

WILLIAM F. WAGNER

Associate Editors
Wiu1aM DENNEN, Geology
MarsHALL Gorpon, Chemistry
L. A. Krumuo.z, Botany and Microbiology

RoBeRt KuEHNE, Zoology

Editorial Office

Department of Chemistry
University of Kentucky
Lexington, Kentucky 40506

Published in 1969 by

Tue Kentucky ACADEMY OF SCIENCE

CONTENTS TO VOLUME
No. 1-4

Variations in Size Among Adult Eptesicus Fucus

PERRY PATTERSON AND WAYNE H. DAVIS .................. 1
The Walltown, Kentucky Meteorite
WILLIAM D. EHMANN AND JACK R. BUSCHE ................ 5
Forearm Length and Wingspread of Myotis Sodalis
ROGER W. BARBOUR AND CARL H. ERNST. .................... 8
Marginal Record of Parascalops Breweri (Bachman)
From Kentucky
JAMES T. WALLACE AND RONALD HOUDP ......0..ckscee ©)
Vegetation of the Pleistocene Drift Region, Northern
Kentucky
JOHN (BR, SEU sisiessszcecevotenstenssbeastteageeeyeccssneeecets eee eee 10
Kidney Efficiencies of Three Pennsylvania Mice
CARL (H.-BRNST sicsoneescscsseteinespsassecceescoxeensncacse-tcacesas earn eee eee 21
A New Size Record for the Eastern Cottonwood?
PAUL LEE SMITH AND MORGAN E. SISK ................:0...0: 24
The Flora of Murphey’s Pond
BURNETTA ADAMS, GORDON E. HUNTER, DANIEL
F. AUSTIN AND KENNETH H. KERRICK ........0.::c2:22.c0e tees 25
Cluster of Normal Faulting in the Northwest Bluegrass
Region of Kentucky
WILLARD ROUSE. JULLSON scssiccscossetevsetsssscrsieo eee 29
ACADEMY AFPEAIRS: 2. 2:ieiccteit hase ie eee 32
Index ‘to: Volume #29 22.5. ccs-.dcscccaleecocd des cteccestess cones eee yl

~~ Cer fH

276 27

Volume 29 1968 Numbers 1-4

| TRANSACTIONS
of the KENTUCKY
ACADEMY of SCIENCE

Official Organ
KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE

OC SS

CONTENTS

Variations in Size Among Adult Eptesicus Fucus
PERRY PATTERSON AND WAYNE H. DAVIS .................068 1

The Walltown, Kentucky Meteorite
WILLIAM D. EHMANN AND JACK R. BUSCHE .............00 5

Forearm Length and Wingspread of Myotis Sodalis
ROGER W. BARBOUR AND CARL H. ERNST ...............020+5 8

Marginal Record of Parascalops Breweri (Bachman)
From Kentucky

JAMES T. WALLACE AND RONALD HOUDP. ..........scceceseseees 9

Vegetation of the Pleistocene Drift Region, Northern
Kentucky

AROETIN ERS GTS USDA os orc tcess creclist neseescte see uereususesaiernsecscteeecerencensaores 10
Kidney Efficiencies of Three Pennsylvania Mice

OTANI Ge eee cgercsteses cc ences csi we cl atte eae roonses uessearvoues 21
A New Size Record for the Eastern Cottonwood?

PAUL LEE SMITH AND MORGAN E. SISK ..........csesseeees 24

The Flora of Murphey’s Pond
BURNETTA ADAMS, GORDON E. HUNTER, DANIEL
F. AUSTIN AND KENNETH H. KERRICK ..............c.scscesseees 25

Cluster of Normal Faulting in the Northwest Bluegrass
Region of Kentucky

NAIM TUSAER ID) SE OUSEN RITES, 2002 occ sc. acccesvdoccrcoseseseoesssecentsstnsanes 29
AG SDENN SEHATRS 2200 hese OE 32
. : eh HSON/,
index tol Volume 29) 282i cscs cceewsd gee er oe URLs i a EY/
Ee & |

The Kentucky Academy of Science
Founded May 8, 1914

OFFICERS 1967-68

President: Paul G. Sears, University of Kentucky

President-Elect: Orvill Richardson, Kentucky Wesleyan College
Vice-President: L. A. Krumholz, University of Louisville

Secretary: Robert S. Larance, Eastern Kentucky University

Treasurer: C. B. Hamann, Asbury College

Representative to A.A.A.S. Council: Mary Wharton, Georgetown College

OFFICERS 1968-69

President: Orville Richardson, Kentucky Wesleyan College
President-Elect: Lloyd Alexander, Kentucky State College
Vice-President: Karl Hussung, Murray State University

Secretary: Robert S. Larance, Eastern Kentucky University

Treasurer: C. B. Hamann, Asbury College

Representative to A.A.A.S. Council: Mary Wharton, Georgetown College

BOARD OF DIRECTORS

Lloyd E. Alexander ................ to 1969 John M. Carpenter ..............06+ to 1971
Margaret B. Heaslip ............00 to 1969 William” M: Clay: to 1971
Karle blussungsepeerececccsecseseecs to 1970 Gordon Wilson ..........sc0ccsceesees to 1972
Grace Quinto ees ieee to 1970 I. A. Krumbholz.c.2 eee to 1972

EDITORIAL OFFICE

William F. Wagner Editor
Department of Chemistry
University of Kentucky
Lexington, Kentucky, 40506

Associate Editors:

Botany and Microbiology: L. A. Krumholz, University of Louisville
Chemistry: Marshall Gordon, Murray State University

Geology: William Dennen, University of Kentucky

Zoology: Robert Kuehne, University of Kentucky

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nation, payments of dues, and election. Application forms for membership may be obtained
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and other material for publication should be addressed to the Editor.

VARIATION IN SIZE AMONG ADULT EPTESICUS FUSCUS

PERRY PATTERSON* and WAYNE H. DAVIS

Department of Zoology, University of Kentucky
Lexington, Kentucky 40506

An unexpected availability of a large sample of adult big brown bats
(Eptesicus fuscus) led us to study the size variation in these animals. We
decided to measure the range of variation, evaluate sexual dimorphism, and
determine what measurements are least variable, and thus are the best to use
in determining relative sizes in a sample of bats.

On 30 June 1964 a commercial pest control organization gassed the bats
in the Baptist Church at Midway, Woodford County, Kentucky. Workmen
gathered the dead animals and brought them to Lexington. Upon being
notified by the company, we recovered the bats and stored them in a
plastic bag in a freezer. They were later thawed and examined. The group
consisted of both adults and juveniles. We separated out the juveniles and
studied only the adults. Although some juveniles were nearly as large as the
adults, all were easily recognized by their dark pelage and open epiphyses.

Standard measurements of total length, length of the tail, and length of
the forearm were taken from each bat. Total length and tail length were
measured with a ruler to the nearest mm. Forearm length was measured
with a dial caliper and read to the nearest 0.1mm. This measurement was the
greatest length of the forearm of the folded right wing. It includes the
carpals and the thickness of the skin as well as the length of the ulna. Body
length of each bat was obtained by subtracting the length of the tail from
the total length. Mean values and standard deviations were calculated for
each sample for each measurement. Because the masurements taken differ
considerably in magnitude, the coefficients of variation V=100 S.D./mean
were calculated for each measurement to aid in comparing variablilities of
the different measurements. The sexes were compared by z-tests.

Data obtained from the 92 adult females and 32 adult males are sum-
marized in Table | and in the figures. Measurements were rounded to the
nearest mm for constructing Figure 3.

Females are significantly larger than males in all measurements taken,
except length of the tail. Phillips (1966) found measurements of total
length, wingspread, length of skull and breadth of zygomatic arch to be
significantly larger for females. Engels (1936) found that adult females
averaged 4 to 5 per cent larger than males. The least variable measurement
among the females was the length of the forearm. The variation in total
length and body length are only slightly greater. The data for males are
not as reliable because of the much smaller sample size, but they suggest
total length and forearm as the least variable. In both sexes length of the
tail shows high variability.

* Present Address: Department of Biology, Centre College, Danville, Kentucky

2 Perry Patterson and Wayne H. Davis

Table 1. Measurements of Eptesicus fuscus

FEMALES MALES
No. Mean Sie Ve No. Mean Sa Bae We
Total
Length 92. 122.3 4.480 3.65 3 Zoo ZS 0" 270/38
Tail 92 45.8 2.837 6.19 32 44.9 224875 Sis93
Body 92 76.4 3.024: 3.96 32 67.0 4.239 6.20
Forearm 92 47.8 1.433 3.10 32 46.5 12714 33.80

The length of the forearm, which can be easily and accurately taken from
a specimen, shows a low coefficient of variation, and thus is a good indica-
tion of size in this species of bat.

Literature Cited

Phillips, G. L. 1966. Ecology of the big brown bat (Chiropteria: Vesperti-
lionidae ) in Northeastern Kansas. American Midland Naturalist, 75: 168-
198.

Engels, W. L. 1936. Distribution of races of the brown bat (Eptesicus) in
Western North America. American Midland Naturalist, 17: 653-660.

Adult Eptesicus Fuscs

BEER] Males

20

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134

132

130

126

124

18 120

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4

2.

Total Length in mm

Figure 1. Variation in total length of Eptesicus fuscus

20 /-

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74 76 78 80 82 84 86
Body Length in mm

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ft

Figure 2. Variation in body length of Eptesicus fuscus

Perry Patterson and Wayne H. Davis

35

Females

Rese] Males

S

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Forearm Length in mm

Figure 3. Variation in length of forearm in Eptesicus fuscus.

THE WALLTOWN, KENTUCKY METEORITE

WILLIAM D. EHMANN and JACK R. BUSCHE

Department of Chemistry
University of Kentucky
Lexington, Kentucky 40506

In 1963, free-lance geologist J. W. Flanigan of Waynesburg, Kentucky
brought to our laboratories an angular rock fragment which he suspected to
be a meteorite. Mr. Flanigan reported that the specimen was one of
several found originally in 1956 and 1957 on a farm owned by Henry Naper
near Walltown, Casey County, Kentucky (37°19’30” N. Latitude, 84°43/0”
W. Longitude). The specimen was found on strata described by Mr. Flani-
gan as Upper Mississippian. He indicated that other fragments had been dis-
carded with rubble used to fill a large sink hole on the farm. The original
mass of material may have been as much as ten times the 1.6 kilogram
mass of the fragment retained.

Inspection in this laboratory confirmed that this specimen was a badly
weathered fragment of an ordinary chondrite. The specimen exhibited no
fusion crust and both exterior and interior were dark reddish-brown in color.
Freshly fractured surfaces exhibited extremely small flecks of free metal
phase and indistinct chondrule inclusions. The specimen has a distinct
dreikanter-like shape (Figures 1 and 2).

Three 350 milligram interior samples of the meteorite were analyzed for
major elements using a scheme similar to that described by Easton and
Lovering (1963). An exception to this scheme was that silicon was deter-
mined by nondestructive fast neutron activation analysis acording to the
method of Vogt and Ehmann (1965). The averages of these three replicate
analyses are given in Table I. The results of the analyses are consistent with
the classification of the meteorite as a low-iron (L-group) ordinary chond-
rite. This group of meteorites is characterized by having a large part of their
iron in ferromagnesian silicates. Their FeO contents range from 12 to 22%
and their average total iron content is 22.33% (Mason, 1962). The total
iron content of the Walltown meteorite is 23.7%.

The Walltown meteorite is the 19th meteorite find recorded for the
State of Kentucky. There have also been four observed meteorite falls col-
lected in Kentucky (Hey, 1966). The badly weathered condition of this
meteorite would appear to preclude its widespread use in studies of
meteorite composition. Fragments of the specimen are currently in the
private collection of W. D. Ehmann and the main mass is in the possession
of Mr. Flanigan.

Acknowledgements

The assistance of Mr. J. W. Flanigan in bringing this specimen to our
attention and permitting its use in the scientific studies is greatly appreciated.
This work was supported in part by the U.S. Atomic Energy Commission,
Contract No. AT—(40-1)—2670.

6 William D. Ehmann and Jack R. Busche

Figure 1.—Side view of the Walltown meteorite illustrating dreikanter-like shape.

Figure 2.—Walltown meteorite rotated to show fresh fractures.

The Walltown, Kentucky Meteorite iG
Table 1. Major Element Analysis of the Walltown, Kentucky Chondrite
% of phase % of whole Average Composition
meteorite of L-Group Chondrites*
Metal Phase

Fe 80.7 720 7.04
Ni 16.2 1.4 1.06
Co 3 0.3 0.07
100.0 Shaul. S17

Sulfide Phase

FeS 100.0 5.3 Syswid/

Silicate Phase

Si02 46.2 39.6 39.49
MgO 24.0 20.6 24.55
Feot 20.0 iat 14.97
Al 03 4.8 Ae 2.61
cab 23 2:..0 96)
Na 20 1.4 a2 1.04
K50 0.46 0.40 0.18
cr 03 0.15 Or Lal 0.43
nd 0.43 0237 O27.
TiO, Oe 1a: 0.09 (o) alae
(e Oe 0.09 = ===
P20, trace trace 0.24
+H20, -H,0 Meee lis nme do 9 -ee==
100.0 S5ioa7, 85.85
Whole Meteorite OO Rei. 99.79
Total Iron 23007, 22533
* As given by Mason (1962). + All oxidized iron reported
as Feo
n. d. = Not determined.

Literature Cited

Easton, A. J. and Lovering, J. F., 1963, The analysis of chondritic mete-
orites. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta, 27:753-767.

Hey, M. H., 1966. Catalogue of Meteorites. The British Museum, London.
Mason, B., 1962. Meteorites. John Wiley and Sons, New York.

Vogt, J. R. and Ehmann, W. D., 1965. Silicon abundances in stony mete-
orites by fast neutron activation analysis. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta.
29:373-383.

FOREARM LENGTH AND WINGSPREAD OF MYOTIS SODALIS

ROGER W. BARBOUR and CARL H. ERNST
Department of Zooiogy, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Ky.

On December 2, 1967 the right forearm of 378 male and 425 female and
the wingspread of 63 male and 61 female Myotis sodalis were measured.
The bats were collected in Bat Cave, Carter Caves State Park, and were
released unharmed. The forearm was measured to the nearest 0.1 milli-
meter with dial calipers, and the wingspread to the nearest millimeter along
a meter stick. The results are plotted in Figures 1 and 2. No sexual
dimorphism in wing dimensions is readily apparent in these measurements.

90-

80

70

co)
{e)

NUMBER OF INDIVIDUALS
S
°

ol
{e)

20-4

! 85 39.5 40.5 41.5
a 35.0 =e 36.0 sak 37.0 es 38.0 : 39.0 40:0 41.0

FOREARM LENGTH (MM)

Figure 1.—Individual variation in the forearm length of Myotis sodalis.

Wingspread of Myotis Sodalis 9

ie)
(e)

oO

NUMBER OF INDIVIDUALS
on (2)

235-240 241-245 246-250 251-255 256-260 261-265 266-270 271-275

WINGSPREAD (MM)

Figure 2.—Individual variation in the wingspread of Myotis sodalis.

MARGINAL RECORD OF PARASCALOPS BREWERI (BACHMAN)
FROM KENTUCKY

JAMES T. WALLACE* and RONALD HOUP

Department of Biology, Eastern Kentucky University
Richmond, Kentucky, 40475

On March 9, 1967, a female Parascalops breweri (Bachman), the hairy-
tailed mole, was found dead along with a Blarina brevicauda carolinensis
(Bachman) at the entrance to a large den hole. The collection site was 2
mi. S W of Morrill (Jackson Co.) in the Knobs region of Rockcastle County,
Kentucky. Hall and Kelson, The Mammals of North America, p. 71, 1959,
list “Triplet Creek near Clearfield (Welter and Sollberger, 1939:78)” as
the western marginal record for Kentucky; however, the specimen described
herein was found 44 miles south and 43 miles west of this record. Damage
which had occurred to the specimen prevented any accurate measurements
from being made. The specimen is preserved in formalin in the collection of
the senior author.

* Present Address: 606 Salk Hall, School of Dental Medicine, University of
Pittsburgh, Pa. 152138

VEGETATION OF THE PLEISTOCENE DRIFT
REGION, NORTHERN KENTUCKY *

John R. Keith
U.S. Geological Survey, Denver, Colo.

INTRODUCTION

Vegetation associated with glacial deposits has been shown by Braun
(1951) to be floristically distinctive, but ecological relationships of this as-
sociation have been inadequately explored. This investigation was under-
taken in order to determine the effects of glacial deposits on the composition
and structure of vegetation that currently is growing on such deposits.

The area that was studied is in the northwestern part of Boone County,
Kentucky, in the northern part of the Bluegrass region. The city of Cincin-
nati, Ohio, is located immediately to the east across the Ohio River. The
report area is that part of Kentucky in which the thickest and most
extensive glacial deposits accumulated during Pleistocene time. These de-
posits have been studied by Leverett (1929) and by Ray (1966). Research
on the vegetation of these deposits was restricted, for this investigation, to
woody plants because they were expected to most effectively reflect plant
community dynamics.

This report is based on a thesis submitted as part of the requirements for
the Master of Science degree at the University of Kentucky. I appreciate the
generous help of E. T. Browne, Jr., now of the Memphis State University,
and of John Warden of East Tennessee State University. L. L. Ray, H. T.
Shacklette, and Frank Whitmore, all of the U.S. Geological Survey, provided
guidance in the field and assistance with the manuscript.

DESCRIPTION OF THE AREA

Climate

The mean daily temperature of Boone County, 54.2°F., denotes a mild
climate for the area. The mean anr.ual rainfall for Boone County is 37 inches;
that for the State as a whole is about 45 inches. Winds in the vicinity of
Boone County tend to be higher than the State average (U.S. Department
of Commerce, 1957). Because of the Ohio River, the northern and western
parts of the county are more moist than the uplands in the eastern and
southern parts.

Geology and Physiography
The bedrock of Boone County is primarily Ordovician limestone and
shale of Eden, Maysville, and Richmond age (McFarlan, 1943). Of the

three, rocks of Maysville age, chiefly limestone, occur most commonly in
outcrops throughout the county.

* Publication authorized by Director, U.S. Geological Survey.

Pleistocene Drift Region 11

In addition to the bedrock, unconsolidated Pleistocene glacial deposits,
which vary greatly in composition and thickness, mantle the northwestern
part of Boone County. The approximate glacial border has been mapped by
Ray (1966). Residual soils are also a part of the surficial materials and are
well developed on the glacial deposits and on bedrock where glacial
deposits are absent.

The oldest glacial deposit is deeply weathered till of Nebraskan age. A
younger till, also highly weathered, has been assigned a Kansan age. These
deposits, which are as much as 20 feet thick, are commonly so greatly
weathered that they are difficult to recognize as distinct and separate strata.
They are, therefore, considered to be one unit and are referred to collectively
as “till.” Drift from the Ilinoian Glaciation occurs only sporadically in the
area and is confined to the valley of the Ohio River (Leighton and Ray,
1966). Although glacial ice did not extend into Kentucky during the Wis-
consin Glaciation of the Pleistocene, a well-leached layer of loess, of Wis-
consin age and 2-3 feet thick, commonly caps the till deposits (Flint, 1957).
Both till and loess are highly eroded and commonly are completely absent,
especially from stream valleys. Glacial erratics, weighing as much as 16 tons,
have been found in Boone and other counties in northern Kentucky, both
within and beyond the glacial boundary (Leverett, 1929).

Although exposures of the substrate under the vegetation sample sites
were not available in many places, the nature of the substrate could usually
be determined by means of a soil auger. An additional means of dis-
tinguishing till areas from non-till areas was by recognition of undulations
in contour lines on topographic maps (L. L. Ray, oral commun., 1965); the
undulations reflect the weathering pattern of the till.

The area of study is one of moderate relief with flat uplands 800-900
feet in altitude in the eastern and southern parts. The western and northern
parts are more highly dissected because of the erosional activity of the Ohio
River and its tributaries. The valley bottom of the Ohio River lies some 300
feet below the uplands, the river itself having a normal pool level of 455
feet above sea level. Erosion has effectively removed whatever surface
features were originally formed by glaciation during the Pleistocene Epoch
so that, at present, almost no physiographic evidence of glaciation exists in
the area.

Soils

Because of the variety of parent materials present and variation in
physiography, soils in the study area are of many different series. Parent
materials include limestone and shale bedrock, alluvium, colluvium, deep to
shallow loess, and till. Most of the soils examined in this study were thick,
ranging from 2 to 6 feet. The lower annual precipitation rate may have
contributed to lesser erosion and deeper soils than in most areas of the State.
The Bluegrass region, as a whole, has deeper soils than occur in other parts
of the State (McFarlan, 1943). No attempt was made in this investigation to
correlate soils of the study sites with formal soil series; information on soil
series of the area has been given by Windsor and Bailey (1964). Silt loam

12 John R. Keith

soils predominate in the study area and soil drainage generally is good. A
few areas of the uplands, however, where till is the substrate, appear to be
poorly drained. More specific soil characteristics are given with the descrip-
tions of individual sample sites. The soils under well-forested sites have a
dark and thick A, layer in the profile. These dark soils are the melanized
soils of the deciduous forests that are referred to by Braun (1950).

VEGETATION STUDIES

Regional Flora

This study of vegetation was restricted to the woody plants of the area,
because these species are considered to be more responsive to physical en-
vironment than are the herbaceous plants. The latter exhibit more response
to the biotic factors in the environment and therefore tend to vary more in
presence and abundance over a given period of time than do the more
extensively rooted woody plants.

An investigation of the Boone County flora that was made in the late
1800’s (Nelson, 1918) lists 26 families, 43 genera, and 66 species of woody
plants. The extent of the Nelson collection in time and in geographic area
within the county is not known.

A collection made during this study includes 52 species, which represent
42 genera and 26 families. Voucher specimens have been deposited in the
University of Kentucky Herbarium. Taxonomic nomenclature follows that of
Gleason and Cronquist (1963). No species observed in this work was
judged, because of its presence, to be of unusual distribution, nor were
there noticeable absences of species that are found elsewhere in the Blue-
grass region.

Ecological Methods

Whereas presence of a certain group of species is considered to be the
most important factor in floristic studies, the relative abundance of those
species and the role of dominants are more important in ecological studies.
In order to study quantitative relationships of the species observed, thirteen
forest sample sites were selected in the study area. An effort was made to
choose sites that had a variety of directions of exposure and degrees of
slope. Insofar as was possible, stands of timber were chosen which seemed
to represent old-growth woods. However, because of excessive disturbance
by cultivation, logging, grazing, and urbanization, desirable sample sites
were difficult to obtain. With one possible exception, no forests were observed
which might approximate so-called virgin stands.

The Bitterlich sampling method was used because of its efficiency and
accuracy (Grosenbaugh, 1952). This is a transect method which measures
forest basal area, i.e., the cross-sectional area in units, such as square feet
of trees per acre, with the diameters of the trees measured at 4.5 feet above
the ground. In this study the amount of basal area has been used as an
indicator of the degree of stand maturity. A high basal area denotes an old-

Pleistocene Drift Region 13

growth stand. Basal area data are given with the descriptions of sample sites.
No trees of less than 4 inches in diameter were included in the samples.
The percentage values given in Table 1 were derived from data that were
collected in the sampling of basal areas.

Description of Sample Sites

The thirteen sample sites are described as to location, general vege-
tational information, soil data, slope, date sampled, and total basal area as
follows:

I. Southwestern Boone County, Rising Sun quadrangle, approximately
1 mile southwest of Big Bone Lick, 38° 53’ 15” N., 84° 46’ 30” W., dense
woods with many large old trees; soil a black silty loam with A, 3 inches
thick, on loess and till; gentle slope to east; October 10, 1965; basal area 88
sq ft per acre.

II. Southwestern Boone County, Rising Sun quadrangle, approximately
1.5 miles southwest of Big Bone Lick, 38° 53’ 15” N., 84° 46’ 50” W.; old,
open woods with many large trees; soil developed on river terraces, thin
A,, nuch outcrop and float of limestone; steep slope to west; October 10,
1965; basal area 102 sq ft per acre.

III. South-central Boone County, Rising Sun quadrangle, on Gunpowder
Creek near end of Pope Road, 38° 57’ 20” N., 84° 45’ 40” W.; moderately
dense woods with many old trees, numerous large dead honey locust trees;
soil with black loamy A, as much as 3 inches thick; steep slope to southeast;
October 31, 1965; basal area 117 sq ft per acre.

IV. South-central Boone County, Rising Sun quadrangle, along Riddles
Run Road, half a mile from junction with Kentucky Highway 338,
38° 54’ 45” N., 84° 48’ 00” W.; woods with large trees and dense under-
growth; soil with black silty A, as much as 2 inches thick; moderate
slope to northwest; October 31, 1965; basal area 80 sq ft per acre.

V. North-central Boone County, Lawrenceburg auadringle, sn slopes
above Garrison Creek, 39° 54’ 45” N., 84° 48’ 00” W.; woods with large
trees dense undergrowth; soil with black silty A, as much as 2 inches thick;
moderate slope to northwest; October 31, 1965; basa larea 80 sq fet ped
acre.

VI. North-central Boone County, Lawrenceburg quadrangle, along south
bank of Ohio River near Barnard Cemetery, 39° 06’ 20” N., 84° 48’ 50”
W.; dense woods on ailuvial terraces, abundant Asarum candadense L.,
Hydrangea arboresceny L., Staphylea trifolia L.; soil with 38-inch A,,
silty with increasing yellow clay dowrward; much limestone float; moderate
slope to north; November 7, 1965; basal area 118 sq ft per acre.

VII. North-Central Boone County, Lawrenceburg quadrangle, | mile up-
stream on Ohio River from site VI., 39° 06’ 30” N., 84° 47’ 55” W.;
similar in vegetational, edaphic, and slope factors to site VI., November 7,
1965; basal area 128 sq ft per acre.

VIII. Northwestern Boone County, Lawrenceburg quadrangle, on hillside

14 John R. Keith

above south bank of Woolper Creek, 1 mile east of Kentucky Highway 20,
39° O01’ 55” N., 84° 49’ 45” W.; open woods at edge of old road; soil with
A, to 4 inches thick, black, silty with crumb structure; compact yellow clay
at 8 inches in the profile; steep slope to north; November 16, 1965; basal
area 109 sq ft per acre.

IX. Slightly south of and parallel to site VHI., but higher on hillside
above Woolper Creek; open old woods with many large trees; A, of soil to 6
inches thick, silty and black; extremely steep slope to north; November 16,
1965; basal area 109 sq ft per acre.

X. Northwestern Boone County, Lawrenceburg quadrangle, on hillside
above north bank of Woolper Creek, approximately 1.5 miles north of Ken-
tucky Highway 18, 39° 02’ 10” N., 84° 46’ 30” W.; young thin woods with
recent disturbance, as evidenced by presence of tree-of-heaven; soil with
A, less than | inch thick, with underlying yellow clay; moderate slope to
south; November 16, 1965; basal area 95 sq ft per acre.

XI. North-central Boone County, Burlington quadrangle, approximately
1 mile north of junction of Kentucky Highway 18 and 237, on land of oil
company, 39° 02’ 0” N., 84° 41’ 30” W.; open old woods with few young
trees, little ground cover; beech, though abundant as canopy tree, repro-
ducing poorly; abundant Epifagus virginiana (L.) Bart.; black and silty soil
with A, as much as 3 inches thick, compact yellow clay at 18 inches in the
profile, till substrate; very slight slope; December 5, 1965; basal area 103
sq ft per acre.

XII. Northwestern Boone County, Lawrenceburg quadrangle, on south
bank of Ohio River, 1.5 miles upstream from Petersburg, 39° 05’ 20” N.,
84° 50’ 30” W.; old woods; soil on alluvial terrace with A, as much as 4
inches thick, black loam with moderate clay content, yellow clay at 8 inches
in the profile; moderate slope to north; December 5, 1965; basal area 103 sq
ft per acre.

XIII. Northwestern Boone County, Lawrenceburg quadrangle, ap-
proximately half a mile southwest of Kentucky Highway 20, half a mile
south-southwest of Petersburg, 39° 03’ 30” N., 84° 52’ 12” W.; dense stand
of young trees and evidence of recent disturbance, several dead American
elms ranging from 3 to 4 feet in diameter; soil with A, as much as 2 inches
thick, on alluvial terraces; gentle slope to northwest; December 5, 1965;
basal area 67 sq ft per acre.

Quantitative Data

Quantitative data are presented in Table 1. The sampling method that
was used is primarily applicable to large trees; therefore, quantitative in-
formation on small trees and shrubs is not given. The woody understory of
most sample sites consists primarily of Cercis canadensis L., Acer Negundo
L., Crataegus spp., Ostrya virginiana (Mill.) K. Koch, Sassafras albidum
(Nutt.) Nees., Cornus florida L., Carpinus caroliniana Walt., Asimina triloba
(L.) Dunal., and Lindera Benzoin (L.) Blume.

Pleistocene Drift Region 15

DISCUSSION
Features of Selected Communities

In comparing the forest communities of an east-facing slope with those
of a west-facing slope, sites I and II, respectively, may be taken as examples.
Site II has undergone more recent disturbance than site I, as indicated by
the higher percentage of hackberry. The more mesophytic condition of east-
facing slopes and less recent cutting are reflected in the relative abundance
of both black cherry and shagbark hickory at site I. The percentages of the
codominants, white ash and sugar maple, are not greatly different in the
two communities, but the high percentage of each species at both sites is
indicative of relatively old forest stands in this area.

In sites VII and X the degree of slope, substrate, and soil are similar.
The principal environmental differences are the proximity to a stream and
the degree of disturbance. The more mesophytic condition of site VII,
caused by its north-facing slope and location near the Ohio River, is re-
flected in the high percentage of sugar maple (25 percent) at the site. On
the south-facing slope at site X the relative abundance of sugar maple is
only 9 percent whereas white ash remains at the same level, 31 percent, as
at site VII. Although more recent cutting of sugar maple at site X may
account for some of the difference in the abundance, much of the dif-
ference may be attributed to the different directions of slope at the two
sites and the resulting moisture differences.

If sparseness of the codominants sugar maple and white ash is used as a
criterion for the degree of disturbance, site V is a highly disturbed area. Site
V has a southward slope, but does not differ markedly from the other sites
in any other factors, except truncation of the A soil horizon. The truncation
is due to erosion after logging and the subsequent changes in herbaceous
vegetation. Sugar maple and white ash each constitute 3 percent of the
total sample at site V, whereas the averages for all 13 sites are 22 percent
ash and 20 percent maple. The most abundant species at this site are hack-
berry, yellow oak, black locust, and black walnut; the presence of the latter
two indicate that a recent old-field succession has occurred in the develop-
ment of this stand.

Site XI is the only truly upland community of the entire sample scries.
The black silty horizon of the soil appears to have been derived from loess;
and a compact yellow clay, apparently the upper part of the underlying till,
occurs at a depth of 18 inches in the profile. Because of the nature of the
substrate and the lack of appreciable slope, this habitat is more poorly
drained than the other sample sites. The more hydric condition is retlected
in the vegetation: 48 percent sugar maple, the highest of all stands
measured; 24 percent white ash, 4 percent black cherry, and 12 percent
beech. The abundance of beech is noteworthy. Observations of other stands
on the uplands which contain beech and the frequency of isolated individual
beech trees in locations of the same type lead to the speculation that the
original postglacial upland forests of Boone County may have been similar

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(Species listed in approximate order of decreasing abundance. Percentages rounded to nearest whole

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absence of a species. |

91

Sites

Common and scientific names

White ash
(Fraxinus americana L.)-------— =

maple
Acer saccharum Marsh. )—-----—---_

Hackberry
(Celtis occidentalis I.)-------.-.

American elm
Shumard's oak
(Quercus Shumardii Buckl.)-—------

Blue ash
(Fraxinus quadrangulata Michx.)-——

Yellow oak
(Quercus prinoides Willd. )-—-----

ynay “y vyol

ul saeiy Adoup> yo uolsisodwio> ebpyuecieg “| 2/4)

Ayonjuay ‘Ajuno> auoog

Black locust
(Robinia pseudoacacia L.)-----—— ==

Black walnut
(Juglans nigra 1. )-----------.-...-

Buckeye
(Aesculus glabra Willd. )—--------

Red elm
(Ulmus rubra Muh]. )------------_..

So}Is ajduips 4S010} udd}114}

Bur cak
(Quercus macrocarpa Michx.)—----—-

Honey locust
(Gleditsia triacanthos L.)=----=--=

1

re
(Platanus occidentalis L.)——-—-———

Basswood
(Tilia americana L.)—------—--—-—-

Red cedar
(Juniperus virginiana L.)—-——-——-

Bitternut hickory
(Carya cordiformis (Wang.) K. Koch)

Black cherry
(Prunus serotina Ehrh.)-———--—-—----

Cork elm
(Clmms Thomasi Sarg. )—---—-----—-

Shagbark hickory
(Carya ovata (Mil1.) K. Koch)--—

Red oak
(Quercus borealis Michx. f.)------

OY (Mcetnes poatitans (Raf.) Schneid.)

Tree-of -heaven
(Ailanthus altissima (Mill.)Swingle)

White cak
(Quercus alba L.)-—-—-—----—-——

Beech
(Fagus grandifolia Enrh.)-—-——-—

Shingle oak
(Quercus imbricaria Michx.)-—--—-

Mulberry
(Morus rubra L.)—-—-—--—-----—---=

Uorday afuq auacoqsiazg

Coffee tree

(Gymnocladus dioica (L.) K. Koch}--

LT

18 John R. Keith

to the present stand at site XI. Other areas of abundant beech have been
observed in the northern part of the Bluegrass region by Braun (1950),
although beech is not commonly found in the region as a whole.

Old beech trees in the study area have developed buttresses at the base
of the trunk. These structures may indicate restriction of root growth caused
by the imperviousness of till, and subsequent accumulation in the but-
tresses of carbohydrates which normally would be stored in roots (John
Warden, oral commun., 1965).

Discussion of Selected Species

Some species are ecologically sensitive and therefore are restricted in
range, but many species have great environmental tolerance. Climax species
usually belong to the latter category; apparently such is the case with sugar
maple and white ash, the dominant species observed in this investigation.
However, community dominance is attained by those two species only when
conditions approach the optimum.

White oak, a species which formerly was much more abundant in the
Boone County area (Braun, 1950), has now been cut out to a very low
abundance.

Tulip popular, a tree with wide ecological tolerance and one which is
very abundant in most parts of Kentucky, is scarce in the area studied.
Although it is reproducing well in a few areas of the county, it is not
present in any of the sample stands. Such an anomaly may be attributed
to severe cutting of this species. Early reports (Braun, 1950) point to a
much greater abundance of the tree in this area.

One species, shingle oak, is scattered widely over the area of study,
occurring most commonly along streams. On the Tazewell age terrace at
Big Bone Lick it forms a nearly pure stand (Schultz and others, 1963). Its
habitats in this area are similar to those of its usual location in glaciated
poorly drained areas and on flood plains. The abundance of this species is
not accurately indicated by data in Table 1 because no sample sites were
located adjoining streams.

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

The recording of vegetational history and the prediction of future
ecological developments are difficult in areas which have been extensively
modified by activities of man. However, certain plant communities in some
areas may serve to indicate change and development of past community
structure. These plant assemblages also may suggest the types of potential
natural communities that could develop if no further disturbance occurred.
In the glaciated part of Boone County, Kentucky, white ash and sugar
maple are the characteristic codominant forest species. These are followed
in abundance by American elm and hackberry. The dominance of the first
two species indicates that, in spite of the extensive disturbance of the area,

Pleistocene Drift Region 19

strong tendencies in succession exist toward the development a_physio-
graphic climax forest. As viewed on a regional basis, present succession ap-
pears to be toward the development of forests of mixed composition, but
these forests are divisible into discrete units that are characterized by
species with similar environmental requirements. Furthermore, it is post-
ulated that this type of forest occupied these sites before human activity
produced the present disclimax conditions.

A melanized soil occurs in the A horizon at many of the sites. Because
the formation of such a soil from a mull humus is a slow process, its presence
indicates that a moist deciduous forest of long duration formerly occupied
the site. For melanization to have occurred, the trees of the forest must have
been those which yielded basic forest litter. Wilde, Wilson, and White
(1949) stated, “.... the prerequisites for the development of mull soils in-
clude an abundant supply of bases, a favorable position of the ground water
table, or forest cover of soil-conserving hardwoods such as hard maple, beech,
basswood, and white ash.” Both ash and maple occupy the sites having this
relict soil type. If the sites had originally been more xeric, oaks, conifers, and
other trees that produce an acid litter would have dominated, and podzoliza-
tion rather than melanization would have occurred. This condition would
now be evident as a weak podzolized layer in the lower part of the A
soil horizon.

The presence of hackberry and American elm indicates the disclimax
nature of the present stands. These species are early invaders of the de-
forested site and, where soil moisture is adequate, they will be replaced
initially by maple and ash and eventually by some degree of codominance of
beech and maple. Such succession occurs because the seedlings of maple
and beech can develop in the shade of all other trees in the region, where-
as the seedlings of the other tree species cannot grow under a closed
canopy of beech and maple.

The abundance of maple and the scarcity of beech at sites where both
could grow equally well may be attributed to the more efficient seed dispersal
of maple. Thus, it may be concluded that there has been insufficient time
since the last deforestation for beech to have made significant colonization of
the sites. The forest pattern of codominant beech and maple stands com-
monly reflects slight differences in water content and aeration of soils. Both
species require abundant moisture, but maple requires a greater degree of
soil aeration.

A common property of old glacial deposits that are extensively weathered
is the concentration of clay-sized particles that can impede the free percola-
tion of soil water. Such a condition of soil moisture favors the development
of beech and maple stands at sites which would otherwise be too xeric for
these species. It is, therefore, postulated that moist, mesophytic forests were
once more prevalent on the glacial till in northern Kentucky than the
relief would suggest and that, if these areas were left undisturbed, this
forest type would again predominate.

20 John R. Keith

LITERATUR¢ CITED

Braun, E. L., 1950, Deciduous forests of eastern North America: Phila-
delphia, Blakiston Co., 596 p.

—_————— , 1951, Plant distribution in relation to the glacial boundary: Ohio
Jour, Sci., v. 51, no. 3, p. 139.

Flint, R. F., 1957, Glacial and Pleistocene geology: New York, John Wiley
& Sons, Inc., 553 p.

Gleason, H. A., and Cronquist, Arthur, 1963, Manual of vascular plants of
northeastern United States and adjacent Canada: Princeton, Van.
Nostrand Co., Inc., 810 p.

Grosenbaugh, L. R., 1952, Plotless timber estimates: Jour. Forestry, v.
D0) pr ag.

Leighton, M. M., and Ray, L. L., 1966, Glacial deposits of Nebraskan and
Kansan age in northern Kentucky, in U.S. Geol. Survey research 1965:
U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 525-B, p. B126-B131.

Leverett, Frank, 1929, The Pleistocene of northern Kentucky: Kentucky
Geol. Survey, ser. 6, v. 31, p. 1-80.

McFarlan, A. C., 1943, Geology of Kentucky: Lexington, Ky., Univ.
Kentucky, 531 p.

Nelson, J. C., 1918, Plants of Boone County, Kentucky: Indiana Acad.
Sci. Proc. 28, p. 125-143.

Ray, L. L., 1966, Pre-Wisconsin glacial deposits in northern Kentucky, in
U.S. Geol. Survey research 1966: U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 550-B,
p. B91-B94.

Schultz, C. B., Tanner, L. G., Whitmore, F. C., Ray, L. L., and Crawford,
E. C., 1963, Paleontologic investigations at Big Bone Lick State Park,
Kentucky—Preliminary Report: Science, v. 142, no. 3596, p. 1167-1169.

U.S. Department of Commerce, 1957, Climatic summary of the U.S.— Sup-
plement for 1931 through 1952 [Kentucky]: Washington, U.S. Govt.
Printing Office, 41 p.

Wilde, S. A., Wilson, F. G., and White, D. P., 1949, Soils of Wisconsin in
relation to silviculture: Madison, Wisconsin Conserv. Dept. Pub. 525-
549, 171 p.

Windsor, J. H., and Bailey, H. H., 1964, Kentucky soils: Ky. Agr. Exp.
Sta. Misc. Pub. 308, 174 p.

KIDNEY EFFICIENCIES OF THREE PENNSYLVANIA
MICE

CARL H. ERNST

Department of Zoology, University of Kentucky
Leington, Kentucky, 40506

Mammal kidneys are capable of concentrating urine and ridding the
body of excess salts. This ability has been studied in a number of rodents.
Citellus leucurus (Bartholomew and Hudson, 1959) and Meriones ungui-
culatus (Winkleman and Getz, 1962) are capable of surviving on 1.0 M
salt solutions; and Dipodemys merriami (Schmidt-Nielsen, 1950), Reithro-
dontomys megalotis (MacMillen, 1964), Reithrodontomys raviventris hali-
coetis (Fisler, 1963; Haines, 1964), Peromyscus maniculatus rubidus (Fisler,
1962), and Gerbillus gerbillus (Burns, 1956) can use sea water ( = .57 M
NaCl). Mice with less efficient kidneys die at lower salt concentrations.

Ninety Peromyscus leucopus noveboracensis, 87 Microtus p. pennsyl-
vanicus, and 71 Mus m. musculus living sympatricly were trapped alive in
Lancaster County, Pennsylvania. The mice were brought to the laboratory
and allowed to adjust to captive conditions. Each was kept in an individual
cage provided with a water bottle and given distilled water ad libitum. The
mice were provided with a standard diet of dry laboratory Purina rabbit
chow. The room was maintained at 25°C and lighted for 10 hours daily. The
relative humidity was uncontrolled and varied from 40 to 85%, thus giving
a comparison over a wide range.

After they had adjusted to captivity, daily water consumption was
measured over a five-day period. The mice were weighed at the beginning
and end of this period. Daily water consumption is represented as a function
of the mean body weight of each mouse over the five-day period (Table 1).
The drinking water of each mouse was then replaced with a .10 molar
NaCl solution for five days, then .20 M, .30 M, up to .60 M (sea water = .57
M NaCl) at five-day intervals, or until the animal died. Deaths were as-

Table 1. Distilled Water Consumption of Three Species of Pennsylvania Mice

Mean Water Mean Water
Species Number Body Weight Consumption Consumption in
(+ SD) (g) (+ SD) (cc/day) cc/body g/day

Peromyscus l.

noveboracensis 90 NE eee Aa Sine arlene} On 2ee OFZ
Microtus p.

pennsylvanicus 87 Ac le ile aches} Goll POs Of Zo tant ON O.2
Mus m. musculus Ui Ly 0 ot 3/210 2.0 + 0.4 OLL7 te O01

* Difference significant at 0.05 levelas
compared to the consumption of Mus
and Peromyscus.

22 Charl H. Ernst

sumed to occur because an animal could no longer rid its body of the excess
NaCl and developed a negative water balance as determined by loss of
body weight. Tolerance of NaCl solutions is considered to represent the
kidney efficiency of each mouse. The mean survival time in days and. the
range in length’ of survival were recorded. The mean per cents of body
weight loss each mouse withstood before succumbing and lost per day
were calculated (Table 2). Ten mice of each species were placed directly on
a 1.0 M NaCl solution, and their mean period of survival calculated.

Table 2. Weight losses and Survival Times of Three Species of Pennsylvania Mice on
_Increasing Concentrations of Salt Water Ranging from 0.1 M to 0.6 M.

Species No. Mean days of Range in length Means % Wt. Mean Wt. Range Wt.
survival (+ SD ) of survival loss at death loss/day loss/day (g)
(+ SD) (+SD) (g)

Peromyscus l,

noveboracensis 80 USci2-t Ua2* 17-20 25.9 + 3.2 0.35 +0.13* 0.26-0.44
Microtus p.

pennsylvanicus vas Loge 525.0% 9=16 29.0% 3.50) 0-62 + O.TO* “OS L= 05169
Mus m. musculus 61 14.36: + 4519* 7-28 (ale PA oe She) 0.22+ 0.14* 0.10-0.25

* Differences statistically significant at the 0.05 level.

The possibility that some non-metabolic water could be obtained from
the dry feed provided was investigated. An amount of feed comparable to
that eaten weekly was weighed, and then heated in an oven to drive off any
available moisture. The feed was reweighed and the per cent of available
water calculated.

The results shown in Table 2 give some indication of the adaptive
ability of the kidneys to rid the body of excess NaCl in the water supply.
This is an important adaptation for mammals living in areas where the plants
and/or available drinking water have a high mineral content. The mice
succumbed on NaCl solutions ranging from .20 to .60M. The mean length
of survival varied from 12.7 days in Microtus to 18.2 days in Peromyscus.
Brown (1964) in a study of Missouri mice found the average days of
survival on increasing salt water concentrations to be 18.5 for P.
leucopus, 19.6 for P. boylii and 17.9 for P. maniculatus.

Peromyscus withstood the greatest weight loss, while Mus withstood the
least. Microtus withstood nearly as great a weight loss as Peromyscus, but
dehydrated (e.g. lost weight more rapidly due to greater urine volume) and
died sooner. The 50% lethal points (that NaCl concentration where 50%
of the mice died) were recorded as follows for each mouse: .30 M for Mus
and Microtus and .40 M. for Peromyscus. Getz (1966) also recorded .30 M
as the 50% lethal point in his study of salt tolerances of salt marsh Microtus
pennsylvanicus. Getz (1963) compared the kidney efficiencies of M.
pennsylvanicus to M. ochrogaster. Microtus ochrogaster utilized a higher
molarity of salt water. Only one M. pennsylvanicus survived a molarity above
.25, while only one M. ochrogaster died below this. One M. ochrogaster lived

Three Pennsylvania Mice 23

over 30 days and reached .50 M before it died. Getz believed this indicated
a greater kidney efficiency in M. ochrogaster. Getz (1966) also compared
salt marsh and grassland M. pennsylvanicus by placing both on salt water,
and found no significant differences in the ability of the two populations to
utilize salt water.

When first introduced to the salt water, all three species increased their
consumption of water and their weight increased as a result. As the con-
centrations were increased the amount consumed by Peromyscus and Mus
gradually decreased, as did their weight. Only Microtus continued to drink
at an increased rate, while losing weight rapidly, until they succumbed.
Chew (1951) restricted the drinking water of P. 1. noveboracensis from
Illinois and Michigan, and found that water conservation was effected by
reduction of urine volume. During the present study, the Peromyscus and
Mus urinated less often and the Microtus more frequently when placed on
salt water. Chew (1951) found that some of his mice recovered from losing
32 to 45% of their initial weight. In this study, the weight loss at death in
P. leucopus was 25.9%. Brown (1964) reported a 26.6% weight loss in
P. leucopus, 20.2% for P. boylii, and 22.0% for P. maniculatus.

A single house mouse survived 28 days during the salinity test, but re-
fused the water after 10 days (after .20 M). The dry feed contained 10.8%
water. The mouse at death had lost 23.1% of its original weight. No other
house mouse survived over 17 days on salt water. This is surprising since
Haines and Schmidt-Nielsen (1967) demonstrated that Mus from a variety
of habitats and geographic localities is independent of drinking water as long
as relative humidity was greater than 60%, as it was during part of this
study. It is possible their feed contained more water than that used in this
study.

When placed on a 1.0 M solution, all mice were affected about equally.
Mus had a mean survival period of 2.2 days (range 2-3 days), Microtus 2
days, and Peromyscus 1.8 days (range 1-2 days).

The results of this study indicate that Peromyscus l. noveboracensis has
more efficient kidneys for concentrating and ridding the body of excess salts,
while the kidneys of Microtus p. pennsylvanicus were the least efficient of
the three mice studied. The results reported here as well as those of Mac-
Millen (1964), Fisler (1962), Haines (1964), Brown (1964), Chew
(1951), and Getz (1963, 1966) indicate that the members of the sub-
family Cricetinae have more efficient kidneys than members of the sub-
family Microtinae. Apparently Mus m. musculus falls somewhere between
these two subfamilies.

I would like to thank Dr. Wayne H. Davis for critically reading this
manuscript.

LITERATURE CITED

Bartholomew, G. A. and J. W. Hudson. 1959. Effects of sodium chloride on
weight and drinking in the antelope ground squirrel. J. Mamm., 40: 354-
360.

94 Charl H. Ernst

Brown, L. N. 1964. Ecology of three species of Peromyscus from southern
Missouri. J. Mamm., 45: 189-202.

Burns, T. W. 1956. Endocrine factors in the water metabolisms of the
desert mammal, G. gerbillus. Endocrinol., 58: 243-254.

Chew, R. M. 1951. The water exchanges of some small mammals. Ecol.
Monog., 21: 215-225.

Fisler, G. F. 1962. Ingestion of sea water by Peromyscus maniculatus. J.
Mamm., 43: 416-417.

aaa 1963. Effects of salt water on food and water consumption and
weight of harvest mice. Ecology, 44: 604-608.

Getz, L. L. 1963. A comparison of ‘the water balance of the prairie and
meadow voles. Ecology, 44: 202-207.

wa 1966. Salt tolerances of salt marsh meadow voles. J. Mamm.
47: 201-207.

Haines, H. 1964. Salt tolerance and water requirements in the salt-marsh
harvest mouse. Physiol. Zool., 37: 266-272.

—————— , and Schmidt-Nielsen, K. 1967. Water deprivation in wild house
mice. Physiol. Zool., 40: 424-431.

MacMillen, R. E. 1964. Water economy and salt balance in the western
harvest mouse, Reithrodontomys megalotis. Physiol. Zool., 37: 45-46.

Schmidt-Nielsen, B. and K. Schmidt-Nielsen. 1950. Do kangaroo rats thrive
when drinking sea water? Am. J. Physiol., 160: 291--294.

Winkelmann, J. R. and L. L. Getz. 1962. Water balance in the Mongolian
gerbil. J. Mamm., 43: 150-154.

A NEW SIZE RECORD FOR THE EASTERN COTTONWOOD?

PAUL LEE SMITH AND MORGAN E. SISK

Department of Biological Sciences
Murray State University

The American Forestry Association lists as the size record for the
Eastern Cottonwood (Populus deltoides Bartr.), a specimen near Kearney,
Nebraska. A recent discovery by the authors and subsequent measurements
indicates that a larger tree exists in West Kentucky.

Based on the total points formula (circumference in inches plus height
in feet plus one-quarter maximum spread in feet) the West Kentucky speci-
men may well exceed the established record.

The tree is located about five miles north of Hickman, Fulton County,
Kentucky, near the mouth of Obion Creek: It measures 29 feet in cir-
cumference, has a maximum sperad of 125 feet and is 110 feet in height.
These measurements have been forwarded to the American Forestry As-
sociation and a decision is pending regarding its record status.

THE FLORA OF MURPHEY’S POND!

BURNETTA ADAMS,2 GORDON E. HUNTER,®? DANIEL F. AUSTIN AND
KENNETH H. KERRICK

Murray State University, Murray, Kentucky

Most of western Kentucky including the Murphey’s Pond area is in-
cluded in the subregion of forests called Mississippi Embayment of the
Western Mesophytic Forest Region. Extending from the Tennessee River on
the east to the alluvial plains of the Mississippi River on the west, this area
is a northern extension of the Gulf Coastal Plain. A belt of loess hills lines
the western margin of the region. “The area displays a mosaic of wniike
vegetation types, of prairie, oak-hickory forest, swamp forest, and mixed
mesophytic communities. The broad alluvial valleys are occupied by phases
of swamp forest extensions from those of Mississippi alluvial lands.”
(Braun, 1950).

Murphey’s Pond, in Hickman County about 8 miles southwest of Fancy
Farm, next to Kentucky Highway 307, is an example of the swamp forest
and is the most unique remaining example of the cypress swamps which
once were prevalent in western Kentucky. Taxodium distichum, the dominant
tree, is typical of the swamp forests of Southeastern United States.

According to the United States Department of the Interior Geological
Survey map of the Dublin quadrangle, Murphey’s Pond and the surrounding
area total about 1000 acres, while the actual open-water portion is about 25
acres. Obion Creek runs through the area for approximately 1.5 miles. It is
believed that the swamp was formed by the same earthquakes which in 1811
formed Reelfoot Lake. For the greater portion of the actual pond, the water
is little over 6 feet deep. Hummocks in the open water formed by the bases
of the trees with surrounding vegetation are numerous. The smallest of
these hummocks are approximately 3 feet in diameter, while larger hum-
mocks or groups of hummocks may range to over 20 feet long. Taxodium
distichum, Rosa palustris, Cephalanthus occidentalis, Acer rubrum, Galium
tinctorium, and Itea virginica are the most common plants found on the
hummocks. Wolfiella floridana and Spirodela polyrhiza are floating in the
water between trees, and Ceratophyllum demersum is submerged in the
water. The trees found in the swamp area are the cypress, ash, oak, maple,
hickory, cottonwood, sweet gum, elm, willow, redbud, and birch. Around
the swamp’s edges are herbaceous plants such as Iris virginica, Senecio
aureus, Habenaria peramoena, and various ferns.

Following is a list of plants collected from Murphey’s Pond and filed in
the Murray State University Herbarium. These plants were collected on nine

1 Suported, in part, by a grant to Roger W. Barbour from the Nature Con-
servancy and by a Murray State University Institutional Grant.

2 Based on a paper submitted by the senior author in partial fulfillment of
the requirements for the Bachelor’s degree at Murray State University.

3 Address communications to Gordon E. Hunter, Tennessee Technological
University, Cookeville, Tennessee, 38501.

26 B. Adams, G. E. Hunter, D. F. Austin, and K. H. Kerrick

field trips. Two were made in the summer of 1965 and the rest were made
in the spring and summer of 1967. There are 158 taxa of 130 genera in 69
families. Notable are those plants indicated by asterisks, which were not
found in either McFarland’s (1942) or Braun’s (1943) lists of vascular
plants of Kentucky. Neither were they cited from Kentucky in Gleason
(1963) or Fernald (1950). The listing follows McFarland’s (1942) format.
When a new record occured Fernald (1950) was used for taxonomic
reference.

THE FLORA OF MURPHEY’S POND

PTERIDOPHYTA
Family

i

Polypodiaceae

Asplenium platyneuron (L.)
Oakes

Onoclea sensibilis L.

Polystichum acrostichoides
(Michx. ) Schott

Woodsia obtusa (Spreng.) Torr.

. Selaginellaceae

Selaginella apoda (L.) Fern.

. Ophioglossaceae

Botrychium virginianum (L.)
Sw.
* Ophioglossum vulgatum L.

12.

13.

14.

15.

Juncaceae

Juncus effusus var. solutus
Fern.

Luzula multiflora (Ehrh.)
Lejeune

Liliaceae

Allium canadense L.

Smilax glauca Walt.

Iridaceae

Iris virginica L. var. Shrevei
(Small) Anderson

Sisyrinchium albidum Raf.

Orchidaceae

Habenaria flava (L.) Gray

Habenaria peramoena Gray

SPERMATOPHYTA Liparis lilifolia (L.) Richard
4. Pinaceae Tipulavia discolor (Pursh)
Taxodium distichum (L.) Nutt.
L. C. Richard 16. Saururaceae
5. Typhaceae Saururus cernuus L.
6. Sparganiaceae 17. Salicaceae

Sparganium androcladum
(Engelm.) Morong

. Gramineae

Panicum sp.

18.

Populus deltoides Marsh.
Salix fragilis L.

Salix nigra Marsh.
Juglandaceae

8. Cyperaceae Carya ovata ( Mill.) K. Koch.
Carex lurida Wahlenb Juglans nigra L.
Carex stricta Lam. 19. Betulaceae

10.

Lt.

Scirpus cyperinus (L.) Kunth
* Scleria nitida Willd.

. Araceae

Arisaema dractontium (L.)
Schott

Peltandra virginica (L.) Kunth

Lemnaceae

Spirodela polyrhiza (L.)
Schleid

* Wolffiella floridana (J. D.
Sm.) C. H. Thompson

Commelinaceae

Commelina virginica L.

20.

PALL

22.

Betula nigra L.

Corylus americana Walt.
Fagaceae

Quercus falcata Michx.
Quercus lyrata Walt.
Quercus palustris Muench.
Quercus Phellos L.
Quercus velutina Lam.
Ulmaceae

Ulmus alata Michx.
Ulumus americana L.
Urticaceae

* Pilea fontana (Lunell) Rydb.

33.

34.

35.

36.

37.

The Flora of Murphey’s Pond 27

. Polygonaceae

Polygonum punctatum Ell.
Rumex altissimus Wood.

. Aizoaceae

Mollugo verticillata L.

. Caryophyllaceae

Cerastium arvense L.

. Ceratophyllaceae

Ceratophyllum demersum L.

. Ranunculaceae

Clematis virginiana L.
Ranunculus bulbosus L.
Ranunculus carolinianus DC.

. Magnoliaceae

Liriodendron Tulipifera L.

. Annonaceae

Asimina triloba (L.) Dunal.

. Berberidaceae

Podophyllum peltatum L.

. Lauraceae

Sassafras albidum ( Nutt.) Nees

. Cruciferae

Arabis virginica (L.) Poir.

. Cruciferae

Arabis virginica (L.) Poir.

Cardamine bulbosa (Schreb.)
BSP.

Cardamine Douglassii (Torr. )
Britt.

Draba brachycarpa Nutt.

Draba verna L.

Saxifragaceae
Hydrangea arborescens L.
Itea virginica L.

Hammamelidaceae
Liquidambar Styraciflua L.

Rosaceae

Geum canadense Jacq.

Potentilla canadensis L.

Prunus americana Marsh.

Prunus Munsoniana Wight &
Hedrick

Rosa palustris Marsh.

Rosa setigera Michx.

* Rubus pensilvanicus Poir.

Leguminosae

Amorpha fruticosa L.

Apios tuberosa Muench.

Cassia fasciculata Michx.

Desmodium nudiflorum (L.)
DC.

Robinia Pseudo-Acacia L.

Geraniaceae
Geranium carolinianum L.

38

39.

40.

41.

42.

43.

44,

45.

49.

50.

51.

56.

7.

Oxalidaceae

Oxalis stricta L.
Anacardiaceae

Rhus copallina L.
Aquifoliaceae
Celastraceae
Celastrus scandens L.
Euonymus americanus L.
Aceraceae

Acer Negundo L.
Acer rubrum L.

Balsaminaceae

Impatiens biflora Walt.

Vitaceae

Parthenocissus quinquefolia
(L.) Planch.

Vitis Labrusca L.

Vitis palmata Vahl.

Hypericaceae

Hypericum Drummondii
(Grev. & Hook.) T. & G.

. Violaceae

Viola missouriensis Creene
Viola Rafinesquii Greene

. Passifloraceae
. Melastomaceae

Rhexia mariana L.

Onagraceae

Ludwigia alternifolia L.

Umbelliferae

Cicuta maculata L.

Cryptotaenia canadensis (L.)
DC.

Daucus Carota L.

* Eryngium aquaticum L.

Sanicula gregaria Bickn.

Cornaceae

Cornus florida L.

Cornus racemosa Lam.

. Oleaceae

Fraxinus quadrangulata Michx.
Fraxinus tomentosa Michx. f.

. Gentianaceae

Sabatia angularis (L.) Pursh.

. Asclepiadaceae

Asclepias perennis Walt.

. Convolvulaceae

* Convolvulus arvensis L.
Hydropyhllaceae
Hydrolea uniflora Rat.
Boraginaceae
Heliotropium indicum L.
Myosotis verna Nutt.

28

58.

59.

60.

61.

63.

65.

B. Adams, G. E. Hunter, D. F. Austin, and K. H. Kerrick

Verbenaceae
Verbena hastata L.

Labiatae

Hedeoma pulegioides (L.) Pers.

Lamium amplexicaule L.
Lycopus virginicus L.
Prunella vulgaris L.
Prunella vulgaris L.
Pycnanthemum flexuosum
( Walt.) BSP
Pycnanthemum pycnanthe-
moides (Leavenw.) Fern.
Salvia lyrata L.
Stachys tenuifolia Willd.
Teucrium canadense L.
Solanaceae
Solanum carolinense L.
Scrophulariaceae
Mimulus alatus Ait.
Penstemon alluviorum Pennell
Scrophularia marilandica L.

. Bignoniaceae

Bignonia capreolata L.

Campsis radicans (L.)
Seemann

Catalpa speciosa Warder

Acanthaceae
Ruellia sp.

. Phrymaceae

Phryma Leptostachya L.
Plantaginaceae
Plantago aristata Michx.

66.

67.

68.

69.

Rubiaceae

Cephalanthus occidentalis L.
Galium circaezans Michx.
Galium pilosum Ait.

Galium tinctorium L.
Galium triflorum Michx.

* Houstonia pusilla Schoepf.

Caprifoliaceae
Lonicera japonica Thunb.
Sambucus canadensis L.

Campanulaceae
Specularia perfoliata (L.) A.
DC.

Compositae

Ambrosia bidentata Michx.

* Coreopsis oniscicarpa Fern.

Erigeron pulchellus Michx.

Erigeron tenuis T. & G.

Eupatorium perfoliatum L.

Eupatorium serotinum Michx.

Helenium tenuifolium Nutt.

Krig‘a Dandelion (L.) Nutt.

* Mikania scandens (L.) Willd.

Pyrrhopappus carolinianus
(Walt.) DC.

Rudbeckia hirta L.

Senecio aureus L.

Senecio glabellus Poir.

Vernoma altissima Nutt.

Vernonia missurica Raf.

Xanthium italicum Moretti

LITERATURE CITED
Braun, E. Lucy. 1943. An Annotated Catalog of Spermatophytes of Ken-

tucky.

Braun, E. Lucy. 1950. Deciduous Forests of Eastern North America.
Gleason, Henry A. 1963. The Britton and Brown Illustrated Flora of the

Northeastern United States and Adjacent Canada.
Fernald, M. L. 1950. Grey’s Manual of Botany.

McFarland, Frank T. 1942. A catalogue of the vascular plants of Kentucky.

Castanea 7: 77-108.

CLUSTER OF NORMAL FAULTING IN THE
NORTHWESTERN BLUEGRASS
REGION OF KENTUCKY

WILLARD ROUSE JILLSON, SC. D.
Frankfort, Kentucky 40601

Somewhat prior to and during the progress of the field work which
brought about the discovery of the Flag Fork Fault (12) in northwestern
Franklin County, Kentucky, in the early autumn of 1964, the writer was
moved, time and again, to recall the fact and the figure of the paired normal
faults of N. W.—S. E. strike which Professor A. M. Miller found and carefully
delineated while mapping the areal geology of the Georgetown, Kentucky,
quadrangle (1) during the summer of 1912 for the fourth Kentucky
Geological Survey. Along with a careful review of Professor Miller's work
during the following summer when he continued the plotting of the paired
Scott County faults and their graben into northeastern Flanklin County were
he gave them termini in the valley of main Elkhorn in the vicinity of Peak’s
Mill, there came suddenly one day on the mid-waters of Flat Creek, a
graphic mental picture of the several other normal faults not too distantly
located to the northwest, well within the central drainage basin of the
lower Kentucky River.

Closely following the completion of the field and manuscript work on
the Flag Fork Fault, the writer turned to a precise plotting of each and ali
of the seven faults known to lie immediately to the north and northwest of
Franklin County. When coupled with Professor Miller’s two Elkhorn Faults,
the writer’s Camp Pleasant Branch Fault, which was discovered and mapped
in the spring of 1962 as a northwesterly continuation of the northern Elk-
horn disturbance, and the Flag Fork Fault, it was seen at once that this
group of ten separate normal faults constituted a rectangular unit area
involving parts of Scott, Franklin, Henry and Owen Counties. Owenton
marks the boundary on the northeast, Frankfort and New Castle on the
southwest, and Georgetown on the southeast. The imaginary rectangle
embracing this highly disturbed Bluegrass area exhibits a length of 35 miles
and a width of 10 miles. The total area thus demarked covers 350 square
miles. The strike of the long boundary of the block is N. 38° W. A similar
area of so intense and diverse normal faulting is not known to occur else-
where in the Bluegrass area of Kentucky.

Beginning with Professor Miller’s paired “Elkhorn Faults”, each of the
ten separate disturbances embraced within the rectangle as outlined, above,
are listed below in the order of their discovery. They are also shown by name
on the accompanying outline map of the area involved.

30

Willard Rouse Jillson

ee

CLUSTER OF Raters FAULTING
NORTHWESTERN BLUEGRASS REGION
KENTUCKY
WILLARD ROUSE JILLSON

GEOGOLIST AND ENGINEER
FRANKFORT ,KY.- SEPT. 10,1967

Faulting in the Northwestern Bluegrass Region 31

Fault Described By Year
1. North Elkhorn A. M. Miller 1913
2. South Elkhorn A. M. Miller 1913
3. Severn Fault W. R. Jillson 1945
4. Camp Pleasant Branch W. R. Jillson 1962
5. Chilton’s Ford, Primary W. R. Jillson 1965
6. Chilton’s Ford, Secondary W. R. Jillson 1965
7. Drennon Springs No. 1 W. R. Jillson 1965
8. Drennon Springs No. 2 W. R. jillson 1965
9. Drennon Springs No. 3 W. R. Jillson 1965

10. Drennon Springs No. 4 W. R. jillson 1965

The length, the stratigraphic offset and the computed displacement

measured in feet varies, of course, with each listed fault. To avoid the tedious
recitation of these prosy stratigraphic and structural details and other items
of geologic importance appertaining, the following bibliography of primary
sources is appended for the use of those whose interest in this subject exceeds
the restricted measure of the outline given above.

1d.

12.

Bibliography

. Miller, Arthur McQuiston. Map of the (Geology of the)Georgetown

Quadrangle. Ky. Geol. Survey, Ser. IV. Frankfort, Kentucky. Ist Ed.
1913; 2nd Ed. 1917.

_ Miller, Arthur McQuiston. Geology of Franklin County, Kentucky. Ky.

Geol. Survey, Ser. IV, Vol If. Frankfort, Kentucky, 1914.

_ Miller, Arthur McQuiston. Geology of Franklin County, Kentucky. Ky.

Geol. Survey, Ser. IV, Vol II. Frankfort, Kentucky, 1914.

_ Miller, A. M., Wolford, J. J. and Withers, S. Geological Map of F ranklin

County, Kentucky. Ky. Geol. Survey, Ser. VI. Frankfort, Kentucky, 1931.

. Wolford, J. J. and Miller, A. M. Geological Map of Scott County, Ken-

tucky. Ky. Geol. Survey, Ser. VI. Frankfort, Kentucky, 1931.

. Jillson, Willard Rouse. Lead Mines of the Lower Kentucky River Valley.

John P. Morton and Co., Louisville, Kentucky, 1941.

. Jillson, Willard Rouse. Notes on the Discovery of a Faulted Area in

Northern-Central Kentucky. The Register, Vol. 43, No. 145, Ky. State
Historical Society. Frankfort, Kentucky, 1945.

. Jillson, Willard Rouse. Geology of Owen County, Kentucky. Roberts

Printing Co., Frankfort, Kentucky, 1949.
Jillson, Willard Rouse. Geology of the Camp Pleasant Branch Fault.
Roberts Printing Co., Frankfort, Kentucky, 1962.

. Jillson, Willard Rouse. Biangular F aulting in the Outer Bluegrass Region

of Kentucky. Roberts Printing Co., Frankfort, Kentucky, 1965.

Jillson, Willard Rouse. The Geology of Henry County, Kentucky. Roberts
Printing Co., Frankfort, Kentucky, 1967.

Jillson, Willard Rouse. Geology of the Flag Fork Fault in Franklin
County, Kentucky. Roberts Printing Co., Frankfort, Kentucky, 1967.

ACADEMY AFFAIRS

Adequate financing for the publication of The Transactions appears to be as-
sured. Strong efforts are being made to bring the publication of The Transactions
up to date by the end of 1969. The minutes and programs of the Academy’s
annual meetings have not been published since 1964. The editor feels that it is
desirable to bring the published records of Academy affairs up to date.

THE FIFTY-FIRST ANNUAL MEETING OF THE KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE
UNIVERSITY OF KENTUCKY, LEXINGTON, NOVEMBER 12-13, 1965

Minutes

The Annual Business Meeting of the Kentucky Academy of Science was called
to order by President Hamann on Saturday Morning, Nov. 13, 1965 in Room N-10
of the Agricultural Science Center of the University of Kentucky.

The minutes of the 1964 meeting were read and approved.

A list of new members was read and approved by the academy.

The treasurer’s report was given by J. Garner. It was moved and seconded
that the report be accepted. The motion carried.

E. Fergus reported for the Visiting Scientists Program. He indicated that the
number of visits requested by high school teachers last year were not as great
as anticipated. Requests this year are running ahead of last year since to date there
are 69 compared with 21 at this time one year ago. This years publicity was sent
directly to the high school science teachers. The roster of available visiting scientists
includes approximately 150 names. The present director of the program is
resigning. An application to the National Science Foundation has been made to
continue the program for another year.

President Hamann expressed the appreciation of the academy for the work of
Dr. Fergus, as director of the Visiting Scientists Program for the past two years.

President Hamann noted that R. Jordan has resigned as Director of the
Junior Academy, but is present to give his report of last years activities. His report,
as accepted by the academy is attached to the m’‘nutes.

W. Owsley invited the academy to Kentucky Wesleyan College for next years
annual meeting. J. Carpenter noted that the Centennial Celebration for T. H.
Morgan is scheduled for Lexington next year. It was moved and seconded that the
place for next years meeting be left in the hands of the executive committee.
Motion carried.

M. Wharton reported on the annual meeting of the American Association for
the Advancement of Science meeting at Montreal, Canada. She noted that the
state academies of several nearby states are considerably larger and stronger than
our academy. Perhaps one of our greatest needs is that of a permanent officer, such
as an executive secretary or archivist. She commented on the role of the state
academy and teacher certification. Many states have fewer requirements con-
cerning “education courses” and thus students are able to take more work in
“content” material. Dr. Wharton reported that she will be unable to attend the next
Annual AAAS Meeting, and suggested that out President-elect, J. Carpenter, be our
official representative. Motion was seconded and carried.

President Hamann reported on the difficulties previously encountered in the
receipt of a $5,000 grant from the Department of Education, to our academy, for
the Junior Academy and Science Youth Work. He noted the establishment of a
Science Youth Activity Committee by F. Dickey. The only present representative
of the original committee is D. Tapp.

President Hamann noted the lack of support of our academy by industry;
probably only 3 industries are currently active. The possibility of academy support
from the State Government level was raised.

It was moved and seconded that the Executive Committee of the Kentucky

Academy Affairs 33

Academy of Science be given authority to work on the above problems, and report
at the next annual meeting. Motion carried.

H. LaFuze, chairman of the Resolutions Committee, read the following
resolutions:

I. Whereas, the life of Dr. Alfred Brauer was taken on January 26, 1965,
Whereas, Dr. Brauer gave 50 years of his life to successful teaching and to
inspiring his many students toward high goals,

Whereas, Dr. Brauer was nationally recognized for his research in biology as
evidenced by his publication,

Whereas, Dr. Brauer was a member of the Kentucky Academy of Science for
38 years and served in various officers of the Academy for thirteen years,

Whereas, Dr. Brauer contributed freely of his time and efforts to the promotion
of science and the Academy in all of the years of his association with it,
be it hereby resolved

1. that those present in this meeting of the Kentucky Academy of Science
stand for a moment of silent tribute in memory of this great teacher and
scientist who has passed from us,

2. that these resolutions be included in the minutes of this meeting and a
copy be sent to his surviving wife.

II. Whereas, the University of Kentucky is celebrating its Centennial Year and
Whereas, the University of Kentucky has made outstanding co.itributions in
scientific thought and leadership.
be it hereby resolved

1. that we, the Kentucky Academy of Science, congratulate the University
for its one hundred years of service as an outstanding institution of
education in Kentucky and our nation and for the promotion of science
through teaching research.

. that we, the Kentucky Academy of Science, commend the faculty and
the administration who have made this progress possible,

3. that these resolutions be included in the minutes of this meeting and

a copy be sent to the office of the president of the University.

bo

It was moved and seconded that the academy accept these resolutions.
Motion carried.

The nominating committee, W. Blackburn, F. Gailey, and H. Nollau, presented
the following siate of nominees:

President-elect R. Boyer
Vice-president W. Read
Secretary D. Lindsay
Treasurer C. Hamann
Representative to AAAS Council M. Wharton
Board of Directors M. Heaslip

L. Alexander

It was moved and seconded that the secretary cast a unanminous ballot for all
nominees. Motion carried.

E. Browne reported on the status of the Kentucky Flora Project. He noted that
work is in progress in various regions of the state and that G. Hunter has been
added to the original committee. The report was accepied by the academy, with
thanks.

The academy gave a vote of approval for the work of the past officers. The
meeting was adjourned at 12:15 P.M.

Dwight M. Lindsay, Secretary

34 Academy Affairs

OFFICERS OF THE ACADEMY

President xcniiieestiicec tee ee es C. B. Hamann, Asbury College
President-Hl6éctite..i0sieccee ree John M. Carpenter, University of Kentucky
Wice= Presiden Gtnieciiessctiia nee cients Robert M. Boyer, University of Kentucky
BICOTCLALY: citveree aca htcimtaeiee cn eee ere Dwight M. Lindsay, Georgetown College
RUPE AS UN Gir taveetvs cs sveveveeends Cues conecede ev aap pn coer J.H.B. Garner, University of Kentucky
Representative to

TAWA, Agen COMING bore hee eee ta eed ns he eases Mary Wharton, Georgetown College
Eiditor-of the [ransactions 2icdcitsccdesscxesseazern R. E. Hampton, University of Kentucky

BOARD OF DIRECTORS
WN accra Bar COW SIEV: Sota ceudsdacs aleecicinoncievraer teaaeebidatecauene neatieeae te ee to 1968
HATE ECL NOs VV OLESOMIG Siig eivcetcesecthacts isscesay vetiuaspabcacheaue ccianseaissicaeine ocr hee oe ee to 1968
HPSS COT KATO geet oxa cs ties cniadebtca Sioux ce cchaachivectua batter onavolntcr Mone to 1967
Veal ietrint Hi lateness eee ev nciaastanicetets Aauaews roe en eee to 1967
Blerbert, Sad Ow GH 2 occssteereisstastoes cp esc eer eee ee to 1966
CEISIV VOLE secs ce te ota cane, 2 ea ce anche ae enaceres) ety ahs eae cine eee to 1966
VV AMMAMEUS EV CAUA Uo oes pees vaaslean Feecaeacee oe tease ct rte caren eet aed oe to 1965
BiG avel VV Wey pacers occas ria cea ee code aan ese cree eee to 1965
PROGRAM

Friday, November 12

All members are cordially invited to attend the Centennial Biological Con-
ference Program. The Academy will hold no separate program on Friday.

6:30 p.m. Centennial Conference—K.A.S. Banquet, Main Ballroom, Student
Center.

Saturday, November 13
8:30 a.m. Sectional Meetings (except as indicated )
10:45 a.m. Business Meeting

12:30 p.m. Luncheon, Small Ballroom, Student Center

Address by Dr. J. A. Chiscon, Assistant Professor of Biology, Purdue
University.

Topic: “The Biology Curriculum”

BOTANY SECTION

J. H. B. Garner, Chairman
Gordon E. Hunter, Secretary

Jane S. Sisk. Department of Biological Sciences, Murray State College. A
partial list of edible spermatophytes of Jalloway County, Kentucky.

H. E. Eversmeyer. Department of Biological Sciences, Murray State College.
Anatomy of Paeonia albiflora roots.

S. K. Majumdar and H. P. Riley. Department of Botany, University of Ken-
tucky. Polyploidy and the evolution of its role in Hawozthia.

G. E. Hunter. Department of Biological Sciences, Murray State College.
Chromatographic documentation of interspecific hybridization in Vernonia: Com-
posite.

E. T. Browne, Jr. Department of Botany, University of Kentucky. The
vascilar flora of Pike County, Kentucky.

R. E. Hampton. Departments of Botany and Plant Pathology, University of
Kentucky. Intracellular distribution of polyphenol oxidase in Nicotiana tabacum
and Zea maize.

Academy Affairs 35

CHEMISTRY SECTION

Darnell Salyer, Chairman
N. Thornton Lipscomb, Secretary

“Thermal Rearrangement of cycloalkano (x ) pyroles,” John M. Patterson and
Soekani Soedigdo, University of Kentucky.

“Some Approaches to the Synthesis of Nitro Amines,” John M. Patterson,
Richard Johnson, and Michael W. Barnes, University of Kentucky.

“Solvent Dependence of Geminal Proton-Proton Coupling Constants,” Richard
H. Cox and Stanford L. Smith, University of Kentucky.

“Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy. A Study in Magnetic Non-
equivalence,” Richard H. Wiley, Thomas H. Crawford, J. M. Mcintire, and H. L.
Puckett, University of Louisville.

“Thermal Decomposition of Some Copolymers,” Richard H. Wiley, Giovanni
DeVenuto, and Frank E. Martin, University of Louisville.

“Character’zation of Solvent-Modified Cation Exchange Resins,” Richard H.
Wiley and J. Thomas Badgett, University of Louisville.

“&zo Coupling in the Quinoline Series, “James J. Duffy and Ellis V. Brown,
University of Kentucky.

“Determination of Trace Amounts of Antimony by Neutron Activation,” J. T.
Tanner and W. D. Ehmann, University of Kentucky.

“Bromine in Natural Materials by Activation Analysis,” K. W. Lieberman and
W. D. Ehmann.

“A Ternary Vapor-Liquid Equilibrium System Methanol-Benzene-Toluene,”
D. E. Burke and G. C. Williams, University of Louisville.

GEOLOGY-GEOGRAPHY SECTION

Lawrence L. Zelel:, Chairman
David K. Hylbert, Secretary

Gordon W. Weir*, J. L. Gualtieri, and S. O. Schlanger, “Borden Formation
(Mississippian) in South-and Southeast-Central Kentucky”.
George C. Simmons*, “Pre-Middie Devonian and post-Middle Devonian
faulting and the Silurian-Devonian unconformity near Richmond, Kentucky”.
James E. Conkin and Barbara M. Conkin, “Foraminiferal Zonation of the
Permian System of Tasmania”.
Willard R. Jillson*, a list of four short papers follows:
a. “A Rare Iron Conglomerate, Occurring in Northeastern Hardin County,
Kentucky”.
b. “Lingula nedularata, Sp. Nov., Occurring in Central Powell County,
Kentucky”.
c. “A Limestone Conglomerate Occurring in the Eden Formation of Clark
County, Kentucky.
d. “Fish Coprolites in the Onondaga Limestone of Eastern Central Ken-
tucky”’.
Larry Ratcliff*, Thomas Sanders, J. R. Chaplin and Allen Lake, “The Pro-
gress Report on the Study of Stigmarian Root System in Elloitt County, Kentucky”.

MICOBIOLOGY SECTION

Lucia Anderson, Chairman
J. N. Baldwin, Secretary

Protection of mice against Vesicular Stomatitis with homologous brain tissue
vaccines. Mary B. Althauser and Isaac Ruchman, Department of Microbiology,
University of Kentucky, Lexington.

* speaker

36 Academy Affairs

The Nture of some beta-hemolysin mutants of Straphylococcus aureus. W. E.
Allen and J. N. Baldwin, Department of Microbiology, University of Kentucky,
Lexington.

Help! From the 7040—a statistical study of bacteriological data. M. Hotchkiss,
O. F. Edwards and T. Redmon, Department of Microbiology, University of Ken-
tucky, Lexington.

Biosynthetic control of isomaltase in Saccharomyces cerevesiae. J. W. Gorman,
Department of Cell Biology, University of Kentucky, Lexington.

Transient “conventionalization” of gnotobiotic animals. R. F. Wiseman and
H. A. Gordon, Departments of Microbiology and Pharmacology, University of
Kentucky, Lexington.

Inhibition of phospholipid synthesis in Escherichia coli by antibiotics. B. J.
Bloomfield, Department of Agronomy, University of Kentucky, Lexington.

PHYSICS SECTION
J. M. Pike, Chairman
Fletcher Gabbard, Secretary

Invited Papers:

The Interdependence of Astronomy and Physics. W. S. KROGDAHL, Uni-
versity of Kentucky. (30 minutes )

An Interdisciplinary Approach to Physics-Chemistry Teaching at the High
School Level. HAROLD HANSON, Centre College

Contributed Papers:

Comments on the New Secondary School Curriculum, F. D. BOERCKER,
Georgetown College.

Half-Lives and Yields of X-Rays from Thermal Fission of U235 and Pu?289. L.
BRIDWELL, Murray State College.

The Field Effect of Tellurium Films. ADIL SHAMOO and MANUEL
SCHWARTZ, University of Louisville.

The Structure of Hard Anodic Films of Aluminum. NICHOLAS MOSTO-
VYCH, University of Louisville.

Beta Decay of S37, SUDIMAN WIRJOAMIDOJO and BERNARD D. KERN,
University of Kentucky.

PSYCHOLOGY SECTION

Earl A. Alluisi, Chairman
Mary Ellen Curtin, Secretary

“Verbal mediation in reverse association: the role of temporal factors,”
Richard A. Kulp, HumRRO, Ft. Knox, Kentucky.

“The effect of stimulus range on the amount of information transmitted in
absolute judgments of circular size,” Patricia G. McGinty and Earl A. Alluisi,
Psychology Department, University of Louisville.

“Transfer of inter-item associations from serial to paired—associate learning,”
Wayne L. Martin, Psychology Department, University of Kentucky.

“The effect of irrelevant information on absolute judgement at different levels
of discrimination difficulty,’ Ben B. Morgan, Jr., Psychology Department, Uni-
versity of Louisville.

“Anonymous nuisance telephone calls to females,” Frank Murray, Psychology
Department, University of Kentucky.

“A comparison of learning curves in verbal and motor paired-associate tasks,”
Haywood S. Osborne, Jr., Psychology Department, University of Louisville.

“Fatigue as a subjective variable, or a scheme for relating three ‘classical’
measures of fatigue,” Thomas J. Rebbin, Psychology Department, University of
Louisville.

Academy Affairs 37

“Numerosity and the power function,” Thomas J. Rebbin and Curtis L.
Barrett, Psychology Department, University of Louisville.

“Gravity preference: discrimination between low levels of gravity by rats,”
W. Kirk Richardson and R. Chris Martin, Wenner Gren Laboratory, University of
Kentucky.

“Interference effects and the retention of verbal material in process and
reactive schizophrenia,” Stanley Zupnick, Psychology Department, University of
Louisville.

ZOOLOGY SECTION
H. E. Shadowen, Chairman

The Bats of Kentucky.
Wayne H. Davis and Roger W. Barbour, Department of Zoology, University of
Kentucky.

The Effects of Low Temperatures upon Chick Embryos Treated in ova.
Mary McGlasson, Department of Biology, Eastern Kentucky State College.

The Establishment of Animal-Vegetal Polarity in the Oocytes of the Gastropod,
Ilyanassa obsoleta. Arthur L. Applegate, Department of Biology, Western Ken-
tucky State College.

Notes on the Spawning Behavior of Semotilus atromaculatus (Mitchell).
Morgan E. Sisk, Department of Biology, Murray State College.

The Fishes of West Kentucky. Part I. Survey o the Fishes in Clark’s River.
Morgan E. Sisk.

The Occurrence of the Brown Recluse Spider, Loxosceles reclusa Gertsch and
Mulaik, in western Kentucky.

Morgan E. Sisk.

The Effect of Colored Lights on Ingestion by the Immature Two-spotted Mite,
Tetranychus urticae. T. N. Seay and J. G. Rodriguez, Department of Entomology
and Botany, University of Kentucky.

Reaction of Various Species of Macrochelid Mites to Temperature and
Humidity.

Pritam Singh and J. G. Rodriguez, Department of Entomology and Botany, Uni-
versity of Kentucky.

Some Experimental Infections of Paragonimus westermani in Cats.

J. M. Edney, Department of Zoology, University of Kentucky.

Multiple Genetic Perspectives of a Specific Locus in Drosophila melanogaster.

Sara Frye.

THE FIFTY-SECOND ANNUAL MEETING OF THE
KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE
KENTUCKY WESLEYAN COLLEGE, OWENSBORO

November 11-12, 1966

Minutes

The Annual Business Meeting of the Kentucky Academy of Science was
called to order by President Carpenter on Saturday Morning, November 12, 1966,
in the Baptist Student Union Building of Kentucky Wesleyan College.

The minutes of the 1965 meeting were read and approved.

The treasurer’s report was given by C. Hamann. It was moved and seconded
that the report be accepted. The motion carried.

President Carpenter commented on the financial status of the Academy. He
urged prompt payment of membership dues. He noted the need of a paid
executive officer of the academy that could devote more time to acadmy work,
and thus possibly increase income to the Academy. It was suggested that

38 Academy Affairs

Academy income might be increased by the sale of advertising space in the
Transactions. It was moved and seconded that this possibility be explored by the
editor. The motion carried.

An increase in annual dues was considered. It was moved and seconded that
an increase in dues be considered by the Executive Committee. The motion
carried.

It was suggested that we explore the possibility of printing of the Transactions
in a more economical manner, such as the employment of a different printer. Off-
set printing was discussed. Two people voiced the opinion that offset printing
might hamper the quality of the Transactions. Consideration was given to publish-
ing only one issue of the Transactions per year. Objections were raised to this
idea. An approach to industries by letter for support of Academy work, was
proposed.

Use of the AAAS Research Grant was discussed. Since AAAS has not yet
notified us of the availability of such money, requests by academy members for
Research Grants will be received until January 1, 1967. The use of this money
for high school projects was considered.

E. Browne, a member of the Resolutions Committee, read the following
resolutions:

Be it resolved that the Kentucky Academy of Science go on record as ex-
pressing its appreciation to the President of Kentucky Wesleyan College, Doctor
Harold P. Hamilton, the local arrangements committee, the faculty, staff and all
others concerned for a most successful meeting of the Academy.

Furthermore, be it resolved that the Kentucky Academy of Science go on
record as expressing its appreciation to Dr. John Carpenter, Retiring President, Dr.
Robert Kuehne, Dr. Leon W. Weinberger, Col. Joseph L. Tucker, Dr. Robert A.
Lauderdale, Prof. A. Dan Tarlock, Dr. Edwin B. Kurtz and Dr. Wingate A.
Lambertson for their role in the Water Resources Symposium or otherwise in the
program of the annual meeting.

Be it resolved that this Committee thanks the membership of the Kentucky
Academy of Science for their interest in the organization as evidenced by their
attendance and participation in the syposium and section programs.

Mary Ellen Curtin, Chairman
Morgan Sisk
Edward T. Browne, Jr.

It was moved and seconded that the Academy accept these resolutions.
Motion carried.

A list of new members was presented and approved.

R. Barbour, Director of the Visiting Scientists Program, reported on its
activities. He noted that thus far 16 visits have been completed and that there is
money available for 60 more visits. There are few requests for visitors from high
school in the far western portion of the state, or from Southeastern Kentucky. The
program will be terminated at the end of this school year.

It was moved and seconded that Life Membership Dues be raised from
$30.00 to $50.00 and that Regular Membership Dues be raised from $3.50 an-
nually to $4.00 annually, beginning with the 1967-68 school year. The motion
carried.

The establishment of a Science Education Section of the Academy was con-
sidered. Notification of Academy Members, by the secretary, on September 28 was
considered to meet the constitutional requirement on the establishment of new
sections. It was moved and seconded that a Science Education Section of the
Academy be established. Motion carried.

Meeting places for future years were considered. Western Kentucky University
invited the Academy to meet with them in 1968 and Murray State University
presented an invitation for 1969.

Academy Affairs 39

R. Kuehne, Chairman of the Nominating Committee, presented the following
slate of nominees:

President-elect P. Sears

Vice-president O. Richardson

Secretary R. Larance

Treasurer C. Hamann ff

Representative to A.A.A.S. Council M. Wharton

Board of Directors K. Hussung
G. Quinto

It was moved and seconded that this group be elected by acclamation. Motion
carried.

The meeting was turned over to President R. Boyer who congratulated the
retiring president and executive committee for the work they have accomplished
for the academy. President Boyer announced the appointmnt of Dr. Morris Taylor
as Director of the Junior Academy.

Dwight M. Lindsay, Secretary

OFFICERS OF THE ACADEMY

[8 Eki 8 021 0 Oe ee eee John M. Carpenter, University of Kentucky
Rr eSIC EME EGE cy sccocscebavacsaiteatanceereseeicrvas Robert M. Boyer, University of Kentucky
ieee ESTE Me tees So iy: cpeaauhedesecesecs William G. Read, Murray State Univresity
S1S.01 75122 ee a ean Oe Be eee Dwight M. Lindsay, Georgetown College
BTEAS ULC Taree ett resected rset eerie mann ee Ont ee ct hearees C. B. Hamann, Asbury College
Representative to

PAu Ae AG Se CUOUMCI iy Zactah ger. Spncseieceassstaveraecsxtraeets Mary Wharton, Georgetown College
Editor of the Transactions ............ Raymond E. Hampton, University of Kentucky

BOARD OF DIRECTORS
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PROGRAM

Friday, November 11

4:00 p.m. Registration and Coffee Hour
Scientific Exhibits

7:00 p.m. Banquet, Baptist Student Union Building
Welcoming Remarks, Dr. Harold P. Hamilton, President, Kentucky
Wesleyan College

8:00 p.m. Symposium: Water Resources

Moderator:
Dr. R. A. Kuehne, Assistant Professor of Zoology, University of Kentucky

Speakers:

Dr. Leon W. Weinberger, Assistant Commissioner for Research and Develop-
ment, Federal Water Pollution Control Administration, Washington, D. C.

Col. Joseph L. Tucker, Division of Water Resources, Kentucky Department of
Natural Resources.

40 Academy Affairs

Dr. Robert A. Lauderdale, Director, University of Ky. Water Resources In-
stitute.
Prof. A. Dan Tarlock, Asst. Professor of Law, University of Kentucky.

Saturday, November 12
8:15 a.m. Sectional Meetings
11:00 a.m. Annual Business Meeting
12:30 p.m. Buffet Luncheon, Baptist Student Union Building

Speaker:
Dr. Wingate A. Lambertson, Executive Director, Kentucky Science and
Technology Commission

BOTANY SECTION

Harold Eversmeyer, Chairman
Robert Larance, Secretary

Election of Officers

Megasporogenesis in Laburnum anagyroides Medic.—A case of Bisporic De-
velopment in Leguminosae. David H. Rembert, Jr., Department of Botany, Uni-
versity of Kentucky.

Some Species of Vascular Plants New to Kentucky. Edward T. Browne.
Department of Botany, University of Kentucky.

Some Interesting Chromosomal Translocations in Haworthia. H. P. Riley,
S. K. Majumdar, and R. E. Hammack, Department of Botany, University of Ken-
tucky.

Fungi in Stream Draining Strip-mined Forest Area. Donald Nash and Ralph
H. Weaver, Department of Microbiology, University of Kentucky.

CHEMISTRY SECTION

N. Thornton Lipscomb, Chairman
Joseph W. Wilson, Secretary

Conductivity Studies in Chloroform: The System (C,H; ), AsC]-HCCl,. Peter
X. Armendarez, Tom Gerteisen, and Donald O’Bryan, Brescia College.

Chemistry of Cyclopenin. John L. Wong, Preston Martin, and Henry Rapoport,
University of Louisville.

Extended Huckel Molecular Orbital Calculations on Reactivity Sites in
Be(acac).. J. Steele and D. H. Williams, University of Kentucky.

Preparations and Properties of the Ferrate Ion, J. Riley and D. H. Williams,
University of Kentucky.

Application of Infra-red Analysis to the Willgerodt Reaction. Hartley C.
Eckstrom, John Bates, and Ellis V. Brown, University of Kentucky.

A minoketone Rearrangements, A Kinetic Study. C. L. Stevens, H. T. Hanson,
and K. G. Taylor, University of Louisville.

GEOLOGY-GEOGRAPHY SECTION

Zelek L. Lipchinsky, Chairman
David K. Hylbert, Secretary

Deep Sea Managanese: Resource or Phenomerion? Dr. David B. Brooks, Berea
State College.

North American Lower Devonian Foraminifera and Their Stratigraphic Impli-
cations. Dr. James E. Conkin and Barbara M. Conkin, University of Louisville.

Intermission

Academy Affairs 4]

Business Session and Election of Officers

On Shell Structure and Classification of Pentameroidea (Brachiopoda). Dr.
K. Lal Gauri, University of Louisville.

Sedimentation Studies of theOhio River at Louisville, Kentucky. Dr. Robert
Bruce Moore, University of Louisville.

PHYSICS SECTION
Otis K. Wolfe, Chairman
Fletcher Gabbard, Secretary
Invited Papers
Radioastronomy in Space. N. Frank Six, Western Kentucky University.
Some Heavy Ion Experiments with an Emperor Tandem Accelerator. L. B.
Bridwell, Murray State University.

Contributed Papers

A Study of Solidification and the Effects of Homogenization for the Quasi-
Binary Al-Mg, Si Alloy. Nicholas Mostovych and Clyde F. Casey, University of
Louisville.

Charged Particle Tracks in Cellulose Acetate Butyrate. Thomas D. Strickler,
Berea College.

Thermoluminescence Color Centers and Electrical Conductivity of Gamma
Irradiated Lithium Fluoride. William G. Buckman, Kentucky Wesleyan College.

Open Orbit and Magnetic Breakdown in White Tin. Kiron C. Bordoloi,
University of Louisville.

PSYCHOLOGY SECTION
Mary Ellen Curtin, Chairman
Richard M. Griffith, Secretary
Panel Discussion
“The Emotionally Disturbed Child in the Classroom”

Moderator:
Dr. Frank Kodman, Jr., Chairman, Department of Psychology, Murray State
University

Panelists:

Mr. I. T. Baldwin, Psychological Associates, Ltd., Lexington (consulting
psychology )

Ms. Charlotte Baumgarten, Counselor, Owensboro City Schools (guidance and
counseling )

Ms. Mary Ruth Dodson, Elementary Supervisor, Owensboro City Schools
(supervisory )

Dr. Kenneth Estes, Superintendent, Owensboro City Schools (administration )

Miss Oreva Grey, School Psychologist, Owensboro City Schools (school
psychology )

Dr. Charles Homra, Assistant Professor of Psychology, Murray State University
(school psychology )

SCIENCE EDUCATION SECTION
Barbara Tea (Acting Chairman)
Dorothy Tapp (Acting Secretary )
Business Meeting
Background of the Kentucky Academy of Science. Robert Boyer, University of
Kentucky.
Trends in the New Science Curricula. Edwin B. Kurtz, A.A.A.S.

42 Academy Affairs

Winning Physical Science Discussion Paper. Junior Academy of Science.
Winning Biological Science Discussion Paper. Junior Academy of Science.

ZOOLOGY SECTION
Lloyd E. Alexander, Chairman
Liza Spann, Secretary
Election of Section Officers

Analysis of Dental Variation in Wild Populations of the House Mouse. James
T. Wallace, Eastern Kentucky University.

Food of the Creek Chub, Semotilus atromaculatus (Mitchell), from Western
Kentucky. Morgan E. Sisk and Paul L. Smith, Murray State University.

Morphology and Histology of the Stomach of the White Shrimp Penaeus
fluviatilis (Say, 1817). Noble Roberts, Campbellsville College.

A Brief Description of a “Fertilization inhibitor” in Lytechinus variegatus.
Robert E. Daniel, Murray State University.

Cytogenetic Analysis of a Double-Marker Mutant in Drosophila melanogaster.
Sarah H. Frye, Irvine, Kentucky.

Albino Common Snapping Turtle from Kentucky. Branley A. Branson, Eastern
Kentucky University.

Comments on the Olfactory Apparatus in the Cyprinid Genus Hybopsis.
Branley A. Branson, Eastern Kentucky University.

A Search for Trypanosoma cruzi in Kentucky Opossums. John V. Aliff, Uni-
versity of Kentucky.

Ecological Genetic Studies on a Population of Drosophila melanogaster in
Amherst, Massachusetts. James E. Carver, Jr., University of Kentucky.

Hormones and Evolution. Edwin Dale, University of Kentucky.

The Nature and Occurrence of Ophridium versitale in Kentucky. Allen L.
Lake, Morehead State University.

THE FIFTY-THIRD ANNUAL MEETING OF THE
KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE
THE UNIVERSITY OF LOUISVILLE, LOUISVILLE

NOVEMBER 10-11, 1967

Co-Hosts: Dean John W. Dillon, Graduate School
Dean William C. Huffman, University College.

The annual business meeting of the Kentucky Academy of Science was called
to order by President Boyer on Saturday morning, November 11, 1967 at 11:30, in
the Lincoln Room, University center, at the University of Louisville, Louisville,
Kentucky.

Minutes of the Fall Meeting, 1966, were distributed to members attending
the business meeting by the secretary, R. Larance. A motion was made and
seconded to approve the minutes of the 1966 meeting. The minutes were approved.

President Boyer called upon H. Howell, chairman of the Auditing committee,
to make his report. He read the following statement: “We, the undersigned mem-
bers of the Auditing committee, have gone over the books of the Treasurer of the
Society and have found them to be accurate with the exception of a minor error
of $3.50 make on a deposit slip by the bank.” Signed by Henry H. Howell and
E. C. Morris.

The Treasurer, C. B. Hamann, distributed the financial report for the Society.
A motion was made and seconded that the Auditing report and the Treasurer’s
report be approved. The motion passed. (This report is filed in the Secretary’s
book).

Academy Affairs 43

O. Richardson, chairman of the AAAS Grant Committee, reported that four
applications for the AAAS Grant had been received and that $120.00 had been
granted to Sister Virginia Heines, Catherine Spalding College, for research on
Fractionation of Ascites Tumor Supematant on Sephadex bed; and $40.00 to
Dr. Eugene E. Shroeder, Eastern Kentucky University, for research on Sun-
Compass Orientation in Subadult Anurans.

R. Kuehne, chairman of the resolutions committee read the following
resolutions:

Resolution #1. A Letter of Thanks... .

The Kentucky Academy of Science expresses its great appreciations to the
University of Louisville for the use of facilities in meeting and dining
we have enjoyed during the course of the 1967 Fall Meeting of the
Academy.

The Academy extends its sincere thanks to Dean John Dillion, Dean of
the Graduate School, University of Louisville, Official co-hosts for the
meeting, for the warmth of hospitality present in the planning and
carrying-out of our meetings here at Louisville.

Special thanks are due to the Site Committee from the Academy: Dean
John Dillon, Dr. J. W. Brown, Dr. James E. Conkin, and Dr. Thomas
H Crawford for the considerable work and effort expended in the
planning and execution of the arrangements which have made our meet-
ings so pleasant, efficient and profitable.

Resolution passed.

Resolution #2. Deaths. . .

The Kentucky Academy of Science sadly notes the death of several
members in the year preceding this fifty-third annual meeting. The
Academy requests that the Secretary record the names of the deceased
upon the minutes of this meeting and indicate that our respect was paid
by silently standing together.

Resolution passed.

Resolution #3. Red River Gorge... .

Whereas the United States Army Corps of Engineers has been em-
powered to construct a multipurpose dam which will flood the gorge of
Red River in parts Powell and Menifee counties, Kentucky, and

Whereas the impoundment would destroy one of the truly wild rivers
left in the eastern United States, seriously damaging cr eradicating the
attendant flora and fauna, and irreparably impair the scenic grandeur
of the area, and

Whereas the impoundment will flood the scenic road used by thousands
of visitor annually, and will stop or impair the growth of many forms of
outdoor recreation, and will diminish the scientific and educational values
presently found in the gorge, and

Whereas there are alternative methods of flood control for the lower
reaches of Red River, and alternative sites within the Kentucky River
basin for dams to supply water to downstream cities and towns,

Therefore, be it resolved that the Kentucky Academy of Science at
this, its Fifty-Third Annual Meeting, recommend that construction of
said dam be stopped, and that the various alternatives, including the
Red River area, be given due deliberation.

Further be it resolved that a copy of this resolution be spread upon the
minutes of the Academy, and copies of the resolution be sent to the
Kentucky Members of the United States Senate and House, the Secretary
of the Interior of the United States, the Commanding Officer of the

44 Academy Affairs

United States Army Corps of Engineers, and to the Governor, and the
Governor-Elect of Kentucky.

This resolution was approved after considerable discussion without
voiced opposition from the 73 Academy members attending the Businesss
meeting.

Resolution #4.

Whereas the Kentucky Academy of Science is composed of responsible
scientists and educators who are prepared to serve the best in*rests of
th citizens of the Commonwealth, and

Whereas the proper management and utilization of the natural re-
sources of the Commonwealth are paramount importance to the progress,
and

Whereas the proper management and utilization of the natural re-
sources of the Commonwealth are paramount importance to the pro-
gress, and

Whereas the problems of maintaining desirable quality of air, soil and
water and other environmental resources are assuming ever greater
proportions and importance to the people of the Commonwealth

Therefore be it resolved that the Academy go on record as favoring
intelligent, long-range resource management.

It was further resolved that the Kentucky Academy of Science em-
power the President and Executive Committee to investigate the pos-
sibility of establishing the appropriate mechanism for acheiving the
above objectives.
Resolution passed.

A motion was made, seconded and passed that M. Wharton, AAAS Repre-
sentative requests the AAAS council to recommend to the proper authorities a
delay in the construction of the Dam in the Red River Gorge.

President Boyer stated that an Anthropology Section had been organized at
this annual meeting and the a report to all members stating this be made 30 days
prior to the 1968 annual meeting.

The nominating committee, composed of L. Alexander, P. Panzera, and R.
Weaver, with L. Alexander reporting, presented to the Academy the following
slate of nominees:

President ElGGt: oo ceccessces vuacssnatccccnusvieenesselescasteees O. Richardson

WicemBresidemt:.ctceescrrccessctecaeces eet eteer tester none: L. Krumholz

SECTEtATVA We sr trcetreccomc rere eeethe er Senora eater R. Larance

PI CAS UY Clap career aeeeaate ee cert eet ete ee C. Hamann

Board Of Directors. .c2..07 sess cesiecteekt acres stsscans seers J. Carpenter
W. Clay

Note: M. Wharton was eiected in 1966 to a two year term as AAAS Repre-
sentative. She said that this would be the last year for her to hold
office. She wishes to give it up to someone else.

It was moved, seconded, and approved that the nominees be elected by
acclamation.

C. Hamann, Treasurer, stated that there was a small sum of money ($83.37)
designated by the Academy to help furnish the Thomas Hunt Morgan Room in
Lexington. This money, most of which was donated several years ago and ear-
marked for this purpose is in a First Federal Savings and Loan Association Ac-
count. C. Hamamin suggested that a committee be appointed to study and decide
what the Academy should place in the Room.

M. Taylor, Director of the State Junior Academy, made a few brief remarks
concerning the Junior Academy. Enthusiasm is good he remarked and a meeting

Academy Affairs 45

is planned in late November with the members for the purpose of planning the
year’s activities.

D. Lindsay, Georgetown College, gave an official invitation to the Academy
to hold its 1970 annual Fall Meeting on the Campus of Georgetown College,
Georgetown, Kentucky. President Boyer accepted the invitation.

President Boyer stated that the annual Fall Meeting of the Society would be
held in 1968 on the Campus of Western Kentucky University.

The meeting was adjourned at approximately 12:30 P.M.

OFFICERS OF THE ACADEMY

PreSIO en tote acs ecrivsceuetrceyese nc oneettie sins Oot Robert M. Boyer, University of Kentucky
PRESTIGE TIE EU LEO taresiceyscesadeses tudacasvorsy aewettawdeon seek} Paul G. Sears, University of Kentucky
Vice: President ai. iccccsdiacseocersedesceeass Orville Richardson, Kentucky Wesleyan College
SCCTOTAT eee rer ner een cock to viaeee cessor ss Robert S. Larance, Eastern Kentucky University
PUR AS UAT Cl ecto eheye Me vvceea Suet tess iesusduccary seslacey ee cieeydeuccerwanses C. B. Hamann, Asbury College
Representative to

RMAC AR Sy GUINCIL ered. cp vecnees Copstes sabi ee sae Mary Wharton, Georgetown College
Director,

union ACAGEMY ..:csiiietdiasenses savas Morris D. Taylor, Eastern Kentucky University
Editor of the

MranSeCtOnSertssess. tere sseseseene esses Raymond E. Hampton, University of Kentucky

BOARD OF DIRECTORS
Kerr MEM EIISS UIT Cece ntsrs coeeetent cs cetersecurcetrsanyaces coset ecceer teh ccettccuese eres eeaerire oreeee eae to 1970
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BVA rl enttnt Ease RWS LEV, sacceees ce cee s cr cee sees occ aer nn.” Cases tay ede secrare eseuteeeitaapeesastbacter tase saneses to 1968
PRUE CUMIN ux VW OLESOTI oe escicere ac ceaurcacerincease re pscccinscetwee cence cies uekeeeae ca arene eareaes REE to 1968
HJeaTTVe SRE OMI oa ces heaecaaece cate fssvacenesteecsavencseeaniet ees bocudah ater cianeeotae ce eee ener to 1967
VV ATIB i ea rnel es ENTTV LAAT I peers conus vsstecseavseenazseu tats cestueacus seve eecereter cscs ovetmenateaesecrenm ances: to 1967
PROGRAM

Friday, November Tenth

4:00 p.m. Registration and Coffee Hour, Exhibits, Bigelow Hall, University
Center
7:00 p.m. Banquet, Faculty Dining Hall, University Center

Welcome: Vice President William C. McGlothlin, University of Louisville
Panel Symposium on Air Pollution

Moderator: Dr. Mark Luckens, College of Pharmacy, University of Kentucky

Panel Speaker: Dr. Raymond Smith, Chief, Quality and Emission Data Pro-
gram, National Air Pollution Control Program, United States Public
Health Service

Panel Speaker: Dr. Robert J. Horton, Chief, Health Effects Research Pro-
gram, National Air Pollution Control Program, United States Public
Health Service

Panel Speaker: Mr. Harold Hodges, Director, Air Polution Control Program,
Kentucky State Department of Health

10:00 p.m. Social Hour, Albert Pick Motel

Saturday, November Eleventh
8:15 a.m. Sectional Meetings
11:30 a.m. Business Meeting

46 Academy Affairs

1:00 p.m. Luncheon Meeting, Faculty Dining Hall, University Center
Speaker: Mr. John E. Pearce, Louisville Courier-Journal and Times

ANTHROPOLOGY SECTION
Henry Dobyns, Chairman Pro-tem Organizational Meeting

BOTANY SECTION
Edward T. Browne, Jr., Chairman
Charles J. Isbell, Secretary
Election of Officers
Lobelia inflata in Appalachia
Arnold Krochmal, U.S. Forest Service, Northeastern Forest Experiment Station,
Berea College
A Stalk Rot of Corn due to a specific soil Environment, Dr. Harold E. Eversmeyer,
Department of Biological Sciences, Murray State University
Trilisa odoratissima, a useful Southern Plant, Arnold Krochmal, U.S. Forest Service,
Northeastenr Forest Experiment Station, Berea College

CHEMISTRY SECTION

Joseph W. Wilson, Chairman
B. E. McClellan, Secretary

Chemistry of Methoxyprimidine. John L. Wong and David S. Fuchs, Department
of Chemistry, University of Louisville.

Carcinogenic Activity of the Methyl Substituted 5’—(4-Dimethylaminoazo ) quino-
lines. Ellis V. Brown and James J. Duffy, Department of Chemistry, University
of Kentucky.

Photochemical Reduction of an alpha-Beta-Acetylenic Ester. Vernon S. Stubblefield
and Joseph W. Wilson, Department of Chemistry, University of Kentucky.
Stereochemistry of Vapor Phase Dehalogenation of Meso-and D-L-2 3-Dibro-
mobutane with Zinc. Marshall Gordan and James V. Hay, Department of

Chemistry, Murray State University.

Enhancement of Atomic Absorption Sensitivity Using Extractive Processes. B. E.
McClellan and D. A. Darnall, Department of Chemistry, Murray State
University.

A Novel Copper (II, Complex. A. Patel, G. Geffroy, J. Brooks, and T. H. Craw-
ford, Department of Chemistry, University of Louisville.

Preparative Methods for Anhydrous Rare Earth Chelates. J. M. Koehler, N. J.
Hornung and W. G. Bos, Department of Chemistry, University of Louisville.

On the Use of Organ/Body Ratios as an Index of Toxicodynamic Response. Jo-
hanna R. Wattimena and Mark M. Luckens, College of Pharmacy, University
of Kentucky.

Enzyme Patterns in Acute Intoxication with Organo-chlorine Insecticides. Mark M.
Luckens and Kirk I. Phelps, College of Pharmacy, University of Kentucky.

A Study of Photochromic Spiropyrans Using NMR Techniques. J. T. Gleaves,
J. C. Deck and J. P. Phillips, Department of Chemistry, University of
Louisville.

Photochemistry of Methyl 4, 4, 4-Triphenyl-2-butynoate. Joseph W. Wilson and
Kurte L. Huhtanen, Chemistry Department, University of Kentucky.

Election of Officers

GEOLOGY-GEOGRAPHY SECTION
David K. Hylbert, Chairman
Barbara M. Conkin, Secretary
Election of Officers
Upper Devonian (Saverton Formation )

Academy Affairs 47

Arenaceous Foraminifera from N. E. Missouri and Western Illinois. Neil
Whitehead, III. Department of Geology, University of Louisville.

Recent changes in Urban Land Use-Some Comparisons between Tropical S. E.
Asia and Midwestern United States. W. A. Withington, Geography Depart-
ment University of Kentucky and Dennis Spetz, Division of Social Sciences,
University of Louisville.

Neogene Stratigraphy Gulf and Atlantic Costal Plains and Continental Shelves:
Past, Present, and Future. Jules R. DuBar, Geoscience Department, Morehead
State University.

Mississippian Species of the Problematic Genus Palaeacis and its Stratigraphic
Value. James E. Conkin, Department of Geology, University of Louisville.
Stratigraphy of the Newman Limestone in the Bangor Quadrangle, Kentucky: A
Preliminary Report. John C. Philley and David K. Hylbert, Geoscience

Department, Morehead State University.

Middle Devonian (Hamiltonian) Arenaceous Foraminifera from northwestern Ken-
tucky and southern Indiana. Norman Thomas, Department of Geology, Uni-
versity of Louisville.

Dynamics of Recent Urban Land Use Change in S. E. Asia. W. A. Withington,
Geography Department, University of Kentucky.

Patterns of Land Use Change in the “College Town.” Dennis Spetz, Division of
Social Science, University of Louisville.

PHYSICS SECTION

Manuel Swartz, Chairman
Fletcher Gabbard, Secretary

Some Comments on Myths. F. H. Waldemar Noll. Berea College.

Study of Ordering in Li.; Fe,.; 0, Ferrite by Mossbauer Effect. K. Bowers and
P. J. Ouseph. University of Louisville.

Study of Ordering of Li.; Fe,..; Cr,..; 0, through Compensation in Temperature.
P. J. Ouseph and K. Bowers. University of Louisville.

Triangular Ferrimagnetic Structure of Ni Fe, 04. P. J. Ouseph University of
Louisville.

A Differential Planetary Gear System of Eight Gears with a Speed Reduction of
64 Million. J. G. Black, Eastern Kentucky University.

Satellite Band Spectroscopy and Atomic Interaction Potentials. Joel A. Gwinn.
University of Louisville.

Gamma-gamma Coincidences Following Beta Decay of 48... Herbert D. Rice and
Bernard D. Kern. University of Kentucky.

Interferometric Measurement of Ultrasonic Velocity Absorption in Gas Mixtures.
Ralph L. Drury and Carl E. Adams. University of Louisville.

Progress Report of KAPT Advisory Committee on Physics Education. Ted M.
George, Chairman, KAPT Advisory Committee, Eastern Kentucky University.

PSYCHOLOGY SECTION
Mary Ellen Curtin, Chairman
Richard M. Griffith, Secretary
Paper Reading Session
Chairman Rev. Joseph H. Voor
Perceptual Motor Maturation and Language Development in Young Children.
Louise Stapp, Kentucky Southern College.
The Effect of Specific Auditory Background on Apparent Duration Through
Reproduction. Thomas Thieman, Bellarmine College.
Voice Set Incongruity and the Distribution of Atteniton. Grace Bauer and John
Robinson, University of Louisville.

4§ Academy Affairs

Hypnotic Susceptibility and Visualization Skill. William Schweisheimer, University
of Louisville.

Hypnotic Control of Pain. Roger Gardner, University of Louisville.

Effects of Interlist Rule Order and Solution—word Categorizability on Learning
Codeable Trigrams. John A. Robinson and Barry Rabin, University of
Louisville.

Election of Section Officers

Panel
Psychology Masters Programs in New State Universities: Plans, Problems
and Prospects.

Chairman: Earl A. Alluisi, University of Louisville.

Panelists: Frank Kodman, Jr., Murray State University
Bradley L. Clough, Morehead State University
Harry R. Robe, Western Kentucky University
James A. Lee, Eastern Kentucky University

Discussant: John R. Binford, University of Louisville

SCIENCE EDUCATION SECTION

Barbara Tea, Chairman
Dorothy Tapp, Secretary

Election of Officers
Discussion of New Media in Science Teaching

ZOOLOGY SECTION
Hunter M. Hancock, Chairman
Beatrice Evans, Secretary

Election of Officers

Animal Vegetal Polarity in Spirally Cieaving Eggs: Asymmetry of P32 Uptake
in the Oocytes of the Marine Gastropod, lyanassa obsoleta. Arthur L. Ap-
plegate, Western Kentucky University.

Comparative Study of Cutaneous Gas Exchange in two Iguanid Lizards. R. R.
Schuletus and E. C. Crawford, University of Kentucky.

Identification of some Fatty Acids in the two-spotted Spider Mike, Tetranychus
urticae. Koch, Meredith Wallings, David C. White and J. G. Rodriguez,
University of Kentucky.

A Tangential Method for Determining the Duration of Lag Phase in Mass
Culture of Tetrahymena pyriformis. HSM. Robert E. Daniel and Sarah E.
Plummer, Murray State University.

Variations in Ultraviolet Sensitivity During the Cell Cycle of Tetrahymena pyri-
formis HSM. Robert E. Daniel, Murray State University.

How Long, O Lord, How Long. Roger W. Barbour, University of Kentucky.

Two New Slugs. (Gastropoda philomycidae) from Kentucky. Branley A. Branson,
Eastern Kentucky University.

Comments on Percina cymatotaenia (Red River Drainage) and Percina oxyrhyncha
(Big Sandy River) in Kentucky. Branley A. Branson and Donald Batch,
Eastern Kentucky University.

Two Different Types of Follicle Cells Found in Ovary of Bombus. Rudolph Fulton,
Eastern Kentucky University.

Chromosome Breakage in the Yellow-Achaete Region in Drosophila. Sara H.
Frye, Irvine, Kentucky.

Research notes on the life cycle of Cathaemasia reticulata (looss) in the Eastern
Belted Kingfisher. John V. Aliff, University of Kentucky.

Academy Affairs 49

The Occurrence of Zapus hudsonicus, the Meadow Jumping Mouse, In Madison
County, Kentucky. James T. Wallace, Eastern Kentucky University.

The Production of Immunity to Trichinella spiralls in Pigs. J. M. Erney, Uni-
versity of Kentucky.

THE FIFTY-FOURTH ANNUAL MEETING OF THE
KENTUCKY ACADEMY OF SCIENCE
WESTERN KENTUCKY UNIVERSITY, BOWLING GREEN

NOVEMBER 1-2, 1968
Host: Dean Marvin W. Russell, Ogden College of Science and Technology.

Minutes

The annual business meeting of the Kentucky Academy of Science was called
to order by President Paul Sears on Saturday morning, November 2, 1968 at
11:45, in room 129 of the Kelly Thompson Science complex, Western Kentucky
University, Bowling Green, Kentucky.

Minutes of the Fall Meeting, 1967, were distributed to members attending the
business meeting by the secretary, R. Larance. A motion was made and seconded
to approve the minutes of the 1967 meeting. The minutes were approved.

The treasurer, C. B. Hamann distributed the financial report for KAS. A
motion was made and seconded that the Treasurer's report be approved. The
motion was passed. (This report is filed in the Secretary’s book).

President Sears called upon the Auditory Committee for its report. H. H.
Howell presented this report. A motion was made and seconded to approve the
report. Motion passed. (This report is filed in the Secretary’s book).

President Sears gave a report on the Transactions of KAS. He stated that Vol.
27 should be mailed soon after the Fall meeting, and that Dr. W. Wagner, Uni-
versity of Kentucky will become the new Editor. The President stated that the
University of Louisville and the University of Kentucky had donated $350.00
each to the Academy in support of the Transactions of the Academy.

R. Larance, Secretary of KAS, presented a report from the Executive Com-
mittee. The establishment of an Anthropology Section was reviewed and it was
stated that the Executive Committee had approved of the new section. The
final step for the approval of Anthropology as becoming a Section of KAS
needed 34 vote of approval from members attending the Annual Fall meeting
(1968). The Secretary made a motion whereby Anthropology would become an
official segment of the Academy. The motion was seconded and passed. Anthro-
pology became an official Section of KAS.

The Secretary stated that the Executive Committee had discussed in detail
and had given much thought to membership of Academy—particularly to “In-
dustrial and Business membership”. This stems from the fact that the Academy
lacks “Industrial membership” proportional to industry in the state of Kentucky.
With this in mind a motion was made by the Secretary on behalf of the
Executive Committee to change By-laws #4 (as amended) to read from
Industrial and Business membership—$250.00 annually to read “Contributing
Membership” with annual dues being $50.00 or in multiples of $50.00. The
motion was seconded and passed.

At the Annual meeting, 1967, considerable discussion was centered around
the establishment of a standing committee in “Man and His Environment.” Such
a committee could consider whether or not a dam ought to be put across a
particular stream, air pollution, stream poilution, and differential utilization of
human as well as natural resources could be considered by this committee. The
Secretary, representing the Executive Committee, made a motion to establish such

50 Academy Affairs

a committee and that the incoming president of KAS appoint this standing com-
mittee on “Man and His Environment.” The motion was seconded and passed.

President Sears informed the members that the Executive Committee had
declared upon two of its members the Life honorary membership, the first for the
Academy. This is in recognition for their long tenure of service to the Academy.
The two members are Dr. W. R. Jillson and Dr. Harvey B. Lovell.

Thirty-nine new members were received into full membership of the
Academy.

Professor Orville Richardson, Chairman of the AAAS Grant Committee,
reported that there were several applications made for the $140.00 AAAS Grant
and that the committee had awarded the fuli amount ($140.00) to Professor
Harold W. Elmore, Western Ky. University to further his research on “The
Ecology and Physiology of Germination in Isoetes engelmanni A. Br.

Dr. Kuehne, Chairman of the resolutions committee presented the following
(two) resolutions:

RESOLUTION

Because Western Kentucky University has graciously served as the host
institution for the fifty-fourth annual meeting of the Kentucky Academy
of Science and because Dean Marvin W. Russell, Ogden College of
Science and Technology, and the members of the Site Committee, Lynn
B. Greeley, Chairman, John W. Reasoner, Herbert E. Shadowen, Robert
H. Foster, Frank Six, Earl Murphy, Cliften Bryant and Harry R. Robe
have all worked so diligently to make the meeting a success, be it resolved
that the Kentucky Academy of Science express its appreciation to
Western Kentucky University and the above named individuals, and
that the Secretary of the Academy so inform them Resolution passed.

RESOLUTION

Be it resolved that the Kentucky Academy of Science takes note of
the death of several loyal members during the year preceding this
fifty-fourth annual meeting, that the members make an appropriate show
of respect and that this be so recorded in the minutes by the Secretary.
Resolution passed.

The Academy stood with bowed heads in silence for a few seconds in
respect for those members who had passed from us through death.

President Sears stated that he had appointed Mary Wharton and John
Carpenter to review and study the T. Hunt Morgan Gift Fund and report to the
Academy next year their recommendations as to how the Fund could best be
used.

Eastern Kentucky University, Richmond, Kentucky extended to the Academy
an invitation to hold its Fall meeting on its campus in 1971. Transylvania College
extended an invitation to the Academy for its Fall meeting in 1972. These invita-
tions were accepted. The President then stated that next year’s meeting would be
held on the campus of Murray State University and that in 1970 the Fall meeting
would be held at Georgetown College, Georgetown, Ky.

Dr. Kuehne spoke on matters dealing with the Red River gorge and other
matters of interest concerning natural environment. It was brought out in
the discussion and concluded that the Academy’s participation in such matters
would be through the committee on “Man and his Environment.” The com-
mittee would work with other interested groups in Kentucky and bring information
and recommendations to the Academy.

The nominating committee reported the following slate of officers for 1969 to
the members.

Academy Affairs 51

President Elect—Lloyd Alexander Ky. State
V. President—Karl Hussung Murray St. Univ.
Secretary—Robert Larance Eastern Ky. Univ.
Treasurer—C. B. Hamann Asbury College
AAAS Representative—Mary Wharton (2 yr.) Georgetown
Board of Directors (1972)

Gordon Wilson Western Ky. Univ.

L. A. Krumholz Univ. of Louisville

With no nominations from the floor, these were elected by acclamation.

Dr. Mary Wharton, AAAS Representative, reported to the Academy that
the AAAS at last year’s meeting adopted the following resolution:

Whereas a unique natural area of geological, botanical and zoological
significance, valuable in research and instruction as well as providing
rare scenic beauty, would be destroyed by the construction of the Red
River Dam in Kentucky; and

Whereas man, though able to build laboratories, can never recreate a
natural area that has been annihilated; and

Whereas alternative means of flood control and water storage may be
found; and

Whereas the dam was authorized and funds were appropriated without
adequate consideration of the intangible value of the area to be lost;
therefore

Be it resolved that the Council of the American Association for the Ad-
vancement of Science appeal to the President of the United States to
direct the Water Resources Council to study the advisability of the Red
River Dam in Kentucky and to delay construction until a more thorough
study can be made; and

Be it further resolved that copies of this resolution be sent to the President
of the United States; to the Director, Bureau of the Budget; the Secretary
of the Army; Secretary of Agriculture; Secretary of the Interior; and
the Governor of the Commonwealth of Kentucky.

A vote of thanks from the KAS was given Dr. Wharton for her devoted
service to the Academy.
With no further business, the president declared the meeting adjourned at

12:45 P.M.
Robert Larence

Secretary
OFFICERS OF THE ACADEMY

TD PetSEY@ (era eo eae ae eee oe eon epee cooacenreae Paul G. Sears, University of Kentucky
President ts l@Ctnac.ccesszsccsegsnesn-ncneoes Orville Richardson, Kentucky Wesleyan College
Wacenbresi demtssrccccccerecocens coceacssecs-aussssscceseses L. A. Krumholz, University of Louisville
Gere talny cence isesscesccrratancteesacrnseess Robert S. Larance, Eastern Kentucky University
SI ALS TALC Hoesen cesses ear eee ee encussussbespostcaseccsetenece’ C. B. Hamann, Asbury College
Representative to

PA Ne NG Sis @OuinCilleseneerensettecete ster: scesteesee= Mary Wharton, Georgetown College
Director, Junior Academy ............ Morris D. Taylor, Eastern Kentucky University
Editor of the Transactions .............++ Raymond E. Hampton, University of Kentucky

John M. Carpenter «...:...sssessecacencriesessessoescsenscatsasenecnoosssasanennncnorernneanatenrse7 1025201
SVN ill earn NENG leas. cet asi tccgeveae-<ocice-esosnionede eves seessscasncesnessorvensacqsaerancedeney=tariansi tas to 1971
Ger Joya Lies Ura 2 geese csc cseccecssaeasste<co-ssceteoreccetscccsucsnsestsnsqrcenevevsseanendevecceiszenssst es to 1970

52 Academy Affairs

(Grae QuiMtO Fis csc, sesesvececsccenceccovesssesesevenscscecescrcesesecssacteccoen fieecectsveraserteteteeeeee to 1970

Uloyd Be Alexander aici scosecs cose cccss ca cae ress tess en Space to 1969

Margaret: 1b. Heashtpy: cicc:slesnncese-va4sessesrehassosnsacessce fouriedsettesaceotsoarel ons coeteeeeneee to 1969

William: Be Owsley ic. scesscavasccsscseds cncue oe totece cau nstes seotenc aeeatiassesal area eee eee to 1968

Alfvedi Mis WOliSOmn 2255 cessc<ccezacscssvnsesacescatta nasi terestereteccosausstare dassarat ees eee to 1968
PROGRAM

Friday, November First

Friday, November First
4:00 p.m. Registration, Coffee Hour, and Exhibits

6:00 p.m. Banquet
Grand Ball Room, Paul L. Garrett Student Center

Welcome: Dr. Raymond L. Cravens
Vice-President for Academic Affairs and
Dean of the Faculties

After Dinner Speaker: Dr. G. W. Stokes
Director of the Institute of Tobacco and Health
Research, University of Kentucky

Topic: Tobacco and Health Research

9:00 p.m. Social Hour
Kentucky Room, Holiday Inn Motel

Saturday, November Second
8:15 am _ Sectional Meetings
11:45 am. Annual Business Meeting
1:00 p.m. Luncheon
Faculty Dining Hall,
Paul L. Garrett Student Center

Speaker: Dr. Henry F. Dobyns
Chairman, Department of Anthropology, University of Kentucky

Topic: An Anthropological View on the Military Coup in
Latin America

ANTHROPOLOGY SECTION
Henry F. Dobyns, Chairman
Louise M. Robbins, Secretary

History of Anthropology at Bellarmine-Ursuline College.
Prof. Joel, Bellarmine-Ursuline College.

Berea Looks At Anthropology. Prof. Stermer, Berea College.

Manifest and Latent Functions of Knife Trading in an Eastern Kentucky Neigh-
borhood. Steve Cain, University of Kentucky.

Anthropology at Western Kentucky University—Past, Progress, and Future Pro-
spects. Harold Hepler and Clifton Bryant, Western Kentucky University.

The Yap Empire: Its Confirmation and Disintegration. Bob Potter, University of
Kentucky

Election of Officers.

Academy Affairs 53

BOTANY AND MICROBIOLOGY SECTION
Harold E. Eversmeyer, Chairman
Charles J. Isbell, Secretary

Election of Officers

Popuiation Differences in Germination of Liquidambar styraciflua L. Joe E. Win-
stead, Western Kentucky University.

Acid Phosphatase Activity in Tobacco Mosaic Virus Susceptible and Hyper-
sensitive Varieties of Burley Tobacco. David J. Saxon and David Brumagen,
Morehead State University.

An Evaluation of the Importance of Schizokinens During Cell Proliferation in
Mass Culture. Robert E. Daniel, Sarah E. Plummer, R. G. Barlow, and
W. E. West, Murray State University.

Selected Color Slides of the Flora of the Red River Gorge Area. Robert S. Larance,
Eastern Kentucky University.

Micrococcaseae Isolated from the Intestinal Tract of Starlings. D. R. Witty and
L. P. Elliott, Western Kentucky University.

Comparison of Chemical Components of Burcella abortus Celi Walls, an Avirulent
Strain 19 A and a Virulent Strain 230 gamma. George Kellerman, Catherine
Spalding College.

Enzymatic Lysis of Fungal Walls. Roy A. Barrett, Kentucky State College.

Cause of Common Market Disease of Lettuce. William E. Palmore and L. P.
Elliott, Western Kentucky University.

Field Work in Tropical Cloud Forests of Panama. Sister M. Victoria Hayden,
Catherine Spalding College.

CHEMISTRY SECTION

B. E. McClellan, Chairman
K. Grant Taylor, Secretary

Chlorination of Acetophenone with Cupric Chloride. W. G. Lloyd and J. G.
Anderson, Western Kentucky University.

Solvent Extraction Studies of Transition Metals with High Molecular Weight
Amines. B. E. McClellan and R. H. Parmelee, Jr., Murray State University.

Phototoxic Principles of Lananthesis tinctoria ellis. H. O. Klingele, Department of
Pharmachology, University of Louisville.

Synthesis and Electron Impact Studies on Thenylazoquinolines. E. V. Brown,
University of Kentucky.

High Resolution Mass Spectrometry of Selected Methyl Acetylacetonates. R. E.
Fraas, G. L. Chaney, and R. W. Kiser, University of Kentucky.

Negative ion Mass Spectra of Substituted Methyl Carbonyls. R. E. Sullivan and
R.. W. Kiser, University of Kentucky.

Coffee Break and Election of Officers.

Magnetic Susceptibilities of Yttrium Hydrides. C. D. Parks and W. G. Bos, Uni-
versity of Louisville.

Nuclear Magnetic Reasonance Studies of Purines. J. L. Wong and R. Simpson,
University of Louisville.

Carboneoids with Neighboring Heteroatoms. K. G. Taylor and W. E. Hobbs,
University of Louisville.

Separation of 2,-4-Dinitrophenylhydrazones into Classes by Thin Layer Chromo-
tography. C. S. Beyer, Jr. and T. E. Kargle, Bellarmine-Ursuline College.

54 Academy Affairs

GEOLOGY-GEOGRAPHY SECTION
Denis Spetz, Chairman
W. R. Jillson, Secretary

Election of Officers

Snail Genus Sinuitina in the United States and Australis and Its Evolutionary
Trends. James E. Conkin, University of Louisville, and Barbara M. Conkin,
Jefferson Community College.

Early Pleistocene Glaciation in Northeastern Kentucky and Its Ponded Outfall at
Levee in Montgomery County. Willard Rouse Jillson, Former State Geologist,
Frankfort, Kentucky.

Extension of the Lost River Chert into Kentucky. Preston McGrain, Assistant State
Geologist, Lexington, Kentucky.

PHYSICS SECTION

Ted M. George, Chairman
George K. Miner, Secretary

An Experiment Library. Robert E. Dawson, Western Kentucky University.

Fringe Synthesis Radio Interferometry. M. V. Robinson, Western Kentucky
University.

Jupiter Emission Recorded During the 1968 Apparition. R. L. Scott and N. F. Six,
Western Kentucky University.

A Broadband Radio Telescope for the Study of Solar System Emissions. J. D. Burd,
M. V. Robinson, and N. F. Six, Western Kentucky University.

A Neutron Time-of-Flight Spectrometer. D. K. Moorman and D. L. Humphrey,
Western Kentucky University.

A Low-Energy Electron Reflection Spectrometer. A. D. Sanders, J. D. Burd, and
M. W. Russell, Western Kentucky University.

The Application of Fixed and Rotating Vectors to Electric Circuits. Manuel

Schwartz, University of Louisville.

Time Reversal Invariance and Properties of Laser Light. Joel A. Gwinn, University
of Louisville.

Positron Annihilation in Al and Mg. L. Burton, J. Davis, and W. E. Huang, Uni-
versity of Louisville.

Strong Relativistic Effects of Slow Charged Particles. John F. Davis, University of
Louisville.

Some Calculations Concerning the Energy Straggling of Heavy Charged Particles.
}. Cook, R. Smith, and M. G. Payne, Berea College.

The Effect of Irregularities in Thickness on the Energy Straggling of Alpha
Particles in This Foils. R. Thorpe, J. Cochran, and M. G. Payne, Berea Col-
lege.

Magnetic Anisotropy of Acenaphthene. Richard Rolfes and Sr. Mary Eleanor Fox,
Thomas Moore College.

An Ultrasensitive Potentiometer at Helium Temperatures. William H. Rauckhorst,
Bellarmine-Ursuline College.

Overhead Transparencies in the Physics Classroom. William C. Simpson, Morehead
State University.

Some Interesting Ideas for Lecture and Laboratory. J. G. Black, Eastern Ken-
tucky University.

GPLOT, a Generalized Computer Plotting Program. Marcus Lossner; Murray State
University.

A Numerical Analysis of Delayed Coincidence Data by Laplace Transform
Methods. Joyce M. Evans, Greg Parrish, and Lynn Bridwell, Murray State
University.

Another Multiparameter Data Acquisition System, CIMDA. L. M. Beyer and Lynn
Bridwell, Murray State University.

Academy Affairs 55

PSYCHOLOGY SECTION

Joseph H. Voor, Chairman
Richard Griffith, Secretary

Intimacy and Behavior Change in Large Groups: A Model. Voro A. Clark, Murray
State University.

Repression-Sensitization and Verbal Gondinoning: Leon Siber, Comprehensive
Care Center, Madisonville, Kentucky.

A Learning Clennek Theory Applied to the Analysis of Serial Learning. Harry S.
Tausch, Psychology Department, Western Kentucky University.

A Method and Technique of Teaching Large Classes of General Psychology in
College. A. W. Laird, Psychology Department, Western Kentucky University.

Cultural Effects of Subjects and Experimenter Interaction Effects in Perpetual De-
fense. Edward S. Rosenbluh, Patrick Schmitt, and Richard Hutshison, Depart-
ment of Psychology, Bellarmine-Ursuline College.

Concept Identification as a Function of Experimenter Sex, Subject Sex, and
Experimenter Enthusiasm or Boredom. Edward S. Rosenbluh, Joseph W.
Schmidt, Department of Psychology, Bellarmine-Ursuline College.

Grades, Attendance, and Extrace and Extraversion. Else Dotson and Donald
Templer, Western Kentucky University.

Election of Officers.

Undergraduate Programs in Psychology in Non-Public Institutions:

Psychology Program at Georgetown
Psychology Program at Centre
Psychology Program at Bellarmine-Ursuline

SCIENCE EDUCATION SECTION

Wendell Cave, Chairman
Frank Howard, Secretary
Election of Officers.
One Approach to the Dissemination of Innovations in Science Teaching. R. K.
Atwood, University of Kentucky.
A Summer School Project for Academically Unsuccessful High School Students.
T. D. Johnsten, Eastern Kentucky University.
Comic Strip Teaching Aids. W. C. Simpson, Morehead State University.

ZOOLOGY SECTION
Branley A. Branson, Chairman
Donald L. Batch, Secretary

Election of Officers.

A Microsporidian Parasite of the Slug, Limax maximus. John D. Parker, Western
Kentucky University.

The Diet of Sturnus vulgaris in Warren County, Kentucky. H. E. Shadowen,
Western Kentucky University.

A Differential Strain for Invertebrate Neurosecretory Cells. Robert W. Hackney,
Murray State University.

An X1/Ray Induced Translocation in Drosophila melanogaster. Gertrude C. Ridgel,
Kentucky State College.

The Effects of Oxytocin on Water Retention in Two Plethodontid Salamanders.
H. L. Scurry and E. C. Crawford, Jr., University of Kentucky.

The Relationship Between Cutaneous Gas Exchange and Pulmonary Gas Com-
position in Sauromalus obesis. R. R. Schultetus and E. C. Crawford, Jr.,
University of Kentucky.

The Collection and Characterization of Brown Recluse Vemon. F. R. Toman and
A. L. Applegate, Western Kentucky University.

56 Academy Affairs

Some Observations on Development in-vitro on “Half Eggs” and Single Blastomeres
from 2, 4 and 8-Cell Mouse Ova. James R. Spears, Morehead State University,
and Jerry S. Walker, Department of Army, Fort Detrick, Maryland.

The Freshwater Mussels of the Red River and the Effects of the Red River
Reservoir on the Mussel Fauna. Donald L. Batch and Branley A. Branson,
Eastern Kentucky University.

Regeneration of the Tentacles and Eyes of the Marine Snail, Ilyanassa obsoleta.
A. L. Applegate and Emest W. Collins, Western Kentucky University.

A Microscopic Study of the Dorsal Guide Hairs of Kentucky Mammals. Allen L.
Lake, Morehead State University.

Additional Comments on Massive Hybridization in Etheostoma radiosum and
Etheostoma spectabile. Branley A. Branson, Eastern Kentucky University.

Land Mollusks of Pine and Black Mountains, Bell County, Kentucky. Branley A.
Branson and Donald L. Batch, Eastern Kentucky University.

Absorption of [181 Labelled L-Thyroxine from Small Intestine of Rats. James R.
Castle and Sanford L. Jones, Eastern Kentucky University.

The Fishes of West Kentucky. II. The Fishes of Obion Creek. Paul L. Smith and
Morgan E. Sisk, Murray State University.

A Proposed Net of Ecological Observation Stations in Kentucky. Joseph Engleberg,
University of Kentucky.

INDEX TO VOLUME 29

ACADEMY AFFAIRS, 32 Jillson W. R., 29

Adams, B., 25

Austin, D. F., 25 Keith, J. R., 10
Kerrick, K. H., 25

Barbour, R. W., 8 Meteorite, Walltown, Ky., 5

Busche, J. R., 5 Murphey’s Pond, flora, 25
Myotis Sodalis

Davis, W. H., 1 measurements, 8

Hasta ottonwood Parascalops Breweri,

size record, 24 marginal record, 9
Ehmann, W. D., 5 Patterson, P., 1
Eptesicus Fucus, size, 1 Pennsylvania Mice,
Ernst, C. H.. 8, 21 kidney efficiencies, 21

Pleistocene Drift

Faulting, cluster in Region, vegetation, 10

N. W. Bluegrass, 29 Sisk. P. L.. 24
Smith, P. L., 24
Houp, R., 9
Hunter, G. E., 25 Wallace, J. T., 9

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